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+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 13228 ***
+
+[Transcriber's note: Superscripted letters and numbers have been marked
+with a preceding caret (^).]
+
+
+
+
+The Life of Jesus of Nazareth
+
+_A Study_
+
+By
+
+Rush Rhees
+
+1902
+
+
+
+
+_Copyright, 1900,_
+By Charles Scribner's Sons
+
+
+
+
+To
+
+C. W. McC.
+
+In Recognition of Wise Counsel, Generous Help and Loving Appreciation
+
+
+
+
+"_I would preach ... the need to the world of the faith
+in a Christ, the claim that Jesus is the Christ, and the demand
+for an intelligent faith, which indeed shall transcend but shall
+not despise knowledge, or neglect to have a knowledge to
+transcend._"--John Patterson Coyle
+
+
+
+
+Preface
+
+
+
+The aim of this book is to help thoughtful readers of the gospels to
+discern more clearly the features of him whom those writings inimitably
+portray. It is avowedly a study rather than a story, and as a companion to
+the reading of the gospels it seeks to answer some of the questions which
+are raised by a sympathetic consideration of those narratives. These
+answers are offered in an unargumentative way, even where the questions
+are still in debate among scholars. This method has been adopted because
+technical discussion would be of interest to but few of those whom the
+book hopes to serve. On some of the questions a non-committal attitude is
+taken in the belief that for the understanding of the life of Jesus it is
+of little importance which way the decision finally goes. Less attention
+has been given to questions of geography and archæology than to those
+which have a more vital biographical significance.
+
+A word concerning the point of view adopted. The church has inherited a
+rich treasure of doctrine concerning its Lord, the result of patient study
+and, frequently, of heated controversy. It is customary to approach the
+gospels with this interpretation of Christ as a premise, and such a study
+has some unquestionable advantages. With the apostles and evangelists,
+however, the recognition of the divine nature of Jesus was a conclusion
+from their acquaintance with him. The Man of Nazareth was for them
+primarily a man, and they so regarded him until he showed them that he was
+more. Their knowledge of him progressed in the natural way from the human
+to the divine. The gospels, particularly the first three, are marvels of
+simplicity and objectivity. Their authors clearly regarded Jesus as the
+Man from heaven; yet in their thinking they were dominated by the
+influence of a personal Lord rather than by the force of an accepted
+doctrine. It is with no lack of reverence for the importance and truth of
+the divinity of Christ that this book essays to bring the Man Jesus before
+the mind in the reading of the gospels. The incarnation means that God
+chose to reveal the divine through a human life, rather than through a
+series of propositions which formulate truth (Heb. i. 1-4). The most
+perennially refreshing influence for Christian life and thought is
+personal discipleship to that Revealer who is able to-day as of old to
+exhibit in his humanity those qualities which compel the recognition of
+God manifest in the flesh.
+
+An Appendix is added to furnish references to the wide literature of the
+subject for the aid of those who wish to study it more extensively and
+technically; also to discuss some questions of detail which could not be
+considered in the text. This appendix will indicate the extent of my
+indebtedness to others. I would acknowledge special obligation to
+Professor Ernest D. Burton, of the University of Chicago, for generous
+help and permission to use material found in his "Notes on the Life of
+Jesus;" to Professor Shailer Mathews, also of Chicago, for very valuable
+criticisms; to my colleague, Professor Charles Rufus Brown, for most
+serviceable assistance; and to the editors of this series for helpful
+suggestions and criticism during the making of the book. An unmeasured
+debt is due to another who has sat at my side during the writing of these
+pages, and has given constant inspiration, most discerning criticism, and
+practical aid.
+
+The Newton Theological Institution, April, 1900.
+
+
+
+
+Contents
+
+
+
+Part I
+
+Preparatory
+
+
+
+I
+
+The Historical Situation
+
+Sections 1-19. Pages 1-20
+
+   Section 1. The Roman estimate of Judea. 2, 3. Herod the Great and his
+   sons. 4. Roman procurators in Palestine. 5. Taxes. 6. The army. 7.
+   Administration of justice. 8. The Sadducees. 9,10. The Pharisees. 11.
+   The Zealots. 12. The Essenes. 13. The Devout. 14. Herodians and
+   Samaritans. 15. The synagogue. 16. Life under the law. 17. The
+   Messianic hope. 18. Contemporary literature. 19. Language of Palestine.
+
+
+II
+
+Sources of Our Knowledge of Jesus
+
+Sections 20-35. Pages 21-37
+
+   Section 20. The testimony of Paul. 21. Secular history. 22. The written
+   gospels. 23. Characteristics of the first gospel. 24. Of the second.
+   25. Of the third. 26-30. The synoptic problem. 31-32. The Johannine
+   problem. 34. The two narrative sources. 35. Agrapha and Apocrypha.
+
+
+III
+
+The Harmony of the Gospels
+
+Sections 36-44. Pages 38-14
+
+   Section 36. The value of four gospels. 37. Tatian's Diatessaron. 38.
+   Agreement of the gospels concerning the chief events. 39. The principal
+   problems. 40. Relation of Mark and John. 41, 42. Matthew and Luke. 43.
+   Doublets. 44. The degree of certainty attainable.
+
+
+IV
+
+The Chronology
+
+Sections 45-57. Pages 45-56
+
+   Sections 45-48. The length of Jesus' public ministry. 49. Date of the
+   first Passover. 50. Date of the crucifixion. 51-56. Date of the
+   nativity. 57. Summary.
+
+
+V
+
+The Early Years of Jesus
+
+Sections 58-71. Pages 57-69
+
+   Section 58. Apocryphal stories. 59. Silence of the New Testament
+   outside the gospels. 60-62. The miraculous birth. 63. The childhood of
+   Jesus. 64. Home. 65. Religion, Education. 66. Growth. 67. Religious
+   development. 68. The view from Nazareth. 69 The first visit to
+   Jerusalem. 70-71. The carpenter of Nazareth.
+
+
+VI
+
+John the Baptist
+
+Sections 72-84. Pages 70-81
+
+   Section 72. The gospel picture. 73. Notice by Josephus. 74.
+   Characteristics of the prophet 75-78. John's relation to the Essenes;
+   the Pharisees; the Zealots; the Apocalyptists. 79. John and the
+   Prophets. 80-82. Origin of his baptism. 83. His greatness. 84. His
+   limitations and self-effacement.
+
+
+VII
+
+The Messianic Call
+
+Sections 85-96. Pages 82-91
+
+   Sections 85, 86. John and Jesus. 87. The baptism of Jesus. 88, 89. The
+   Messianic call. 90. The gift of the Spirit. 91-94. The temptation. 95.
+   Source of the narrative. 96. The issue.
+
+
+VIII
+
+The First Disciples
+
+Sections 97-105. Pages 92-97
+
+   Section 97. John at Bethany beyond Jordan. 98. The deputation from the
+   priests. 99. John's first testimony. 100. The first disciples. 101. The
+   early Messianic confessions. 102. The visit to Cana. 103. The miracles
+   as disclosures of the character of Jesus. 104. Jesus and his mother.
+   105. Removal to Capernaum.
+
+
+
+Part II
+
+The Ministry
+
+
+I
+
+General Survey of the Ministry
+
+Sections 106-112. Pages 101-105
+
+   Section 106. The early Judean ministry. 107. Withdrawal to Galilee; a
+   new beginning. 108. The ministry in Galilee a unit. 109. Best studied
+   topically. 110. The last journey to Jerusalem. 111. The last week. 112.
+   The resurrection and ascension.
+
+
+II
+
+The Early Judean Ministry
+
+Sections 113-124. Pages 106-114
+
+   Outline of events in the Early Judean ministry. Section 113. The
+   opening ministry at Jerusalem. 114. The record incomplete. 115. The
+   cleansing of the temple. 116. Relation to synoptic account. 117. Jesus'
+   reply to the challenge of his authority. 118. The reserve of Jesus.
+   119. Discourse with Nicodemus. 120. Measure of success in Jerusalem.
+   121. The Baptist's last testimony. 122. The arrest of John. 123. The
+   second sign at Cana. 124. Summary.
+
+
+III
+
+The Ministry in Galilee--Its Aim and Method
+
+Sections 125-149. Pages 115-137
+
+   Outline of events in the Galilean ministry. Section 125. General view.
+   126, 127. Development of popular enthusiasm. 128. Pharisaic opposition.
+   129, 130. Jesus and the Messianic hope. 131. Injunctions of silence.
+   132-135. Jesus' twofold aim in Galilee. 136, 137. Character of the
+   teaching of this period: the sermon on the mount. 138. The parables.
+   139. The instructions for the mission of the twelve. 140. Jesus' tone
+   of authority. 141. His mighty works. 142-144. Demoniac possession. 145.
+   Jesus' personal influence. 146. The feeding of the five thousand. 147,
+   148. Revulsion of popular feeling. 149. Results of the work in Galilee.
+
+
+IV
+
+The Ministry in Galilee--The New Lesson
+
+Sections 150-165. Pages 138-152
+
+   Section 150. The changed ministry. 151. The question of tradition. 152.
+   Further pharisaic opposition. 153. Jesus in Phœnicia. 154. Confirmation
+   of the disciples' faith. 155. The question at Cæsarea Philippi. 156.
+   The corner-stone of the Church. 157-159. The new lesson. 160. The
+   transfiguration. 161. Cure of the epileptic boy. 162. The feast of
+   Tabernacles. 163. Story of Jesus and the adulteress. 164. The new note
+   in Jesus' teaching. 165. Summary of the Galilean ministry.
+
+
+V
+
+The Journey through Perea to Jerusalem
+
+Sections 166-176. Pages 153-165
+
+   Outline of events. Section 166. The Perean ministry. 167. Account in
+   John. 168, 169. Account in Luke. 170. The mission of the seventy. 171.
+   The feast of Dedication. 172. Withdrawal beyond Jordan. 173. The
+   raising of Lazarus. 174. Ephraim and Jericho. 175,176. Summary.
+
+
+VI
+
+The Final Controversies in Jerusalem
+
+Sections 177-188. Pages 166-180
+
+   Outline of events in the last week of Jesus' life. Section 177. The
+   cross in apostolic preaching. 178. The anointing in Bethany. 179. The
+   Messianic entry. 180. The barren fig-tree. 181. The Monday of Passion
+   week. 182-186. The controversies of Tuesday. 187. Judas. 188.
+   Wednesday, the day of seclusion.
+
+
+VII
+
+The Last Supper
+
+Sections 189-195. Pages 181-187
+
+   Section 189. Preparations. 190,191. Date of the supper. 192. The lesson
+   of humility. 193. The new covenant. 194. The supper and the Passover.
+   195. Farewell words of admonition and comfort; the intercessory prayer.
+
+
+VIII
+
+The Shadow of Death
+
+Sections 196-208. Pages 188-200
+
+   Sections 196, 197. Gethsemane. 198. The betrayal. 199. The trial. 200.
+   Peter's denials. 201. The rejection of Jesus. 202. The greatness of
+   Jesus. 203, 204. The crucifixion. 205. The words from the cross. 206.
+   The death of Jesus. 207. The burial. 208. The Sabbath rest.
+
+
+IX
+
+The Resurrection
+
+Sections 209-222. Pages 201-216
+
+   Section 209. The primary Christian fact. 210. The incredulity of the
+   disciples. 211-216. The appearances of the risen Lord. 217-220. Efforts
+   to explain the belief in the resurrection. 221. The ascension. 222. The
+   new faith of the disciples.
+
+
+
+Part III
+
+The Minister
+
+
+I
+
+The Friend of Men
+
+Sections 223-229. Pages 219-225
+
+   Section 223. The contrast between Jesus' attitude and John's towards
+   common social life. 224. Contrast with the scribes. 225, 226. His
+   interest in simple manhood. 227. Regard for human need. 228, 229.
+   Sensitiveness to human sympathy.
+
+
+II
+
+The Teacher with Authority
+
+Sections 230-241. Pages 226-237
+
+   Section 230. Contrast between Jesus and the scribes. 231. His appeal to
+   the conscience. His attitude to the Old Testament. 234. His teaching
+   occasional. 235. The patience of his method. 236. His use of
+   illustration. 237. Parable. 238. Irony and hyperbole. 239. Object
+   lessons. 240. Jesus' intellectual superiority. 241. His chief theme,
+   the kingdom of God.
+
+
+III
+
+Jesus' Knowledge of Truth
+
+Sections 242-251. Pages 238-248
+
+   Sections 242, 243. Jesus' supernatural knowledge. 244. His predictions
+   of his death. 245. Of his resurrection. 246. His apocalyptic
+   predictions. 247, 248. Limitation of his knowledge. 249, 250. Jesus and
+   demoniac possession. 251. His certainty of his own mission.
+
+
+IV
+
+Jesus' Conception of Himself
+
+Sections 252-275. Pages 249-269.
+
+   Section 252. Jesus' confidence in his calling. 253. His independence in
+   teaching. 254. His self-assertions in response to pharisaic criticism.
+   255. His desire to beget faith in himself. 256,257. His extraordinary
+   personal claim. 258. His acceptance of Messianic titles. 259-266. The
+   Son of Man. 267-269. The Son of God. 270, 271. His consciousness of
+   oneness with God. 272. His confession of dependence; his habit of
+   prayer. 273. No confession of sin. 274, 275. The Word made flesh.
+
+
+Appendix
+
+Index of Names and Subjects
+
+Index of Biblical References
+
+Map of Palestine
+
+
+
+
+Part I
+
+
+Preparatory
+
+
+
+
+I
+
+The Historical Situation
+
+
+
+1. When Tacitus, the Roman historian, records the attempt of Nero to
+charge the Christians with the burning of Rome, he has patience for no
+more than the cursory remark that the sect originated with a Jew who had
+been put to death in Judea during the reign of Tiberius. This province was
+small and despised, and Tacitus could account for the influence of the
+sect which sprang thence only by the fact that all that was infamous and
+abominable flowed into Rome. The Roman's scornful judgment failed to grasp
+the nature and power of the movement whose unpopularity invited Nero's
+lying accusation, yet it emphasizes the significance of him who did "not
+strive, nor cry, nor cause his voice to be heard in the street," whose
+influence, nevertheless, was working as leaven throughout the empire.
+
+2. Palestine was not under immediate Roman rule when Jesus was born. Herod
+the Great was drawing near the close of the long reign during which, owing
+to his skill in securing Roman favor, he had tyrannized over his unwilling
+people. His claim was that of an adventurer who had power to succeed, even
+as his method had been that of a suspicious tyrant, who murdered right and
+left, lest one of the many with better right than he should rise to
+dispute with him his throne. When Herod died, his kingdom was divided
+into three parts, and Rome asserted a fuller sovereignty, allowing none of
+his sons to take his royal title. Herod's successors ruled with a measure
+of independence, however, and followed many of their father's ways, though
+none of them had his ability. The best of them was Philip, who had the
+territory farthest from Jerusalem, and least related to Jewish life. He
+ruled over Iturea and Trachonitis, the country to the north and east of
+the Sea of Galilee, having his capital at Cæsarea Philippi, a city built
+and named by him on the site of an older town near the sources of the
+Jordan. He also rebuilt the city of Bethsaida, at the point where the
+Jordan flows into the Sea of Galilee, calling it Julias, after the
+daughter of Augustus. Philip enters the story of the life of Jesus only as
+the ruler of these towns and the intervening region, and as husband of
+Salome, the daughter of Herodias. Living far from Jerusalem and the Jewish
+people, he abandoned even the show of Judaism which characterized his
+father, and lived as a frank heathen in his heathen capital.
+
+3. The other two who inherited Herod's dominion were brothers, Archelaus
+and Antipas, sons of Malthace, one of Herod's many wives. Archelaus had
+been designated king by Herod, with Judea, Samaria, and Idumea as his
+kingdom; but the emperor allowed him only the territory, with the title
+ethnarch. Antipas was named a tetrarch by Herod, and his territory was
+Galilee and the land east of the Jordan to the southward of the Sea of
+Galilee, called Perea. Antipas was the Herod under whose sway Jesus lived
+in Galilee, and who executed John the Baptist. He was a man of passionate
+temper, with the pride and love of luxury of his father. Having Jews to
+govern, he held, as his father had done, to a show of Judaism, though at
+heart he was as much of a pagan as Philip. He, too, loved building, and
+Tiberias on the Sea of Galilee was built by him for his capital. His
+unscrupulous tyranny and his gross disregard of common righteousness
+appear in his relations with John the Baptist and with Herodias, his
+paramour. Jesus described him well as "that fox" (Luke xiii. 32), for he
+was sly, and worked often by indirection. While his father had energy and
+ability which command a sort of admiration, Antipas was not only bad but
+weak.
+
+4. Both Philip and Antipas reigned until after the death of Jesus, Philip
+dying in A.D. 34, and Antipas being deposed several years later, probably
+in 39. Archelaus had a much shorter rule, for he was deposed in A.D. 6,
+having been accused by the Jews of unbearable barbarity and tyranny,--a
+charge in which Antipas and Philip joined. The territory of Archelaus was
+then made an imperial province of the second grade, ruled by a procurator
+appointed from among the Roman knights. In provinces under an imperial
+legate (propraetor) the procurator was an officer for the administration
+of the revenues; in provinces of the rank of Judea he was, however, the
+representative of the emperor in all the prerogatives of government,
+having command of the army, and being the final resort in legal procedure,
+as well as supervising the collection of the customs and taxes. Very
+little is known of the procurators appointed after the deposition of
+Archelaus, until Tiberius sent Pontius Pilate in A.D. 26. He held office
+until he was deposed in 36. Josephus gives several examples of his wanton
+disregard of Jewish prejudice, and of his extreme cruelty. His conduct at
+the trial of Jesus was remarkably gentle and judicial in comparison with
+other acts recorded of his government; yet the fear of trial at Rome,
+which finally induced him to give Jesus over to be crucified, was
+thoroughly characteristic; in fact, his downfall resulted from a complaint
+lodged against him by certain Samaritans whom he had cruelly punished for
+a Messianic uprising.
+
+5. There were two sorts of Roman taxes in Judea: direct, which were
+collected by salaried officials; and customs, which were farmed out to the
+highest bidder. The direct taxes consisted of a land tax and a poll tax,
+in the collection of which the procurator made use of the local Jewish
+courts; the customs consisted of various duties assessed on exports, and
+they were gathered by representatives of men who had bought the right to
+collect these dues. The chiefs as well as their underlings are called
+publicans in our New Testament, although the name strictly applies only to
+the chiefs. These tax-gatherers, small and great, were everywhere despised
+and execrated, because, in addition to their subserviency to a hated
+government, they had a reputation, usually deserved, for all sorts of
+extortion. Because of this evil repute they were commonly drawn from the
+unscrupulous among the people, so that the frequent coupling of publicans
+and sinners in the gospels probably rested on fact as much as on
+prejudice.
+
+6. In Samaria and Judea soldiers were under the command of the procurator;
+they took orders from the tetrarch, in Galilee and Perea. The garrison of
+Jerusalem consisted of one Roman cohort--from five to six hundred
+men--which was reinforced at the time of the principal feasts. These and
+the other forces at the disposal of the procurator were probably recruited
+from the country itself, largely from among the Samaritans. The centurion
+of Capernaum (Matt. viii. 5; Luke vii. 2-5) was an officer in the army of
+Antipas, who, however, doubtless organized his army on the Roman pattern,
+with officers who had had their training with the imperial forces.
+
+7. The administration of justice in Samaria and Judea was theoretically in
+the hands of the procurator; practically, however, it was left with the
+Jewish courts, either the local councils or the great sanhedrin at
+Jerusalem. This last body consisted of seventy-one "elders." Its president
+was the high-priest, and its members were drawn in large degree from the
+most prominent representatives of the priestly aristocracy. The scribes,
+however, had a controlling influence because of the reverence in which the
+multitude held them. The sanhedrin of Jerusalem had jurisdiction only
+within the province of Judea, where it tried all kinds of offences; its
+judgment was final, except in capital cases, when it had to yield to the
+procurator, who alone could sentence to death. It had great influence also
+in Galilee, and among Jews everywhere, but this was due to the regard all
+Jews had for the holy city. It was, in fact, a sort of Jewish senate,
+which took cognizance of everything that seemed to affect the Jewish
+interests. In Galilee and Perea, Antipas held in his hands the judicial as
+well as the military and financial administration.
+
+8. To the majority of the priests religion had become chiefly a form.
+They represented the worldly party among the Jews. Since the days of the
+priest-princes who ruled in Jerusalem after the return from the exile,
+they had constituted the Jewish aristocracy, and held most of the wealth
+of the people. It was to their interest to maintain the ritual and the
+traditional customs, and they were proud of their Jewish heritage; of
+genuine interest in religion, however, they had little. This secular
+priestly party was called the Sadducees, probably from Zadok, the
+high-priest in Solomon's time. What theology the Sadducees had was for the
+most part reactionary and negative. They were opposed to the more earnest
+spirit and new thought of the scribes, and naturally produced some
+champions who argued for their theological position; but the mass of them
+cared for other things.
+
+9. The leaders of the popular thought, on the other hand, were chiefly
+noted for their religious zeal and theological acumen. They represented
+the outgrowth of that spirit which in the Maccabean time had risked all to
+defend the sanctity of the temple and the right of God's people to worship
+him according to his law. They were known as Pharisees, because, as the
+name ("separated") indicates, they insisted on the separation of the
+people of God from all the defilements and snares of the heathen life
+round about them. The Pharisees constituted a fraternity devoted to the
+scrupulous observance of law and tradition in all the concerns of daily
+life. They were specialists in religion, and were the ideal
+representatives of Judaism. Their distinguishing characteristic was
+reverence for the law; their religion was the religion of a book. By
+punctilious obedience of the law man might hope to gain a record of merit
+which should stand to his credit and secure his reward when God should
+finally judge the world. Because life furnished many situations not dealt
+with in the written law, there was need of its authoritative
+interpretation, in order that ignorance might not cause a man to
+transgress. These interpretations constituted an oral law which
+practically superseded the written code, and they were handed down from
+generation to generation as "the traditions of the fathers." The existence
+of this oral law made necessary a company of scribes and lawyers whose
+business it was to know the traditions and transmit them to their pupils.
+These scribes were the teachers of Israel, the leaders of the Pharisees,
+and the most highly revered class in the community. Pharisaism at its
+beginning was intensely earnest, but in the time of Jesus the earnest
+spirit had died out in zealous formalism. This was the inevitable result
+of their virtual substitution of the written law for the living God. Their
+excessive reverence had banished God from practical relation to the daily
+life. They held that he had declared his will once for all in the law. His
+name was scrupulously revered, his worship was cultivated with minutest
+care, his judgment was anticipated with dread; but he himself, like an
+Oriental monarch, was kept far from common life in an isolation suitable
+to his awful holiness. By a natural consequence conscience gave place to
+scrupulous regard for tradition in the religion of the scribes. The chief
+question with them was not, Is this right? but, What say the elders? The
+soul's sensitiveness of response to God's will and God's truth was lost in
+a maze of traditions which awoke no spontaneous Amen in the moral nature,
+consequently there was frequent substitution of reputation for character.
+The Pharisees could make void the command, Honor thy father, by an
+ingenious application of the principle of dedication of property to God
+(Mark vii. 8-13), and thus under the guise of scrupulous regard for law
+discovered ways for legal disregard of law. Their theory of religion gave
+abundant room for a piety which made broad its phylacteries and lengthened
+its prayers, while neglecting judgment, mercy, and the love of God.
+
+10. Yet the earnest and true development in Jewish thinking was found
+among the Pharisees. The early hope of Israel was almost exclusively
+national. In the later books of the Old Testament, in connection with an
+enlarged sense of the importance of the individual, the doctrine of a
+personal resurrection to share the blessings of the Messiah's kingdom
+began to appear. It had its clear development and definite adoption as
+part of the faith of Judaism, however, under the influence of the
+Pharisees. Along with this increased emphasis on the worth of the
+individual came a large development of the doctrine of angels and spirits.
+Towards both of these doctrines the Sadducees took a reactionary position.
+Politically the Pharisees were theocratic in theory, but opportunists in
+practice, accommodating themselves to the existing state of things so long
+as the _de facto_ government did not interfere with the religious life of
+the people. They looked for a kingdom in which God should be evidently the
+king of his people; but they believed that his sovereignty was to be
+realized through the law, hence their sole interest was in the obedience
+of God's people to that law as interpreted by the traditions.
+
+11. The theocratic spirit was more aggressive in a party which originated
+in the later years of Herod the Great, and found a reckless leader in
+Judas of Galilee, who started a revolt when the governor of Syria
+undertook to make a census of the Jews after the deposition of Archelaus.
+This party bore the name Cananeans or Zealots. They regarded with
+passionate resentment the subjection of God's people to a foreign power,
+and waited eagerly for an opportune time to take the sword and set up the
+kingdom of God; it was with them that the final war against Rome began.
+They were found in largest numbers in Galilee, where the scholasticism of
+the scribes was not so dominating an influence as in Judea. Dr. Edersheim
+has called them the nationalist party. In matters belonging strictly to
+the religious life they followed the Pharisees, only holding a more
+material conception of the hope of Israel.
+
+12. Another development in Jewish religious life carried separatist
+doctrines to the extreme. Its representatives were called Essenes, though
+what the significance of the name was is no longer clear. Although they
+were allied with the Pharisees in doctrine, they show in some particulars
+the influence of Hellenistic Judaism. This is suggested not only by the
+attention which Philo and Josephus give to them, but also by certain of
+their views, which were very like the doctrines of the Pythagoreans. They
+carried the pharisaic demand for separateness to the extreme of
+asceticism. While they were found in nearly every town in Palestine, some
+of them even practising marriage, the largest group of them lived a
+celibate, monastic life near the shores of the Dead Sea. This community
+was recruited by the initiation of converts, who only after a novitiate of
+three years were admitted to full membership in the order. They were
+characterized by an extreme scrupulousness concerning ceremonial purity,
+their meals were regarded as sacrifices, and were prepared by members of
+the order, who were looked upon as priests, nor were any allowed to
+partake of the food until they had first bathed themselves. Their regular
+garments were all white, and were regarded as vestments for use at the
+sacrificial meals,--other clothing being assumed as they went out to their
+work. They were industrious agriculturists, their life was communistic,
+and they were renowned for their uprightness. They revered Moses as highly
+as did the scribes; yet they were opposed to animal sacrifices, and,
+although they sent gifts to the temple, were apparently excluded from its
+worship. Their kinship with the Pythagoreans appears in that they
+addressed an invocation to the sun at its rising, and conducted all their
+natural functions with scrupulous modesty, "that they might not offend the
+brightness of God" (Jos. Wars, ii. 8, 9). Their rejection of bloody
+sacrifices, and their view that the soul is imprisoned in the body and at
+death is freed for a better life, besides many features of their life that
+are genuinely Jewish, such as their regard for ceremonial purity, also
+show similarity to the Pythagoreans. It has always been a matter of
+perplexity that these ascetics find no mention in the New Testament. They
+seem to have lived a life too much apart, and to have had little sympathy
+with the ideals of Jesus, or even of John the Baptist.
+
+13. The common people followed the lead of the Pharisees, though afar
+off. They accepted the teaching concerning tradition, as well as that
+concerning the resurrection, conforming their lives to the prescriptions
+of the scribes more or less strictly, according as they were more or loss
+ruled by religious considerations. It was in consequence of their hold on
+the people that the scribes in the sanhedrin were able often to dictate a
+policy to the Sadducean majority. Jesus voiced the popular opinion when he
+said that "the scribes sit in Moses' seat" (Matt, xxiii. 2). Their leaders
+despised "this multitude which knoweth not the law" (John vii. 49), yet
+delighted to legislate for them, binding heavy burdens and grievous to be
+borne. Many of the people were doubtless too intent on work and gain to be
+very regardful of the _minutiæ_ of conduct as ordained by the scribes;
+many more were too simple-minded to follow the theories of the rabbis
+concerning the aloofness of God from the life of men. These last
+reverenced the scribes, followed their directions, in the main, for the
+conduct of life, yet lived in fellowship with God as their fathers had,
+trusting in his faithfulness, and hoping in his mercy. They are
+represented in the New Testament by such as Simeon and Anna, Zachariah and
+Elizabeth, Joseph and Mary, and the majority of those who heard and heeded
+John's call to repentance. They were Israel's remnant of pure and
+undefiled religion, and constituted what there was of good soil among the
+people for the reception of the seed sown by John's successor. They had no
+name, for they did not constitute a party; for convenience they may be
+called the Devout.
+
+14. Two other classes among the people are mentioned in the gospels,--the
+Herodians and the Samaritans. The Herodians do not appear outside the New
+Testament, and seem to have been hardly more than a group of men in whom
+the secular spirit was dominant, who thought it best for their interests
+and for the people's to champion the claims of the Herodian family. They
+were probably more akin to the Pharisees than to the Sadducees, for the
+latter were hostile to the Herodian claims, from the first; yet in spirit
+they seem more like to the worldly aristocracy than to the pious scribes.
+The Samaritans lived in the land, a people despising and despised. Their
+territory separated Galilee from Judea, and they were a constant source of
+irritation to the Jews. The hatred was inherited from the days of Ezra,
+when the zealous Jews refused to allow any intercourse with the
+inhabitants of Samaria. These Samaritans were spurned as of impure blood
+and mixed religion (II. Kings xvii. 24-41). The severe attitude adopted
+towards them by Ezra and Nehemiah led to the building of a temple on Mount
+Gerizim, and the establishment of a worship which sought to rival that of
+Jerusalem in all particulars. Very little is known of the tenets of the
+Samaritans in the time of Jesus beyond their belief that Gerizim was the
+place which, according to the law, God chose for his temple, and that a
+Messiah should come to settle all questions of dispute (John iv. 25).
+
+15. Although the religious life of the Jews centred ideally in the temple,
+it found its practical expression in the synagogue. This in itself is
+evidence of the relative influence of priests and scribes. There was no
+confessed rivalry. The Pharisee was most insistent on the sanctity of the
+temple and the importance of its ritual. Yet with the growing sense of the
+religious significance of the individual as distinct from the nation,
+there arose of necessity a practical need for a system of worship possible
+for the great majority of the people, who could at best visit Jerusalem
+but once or twice a year. The synagogue seems to have been a development
+of the exile, when there was no temple and no sacrifice. It was the
+characteristic institution of Judaism as a religion of the law, furnishing
+in every place opportunity for prayer and study. The elders of each
+community seem ordinarily to have been in control of its synagogue, and to
+have had authority to exclude from its fellowship persons who had come
+under the ban. In addition to these officials there was a ruler of the
+synagogue, who had the direction of all that concerned the worship; a
+_chazzan_, or minister, who had the care of the sacred books, administered
+discipline, and instructed the children in reading the scripture; and two
+or more receivers of alms. The Sabbath services consisted of prayers, and
+reading of the scriptures--both law and prophets,--and an address or
+sermon. It was in the sermon that the people learned to know the
+"traditions of the elders," whether as applications of the law to the
+daily life, or as legendary embellishments of Hebrew history and prophecy.
+The preacher might be any one whom the ruler of the synagague recognized
+as worthy to address the congregation.
+
+16. The religious life which centred in the synagogue found daily
+expression in the observance of the law and the traditions. In the measure
+of its control by the scribes it was concerned chiefly with the Sabbath,
+with the various ablutions needful to the maintenance of ceremonial
+purity, with the distinctions between clean and unclean food, with the
+times and ways of fasting, and with the wearing of fringes and
+phylacteries. These lifeless ceremonies seem to our day wearisome and
+petty in the extreme. It is probable, however, that the growth of the
+various traditions had been so gradual that, as has been aptly said, the
+whole usage seemed no more unreasonable to the Jews than the etiquette of
+polite society does to its devotees. The evil was not so much in the
+minuteness of the regulations as in the external and superficial notion of
+religion which they induced.
+
+17. Optimism was the mood of Israel's prophets from the earliest times.
+Every generation looked for the dawning of a day which should banish all
+ill and realize the dreams inspired by the covenant in which God had
+chosen Israel for his own. In proportion as the rabbinic formalism held
+control of the hearts of the people, the Messianic hope lost its warmth
+and vigor. Yet the scribes did not abandon the prophetic optimism; they
+held to the letter of the hope, but as its fulfilment was for them
+dependent on perfect obedience to the law, oral and written, their
+interest was diverted to the traditions, and their strength was given to
+legal disputations. Of the rest of the people, the Sadducees naturally
+gave little thought to the promise of future deliverance, they were too
+absorbed with regard for present concerns. Nor is there any evidence that
+the Essenes, with all their reputed knowledge of the future, cherished the
+hope of a Messiah. The other elements among the people who owned the
+general leadership of the scribes looked eagerly for the coming time when
+God should bring to pass what he had promised through the prophets. While
+some expected God himself to come in judgment, and gave no thought to an
+Anointed one who should represent the Most High to the people, the
+majority looked for a Son of David to sit upon his father's throne. Even
+so, however, there were wide differences in the nature of the hope which
+was set on the coming of this Son of David. The Zealots were looking for a
+victory, which should set Israel on high over all his foes. To the rest of
+the people, however, the method of the consummation was not so clear, and
+they were ready to leave God to work out his purpose in his own way,
+longing meanwhile for the fulfilment of his promise. One class in
+particular gave themselves to visionary representations of the promised
+redemption. They differed from the Zealots in that they saw with unwelcome
+clearness the futility of physical attack upon their enemies; but their
+faith was strong, and at the moment when outward conditions seemed most
+disheartening they looked for a revelation of God's power from heaven,
+destroying all sinners in his wrath, and delivering and comforting his
+people, giving them their lot in a veritable Canaan situated in a renewed
+earth. Such visions are recorded in the Book of Daniel and the Revelation
+of John. They are found in many other apocalypses not included in our
+Bible, and indicate how persistently the minds of the people turned
+towards the promises spoken by the prophets, and meditated on their
+fulfilment. The Devout were midway between the Zealots and the
+Apocalyptists. The songs of Zachariah and Mary and the thanksgiving of
+Simeon express their faith. They hoped for a kingdom as tangible as the
+Zealots sought, yet they preferred to _wait_ for the consolation of
+Israel. They believed that God was still in his heaven, that he was not
+disregardful of his people, and that in his own time he would raise up
+unto them their king. They looked for a Son of David, yet his reign was to
+be as remarkable for its purification of his own people as for its
+victories over their foes. These victories indeed were to be largely
+spiritual, for their Messiah was to conquer in the strength of the Spirit
+of God and "by the word of his mouth." Such as these were ready for a
+ministry like John's, and not unready for the new ideal which Jesus was
+about to offer them, though their highest spiritualization of the
+Messianic hope was but a shadow of the reality which Jesus asked them to
+accept.
+
+18. This last conception of the Messiah is found in a group of psalms
+written in the first century before Christ, during the early days of the
+Roman interference in Judea. These Psalms of Solomon, as they are called,
+are pharisaic in point of view, yet they are not rabbinic in their ideas.
+Their feeling is too deep, and their reliance on God too immediate; they
+fitly follow the psalms of the Old Testament, though afar off. Of another
+type of contemporary literature, Apocalypse, at least two representatives
+besides the Book of Daniel have come down to us from the time of Jesus or
+earlier,--the so-called Book of Enoch, and the fragment known as the
+Assumption of Moses. These writings have peculiar interest, because they
+are probably the source of quotations found in the Epistle of Jude;
+moreover, some sayings of Jesus reported in the gospels, and in particular
+his chosen title, The Son of Man, are strikingly similar to expressions
+found in Enoch. Can Jesus have read these books? The psalms of the Devout
+were the kind of literature to pass rapidly from heart to heart, until all
+who sympathized with their hope and faith had heard or seen them. The case
+was different with the apocalypses. They are more elaborate and
+enigmatical, and may have been only slightly known. Yet, as Jesus was
+familiar with the canonical Book of Daniel, although it was not read in
+the synagogue service in his time, it is possible that he may also have
+read or heard other books which had not won recognition as canonical. If,
+however, he knew nothing of them, the similarity between the apocalypses
+and some of Jesus' ideas and expressions becomes all the more significant;
+for it shows that these writings gave utterance to thoughts and feelings
+shared by men who never read them, which were, therefore, no isolated
+fancies, but characteristic of the religion of many of the people. With
+these ideas Jesus was familiar; whether he ever read the books must remain
+a question.
+
+19. This literature exists for us only in translations made in the days of
+the early church. Most of these books were originally written in Hebrew,
+the language of the Old Testament, or in Aramaic, the language of
+Palestine in the time of Jesus. Traces of this language as spoken by Jesus
+have been preserved in the gospels,--the name _Rabbi; Abba_, translated
+Father; _Talitha cumi_, addressed to the daughter of Jairus; _Ephphatha_,
+to the deaf man of Bethsaida; and the cry from the cross, _Eloi, Eloi,
+lama sabachthani_ (John i. 38; Mark xiv. 36; v. 41; vii. 34; xv. 34). It
+is altogether probable that in his common dealings with men and in his
+teachings Jesus used this language. Greek was the language of the
+government and of trade, and in a measure the Jews were a bilingual
+people. Jesus may thus have had some knowledge of Greek, but it is
+unlikely that he ever used it to any extent either in Galilee, or Judea,
+or in the regions of Tyre and Sidon.
+
+
+
+
+II
+
+Sources of Our Knowledge Of Jesus
+
+
+
+20. The earliest existing record of events in the life of Jesus is given
+to us in the epistles of Paul. His account of the appearances of the Lord
+after his death and resurrection (I. Cor. xv. 3-8) was written within
+thirty years of these events. The date of the testimony, however, is much
+earlier, since Paul refers to the experience which transformed his own
+life, and so carries us back to within a few years of the crucifixion.
+Other facts from Jesus' life may be gathered from Paul, as his descent
+from Abraham and David (Rom. i. 3; ix. 5); his life of obedience (Rom. v.
+19; xv. 3; Phil. ii. 5-11); his poverty (II. Cor. viii. 9); his meekness
+and gentleness (II. Cor. x. 1); other New Testament writings outside of
+our gospels add somewhat to this restricted but very clear testimony.
+
+21. Secular history knows little of the obscure Galilean. The testimony of
+Tacitus is that the Christians "derived their name and origin from one
+Christ, who in the reign of Tiberius had suffered death by the sentence of
+the procurator, Pontius Pilate" (Annals, xv. 44). Suetonius makes an
+obscure and seemingly ill-informed allusion to Christ in the reason he
+assigns for the edict of Claudius expelling the Jews from Rome (Vit.
+Claud. 25). The younger Pliny in the second century had learned that the
+numerous Christian community in Bithynia was accustomed to honor Christ
+as God; but he shows no knowledge of the life of Jesus beyond what must be
+inferred concerning one who caused men "to bind themselves with an oath
+not to enter into any wickedness, or commit thefts, robberies, or
+adulteries, or falsify their word, or repudiate trusts committed to them"
+(Epistles X. 96). This secular ignorance is not surprising; but the
+silence of Josephus is. He mentions Jesus in but one clearly genuine
+passage, when telling of the martyrdom of James, the "brother of Jesus,
+who is called the Christ" (Ant. xx. 9. 1). Of John the Baptist, however,
+he has a very appreciative notice (Ant, xviii. 5. 2), and it cannot be
+that he was ignorant of Jesus. His appreciation of John suggests that he
+could not have mentioned Jesus more fully without some approval of his
+life and teaching. This would be a condemnation of his own people, whom he
+desired to commend to Gentile regard; and he seems to have taken the
+cowardly course of silence concerning a matter more noteworthy, even for
+that generation, than much else of which he writes very fully.
+
+22. The reason for the lack of written Christian records of Jesus' life
+from the earliest time seems to be, not that the apostles had a small
+sense of the importance of his earthly ministry, but that the early
+generation preferred what at a later time was called the "living voice"
+(Papias in Euseb. Ch. Hist. iii. 39). The impression made by Jesus was
+supremely personal; he wrote nothing, did not command his disciples to
+write anything, preferring to influence men's minds by personal power,
+appointing them, in turn, to represent him to men as he had represented
+the Father to them (John xx. 21). But the time came when the first
+witnesses were passing away, and they were not many who could say, "I saw
+him." Our gospels are the result of the natural desire to preserve the
+apostolic testimony for a generation that could no longer hear the
+apostolic voice; and they are precisely what such a sense of need would
+produce,--vivid pictures of Jesus, agreeing in general features, differing
+more or less in details, reflecting individual feeling for the Master, and
+written not simply to inform men but to convince them of that Master's
+claims. One evidence of the reality of the gospel pictures is the fact
+that we so seldom feel the individual characteristics of each gospel. This
+is especially true of the first three, which, to the vividness of their
+picture, add a remarkable similarity of detail. Tatian, in the second
+century, felt it necessary to make a continuous narrative for the use of
+the church by interweaving the four gospels into one, and he has had many
+successors down to our day; but the fact that unity of impression has
+practically resulted from the four pictures without recourse to such an
+interweaving, invites consideration of the characteristics of these
+remarkable documents.
+
+23. The first gospel impresses the careful reader with three things: (1) A
+clear sense of the development of Jesus' ministry. The author introduces
+his narrative by an account of the birth of Jesus, of the ministry of John
+the Baptist, and of Jesus' baptism and temptation and withdrawal into
+Galilee (i. 1 to iv. 17). He then depicts the public ministry by grouping
+together, first, teachings of Jesus concerning the law of the kingdom of
+heaven, then a series of great miracles confirming the new doctrine, then
+the expansion of the ministry and deepening hostility of the Pharisees,
+leading to the teaching by parables, and the final withdrawal from Galilee
+to the north. This ministry resulted in the chilling of popular enthusiasm
+which had been strong at the beginning, but in the winning of a few hearts
+to Jesus' own ideals of the kingdom of God (iv. 18 to xvi. 20). From this
+point the evangelist leads us to Jerusalem, where rejection culminates,
+the sterner teachings of Jesus are massed, and his victory in seeming
+defeat is exhibited (xvi. 21 to xxviii. 20). (2) The evangelist's interest
+is not satisfied by this clear, strong, picture; he wishes to convince men
+that Jesus is Israel's Messiah, hence, throughout, he indicates the
+fulfilment of prophecy. The things in which he sees the fulfilment are
+striking, for, with but one or two exceptions, they are features of the
+life of Jesus objectionable to Jewish feeling. This fact, taken in
+connection with the emphasis which the gospel gives to the death of Jesus
+at the hands of the Jews, and to the resurrection as God's seal of
+approval of him whom his people rejected, forms a forcible argument to
+prove the Messiahship of Jesus, not simply in spite of his rejection by
+the Jews, but by appeal to that rejection as leading to God's signal
+vindication of the crucified one. (3) This evangelist, while proving that
+Jesus is the Messiah promised to Israel, recognizes clearly the freedom of
+the new faith from the exclusiveness of Jewish feeling. The choice of
+Galilee for the Messianic ministry (iv. 12-17), the comment of Jesus on
+the faith of the centurion (viii. 10-12), the rebuke of Israel in the
+parable of the Wicked Husbandmen (xxi. 33-46), and especially the last
+commission of the risen Lord (xxviii. 18-20), show that this gospel sought
+to convince men of Jewish feeling not only that Jesus is Messiah, but also
+that as Messiah he came to bring salvation to all the world.
+
+24. The second gospel is much simpler in construction than the first,
+while presenting essentially the same picture of the ministry as is found
+in Matthew. To its simplicity it adds a vividness of narration which
+commends Mark's account as probably representing most nearly the actual
+course of the life of Jesus. While it reports fewer incidents and
+teachings than either of the others, a comparison with Matthew and Luke
+shows a preference in Mark for Jesus' deeds, though addresses are not
+wanting; and, while shorter as a whole, for matters which he reports
+Mark's record is most rich in detail, most dramatic in presentation, and
+actually longer than the parallel accounts in the other gospels. The whole
+narrative is animated in style (note the oft-repeated "immediately") and
+full of graphic traits. The story of Jesus seems to be reproduced from a
+memory which retains fresh personal impressions of events as they
+occurred. Hence the frequent comments on the effect of Jesus' ministry,
+such as "We never saw it on this fashion" (ii. 12), or "He hath done all
+things well" (vii. 37), and the introduction into the narrative of Aramaic
+words,--_Boanerges_ (iii. 17), _Talitha, cumi_ (v. 41), and the like,
+which immediately have to be translated. The gospel discloses no
+artificial plan, the chief word of transition is "and." While some of the
+incidents recorded, such as the second Sabbath controversy (iii. 1-6) and
+the question about fasting (ii. 18-22), may owe their place to association
+in memory with an event of like character, the book impresses us as a
+collection of annals fresh from the living memory, which present the
+actual Jesus teaching and healing, and going on his way to the cross and
+resurrection. After the briefest possible reference to the ministry of
+John the Baptist and the baptism and temptation of Jesus (i. 1-13), this
+gospel proceeds to set forth the ministry in Galilee (i. 14 to ix. 50).
+The narrative then follows Jesus to Jerusalem, by way of Perea, and closes
+with his victory through death and resurrection (x. 1 to xvi. 8).
+
+25. The third gospel is more nearly a biography than any of its
+companions. It opens with a preface stating that after a study of many
+earlier attempts to record the life of Jesus the author has undertaken to
+present as complete an account as possible of that life from the
+beginning. The book is addressed to one Theophilus, doubtless a Greek
+Christian, and its chief aim is practical,--to confirm conviction
+concerning matters of faith (i. 1-4). The author's interest in the
+completeness of his account appears in the fact that it begins with
+incidents antecedent to the birth of John the Baptist and Jesus. Moreover,
+to his desire for completeness we owe much of the story of Jesus,
+otherwise unrecorded for us. Like the first two gospels, Luke represents
+the ministry of Jesus as inaugurated in Galilee, and carried on there
+until the approach of the tragedy at Jerusalem (iv. 14 to ix. 50). It is
+in connection with the journey to Jerusalem (ix. 51 to xix. 27) that he
+inserts most of that which is peculiar to his gospel. His account of the
+rejection at Jerusalem, the crucifixion, and resurrection, follows in the
+main the same lines as Matthew and Mark; but he gained his knowledge of
+many particulars from different sources (xix. 28 to xxiv. 53). It is
+characteristic of Luke to name Jesus "Lord" more often than either of his
+predecessors. With this exalted conception is coupled a noticeable
+emphasis on Jesus' ministry of compassion; here more than in any other
+gospel he is pictured as the friend of sinners. Moreover, we owe chiefly
+to Luke our knowledge of him as a man of prayer and as subject to repeated
+temptation. An artificial exaltation of Christ, such as is often
+attributed to the later apostolic thought, would tend to reduce, not
+multiply, such evidences of human dependence on God. This fact increases
+our confidence in the accuracy of Luke's picture. The gospel is very full
+of comfort to those under the pressure of poverty, and of rebuke to
+unbelieving wealth, though the parable of the Unjust Steward and story of
+Zacchæus show that it does not exalt poverty for its own sake. If our
+first gospel pictures Jesus as the fulfilment of God's promises to his
+people, and Mark, as the man of power at work before our very eyes,
+astonishing the multitude while winning the few, Luke sets before us the
+Lord ministering with divine compassion to men subject to like temptations
+with himself, though, unlike them, he knew no sin.
+
+26. The first three gospels, differing as they do in point of view and
+aim, present essentially one picture of the ministry of Jesus; for they
+agree concerning the locality and progress of his Messianic work, and the
+form and contents of his teaching, showing, in fact, verbal identity in
+many parts of their narrative. For this reason they are commonly known as
+the Synoptic Gospels. Yet these gospels exhibit differences as remarkable
+as their likenesses. They differ perplexingly in the order in which they
+arrange some of the events in Jesus' life. Which of them should be given
+preference in constructing a harmonious picture of his ministry? They
+often agree to the letter in their report of deeds or words of Jesus, yet
+from beginning to end remarkable verbal differences stand side by side
+with remarkable verbal identities. Some of the identities of language
+suggest irresistibly that the evangelists have used, at least in part, the
+same previously existing written record. One of the clearest evidences of
+this is found in the introduction, at the same place in the parallel
+accounts, of the parenthesis "then saith he to the sick of the palsy"
+which interrupts the words of Jesus in the cure of the paralytic (Mark ii.
+10; Matt. ix. 6; Luke v. 24). When the three gospels are carefully
+compared it appears that Mark contains very little that is not found in
+Matthew and Luke, and that, with one or two exceptions, Luke presents in
+Mark's order the matter that he has in common with the second gospel. The
+same is also true of the relation between the latter part of the Gospel of
+Matthew (Matt. xiv. 1 to the end) and the parallel portion of Mark; while
+the comparison of Matthew's arrangement of his earlier half with Mark
+suggests that the order in the first gospel has been determined by other
+than chronological considerations. In a sense, therefore, we may say that
+the Gospel of Mark reveals the chronological framework on which all three
+of these gospels are constructed. Comparison discloses further the
+interesting fact that the matter which Matthew and Luke have in common,
+after subtracting their parallels to Mark, consists almost entirely of
+teachings and addresses. Each gospel, however, has some matter peculiar to
+itself.
+
+27. In considering the problem presented by these facts, it is well to
+remember that no one of these gospels contains within itself any statement
+concerning the identity of its author. We are indebted to tradition for
+the names by which we know them, and no one of them makes any claim to
+apostolic origin. The earliest reference in Christian literature which may
+be applied to our gospels comes from Papias, a Christian of Asia Minor in
+the second century. He reports that an earlier teacher had said, "Mark,
+having become the interpreter of Peter, wrote down accurately, though not,
+indeed, in order, whatsoever he remembered of the things said or done by
+Christ, for he neither heard the Lord nor followed him, but afterward, as
+I said, he followed Peter, who adapted his teachings to the needs of his
+hearers, but with no intention of giving a connected account of the Lord's
+discourses. So that Mark committed no error when he thus wrote some things
+as he remembered them, for he was careful of one thing, not to omit any of
+the things which he had heard and not to state any of them falsely....
+Matthew wrote the oracles [of the Lord] in the Hebrew language [Aramaic],
+and every one interpreted them as he was able" (Euseb. Ch. Hist. iii. 39).
+The result of many years' study by scholars of all shades of opinion is
+the very general conclusion that the writing which Papias attributed to
+Mark was essentially what we have in our second gospel.
+
+28. It is almost as universally acknowledged that the work ascribed by the
+second century elder to the apostle Matthew cannot be our first gospel;
+for its language has not the characteristics which other translations from
+Hebrew or Aramaic lead us to expect, while the completeness of its
+narrative exceeds what is suggested by the words of Papias. If, however,
+the matter which Matthew and Luke have in such rich measure in addition to
+Mark's narrative be considered, the likeness between this and the writing
+attributed by Papias to the apostle Matthew is noteworthy. The conclusion
+is now very general, that that apostolic writing is in large measure
+preserved in the discourses in our first and third gospels. The relation
+of our gospels to the two books mentioned by Papias may be conceived,
+then, somewhat as follows: The earliest gospel writing of which we know
+anything was a collection of the teachings of Jesus made by the apostle
+Matthew, in which he collected with simple narrative introductions, those
+sayings of the Lord which from the beginning had passed from mouth to
+mouth in the circle of the disciples. At a later time Mark wrote down the
+account of the ministry of Jesus which Peter had been accustomed to relate
+in his apostolic preaching. The work of the apostle Matthew, while much
+richer in the sayings of Jesus, lacked the completeness that characterizes
+a narrative; hence it occurred to some early disciple to blend together
+these two primitive gospel records, adding such other items of knowledge
+as came to his hand from oral tradition or written memoranda. As his aim
+was practical rather than historical, he added such editorial comments as
+would make of the new gospel an argument for the Messiahship of Jesus, as
+we have seen. Since the most precious element in this new gospel was the
+apostolic record of the teachings of the Lord, the name of Matthew and not
+of his literary successor, was given to the book.
+
+29. The third gospel is ascribed, by a probably trustworthy tradition, to
+Luke, the companion of Paul. The author himself says that he made use of
+such earlier records as were accessible, among which the chief seem to
+have been the writings of Mark and the apostle Matthew. To Luke's
+industry, however, we owe our knowledge of many incidents and teachings
+from the life of Jesus which were not contained in these two records, and
+with which we could ill afford to part. Some of these he doubtless found
+in written form, and some he gathered from oral testimony. His close
+agreement with Mark in the arrangement of his narrative suggests that he
+found no clear evidence of a ministry of wider extent in time and place.
+He therefore used Mark as his narrative framework, and of the rich
+materials which he had gathered made a gospel, the completest of any
+written up to his time.
+
+30. Such in the main is the conclusion of modern study of our first three
+gospels; it explains the general identity of their picture of Jesus and of
+their report of his teaching; it leaves room for those individual
+characteristics which give them so much of their charm; and it traces the
+materials of the gospels far back of the writings as we have them,
+bringing us nearer to the events which they describe. The dates of these
+documents can be only approximately known. It is probable that the
+"logia" collected by the apostle Matthew were written not later than 60 to
+65 A.D., while the Gospel of Mark dates from before the fall of Jerusalem
+in 70. Our first gospel must have been made between 70 and 100, and the
+Gospel of Luke may be dated about the year 80,--all within sixty or
+seventy years after the death of Jesus.
+
+31. The fourth gospel gives us a picture of Jesus in striking contrast to
+that of the other three. These present chiefly the works of the Master and
+his teachings concerning the kingdom of God and human conduct, leaving the
+truth concerning the teacher himself to be inferred. John opens the heart
+of Jesus and makes him disclose his thought about himself in a remarkable
+series of teachings of which he is the prime topic. This gospel is
+avowedly an argument (xx. 30, 31); its selection of material is
+confessedly partial; its aim is to confirm the faith of Christians in the
+heavenly nature and saving power of their Lord; and its method is that of
+appeal to testimony, to signs, and to his own self-disclosures. The
+opening verses of the gospel have a somewhat abstract theological
+character; the body of the book, however, consists of a succession of
+incidents and teachings which follow each other in unstudied fashion like
+a collection of annals. This impression is not compromised by the
+recognition, at some points, of accidental displacements, like that which
+has placed xiv. 30, 31 before xv. and xvi., or that which has left a long
+gap between vii. 23 and the incident of v. 1-9, to which it refers. The
+theme of the gospel is the self-disclosure of Jesus. This seems to have
+determined the evangelist's choice of material, and, as the gospel is an
+argument, he does not hesitate to mingle his own comments with his report
+of Jesus' words, for example (iii. 16-21, 30-36; xii. 37-43). The book is
+characterized by a vividness of detail which indicates a clear memory of
+personal experience. While it is evident that the author has the most
+exalted conception of the nature of his Lord, this seems to have been the
+result of loving meditation on a friend who had early won the mastery over
+his heart and life, and who through long years of contemplation had forced
+upon his disciple's mind the conviction of his transcendent nature. The
+book discloses a profoundly objective attitude; the Christ whom John
+portrays is not the creature of his speculations, but the Master who has
+entered into his experience as a living influence and has compelled
+recognition of his significance. The Son of God is for John the human
+Jesus who, though named at the outset the Word--the Logos,--is the Word
+who was made flesh, that men through him might become the sons of God.
+
+32. The contrast which the Gospel of John presents to the other three
+concerns not only the teaching of Jesus, but the scene of his ministry and
+its historic development as well. Whatever may be the final judgment
+concerning the fourth gospel, it is manifestly constructed as a simple
+collection of incidents following each other in what was meant to appear a
+chronological sequence. It has been seen that the biographical framework
+of the first three gospels is principally Mark's report of Peter's
+narrative. Now it is a fact that in portions of Matthew and Luke, derived
+elsewhere than from Mark, there are various allusions most easily
+understood if it be assumed that Jesus visited Jerusalem before his
+appearance there at the end of his ministry. Such, for instance, are the
+parable of the Good Samaritan (Luke x. 25-37), the story of the visit to
+Mary and Martha (Luke x. 38-42), and the lamentation of Jesus over
+Jerusalem (Luke xiii. 34, 35; Matt, xxiii. 37-39). All three gospels,
+moreover, agree in attributing to emissaries from Jerusalem much of the
+hostility manifested against Jesus in his Galilean ministry (Luke v. 17;
+Mark iii. 22; Matt. xv. 1; Mark vii. 1), and presuppose such an
+acquaintance of Jesus with households in and near Jerusalem as is not easy
+to explain if he never visited Judea before his passion (Mark xi. 2, 3;
+xiv. 14; xv. 43 and parallels; compare especially Matt, xxvii. 57; John
+xix. 38). These all suggest that the narrative of Mark does not tell the
+whole story, a conclusion quite in accordance with the account of his work
+given by Papias. It has been assumed that Peter was a Galilean, a man of
+family living in Capernaum. It is not impossible that on some of the
+earlier visits of Jesus to Jerusalem he did not accompany his Master, and
+in reporting the things which he knew he naturally confined himself to his
+own experiences. If this can explain the predominance of Galilean
+incidents in the ministry as depicted in Mark, it will explain the
+predominance of Galilee in the first three gospels, and the contradiction
+between John and the three is reduced to a divergence between two accounts
+of Jesus' ministry written from two different points of view.
+
+33. The question of the trustworthiness of the fourth gospel is greatly
+simplified by the consideration of the one-sidedness of Mark's
+representation. It is further relieved by the fact that a ministry by
+Jesus in Jerusalem must have been one of constant self-assertion, for
+Jerusalem represented at its highest those aspects of thought and practice
+which were fundamentally opposed to all that Jesus did and taught.
+Whenever in Galilee, in the ministry pictured by the first three gospels,
+Jesus came in contact with the spirit and feeling characteristic of
+Jerusalem, we find him meeting it by unqualified assertion of his own
+independence and exalted claim to authority, altogether similar to that
+emphasis of his own significance and importance which is the chief
+characteristic of his teachings in the fourth gospel. If it be remembered
+that that gospel was avowedly an argument written to commend to others the
+reverent conclusion concerning the Lord reached by a disciple whose
+thought had dwelt for long years on the marvel of that life, and if we
+recognize that for such an argument the author would select the instances
+and teachings most telling for his own purpose, and would do this as
+naturally as the magnet draws to itself iron filings which are mingled
+with a pile of sand, the exclusively personal character of the teachings
+of Jesus in this gospel need cause little perplexity. Nor need it seem
+surprising that the words of Jesus as reported in John share the
+peculiarities of style which mark the work of the evangelist in the
+prologue to the gospel and in his epistles. His purpose was not primarily
+biographical but argumentative, and he has set forth the picture of his
+Lord as it rose before his own heart, his memory of events being
+interwoven with contemplation on the significance of that life with which
+his had been so blessedly associated. In a gospel written avowedly to
+produce in others a conviction like his own, the evangelist would not have
+been sensible of any obligation to draw sharp lines between his
+recollection of his Lord's words and his own contemplations upon them and
+upon their significance for his life. If these considerations be kept in
+mind we may accept the uniform tradition of antiquity, confirmed by the
+plain intimation of the gospel itself, that it is essentially the work of
+John, the son of Zebedee, written near the close of his life in Ephesus,
+in the last decade of the first century.
+
+34. We have in our gospel records, therefore, two authorities for the
+general course of the ministry of Jesus,--Mark and John. Even if the
+fourth gospel should be proved not to be the work of John, its picture of
+the ministry of Jesus must be recognized as coming from some apostolic
+source. A forger would hardly have invited the rejection of his work by
+inventing a narrative which seems to contradict at so many points the
+tradition of the other gospels. The first and third gospels furnish us
+from various sources rich additions to Mark's narrative, and it is to
+these two with the fourth that we turn chiefly for the teachings of Jesus.
+Each gospel should be read, therefore, remembering its incompleteness,
+remembering also the particular purpose and individual enthusiasm for
+Jesus which produced it.
+
+35. A word may be due to two other claimants to recognition as original
+records from the life of Jesus. One class is represented by that word of
+the Lord which Paul quoted to the Ephesian elders at Miletus (Acts xx.
+35). Scattered here and there in writings of the apostolic and succeeding
+ages are other sayings attributed to Jesus which cannot be found in our
+gospels. A few of these so-called Agrapha seem worthy of him, and are
+recognized as probably genuine. The most important of them is the story of
+the woman taken in adultery (John vii. 53 to viii. 11), which, though not
+a part of the gospel of John, doubtless gives a true incident from Jesus'
+life. They represent the "many other" things which John and the other
+gospels have omitted, but their small number proves that our gospels have
+preserved for us practically all that was known of Jesus after the first
+witnesses fell asleep. It is certainly surprising that so little exists to
+supplement the story of the gospels, for they are manifestly fragmentary,
+and leave much of Jesus' public life without any record. The other class
+of claimants is of a quite different character,--the so-called Apocryphal
+Gospels. These consist chiefly of legends connected with the birth and
+early years of Jesus, and with his death and resurrection. They are for
+the most part crude tales that have entirely mistaken the real character
+of him whom they seek to exalt, and need only to be read to be rejected.
+
+
+
+
+III
+
+The Harmony of the Gospels
+
+
+
+36. The church early appreciated the value and the difficulty of having
+four different pictures of the life and teachings of the Lord. Irenæus at
+the close of the second century felt it to be as essential that there
+should be four gospels as that there should be "four zones of the world,
+four principal winds, and four faces of the cherubim" (Against Heresies
+III. ii. 8).
+
+37. Before Irenæus, however, another had sought to obviate the difficulty
+of having four records which seem at some points to disagree, by making a
+combination of the gospels, to which he gave the title "Diatessaron."
+Tatian, the author of this work, was converted from paganism about 152
+A.D., and prepared his unified gospel, probably for the use of the Syrian
+churches, sometime after 172. His work is one of the treasures of the
+early Christian literature recovered for us within the last
+quarter-century. It seems to have won great popularity in the Syrian
+churches, having practically displaced the canonical gospels for nearly
+three centuries, when, owing to its supposed heretical tendency, it was
+suppressed by the determined effort of the church authorities. It is a
+continuous record of Jesus' ministry, beginning with the first six verses
+of the Gospel of John, passing then to the early chapters of Luke. It
+closes with an account of the resurrection interwoven from all four
+gospels, concluding with John xxi. 25. The arrangement follows generally
+the order of Matthew, additional matter from the other gospels being
+inserted at places which approved themselves to Tatian's judgment. Some
+portions--in particular the genealogies of Jesus--were omitted altogether,
+in accordance with views held by the compiler.
+
+38. From Tatian's time to the present there have been repeated attempts to
+construct a harmonious representation of events and teachings in the
+ministry of Jesus, generally by setting the parallel accounts side by
+side, following such a succession of events as seemed most probable. Our
+evangelists cared little, if they thought at all, about the requirements
+of strict biography, and they have left us records not easy to arrange on
+any one chronological scheme. Concerning the chief events, however, the
+gospels agree. All four report, for instance, the beginning of the work in
+Galilee (Matt. iv. 12, 17; Mark i. 14, 15; Luke iv. 14, 15; John iv.
+43-45); the feeding of the five thousand when Jesus' popularity in Galilee
+passed its climax (Matt. xiv. 13-23; Mark vi. 30-46; Luke ix. 10-17; John
+vi. 1-15); the departure from Galilee for the final visit to Jerusalem
+(Matt. xix. 1, 2; Mark x. 1; Luke ix. 51; John vii. 1-10); and the week of
+suffering and victory at the end (Matt. xxi. 1 to xxviii. 20; Mark xi. 1
+to xvi. 8 [20]; Luke xix. 29 to xxiv. 53; John xii. 1 to xxi. 25).
+
+39. These facts are enough to give us a clear and unified impression of
+the course of Jesus' ministry. When, however, we seek to fill in the
+details given in the different gospels, difficulties at once arise. Thus,
+first, what shall be done with the long section which John introduces (i.
+19 to iv. 42) before Jesus' withdrawal into Galilee? The other gospels
+make that withdrawal the beginning of his public work. A second difficulty
+arises from the unnamed feast of John v. 1. By one or another scholar this
+feast has been identified with almost every Jewish festival known to us.
+Another problem is furnished by the long section in Luke which is so
+nearly peculiar to his gospel (ix. 51 to xviii. 14). If the section had no
+parallels in the other gospels we might easily conclude that it all
+belongs to a time subsequent to the final departure for Jerusalem; but it
+contains at least one incident from the earlier ministry in Galilee (Luke
+xi. 14-36; compare Mark iii. 19-30), and many teachings of Jesus given by
+Matthew in an earlier connection appear here in Luke. Furthermore, the
+section has to be adjusted to that portion of the Gospel of John which
+deals with the same period and yet reports none of the same details.
+
+40. If Mark has furnished the narrative framework adopted in the main by
+the first and third gospels, the problem of the order of events in Jesus'
+life becomes a question of the chronological value of Mark, and of the
+estimate to be placed on the narrative of John. If the fourth gospel is
+held to be of apostolic origin and trustworthy, the task of the harmonist
+is chiefly that of combining these two records of Mark and John. The
+testimony of the Baptist, with which the fourth gospel opens, must have
+been given some time after he had baptized Jesus, and the ministry which
+preceded Jesus' return to Galilee (i. 19 to iv. 42) belongs to a period
+ignored by the other gospels. The first three gospels contain indications
+that Jesus must have visited Judea before the close of his life. They give
+no hint, however, of the time or circumstances of such earlier Judean
+labor. In giving the emphasis they do to the work in Galilee, they present
+a one-sided picture. When, therefore, we find in John a narrative of work
+in Judea, confirmed by hints in the other gospels, we may justly assume
+that the arrangement which fills out the ministry of Jesus by inserting at
+the proper places in Mark's record the events found in John is essentially
+true.
+
+41. The consideration of the one-sidedness of Mark's narrative simplifies
+the problem of harmony, but it does not solve all of the perplexities.
+Matthew and Luke have much matter, some of it narrative, which Mark has
+not, and for which he suggests no place. Where shall we put, for instance,
+the cure of the centurion's servant (Matt. viii. 5-13; Luke vii. 1-10), or
+John the Baptist's last message (Matt. xi. 2-19; Luke vii. 18-35)? It
+would simplify matters if we could take Luke's statement that he had
+"traced the course of all things accurately from the first" (Luke i. 3),
+as indicating that he had arrived at exact certainty concerning the order
+of events of Jesus' life. It is probable, however, that his statement was
+simply a claim that he had carefully gathered material for a record of the
+whole life of Jesus, from the annunciation of his birth to his ascension.
+While we may believe that some trustworthy tradition led him to give the
+place he has to many of the incidents which he adds to Mark's story, it
+seems impossible to follow him in all respects; for instance, in severing
+the account of the blasphemy of the Pharisees (xi. 14-36) from the place
+which it holds in Mark (iii. 19-30).
+
+42. Still more uncertainty exists concerning the historic connection of
+teachings of Jesus to which Matthew and Luke give different settings; for
+example, the Lord's Prayer (Matt. vi. 9-15; Luke xi. 1-4), and the
+exhortations against anxiety (Matt. vi. 25-34; Luke xii. 22-31). We have
+seen that much of the teaching common to these gospels is probably derived
+from the collection of the "oracles" of the Lord made by the apostle
+Matthew. Everything that we can infer concerning such a collection of
+oracles indicates that, while some of the teachings may have been
+connected with particular historic situations (compare Luke xi. 1), many
+would altogether lack such introductory words. A later example of what
+such a collection may have been has come to light recently in the
+so-called "Sayings of Jesus," discovered in Egypt and published in 1897.
+In these the occasion for the teaching has been quite lost; the sole
+interest centres in the fact that Jesus is supposed to have said the
+things recorded. If Matthew's book contained such "logia" or "oracles," it
+is probable that the original connection in which most of them were spoken
+was a matter of no concern to the apostle, and consequently has been lost
+This in no way compromises the genuineness of these sayings of Jesus. The
+treatment of Luke ix. 51 to xviii. 14 is much simplified by this
+consideration. To Luke's industry (i. 1-4) we owe the preservation of some
+events and very many teachings which no other evangelist has recorded.
+Some of this new material (for instance, vii. 11-17, 36-50) he has
+assigned a place in the midst of Mark's narrative. Most of it, however,
+he has gathered together in what seems to be a sort of appendix, which he
+has inserted between the close of the ministry in Galilee and the final
+arrival in Judea. For many of the teachings it is now impossible to assign
+a time or place. That this is so will cause no surprise or difficulty if
+we remember that in the earliest days the report of what Jesus said and
+did circulated in the form of oral tradition only. It was the knowledge
+that first-hand witnesses were passing away that led to the writing of the
+gospels. During the period of oral tradition many teachings of the Lord
+were doubtless kept clearly and accurately in memory after the historic
+situations which led to their first utterance were quite forgotten.
+
+43. This fact helps to explain another perplexity in our gospel
+narratives. A comparison of the two accounts of the cure of the
+centurion's servant reveals differences of detail most perplexing, if we
+ask for minute agreement in records of the same events. When we see that
+of two accounts evidently reporting the same incident, one can say that
+the centurion himself sought Jesus and asked the cure of his servant
+(Matt. viii. 5, 8), while the other makes him declare himself unworthy to
+come in person to the Lord (Luke vii. 7), the question arises whether
+other accounts, similar in the main but differing in detail, should not be
+identified as independent records of one event. Were there two cleansings
+of the temple (John ii. 13-22; Mark xi. 15-19), two miraculous draughts of
+fishes (Luke v. 4-11; John xxi. 5-8), two rejections at Nazareth (Mark vi.
+1-6; Luke iv. 16-30), two parables of the Leaven, of the Mustard Seed
+(Matt. xiii. 31-33; Luke xiii. 18-21), and of the Lost Sheep (Matt, xviii.
+12-14; Luke xv. 4-7)? Such similar records are often called doublets, and
+the question of identity or distinctness can be answered only after a
+special study of each case. It is important to notice that a given
+teaching, particularly if it took the form of an illustration, would
+naturally be used by Jesus on many different occasions. When, on the other
+hand, we find two accounts of specific doings of Jesus similar in detail
+it is needful to recognize that definite historic situations do not so
+often repeat themselves as do occasions for similar or identical
+teachings.
+
+44. All these considerations show that while the general order of events
+in the life of Jesus may be determined with a good degree of probability,
+we must be content to remain uncertain concerning the place to be given to
+many incidents and to more teachings. Such uncertainty is of small
+concern, since our unharmonized gospels have not failed during all these
+centuries to produce one fair picture, to the total impression of which
+each teaching and deed make definite contribution quite independently of
+our ability to give to each its particular place in relation to the whole.
+The degree of certainty attainable justifies, however, a continued
+interest in the old study of harmony, because of the more comprehensive
+idea it gives of the ministry depicted in the partial narratives of our
+several gospels.
+
+
+
+
+IV
+
+The Chronology
+
+
+
+45. The length of the public ministry of Jesus was one of the earliest
+questions which arose in the study of the four gospels. In the second and
+third centuries it was not uncommon to find the answer in the passage from
+Isaiah (lxi. 1, 2), which Jesus declared was fulfilled in himself. "The
+acceptable year of the Lord" was taken to indicate that the ministry
+covered little more than a year. The fact that the first three gospels
+mention but one Passover (that at the end), and but one journey to
+Jerusalem, seems at first to be favorable to this conclusion, and to make
+peculiarly significant the care taken by Luke to give the exact date for
+the opening of Jesus' ministry (iii. 1, 2). In fact, the second century
+Gnostics, relying apparently on Luke, assigned both the ministry and death
+of Jesus to the fifteenth year of Tiberius Cæsar,--an interpretation which
+may have given rise to the widely spread, early tradition, found, for
+example, in Tertullian (Ante-nicene Fathers, in. 160), which placed the
+death of Jesus in A.D. 29, during the consulship of L. Rubellius Geminus
+and C. Fufius Geminus.
+
+46. The theory that the ministry of Jesus extended over but little more
+than one year is beset, however, by difficulties that seem insuperable.
+The first is presented by the three Passovers distinctly mentioned in the
+Gospel of John (ii. 13; vi. 4; xii. 1). The last of these is plainly
+identical with the one named in the other gospels. The second gives the
+time of year for the feeding of the five thousand, and agrees with the
+mention of "the green grass" in the account of Mark and Matthew (Mark vi.
+39; Matt. xiv. 19). John's first Passover falls in a section which demands
+a place before Mark i. 14 (compare John iii. 24). Hence it must be shown
+that this first Passover is chronologically out of order in the Gospel of
+John, or the one year ministry advocated by the second century Gnostics,
+by Clement of Alexandria, by Origen, and of late years by Keim and others,
+is seen to be impossible. The fact that at this Passover Jesus cleansed
+the temple, and that the other gospels assign such a cleansing to the
+close of the ministry, suggests the possibility that John has set it at
+the opening of his narrative for reasons connected with his argument. This
+interpretation falls, however, before the perfect simplicity of structure
+of John's narrative. The transitions from incident to incident in this
+gospel are those of simple succession, and indicate, on the writer's part,
+no suspicion that he was contradicting notions concerning the ministry of
+Jesus familiar to his contemporaries. Whatever the conclusion reached
+concerning the authorship of the gospel, the fact that it gained currency
+very early as apostolic would seem to prove that its conception of the
+length of Jesus' ministry was not opposed to the recognized apostolic
+testimony. It is safe to conclude, therefore, that time must be allowed in
+Jesus' ministry for at least three Passover seasons.
+
+47. With this conclusion most modern discussions of the question rest, and
+it is possible that it may finally win common consent. The order of
+Mark's narrative, however, challenges it. This gospel records near the
+beginning (ii. 23) a controversy with the Pharisees occasioned by the fact
+that Jesus' disciples plucked and ate the ripening grain as they passed on
+a Sabbath day through the fields. As Mark places much later (vi. 30-34)
+the feeding of the five thousand, which occurred at a Passover, that is
+the beginning of the harvest (Lev. xxiii. 5-11), his order suggests the
+necessity of including two harvest seasons in the ministry in Galilee, and
+consequently four Passovers in the public life of Jesus. Two
+considerations are urged against this conclusion. (1) Papias in his
+reference to the Gospel of Mark criticises the order of the gospel; (2)
+Mark ii. 1 to iii. 6 contains a group of five conflicts with the critics
+of Jesus, which represents a massing of opposition that seems unlikely at
+the outset of his Galilean work. The remark of Papias must remain obscure
+until his standard of comparison is known. Some suggest that he knew
+John's order and preferred it, others that he agreed with that adopted by
+Tatian in his Diatessaron. Mark is in accord with neither of these. No
+one, however, knows what order Papias preferred. The early conflict group
+does appear like a collection drawn from different parts of the ministry.
+Yet the nucleus of the group--the cure of the paralytic (ii. 1-12) and the
+call of Levi (ii. 13-17)--is clearly in its right place in Mark (see
+Holtzmann, Hand-commentar, I. 10). The question about fasting (ii. 18-22)
+may have been asked much later, and its present place may be due to
+association in tradition with the criticism of Jesus' fellowship with
+publicans (ii. 16). In like manner the cure of the withered hand (iii.
+1-6) may have become artificially grouped with the incident of the
+cornfields. It is possible, also, that both Sabbath controversies owe
+their early place in the gospel to traditional association with the early
+conflicts (ii. 1-17). If so, the plucking of the grain actually occurred
+some weeks after the feeding of the five thousand, and probably after the
+controversy about tradition (vii. 1-23), with which, according to Mark,
+Jesus' activity in Galilee practically closed. It is not clear, however,
+what principle of association drew forward to the early group the Sabbath
+conflict, and left in its place the controversy about tradition. It is
+thus possible that the incident of the cornfields belongs also to the
+early nucleus of the group; and in this case the longer ministry,
+including four Passovers, must be accepted. The decision of the question
+is not of vital importance, but it affects the determination of the
+sequence of events in Jesus' life. Whatever the explanation of the remark
+of Papias, the more the gospels are studied the more does Mark's order of
+events commend itself in general as representing the probable fact. Many
+students have inferred the three year ministry from the Gospel of John
+alone, identifying the unnamed feast in John v. 1 with a Passover. But
+John's allusion to that feast is so indefinite that the length of Jesus'
+ministry must be determined quite independently of it.
+
+48. So long a ministry as three years presents some difficulties, for all
+that is told us in the four gospels would cover but a small fraction of
+this time. John's statement (xx. 30) that he omitted many things from
+Jesus' life in making his book is evidently true of all the evangelists,
+and long gaps, such as are evident in the fourth gospel, must be assumed
+in the other three. Recalling the character of the gospels as pictures of
+Jesus rather than narratives of his life, we may easily acknowledge the
+incompleteness of our record of the three years of ministry, and wonder
+the more at the vividness of impression produced with such economy of
+material. This meagreness of material is not decisive for the shorter
+rather than the longer ministry, for it is evident that to effect such a
+change in conviction and feeling as Jesus wrought in the minds of the
+ardent Galileans who were his disciples, required time. Three years are
+better suited to effect this change than two.
+
+49. Closely related to the question of the length of Jesus' ministry is
+another: Can definite dates be given for the chief events in his life? For
+the year of the opening of his public activity the gospels furnish two
+independent testimonies: the remark of the Jews on the occasion of Jesus'
+first visit to Jerusalem, "Forty and six years was this temple in
+building" (John ii. 20), and Luke's careful dating of the appearance of
+John the Baptist, "in the fifteenth year of Tiberius Cæsar" (iii. 1, 2).
+John ii. 20 leads to the conclusion that the first Passover fell in the
+spring of A.D. 26 or 27, since we learn from Josephus (Ant. xv. 11. 1)
+that Herod began to rebuild the temple in the eighteenth year of his
+reign, which closed in the spring of B.C. 19. Luke iii. 1 gives a date
+contradictory to the one just found, if the fifteenth year of Tiberius is
+to be counted from the death of his predecessor, for Augustus died August
+19, A.D. 14. Reckoned from this time the opening of John's work falls in
+the year A.D. 28, and the first Passover of Jesus' ministry could not be
+earlier than the spring of 29. This is at least two years later than is
+indicated by the statement in John. The remark in John is, however, so
+incidental and so lacking in significance for his argument that its
+definiteness can be explained only as due to a clear historic
+reminiscence; but it does not follow that Luke has erred in the date given
+by him. Although Augustus did not die until A.D. 14, there is evidence
+that Tiberius was associated with him in authority over the army and the
+provinces not later than January, A.D. 12. One who lived and wrote in the
+reign of Titus may possibly have applied to the reign of Tiberius a mode
+of reckoning customary in the case of Titus, as Professor Ramsay has shown
+(Was Christ born at Bethlehem, 202). If this is the fact, Luke reckoned
+from the co-regency of Tiberius; hence the fifteenth year would be A.D. 25
+or 26, according as the co-regency began before or after the first of
+January, A.D. 12. This would place the first Passover of Jesus' ministry
+in the spring of 26 or 27, in agreement with the hint found in John.
+
+50. If the public ministry of Jesus began with the spring of 26 or 27, the
+close of three years of activity would, come at the Passover of 29 or 30.
+The former of these dates agrees with the early Christian tradition
+already mentioned. But before accepting that traditional date another
+matter must be considered. Jesus was crucified on the Friday at the
+opening of the feast of the Passover. Whether it was the day of the
+sacrifice of the Passover (14 Nisan) or the day following (15 Nisan), is
+not essential for the present question. As the Jewish month began with the
+first appearance of the new moon, it is evident that, in the year of
+Jesus' death, the month of Nisan must have begun on a day that would make
+the 14th or the 15th fall on Friday. Now it can be shown that in the year
+30 the 14th of Nisan was Thursday (April 6) or Friday (April 7), for at
+best only approximate certainty is attainable. The tradition which assigns
+the passion to 29, generally names March 25 as the day of the month. This
+date is impossible, because it does not coincide with the full moon of
+that month. The choice of March 25 by a late tradition may be explained by
+the fact that it was commonly regarded as the date of the spring equinox,
+the turning of the year towards its renewing. Mr. Turner has shown
+(HastBD. I. 415) that another date found in an early document cannot be so
+explained. Epiphanius was familiar with copies of the Acts of Pilate,
+which gave March 18 as the date of the crucifixion; and it is remarkable
+that this date coincides with the full moon, and also falls on Friday.
+Such a combination gives unusual weight to the tradition, particularly as
+there is no ready way to account for its rise, as in the case of March 25.
+From this supplementary tradition the year 29 gains in probability as the
+year of the passion. Without attempting to arrive at a final
+conclusion,--a task which must be left for chronological specialists,--it
+is safe to assume that Jesus died at the Passover of A.D. 29 or 30.
+
+51. Concluding that Jesus' active ministry fell within the years A.D. 26
+to 30, is it possible to determine the date of his birth? Four hints are
+furnished by the gospels: he was born before the death of Herod (Matt. ii.
+1; Luke i. 5); he was about thirty years of age at his baptism (Luke iii.
+23); he was born during a census conducted in Judea in accordance with
+the decree of Augustus at a time when Quirinius was in authority in Syria
+(Luke ii. 1, 2); after his birth wise men from the East were led to visit
+him by observing "his star" (Matt. ii. 1, 2). From these facts it follows
+that the birth of Jesus cannot be placed later than B.C. 4, since Herod
+died about the first of April in that year (Jos. Ant. xvii. 6. 4; 8. 1,
+4). The awkwardness of having to find a date _Before Christ_ for the birth
+of Jesus is due to the miscalculation of the monk, Dionysius the Little,
+who in the sixth century introduced our modern reckoning from "the year of
+our Lord."
+
+52. But is it impossible to determine the time of Jesus' birth more
+exactly? Luke (ii. 1, 2) offers what seems to be more definite
+information, but his reference to the decree of Augustus and the enrolment
+under Quirinius are among the most seriously challenged statements in the
+gospels. It has been said (1) that history knows of no edict of Augustus
+ordering a general enrolment of "the world;" (2) that a Roman census could
+not have been taken in Palestine before the death of Herod; (3) that if
+such an enrolment had been taken it would have been unnecessary for Joseph
+and Mary to journey from Nazareth to Bethlehem; (4) that the census taken
+when Quirinius was governor of Syria is definitely assigned by Josephus to
+the year after the deposition of Archelaus, A.D. 6 (Ant. xviii. 1. 1; see
+also Acts v. 37); (5) that if Luke's reference to this census as the
+"first" be appealed to, it must be replied that Quirinius was not governor
+of Syria at any time during the lifetime of Herod. This array of
+difficulties is impressive, and has persuaded many conservative students
+to concede that in his reference to the census Luke has fallen into error.
+Some recent discoveries in Egypt, however, have furnished new information
+concerning the imperial administration of that province. Inferring that a
+policy adopted in Egypt may have prevailed also in Syria, Professor Ramsay
+has recently put forth a strong argument for Luke's accuracy in respect of
+this census (Was Christ born at Bethlehem, 95-248). That argument may be
+condensed as follows: We have evidence of a system of Roman enrolments in
+Egypt taken every fourteen years, and already traced back to the time of
+Augustus, the earliest document so far recovered belonging, apparently, to
+the census of A.D. 20. It is at least possible that this system of
+Egyptian enrolments may have been part of an imperial policy, of which all
+other trace is lost excepting the statement of Luke. It is significant
+that the date of the census referred to by Josephus (A.D. 6) fits exactly
+the fourteen-year cycle which obtained in Egypt. If the census of A.D. 6
+was preceded by an earlier one its date would be B.C. 8; that is, it would
+be actually taken in B.C. 7, in order to secure the full acts for B.C. 8.
+
+53. The statement of Tertullian (Against Marcion, iv. 19) that a census
+had been taken in Judea under Augustus by Sentius Saturninus, who was
+governor of Syria about 9 to 7 B.C., certainly comes from some source
+independent of the gospels, and tends to confirm Luke's account of a
+census before the death of Herod. That a Roman census might have been
+taken in Palestine during Herod's life is seen from the fact that in A.D.
+36 Vitellius, the governor of Syria, had to send Roman forces into
+Cilicia Trachæa to assist Archelaus, the king of that country, to quell a
+revolt caused by native resistance to a census taken after the Roman
+fashion (Tacitus, Ann. vi. 41). Herod would almost certainly resent as a
+mark of subjection the order to enrol his people; and the fact that he was
+in disfavor with Augustus during the governorship of Saturninus (Josephus,
+Ant. xvi. 9. 1-3), suggests to Professor Ramsay that he may have sought to
+avoid obedience to the imperial will in the matter of the census. If after
+some delay Herod was forced to obey, the enrolment may have been taken in
+the year 7-6. Since it is probable that the Romans would allow Herod to
+give the census as distinctly Jewish a character as possible, it is easy
+to credit the order that all Jews should be registered, so far as
+possible, in their ancestral homes. Hence the journey of Joseph to
+Bethlehem; and if Mary wished to have her child also registered as from
+David's line, her removal with Joseph to Bethlehem is explained. Such a
+delay in the taking of the census would have postponed it until after the
+recall of Saturninus. The statement of Tertullian may therefore indicate
+simply that he knew that a census was taken in Syria by Saturninus.
+
+54. The successor of Saturninus was Varus, who held the governorship until
+after the death of Herod. How then does Luke refer to the enrolment as
+taken when Quirinius was in authority? It has for a long time been known
+that this man was in Syria before he was there as legate of the emperor in
+A.D. 6. There seems to be evidence that Quirinius was in the East about
+the year B.C. 6, putting down a rebellion on the borders of Cilicia, a
+district joined with Syria into one province under the early empire.
+Varus was at this time governor, but Quirinius might easily have been
+looked upon as representing for the time the power of the Roman arms. If
+Herod was forced to yield to the imperial wish by the presence in Syria of
+this renowned captain, the statement of Luke is confirmed, and the census
+at which Jesus was born was taken, according to a Jewish fashion, during
+the life of Herod, but under compulsion of Rome exacted by Quirinius,
+while he was in command of the Roman forces in the province of
+Syria-Cilicia. This gives as a probable date for the birth of Jesus B.C.
+6, which accords well with the hints previously considered, inasmuch as it
+is earlier than the death of Herod, and, if born in B.C. 6, Jesus would
+have been thirty-two at his baptism in A.D. 26.
+
+55. The account given in Matthew of "the star" which drew the wise men to
+Judea gives no sure help in determining the date of the birth of Jesus,
+but it is at least suggestive that in the spring and autumn of B.C. 7
+there occurred a remarkable conjunction of the planets Jupiter and Saturn.
+This was first noticed by Kepler in consequence of a similar conjunction
+observed by him in A.D. 1603. Men much influenced by astrology must have
+been impressed by such a celestial phenomenon, but that it furnishes an
+explanation of the star of the wise men is not clear. If it does, it
+confirms the date otherwise probable for the nativity, that is, not far
+from B.C. 6.
+
+56. Can we go further and determine the time of year or the month and day
+of the nativity? It should be borne in mind that our Christmas festival
+was not observed earlier than the fourth century, and that the evidence
+is well-nigh conclusive that December 25th was finally selected for the
+Nativity in order to hallow a much earlier and widely spread pagan
+festival coincident with the winter solstice. If anything exists to
+suggest the time of year it is Luke's mention of "shepherds in the field
+keeping watch by night over their flock" (ii. 8). This seems to indicate
+that it must have been the summer season. In winter the flocks would be
+folded, not pastured, by night.
+
+57. It therefore seems probable that Jesus was born in the summer of B.C.
+6; that he was baptized in A.D. 26; that the first Passover of his
+ministry was in the spring of 26 or 27; and that he was crucified in the
+spring of 29 or 30.
+
+
+
+
+V
+
+The Early Years of Jesus
+
+Matt. i. 1 to ii. 23; Luke i. 5 to ii. 52; iii. 23-38
+
+
+
+58. It is surprising that within a century of the life of the apostles,
+Christian imagination could have so completely mistaken the real greatness
+of Jesus as to let its thirst for wonder fill his early years with scenes
+in which his conduct is as unlovely as it is shocking. That he who in
+manhood was "holy, harmless, undefiled, separate from sinners" (Heb. vii.
+26), could in youth, in a fit of ill-temper, strike a companion with death
+and then meet remonstrance by cursing his accusers with blindness (Gospel
+of Thomas, 4, 5); that he could mock his teachers and spitefully resent
+their control (Pseudo-Matthew, 30, 31); that it could be thought worthy of
+him to exhibit his superiority to common human conditions by carrying
+water in his mantle when his pitcher had been broken (same, 33), or by
+making clay birds in play on the Sabbath and causing them to fly when he
+was rebuked for naughtiness (same, 27);--these and many like legends
+exhibit incredible blindness to the real glory of the Lord. Yet such
+things abound in the early attempts of the pious imagination to write the
+story of the youth of Jesus, and the account of the nativity and its
+antecedents fares as ill, being pitifully trivial where it is not
+revolting.
+
+59. How completely foreign all this is to the apostolic thought and
+feeling is clear when we notice that excepting the first two chapters of
+Matthew and Luke the New Testament tells us nothing whatever of the years
+which preceded John the Baptist's ministry in the wilderness. The gospels
+are books of testimony to what men had seen and heard (John i. 14); and
+the epistles are practical interpretations of the same in its bearing on
+religious life and hope. The apostles found no difficulty in recognizing
+the divinity and sinlessness of their Lord without inquiring how he came
+into the world or how he spent his early years; it was what he showed
+himself to be, not how he came to be, that formed their conception of him.
+Yet the early chapters of Matthew and Luke should not be classed with the
+later legends. Notwithstanding the attempts of Keim to associate the
+narratives of the infancy in the canonical and apocryphal gospels, a great
+gulf separates them: on the one side there is a reverent and beautiful
+reserve, on the other indelicate, unlovely, and trivial audacity.
+
+60. The gospel narratives have, however, perplexities of their own, for
+the two accounts agree only in the main features,--the miraculous birth in
+Bethlehem in the days of Herod, Mary being the mother and Joseph the
+foster-father, and Nazareth the subsequent residence. In further details
+they are quite different, and at first sight seem contradictory. Moreover,
+while Matthew sheds a halo of glory over the birth of Jesus, Luke draws a
+picture of humble circumstances and obscurity. These differences, taken
+with the silence of the rest of the New Testament concerning a miraculous
+birth, constitute a real difficulty. To many it seems strange that the
+disciples and the brethren of Jesus did not refer to these things if they
+knew them to be true. But it must not be overlooked that any familiar
+reference to the circumstances of the birth of Jesus which are narrated in
+the gospels would have invited from the Jews simply a challenge of the
+honor of his home. Moreover, as the knowledge of these wonders did not
+keep Mary from misunderstanding her son (Luke ii. 19, 51; compare Mark in.
+21, 31-35), the publication of them could hardly have helped greatly the
+belief of others. The fact that Mary was so perplexed by the course of
+Jesus in his ministry makes it probable that even until quite late in her
+life she "kept these things and pondered them in her heart."
+
+61. No parts of the New Testament are challenged so widely and so
+confidently as these narratives of the infancy. But if they are not to be
+credited with essential truth it is necessary to show what ideas cherished
+in the apostolic church could have led to their invention. That John and
+Paul maintain the divinity of their Lord, yet give no hint that this
+involved a miraculous birth, shows that these stories are no necessary
+outgrowth of that doctrine. The early Christians whether Jewish or Gentile
+would not naturally choose to give pictorial form to their belief in their
+Lord's divinity by the story of an incarnation. The heathen myths
+concerning sons of the gods were in all their associations revolting to
+Christian feeling, and, while the Jewish mind was ready to see divine
+influence at work in the birth of great men in Israel (as Isaac, and
+Samson, and Samuel), the whole tendency of later Judaism was hostile to
+any such idea as actual incarnation. Some would explain the story of the
+miraculous birth as a conclusion drawn by the Christian consciousness
+from the doctrine of the sinlessness of Jesus. Yet neither Paul nor John,
+who are both clear concerning the doctrine, give any idea that a
+miraculous birth was essential for a sinless being. Some appeal to the
+eagerness of the early Christians to exalt the virginity of Mary, This is
+certainly the animus of many apocryphal legends. But the feeling is as
+foreign to Jewish sentiment and New Testament teaching as it is
+contradictory to the evidence in the gospels that Mary had other children
+born after Jesus.
+
+62. Moreover, the songs of Mary (Luke i. 46-55) and Zachariah (Luke i.
+68--79) bear in themselves the evidence of origin before the doctrine of
+the cross had transformed the Christian idea of the Messiah. That
+transformed idea abounds in the Epistles and the Acts, and it is difficult
+to conceive how these songs (if they were later inventions) could have
+been left free of any trace of specifically Christian ideas. A Jewish
+Christian would almost certainly have made them more Christian than they
+are; a Gentile Christian could not have made them so strongly and
+naturally Jewish as they are; while a non-Christian Jew would never have
+invented them. Taken with the evidence in Ignatius (Ad Eph. xviii., xix.)
+of the very early currency of the belief in a miraculous birth, they
+confirm the impression that it is easier to accept the evidence offered
+for the miracle than to account for the origin of the stories as legends.
+The idea of a miraculous birth is very foreign to modern thought; it
+becomes credible only as the transcendent nature of Jesus is recognized on
+other grounds. It may not be said that the incarnation required a
+miraculous conception, yet it may be acknowledged that a miraculous
+conception is a most suitable method for a divine incarnation.
+
+63. These gospel stories are chiefly significant for us in that they show
+that he in whom his disciples came to recognize a divine nature began his
+earthly life in the utter helplessness and dependence of infancy, and grew
+through boyhood and youth to manhood with such naturalness that his
+neighbors, dull concerning the things of the spirit, could not credit his
+exalted claims. He is shown as one in all points like unto his brethren
+(Heb. ii. 17). Two statements in Luke (ii. 40, 52) describe the growth of
+the divine child as simply as that of his forerunner (Luke i. 80), or that
+of the prophet of old (I. Sam. ii. 26). The clear impression of these
+statements is that Jesus had a normal growth from infancy to manhood,
+while the whole course of the later life as set before us in the gospels
+confirms the scripture doctrine that his normal growth was free from sin
+(Heb. iv. 15).
+
+64. The knowledge of the probable conditions of his childhood is as
+satisfying as the apocryphal stories are revolting. The lofty Jewish
+conception of home and its relations is worthy of Jesus. The circumstances
+of the home in Nazareth were humble (Matt. xiii. 55; Luke ii. 24; compare
+Lev. xii. 8). Probably the house was not unlike those seen to-day, of but
+one room, or at most two or three,--the tools of trade mingling with the
+meagre furnishings for home-life. We should not think it a home of penury;
+doubtless the circumstances of Joseph were like those of his neighbors. In
+one respect this home was rich. The wife and mother had an exalted place
+in the Jewish life, notwithstanding the trivial opinions of some
+supercilious rabbis; and what the gospel tells of the chivalry of Joseph
+renders it certain that love reigned in his home, making it fit for the
+growth of the holy child.
+
+65. Religion held sway in all the phases of Jewish life. With some it was
+a religion of ceremony,--of prayers and fastings, tithes and boastful
+alms, fringes and phylacteries. But Joseph and Mary belonged to the
+simpler folk, who, while they reverenced the scribes as teachers, knew not
+enough of their subtlety to have substituted barren rites for sincere love
+for the God of their fathers and childlike trust in his mercy. Jesus knew
+not only home life at its fairest, but religion at its best. A father's
+most sacred duty was the teaching of his child in the religion of his
+people (Deut. vi. 4-9), and then, as ever since, the son learned at his
+mother's side to know and love her God, to pray to him, and to know the
+scriptures. No story more thrilling and full of interest, no prospect more
+rich and full of glowing hope, could be found to satisfy the child's
+spirit of wonder than the story of Israel's past and God's promises for
+the future. Religious culture was not confined to the home, however. The
+temple at Jerusalem was the ideal centre of religious life for this
+Nazareth household (Luke ii. 41) as for all the people, yet practically
+worship and instruction were cultivated chiefly by the synagogue (Luke iv.
+16); there God was present in his Holy Word. Week after week the boy Jesus
+heard the scripture in its original Hebrew form, followed by translation
+into Aramaic, and received instruction from it for daily conduct. The
+synagogue probably influenced the boy's intellectual life even more
+directly. In the time of Jesus schools had been established in all the
+important towns, and were apparently under the control of the synagogue.
+To such a school he may have been sent from about six years of age to be
+taught the scriptures (compare II. Tim. iii. 15), together with the
+reading (Luke iv. 16-19), and perhaps the writing, of the Hebrew language.
+Of his school experience we know nothing beyond the fact that he grew in
+"wisdom and in stature and in favor with God and man" (Luke ii. 52),--a
+sufficient contradiction of the repulsive legends of the apocryphal
+gospels.
+
+66. The physical growth incident to Jesus' development from boyhood to
+manhood is a familiar thought. The intellectual unfolding which belongs to
+this development is readily recognized. Not so commonly acknowledged, but
+none the less clearly essential to the gospel picture, is the gradual
+unfolding of the child's moral life under circumstances and stimulus
+similar to those with which other children meet (Heb. iv. 15). The man
+Jesus was known as the carpenter (Matt. xiii. 55). The learning of such a
+trade would contribute much to the boy's mastery of his own powers. Far
+more discipline would come from his fellowship with brothers and sisters
+who did not understand his ways nor appreciate the deepest realities of
+his life. Without robbing boyhood days of their naturalness and reality,
+we may be sure that long before Jesus knew how and why he differed from
+his fellows he felt more or less clearly that they were not like him. The
+resulting sense of isolation was a school for self-mastery, lest isolation
+foster any such pride or unloveliness as that with which later legend
+dared to stain the picture of the Lord's youth. Four brothers of Jesus
+are named by Mark (vi. 3),--James, and Joses, and Judas, and Simon,--the
+gospel adds also that he had sisters living at a later time in Nazareth.
+They were all subject with him to the same home influences, and apparently
+were not unresponsive to them. The similarity of thought and feeling
+between the sermon on the mount and the Epistle of James is not readily
+explained by the influence of master over disciple, since the days of
+James's discipleship began after the resurrection of Jesus. In any case
+there is no reason to think that the companions of Jesus' home were
+uncommonly irritating or in any way irreligious, only Jesus was not
+altogether like them (John vii. 5), and the fact of difference was a moral
+discipline, which among other things led to that moral growth by which
+innocence passed into positive goodness. If the home was such a school of
+discipline, its neighbors, less earnest and less favored with spiritual
+training, furnished more abundant occasion for self-mastery and growth.
+The very fact that in his later years Jesus was no desert preacher, like
+John, but social, and socially sought for, indicates that he did not win
+his manhood's perfection in solitude, but in fellowship with common life
+and in victory over the trials and temptations incident to it (Heb. ii.
+17, 18).
+
+67. Yet he must have been familiar with the life which is in secret (Matt.
+vi. 1-18). He who in his later years was a man of much prayer, who began
+(Luke iii. 21) and closed (Luke xxiii. 46) his public life with prayer, as
+a boy was certainly familiar not only with the prayers of home and
+synagogue, but also with quiet, personal resort to the presence of God. It
+would be unjust to think of any abnormal religious precocity. Jesus was
+the best example the world has seen of perfect spiritual health, but we
+must believe that he came early to know God and to live much with him.
+
+68. It is instructive in connection with this inwardness of Jesus' life to
+recall the rich familiarity with the whole world of nature which appears
+in his parables and other teachings. The prospect which met his eye if he
+sought escape from the distractions of home and village life, has been
+described by Renan: "The view from the town is limited; but if we ascend a
+little to the plateau swept by a perpetual breeze, which stands above the
+highest houses, the landscape is magnificent. On the west stretch the fine
+outlines of Carmel, terminating in an abrupt spur which seems to run down
+sheer to the sea. Next, one sees the double summit which towers above
+Megiddo; the mountains of the country of Shechem, with their holy places
+of the patriarchal period; the hills of Gilboa, the small picturesque
+group to which is attached the graceful or terrible recollections of
+Shunem and of Endor; and Tabor, with its beautiful rounded form, which
+antiquity compared to a bosom. Through a gap between the mountains of
+Shunem and Tabor are visible the valley of the Jordan and the high plains
+of Perea, which form a continuous line from the eastern side. On the
+north, the mountains of Safed, stretching towards the sea, conceal St.
+Jean d'Acre, but leave the Gulf of Khaifa in sight. Such was the horizon,
+of Jesus. This enchanted circle, cradle of the kingdom of God, was for
+years his world. Indeed, during his whole life he went but little beyond
+the familiar bounds of his childhood. For yonder, northwards, one can
+almost see, on the flank of Hermon, Cæsarea-Philippi, his farthest point
+of advance into the Gentile world; and to the south the less smiling
+aspect of these Samaritan hills foreshadows the dreariness of Judea
+beyond, parched as by a burning wind of desolation and death." In the
+midst of such scenes we are to understand that, with the physical growth,
+and opening of mind, and moral discipline which filled the early years of
+Jesus, there came also the gradual spiritual unfolding in which the boy
+rose step by step to the fuller knowledge of God and himself.
+
+69. That unfolding is pictured in an early stage in the story given us
+from the youth of Jesus. It was customary for a Jewish boy not long after
+passing his twelfth year to come under full adult obligation to the law.
+The visit to Jerusalem was probably in preparation for such assumption of
+obligation by Jesus. All his earlier training had filled his mind with the
+sacredness of the Holy City and the glory of the temple. It is easy to
+feel with what joy he would first look upon Zion from the shoulder of the
+Mount of Olives, as he came over it on his journey from Galilee; to
+conceive how the temple and the ritual would fill him with awe in his
+readiness not to criticise, but to idealize everything he saw, and to
+think only of the significance given by it all to the scripture; to
+imagine how eagerly he would talk in the temple court with the learned men
+of his people about the law and the promises with which in home and school
+his youth had been made familiar. Nor is it difficult to appreciate his
+surprise, when Joseph and Mary, only after long searching for him, at last
+found him in the temple, for he felt that it was the most natural place
+in which he could be found. In his wondering question to Mary, "Did not
+you know that I must be in my Father's house?" (Luke ii. 49), there is a
+premonition of his later consciousness of peculiarly intimate relation to
+God. The question was, however, a sincere inquiry. It was no precocious
+rebuke of Mary's anxiety. The knowledge of himself as Son of God was only
+dawning within him, and was not yet full and clear. This is shown by his
+immediate obedience and his subjection to his parents in Nazareth through
+many years. It is safe, in the interpretation of the acts and words of
+Jesus, to banish utterly as inconceivable anything that savors of the
+theatrical. We must believe that he was always true to himself, and that
+the subjection which he rendered to Joseph and Mary sprang from a real
+sense of childhood's dependence, and was not a show of obedience for any
+edifying end however high.
+
+70. That question "Did not you know?" is the only hint we possess of
+Jesus' inner life before John's call to repentance rang through the land.
+Meanwhile the carpenter's son became himself the carpenter. Joseph seems
+to have died before the opening of Jesus' ministry. For Jesus as the
+eldest son, this death made those years far other than a time of spiritual
+retreat; responsibility for the home and the pressing duties of trade must
+have filled most of the hours of his days. This is a welcome thought to
+our healthiest sentiment, and true also to the earliest Christian feeling
+(Heb. iv. 15). John the Baptist had his training in the wilderness, but
+Jesus came from familiar intercourse with men, was welcomed in their
+homes (John ii. 2), knew their life in its homely ongoing, and was the
+friend of all sorts and conditions of men. After that visit to Jerusalem,
+a few more years may have been spent in school, for, whether from school
+instruction, or synagogue preaching, or simple daily experience, the young
+man came to know the traditions of the elders and also to know that
+observance of them is a mockery of the righteousness which God requires.
+Yet he seems to have felt so fully in harmony with God as to be conscious
+of nothing new in the fresh and vital conceptions of righteousness which
+he found in the law and prophets. We may be certain that much of his
+thought was given to Israel's hope of redemption, and that with the
+prophets of old and the singer much nearer his own day (Ps. of Sol. xvii.
+23), he longed that God, according to his promise, would raise up unto his
+people, their King, the Son of David.
+
+71. He must also have read often from that other book open before him as
+he walked upon the hills of Nazareth. The beauty of the grass and of the
+lilies was surely not a new discovery to him after he began to preach the
+coming kingdom, nor is it likely that he waited until after his baptism to
+form his habit of spending the night in prayer upon the mountain. We may
+be equally sure that he did not first learn to love men and women and long
+for their good after he received the call, "Thou art my beloved son" (Mark
+i. 11). He who in later life read hearts clearly (John ii. 25) doubtless
+gained that skill, as well as the knowledge of human sin and need, early
+in his intercourse with his friends and neighbors in Nazareth; while a
+clear conviction that God's kingdom consists in his sovereignty over
+loyal hearts must have filled much of his thought about the promised good
+which God would bring to Israel in due time. Thus we may think that in
+quietness and homely industry, in secret life with God and open love for
+men, in study of history and prophecy, in longing for the actual sway of
+God in human life, Jesus lived his life, did his work, and grew in "wisdom
+and in stature and in favor with God and man" (Luke ii. 52).
+
+
+
+
+VI
+
+John The Baptist
+
+Matt. iii. 1-17; iv. 12; xiv. 1-12; Mark i. 1-14; vi. 14-29; Luke i. 5-25,
+57-80; iii. 1-22; ix. 7-9; John i. 19-37; iii. 22-30.
+
+
+
+72. The first reappearance of Jesus in the gospel story, after the temple
+scene in his twelfth year, is on the banks of the Jordan seeking baptism
+from the new prophet. One of the silent evidences of the greatness of
+Jesus is the fact that so great a character as John the Baptist stands in
+our thought simply as accessory to his life. For that the prophet of the
+wilderness was great has been the opinion of all who have been willing to
+seek him in his retirement. One reason for the common neglect of John is
+doubtless the meagreness of information about him. But though details are
+few, the picture of him is drawn in clearest lines: a rugged son of the
+wilderness scorning the gentler things of life, threatening his people
+with coming wrath and calling to repentance while yet there was time; a
+preacher of practical righteousness heeded by publicans and harlots but
+scorned by the elders of his people; a bold and fearless spirit, yet
+subdued in the presence of another who did not strive, nor cry, nor cause
+his voice to be heard in the streets. When the people thought to find in
+John the promised Messiah, with unparalleled self-effacement he pointed
+them to his rival and rejoiced in that rival's growing success. Side by
+side they worked for a time; then the picture fails, but for a hint of a
+royal audience, with a fearless rebuke of royal disgrace and sin; a prison
+life, with its pathetic shaking of confidence in the early certainties; a
+long and forced inaction, and the question put by a wavering faith, with
+its patient and affectionate reply; then a lewd orgy, a king's oath, a
+girl's demands, a martyr's release, the disciples' lamentation and their
+report to that other who, though seeming a rival, was known to appreciate
+best the greatness of this prophet. Such is the picture in the gospels.
+
+73. John, unlike his greater successor, has a highly appreciative notice
+from Josephus: "Now some of the Jews thought that the destruction of
+Herod's army came from God, and that very justly, as a punishment for what
+he did against John, who was called the Baptist. For Herod had had him put
+to death though he was a good man, and commanded the Jews to exercise
+virtue, both as to justice towards one another, and piety towards God, and
+so to come to baptism; for baptism would be acceptable to God, if they
+made use of it not in order to expiate some sin, but for the purification
+of the body, provided that the soul was thoroughly purified beforehand by
+righteousness. Now, as many flocked to him, for they were greatly moved by
+hearing his words, Herod, fearing that the great influence, John had over
+the people might lead to some rebellion (for the people seemed likely to
+do anything he should advise), thought it far best, by putting him to
+death, to prevent any mischief he might cause, and not bring himself into
+difficulties by sparing a man who might make him repent of his leniency
+when it should be too late. Accordingly he was sent a prisoner, in
+consequence of Herod's suspicious temper, to Machaerus, the fortress
+before mentioned, and was there put to death. So the Jews had the opinion
+that the destruction of this army [by Aretas] was sent as a punishment
+upon Herod and was the mark of God's displeasure at him" (Ant. xviii. 5.
+2). This section is commonly accepted as trustworthy. Superficially
+different from the gospel record and assigning quite another cause for
+John's imprisonment and death, it correctly describes his character and
+his influence with the people, and leaves abundant room for a more
+intimately personal motive on the part of Antipas for the imprisonment of
+John. If the jealousy of Herodias was the actual reason for John's arrest,
+it is highly probable that another cause would be named to the world, and
+a likelier one than that given by Josephus could not be found.
+
+74. The first problem that offers itself in the study of this man is the
+man himself. Whence did he come? Everything about him is surprising. He
+appears as a dweller in the desert, an ascetic, holding aloof from common
+life and content with the scanty fare the wilderness could offer; yet he
+was keenly appreciative of his people's needs, and he knew their
+sins,--the particular ones that beset Pharisees, publicans, soldiers. If a
+recluse in habit, he was far from such in thought; he was therefore no
+seeker for his own soul's peace in his desert life. His dress was
+strikingly suggestive of the old prophet of judgment on national
+infidelity (I. Kings xvii. 1; II. Kings i, 8), the Elijah whom John would
+not claim to be. His message was commanding, with its double word "Repent"
+and "The kingdom is near." His idea of the kingdom was definite, though
+not at all developed; it signified to him God's dominion, inaugurated by a
+divine judgment which should mean good for the penitent and utter
+destruction for the ungodly; hence the prophet's call to repentance. His
+ministry was one of grace, but the time was drawing near when the Greater
+One would appear to complete by a swift judgment the work which his
+forerunner was beginning. That Greater One would hew down the fruitless
+tree, winnow the wheat from the chaff on the threshing floor, baptize the
+penitent with divine power, and the wicked with the fire of judgment,
+since his was to be a ministry of judgment, not of grace.
+
+75. Whence, then, came this strange prophet? Near the desert region where
+he spent his youth and where he first proclaimed his message of repentance
+and judgment was the chief settlement of that strange company of Jews
+known as Essenes. It has long been customary to think that during his
+early years John was associated with these fellow-dwellers in the desert,
+if he did not actually join the order. He certainly may have learned from
+them many things. Their sympathy with his ascetic life and with his
+thorough moral earnestness would make them attractive to him, but he was
+far too original a man to get from them more than some suggestions to be
+worked out in his own fashion. The simplicity of his teaching of
+repentance and the disregard of ceremonial in his preaching separate him
+from these monks. John may have known his desert companions, may have
+appreciated some things in their discipline, but he remained independent
+of their guidance.
+
+76. The leaders of religious life and thought in his day were
+unquestionably the Pharisees. The controlling idea with them, and
+consequently with the people, was the sanctity of God's law. They were
+conscious of the sinfulness of the people, and their demand for repentance
+was constant. It is a rabbinic commonplace that the delay of the Messiah's
+coming is due to lack of repentance in Israel. But near as this conception
+is to John's, we need but to recall his words to the Pharisees (Matt. iii.
+7) to realize how clearly he saw through the hollowness of their religious
+pretence. With the quibbles of the scribes concerning small and great
+commandments, Sabbaths and hand-washings, John shows no affinity. He may
+have learned some things from these "sitters in Moses' seat," but he was
+not of them.
+
+77. John's message announced the near approach of the kingdom of God. It
+is probable that many of those who sought his baptism were ardent
+nationalists,--eager to take a hand in realizing that consummation.
+Josephus indicates that it was Herod's fear lest John should lead these
+Zealots to revolt that furnished the ostensible cause of his death. But
+similar as were the interests of John and these nationalists, the distance
+between them was great. The prophet's replies to the publicans and to the
+soldiers, which contain not a word of rebuke for the hated callings (Luke
+iii. 13, 14), show how fundamentally he differed from the Zealots.
+
+78. But there was another branch of the Pharisees than that which quibbled
+over Sabbath laws, traditions, and tithes, or that which itched to grasp
+the sword; they were men who saw visions and dreamed dreams like those of
+Daniel and the Revelation, and in their visions saw God bringing
+deliverance to his people by swift and sudden judgment. There are some
+marked likenesses between this type of thought and that of John,--the
+impending judgment, the word of warning, the coming blessing, were all in
+John; but one need only compare John's words with such an apocalypse as
+the Assumption of Moses, probably written in Palestine during John's life
+in the desert, to discover that the two messages do not move in the same
+circle of thought at all; there is something practical, something severely
+heart-searching, something at home in every-day life, about John's
+announcement of the coming kingdom that is quite absent from the visions
+of his contemporaries. John had not, like some of these seers, a coddling
+sympathy for people steeped in sin. He traced their troubles to their own
+doors, and would not let ceremonies pass in place of "fruits meet for
+repentance." He came from the desert with rebuke and warning on his lips;
+with no word against the hated Romans, but many against hypocritical
+claimants to the privileges of Abraham; no apology for his message nor
+artificial device of dream or ancient name to secure a hearing, but the
+old-fashioned prophetic method of declaration of truth "whether men will
+hear or whether they will forbear." "All was sharp and cutting, imperious
+earnestness about final questions, unsparing overthrow of all fictitious
+shams in individual as in national life. There are no theories of the law,
+no new good works, no belief in the old, but simply and solely a prophetic
+clutch at men's consciences, a mighty accusation, a crushing summons to
+contrite repentance and speedy sanctification" (KeimJN. II. 228). We look
+in vain for a parallel in any of John's contemporaries, except in that one
+before whom he bowed, saying, "I have need to be baptized of thee."
+
+79. John had, however, predecessors whose work he revived. In Isaiah's
+words, "Wash you, make you clean" (Isa. i 16), one recognizes the type
+which reappeared in John. The great prophetic conception of the Day of the
+Lord--the day of wrath and salvation (Joel ii. 1-14)--is revived in John,
+free from all the fantastic accompaniments which his contemporaries loved.
+The invitations to repentance and new fidelity which abound in Isaiah,
+Ezekiel, Hosea, and Joel; the summons to simple righteousness, which rang
+from the lips of Micah (vi. 8), and of the great prophet of the exile
+(Isa. lviii.), these tell us where John went to school and how well he
+learned his lesson. It is hard for us to realize how great a novelty such
+simplicity was in John's day, or how much originality it required to
+attain to this discipleship of the prophets. From the time when the
+curtain rises on the later history of Israel in the days of the Maccabean
+struggle to the coming of that "voice crying in the wilderness," Israel
+had listened in vain for a prophet who could speak God's will with
+authority. The last thing that people expected when John came was such a
+simple message. He was not the creature of his time, but a revival of the
+older type; yet, as in the days of Elijah God had kept him seven thousand
+in Israel that had not bowed the knee to Baal, so, in the later time, not
+all were bereft of living faith. These devout souls furnished the soil
+which could produce a life like John's, gifted and chosen by God to
+restore and advance the older and more genuine religion.
+
+80. If John was thus a revival of the older prophetic order, a second
+question arises: Whence came his baptism, and what did it signify? The
+gospels describe it as a "baptism of repentance for the remission of sins"
+(Mark i. 4). John's declaration that his greater successor should baptize
+with the Holy Spirit and fire (Matt. iii. 11) shows that he viewed his
+baptism as a symbol, rather than as a means, of remission of sin. But it
+was more than a sign of repentance, it was a confession of loyalty to the
+kingdom which John's successor was to establish. It had thus a twofold
+significance: (_a_) confession of and turning from the old life of sin,
+and (_b_) consecration to the coming kingdom. Whence, then, came this
+ordinance? Not from the Essenes, for, unlike John's baptism, the bath
+required by these Jewish ascetics was an oft-repeated act. Further, John's
+rite had a far deeper religious significance than the Essene washings.
+These performed their ablutions to secure ritual cleanness as exemplary
+disciples of the Mosaic ideal. The searching of heart which preceded
+John's baptism, and the radical change of life it demanded, seem foreign
+to Essenism. The baptism of John, considered as a ceremony of consecration
+for the coming kingdom, was parallel rather to the initiatory oaths of the
+Essene brotherhood than to their ablutions. Their custom may have served
+to suggest to John a different application of the familiar sacred use of
+the bath; indeed John could hardly have been uninfluenced by the usage of
+his contemporaries; yet in this, as in his thought, he was not a product
+of their school.
+
+81. John's baptism was equally independent of the pharisaic influence. The
+scribes made much of "divers washings," but not with any such significance
+as would furnish to John his baptism of repentance and of radical change
+of life. That he was not following a pharisaic leading appears in the
+question put to him by the Pharisees, "Why, then, baptizest thou?" (John
+i. 25). They saw something unique in the ceremony as he conducted it.
+
+82. Many have held that he derived his baptism from the method of
+admitting proselytes into the Jewish fellowship. It is clear, at least,
+that the later ritual prescribed a ceremonial bath as well as circumcision
+and sacrifice for all who came into Judaism from the Gentiles, and it is
+difficult to conceive of a time when a ceremonial bath would not seem
+indispensable, since Jews regarded all Gentile life as defiling. While
+such an origin for John's baptism would give peculiar force to his rebuke
+of Jewish confidence in the merits of Abraham (Matt. iii. 9), it is more
+likely, as Keim has shown (JN. II. 243 and note), that in this as in his
+other thought John learned of his predecessors rather than his
+contemporaries. Before the giving of the older covenant from Sinai, it is
+said that Moses was required "to sanctify the people and bid them wash
+their garments" (Ex. xix. 10). John was proclaiming the establishment of a
+new covenant, as the prophets had promised. That the people should prepare
+for this by a similar bath of sanctification seems most natural. John
+appeared with a revival of the older and simpler religious ideas of
+Israel's past, deriving his rite as well as his thought from the springs
+of his people's religious life.
+
+83. This revival of the prophetic past had nothing scholastic or
+antiquarian about it. John was a disciple, not an imitator, of the great
+men of Israel; his message was not learned from Isaiah or any other,
+though he was educated by studying them. What he declared, he declared as
+truth immediately seen by his own soul, the essence of his power being a
+revival, not in letter but in spirit, of the old, direct cry, "Thus saith
+the Lord." Inasmuch as John's day was otherwise hopelessly in bondage to
+tradition and the study of the letter, by so much is his greatness
+enhanced in bringing again God's direct message to the human conscience.
+John's greatness was that of a pioneer. The Friend of publicans and
+sinners also spoke a simple speech to human hearts; he built on and
+advanced from the old prophets, but it was John who was appointed to
+prepare the people for the new life, "to make ready the way of the Lord"
+(Mark i. 3). The clearness of his perception of truth is not the least of
+his claims to greatness. His knowledge of the simplicity of God's
+requirements in contrast with the hopeless maze of pharisaic traditions,
+and his insight into the characters with whom he had to deal, whether the
+sinless Jesus or the hypocritical Pharisees, show a man marvellously
+gifted by God who made good use of his gift. This greatness appears in
+superlative degree in the self-effacement of him who possessed these
+powers. Greatness always knows itself more or less fully. It was not
+self-ignorance that led John to claim to be but a voice, nor was it mock
+humility. The confession of his unworthiness in comparison with the
+mightier one who should follow is unmistakably sincere, as is the
+completed joy of this friend of the bridegroom rejoicing greatly because
+of the bridegroom's voice, even when the bridegroom's presence meant the
+recedence of the friend into ever deepening obscurity (John iii. 30).
+
+84. But John had marked limitations. He knew well the righteousness of
+God; he knew, and, in effect, proclaimed God's readiness to forgive them
+that would turn from their wicked ways; he knew the simplicity as well as
+the exceeding breadth of the divine commandment; but beyond one flash of
+insight (John i. 29-36), which did not avail to remould his thought, he
+did not know the yearning love of God which seeks to save. It is not
+strange that he did not. Some of the prophets had more knowledge of it
+than he, his own favorite Isaiah knew more of it than he, but it was not
+the thought of John's day. The wonder is that the Baptist so far freed
+himself from current thought; yet he did not belong to the new order. He
+thundered as from Sinai. The simplest child that has learned from the
+heart its "Our Father" has reached a higher knowledge and entered a higher
+privilege (Matt. xi. 11). John's self-effacement, wonderful as it was,
+fell short of discipleship to his greater successor; in fact, at a much
+later time there was still a circle of disciples of the Baptist who kept
+themselves separate from the church (Acts xix. 1-7). He was doubtless too
+strenuous a man readily to become a follower. He could yield his place
+with unapproachable grace, but he remained the prophet of the wilderness
+still. He seemed to belong consciously to the old order, and, by the very
+circumstances ordained of God who sent him, he could not be of those who,
+sitting at Jesus' feet, learned to surrender to him their preconceptions
+and hopes, and in heart, if not in word, to say, "To whom shall we go,
+thou hast the words of eternal life?" (John vi. 68).
+
+
+
+
+VII
+
+The Messianic Call
+
+Matt. iii. 13 TO iv. 11; Mark i. 9-13; Luke iii. 21, 22; iv. 1-13; John i.
+30-34
+
+
+
+85. In the circle about John all classes of the people were represented:
+Pharisees and Sadducees, jealous of innovation and apprehensive of popular
+excitement; publicans and soldiers, interested in the new preacher or
+touched in conscience; outcasts who came in penitence, and devout souls in
+consecration. The wonder of the new message was carried throughout the
+land and brought great multitudes to the Jordan. Jesus in Nazareth heard
+it, and recognized in John a revival of the long-silent prophetic voice.
+The summons appealed to his loyalty to God's truth, and after the
+multitudes had been baptized (Luke iii. 21) he too sought the prophet of
+the wilderness.
+
+86. The connection which Luke mentions (i. 36) between the families of
+Jesus and John had not led to any intimacy between the two young men. John
+certainly did not know of his kinsman's mission (John i. 31), nor was his
+conception of the Messiah such that he would look for its fulfilment in
+one like Jesus (Matt. iii. 10-12). One thing, however, was clear as soon
+as they met,--John recognized in Jesus one holier than himself (Matt. iii.
+14). With a prophet's spiritual insight he read the character of Jesus
+at a glance, and although that character did not prove him to be the
+Messiah, it prepared John for the revelation which was soon to follow.
+
+87. The reply of Jesus to the unwillingness of John to give him baptism
+(Matt. iii. 15) was an expression of firm purpose to do God's will; the
+absence of any confession of sin is therefore all the more noticeable. In
+all generations the holiest men have been those most conscious of
+imperfection, and in John's message and baptism confession and repentance
+were primary demands; yet Jesus felt no need for repentance, and asked for
+baptism with no word of confession. But for the fact that the total
+impression of his life begat in his disciples the conviction that "he did
+no sin" (I. Pet. ii. 22; compare John viii. 46; II. Cor. v. 21), this
+silence of Jesus would offend the religious sense. Jesus, however, had no
+air of self-sufficiency, he came to make surrender and "to fulfil
+all-righteousness" (Matt. iii. 15). It was the positive aspect of John's
+baptism that drew him to the Jordan. John was preaching the coming of
+God's kingdom. The place held by the doctrine of that kingdom in the later
+teaching of Jesus makes it all but certain that his thought had been
+filled with it for many years. In his reading of the prophets Jesus
+undoubtedly emphasized the spiritual phases of their promises, but it is
+not likely that he had done much criticising of the ideas held by his
+contemporaries before he came to John. As already remarked he seems to
+have been quicker to discover his affinity with the older truth than to be
+conscious of the novelty of his own ways of apprehending it (Matt. v. 17).
+When, then, Jesus heard John's call for consecration to the approaching
+kingdom he recognized the voice of duty, and he sought the baptism that he
+might do all that he could to "make ready the way of the Lord."
+
+88. This act of consecration on Jesus' part was one of personal obedience.
+There were no crowds present (Luke iii. 21), and his thoughts were full of
+prayer. It was an experience which concerned his innermost life with God,
+and it called him to communion with heaven like that in which he sought
+for wisdom before choosing his apostles (Luke vi. 12), and for strength in
+view of his approaching death (Luke ix. 28, 29). His outward declaration
+of loyalty to the coming kingdom was thus not an act of righteousness "to
+be seen of men," but one of personal devotion to him who is and who sees
+in secret (Matt. vi. 1, 6). As the transfiguration followed the prayer on
+Hermon, so this initial consecration was answered from heaven. A part of
+the answer was evident to John, for he saw a visible token of the gift of
+the divine Spirit which was granted to Jesus for the conduct of the work
+he had to do, and he recognized in Jesus the greater successor for whom he
+was simply making preparation (Mark i. 10; John i. 32-34). To Jesus there
+came also with the gift of the Spirit a definite word from heaven, "Thou
+art my beloved Son, in thee I am well pleased" (Mark i. 11). The language
+in Mark and Luke, and the silence of the Baptist concerning the voice from
+heaven (John i. 32-34), indicate that the word came to Jesus alone, and
+was his summons to undertake the work of setting up that kingdom to which
+he had just pledged his loyalty. The expression "My beloved Son" had clear
+Messianic significance for Jesus' contemporaries (comp. Mark xiv. 62),
+and the message can have signified for him nothing less than a Messianic
+call. It implied more than that child-relation to God which was the
+fundamental fact in his religious life from the beginning: it had an
+official meaning.
+
+89. For Jesus the sense of being God's child was normally human, and in
+his ministry he invited all men to a similar consciousness of sonship. Yet
+his early years must have brought to him a realization that he was
+different from his fellows. That in him which made a confession at the
+baptism unnatural and which led to John's word, "I have need to be
+baptized by thee," was ready to echo assent when God said, "Thou art my
+Son." He accepted the call and the new office and mission which it
+implied, and he must have recognized that it was for this moment that all
+the past of his life had been making preparation.
+
+90. The gift of the Spirit to Jesus, which furnished to John the proof
+that the Greater One had appeared, was not an arbitrary sign. The old
+prophetic thought (Isa. xi. 2; xlii. 1; lxi. 1) as well as a later popular
+expectation (Ps. of Sol. xvii. 42) provided for such an anointing of the
+Messiah; and in the actual conduct of his life Jesus was constantly under
+the leading of this Spirit (see Matt. xii. 28 and John iii. 34). The
+temptation which followed the baptism, and in which he faced the
+difficulties in his new task, was the first result of the Spirit's
+control. Its later influence is not so clearly marked in the gospels, but
+they imply that as the older servants of God were guided and strengthened
+by him, so his Son also was aided,--with this difference, however, that he
+possessed completely the heavenly gift (John iii. 34). Jesus' uniform
+confession of dependence on God confirms this teaching of the gift of the
+divine Spirit; and his uniform consciousness of complete power and
+authority confirms the testimony that he had the Spirit "without measure."
+
+91. The temptation to which the Spirit "drove" Jesus after his baptism
+gives proof that the call to assume the Messianic office came to him
+unexpectedly; for the three temptations with which his long struggle ended
+were echoes of the voice which he had heard at the Jordan, and subtle
+insinuations of doubt of its meaning. Some withdrawal to contemplate the
+significance of his appointment to a Messianic work was a mental and
+spiritual necessity. As has often been said, if the gospels had not
+recorded the temptation, we should have had to assume one. Jesus being the
+man he was, could not have thought that his call was a summons to an
+entire change in his ideals and his thoughts about God and duty. Yet he
+must have been conscious of the wide differences between his conceptions
+of God's kingdom and the popular expectation. Those differences, by the
+measure of the definiteness of the popular thought and the ardor of the
+popular hope, were the proof of the difficulty of his task. The call meant
+that the Messiah could be such as he was; it meant that the kingdom could
+be and must be a dominion of God primarily in the hearts of men and
+consequently in their world; it meant that his work must be religious
+rather than political, and gracious rather than judicial. These essentials
+of the work which he could do contradicted at nearly every point the
+expectations of his people. How could he succeed in the face of such
+opposition? His long meditation during forty days doubtless showed him the
+difficulty of his task in all its baldness, yet it did not shake his
+certainty that the call had come to him from God, nor his faith that what
+God had called him to do he could accomplish.
+
+92. The gospels show no hesitation in calling the experience of these days
+a temptation, nor had the Christian feeling of the first century any
+difficulty in thinking of its Lord as actually suffering temptation (Heb.
+ii. 18; iv. 15). A temptation to be real cannot be hypothetical; evil must
+actually present itself as attractive to the tempted soul. A suggestion of
+evil that takes no hold concretely of the heart is no temptation, nor is
+the resistance of it any victory. The sinlessness of him who sought
+baptism with no confession on his lips nor sense of penitence in his heart
+offers no barrier to his experience of genuine temptation, unless we think
+him incapable of sin, and therefore not "like unto his brethren." Not only
+do the gospels repeatedly refer to his temptations (Luke iv. 13; Mark
+viii. 31-33; Luke xxii. 28; compare Heb. v. 7-9), but they also depict
+clearly the reality of these initial testings. The account as given in
+Matthew and Luke represents the experience with which the forty days'
+struggle culminated. The absorption of Jesus' mind had been so complete
+that he had neglected the needs of his body, and when he turned to think
+of earthly things he was pressed by hunger. A popular notion at a later
+time, and probably also in Jesus' day, was that the Messiah would be able
+to feed his people as Moses had given them manna in the wilderness (John
+vi. 30-32; see EdersLJM. I. 176). He had just been endowed with the
+divine Spirit for the work before him; it was therefore no fantastic idea
+when the suggestion came that he should use his power to supply his own
+needs in the desert. Nor was the temptation without attractiveness; his
+own physical nature urged its need, and Jesus was no ascetic who found
+discomfort a way of holiness. The evil in the suggestion was that it asked
+him to use his newly given powers for the supply of his own needs, as if
+doubting that God would care for him as for any other of his children.
+There was more than distrust of God suggested; the temptation came with a
+hint of another doubt,--"_If_ thou art God's Son." A miracle would prove
+to himself his appointment and his power. The suggested doubt of his call
+he passed unnoticed; distrust of God he repudiated instantly, falling back
+on his faith in the God he had served these many years (Deut. viii. 3).
+His victory is remarkable because his spirit conquered unhesitatingly
+after a long ecstasy which would naturally have induced a reaction and a
+surrender for the moment to the demand of lower needs.
+
+93. This firmness of trust opened the way for another evil suggestion. In
+the work before him as God's Anointed many difficulties were on either
+side and across his path. He knew his people, their prejudices, and their
+hardness of heart; and he knew how far he was from their ideal of a
+Messiah. He knew also the watchful jealousy of Rome. Others before him,
+like Judas of Galilee, had tried the Messianic rôle and had failed. He,
+however, was confident of his divine call: should he not, therefore, press
+forward with his work, heedless of all danger and regardless of the
+dictates of prudence,--as heedless as if, trusting God's promised care,
+he should cast himself down from a pinnacle of the temple to the rocks in
+Kidron below? A fanatic would have yielded to such a temptation. Many
+another than Jesus did so,--Theudas (Acts v. 36), the Egyptian (Acts xxi.
+38); and Bar Cochba (Dio Cassius, lxix. 12-14; Euseb. Ch. Hist. iv. 6).
+Jesus, however, showed his perfect mental health, repudiating the
+temptation by declaring that while man may trust God's care, he must not
+presumptuously put it to the test (Matt. iv. 7). The after life of Jesus
+was a clear commentary on this reply. He constantly sought to avoid
+situations which would compromise his mission or cut short his work (see
+John vi. 15), and when at the end he suffered the death prepared for him
+by his people's hatred, it was because his hour had come and he could say,
+"I lay down my life of myself" (John x. 18). His marvellous control of
+enthusiasm and his self-mastery in all circumstances separate Jesus from
+all ecstatics and fanatics. Yet presumption must have seemed the easier
+course, and could readily wear the mask of trust. He was tempted, yet
+without sin.
+
+94. As the refusal to doubt led to the temptation to presume, so the
+determination to be prudent opened the way for a third assault upon his
+perfect loyalty to God. The world he was to seek to save was swayed by
+passions; his own people were longing for a Messiah, but they must have
+their kind of a Messiah. If he would acknowledge this actual supremacy of
+evil and self-will in the world, the opposition of passion and prejudice
+might be avoided. If he would own the evil inevitable for the time, and
+accommodate his work to it, he might then be free to lead men to higher
+and more spiritual views of God's kingdom. His knowledge of his people's
+grossness of heart and materialism of hope made a real temptation of the
+suggestion that he should not openly oppose but should accommodate himself
+to them. Jesus did not underestimate the opposition of "the kingdoms of
+the world," but he truly estimated God's intolerance of any rivalry (Matt.
+iv. 10), and he was true to God and to his own soul. Again, in this as in
+the preceding temptations, Jesus conquered the evil suggestions by
+appropriating to himself truth spoken by God's servants to Israel. Tempted
+in all points like his brethren, he resisted as any one of them could have
+resisted, and won a victory possible, ideally considered, to any other of
+the children of men.
+
+95. It is not idle curiosity which inquires whence the evangelists got
+this story of the temptation of Jesus. Even if the whole transaction took
+place on the plane of outer sensuous life, and Jesus was bodily carried to
+Jerusalem and to the mountain-top, there is no probability that any
+witnesses were at hand who could tell the tale. But the fact that in any
+case the vision of the kingdoms of the world in a moment of time (Luke iv.
+5) could have been spiritual only, since no mountain, however high (Matt.
+iv. 8), could give, physically, that wide sweep of view, suggests that the
+whole account tells in pictorial language an intensely real, inner
+experience of Jesus. This in no respect reduces the truthfulness of the
+narratives. Temptation never becomes temptation till it passes to that
+inner scene of action and debate. Since Jesus shows in all his teaching a
+natural use of parabolic language to set forth spiritual truth, the
+inference is almost inevitable that the gospels have in like manner
+adopted the language of vivid picture as alone adequate to depict the
+essential reality of his inner struggle. In any case the narrative could
+have come from no other source than himself. How he came to tell it we do
+not know. On one of the days of private converse with his disciples after
+the confession at Cæsarea Philippi he may have given them this account of
+his own experience, in order to help his loyal Galileans to understand
+more fully his work and the way of it, and to prepare them for that
+disappointment of their expectations which they were so slow to
+acknowledge as possible.
+
+96. From this struggle in the wilderness Jesus came forth with the clear
+conviction that he was God's Anointed, and in all his after life no
+hesitation appeared. The kingdom which he undertook to establish was that
+dominion of simple righteousness which he had learned to know and love in
+the years of quiet life in Nazareth. He set out to do his work fearlessly,
+but prudently, seeking to win men in his Father's way to acknowledge that
+Father's sovereignty. There is no evidence that, beyond such firm
+conviction and purpose, he had any fixed plan for the work he was to do,
+nor that he saw clearly as yet how his earthly career would end. The third
+temptation, however, shows that he was not unprepared for seeming defeat.
+The struggle had been long and serious,--for the three temptations of the
+end are doubtless typical of the whole of the forty days,--and the victory
+was great and final. With the light of victory as well as the marks of
+warfare on his face, he took his way back towards Galilee.
+
+
+
+
+VIII
+
+The First Disciples
+
+John i. 19 TO ii. 12
+
+
+
+97. After the withdrawal of Jesus into the wilderness, John the Baptist
+continued his ministry of preaching and baptizing, moving northward up the
+Jordan valley to Bethany, on the eastern side of the river, near one of
+the fords below the Sea of Galilee (John i. 28). Here Galilee, doubtless,
+contributed more to his audience than Judea. It is certain that some from
+the borders of the lake were at this time among his constant attendants:
+Andrew and Simon of Bethsaida, John the son of Zebedee, and perhaps his
+brother James, probably also Philip of Bethsaida and Nathanael of Cana
+(John i. 40, 41, 43-45; compare xxi. 2).
+
+98. The leaders in Jerusalem, becoming apprehensive whither this work
+would lead, sent an embassy to question John. They chose for this mission
+priests and Levites of pharisaic leaning as most influential among the
+people. The impression John and his message were making on the popular
+mind is seen in the questions put to him, "Art thou the Messiah?"
+"Elijah?" "The prophet?" (see Deut. xviii. 15), and in the challenge,
+"Why, then, baptizest thou?" when John disclaimed the right to any of
+these names. John's reply is the echo of his earlier proclamation of the
+one mightier than he who should baptize with the Spirit (Mark i. 7, 8),
+only now he added that this one was present among them (John i. 26, 27).
+
+99. This interview occurred several weeks after Jesus' baptism, for upon
+the next day John saw Jesus (John i. 29), now returned from the
+temptation, and pointed him out to a group of disciples. Something in
+Jesus' face or in his bearing, as he came from his temptation, must have
+impressed John even more than at their first meeting; for he was led to
+think of a prophetic word for the most part ignored by the Messianic
+thought of his day, "He was brought as a lamb to the slaughter" (Isa.
+liii. 7). As he looked on Jesus the mysterious oracle was illuminated for
+him, and he cried, "Behold the lamb of God which taketh away the sin of
+the world." Once again on the next day the same thought rushed to his lips
+when, with two disciples, he saw Jesus passing by (John i. 35, 36). Then
+as Jesus left John's neighborhood and took up again the round of ordinary
+life, John seems to have reverted to his more ordinary Messianic thought,
+his momentary insight into highest truth standing as a thing apart in his
+life. Such a moment's insight, caused by extraordinary circumstances, no
+more requires that John should retain the high thought constantly than
+does Peter's confession of Christ at Cæsarea Philippi exclude his later
+rebuke of his Lord (Mark viii. 32, 33), or his denials (Mark xiv. 66-72).
+
+100. The disciples who heard these testimonies from John understood them
+to be Messianic (John i. 30-34), though their later consternation, when
+the cross seemed to shatter their hopes (John xx. 9, 10, 24, 25), shows
+that they did not comprehend their deeper meaning. Two of these disciples
+at once attached themselves to Jesus, and one of them, Andrew of
+Bethsaida, was so impressed by the new master that, having sought out his
+brother Simon, he declared that they had found the Messiah. The other of
+these earliest followers was John the son of Zebedee, and it is possible
+that he also found his brother and introduced James from the very first
+into the circle of the disciples. Jesus was about to take his departure
+for Galilee, and on the next day, as he was leaving, added Philip of
+Bethsaida to the little company of followers. Philip, impressed as Andrew
+had been, brought Nathanael of Cana to Jesus. The undefined something
+about Jesus which drew noble hearts irresistibly to himself, and his
+marvellous knowledge of this new comer, produced the same effect in
+Nathanael, as was seen earlier in Andrew and Philip, and he acknowledged
+the new master as "Son of God, King of Israel" (John i. 49).
+
+101. These early confessions in the fourth gospel present a difficulty in
+view of Jesus' warm approval of Peter's acknowledgment of him at Cæsarea
+Philippi (Matt. xvi. 13-20). Jesus saw in that confession a distinct
+advance in the disciples' thought and faith. Yet the religious feeling
+which early questioned whether the Baptist even were not the Messiah (Luke
+iii. 15) would almost certainly have concluded that John's greater
+successor must be God's anointed. The very fact that men's thoughts about
+the Messiah were varied and complex made them ready for some modifications
+of their preconceptions. One with such subtle personal power as Jesus had
+exercised was almost sure to be hailed by some with enthusiasm as the
+looked-for representative of God. In fact, it is probable that at any
+time in the early days of his ministry Jesus could have been proclaimed
+Messiah, provided he had accepted the people's terms. Such a confession
+would have been merely the outcome of enthusiasm. The people, even the
+disciples, did not know Jesus. They all had high hopes and somewhat fixed
+ideas about the Messiah, nearly every one of which was destined to rude
+shock. How little they knew him Jesus realized (John i. 51), and his
+self-mastery is manifest in his attitude to this early enthusiasm. He was
+no visionary; he had a great work to do and a long lesson to teach, and he
+was patient enough to teach it little by little. He did not rebuke the
+ill-informed faith of a Nathanael, but sought gradually to supplant the
+old thought of the Messiah and of the kingdom by new truth, and to bind
+men's affections to himself for his own sake and the truth's sake, not
+simply for the idea which he impersonated to them.
+
+102. The visit to Cana seems to have found a place in the fourth gospel,
+because there the new disciples discovered in their master miraculous
+powers which were to them a sign that he was in truth God's anointed. It
+is probable that at the time of this miracle the disciples thought only of
+the power and the marvel, yet the sharp contrast between John's ascetic
+habit and Jesus' use of his divine resources to relieve embarrassment at a
+wedding feast must have impressed every man among them. Their minds,
+however, were as yet too full of Messianic hopes to leave much room for
+reflection. They were content to have a sign, for in the view of Jesus'
+contemporaries signs were essential marks of the Messiah (John vi. 30;
+vii. 31; Mark viii. 11). They did their reflecting later (John ii. 22).
+
+103. Miracles are as great a stumbling-block to modern thought as they
+were a help to the contemporaries of Jesus. The study of Jesus' life
+cannot ignore this fact, nor make little of it. It is fair to insist,
+however, that the question is one of evidence, not of metaphysical
+possibility. Men are wisely slow to-day to claim that they can tell what
+are the limits of the possible. If the question is one of evidence, it is
+in an important sense true that the evidence for miracle in the life of
+Jesus is appreciable only when that life is viewed in its completeness.
+The miracles attributed to Jesus may be studied, however, for the
+disclosure which they give of his character, and of his relation to common
+human need. So it is with this first sign at Cana. Jesus had just heard
+the call to be Messiah, and in his lonely struggle in the wilderness had
+given a loyal answer to that call, and had set out to do his Father's
+business in his Father's way. He who by the Jordan still carried the marks
+of struggle, so that the Baptist saw in him the suffering Saviour of
+Isaiah liii., now returned to the ordinary daily life in Galilee, and as a
+guest at a wedding feast he commenced that ministry of simple human
+friendliness (Matt. xi. 19; compare Mark ii. 15-17; Luke xv. 1, 2), which
+set him in sharp contrast alike with John's asceticism and with the
+ritualism and pedantry of the Pharisees.
+
+104. His human friendliness is all the more worthy of note, inasmuch as on
+his return to Cana Jesus did not take up again the old relations of life
+as they existed before his baptism. This is clear from his reply to his
+mother when she reported the scarcity of wine (John ii. 3-5). While it is
+true that the title by which Jesus addressed Mary was neither
+disrespectful nor unkind (John xix. 26), the reply itself was a warning
+that now he was no longer hers in the old sense. A new mission had been
+given him, which henceforth would determine all his conduct, and in that
+mission she could not now share. Here is one of the many indications
+(compare Mark iii. 21, 31-35; Luke ii. 48) that Mary did not understand
+her son nor his work until much later (John xix. 25; Acts i. 14). That
+with such a clear sense of his new and serious mission Jesus' first
+official act was one of kindly relief for social embarrassment is most
+significant. He chose to show his divine authority to his new disciples in
+a way that brought joy to a festal company. Little as the disciples were
+likely to appreciate it at the time, it was beautifully indicative of the
+simplicity and everyday lovableness of Jesus' idea of the earnest service
+of God.
+
+105. With the disciples thus strengthened in faith, and the mother not
+separated from him though unable to know his deepest thoughts, and the
+brethren who could not yet nor later understand their kinsman and his
+work, Jesus went down to Capernaum (John ii. 12), which proved thenceforth
+to be the centre of his greatest work and teaching. There for a time, how
+long cannot be known, he continued in quiet fellowship with his new
+friends, until the approach of the Passover drew him to Jerusalem to make
+formal opening of his Messianic work in that centre of his people's
+religious life.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Part II
+
+The Ministry
+
+
+
+
+I
+
+General Survey of the Ministry
+
+
+
+106. The attempt to arrange an orderly account of the way in which Jesus
+set about the work to which he was called at his baptism is met at the
+outset by a problem. The vivid and familiar words of Mark (i. 14),
+seconded by the representation in both Matthew (iv. 12) and Luke (iv. 14),
+indicate the imprisonment of John as the occasion, and Galilee as the
+scene of the inauguration of Jesus' public ministry. The fourth gospel, on
+the other hand, tells of a work of Jesus and his disciples in Judea prior
+to the imprisonment of John (in. 24), and makes this work follow at some
+interval after the inauguration of the Messianic ministry in Jerusalem.
+The minuteness of detail of time and place in the early chapters of John
+(i. 19 to iv. 43), together with the vividness of their narrative, give
+them strong claim to credence. They thus record a ministry earlier than
+that narrated in the other gospels, proving that the actual inauguration
+of Jesus' work occurred in Jerusalem at a Passover season previous to the
+imprisonment of John. This is known as the Early Judean Ministry.
+
+107. The fact that Peter was wont to tell the story of Jesus' life in such
+a way as to lead Mark to set the opening of the ministry after the close
+of John's activity, indicates that that beginning of work in Galilee
+seemed to the disciples to be in a way the actual inauguration of Jesus'
+constructive and successful work. Peter cannot have been ignorant of the
+labors in Judea, though he may not himself have accompanied Jesus to the
+Passover. A new stage in the life of Jesus began, therefore, with his
+withdrawal to Galilee.
+
+108. The story of the Galilean ministry is given chiefly by the first
+three gospels, John contributing but two incidents to the period covered
+by that ministry,--a second miracle at Cana (iv. 46-54), and a visit to
+Judea (v. 1-47),--and relating more fully the story of the feeding of the
+multitudes (vi. 1-71). The journey from Judea through Samaria (John iv.
+1-45) should be identified with the removal to Galilee which stands at the
+beginning of Mark's record (i. 14; Matt. iv. 12; Luke iv. 14). Mark's
+account of the Galilean activity of Jesus (i. 14 to ix. 50) is one of such
+simple and steady progress that the whole period must be considered as a
+unit.
+
+109. In the use which Matthew (iv. 12 to xviii. 35) and Luke (iv. 14 to
+ix. 50) make of Mark's record this unity is emphasized. Their treatment of
+the matter which they add, however, makes it best to study the period
+topically rather than attempt to follow closely a chronological sequence.
+As it is probable that the early writing ascribed by Papias to the apostle
+Matthew failed to preserve in many cases any record of the time and place
+of the teachings of Jesus, so is it certain that the first and third
+evangelists have distributed quite differently the material which they
+seem to have derived from that apostolic document. Mention need only be
+made of the exhortation against anxiety which Matthew places in the
+sermon on the mount (vi. 19-34), and which Luke has given after the close
+of the Galilean activity (xii. 22-34). It is possible to form some
+judgment of the general relations of such discourses from the character of
+their contents, but in the absence of positive statement by the
+evangelists it is hopeless to seek to give them a more definite historical
+setting. A topical study can consider them as contributions to the period
+to which they belong, while a chronological study would be lost in
+uncertain conjectures. A topical study may, however, disclose the fact
+that sequence of time was identical with development of method. This is,
+in general, the case with the Galilean ministry. The new lesson which
+Jesus began to teach after the confession at Cæsarea Philippi marked the
+supreme turning point in his whole public activity. Before that crisis the
+work of Jesus was a constructive preparation for the question which called
+forth Peter's confession. Subsequently his work was that of making ready
+for the end, which from that time on he foretold. As has been stated, the
+Galilean ministry is the story of the first three gospels, except for two
+incidents and a discourse added by John. The visit to the feast of
+Tabernacles (John vii. 1 to viii. 59) stands on the border between the
+work in Galilee and that which followed. It was one of Jesus' many
+attempts to win Jerusalem, and is evidence that the author of the fourth
+gospel--either because of special interest in the capital, or because of
+superior knowledge of the work of his Master in Judea--gave emphasis to a
+side of the life of Jesus which the other gospels have neglected.
+
+110. With the close of the constructive ministry in Galilee, the account
+of Mark (x. 1; compare Matt xix. 1; Luke ix. 51) turns towards Jerusalem
+and the cross. The journey was not direct, but traversed Perea, the domain
+of Antipas beyond Jordan, and was accompanied by continued ministry of
+teaching and healing (Mark x. 1-52; Matt. xix. 1 to xx. 34). It is at this
+point that Luke has inserted the long section peculiar to his gospel (ix.
+51 to xviii. 14), becoming again parallel with Mark as Jesus drew near to
+Jerusalem (xviii. 15 to xix. 28; compare Mark x. 13-52). Much of that
+which Luke adds gives evidence that in all probability it should be placed
+before the change in method at Cæsarea Philippi, while much of it
+undoubtedly belongs to the last months of Jesus' life. Since the last
+journey to Jerusalem is reported with considerable fulness, it is natural
+in a study of Jesus' life to treat that journey by itself. At this point
+John contributes important additions to the record (ix. 1 to xi. 57)
+showing that the journey was not continuous, but was interrupted by
+several more or less hurried visits to the capital, renewed efforts of
+Jesus to win the city.
+
+111. With the final arrival in Jerusalem the four gospels come together in
+a record of the last days and the crucifixion (Mark xi. 1 to xv. 47; Matt,
+xxi 1 to xxvii. 66; Luke xix. 29 to xxiii. 56; John xi. 55 to xix. 42).
+The evangelists, in their accounts of the last week, seem to have had
+access to completer and more varied information than for any other part of
+the ministry. This causes some difficulties in constructing an ordered
+conception of the events, yet it greatly adds to the fulness of our
+knowledge. It is easier, therefore, to consider the period in three
+parts,--the final controversies in Jerusalem, the Last Supper, and the
+betrayal, trial, and crucifixion.
+
+112. In a sense the resurrection and ascension form the conclusion of the
+final visit to Jerusalem, and should be treated with the last week. In a
+larger sense, however, they form the culmination of the whole ministry,
+and therefore constitute a final stage in the study of Jesus' life. At
+this point the record of the gospels is supplemented by the first chapter
+of the Acts and by Paul's concise report of the appearances of the risen
+Christ (I. Cor. xv. 3-8). The various accounts exhibit perplexing
+independence of each other. In total impression, however, they agree, and
+show that the tragedy, by which the enemies of Jesus thought to end his
+career, was turned into signal triumph.
+
+   Outline of Events in the Early Judean Ministry
+
+
+   The first Passover of the public ministry: Cleansing of the
+   temple--John ii. 13-22.
+
+   Early results in Jerusalem: Discourse with Nicodemus--John ii. 23 to
+   iii. 15.
+
+   Withdrawal into rural parts of Judea to preach and baptize--John in.
+   22-30; iv. 1, 2.
+
+   Imprisonment of John the Baptist--Matt. iv. 12; Mark i. 14.
+
+   Withdrawal from Judea through Samaria--John iv. 1-42.
+
+   Unlooked-for welcome in Galilee--John iv. 43-45.
+
+   ? Second sign at Cana: Cure of the Nobleman's son--John iv. 46-54 (see
+   sect. A 41).
+
+   [Retirement at Nazareth, the disciples resuming their accustomed
+   calling. Inferred from Matt. iv. 13; Luke iv. 31; Matt. iv. 18-22 and
+   ∥s.]
+
+   Events marked ? should possibly be given a different place; ∥s stands
+   for "parallel accounts;" for sections marked A--as A 41--see Appendix.
+
+
+
+
+II
+
+The Early Ministry in Judea
+
+
+
+113. We owe to the fourth gospel our knowledge of the fact that Jesus
+began his general ministry in Jerusalem. The silence of the other records
+concerning this beginning cannot discredit the testimony of John. For
+these other records themselves indicate in various ways that Jesus had
+repeatedly sought to win Jerusalem before his final visit at the end of
+his life (compare Luke xiii. 34; Matt. xxiii. 37). Moreover, the fourth
+gospel is confirmed by the probability, rising almost to necessity, that
+such a mission as Jesus conceived his to be must seek first to win the
+leaders of his people. The temple at Jerusalem was the centre of worship,
+drawing all Jews sooner or later to itself--even as Jesus in early youth
+was accustomed to go thither at the time of feasts (Luke ii. 41).
+Worshippers of God throughout the world prayed with their faces towards
+Jerusalem (Dan. vi. 10). Moreover, at Jerusalem the chief of the scribes,
+as well as the chief of the priests, were to be found. Compared with
+Jerusalem all other places were provincial and of small influence. A
+Messiah, who had not from the outset given up hope of winning the capital,
+cannot have long delayed his effort to find a following there.
+
+114. Arriving at Jerusalem at the Passover season, in the early spring,
+Jesus remained in Judea until the following December (John iv. 35).
+Evidently the record which John gives of these months is most fragmentary,
+and from his own statement (xx. 30, 31) it seems highly probable that it
+is one sided, emphasizing those events and teachings in which Jesus
+disclosed more or less clearly his claim to be the Messiah. Doubtless the
+full record would show a much closer similarity between this early work in
+Judea and that later conducted in Galilee than a comparison of John with
+the other gospels would suggest; yet it is evident that Jesus opened his
+ministry in Jerusalem with an unrestrained frankness that is not found
+later in Galilee.
+
+115. It is a mistake to think of the cleansing of the temple as a distinct
+Messianic manifesto. The market in the temple was a licensed affront to
+spiritual religion. It found its excuse for being in the requirement that
+worshippers offer to the priests for sacrifice animals levitically clean
+and acceptable, and that gifts for the temple treasury be made in no coin
+other than the sacred "shekel of the sanctuary." The chief priests
+appreciated the convenience which worshippers coming from a distance would
+find if they could obtain all the means of worship within the temple
+enclosure itself. The hierarchy or its representatives seem also to have
+appreciated the opportunity to charge good prices for the accommodation so
+afforded. The result was the intrusion of the spirit of the market-place,
+with all its disputes and haggling, into the place set apart for worship.
+In fact, the only part of the temple open to Gentiles who might wish to
+worship Israel's God was filled with distraction, unseemly strife, and
+extortion (compare Mark xi. 17). Such despite done the sanctity of God's
+house must have outraged the pious sense of many a devout Israelite. There
+is no doubt of what an Isaiah or a Micah would have said and done in such
+a situation. This is exactly what Jesus did. His act was the assumption of
+a full prophetic authority. In itself considered it was nothing more. In
+his expulsion of the traders he had the conscience of the people for his
+ally. There is no need to think of any use of miraculous power. His moral
+earnestness, coupled with the underlying consciousness on the part of the
+traders themselves that they had no business in God's house, readily
+explains the confusion and departure of the intruders. Even those who
+challenged Jesus' conduct did not venture to defend the presence of the
+market in the temple. They only demanded that Jesus show his warrant for
+disturbing a condition of things authorized by the priests.
+
+116. The temple cleansing is recorded in the other gospels at the end of
+Jesus' ministry, just before the hostility of the Jews culminated in his
+condemnation and death. Inasmuch as these gospels give no account of a
+ministry by Jesus in Jerusalem before the last week of his life, it is
+easy to see how this event came to be associated by them with the only
+Jerusalem sojourn which they record. The definite place given to the event
+in John, together with the seeming necessity that Jesus should condemn
+such authorized affront to the very idea of worship, mark this cleansing
+as the inaugural act of Jesus' ministry of spiritual religion, rather than
+as a final stern rebuke closing his effort to win his people. Against the
+conclusion commonly held that Jesus cleansed the temple both at the
+opening and at the close of his course is the extreme improbability that
+the traders would have been caught twice in the same way. The event fits
+in closely with the story of the last week, because it actually led to the
+beginning of opposition in Jerusalem to the prophet from Galilee. At the
+first the opposition was doubtless of a scornful sort. Later it grew in
+bitterness when it saw how Jesus was able to arouse a popular enthusiasm
+that seemed to threaten the stability of existing conditions.
+
+117. The reply of Jesus to the challenge of his authority for his
+high-handed act shows that he offered it to the people as an invitation;
+he would lead them to a higher idea and practice of worship (compare John
+iv. 21-24). When they demanded the warrant for his act, he saw that they
+were not ready to follow him, and could not appreciate the only warrant he
+needed for his course. He cleansed the temple because they were destroying
+it as a place where men could worship God in spirit. In reply to the
+challenge, he who later taught the Samaritan woman that the worship of God
+is not dependent on any place however sacred, answered that they might
+finish their work and destroy the temple as a house of God, yet he would
+speedily re-establish a true means of approach to the Most High for the
+souls of men. He clothed his reply in a figurative dress, as he was often
+wont to do in his teaching,--"Destroy this temple, and in three days I
+will raise it up." To his unsympathetic hearers it must have been
+completely enigmatic. Even the disciples did not catch its meaning until
+after the resurrection had taught them that in their Master a new chapter
+in God's dealing with men had begun.
+
+118. The unreadiness of the Jewish leaders to receive the only kind of
+message he had to offer produced in Jesus a decided reserve. He did not
+lack a certain kind of success in Jerusalem. His cures of the sick won him
+many followers who seemed ready to believe almost anything of him. But the
+attitude taken by the leaders made it evident that Jesus must make
+disciples who should understand in some measure at least his idea of God's
+kingdom, and, understanding, must be ready to be loyal to it through good
+report and evil. For the position taken by the leaders of the people had
+an ominous significance. It could mean but one thing for
+Jesus,--unrelenting conflict. If they could not be won, they who would so
+legalize the desecration of God's house would not hesitate at any extreme
+in opposing his messenger. This possibility confronted Jesus at the very
+outset; therefore he held the popular enthusiasm in check, knowing that
+as yet it had little of that kind of faith which could endure seeming
+defeat.
+
+119. One of those who were drawn to him, however, gave Jesus opportunity
+to lay aside his reserve and speak clearly of the truth lie came to
+publish. He was a member of the Jewish sanhedrin, a rabbi apparently held
+in high regard in Jerusalem. While his associates were dismissing the
+claims of Jesus with a wave of the hand, Nicodemus sought out the new
+teacher by night, and showed his desire to learn what Jesus held to be
+truth concerning God's kingdom. Jesus first reminded the teacher of Israel
+of the old doctrine of the prophets, that Israel must find a new heart
+before God's kingdom can come (Jer. xxxi. 31-34; Ezek. xxxvi. 25-27), and
+then declared that the heavenly truth which God now would reveal to men is
+that all can have the needed new life as freely as the plague-stricken
+Israelites found relief when Moses lifted up the brazen serpent. This
+conversation serves to introduce the evangelist's interpretation of Jesus
+as the only begotten Son of God sent in love to redeem the world (John
+iii. 16-21).
+
+120. John's record suggests that Jesus left Jerusalem shortly after the
+conversation with Nicodemus. His work there was not without success, for
+Nicodemus seems to have been henceforth his loyal advocate (compare John
+vii. 50-52; xix. 39); and it may be that at the time of this sojourn he
+won the hearts of his friends in Bethany, for the first picture the
+gospels give of this household seems to presuppose a somewhat intimate
+relation of Jesus to the family (Luke x. 38-42). It would be idle to
+speculate whether it was at this time or later that he became acquainted
+with Joseph of Arimathea, or the friends who during the last week of his
+life showed him hospitality (Mark xi. 2-6; xiv. 12-16).
+
+121. For a time after his withdrawal from Jerusalem he lingered in Judea,
+carrying on a simple ministry of preparation like that of John the
+Baptist. In this way the summer and early autumn seem to have passed,
+Jesus growing more popular as a prophet than John himself had been. The
+fact that Jesus' disciples administered baptism in connection with his
+work roused the jealousy of some of John's followers, and attracted again
+the attention of Jerusalem to the new activity of the bold disturber of
+the temple market. John's disciples complained to him of Jesus' rivalry,
+and received his self-effacing confession, "He must increase, I must
+decrease." The Pharisees, on the other hand, made Jesus feel that further
+work in Judea was for the time unwise, and he withdrew into Galilee for
+retirement, since "a prophet has no honor in his own country" (John iv.
+1-3, 44). Baffled in his first effort to win his people, this journey back
+from the region of the holy city must have been one of no little sadness
+for Jesus. Some urgency for haste led him by the direct road through
+despised Samaria. A seemingly chance conversation with a woman at Jacob's
+well, where he was resting at noonday, gave him an opportunity for
+ministry which was more ingenuously received than any which he had been
+able to render in Judea; and to this woman he declared himself even more
+plainly than to Nicodemus, and preached to her that spiritual idea of
+worship which he had sought to enforce by cleansing Jerusalem's temple.
+Samaria was so isolated from all Jewish interest that Jesus felt no need
+for reserve in this "strange" land. The few days spent there must have
+been peculiarly welcome to his heart, fresh from rejection in Judea.
+
+122. One reason why he wished to hasten from Judea seems to have been his
+knowledge of the hostile movement which was making against John the
+Baptist. Either before or soon after Jesus started for Galilee Herod had
+arrested John, ostensibly as a measure of public safety owing to John's
+undue popularity (Jos. Ant. xviii. 5. 2). Herod may have been encouraged
+to take this step by the hostility of the Pharisees to the plain-spoken
+prophet of the desert (see John iv. 1-3). The fourth gospel leaves its
+readers to infer that the imprisonment took place somewhere about this
+time (compare iii. 24 and v. 35), while the other gospels unite in giving
+this arrest as the occasion for Jesus' withdrawal into Galilee.
+
+123. Arrived in Galilee, Jesus seems to have returned to his home at
+Nazareth, while his disciples went back to their customary occupations,
+until he summoned them again to join him in a new ministry (see sect.
+125). John assigns to this time the cure of a nobleman's son. The father
+sought out Jesus at Cana, having left his son sick at Capernaum. At first
+Jesus apparently repelled his approach, even as he had dealt with seekers
+after marvels at Jerusalem; but on hearing the father's cry of need and
+trust, he at once spoke the word of healing. This event is in so many ways
+a duplicate of the cure of a centurion's servant recorded in Matthew and
+Luke, that to many it seems but another version of the same incident.
+Considering the variations in the story reported by Matthew and Luke, it
+is clearly not possible to prove that John tells of a different case. Yet
+the simple fact of similarity of some details in two events should not
+exclude the possibility of their still being quite distinct. The reception
+which Jesus gave the two requests for help is very different, and the case
+reported in John is in keeping with the attitude of Jesus before he began
+his new ministry in Galilee. On his arrival in Galilee he wished to avoid
+a mere wonder faith begotten of the enthusiasm he excited in Jerusalem,
+yet this wish yielded at once when a genuine need sought relief at his
+hands.
+
+124. The apparent result of this first activity in Judea was
+disappointment and failure. He had won no considerable following in the
+capital. He had definitely excited the jealousy and opposition of the
+leading men of his nation. Even such popular enthusiasm as had followed
+his mighty works was of a sort that Jesus could not encourage. The
+situation in Judea had at length become so nearly untenable that he
+decided to withdraw into seclusion in Galilee, where, as a prophet, he
+could be "without honor." He had gone to Jerusalem eager to begin there,
+where God should have had readiest service, the ministry of the kingdom of
+God. Challenge, cold criticism, and superficial faith were the results. A
+new beginning must be made on other lines in other places. Meanwhile Jesus
+retired to his home and his followers to theirs.
+
+   Outline of Events in the Galilean Ministry (Chapters III. And IV.)
+
+
+   The imprisonment of John and the withdrawal of Jesus into
+   Galilee--Matt. iv. 12-17; Mark i. 14, 15; Luke iv. 14, 15.
+
+   Removal from Nazareth to Capernaum--Matt. iv. 13-16; Luke iv. 31.
+
+   The call of Simon and Andrew, James and John--Matt. iv. 18-22; Mark i.
+   16-20; Luke v. 1-11.
+
+   First work in Capernaum--Matt. viii. 14-17; Mark i. 21-34; Luke iv.
+   31-41.
+
+   First circuit of Galilee--Matt. iv. 23; viii. 2-4; Mark i. 35-45; Luke
+   iv. 42-44; v. 12-16.
+
+   Cure of a paralytic in Capernaum--Matt. ix. 2-8; Mark ii. 1-12; Luke v.
+   17-26.
+
+   The call of Matthew--Matt. ix. 9-13; Mark ii. 13-17; Luke v. 27-32.
+
+   ? The question about fasting--Matt ix. 14-17; Mark ii. 18-22; Luke v.
+   33-39 (see sects. 47; A 54).
+
+   ? Sabbath cure at Jerusalem at the unnamed feast--John v. 1-47 (see
+   sect. A 53).
+
+   ? The Sabbath controversy in the Galilean grain fields--Matt. xii. 1-8;
+   Mark ii. 23-28; Luke vi. 1-5 (see sects. 47; A 54).
+
+   ? Another Sabbath controversy: cure of a withered hand--Matt. xii.
+   9-14; Mark iii. 1-6; Luke vi. 6-11 (see sects. 47; A 54).
+
+   Jesus followed by multitudes from all parts--Matt. iv. 23-25; xii.
+   15-21; Mark iii. 7-12; Luke vi. 17-19.
+
+   The choosing of the twelve--Matt. x. 2-4; Mark iii. 13-19; Luke vi.
+   12-19.
+
+   The sermon on the mount--Matt. v. 1 to viii. 1; Luke vi. 20 to vii. 1
+   (see sect. A 55).
+
+   The cure of a centurion's servant--Matt. viii. 5-13; Luke vii. 1-10;
+   John iv. 46-54.
+
+   The restoration of the widow's son at Nain--Luke vii. 11-17.
+
+   The message from John in prison--Matt. xi. 2-19; Luke vii. 18-35.
+
+   The anointing of Jesus by a sinful woman--Luke vii. 36-50.
+
+   The companions of Jesus on his second circuit of Galilee--Luke viii.
+   1-3.
+
+   Cure of a demoniac in Capernaum and blasphemy by the Pharisees--Matt.
+   xii. 22-45; Mark iii. 19^a-30; Luke xi. 14-36.
+
+   The true kindred of Jesus--Matt. xii. 46-50; Mark iii. 31-35; Luke
+   viii. 19-21.
+
+   The parables by the sea--Matt. xiii. 1-53; Mark iv. 1-34; Luke viii.
+   4-18 (see sect. A 56).
+
+   The tempest stilled--Matt. viii. 18, 23-27; Mark iv. 35-41; Luke viii.
+   22-25.
+
+   Cure of the Gadarene demoniac--Matt. viii. 28-34; Mark v. 1-20; Luke
+   viii. 26-39.
+
+   The restoration of the daughter of Jairus and cure of an invalid
+   woman--Matt. ix. 1, 18-26; Mark v. 21-43; Luke viii. 40-56.
+
+   Cure of blind and dumb--Matt. ix. 27-34.
+
+   Rejection at Nazareth--Matt. xiii. 54-58; Mark vi. 1-6^a; Luke iv.
+   16-30 (see sect. A 52).
+
+   Third circuit of Galilee--Matt. ix. 35; Mark vi. 6^b.
+
+   The mission of the twelve--Matt. ix. 36 to xi. 1; Mark vi. 7-13; Luke
+   ix. 1-6 (see sect. A 57).
+
+   The death of John the Baptist--Matt. xiv. 1-12; Mark vi. 14-29; Luke
+   ix. 7-9.
+
+   Withdrawal of Jesus across the sea and feeding of the five
+   thousand--Matt. xiv. 13-23; Mark vi. 30-46; Luke ix. 10-17; John vi.
+   1-15.
+
+   Return to Capernaum, Jesus walking on the water--Matt. xiv. 24-36; Mark
+   vi. 47-56; John vi. 16-21.
+
+   Teaching about the Bread of Life in the synagogue at Capernaum--John
+   vi. 22-71 (see sect. A 59).
+
+   Controversy concerning tradition: handwashing, etc.--Matt. xv. 1-20;
+   Mark vii. 1-23.
+
+   Withdrawal to regions of Tyre and Sidon: the Syrophœnician woman's
+   daughter--Matt. xv. 21-28; Mark vii. 24-30.
+
+   Return through Decapolis--Matt. xv. 29-31; Mark vii. 31-37.
+
+   ? The feeding of the four thousand--Matt. xv. 32-38; Mark viii. 1-9
+   (see sect. A 58).
+
+   Pharisaic challenge in Galilee, and warning against the leaven of the
+   Pharisees--Matt xv. 39 to xvi. 12; Mark viii. 10-21.
+
+   Cure of blind man near Bethsaida--Mark viii. 22-26.
+
+   Peter's confession of Jesus as Christ near Cæsarea Philippi--Matt. xvi.
+   13-20; Mark viii. 27-30; Luke ix. 18-21.
+
+   The new lesson, that the Christ must die--Matt. xvi. 21-28; Mark viii.
+   31 to ix. 1; Luke ix. 22-27.
+
+   The transfiguration--Matt. xvii. 1-13; Mark ix. 2-13; Luke ix. 28-36.
+
+   Cure of the epileptic boy--Matt. xvii. 14-20; Mark ix. 14-29; Luke ix.
+   37-43^a.
+
+   Second prediction of approaching death and resurrection--Matt. xvii.
+   22, 23; Mark ix. 30-32; Luke ix. 43^b-45.
+
+   Return to Capernaum: the temple tax--Matt. xvii. 24-27; Mark ix. 33^a.
+
+   Teachings concerning humility and forgiveness--Matt. xviii. 1-35; Mark
+   ix. 33-50; Luke ix. 46-50.
+
+   Visit of Jesus to Jerusalem at the feast of Tabernacles--John vii.
+   1-52; viii. 12-59 (see sect. A 60).
+
+   ? The woman taken in adultery--John vii. 53 to viii. 11 (see sect.
+   163).
+
+   The following probably belong to the Galilean ministry before the
+   confession at Cæsarea Philippi (see sect. 168):--
+
+   The disciples taught to pray--Matt. vi. 9-15; vii. 7-11; Luke xi. 1-13.
+
+   The cure of an infirm woman on the Sabbath--Luke xiii. 10-17.
+
+   Two parables: mustard-seed and leaven--Matt. xiii. 31-33; Luke xiii.
+   18-21 (see sect. A 56).
+
+   The parable of the rich fool--Luke xii. 13-21.
+
+   Cure on a Sabbath and teaching at a Pharisee's table--Luke xiv. 1-24.
+
+   Five parables--Luke xv. 1 to xvi. 31.
+
+   Certain disconnected teachings--Luke xvii. 1-4.
+
+
+
+
+III
+
+The Ministry In Galilee--its Aim And Method
+
+
+
+125. The work of Jesus in Galilee, which is the principal theme of the
+first three gospels, began with a removal from Nazareth to Capernaum, and
+the calling of four fishermen to be his constant followers. The ready
+obedience which Simon and Andrew and James and John gave to this call is
+an interesting evidence that they did not first come to know Jesus at the
+time of this summons. The narrative presupposes some such earlier
+association as is reported in John, followed by a temporary return to
+their old homes and occupations, while Jesus sought seclusion after his
+work in Judea. The first evangelist has most vividly indicated the
+development of the Galilean ministry, directing attention to two points of
+beginning,--the beginning of Jesus' preaching of the kingdom (Matt. iv.
+17) and the beginning of his predictions of his own sufferings and death
+(xvi. 21). Between these two beginnings lies the ministry of Jesus to the
+enthusiastic multitudes, the second of them marking his choice of a more
+restricted audience and a less popular message. Within the first of these
+periods two events mark epochs,--the mission of the twelve (Matt. ix. 36;
+x. I) to preach the coming kingdom of God and to multiply Jesus' ministry
+of healing, and the feeding of the five thousand when the popular
+enthusiasm reached its climax (John vi. 14, 15). These events fall not
+far apart, and mark two different phases of the same stage of development
+in his work. The first is emphasized by Matthew, the second by John; both
+help to a clearer understanding of the narrative which Mark has furnished
+to the other gospels for their story of the Galilean ministry. The table
+at the head of this chapter indicates in outline the probable succession
+of events in the Galilean period. The order adopted is that of Mark,
+supplemented by the other gospels. Luke's additions are inserted in his
+order where there is not some reason for believing that he himself
+disregarded the exact sequence of events. Thus the rejection at Nazareth
+is placed late, as in Mark. Much of the material in the long section
+peculiar to Luke is assigned in general to this Galilean period, since all
+knowledge of its precise location in time and place has been lost for us,
+as it not unlikely was for Luke. Although Matthew is the gospel giving the
+clearest general view of the Galilean work, it shows the greatest
+disarrangement of details, and aids but little in determining the sequence
+of events. The material from that gospel is assigned place in accordance
+with such hints as are discoverable in parallel or associated parts of
+Mark or Luke. Of John's contributions one--the feeding of the
+multitudes--is clearly located by its identity with a narrative found in
+all the other gospels. The visit to Jerusalem at the unnamed feast can be
+only tentatively placed.
+
+126. Viewing this gospel story as a whole, the parallel development of
+popular enthusiasm and official hostility at once attracts attention.
+Jesus' first cures in the synagogue at Capernaum roused the interest and
+wonder of the multitudes to such an extent that he felt constrained to
+withdraw to other towns. On his return to Capernaum he was so beset with
+crowds that the friends of the paralytic could get at him only by breaking
+up the roof. It was when Jesus found himself followed by multitudes from
+all parts of the land that he selected twelve of his disciples "that they
+might be with him and that he might send them forth to preach," and
+addressed to them in the hearing of the multitudes the exacting, although
+unspeakably winsome teaching of the sermon on the mount. This condition of
+things continued even after Herod had killed John the Baptist, for when
+Jesus, having heard of John's fate, sought retirement with his disciples
+across the sea of Galilee, he was robbed of his seclusion by throngs who
+flocked to him to be healed and to hear of the kingdom of God.
+
+127. The popular enthusiasm was not indifferent to the question who this
+new teacher might be. At first Jesus impressed the people by his
+authoritative teaching and cures. After the raising of the widow's son at
+Nain the popular feeling found a more definite declaration,--"a great
+prophet has risen up among us." The cure of a demoniac in Capernaum raised
+the further incredulous query, "Can this be the Son of David?" The notion
+that he might be the Messiah seems to have gained acceptance more and more
+as Jesus' popularity grew, for at the time of the feeding of the
+multitudes the enthusiasm burst into a flame of determination to force him
+to undertake the work for which he was so eminently fitted, but from which
+for some inexplicable reason he seemed to shrink (John vi. 15).
+
+128. Parallel with the growth of popular enthusiasm, and in part because
+of it, the religious leaders early assumed and consistently maintained an
+attitude of opposition. The gospels connect the critics of Jesus now and
+again with the Pharisees of the capital--the Galilean Pharisees being
+represented as more or less friendly. At the first appearance of Jesus in
+Capernaum even the Sabbath cure in the synagogue passed unchallenged; but
+on the return from his first excursion to other towns, Jesus found critics
+in his audience (Luke connects them directly with Jerusalem). From time to
+time such censors as these objected to the forgiveness by Jesus of the
+sins of the paralytic (Mark ii. 6, 7), criticised his social relations
+with outcasts like the publicans (Mark ii. 16), took offence at his
+carelessness of the Sabbath tradition in his instruction of his disciples
+(Mark ii. 24), and sought to turn the tide of rising popular enthusiasm by
+ascribing his power to cure to a league with the devil (Mark iii. 22).
+Baffled in one charge, they would turn to another, until, after the
+feeding of the multitudes, Jesus showed his complete disregard of all they
+held most dear, replying to a criticism of his disciples for carelessness
+of the ritual of hand-washing by an authoritative setting aside of the
+whole body of their traditions, as well as of the Levitical ceremonial of
+clean and unclean meats (Mark vii. 1-23).
+
+129. The wonder is, not that popular enthusiasm for Jesus was great, but
+that it was so hesitating in its judgment about him. The province which
+provided a following to Judas of Galilee a generation earlier than the
+public ministry of Jesus, and which under John of Gischala furnished the
+chief support to the revolt against Rome a generation later, could have
+been excited to uncontrollable passion by the simple idea that a leader
+was present who could be made to head a movement for Jewish liberty. But
+there was something about Jesus which made it impossible to think of him
+as such a Messiah. He was much more moved by sin lurking within than by
+wrong inflicted from without. He looked for God's kingdom, as did the
+Zealots, but he looked for it within the heart more than in outward
+circumstances. Even the dreamers among the people, who were as unready as
+Jesus for any uprising against Rome, and who waited for God to show his
+own hand in judgment, found in Jesus--come to seek and to save that which
+was lost--something so contradictory of their idea of the celestial judge
+that they could not easily think of him as a Messiah. Jesus was a puzzle
+to the people. They were sure that he was a prophet; but if at any time
+some were tempted to query, "Can this be the Son of David?" the
+incredulous folk expected ever a negative reply.
+
+130. This was as Jesus wished it to be. An unreasoning enthusiasm could
+only hinder his work. When his early cures in Capernaum stirred the ardent
+feelings of the multitudes, he took occasion to withdraw to other towns
+and allow popular feeling to cool. When later he found himself pressed
+upon by crowds from all quarters of the land, by the sermon on the mount
+he set them thinking on strange and highly spiritual things, far removed
+from the thoughts of Zealots and apocalyptic dreamers.
+
+131. The manifest contradiction of popular Messianic ideas which Jesus
+presented in his own person usually served to check undue ardor as long
+as he was present. But when some demoniac proclaimed the high station of
+Jesus, and thus seemed to the people to give supernatural testimony; or
+when some one in need sought him apart from the multitudes, Jesus
+frequently enjoined silence. These injunctions of silence are enigmas
+until they are viewed as a part of Jesus' effort to keep control of
+popular feeling. In his absence the people might dwell on his power and
+easily come to imagine him to be what he was not and could not be. Jesus
+was able by these means to restrain unthinking enthusiasm until the
+multitudes whom he fed on the east side of the sea determined to force him
+to do their will as a Messiah. Then he refused to follow where they
+called, and that happened which would doubtless have happened at an
+earlier time but for Jesus' caution,--the popular enthusiasm subsided, and
+his active work with the common people was at an end. But he had held off
+this crisis until there were a few who did not follow the popular
+defection, but rather clung to him from whom they had heard the words of
+eternal life (John vi. 68).
+
+132. Jesus' caution brings to light one aspect of his aim in the Galilean
+ministry,--he sought to win acceptance for the truth he proclaimed. His
+message as reported in the synoptic gospels was the near approach of the
+kingdom of God. Any such proclamation was sure of eager hearing. At first
+he seems to have been content to gather and interest the multitudes by
+this preaching and the works which accompanied it. But he early took
+occasion to state his ideas in the hearing of the multitudes, and in terms
+so simple, so concerned with every-day life, so exacting as respects
+conduct, and so lacking in the customary glowing picture of the future,
+that the people could not mistake such a teacher for a simple fulfiller of
+their ideas. In this early sermon in effect, and later with increasing
+plainness, he set forth his doctrine of a kingdom of heaven coming not
+with observation, present actually among a people who knew it not, like a
+seed growing secretly in the earth, or leaven quietly leavening a lump of
+meal. By word and deed, in sermon and by parable, he insisted on this
+simple and every-day conception of God's rule among men. With Pharisee,
+Zealot, and dreamer, he held that "the best is yet to be," yet all three
+classes found their most cherished ideals set at nought by the new
+champion of the soul's inner life in fellowship with the living God. In
+all his teaching there was a claim of authority and a manifest
+independence which indicate certainty on his part concerning his own
+mission. Yet so completely is the personal question retired for the time,
+that in his rebuke of the blasphemy of the Pharisees he took pains to
+declare that it was not because they had spoken against the Son of Man,
+that they were in danger, but because they had spoken against the Spirit
+of God, whose presence was manifest in his works. He wished, primarily, to
+win disciples to the kingdom of God.
+
+133. Yet Jesus was not indifferent in Galilee to what the people thought
+about himself. The question at Cæsarea Philippi shows more fully the aim
+of his ministry. During all the period of the preaching of the kingdom he
+never hesitated to assert himself whenever need for such self-assertion
+arose. This was evident in his dealing with his pharisaic critics. He
+rarely argued with them, and always assumed a tone of authority which was
+above challenge, asserting that the Son of Man had authority to forgive
+sins, was lord of the Sabbath, was greater than the temple or Jonah or
+Solomon. Moreover, in his positive teaching of the new truth he assumed
+such an authoritative tone that any who thought upon it could but remark
+the extraordinary claim involved in his simple "I say unto you." He wished
+also to win disciples to himself.
+
+134. The key to the ministry in Galilee is furnished in Jesus' answer to
+the message from John the Baptist. John in prison had heard of the works
+of his successor. Jesus did so much that promised a fulfilment of the
+Messianic hope, yet left so much undone, contradicting in so many ways the
+current idea of a Messiah by his studied avoidance of any demonstration,
+that the older prophet felt a momentary doubt of the correctness of his
+earlier conviction. It is in no way strange that he experienced a reaction
+from that exalted moment of insight when he pointed out Jesus as the Lamb
+of God, particularly after his restless activity had been caged within the
+walls of his prison. Jesus showed that he did not count it strange, by his
+treatment of John's quesestion and by his words about John after the
+messengers had gone. Yet in his reply he gently suggested that the
+question already had its answer if John would but look rightly for it. He
+simply referred to the things that were being done before the eyes of all,
+and asked John to form from them a conclusion concerning him who did them.
+One aid he offered to the imprisoned prophet,--a word from the Book of
+Isaiah (xxxv. 5f., lxi. 1f.),--and added a blessing for such as "should
+find nothing to stumble at in him." Here Jesus emphasized his works, and
+allowed his message to speak for itself; but he frankly indicated that he
+expected people to pass from wonder at his ministry to an opinion about
+himself. At Cæsarea Philippi he showed to his disciples that this opinion
+about himself was the significant thing in his eyes. Throughout the
+ministry in Galilee, therefore, this twofold aim appears. Jesus would
+first divert attention from himself to his message, in order that he might
+win disciples to the kingdom of God as he conceived it. Having so attached
+them to his idea of the kingdom, he desired to be recognized as that
+kingdom's prince, the Messiah promised by God for his people. He retired
+behind his message in order that men might be drawn to the truth which he
+held dear, knowing that thus they would find themselves led captive to
+himself in a willing devotion.
+
+135. This aim explains his retirement when popularity pressed, his
+exacting teaching about the spirituality of the kingdom of God, and his
+injunctions of silence. He wished to be known, to be thought about, to be
+accepted as God's anointed, but he would have this only by a genuine
+surrender to his leadership. His disciples must own him master and follow
+him, however much he might disappoint their misconceptions. This aim, too,
+explains his frank self-assertions and exalted personal claims in
+opposition to official criticism. He would not be false to his own sense
+of masterhood, nor allow people to think him bold when his critics were
+away, and cowardly in their presence. Therefore, when needful, he invited
+attention to himself as greater than the temple or as lord of the
+Sabbath. This kind of self-assertion, however, served his purpose as well
+as his customary self-retirement, for it forced people to face the
+contradiction which he offered to the accepted religious ideas of their
+leaders.
+
+136. The method which Jesus chose has already been repeatedly
+indicated,--teaching and preaching on the one hand, and works of
+helpfulness to men on the other. The character of the teaching of this
+period is shown in three discourses,--the Sermon on the Mount, the
+Discourse in Parables, and the Instructions to the Twelve. The sermon on
+the mount is given in different forms in Matthew and Luke, that in Matthew
+being evidently the more complete, even after deduction has been made of
+those parts which Luke has assigned with high probability to a later time.
+This address was spoken to the disciples of Jesus found among the
+multitudes who flocked to him from all quarters. It opened with words of
+congratulation for those who, characterized by qualities often despised,
+were yet heirs of God's kingdom. The thought then passed to the
+responsibility of such heirs of the kingdom for the help of a needy world.
+Next, since much in the words and works of Jesus hitherto might have
+suggested to men that he was indifferent to the older religion of his
+people, he carefully explained that he came, not to set aside the old, but
+to realize the spiritual idea for which it stood, by establishing a more
+exacting standard of righteousness. This more exacting righteousness Jesus
+illustrated by a series of restatements of the older law, and then by a
+group of criticisms of current religious practice. The sermon closed with
+warnings against complacent censoriousness in judging other men's
+failures, and a solemn declaration of the vital seriousness of "these
+sayings of mine." The righteousness required by this new law is not only
+more exacting but unspeakably worthier than the old, being more simply
+manifested in common life, and demanding more intimate filial fellowship
+with the living God.
+
+137. The teachings included in the sermon by the first gospel, but placed
+later by Luke, supplement the sermon by bidding God's child to lead a
+trustful life, knowing that the heavenly Father cares for him. That Luke
+has omitted much which from Matthew's account clearly belonged to the
+original sermon may be explained by the fact that Gentile readers did not
+share the interest which Jesus' hearers had, and which the readers of the
+first gospel had, in the relation of the new gospel to the older law.
+Hence the restatement of older commands and the criticism of current
+practice was omitted. Similar to the teachings which the first gospel has
+included in the sermon, are many which Luke has preserved in the section
+peculiar to himself. It is not unlikely that they belong also to the
+Galilean ministry. They urge the same sincere, reverent life in the sight
+of God, the same trust in the heavenly Father, the same certainty of his
+love and care; and they do not have that peculiar note of impending
+judgment which entered into the teachings of Jesus after the confession at
+Cæsarea Philippi.
+
+138. In the story of Mark, which is reproduced in the first and third
+gospels, the use of parable was first introduced in a way to attract the
+attention of the disciples, after pharisaic opposition to Jesus had become
+somewhat bitter and there was need of checking a too speedy culmination
+of opposition. He chose at that time a form of parable which was enigmatic
+to his disciples, and could but further puzzle hearers who had no sympathy
+with him and his message. Mark (iv. 12) states that this perplexity was in
+accordance with the purpose of Jesus. But it is equally clear that Jesus
+meant to teach the teachable as well as to perplex the critical by these
+illustrations, for in explaining the Sower he suggested that the disciples
+should have understood it without explanation (Mark iv. 13). Many of
+Jesus' parables, however, had no such enigmatic character, but were
+intended simply to help his hearers to understand him. He made use of this
+kind of teaching from first to last. The pictures of the wise and foolish
+builders with which the sermon on the mount concludes show that it was not
+the use of illustration which surprised the disciples in the parables
+associated with the Sower, but his use of such puzzling illustrations.
+Some of the parables of Luke's peculiar section may belong to the Galilean
+ministry, and even to the earlier stages of it. These have none of the
+enigmatic character; the parables of the last days of Jesus' life also
+seem to have been simple and clear to his hearers. The Oriental mind
+prefers the concrete to the abstract, and its teachers have ever made
+large use of illustration. Jesus stands unique, not in that he used
+parables, but in the simplicity and effective beauty of those which he
+used. These illustrations, whether Jesus intended them for the moment to
+enlighten or to confound, served always to set forth concretely some truth
+concerning the relation of men to God, or concerning his kingdom and their
+relation to it. The form of teaching was welcome to his hearers, and
+served as one of the attractions to draw men to him.
+
+139. The first gospel assigns another extended discourse to this Galilean
+period,--the Instructions to the Twelve. The mission of the twelve formed
+a new departure as Jesus saw the Galilean crisis approaching. He sought
+thereby to multiply his own work, and commissioned his disciples to heal
+and preach as he was doing. The restriction of their field to Israel
+(Matt. x. 5, 6) simply applied to them the rule he adopted for himself
+during the Galilean period (Matt. xv. 24). Comparison with the accounts in
+Mark and Luke, as well as the character of the instructions found in
+Matthew, show that here the first evangelist has followed his habit of
+gathering together teachings on the same general theme from different
+periods in Jesus' life. Much in the tenth chapter of Matthew indicates
+clearly that the ministry of Jesus had already passed the period of
+popularity, and that his disciples could now look for little but scorn and
+persecution. This was the situation at the end of Jesus' public life, and
+parallel sayings are found in the record of the last week in Jerusalem.
+
+140. When the teaching of the sermon and the parables is compared with
+Jesus' self-assertion in his replies to pharisaic criticism and blasphemy,
+the difference is striking. Ordinarily he avoided calling attention to
+himself, wishing men to form their opinion of him after they had learned
+to know him as he was. Yet when one looks beneath the surface of his
+teaching, the tone of authority which astonished the multitudes is
+identical with the calm self-confidence which replied to pharisaic
+censure: "The Son of Man hath authority on the earth to forgive sins."
+
+141. Jesus drew the multitudes after him not only by his teachings, but
+also by his mighty works. He certainly was for his contemporaries a
+wonder-worker and healer of disease, and, in order to appreciate the
+impression which he made, the miracles recorded in the gospels must be
+allowed to reveal what they can of his character. The mighty works which
+enchained attention in Galilee were chiefly cures of disease, with
+occasional exhibitions of power over physical nature,--such as the
+stilling of the tempest and the feeding of the five thousand. The
+significant thing about them is their uniform beneficence of purpose and
+simplicity of method. Nothing of the spectacular attached itself to them.
+Jesus repeatedly refused to the critical Pharisees a sign from heaven.
+This was not because he disregarded the importance of signs for his
+generation,--witness his appeal to his works in the reply to John (Matt.
+xi. 4-6); but he felt that in his customary ministry to the needy
+multitudes he had furnished signs in abundance, for his deeds both gave
+evidence of heavenly power and revealed the character of the Father who
+had sent him.
+
+142. One of the commonest of the ailments cured by Jesus is described in
+the gospels as demoniac possession, the popular idea being that evil
+spirits were accustomed to take up their abode in men, speaking with their
+tongues and acting through their bodies, at the same time afflicting them
+with various physical diseases. Six specific cures of such possession are
+recorded in the story of the Galilean ministry, besides general references
+to the cure of many that were possessed. Of these specific cases the
+Gadarene demoniac shows symptoms of violent insanity; the boy cured near
+Cæsarea Philippi, those of epilepsy; in other cases the disease was more
+local, showing itself in deafness, or blindness, or both. In the cures
+recorded Jesus addressed the possessed with a command to the invading
+demon to depart. He was ordinarily greeted, either before or after such a
+command, with a loud outcry, often accompanied with a recognition of him
+as God's Holy One.
+
+143. The record of such maladies and their cure is not confined to the New
+Testament. The evil spirit which came upon King Saul is a similar case,
+and Josephus tells of Jewish exorcists who cured possessed persons by the
+use of incantations handed down from King Solomon. The early Christian
+fathers frequently argued the truth of Christianity from the way in which
+demons departed at the command of Christian exorcists, while in the middle
+ages and down to modern times belief in demoniac possession has been
+common, particularly among some of the more superstitious of the peasantry
+in Europe. Moreover, from missionaries in China and other eastern lands it
+is learned that diseases closely resembling the cases of possession
+recorded in the New Testament are frequently met with, and are often cured
+by native Christian ministers.
+
+144. The similarity of the symptoms of so-called possession to recognized
+mental and physical derangements such as insanity, epilepsy, and hysteria,
+suggests the conclusion that possession should be classed with other
+ailments due to ill adjustment of the relations of the mental and physical
+life. If this conclusion is valid, the idea of actual possession by evil
+spirits becomes only an ancient effort to interpret the mysterious
+symptoms in accordance with wide-spread primitive beliefs. This
+explanation would doubtless be generally adopted were it not that it seems
+to compromise either the integrity or the knowledge of Jesus. The gospels
+plainly represent him as treating the supposed demoniac influence as real,
+addressing in his cures not the invalid, but the invading demon. If he did
+this knowing that the whole view was a superstition, was he true to his
+mission to release mankind from its bondage to evil and sin? If he shared
+the superstition of his time, had he the complete knowledge necessary to
+make him the deliverer he claimed to be? These questions are serious and
+difficult, but they form a part of the general problem of the extent of
+Jesus' knowledge, and can be more intelligently discussed in connection
+with that whole problem (sects. 249-251). It is reasonable to demand,
+however, that any conclusion reached concerning the nature of possession
+in the time of Jesus must be considered valid for similar manifestations
+of disease in our own day.
+
+145. What astonished people in Jesus' cures was not so much that he healed
+the sick as that he did it with such evidence of personal authority. His
+cures and his teachings alike served to attract attention to himself and
+to invite question as to who he could be. Yet a far more powerful means to
+the end he had in view was the subtle, unobtrusive, personal influence
+which without their knowledge knit the hearts of a few to himself. In
+reality both his teaching and his cures were only means of
+self-disclosure. His permanent work during this Galilean period was the
+winning of personal friends. His chief agency in accomplishing his work
+was what Renan somewhat too romantically has called his "charm." It was
+that in him which drew to his side and kept with him the fishermen of
+Galilee and the publican of Capernaum, during months of constant
+disappointment of their preconceived religious ideas and Messianic hopes;
+it was that which won the confidence of the woman who was a sinner, and
+the constant devotion of Mary Magdalene and Susanna and the others who
+followed him "and ministered to him of their substance." The outstanding
+wonder of early Christianity is the complete transformation not only of
+life but of established religious ideas by the personal impress of Jesus
+on a Peter, a John, and a Paul. The secret of the new element of the
+Christian religion--salvation through personal attachment to Jesus
+Christ--is simply this personal power of the man of Nazareth. The
+multitudes followed because they saw wonderful works or heard wonderful
+words; many because they hoped at length to find in the new prophet the
+champion of their hopes in deliverance from Roman bondage. But these
+sooner or later fell away, disappointed in their desire to use the new
+leader for their own ends. It was only because from out the multitudes
+there were a few who could answer, "To whom shall we go? thou hast the
+words of eternal life," when Jesus asked, "Will ye also go away?" that the
+work in Galilee did not end in complete failure. These few had felt his
+personal power, and they became the nucleus of a new religion of love to a
+personal Saviour.
+
+146. The test of the personal attachment of the few came shortly after the
+execution of John the Baptist by Antipas. Word of this tragedy was
+brought to Jesus by John's disciples about the time that he and the twelve
+returned to Capernaum from their tour of preaching. At the suggestion of
+Jesus they withdrew to the eastern side of the lake in search of rest. It
+is not unlikely that the little company also wished to avoid for the time
+the territory of the tyrant who had just put John to death, for Jesus was
+not yet ready for the crisis of his own life. Such a desire for seclusion
+would be intensified by the continued impetuous enthusiasm of the
+multitudes who flocked about him again in Capernaum. In fact, so insistent
+was their interest in Jesus that they would not allow him the quiet he
+sought, but followed around the lake in great numbers when they learned
+that he had taken ship for the other side. He who came not to be
+ministered unto but to minister could not repel the crowds who came to
+him, and he at once "welcomed them, and spake to them of the kingdom of
+God, and them that had need of healing he healed" (Luke ix. 11). The day
+having passed in this ministry, he multiplied the small store of bread and
+fish brought by his disciples in order to feed the weary people. This work
+of power seemed to some among the multitudes to be the last thing needed
+to prove that Jesus was to be their promised deliverer, and they "were
+about to come and take him by force and make him king" (John vi. 15), when
+he withdrew from them and spent the night in prayer.
+
+147. This sudden determination on the part of the multitudes to force the
+hand of Jesus was probably due to the prevalence of an idea, found also in
+the later rabbinic writers, that the Messiah should feed his people as
+Moses had provided them manna in the desert. The rebuff which Jesus
+quietly gave them did not cool their ardor, until on the following day, in
+the synagogue in Capernaum, he plainly taught them that they had quite
+missed the significance of his miracle. They thought of loaves and
+material sustenance. He would have had them find in these a sign that he
+could also supply their spirits' need, and he insisted that this, and this
+alone, was his actual mission. From the first the popular enthusiasm had
+had to ignore many contradictions of its cherished notions. But his power
+and the indescribable force of his personality had served hitherto to hold
+them to a hope that he would soon discard the perplexing rôle which he had
+chosen for the time to assume, and take up avowedly the proper work of the
+Messiah. This last refusal to accept what seemed to them to be his evident
+duty caused a revulsion in the popular feeling, and "many of his disciples
+turned back and walked no more with him" (John vi. 66). The time of
+sifting had come. Jesus had known that such a rash determination to make
+him king was possible to the Galilean multitudes, and that whenever it
+should come it must be followed by a disillusionment. Now the open
+ministry had run its course. As the multitudes were turning back and
+walking no more with him, he turned to the twelve with the question, "Will
+ye also go away?" and found that with them his method had borne fruit.
+They clung to him in spite of disillusionment, for in him they had found
+what was better than their preconceptions.
+
+148. It is the fourth gospel that shows clearly the critical significance
+of this event. The others tell nothing of the sudden determination of the
+multitude, nor of the revulsion of feeling that followed Jesus' refusal to
+yield to their will. Yet these other gospels indicate in their narratives
+that from this time on Jesus avoided the scenes of his former labors, and
+show that when from time to time he returned to the neighborhood of
+Capernaum he was met by such a spirit of hostility that he withdrew again
+immediately to regions where he and his disciples could have time for
+quiet intercourse.
+
+149. The months of toil in Galilee show results hardly more significant
+than the grain of mustard seed or the little leaven. Popular enthusiasm
+had risen, increased, reached its climax, and waned. Official opposition
+had early been aroused, and had continued with a steadily deepened
+intensity. The wonderful teaching with authority, and the signs wrought on
+them that were sick, had been as seed sown by the wayside or in thorny or
+in stony ground, except for the little handful of hearers who had felt the
+personal power of Jesus and had surrendered to it, ready henceforth to
+follow where he should lead, whether or not it should be in a path of
+their choice. These, however, were the proof that those months had been a
+time of rewarded toil.
+
+
+
+
+IV
+
+The Ministry in Galilee--The New Lesson
+
+
+
+150. With the crisis in Capernaum the ministry in Galilee may be said in
+one sense to have come to an end. Yet Jesus did not immediately go up to
+Jerusalem. Once and again he was found in or near Capernaum, while the
+time between these visits was spent in regions to the north and northwest.
+In fact, the disciples were far from ready for the trial their loyalty was
+to meet before they had seen the end of the opposition to their Lord. The
+time intervening between the collapse of popularity and Jesus' final
+departure from Galilee may well be thought of, then, as a time of further
+discipline of the faith of his followers and of added instruction
+concerning the truth for which their Master stood. The length of this
+supplementary period in Galilee is not definitely known. It extended from
+the Passover to about the feast of Tabernacles (April to October, see John
+vi. 4 and vii. 2). The record of what Jesus did and said in this time is
+meagre, only enough being reported to show that it was a time of repeated
+withdrawals from Galilee and of private instruction for the disciples.
+
+151. The disciples were trained in faith by further exhibitions of the
+complete break between their Master and the leaders of the people. This
+break appeared most clearly, soon after the feeding of the multitudes, in
+his reply to a criticism of the disciples for disregard of pharisaic
+traditions concerning hand-washing (Mark vii. 1-23). The critics insisted
+on the sacredness of their traditions. Jesus in reply scored them for
+disregard for the plain demands of God's law, and with a word freed men
+from bondage to the whole ritual of ceremonial cleanness and uncleanness
+(Mark vii. 19), thus attacking Judaism in its citadel.
+
+152. It was immediately after this that he withdrew with his disciples to
+the regions of Tyre. On his return a little later to the west side of the
+sea of Galilee he was met by hostile Pharisees with a demand for a sign
+(Mark viii. 11-13), and after refusing to satisfy the unbelieving
+challenge,--signs in plenty having been before their eyes since the
+opening of his work among them,--he and his disciples withdrew again from
+Galilee towards Cæsarea Philippi. As they went on their way, Jesus
+distinctly warned them against the influence of their leaders, religious
+and political (Mark viii. 14f.). So far as our records tell us Jesus was
+but once again in Capernaum. Then he was met with the demand that he pay
+the temple tax (Matt. xvii. 24-27). This tax was usually collected just
+before the Passover. As this last visit to Capernaum was probably not far
+from the feast of Tabernacles, Jesus seems to have been in arrears. This
+may have been due to his absence from Capernaum at the time of the
+collection. The prompt answer of Peter may indicate that he knew that in
+other years Jesus had paid this tax, as it is altogether probable that he
+did. The question, however, implies official suspicion that Jesus was
+seeking to evade payment, and exhibits further the straining of the
+relations between him and the Jewish leaders. The conversation of Jesus
+with Peter served to show his clear consciousness of superiority, and was
+a further summons to the disciples to choose between him and his
+opponents.
+
+153. Within the limits of the Holy Land the faith of the disciples had
+been constantly tested by the increasing opposition between their master
+and their old leaders. When the little company withdrew to Gentile
+regions, however, Jesus had regard for their Jewish feeling. The time
+would come when he would send them forth to make disciples of all the
+nations. For the present he made it his business to nurture their faith in
+him, and when appealed to for help by one of these foreigners, he refused
+to "take the children's bread and cast it to the dogs" (Mark vii. 27).
+Jesus had assumed a different attitude to the Samaritans before the
+opening of his work in Galilee, and in general had shown ready sympathy
+for all in distress. In fact it seems as if he welcomed the Syrophœnician
+woman's great faith with a feeling of relief from a restriction that he
+had felt it wise to adopt for his work in Phœnicia. It appears from his
+later attitude in the Gentile regions of the Decapolis (Mark vii. 31-37;
+Matt. xv. 21-31) that, having once shown his regard for the limitations of
+his disciples' faith in the case of the Syrophœnician, he felt no longer
+obliged to check his natural readiness to help the needy who sought him
+out. Although in one instance, for reasons no longer known to us, Jesus
+charged a man whom he had cured to keep it secret (Mark vii. 32-37), in
+general his work in these heathen regions seems, after the visit to
+Phœnicia, to have been quite unrestrained, and to have produced the same
+enthusiasm that had earlier brought the multitudes to him in Galilee (Mark
+viii. 1f.).
+
+154. This continued activity of healing must have served greatly to
+strengthen the determination of the disciples to cling to Jesus, let the
+leaders say what they would. We can only conjecture what various teachings
+filled the days, and what personal fellowship the disciples had with him
+who spake as never man spake. There was need for advance in the faith of
+these loyal friends. Their enthusiastic declaration when the multitudes
+turned away could easily have been followed by reaction. Each new
+exhibition of the irrevocableness of the break between Jesus and the
+leaders was a severe test of their loyalty. These weeks of withdrawal were
+doubtless filled, therefore, with new proofs that Jesus had the words of
+eternal life.
+
+155. Before he put to his disciples the crucial question, he who knew what
+was in man (John ii. 25) was confident that they were ready for it. It was
+after the rebuff in Galilee, when the unbelieving Pharisees had again
+demanded a sign of his authority, and after he had definitely warned the
+disciples against the influence of their leaders, that Jesus led his
+little company far to the north towards the slopes of Hermon. There, near
+the recently built Cæsarea Philippi, Jesus plainly asked his disciples
+what the people thought of him (Mark viii. 27-30). We have seen how
+gradually sentiment in Galilee concerning the new teacher crystallized
+until, from thinking him a prophet, the people, first timidly, then
+boldly, concluded that such a teacher and worker of signs must be the
+promised king. We have seen also how the popular estimate changed when
+Jesus refused to be guided by the popular will. Now, after the lapse of a
+few weeks, in answer to his inquiry concerning the common opinion of him,
+he is told that the people look on him as a prophet, in whom the spirit of
+the men of old had been revived; but not a whisper remains of the former
+readiness to hail him as the Messiah. It was in the face of such a
+definite revulsion in the popular feeling, in the face, too, of the
+increasing hostility of all the great in the nation, that Peter answered
+for the twelve that they believed Jesus to be the Messiah, God's appointed
+Deliverer of his people (Matt. xvi. 16 ff.). In form this confession was
+no more than Nathanael had rendered on his first meeting with Jesus (John
+i. 49), and was practically the same as the report made by Andrew to Simon
+his brother, and by Philip to Nathanael (John i. 41, 45). In both idea and
+expression the reply to Jesus' question, "Will ye also go away?" (John vi.
+68, 69), was virtually equivalent to this later confession of Peter. Yet
+Jesus found in Peter's answer at Cæsarea Philippi something so significant
+and remarkable that he declared that the faith that could answer thus
+could spring only from a heavenly source (Matt. xvi. 17). The early
+confessions were in fact no more than expressions of more or less
+intelligent expectation that Jesus would fulfil the confessor's hopes. The
+confession at Capernaum followed one of Jesus' mightiest exhibitions of
+power, and was given before the disciples had had time to consider the
+extent of the defection from their Master. Here at Cæsarea Philippi,
+however, the word was spoken immediately after an acknowledgment that the
+people had no more thought of finding in Jesus their Messiah. It was
+spoken after the disciples had had repeated evidence of the determined
+hostility of the leaders to Jesus. All the disappointment he had given to
+their cherished ideas was emphasized by the isolation in which the little
+company now found itself. One after another their ideas of how a Messiah
+should act and what he should be had received contradiction in what Jesus
+was and did. Yet after the weeks of withdrawal from Galilee, Peter could
+only in effect assert anew what he had declared at Capernaum,--that Jesus
+had the words of eternal life. It was a faith chastened by perplexity, and
+taught at length to follow the Lord let him lead where he would. It was an
+actual surrender to his mastery over thought and life. Here at length
+Jesus had won what he had been seeking during all his work in Galilee,--a
+corner-stone on which to build up the new community of the kingdom of God.
+Peter was the first to confess openly to this simple surrender to the full
+mastery of Jesus. He was the first stone in the foundation of the new
+"building of God."
+
+156. In his commendation of Peter Jesus revealed the secret of his method
+in the work which, because of this confession, he could now proceed to do
+more rapidly. He cuts loose utterly from the method of the scribes. He,
+the new teacher, commits to them no body of teaching which they are to
+give to others as the key to eternal life. The salvation they are to
+preach is a salvation by personal attachment; that is, by faith. The rock
+on which he will build his church is personal attachment, faith that is
+ready to leave all and follow him. Peter, not the substance of his
+confession, was its corner-stone, but Peter, as the first clear confessor
+of a faith that is ready to leave all, a faith whose very nature it is to
+be contagious, and associate with itself others of "like precious faith."
+His faith was as yet meagre, as he showed at once; but it was genuine, the
+surrender of his heart to his Lord's guidance and control. This was the
+distinctive mark of the new religious life inaugurated by Jesus of
+Nazareth.
+
+157. If anything were needed to prove that the idea that he was the
+Messiah was no new thought to Jesus, it could be found in the new lesson
+which he at once began to teach his disciples. The confession of Peter
+indicated to him simply that the first stage in his work had been
+accomplished. He immediately began to prepare the disciples for the end
+which for some time past he had seen to be inevitable. He taught them more
+than that his death was inevitable; he declared that it was divinely
+necessary that he should be put to death as a result of the hostility of
+the Jews to him ("the Son of Man must suffer"). All the contradictions
+which he had offered to the Messianic ideas of his disciples paled into
+insignificance beside this one. When they saw how he failed to meet the
+hopes that were commonly held, they needed only to urge themselves to
+patience, expecting that in time he would cast off the strange mask and
+take to himself his power and reign. But it was too much for the late
+confessed and very genuine faith of Peter to hear that the Messiah must
+die. So unthinkable was the idea, that he assumed that Jesus had become
+unduly discouraged by the relentlessness of the opposition which had
+driven him first out of Judea and later out of Galilee. Accordingly Peter
+sought to turn his Master's mind to a brighter prospect, asserting that
+his forebodings could not be true. It is hard for us to conceive the chill
+of heart which must have followed the glow of his confession when he heard
+the stern rebuke of Jesus, who found in Peter's later words the voice of
+the Evil One, as before in his confession he had recognized the Spirit of
+God.
+
+158. The sternness of Jesus' rebuke escapes extravagance only in view of
+the fact that the words of Peter had greatly affected Jesus himself. At
+the outset of his public life he had faced the difficulty of doing the
+Messiah's work in his Father's way, and had withstood the temptation to
+accommodate himself to the ideas of his world, declaring allegiance to God
+alone (Matt. iv. 10). Yet once and again in the course of his ministry he
+showed that this allegiance cost him much. Luke reports a saying in which
+Jesus confessed that, in view of this prospect of death which Peter was
+opposing so eagerly, he was greatly "straitened" (xii. 50), and at the
+near approach of the end "his soul was exceeding sorrowful" (Mark xiv.
+34). It should never be forgotten that Jesus was a Jew, and heir to all
+the Messianic ideas of his people. In these, glory, not rejection and
+death, was to be the Messiah's portion. That he was always superior to
+current expectations is no sign that he did not feel their force. They
+quite mistake who find the bitterness of Jesus' "cup" simply in his
+physical shrinking from suffering. The temptation was ever with him to
+find some other way to the goal of his work than that which led through
+death. What Peter said hid a force greater than any word of the
+disciple's. It voiced the crucial temptation of Jesus' life. The answer
+addressed to Peter showed that his words had drawn the thought of Jesus
+away from the disciple to that earlier temptation which was never absent
+from him more than "for a season" (Luke iv. 13).
+
+159. Jesus was not content with a mere rebuke of his impulsive disciple.
+In his first announcement of his death as necessary he had also declared
+that it would not be a tragedy, but would be followed by a resurrection.
+This the disciples could not appreciate, as they found the idea of the
+Messiah's death unthinkable. Jesus, however, saw in it the general law,
+that life must ever win its goal by disregard of itself, and called his
+disciples also to walk in the path of self-sacrifice. In order that the
+new lesson might not quite overwhelm the yet feeble faith of these
+followers, Jesus assured them that after his death and resurrection he
+would come as Messianic Judge and fulfil the hopes which his prediction of
+death seemed to blot out utterly (Mark viii. 34 to ix. 1).
+
+160. That this new lesson was a difficult one for master as well as
+disciple seems to be shown by the experience which came a few days later
+to Jesus and his three closest friends. He had withdrawn with them to a
+"high mountain" for prayer (Luke ix. 28f.). While he prayed the light of
+heaven came into his face, and his disciples were granted a vision of him
+in celestial glory, conversing with Moses and Elijah, representatives of
+Old Testament law and prophecy. The theme of the discourse was that death
+which had so troubled the disciples, and which then and later weighed
+heavily on Jesus' own spirit (Luke ix. 31). At the conclusion of the
+vision came a divine injunction to hear him who now was superseding law
+and prophets. The effect of the transfiguration can only be inferred. It
+doubtless brought strengthening to Jesus for his difficult task (compare
+Heb. v. 7), and at least a silencing of remonstrance when he spoke again
+to his disciples of his approaching death. This he did while the little
+company was making its way back towards Capernaum (Mark ix. 30-32), and
+repeatedly later before the end came (Mark x. 32-34; Matt. xxvi. 1f.).
+
+161. On Jesus' return from the mountain, he was met by the despairing plea
+of a father and healed his epileptic son, out of whom the disciples were
+unable to cast the demon (Mark ix. 14-29; compare vi. 7, 13). It may have
+been the shock which the new lesson had given the disciples that accounted
+for the reproof of their lack of faith. The new evidence of Jesus' power,
+coupled with this reproof, seems to have restored their confidence in him.
+Perhaps, too, there was something contagious about the spirit of hope with
+which the three came from their vision of the Master's glory. For,
+although they were not free to tell what they had seen (Mark ix. 9), they
+could not have concealed the fact that their faith had received great
+encouragement. Whatever the cause, hope revived for the disciples, for on
+the way back to Capernaum a dispute arose among them concerning personal
+precedence in the kingdom which their Master should soon set up. In this
+rapid reaction from unbelief to faith the disciples seem to have forgotten
+the lesson of self-denial recently given them (Mark viii. 34, 35). In
+Peter's confession the corner-stone of the church was laid; but the
+superstructure was yet far out of sight. Although his own soul, taking its
+way down into the valley of shadows, might rightly have asked for sympathy
+and complained of its lack, Jesus simply set a little child in the midst
+of them, and taught them again the first lessons of faith,--gentle
+humility and trust. Thereby he rebuked the spirit of rivalry and asked of
+his disciples a generous, unselfish, and forgiving spirit (Matt, xviii.
+1-35).
+
+162. It was possibly at this time, certainly near the end of the Galilean
+ministry, that Jesus was approached by his own brethren, who urged him to
+try to win the capital. Their attitude was not one of indifference, though
+clearly not one of actual faith in his claim (John vii. 2-5). They seem to
+have felt that Jesus had not made adequate effort to secure a following in
+Jerusalem, and that he could not hope for success in his work if he
+continued to confine his attention to Galilee. Jesus knew conditions in
+Jerusalem far better than they did, and had no idea as yet of resuming a
+general ministry there. He therefore dismissed the suggestion, and left
+his brethren to go up to the feast disappointed in their desire that he
+make a demonstration at that time. Yet Jesus still yearned over Jerusalem.
+He knew in what organized opposition a general demonstration would result.
+There were some, however, in the capital who had real faith in him. His
+repeated efforts to win Jerusalem mean nothing if we do not recognize that
+he hoped against hope that many of the people might yet turn and let him
+lead them. With some such purpose, therefore, he went up a little later
+without ostentation, and quietly appeared in the temple teaching. The
+effect of this unannounced arrival was that the opposition was not ready
+for him. The multitude was compelled to form an opinion of him for itself,
+and he had opportunity to make his own impression for a time,
+independently of official suggestion as to what ought to be thought of
+him. This course resulted in a division of sentiment among the people, so
+much so that when the leaders, both secular and religious, sought to
+compass his arrest, the officers sent to take Jesus were themselves
+entranced by his teaching. In spite of the wish of the leaders Jesus
+continued to teach, and many of the people began to think of him with
+favor. When, however, he tried to lead them on to become "disciples
+indeed," they took offence, and showed that they were not ready yet to
+follow him. This effort to "gather the children of Jerusalem" resulted in
+new proof that they preferred his death to his message (John vii. 2 to
+viii. 59).
+
+163. Interesting evidence of the fact that "Jesus did many other signs
+which are not written" in our accepted gospels is found in the story of
+his dealing with an adulteress whom the Pharisees brought to him for
+judgment (John vii. 53 to viii. 11). This narrative had no secure place in
+any of the gospels in the earliest days, yet was so highly regarded that
+men would not let it go. Hence in the manuscripts which contain it, it is
+found in various places. Some give it in Luke after chapter xxi., some at
+the end of the Gospel of John, one placing it after John vii. 36. Many
+considerations combine to prove that it was no part of the Gospel of John,
+but as many show that it preserves a true incident in the ministry of
+Jesus. In scene it belongs to the temple, therefore in time to one of the
+Jerusalem visits. To which of those visits it should he assigned is not
+now discoverable. The ancient copyists who assigned it to this feast of
+Tabernacles, chose as well as later students can. If the incident belongs
+to this visit, it illustrates the patience and the keen insight of Jesus
+in his effort to win self-satisfied Jerusalem.
+
+164. John is silent concerning the doings of Jesus after the feast of
+Tabernacles. In x. 22 he notes that Jesus was at Jerusalem at the feast of
+Dedication, which followed two months later. It seems probable that after
+his hurried and private journey to the feast of Tabernacles (John vii. 10)
+he returned to Galilee and gathered to himself again the little company of
+his loyal followers, preparatory to that final journey to Jerusalem which
+should bring the end foreseen, unless, perchance, Israel should yet repent
+and turn unto the Lord. As the shadow deepened over his own life, and the
+persistency of the unbelief of his people appeared more and more clearly,
+the teachings of Jesus took on a new note of tragedy which was not
+characteristic of the earlier preaching in Galilee. Even when his topic
+was similar and his treatment of it not unlike some earlier discourse,
+there appeared in it here and there a warning of impending judgment. This
+is seen as early as the reply to the criticism of the disciples for
+disregard of traditions (Matt. xv. 13f.). Many discourses in the section
+peculiar to Luke show by the presence of this note of doom that they
+belong to this later time rather than to the Galilean period proper. (See
+the table prefixed to Chapter V.)
+
+165. Two years had nearly passed since Jesus withdrew from Judea to start
+his ministry anew in a different region and following a different method.
+The fruit of that ministry was small, but significant. His proclamation of
+the coming kingdom and his call to a deeper righteousness, coupled as they
+were with his works of heavenly power, had won at first an enthusiastic
+following. Realizing that an uncontrolled enthusiasm would thwart his
+purpose to introduce a kingdom of the spirit, Jesus had kept his Messianic
+claim in the background, seeking first to win disciples to the kingdom
+that he was proclaiming. Yet emphasize his message as he would, he could
+not conceal his personal significance. In fact he wished by winning
+disciples to his doctrine of the kingdom to attach followers to himself,
+the bearer of the words of eternal life. The great development of popular
+enthusiasm did not deceive him, nor did he hesitate, when the multitude
+would force him to do its will, to show clearly how far he was from being
+a fulfiller of their desires. By successive disappointments of the popular
+ideas he sifted his followers until a few were ready to follow him
+whithersoever he might lead. With these he allowed time for the fact of
+his unpopularity to appear, giving them opportunity to consider the
+relentless hostility of their national leaders to the teacher from
+Galilee. Then when the time was ripe he drew from the loyal few their
+declaration that they would follow him in spite of disappointments and
+unpopularity, their confession that he had come to be to them more than
+their cherished preconceptions, that he had won the mastery over their
+thought and life. He began then to prepare them for the end he had long
+foreseen, and at length, after giving them time for that perplexing
+mystery to find place in their hearts, he was ready to move on toward the
+crisis which he knew his public appearance in Jerusalem would precipitate.
+Before setting out on this journey his desire still to seek to win
+Jerusalem, if perchance it would repent, led him to visit the capital
+unannounced at the feast of Tabernacles. This taught him that, however
+ready some might be superficially to believe in him, he could as yet win
+in Jerusalem only hatred and plots against his life, and he returned to
+his faithful friends in Galilee.
+
+   Outline of Events in the Journey through Perea to Jerusalem
+
+
+   The final departure from Galilee--Matt. xix. 1, 2; viii. 19-22; Mark x.
+   1; Luke ix. 51-62.
+
+   The mission of the seventy--Matt. xi. 20-30; Luke x. 1-24.
+
+   The visit to the feast of Dedication--John ix. 1 to x. 39.
+
+   Possibly at this time: The parable of the Good Samaritan--Luke x.
+   25-37. The visit to Mary and Martha--Luke x. 38-42.
+
+   Return to Perea--John x. 40-42.
+
+   The visit to Bethany and the raising of Lazarus--John xi. 1-46.
+
+   The withdrawal to Ephraim--John xi. 47-54.
+
+   Events connected with the last journey to Jerusalem, which cannot be
+   more definitely located:
+
+   The question whether few are saved--Luke xiii. 22-30.
+
+   Reply to the warning against Herod, probably near the close--Luke xiii.
+   31-35.
+
+   The cure of ten lepers--Luke xvii. 11-19.
+
+   The question of the Pharisees concerning divorce--Matt. xix. 3-12; Mark
+   x. 2-12.
+
+   The blessing of little children--Matt. xix. 13-15; Mark x. 13-16; Luke
+   xviii. 15-17.
+
+   The question of the rich young ruler--Matt. xix. 16 to xx. 16; Mark x.
+   17-31; Luke xviii. 18-30.
+
+   The third prediction of death and resurrection--Matt xx. 17-19; Mark x.
+   32-34; Luke xviii. 31-34.
+
+   The ambitious request of the sons of Zebedee--Matt. xx. 20-28; Mark x.
+   35-45.
+
+   The last stage, Jericho to Jerusalem:
+
+   The blind men near Jericho--Matt. xx. 29-34; Mark x. 46-52; Luke xviii.
+   35-43.
+
+   The visit to Zacchæus--Luke xix. 1-10.
+
+   The parable of the pounds (minæ)--Luke xix. 11-28. Events and
+   discourses found in Luke ix. 51 to xviii. 14, which probably belong
+   after the confession of Peter, and very likely to some stage of the
+   journey to Jerusalem:
+
+   Woes against the Pharisees, uttered at a Pharisee's table--Luke xi.
+   37-54.
+
+   Warnings against the spirit of pharisaism--Luke xii. 1-59.
+
+   Comment on the slaughter of Galileans by Pilate--Luke xiii. 1-9.
+
+   Discourse on counting the cost of discipleship--Luke xiv. 25-35.
+
+   Discourse on the coming of the kingdom--Luke xvii. 20-37.
+
+   Parable of the Unjust Judge--Luke xviii. 1-8.
+
+   Parable of the Pharisee and the Publican--Luke xviii. 9-14.
+
+
+
+
+V
+
+The Journey through Perea to Jerusalem
+
+
+
+166. The fourth gospel says that after the visit to Jerusalem at the feast
+of Dedication Jesus withdrew beyond Jordan to the place where John at the
+first was baptizing (x. 40). Matthew and Mark also say that at the close
+of the ministry in Galilee Jesus departed and came into the borders of
+Judea and beyond Jordan, and that in this new region the multitudes again
+flocked to him, and he resumed his ministry of teaching (Matt. xix. 1f.;
+Mark x. 1). What he did and taught at this time is not shown at all by
+John, and only in scant fashion by the other two. They tell of a
+discussion with the Pharisees concerning divorce (Mark x. 2-12); of the
+welcome extended by Jesus to certain little children (Mark x. 13-16); of
+the disappointment of a rich young ruler, who wished to learn from Jesus
+the way of life, but loved better his great possessions (Mark x. 17-31);
+of a further manifestation of the unlovely spirit of rivalry among the
+disciples in the request of James and John for the best places in the
+kingdom (Mark x. 35-45),--a request following in the records directly
+after another prediction by Jesus of his death and resurrection (Mark x.
+32-34). Then, after a visit to Jericho (Luke xviii. 35 to xix. 28), these
+records come into coincidence with John in the account of the Messianic
+entry into Jerusalem just before the last Passover.
+
+167. The fourth gospel tells in addition of a considerable activity of
+Jesus in and near Jerusalem during this period. In making the journey
+beyond Jordan start from Jerusalem (x. 40), John shows that Jesus must
+have returned to the capital after his withdrawal from the feast of
+Tabernacles. When and how this took place is not indicated. Later, after
+his retirement from the feast of Dedication Jesus hastened at the summons
+of his friends from beyond Jordan to Bethany when Lazarus died (xi. 1-7).
+From Bethany he went not to the other side of Jordan again, but to Ephraim
+(xi. 54), a town on the border between Judea and Samaria, and from there
+he started towards Jerusalem when the Passover drew near. This record of
+John has, as Dr. Sanday has recently remarked (HastBD II. 630), so many
+marks of verisimilitude that it must be accepted as a true tradition. It
+demands thus that in our conception of the last journey from Galilee room
+be found for several excursions to Jerusalem or its neighborhood. One of
+these at least--to the feast of Dedication (x. 22)--represents another
+effort to "gather the children of Jerusalem." While not without success,
+for at least the blind man restored by Jesus gave him the full faith he
+sought (ix. 35-38), it showed with fuller clearness the determined
+hostility to Jesus of the influential class (x. 39).
+
+168. It has been customary to find in the long section peculiar to Luke
+(ix. 51 to xviii. 14) a fuller account of the Perean ministry, as it has
+been called. For it opens with a final departure from Galilee, and comes
+at its close into parallelism with the record of Matthew and Mark. Yet
+some parts of this section in Luke belong in the earlier Galilean
+ministry. The blasphemy of the Pharisees (xi. 14-36) is clearly identical
+with the incident recorded in Mark iii. 22-30, and Matt. xii. 22-45; while
+several incidents and discourses (see outline prefixed to Chapter III.)
+bear so plainly the marks of the ministry before the revulsion of popular
+favor, that it is easiest to think of them as actually belonging to the
+earlier time, but assigned by Luke to this peculiar section because he
+found no clear place offered for them in the record of Mark. Not a little,
+however, of what Luke records here manifestly belongs to the time when
+Jesus referred openly to his rejection by the Jewish people. The note of
+tragedy characteristic of later discourses appears in the replies of Jesus
+to certain would-be disciples (ix. 57-62), and in his warning that his
+followers count the cost of discipleship (xiv. 25-35). The woes spoken at
+a Pharisee's table (xi. 37-52), the warning to the disciples against
+pharisaism (xii. 1-12), and the encouragement of the "little flock" (xii.
+22-34), with many other paragraphs from this part of the gospel (see
+outline at the head of this chapter), evidently were spoken at the time
+of the approaching end. Some narratives reflect the neighborhood of
+Jerusalem, and naturally corroborate the indications in the fourth gospel
+that Jesus was repeatedly at the capital during this time. The parable of
+the good Samaritan, for instance, must have been spoken in Judea, else why
+choose the road from Jerusalem to Jericho for the illustration? The visit
+to Mary and Martha shows Jesus at Bethany, and the parable of the Pharisee
+and the Publican, naming the temple as the place of prayer, belongs
+naturally to Judea.
+
+169. The effort to find the definite progress of events in this part of
+Luke has not been successful. There are three hints of movement towards
+Jerusalem,--the introductory mention of the departure from Galilee (ix.
+51); a statement that Jesus went on his way through cities and villages,
+journeying on unto Jerusalem (xiii. 22); and again a reference to passing
+through the midst of Samaria and Galilee on the way to Jerusalem (xvii.
+11). The attempt to make the third of these belong actually to the last
+stages of the final journey seems artificial. Confessedly the expression
+"through the midst of Samaria and Galilee" is obscure. It is much easier
+to understand, however, if the journey so described is identified with the
+visit to Samaria with which the departure from Galilee opened. It seems
+probable that Luke found these records of events and teachings in Jesus'
+life, and was unable to learn exactly their connection in time and place,
+so placed them after the close of the Galilean story and before the
+account of the passion, much as later some copyist found the story of the
+adulteress (John vii. 53 to viii. 11), and, certain that it was a true
+incident, gave it a place in connection with the visit to the feast of
+Tabernacles (perhaps influenced by John viii. 15). It must always be
+remembered that the earliest apostolic writing--Matthew's Logia--probably
+consisted of just such disconnected records (see sects. 28, 42), and that,
+as Jülicher (Einleitung i. d. NT. 235) has said, the early church was not
+interested in _when_ Jesus said or did anything. Its interest was in
+_what_ he said and did.
+
+170. The time of the departure from Galilee for Jerusalem may be set with
+much probability not long before the feast of the Dedication in December;
+for at that feast Jesus was again in Jerusalem, and from it he returned to
+Perea (John x. 22, 40-42). He started southward through Samaria (Luke ix.
+51 ff.), and probably in connection with the early stages of the journey
+he sent out the seventy "into every city and place whither he himself was
+about to come" (Luke x. 1). It is not unlikely that, after the sending out
+of these heralds, he went with a few disciples to make one more effort to
+turn the heart of Jerusalem to himself (John ix., x.). It is impossible to
+determine whither the seventy were sent. The "towns and cities" whither
+Jesus was about to come may have included some from all portions of the
+land, not excepting Judea. The matter must be left in considerable
+obscurity. This, however, may be said, that the reasons offered for
+holding that the story of the sending out of the seventy is only a
+"doublet" of the mission of the twelve are not conclusive (see sect. A
+68). The connection in Luke of the woes against Capernaum, Bethsaida, and
+Chorazin with the instruction of the seventy is very natural, and marks
+this mission as belonging to the close of the Galilean period, while the
+mission of the twelve belongs to the height of Jesus' popularity.
+
+171. Our knowledge of Jesus' visit to the feast of Dedication is due to
+John's interest in the cure at about that time of one born blind (John
+ix., x.). The prejudice of the sanhedrists who excommunicated the man for
+his loyalty to Jesus led him in indignation to contrast their method of
+caring for God's "sheep" with his own love and sympathy and genuine
+ministry to their needs. He saw clearly that his course must end in death,
+unless a great change should come over his enemies; yet, as the Good
+Shepherd, he was ready to lay down his life for the sheep, rather than
+leave them to the heartlessness of leaders who cared only for themselves
+(x. 11-18). The critics of Jesus could not, or would not, understand his
+charge against them, and accused him of madness for his extraordinary
+claims. There were some, however, who could not credit the notion that
+Jesus had a devil (John x. 21). It is possible that it was at this time
+that the lawyer questioned him about the breadth of interpretation to be
+given to the word "neighbor" in the law of love, and was answered by the
+parable of the Good Samaritan (Luke x. 25-37). Possibly the parable of the
+Pharisee and the Publican (Luke xviii. 9-14) belongs also to this time. In
+general, however, the visit proved anew that Jerusalem was in no mood to
+accept Jesus (John x. 24-39). His enemies sought to draw from him a
+declaration of his claim to be the Messiah, and Jesus appealed to his
+works, asserting that only their incorrigible prejudice prevented their
+recognizing his claims. He added that his Father, with whom he was ever in
+perfect accord, had drawn some faithful followers to him, and thereupon,
+angered by his claim to close kinship with God, they appealed to the rough
+logic of violence (John x. 31-39; compare viii. 59).
+
+172. After this added attempt to win Jerusalem Jesus withdrew to the
+region beyond Jordan, where John had carried on his ministry to the eager
+multitudes. Here he anew attracted great attention, causing people to
+contrast his ministry with the less remarkable work of John, and to
+acknowledge that John's testimony to him was true (John x. 40-42).
+Possibly it was in this place that the seventy found Jesus when they
+returned to report the success of their mission (Luke x. 17-24), for the
+thanksgiving which Jesus rendered for the faith of the common people in
+contrast with the unbelief of the "wise and prudent" might well express
+his feeling after the fresh evidence he had at the feast of Dedication
+that Jerusalem would none of his mission. The invitation to all the heavy
+laden to take his yoke illustrates, though under another figure, his claim
+to be the Good Shepherd (Matt. xi. 28-30). We have no means of knowing how
+much more of what the gospels assign to the last journey to Jerusalem
+should be put in connection with this sojourn across the Jordan. The
+multitudes that came to him there may have included the Pharisees who
+questioned him about divorce (Mark x. 2-12), and the young ruler who loved
+his great possessions (Mark x. 17-31), as well as the parents who eagerly
+sought the Lord's blessing for their children (Mark x. 13-16). Some parts
+of Luke's narrative seem to belong still later in this journey, yet such a
+section as the reply of Jesus to the report of Pilate's slaughter of the
+Galileans (xiii. 1-9), or the parable of the Great Supper (xiv. 15-24), is
+suitable to any stage of it.
+
+173. This sojourn on the other side of Jordan was brought to a close by
+the summons to come to the aid of his friends in Bethany (John xi.). It is
+not strange that the disciples feared his return to Judea, nor that Jesus
+did not hesitate when he recognized the call of duty as well as of
+friendship. In no recorded miracle of Jesus is his power more signally set
+forth, yet here more clearly than anywhere else he is represented as
+dependent on his Father in his exercise of that power. The words of Jesus
+at the grave (John xi. 41, 42) show that he was confident of the
+resurrection of Lazarus, because he had prayed and was sure he was heard.
+It may be that his delay after hearing of the sickness of his friend (xi.
+6) was a time of waiting for answer, and that this explains his confidence
+of safety when the time came for him to expose himself again to the
+hostility of Judea. Jesus indicated not only that on this occasion he had
+help from above in doing his miracles, but that it was the rule in his
+life to seek such help and guidance (xi. 42). In fact, at a later time he
+ascribed all his works to the Father abiding in him (John xiv. 10; compare
+x. 25). The effect of the resurrection of Lazarus was such as to intensify
+the determination of the leaders in Jerusalem--both Pharisees and
+Sadducees--to get rid of Jesus as dangerous to the quiet of the nation
+(John xi. 47-54). In this it simply served to fix a determination already
+present (John vii. 25, 32; viii. 59; x. 31, 39). The miracle does not
+appear in John as the cause of the apprehension of Jesus, but rather as
+one influence leading to it. It was indeed the total contradiction between
+Jesus and all current and cherished ideas that led to his condemnation;
+the raising of Lazarus only showed that he was becoming dangerously
+popular, and made the priestly leaders feel the necessity of haste. The
+silence of the first three gospels concerning this event is truly
+perplexing, yet it is not any more difficult of explanation, as Beyschlag
+(LJ I. 495) has shown, than the silence of all four evangelists concerning
+the appearance of the risen Jesus to James, or to the five hundred
+brethren (I. Cor. xv. 6, 7). Room must be allowed in our conception of the
+life of Jesus for many things of which no record remains, all the more,
+therefore, for incidents to which but one of the gospels is witness.
+Moreover, after the collapse of popularity in Galilee, the great
+enthusiasm of the multitudes over Jesus when he entered Jerusalem (Luke
+xix. 37-40; Mark xi. 8-10) is most easily understood if he had made some
+such manifestation of power as the restoration of Lazarus.
+
+174. After the visit to Bethany Jesus withdrew to a little town named
+Ephraim, on the border between Judea and Samaria, and spent some time
+there in seclusion with his disciples (John xi. 54), doubtless
+strengthening his personal hold on them preparatory to the shock their
+faith was about to receive. Of the length of this sojourn nothing is told
+us, nor of the road by which Jesus left Ephraim for Jerusalem (John xii.
+1). The first three gospels show that he began his final approach to the
+Holy City at Jericho (Mark x. 46). It may be that he descended from
+Ephraim direct to Jericho some days before the Passover, rejoining there
+some of the people who had been impressed by his recent ministry in the
+region "where John at the first was baptizing." It is natural to suppose
+that it was on this journey to Jericho that he warned his disciples again
+of the fate which he saw before him in Jerusalem (Mark x. 32-34), and
+quite probably it was at this time that he rebuked the crude ambition of
+the sons of Zebedee by reminding them that his disciples must be more
+ambitious to serve than to rule, since even "the Son of Man came not to be
+ministered unto but to minister, and to give his life a ransom for many"
+(Mark x. 35-45). At Jericho he was at once crowded upon by enthusiastic
+multitudes. The feeling they had for him may perhaps be inferred from the
+cry of blind Bartimeus, "Thou son of David, have mercy on me" (Mark x.
+48). This enthusiasm received a shock when Jesus chose to be guest in
+Jericho of a chief of the publicans, a shock which Jesus probably intended
+to give, for much the same reason that led him afterwards on his way up to
+Jerusalem to teach his followers in the parable of the pounds that they
+must be ready for long delay in his actual assumption of his kingly right
+(Luke xix. 11-28). Finally, six days before the Passover, he and his
+disciples left Jericho and went up to Bethany preparatory to his final
+appearance in Jerusalem (John xii. 1).
+
+175. The interval between the final departure from Galilee and the public
+entry into Jerusalem was given to three different tasks: the renewed
+proclamation of the coming of the kingdom, further efforts to win
+acceptance in Jerusalem, if perchance she might learn to know the things
+that belonged to her peace; and continued training of the disciples,
+specially needed because of the ill-considered enthusiasm with which they
+were inclined to view the probable issue of this journey to Jerusalem. The
+first of these tasks was conducted as the earlier work in Galilee had
+been, both by teaching and healing, in which Jesus used his disciples even
+more extensively than before. It proved that here as in Galilee the common
+people were ready to hear him gladly, until he showed too radical a
+disappointment of their hopes. In this new ministry to the people Jesus
+spoke very frankly of the seriousness of the opposition which the leaders
+of the people were manifesting, and of the need that those who would be
+his disciples should count the cost of their allegiance (Luke xiii. 22-30;
+xiv. 25-35; xii. 1-59). He did not hesitate to administer the most
+scathing rebuke to the Pharisees for the superficiality and hypocrisy of
+their religious life and teaching (Luke xi. 37-54),--a rebuke which is
+emphasized by the parable in which, on another occasion, he taught God's
+preference for a contrite sinner over a complacent saint (Luke xviii.
+9-14). When reminded of Pilate's outrage upon certain Galilean
+worshippers, he used the calamity to warn his hearers that personal
+godliness was the only protection which could secure them against a more
+serious outbreak of the hostility of the Roman power (Luke xiii. 1-9); and
+it was probably in reply to such an appeal as accompanied this report of
+Pilate's cruelty that Jesus spoke the parable of the Unjust Judge (Luke
+xviii. 1-8), teaching that God's love may be trusted to be no less
+regardful of his people's cry than a selfish man's love of ease would be.
+
+176. The second of these tasks must not be held to be perfunctory, even
+though each new effort for Jerusalem proved that genuine acceptance of its
+saviour was increasingly improbable. As the denunciations of the older
+prophets ever left open a way of escape _if _ Israel would return and seek
+the Lord, so the anticipation of rejection and death which filled the
+heart of Jesus does not banish a like _if_ from his own thought of
+Jerusalem in his repeated efforts to "gather her children." The
+combination of the new popular enthusiasm and the fresh proofs of the
+hopelessness of winning Jerusalem made more important the third task,--the
+founding of the faith of the disciples on the rock of personal certainty,
+from which the rising floods of hatred and seeming ruin for the Master's
+cause could not sweep it. It was for them that much of his instruction of
+the multitudes was doubtless primarily intended; they needed above all
+others to count the cost of discipleship (Luke xiv. 25-35), and the
+warnings against the spirit of Pharisaism (Luke xii.) were addressed
+principally to them, even as it was to them that Jesus confessed the
+"straitening" of his own soul in view of the "fire which he had come to
+cast upon the earth" (Luke xii. 49-53),--a confession which had another
+expression when he found it needful to rebuke the personal ambition of the
+sons of Zebedee (Mark x. 35-45). As for Jesus himself, the popular
+enthusiasm had not deceived him, nor the obdurate unbelief of Jerusalem
+daunted him, nor his disciples' misconception of his kingdom disheartened
+him; he still steadfastly set his face to go to Jerusalem.
+
+   Outline of Events in the Last Week of Jesus' Life
+
+
+   _Saturday_ (?). The anointing in Bethany six days before the
+   Passover--Matt. xxvi. 6-13; Mark xiv. 3-9; John xi. 55 to xii. 11.
+
+   _Sunday_ (?). The Messianic entry--Matt. xxi. 1-11; Mark xi. 1-11; Luke
+   six. 29-44; John xii. 12-19.
+
+   _Monday_ (?). Visit to the temple: the cursing of the barren
+   fig-tree--Matt. xxi. 18-19, 12-17; Mark xi. 12-14, 15-18; Luke xix. 45,
+   47, 48.
+
+   Return to Bethany for the night--Matt. xxi. 17; Mark xi. 19; Luke xxi.
+   37, 38.
+
+   _Tuesday_ (?). Visit to the temple: the fig-tree found withered--Matt,
+   xxi 20-23; Mark xi. 20-27; Luke xx. 1.
+
+   Challenge of Jesus' authority--Matt. xxi. 23-27; Mark xi. 27-33; Luke
+   xx. 1-8.
+
+   Three parables against the religious leaders--Matt. xxi. 28 to xxii.
+   14; Mark xii. 1-12; Luke xx. 9-19.
+
+   The question about tribute--Matt. xxii. 15-22; Mark xii. 13-17; Luke
+   xx. 20-26.
+
+   The question of the Sadducees about the resurrection--Matt. xxii.
+   23-33; Mark xii. 18-27; Luke xx. 27-40.
+
+   The question of the Pharisees about the great commandment--Matt. xxii.
+   34-40; Mark xii. 28-34.
+
+   Jesus' counter-question about David's son and Lord--Matt. xxii. 41-46;
+   Mark xii. 35-37; Luke xx. 41-44.
+
+   Jesus' denunciation of the scribes and Pharisees--Matt, xxiii. 1-39;
+   Mark xii. 38-40; Luke xx. 45-47.
+
+   The widow's two mites--Mark xii. 41-44; Luke xxi. 1-4.
+
+   The visit of the Greeks--John xii. 20-36^a.
+
+   Final departure from the temple--John xii. 36^b (-50).
+
+   Discourse concerning the destruction of Jerusalem and the end of the
+   world--Matt. xxiv. 1 to xxvi. 2; Mark xiii. 1-37; Luke xxi. 5-38.
+
+   Plot of Judas to betray Jesus--Matt. xxvi. 3-5, 14-16; Mark xiv. 1, 2,
+   10, 11; Luke xxii. 1-6.
+
+   _Wednesday_. Retirement at Bethany. (?)
+
+   _Thursday_. The Last Supper--Matt. xxvi. 17-30; Mark xiv. 12-26; Luke
+   xxii. 7-30; John xiii. 1-30.
+
+   The farewell words of admonition and comfort--John xiii. 31 to xvi. 33.
+
+   The intercessory prayer--John xvii. 1-26.
+
+   _Friday_. The agony in Gethsemane--Matt. xxvi. 30, 36-46; Mark xiv. 26,
+   32-42; Luke xxii. 39-46; John xviii. 1.
+
+   The betrayal and arrest--Matt xxvi. 47-56; Mark xiv. 43-52; Luke xxii.
+   47-53; John xviii. 1-12.
+
+   Trial before the high-priests and sanhedrin--Matt. xxvi. 57 to xxvii.
+   10; Mark xiv. 53 to xv. 1^a; Luke xxii. 54-71; John xviii. 12-27.
+
+   Trial before Pilate--Matt, xxvii. 11-31; Mark xv. 1-20; Luke xxiii.
+   1-25; John xviii. 28 to xix. 16^a.
+
+   The crucifixion--Matt, xxvii. 32-56; Mark xv. 21-41; Luke xxiii. 26-49;
+   John xix. 16-37.
+
+   The burial--Matt, xxvii. 57-61; Mark xv. 42-47; Luke xxiii. 50-56; John
+   xix. 38-42.
+
+   _Saturday_. The Sabbath rest--Luke xxiii. 56^b.
+
+   The watch at the tomb--Matt, xxvii. 62-66.
+
+
+
+
+VI
+
+The Final Controversies in Jerusalem
+
+
+
+177. The early Christians were greatly interested in the teachings of
+Jesus and in his deeds, but they thought oftenest of the victory which by
+his resurrection he won out of seeming defeat. This is proved by the fact
+that of the first two gospels over one third, of Luke over one fifth, and
+of the fourth gospel nearly one half are devoted to the story of the
+passion and resurrection. This preponderance is not strange in view of the
+shock which the death of Jesus caused his disciples, and the new life
+which the resurrection brought to their hearts. The resurrection was the
+fundamental theme of apostolic preaching, the supreme evidence that Jesus
+was the Messiah. Hence the cross early became the object of exultant
+Christian joy and boasting; and in this the church entered actually into
+the Lord's own thought, for through the cross he looked for his exaltation
+and glory (Mark viii. 31; John xii. 23-36). From the time of the
+confession at Cæsarea Philippi, he had had his death avowedly in view, and
+had repeatedly checked the ambitious and unthinking enthusiasm of his
+disciples by reminding them of what he must receive at the hands of the
+leaders of the people. The few months preceding his final appearance in
+Jerusalem had been devoted to the journey to the cross. This explains the
+note of tragedy which appears in his teachings at this period. The people
+had shown that they would none of his ministry. In this they had written
+their national and religious death warrant, and as he approached Jerusalem
+for the final crisis he declared, though with almost breaking heart, "Your
+house is left unto you desolate" (Luke xiii. 31-35). Each new effort of
+Jesus to turn aside the impending judgment of his people by winning their
+acceptance of himself and his message resulted in a new certainty of his
+ultimate rejection, and thus in confirmation of the early recognized
+necessity, that, if he continued the work God had given him to do, he
+should suffer many things, and die at the hands of his own people.
+
+178. The last chapter in his public ministry began with his arrival at
+Bethany six days before the Passover. It is probable that the caravan with
+which Jesus was travelling reached Bethany not far from the sunset which
+marked the beginning of the Sabbath preceding the feast. Jesus had friends
+there who gladly gave him entertainment, and the Sabbath was doubtless
+spent quietly in this retreat. The holy day closed with the setting sun,
+and then his hosts were able to show him the special attention which they
+desired. The general cordiality of welcome expressed itself in a feast
+given in the house of one Simon, a leper who had probably experienced the
+power of Jesus to heal. He may have been a relative also of Lazarus, for
+Martha assisted in the entertainment, and Lazarus was one of the guests of
+honor (Mark xiv. 3; John xii. 2). During the feast, Mary, the sister of
+Lazarus, poured forth on the head and feet of Jesus a box of the rarest
+perfume. This act of costly adoration seemed extravagant to some,
+particularly to one of Jesus' disciples, who complained that the money
+could have been better spent. This criticism of one who had not counted
+cost in her service was rebuked by Jesus, who defended and commended Mary;
+for in the act he recognized her fear that he might not be long with her
+(Mark xiv. 8; John xii. 7). It is probable that this rebuke, with the
+clear reference to his approaching death, led Judas to decide to abandon
+the apparently waning cause of his Master, and bargain with the leaders in
+Jerusalem to betray him (Mark xiv. 3-11).
+
+179. The day following the supper at Bethany--that is, the first day of
+the week--witnessed the welcome of Jesus to Jerusalem by the jubilant
+multitudes. His mode of entering the city affords a marked contrast to
+his treatment of the determination to make him king after he had fed the
+multitudes in Galilee (John vi. 15). In some respects the circumstances
+were similar. A multitude of the visitors to the feast, hearing that Jesus
+was at Bethany on his way to Jerusalem, went out to meet him with a
+welcome that showed their enthusiastic confidence that at last he would
+assume Messianic power and redeem Israel (John xii. 12, 13). Jesus was now
+ready for a popular demonstration, for the rulers were unwilling longer to
+tolerate his work and his teaching. He had never hesitated to assert his
+superiority to official criticism, and at length the hour had come to
+proclaim the full significance of his independence. In fact it was for
+this that some months before he had set his face steadfastly to go to
+Jerusalem. When, therefore, the crowd from Jerusalem appeared, Jesus took
+the initiative in a genuine Messianic demonstration. He sent two of his
+disciples to a place near by to borrow an ass's colt, on which he might
+ride into the city, fulfilling Zechariah's prophecy of the "king that
+cometh meek, and riding upon an ass" (see Matt. xxi. 4, 5). At this, the
+enthusiasm of his followers, and of those who had come to meet him, became
+unbounded, and without rebuke from Jesus they proceeded towards Jerusalem
+crying, "Hosanna; Blessed _is_ he that cometh in the name of the Lord"
+(Mark xi. 9, 10). Notwithstanding the remonstrances of certain Pharisees
+among the multitude (Luke xix. 39), Jesus accepted the hosannas, for they
+served to emphasize the claim which he now wished, without reserve or
+ambiguity, to make in Jerusalem. The time for reserve had passed. The
+mass of the people with their leaders had shown clearly that for his
+truth, and himself as bearer of it, they had no liking; while the few had
+become attached to him sufficiently to warrant the supreme test of their
+faith. He could not continue longer his efforts to win the people, for
+both Galilee and Judea were closed to him. Even if he had been content,
+without contradicting popular ideas, to work wonders and proclaim promises
+of coming good, he could with difficulty have continued this work, for
+Herod had already been regarding him with suspicion (Luke xiii. 31). He
+had run his course and must measure strength with the hostile forces in
+Jerusalem. For the last encounter he assumed the aggressive, and entered
+the city as its promised deliverer, the Prince of Peace. The very method
+of his Messianic proclamation was a challenge of current Jewish ideas, for
+they were not looking for so meek and peaceful a leader as Zechariah had
+conceived; this entrance emphasized the old contradiction between Jesus
+and his people's expectations. He accepted the popular welcome with full
+knowledge of the transitoriness of the present enthusiasm. As he advanced
+he saw in thought the fate to which the city and people were blindly
+hurrying, and his day of popular triumph was a day of tears (Luke xix.
+41-44). The city was stirred when the prophet of Nazareth thus entered it;
+but he simply went into the temple, looked about with heavy heart, and, as
+it was late, returned to Bethany with the twelve for the night.
+
+180. On the following day Jesus furnished to his disciples a parable in
+action illustrating the fate awaiting the nation; for it is only as a
+parable that the curse of the barren fig-tree can be understood. The idea
+that Jesus showed resentment at disappointment of his hunger when he found
+no figs on the tree out of season is too petty for consideration. He was
+drawn to it by the early foliage, for it was not yet the season for either
+fruit or leaves. One is tempted to believe, as Dr. Bruce has suggested,
+that he had small expectation of finding fruit, and that even before he
+reached the tree with its early leaves he felt a likeness between it and
+the nation of hypocrites whose fate was so clear in his mind. The
+withering of the fig-tree set his disciples thinking; and Jesus showed
+that it was an object lesson, promising that the disciples, by the
+exercise of but a little faith, could do more, even remove
+mountains,--such mountains of difficulty as the opposition of the whole
+Jewish nation would offer to the success of their work in their Master's
+name.
+
+181. The curse upon the barren fig-tree was spoken as Jesus was going from
+Bethany to Jerusalem on the morning after his Messianic entry, that is, on
+Monday, and it was Tuesday when the disciples found it withered away (Mark
+xi. 12-14, 20-25). On Monday Jesus entered into the temple and taught and
+healed (Luke xix. 47; Matt. xxi. 14-16). It is at this point that Mark
+inserts the cleansing of the temple which John shows to belong rather to
+Jesus' first public visit to Jerusalem. The place which this incident
+holds in the first three gospels has already been explained by the fact
+that it furnished one cause for the official hostility to Jesus, and that
+Mark's story included no earlier visit to the holy city (sect. 116; see A
+39).
+
+182. Tuesday, the last day of public activity, exhibits Jesus in four
+different lights, according as he had to do with his critics, with the
+devout widow, with the inquiring Greeks, and with his own disciples. The
+opposition to him expressed itself, after the general challenge of his
+authority, in three questions put in succession by Pharisees and
+Herodians, by Sadducees, and by a scribe, more earnest than most, whom the
+Pharisees put forward after they had seen how Jesus silenced the
+Sadducees. Jesus met the opening challenge by a question about John's
+baptism (Mark xi. 29-33) which completely destroyed the complacency of his
+critics, putting them on the defensive. This was more than a clever
+stroke, they could not know what his authority was unless they had a quick
+sense for spiritual things. His question would have served to bring this
+to the surface if they had possessed it. Their reply showed them incapable
+of receiving a real answer to their question. It also gave him opportunity
+to say in three significant parables (Matt. xxi. 28 to xxii. 14) what
+their spiritual blindness signified for them and their nation, giving thus
+a turn to the interview not at all to their minds. As Jesus' rebuke was
+spoken in the hearing of the people, a determined effort was at once made
+to discredit him in the popular mind. The question (Mark xii. 13-17) with
+which the Pharisees and Herodians hoped to ensnare him was most subtle,
+for the popular feeling was as sensitive to the mark of subserviency which
+the payment of tribute kept ever before them as the Roman authorities were
+to the slightest suspicion of revolt against their sway. In none of his
+words had Jesus so clearly asserted the simple other-worldliness of his
+doctrine of the kingdom of God as in his answer to the question about
+tribute. For him loyalty to the actual earthly sovereign was quite
+compatible with loyalty to God, the lower obligation was in fact a summons
+to be scrupulous also to render to God his due,--a duty in which this
+nation was sadly delinquent. The reply gave no ground for an accusation
+before the governor; but the popular feeling against Rome was so strong
+that it is not unlikely that it contributed somewhat to the readiness of
+the multitude a few days later to prefer Barabbas to Jesus.
+
+183. A second assault was made by some Sadducees who put to him a crude
+question about the relations of a seven-times married woman in the
+resurrection (Mark xii. 18-27). If this question was asked with the
+expectation of making Jesus ridiculous in the sight of the people it was a
+marked failure, for his reply was so simple and straightforward that he
+won the admiration even of some of the Pharisees. The most significant
+feature of it was his argument from God's reference to himself as God of
+Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob; for in that he taught that the fact of
+fellowship with God implies that God's servants share with him a life that
+death cannot vanquish. The skill with which Jesus met these two questions
+interested some of his hearers and showed to his opponents that they must
+put forward their ablest champions to cope with him. The next test was
+more purely academic in character,--as to what class of commands is
+greatest in the law (Mark xii. 28-34). For the pharisaic scholars this was
+a favorite problem. For Jesus, however, the question contained no problem,
+since all the law is summed up in the two commandments of love. His
+contemporaries were not without power to see the truth of his
+generalization, and their champion in this last attack was moved with
+admiration for the fineness and sufficiency of Jesus' answer.
+
+184. All of the assaults served only to show freshly the clearness and
+profoundness of his thought; his critics were quite discomfited in their
+effort to entangle him. They had done with him, but he had still a word
+for them. The business of these scribes was the study of the scriptures.
+They furnished the people with authoritative statements of truth. One of
+the common-places of the current thought was that the Messiah should be
+David's son. Jesus did not deny the truth of this view, yet he showed them
+how partial their ideas were by quoting a word of scripture in which the
+Messiah is shown as David's Lord. If they had been open-minded they might
+have inferred from this that perhaps the man before them was not so
+impossible a Messiah as they thought. This last question closed the
+colloquy; there awaited yet, however, Jesus' calm, scathing arraignment of
+the hypocrisy of these religious leaders. There was no longer any need for
+prudence and every reason for a clear indication of the difference between
+himself and the scribes in motive, in teaching, and in character. The
+final conflict was on, and Jesus freely spoke his mind concerning their
+whole life of piety without godliness. Never have sharper words of
+reproach fallen from human lips than these which Jesus directed against
+the scribes and Pharisees; they are burdened with indignation for the
+misleading of the people, with rebuke for the misrepresentation of God's
+truth, and with scorn for their hollow pretence of righteousness. Through
+it all breathes a note of sorrow for the city whose house was now left to
+her desolate. The change of scene which introduces the widow offering her
+gift in the temple treasury heightens the significance of the
+controversies through which Jesus had just passed. In his comment on the
+worth of her two mites we hear again the preacher of the sermon on the
+mount, and are assured that it is indeed from him that the severe rebukes
+which have fallen on the scribes have come. There is again a reference to
+the insight of him who sees in secret, and who judges as he sees; while
+allusion is not lacking to the others whose larger gifts attracted a wider
+attention. The whole scene is like a commentary on Matt. vi. 2-4.
+
+185. Still a different side of Jesus' life appears when the Greeks seek
+him in the temple. They were probably proselytes from some of the Greek
+cities about the Mediterranean where the synagogue offered to the
+earnest-minded a welcome relief from the foolishness and corruption of
+what was left of religion in the heathen world. Having visited Jerusalem
+for the feast, they heard on every hand about the new teacher. They were
+not so bound to rabbinic traditions as the Jews themselves, they had been
+drawn by the finer features of Judaism,--its high morality and its noble
+idea of God. What they heard of Jesus might well attract them, and they
+sought out Philip, a disciple with a Greek name, to request an interview
+with his Master. The evangelist who has preserved the incident (John xii.
+20-36) evidently introduced it because of what it showed of Jesus' inner
+life; hence we have no report of the conversation between him and his
+visitors. The effect of their seeking him was marked, however, for it
+offered sharp contrast to the rejection which he already felt in his
+dealings with the people who but two days before had hailed him as
+Messiah. This foreign interest in him did not suggest a new avenue for
+Messianic work, it only brought before his mind the influence which was to
+be his in the world which these inquirers represented, and immediately
+with the thought of his glorification came that of the means thereto,--the
+cross whose shadow was already darkening his path. Excepting Gethsemane,
+no more solemn moment in Jesus' life is reported for us. A glimpse is
+given into the inner currents of his soul, and the storm which tossed them
+is seen. It is in marked contrast to the calmness of his controversy with
+the leaders, and to the gentleness of his commendation of the widow. The
+agitation passed almost at once, but it left Jesus in a mood which he had
+not shown before on that day; in it his own thoughts had their way, and
+the doctrine of the grain of wheat dying to appear in larger life, of the
+Son of Man lifted up to draw all men unto him, had utterance, greatly to
+the perplexity of his hearers. It seems to have been one of the few times
+when Jesus spoke for his own soul's relief.
+
+186. In all the earlier events of the day the disciples of Jesus appear
+but little. He is occupied with others, accepting the challenge of the
+leaders, and completing his testimony to the truth they refused to hear.
+The quieter hours of the later part of the day gave time for further words
+with his friends. The comment on the widow's gift was meant for them, and
+the uncovering of his own soul when the Greeks sought him was in their
+presence. After he had left the temple and the city he gave himself to
+them more exclusively. His disciples were perplexed by what they saw and
+felt, for the temper of the people toward their Master could not be
+mistaken. Yet they were sure of him. The leaders among them, therefore,
+asked him privately to tell them when the catastrophe should come, to
+which during the day he had made repeated reference. The conversation
+which followed is reported for us in the discourse on the destruction of
+Jerusalem and the end of the world (Mark xiii. and parallels), in which
+Jesus taught his disciples to expect trouble in their ministry, as he was
+meeting trouble in his; and to be ready for complete disappointment of
+their inherited hopes for the glory of their holy city. He also taught
+them to expect that his work would shortly be carried to perfection, and
+to live in expectancy of his coming to complete all that he was now
+seeming to leave undone. This lesson of patience and expectancy is
+enforced in a group of parables preserved for us in Matthew (chap. xxv.),
+closing with the remarkable picture of the end of all things when the
+Master should return in glory as judge of all to make final announcement
+of the simplicity of God's requirement of righteousness, as it had been
+exhibited in the life which by the despite of men was now drawing to its
+close.
+
+187. The bargain made by Judas to betray his Lord has always been
+difficult to understand. The man must have had fine possibilities or Jesus
+would not have chosen him for an apostle, nor would the little company
+have made him its treasurer (John xii. 6; xiii. 29). The fact that Jesus
+early discovered his character (John vi. 64) does not compel us to think
+that his selection as an apostle was not perfectly sincere; the man must
+have seemed to be still savable and worthy thus to be associated with the
+eleven others who were Jesus' nearest companions. It has often been
+noticed that he was probably the only Judean among the twelve, for
+Kerioth, his home, was a town in southern Judea. The effort has frequently
+been made to redeem his reputation by attributing his betrayal to some
+high motive--such as a desire to force his Master to use his Messianic
+power, and confound his opponents by escaping from their hands and setting
+up the hoped-for kingdom. But the remorse of Judas, in which De Quincey
+finds support for this theory of the betrayal, must be more simply and
+sadly understood. It is more likely that the traitor illustrates Jesus'
+words: "No man can serve two masters; for either he will hate the one and
+love the other; or else he will hold to the one and despise the other. Ye
+cannot serve God and mammon" (Matt. vi. 24). The beginning of his fall may
+have been his disappointment when Jesus showed clearly that he would not
+establish a kingdom conformed to the popular ideas. As the enthusiasm
+which drew him to Jesus cooled, personal greed, with something of
+resentment at the cause of his disappointment, seem to have taken
+possession of him, and they led him on until the stinging rebuke which
+Jesus administered to the criticism of Mary at Bethany prompted the man to
+seek a bargain with the authorities which should insure him at least some
+profit in the general wreck of his hopes. His remorse after he saw in its
+bald hideousness what he had done was psychologically inevitable. Although
+Jesus was aware of Judas' character from the beginning (John vi. 64), he
+that came to seek and to save that which was lost was no fatalist; and
+this knowledge was doubtless--like that which he had of the fate hanging
+over Jerusalem--subject to the possibility that repentance might change
+what was otherwise a certain destiny. As the event turned he could only
+say, "Good were it for that man if he had not been born" (Mark xiv. 21).
+
+188. With this the curtain falls on the public ministry of Jesus. The
+gospels suggest a day of quiet retirement following these controversies
+and warnings, with their fresh demonstration of the irreconcilable
+hostility of people of all classes to him and his work. After the
+seclusion of that day, he returned to give final proof of complete
+obedience to his Father's will.
+
+
+
+
+VII
+
+The Last Supper
+
+
+
+189. On Thursday Jesus and his disciples returned to Jerusalem for the
+last time. Knowing the temper of the leaders, and the danger of arrest at
+any time, Jesus was particularly eager to eat the Passover with his
+disciples (Luke xxii. 15), and he sent two of them--Luke names them as
+Peter and John--to prepare for the supper. In a way which would give no
+information to such a one as Judas, he directed them carefully how to find
+the house where a friend would provide them the upper room that was needed
+for an undisturbed meeting of the little band, and the two went on in
+advance to make ready. When the hour was come Jesus with the others went
+to the appointed place and sat down for the supper (Mark xiv. 17; Luke
+xxii. 14; Matt. xxvi. 20).
+
+190. The gospels all report the last evening which the little company
+spent together. There is a perplexing divergence, however, between John
+and the others concerning the relation of this supper to the feast of the
+Passover. In their introduction of the story, Mark and his companion
+gospels indicate that the supper which Jesus ate was the Passover meal
+itself. John, on the other hand, declares that it was "before the feast of
+the Passover" (xiii. 1) that Jesus took this meal with his disciples.
+John's account is consistent throughout, for he states that on the next
+day the desire of the Jews to "eat the Passover" forbade them to enter the
+house of the governor lest they should incur defilement (xviii. 28). The
+other gospels, moreover, hint in several ways that the day of Jesus' death
+could not have been the day after the Passover; that is, the first day of
+the feast of unleavened bread. Dr. Sanday has recently enumerated these
+afresh, remarking that "the Synoptists make the Sanhedrin say beforehand
+that they will not arrest Jesus 'on the feast day,' and then actually
+arrest him on that day; that not only the guards, but one of the disciples
+(Mark xiv. 47), carries arms, which on the feast day was not allowed; that
+the trial was also held on the feast day, which would be unlawful; that
+the feast day would not be called simply Preparation (see Mark xv. 42, and
+compare John xix. 31); that the phrase 'coming from the field' (Mark xv.
+21 [Greek]) means properly 'coming from work;' that Joseph of Arimathea is
+represented as buying a linen cloth (Mark xv. 46) and the women as
+preparing spices and ointments (Luke xxiii. 56), all of which would be
+contrary to law and custom" (HastBD ii. 634). In these particulars the
+first three gospels seem to confirm the representation of the fourth that
+the day of the last supper was earlier than the regular Jewish Passover.
+On the other hand, a strong argument, though one that has not commended
+itself to other specialists in Jewish archæology, has been put forth by
+Dr. Edersheim (LJM ii. 567f.) to prove that John also indicates that the
+last supper was eaten at the time of the regular Passover. In the present
+condition of our knowledge certainty is impossible. If John does differ
+from the others, his testimony has the greatest weight. While not
+conclusive, it has some significance that Paul identified Christ with the
+sacrifice of the passover (I. Cor. v. 7), a statement which may indicate
+that he held that Jesus died about the time of the killing of the paschal
+lamb. If John be taken to prove that the last supper occurred a day before
+the regular Passover, Jesus must have felt that the anticipation was
+necessary in order to avoid the publicity and consequent danger of a
+celebration at the same time with all the rest of the city.
+
+191. Whatever the conclusion concerning the date of the last supper, and
+consequently of the crucifixion, the last meal of Jesus with his disciples
+was for that little company the equivalent of the Passover supper. Luke
+states that the desire of Jesus had looked specially to eating this feast
+with his disciples (xxii. 15). The reason must be found in his certainty
+of the very near end, and in his wish to make the meal a preparation for
+the bitter experiences which were overhanging him and them.
+
+192. It is customary to connect as occasion and consequence the dispute
+concerning precedence which Luke reports (xxii. 24-30), and the rebuke
+which Jesus administered by washing the disciples' feet (John xiii. 1-20).
+The jealousies of the disciples may have arisen over the allotment of
+seats at the table, as Dr. Edersheim has most fully shown (LJM ii.
+492-503); such a controversy would be the natural sequel of earlier
+disputes concerning greatness, and particularly of the request of James
+and John for the best places in the coming kingdom (Mark x. 35-45), and
+would lead as naturally to the distress of heart with which Jesus declared
+that one of the disciples should betray him, and that another of them
+should deny him. The narrative in Mark favors the withdrawal of Judas
+before the new rite was appointed. This must seem to be the probability in
+the case, for the presence of Judas would be most incongruous at such a
+memorial service. John's mention of his departure before the announcement
+of Peter's approaching fall confirms this interpretation of Mark (Mark
+xiv. 18-21; John xiii. 21-30).
+
+193. The paschal memories furnished to Jesus an opportunity to establish
+for his disciples an institution which should symbolize the new covenant
+which he was soon to seal with his blood. Jesus regarded this new covenant
+as that which was promised by the prophets, especially Jeremiah (xxxi.
+31-34), and his thought, like that of the prophets, goes back to the story
+of the covenant established at Sinai (Ex. xxiv. 1-11). In this way he gave
+to his disciples a conception of his death, which later, if not
+immediately, would help them to regard it as a necessary part of his work
+as Messiah. They were now oppressed by the evident certainty that the near
+future would bring their Master to death; he accordingly gave them a
+sacred reminder of himself and of his death as an essential part of his
+self-giving "for them;" for whatever the conclusion concerning the
+disputed text of Luke (xxii. 19), the institutional character of the act
+and words of Jesus is clear. As Holtzmann remarks (NtTh i. 304): "The
+words 'this do in remembrance of me' were perhaps not spoken; all the more
+certainly do they of themselves express what lay in the situation and made
+itself felt with incontestable conclusiveness."
+
+194. Several hints in the records seem to connect the meal in various
+details with what is known of ancient custom in the celebration of the
+Passover. The hymn with which according to Mark and Matthew the supper
+closed is easily identified with the last part (Psalms cxv. to cxviii.) of
+the so called _Hallel_, which was sung at the close of the Passover meal.
+The mention of two cups in the familiar text of Luke (xxii. 17-20) agrees
+with the repeated cups of the Passover ritual; so also do the sop and the
+dipping of it with which Jesus indicated to John who the traitor was (John
+xiii. 23-26; Mark xiv. 20). If it could be proved that the customs
+recorded in the Talmud correctly represent the usage in Jesus' time it
+would be of extreme interest to seek to connect what is told us of the
+last supper with that Passover ritual as Dr. Edersheim has done (LJM ii.
+490-512). The antiquity of the rabbinic record is so uncertain, however,
+that it is only useful as showing what possibly may have been the case.
+All that can be asserted is that the rabbinic ritual probably originated
+long before it was recorded, and that as the last supper was a meal which
+Jesus and his disciples celebrated as a Passover, it is probable that some
+such ritual was more or less closely followed.
+
+195. Luke and John give the fullest reports of what was said at the table.
+All the gospels tell of Peter's declaration of superior loyalty and the
+prediction of his threefold denial; Luke, however, adds that in connection
+with it Jesus assured Peter of his restoration, and charged him to
+strengthen his brethren (Luke xxii. 31-34). John alone gives the long and
+full discourse of admonition and comfort, followed by Jesus' prayer for
+his disciples (xiii. 31 to xvii. 26). It is evident from the words of
+Jesus as he entered the garden of Gethsemane (Mark xiv. 33, 34), as from
+those which had escaped him when the Greeks sought him the last day in the
+temple (John xii. 27), that his own heart was greatly troubled during the
+supper by the apparent defeat which was now close at hand. His quietness
+and self-possession during the supper, particularly when tenderly
+reproving his disciples for petty ambition, or when solemnly dismissing
+the traitor, or warning Peter of his denials, must not blind us to the
+depth of the emotion which was stirring his own soul. It is only as we
+remember his trouble of heart that it is possible justly to value the
+ministry which in varied ways he rendered to his disciples that night. In
+the discourses reported by John he showed that he realized that the
+approaching separation would sorely try the faith of his followers, and he
+sought to strengthen them by showing his own calmness in view of it, and
+by promising them another who should abide with them spiritually as his
+representative, and continue for them the work which he had begun. He
+therefore urged them to maintain their devotion to him, still to seek and
+find the source of their life and secret of their strength in fellowship
+with him--present, though unseen among them. He sought to convince them
+that his departure was to be for their advantage, that fellowship with him
+spiritually would be far more real and efficacious than the intercourse
+they had already enjoyed. He whose own heart was "exceeding sorrowful even
+unto death" bade his disciples not to let their hearts be troubled nor
+afraid. How long the conversation continued, of when the company left the
+upper chamber, cannot be told. At some time before the arrival at
+Gethsemane Jesus turned to God in prayer for the disciples whom he was
+about to leave to the severe trial of their faith, asking for them that
+realization of eternal life which he had enjoyed and exemplified in his
+own intimate life with his Father. With this his ministry to them closed
+for the time, and, crossing the Kidron, he entered the garden of
+Gethsemane weighed down by the sorrow of his own soul.
+
+
+
+
+VIII
+
+The Shadow of Death
+
+
+
+196. Of the garden of Gethsemane it is only known that it was across the
+Kidron, on the slope of the Mount of Olives. Tradition has long pointed to
+an enclosure some fifty yards beyond the bridge that crosses the ravine on
+the road leading eastward from St. Stephen's gate. Most students feel that
+this is too near the city and the highway for the place of retreat chosen
+by Jesus. Archæologically and sentimentally the identification of places
+connected with the life of Jesus is of great interest. Practically,
+however, it is easy to over-emphasize the importance of such an
+identification. Granted the fact that in some olive grove on the
+mountain-side, where an oil-press gave a name to the place (Gethsemane),
+Jesus withdrew with his disciples on that last night, and all that is
+important is known. It is of far higher importance to see rightly the
+relation of what took place in that garden to the things which preceded
+and followed it in the life of Jesus. At that time Jesus saw pressed to
+his lips the "cup" from the bitterness of which his whole soul shrank. It
+was not an unlooked-for trial; some time earlier he had sought to cool the
+ardor of the ambition of James and John by telling them that they should
+drink of his cup, and declared that even the Son of Man came not to be
+ministered unto but to minister, and to give his life a ransom for many.
+The fourth gospel, whose representation omits the agony of Gethsemane and
+only reports its victory, tells how Jesus rebuked the violent impulse of
+Peter with the word, "The cup which my Father hath given me to drink shall
+I not drink it?" (John xviii. 11^b); and all the gospels exhibit the
+marvellous quietness of spirit and dignity of self-surrender which
+characterized Jesus throughout his trial and execution. In Gethsemane,
+however, we see the struggle in which that calmness and self-mastery were
+won.
+
+197. It is unbecoming to consider that scene with any vulgar curiosity to
+know what it was that made Jesus so draw back from the drinking of his
+"cup." It is not unfitting, however, to recognize that in his cry, "Abba,
+Father, all things are possible unto thee; remove this cup from me" (Mark
+xiv. 36), an intense longing of his own soul's life had expression. There
+was something in the fate which he saw before him from which his whole
+being shrank. But stronger than this was his fixed desire to do his
+Father's will. Here was supremely illustrated the truth that "he came down
+from heaven, not to do his own will, but the will of him that sent him"
+(John vi. 38). The fullest allowance for the shrinking of the most
+delicately constituted nature from pain and death completely fails to
+account for this dread of Jesus. He was no coward, drawing back from
+sufferings which for simple physical pain were over and again more than
+matched by many of the martyrs to truth who preceded and followed him. He
+himself declared to the sons of Zebedee that they should share a cup in
+kind like unto his, suffering for the kingdom of God, for the salvation
+of the world. Yet there is a difference evident between what others have
+had to bear and the cup from which Jesus shrank. The death which now stood
+before him in the path of obedience had in it a bitterness quite
+unexplained by the pain and disappointment it entailed. That excess of
+bitterness can probably never be understood by us. A hint of its nature
+may be found in the "shame of the cross" which the author of Hebrews (xii.
+2; xiii. 13) emphasizes, and in the "curse" of the cross which made it a
+stumbling block to Paul and his Jewish brethren (Gal. iii. 13; I. Cor. i.
+23). Jesus came from the garden ready to endure the cross in obedience to
+his Father's will; but it was a costly obedience, a complete emptying of
+himself (Phil. ii. 7, 8).
+
+198. The loneliness of Jesus in his struggle is emphasized in the gospels
+of Mark and Matthew. In search of sympathy he had confessed to the
+disciples his trouble of heart, and had taken his three intimates with him
+when he withdrew from the others for prayer, asking them to watch with
+him. They were too heavy of heart and weary of body to stand by in his
+bitter hour, and instead of being in readiness to warn him of the approach
+of the hostile band, he had to awake them to their danger. The fourth
+gospel reports that after the struggle Jesus bore marks of majesty which
+astonished and overawed his foes when he calmly told them that he was the
+one they were seeking. Their fear was overcome, however, when Judas gave
+the appointed sign by kissing his Master (Mark xiv. 45). The thought for
+the disciples' safety which John records (xviii. 8) is another proof that
+the fight had been won, and Jesus had fully resumed the self-emptying
+ministry appointed to him by his Father.
+
+199. The band that arrested Jesus was accompanied by a Roman cohort from
+the garrison of the city, but it was not needed, for the disciples offered
+no appreciable resistance; on the contrary, "they all forsook him and
+fled" (Mark xiv. 50). Having arrested Jesus, the band took him to Annas,
+the actual leader of Jewish affairs, though not at the time the official
+high-priest. He had held that office some time before, but had been
+deposed by the Roman governor of Syria after being in power for nine
+years. His influence continued, however, for although he was never
+reinstated, he seems to have been able to secure the appointment for
+members of his own family during a period of many years. Caiaphas, the
+legal high-priest, was his son-in-law. Annas, as the leader of
+aristocratic opinion in Jerusalem, had doubtless been foremost in the
+secret counsels which led to the decision to get rid of Jesus, hence the
+captive was, as a matter of course, taken first to his house. The trial by
+the Jewish authorities was irregular. There seems to have been an informal
+examination of Jesus and various witnesses, first before Annas, and then
+before Caiaphas and a group of members of the sanhedrin, the outcome of
+which was complete failure to secure evidence against Jesus from their
+false witnesses, and the formulation of a charge of blasphemy in
+consequence of his answer to the high-priest acknowledging himself to be
+the Messiah (Mark xiv. 61-64). The early hours before the day were given
+over to mockery and ill-usage of the captive Jesus. When morning was
+come, the sanhedrin was convened, and he was condemned to death on the
+charge of blasphemy (Mark xv. 1; Luke xxii. 66-71), and then was led in
+bonds to the Roman governor for execution, since the Romans had taken from
+the sanhedrin the authority to execute a death sentence (John xviii. 31).
+Before Pilate the Jews had to name an offence recognized by Roman law; his
+accusers therefore falsified his claim and made him out a political
+Messiah, hostile to Roman rule (Luke xxiii. 1, 2). Pilate soon saw that
+the charge was trumped up, and sought in every way, while keeping the
+good-will of the people, to escape the responsibility of giving sentence
+against Jesus. His first effort was a simple declaration that he found no
+fault in the prisoner (Luke xxiii. 4); then, having heard that he was a
+Galilean, he tried to transfer the case to Herod, who happened to be in
+the city at the time (Luke xxiii. 5-12); he then sought to compromise by
+agreeing to chastise Jesus and then release him (Luke xxiii. 13-16); next
+he offered the people their choice between the innocent Jesus and
+Barabbas, a convicted insurrectionist (Mark xv. 6-15; Luke xxiii. 16-24),
+and the people, instructed by the priests, chose Barabbas, caring nothing
+for a Messiah who would allow himself to be arrested without resistance;
+the fourth gospel tells of Pilate's still further effort, by appealing to
+the people's sympathy, to escape giving sentence, even after he had
+delivered Jesus to the soldiers for the preliminary scourging. Finding the
+Jews ready to urge, at length, a religious charge, Pilate's superstitious
+fear was roused (John xix. 7-12), and he sought again to release him, but
+was finally cowed by the threat of an accusation against him at Rome,
+and, mocking the people by sitting in judgment to condemn Jesus as their
+king, he gave sentence against the man whom he knew to be innocent (John
+xix. 12-16).
+
+200. Some of Jesus' disciples and friends were witnesses of the early
+stages of the informal trial, in particular, John (John xviii. 15) and
+Peter. It was during the progress of the early examination that Peter was
+drawn into his denials by the comments made by the bystanders on his
+connection with the accused. It has been suggested that the house of the
+high-priest where Jesus was tried was built, like other Oriental houses,
+about a court so that the room where Jesus was examined was open to view
+from the court. In this case it is easy to see how Jesus could overhear
+his disciple's strenuous denials of any acquaintance with him, and could
+turn and give him that look which sent him out to weep bitterly (Luke
+xxii. 61, 62). If it be further assumed that Annas and Caiaphas occupied
+different sides of the same high-priestly palace, the double examination
+reported by John would still be within hearing from the one court in which
+the faithless disciple was a fascinated witness of his Master's trial.
+
+201. Humanly speaking, it may be said that the fate of Jesus was sealed
+when the Sadducean leaders came to look on him seriously as a danger to
+the State (John xi. 47-50, note the mention of chief priests). The
+religious opposition was serious, and might have brought trouble, in some
+such way as it seems to have done to John the Baptist (see Matt. xvii.
+10-13; Luke xiii. 31, 32); but it is doubtful whether the governor would
+have given much attention to a charge not urged by the men of influence in
+Jerusalem. The notable thing in connection with the last days of Jesus'
+life is the joint opposition of Sadducean priests and Pharisaic scribes.
+That the populace easily changed their cry from "hosanna" to "crucify him"
+is not surprising. Their hosannas were due to a complete misconception of
+Jesus' aim and purpose; disappointed in him, they would be the earliest to
+cry out against him, especially when the choice lay between him and a
+genuine insurrectionist.
+
+202. Each fresh study of the trial of Jesus gives a fresh impression of
+his greatness. He who but a few hours before was pouring out his soul in
+prayer that his cup might pass, stands forth as the one calm and
+undisturbed actor among all those who took part in the tragic doings of
+that day. His judges and foes were all swayed by passion and self-interest
+and were ready to make travesty of justice, from the leaders of the
+sanhedrin who condemned him on one charge and accused him to the governor
+on another, to the governor himself, who appeared determined to release
+him if he could do it without risk of personal popularity, and who yet, in
+order to avoid accusation at Rome, gave sentence according to the people's
+will. The fickle populace crying "crucify him," the disciples who forsook
+him, the rock-apostle who denied even so much as knowledge of the man,
+show how all the currents of life about him were stirred and full of
+tumult. In all this, of which he was the occasion and centre, he stands
+the supreme example of dignity, self-mastery, and quietness. This is seen
+in his silence in the presence of Annas and Caiaphas, and later before
+Pilate; in his frank avowal of his Messianic claim in reply to the
+high-priest's challenge, and of his kingly rank in answer to the
+governor's question; and in the look of reproof which he turned upon
+Peter. Not that he was without feeling. There is strong sense of outrage
+in his words, "If I have spoken evil, bear witness of the evil, but if
+well, why smitest thou me?" It was not the quietness of stoic
+indifference, but of perfect self-devotion to the Father's will. He
+maintained it from the time of his arrest to the last cry of trust with
+which he committed his spirit to his Father.
+
+203. The scourging over, the mock homage of the soldiers done, he was led
+out beyond the city wall to be crucified. The exact place of the
+crucifixion can be determined as little as that of Gethsemane, though
+there is a tradition from the fourth century, and in addition there are
+many conjectures. Jesus was led, apparently, to the ordinary place of
+criminal execution, and with two others, probably insurrectionary robbers
+like those with whom Barabbas had been associated, he was crucified. Two
+episodes in the journey to the place of crucifixion are recorded,--the
+help which Simon of Cyrene was compelled to give to Jesus in carrying his
+cross (Mark xv. 21), and the word of Jesus to those who, following him,
+bewailed his fate (Luke xxiii. 27-31).
+
+204. Of the cruelty and torture of crucifixion much has been written and
+often. It would be difficult to exaggerate it. The death by the cross was
+a death by hunger and exhaustion in ordinary cases; it was thus torture
+prolonged for many hours. It is noticeable, however, that it is not the
+suffering but the disgrace and shame of the cross that occupied the
+thought of the apostolic days. Indeed, were physical suffering chiefly to
+be considered, it would have to be owned that the fact that Jesus died
+within a few hours released him from the most excruciating pains incident
+to this barbarous form of execution. The later ascetic thought loved, and
+still loves, to dwell on the physical torments of the Lord's death. They
+were severe enough to give us awe; but the biblical writers show a much
+healthier mind, and their thought does not invite comparison between the
+pains endured by the Master and those which some of his martyred followers
+bore with great fortitude. The disgrace of the cross was the uttermost;
+for the Romans it was the death of a slave, for the Jews it was patent
+proof of the curse of God (Deut. xxi. 23). The obedience of Jesus was
+unlimited when he submitted to death (Phil. ii. 8). It is on the shame of
+the cross, and on the sacrifice of himself for the life of the world when
+in obedience to his Father's will he "despised the shame," that the
+thought of the apostolic day laid emphasis. In this experience Jesus found
+himself in truth numbered with the transgressors; he was the object of
+scorn for all them that passed by, they mocked at him, at his works, and
+at his confident trust in God. In this last extremity the darkness of
+Gethsemane again swept over Jesus' soul, when he cried out "My God, my
+God," recalling the words of one of the saints of old in his hour of
+distress (Ps. xxii.). Yet, like him, Jesus kept hold on the certainty of
+deliverance; the darkness passed at length.
+
+205. The evangelists preserve several sayings of Jesus from the cross, the
+records of the different gospels being remarkably diverse. Mark and
+Matthew record the exclamation, "My God, my God _(Eloi, Eloi_), why hast
+thou forsaken me," which the bystander misconstrued as a call for Elijah,
+thinking this pseudo-Messiah was reproaching Elijah for failing to come to
+his help. The same gospels tell of the loud cry with which Jesus died.
+Luke omits the call _Eloi_, and gives in place of the last expiring cry
+the prayer of trust, "Father, into thy hands I commend my spirit" (xxiii.
+46). Earlier, however, this gospel tells of Jesus' word to the penitent
+robber, "To-day shalt thou be with me in Paradise" (xxiii. 43), and of the
+prayer for his foes, that is, for the Jewish people who blindly condemned
+him (xxiii. 34). The oldest manuscripts cause some doubt whether this last
+saying was originally a part of the Gospel of Luke. If it was not it would
+belong in the same class with the story of the sinful woman which we now
+find in John, both being authentic records of the life of Jesus, though
+from some other source than that in which we now find them. The fourth
+gospel gives quite an independent group of sayings. It interprets the
+dying cry as, "It is finished" (xix. 30), and preceding this it gives the
+cry, "I thirst" (xix. 28), which led to the offering of the vinegar of
+which the first two gospels speak. Earlier it tells of the committal of
+Mary to the care of the beloved disciple (xix. 26, 27). Of these seven
+sayings, "Eloi," "I thirst," "Father, into thy hand I commend my spirit,"
+and "It is finished" belong to the last hours of the life of the crucified
+one, after the darkness of which the first three gospels speak had
+overshadowed the land. Of the cause of that darkness they give no hint,
+for Luke's expression cannot mean an eclipse, since an eclipse at Passover
+time, that is, at full moon, is an impossibility. The conjecture that
+dense clouds hid the sun is common, and is as suitable as any other.
+Whatever the cause, the evangelists saw in it a token of nature's awe at
+the death of the Son of God. During the hours of the darkness the waves
+swept over his soul, as the cry "my God" shows to our reverent thought.
+But the last word of trust proves that the dying Jesus was not forsaken,
+and that Calvary, like Gethsemane, was a battle won. The earlier sayings
+all express Jesus' continued spirit of ministry, showing even in his
+bitter pain his accustomed thoughtfulness for others' need.
+
+206. It is futile to speculate on the cause of Jesus' early death. He
+certainly suffered a much shorter time than was ordinarily the case, as
+appears in the fact that at sunset it was necessary to break the legs of
+the robbers so as to hasten death, Jesus having already been some time
+dead. There is something attractive in the theory of Dr. Stroud (The
+Physical Cause of Christ's Death) that Jesus died of rupture of the heart.
+It may have been true, but the evidences on which he based his argument
+are insufficient for proof. To the Jews the death of their victim did not
+give all the satisfaction they desired. In the first place, Pilate
+insisted on mocking them by posting over the head of Jesus the placard,
+"The King of the Jews" (see John xix. 19-22); moreover, their haste had
+brought the crime into close proximity to the feast which they were eager
+to keep from defilement; so that they had still to beg of Pilate that he
+would hasten the death of the victims, that their bodies might not remain
+to desecrate the following Sabbath sanctity (John xix. 31-37); while for
+those who witnessed it the death of Jesus deepened the impression that a
+hideous crime had been committed in the slaughter of an innocent man (Mark
+xv. 39).
+
+207. Among the bystanders few of the disciples of Jesus were to be
+found--they were hiding in fear. Yet some faithful women, and two
+courageous councillors of Jerusalem, were bold enough to make their
+loyalty known. These two men, Joseph of Arimathea and Nicodemus, were
+members of the sanhedrin, but they had had no part in the condemnation of
+Jesus; and after knowing that he was dead, Joseph begged of Pilate the
+body, and he and Nicodemus took Jesus down from the cross and laid him in
+a tomb which Joseph owned near the place of crucifixion, rendering such
+tender ministries as were possible in the closing hours of the day. The
+women who had witnessed his end meanwhile were arranging also to anoint
+the body. They took notice where the two friends had laid him, and then
+went away to rest on the Sabbath day, according to the commandment.
+
+208. To the Jews it was a high day, the first Sabbath in the eight days of
+their holy feast (John xix. 31). They had eagerly guarded their conduct
+that no ceremonial defilement might prevent their sharing in the paschal
+feast. They believed that they had rid their nation of a dangerous
+disturber of its peace, and men whose conscience shrank not from making
+God's house a house of merchandise, who would punish one who ventured to
+cure a mortal disease if it chanced to cross their Sabbath traditions, who
+had condemned to death the holiest man and godliest teacher the world had
+ever seen because he did not square with their heartless formalism,--such
+men hardly had conscience enough to feel repentance or remorse for the
+cowardly injustice and crime with which of their own choice they had
+reddened their hands (Matt, xxvii. 25). They doubtless kept their feast
+with satisfaction. Not a few hearts, however, were heavy with grief and
+disappointed hope. They had believed that Jesus "was he that should redeem
+Israel" (Luke xxiv. 21). Stunned, they could not throw away the faith
+which he had kindled in their hearts. Yet he was dead, and only faintly,
+if at all, did they recall his prediction of suffering and his certainty
+of triumph through it all (John xx. 9). What remained for them was the
+last tender ministry to their dead Lord.
+
+   Outline of Events after the Resurrection
+
+
+   _The day of the resurrection--Sunday_. The visit of the women to the
+   tomb--Matt. xxviii. 1-8; Mark xvi. 1-8; Luke xxiv. 1-12; John xx. 1-10.
+
+   Jesus' first appearance; to Mary--Matt. xxviii. 9 10; [Mark xvi. 9-11];
+   John xx. 11-18.
+
+   The report of the watch--Matt. xxviii. 11-15.
+
+   The appearance to Simon Peter--I. Cor. xv. 5.
+
+   The walk to Emmaus--[Mark xvi 12,13]; Luke xxiv. 13-35.
+
+   The appearance to the ten in the evening--[Mark xvi. 14]; Luke xxiv.
+   36-43; John xx. 19-25; I. Cor. xv. 5.
+
+   _One week later--Sunday_. The appearance to the eleven, with
+   Thomas--John xx. 26-29.
+
+   _Later appearances_. To seven disciples by the sea of Galilee--John
+   xxi. 1-24.
+
+   To a company of disciples in. Galilee--Matt, xxviii. 16-20; [Mark xvi.
+   15-18]; I. Cor. xv. 6.
+
+   The appearance to James--I. Cor. xv. 7.
+
+   To the disciples in Jerusalem, followed by the ascension--Mark xvi. 19,
+   20; Luke xxiv. 44-53; Acts i. 1-12; I. Cor. xv. 7.
+
+
+
+IX
+
+The Resurrection
+
+
+
+209. Christianity as a historic religious movement starts from the
+resurrection of Jesus from the dead. This is very clear in the preaching
+and writings of Paul. The first distinctively Christian feature in his
+address at Athens is his statement that God had designated Jesus to be
+the judge of men by having "raised him from the dead" (Acts xvii. 31), and
+for him the resurrection was the demonstration of the divinity of Christ
+(Rom. i. 4), and the confirmation of the Christian hope (I. Cor. xv.).
+With him the prime qualification for an apostle was that he should have
+seen the risen Lord (I. Cor. ix. 1). The early preaching as recorded in
+Acts shows the same feature, for after repeated testimony to the fact that
+God had raised up Jesus, Peter summed up his address with the declaration,
+"Let all the house of Israel therefore know assuredly, that God hath made
+him both Lord and Christ, this Jesus whom ye crucified" (Acts ii. 36). In
+fact the buoyancy of hope and confidence of faith which gave to the
+despised followers of the Nazarene their strength resulted directly from
+the experiences of the days which followed the deep gloom that settled
+over the disciples when Jesus died.
+
+210. It can but seem strange to us that after Jesus had so often foretold
+his death and the resurrection which should follow it, his disciples were
+thrown into despair by the cross. Joseph of Arimathea and Nicodemus when
+they embalmed his body may not have known of these teachings which Jesus
+gave to the nearer circle of his followers, but it is difficult to believe
+that the women who prepared their spices to anoint his body (Mark xvi. 1)
+had heard nothing of these predictions, and it is certain that the
+apostles who received with incredulity the first news of the resurrection
+were the men whom Jesus had sought to prepare for this glorious victory.
+The disciples do not seem to have finished "questioning among themselves
+what the rising again from the dead should mean" (Mark ix. 10, compare
+Luke xviii. 34) until Jesus himself explained it by his return to them
+after his crucifixion. It was formerly common to conclude from the
+scepticism of the disciples that Jesus could not have told them, as he is
+reported to have done, that he would rise again the third day. It is now
+widely conceded, however, that if he foresaw and foretold his death, he
+surely coupled with it a promise of resurrection, otherwise he must have
+surrendered his own conviction that he was Messiah; for a Messiah taken
+and held captive by death was apparently as foreign to Jesus' thought as
+it was unthinkable for the men of his generation. The inability of the
+disciples to adjust their Messianic ideas to the death of their Master was
+not removed by the rebuke Jesus administered to Peter at Cæsarea Philippi;
+their objections were only silenced. It would seem that even when they saw
+his death to be inevitable, they were simply dumb with hope that in some
+way he would come off victor; the cross and the tomb crushed out that
+hope--at least from most of them. If one disciple, his closest friend,
+recalled and believed his words when he saw the empty tomb (John xx. 8),
+others were cast into still deeper sorrow by the report, and could only
+say, "But we hoped that it was he which should redeem Israel" (Luke xxiv.
+21).
+
+211. The light which banished the gloom from the hearts of Jesus'
+followers dawned suddenly. There was no time for gradual readjustment of
+ideas and the springing of hope from a faith which would not die. The
+uniform early tradition is that Jesus showed himself alive to his
+disciples "on the third day," that is, a little over thirty-six hours from
+the time of his death. Not only the gospels, but Paul, who wrote many
+years before our evangelists, testify to this (I. Cor. xv. 4), as does the
+very early observance of the first day of the week as "the Lord's day,"
+and the substitution of "the third day" for "after three days" in the
+gospels which made use of our Gospel of Mark (compare parallels with Mark
+viii. 81; ix. 31; x. 34, and see Holtzmann, NtTh I. 309). Of the events
+which occurred on that third day and after, our earliest account is that
+of Paul. He gives a simple catalogue of the appearances of the risen Lord,
+referring to them as well known, in fact as the familiar subject matter of
+his earliest teaching (I. Cor. xv. 4-8). He gives definite date to none of
+these appearances, indicating only their sequence. He tells of six
+different manifestations, beginning with an appearance to Cephas on the
+third day, then to the twelve, then to a large company of
+disciples,--above five hundred,--then to James, then to all the apostles.
+The sixth in the list is his own experience, which he puts in the same
+class with the appearances of the first Easter morning. Two of these
+instances are found only in Paul's account, the appearance to James and to
+the five hundred brethren, though this last may probably be the same as is
+referred to in the Gospel of Matthew (xxviii. 16-20).
+
+212. The gospel records are much fuller, but they differ from each other
+even more than they do from Paul. Mark is unhappily incomplete, for the
+last twelve verses in that gospel, as we have it, are lacking in the
+oldest manuscripts, and were probably written by a second-century
+Christian named Aristion, as a substitute for the proper end of the gospel
+which seems by some accident to have been lost. These twelve verses are
+clearly compiled from our other gospels. They have value as indicating the
+currency of the complete tradition in the early second century, but they
+contribute nothing to our knowledge of the resurrection. All, then, that
+Mark tells is that the women who came early on the first day of the week
+to anoint the body of Jesus found the tomb open and empty, and saw an
+angel who bade them tell the disciples that the Lord had risen. How the
+record originally continued no one knows, for Matthew and Luke use the
+same general testimony up to the point where Mark breaks off, and then go
+quite different ways. Of the two Matthew is closer to Mark than is Luke.
+The first gospel adds to the record of the second an account of an
+appearance of Jesus to the women as they went to report to the disciples,
+and then tells of the meeting of Jesus with the disciples on a mountain in
+Galilee, and his parting commission to them. It gives no account of the
+ascension. Luke agrees with Mark in general concerning the visit of the
+women to the tomb, the angelic vision, and the report to the disciples. He
+says nothing of an appearance of Jesus to the women on their flight from
+the tomb, but, if xxiv. 12 is genuine (see R.V. margin), he, like John,
+tells of Peter's visit to the sepulchre.
+
+213. Luke further reports the appearances of Jesus to two on their way to
+Emmaus, to Simon, and to the eleven in Jerusalem,--this last being blended
+consciously or unconsciously with the final meeting of Jesus with the
+disciples before his ascension. The genuine text of the gospel (xxiv. 50)
+says nothing of the ascension itself, but clearly implies it. In contrast
+with Matthew it is noticeable that Luke shows no knowledge of any
+appearance of Jesus to his disciples in Galilee. John is quite independent
+of Mark, as well as of Matthew and Luke. He mentions only Mary Magdalene
+in connection with the early visit to the tomb, though perhaps he implies
+the presence of others with her ("we" in xx. 2). He tells of a visit of
+Peter and John to the tomb, of an appearance of Jesus to Mary Magdalene,
+of an appearance to ten of the disciples in the evening, and a week later
+to the eleven, including Thomas. So far this gospel makes no reference to
+appearances in Galilee; but in the appendix (chapter xxi.) there is added
+a manifestation to seven disciples as they were fishing on the Sea of
+Galilee.
+
+214. Criticism which seeks to discredit the gospels, for instance most
+recently Réville in his "Jésus de Nazareth," discovers two separate and
+mutually exclusive lines of tradition,--one telling of appearances in
+Galilee, represented by Mark and the last chapter in John, the other
+telling of appearances in or near Jerusalem, and found in Luke and the
+twentieth chapter of John. It is said that the gospels have sought to
+blend the two cycles, as when Matthew tells of an appearance to the women
+in Jerusalem on their way from the tomb, and when the last chapter of John
+adds to the original gospel a Galilean appearance. Luke, however, who
+makes no reference at all to Galilean manifestations, is taken to prove
+that originally the one cycle knew nothing of the other. This theory
+falls, however, before the uniform tradition of appearances on the third
+day, which must have been in Jerusalem, and the very early testimony of
+Paul to an appearance to above five hundred brethren at once, which could
+not have been in Judea. It need not surprise us that there should have
+been two cycles of tradition, not however mutually exclusive, if Jesus did
+appear both in Jerusalem and in Galilee. The same kind of local interest
+which is supposed to explain the one-sidedness of the synoptic story of
+the public ministry would easily account for one line of tradition which
+reported Galilean appearances, and another which reported those in
+Jerusalem. Luke may have had access to information which furnished him
+only the Jerusalem story. John and Peter, however, must have known the
+wider facts. The very divergences and seeming contradictions of the
+gospels, troublesome as they are, indicate how completely certainty
+regarding the fact of the resurrection removed from the thought of the
+apostolic day nice carefulness concerning the testimony to individual
+manifestations of the risen Lord. Doubtless the first preaching rested, as
+in the case of Paul, on a simple "I have seen the Lord." When later the
+detailed testimony was wanted for written gospels, it had suffered the lot
+common to orally transmitted records, and divergences had sprung up which
+it is no longer possible for us to resolve. They do not, however,
+challenge the fact which lies behind all the varied testimony.
+
+215. A general view of the events of that third day and those which
+followed can be constructed from our gospels and Paul. Early on the first
+day of the week certain women, including Mary Magdalene, Mary the mother
+of James and Joses, Salome, Joanna, and others, came to anoint the body of
+Jesus. On their arrival they found that the stone had been rolled back
+from the tomb. Mary Magdalene saw that the grave was empty and ran to tell
+Peter and John. The others saw also a vision of angels which said that
+Jesus was alive and would see his disciples in Galilee, and ran to report
+this to the disciples. Meanwhile Mary Magdalene returned, following Peter
+and John who ran to see the tomb, and found it empty as she had said. She
+lingered after they left, and Jesus appeared to her, she mistaking him at
+first for the gardener. She then went to tell the disciples that she had
+seen the Lord. These events evidently occurred in the early morning. The
+next incident reported is that of the walk of two disciples, not of the
+twelve, to Emmaus, and the appearance of Jesus to them. At first they did
+not recognize him, not even when he taught them out of the scriptures the
+necessity that the Messiah should die. He was made known when at evening
+he sat down with them to a familiar meal. Either before or after this
+event he had shown himself to Peter. This is the first manifestation
+reported by Paul. If Luke xxiv. 12 is genuine (see R.V. margin), he also
+tells that when the two again reached Jerusalem the apostles received them
+with the news that Peter had seen the Lord. That same evening Jesus
+appeared suddenly among the disciples in their well-guarded upper room.
+His coming was such that he had to convince the disciples that he was not
+simply a disembodied spirit. Luke says that he did this by bidding them
+handle him, and by eating part of a fish before them. According to John,
+Thomas was not with the others at this first meeting with the disciples. A
+week later, presumably in Jerusalem, Jesus again manifested himself to the
+little company, Thomas being with them, and dispelled the doubt of that
+disciple who loved too deeply to indulge a hope which might only
+disappoint. He had but to see in order to believe, and make supreme
+confession of his faith. The next appearance was probably that to the
+seven disciples by the Sea of Galilee, when Peter, who denied thrice, was
+thrice tested concerning his love for his Lord. Then apparently followed
+the meeting on the mountain reported in Matthew, which was probably the
+same as the appearance to the five hundred brethren; then, probably still
+in Galilee, Jesus appeared to his brother James, who from that time on was
+a leader among the disciples. The next manifestation of which record is
+preserved was the final one in Jerusalem, after which Jesus led his
+disciples out as far as Bethany and was separated from them, henceforth to
+be thought of by them as seated at the right hand of God.
+
+216. This construction of the story as given in the New Testament does
+violence to the accounts in one particular. It holds that Matthew's report
+of the meeting of Jesus with the women on their way from the tomb on
+Easter morning is to be identified with his meeting with Mary Magdalene.
+This can be done only if it is supposed that in the transmission of the
+tradition the commission given the women by the angel (Mark xvi. 6f.)
+became blended with the message given to Mary by the Lord (John xx. 17),
+the result being virtually the same for the religious interest of the
+first Christians, while for the historic interest of our days it
+constitutes a discrepancy. The difficulty is less on this supposition than
+on any other. It is highly significant that the account of the most
+indubitable fact in the view of the early Christians is the most difficult
+portion of the gospels for the exact harmonist to deal with. This is not
+of serious moment for the historical student. It is rather a warning
+against theoretical ideas of inspiration.
+
+217. The universal acknowledgment that the early Christians firmly
+believed in the resurrection of their Lord has made the origin of that
+firm conviction a question of primary importance. The simple facts as set
+forth in the New Testament serve abundantly to account for the faith of
+the early church, but they not only involve a large recognition of the
+miraculous, they also contain perplexities for those who do not stumble at
+the supernatural; hence there have been many attempts to find other
+solutions of the problem. Some of the explanations offered may be
+dismissed with a word: for instance, those which, in one form or other,
+renew the old charge found in the first gospel, that the disciples stole
+the body of Jesus, and then declared that he had risen; and those which
+assume that the death of Jesus was apparent only, that he fainted on the
+cross, and then the chill of the night air and of the sepulchre served to
+revive him, so that in the morning he was able to leave the tomb and
+appear to his disciples as one risen from the dead. This apparent-death
+theory involves Jesus in an ugly deception, while the theory that the
+disciples or any group of them removed the body of Jesus and then gave
+currency to the notion that he had risen, builds the greatest ethical and
+religious movement known to history on a lie. A slightly different
+explanation which was very early suggested was that the Jews themselves,
+or perhaps the gardener, had the body removed, and that when Mary found
+the tomb empty she let her faith conclude that his absence must be due to
+his resurrection.
+
+218. This last explanation has in recent times been revived in connection
+with the so-called vision-hypothesis by Renan and Réville. Mary found the
+tomb empty, and being herself of a highly strung nervous nature--she had
+been cured by Jesus of seven devils--by thinking about the empty tomb she
+soon worked herself into an ecstasy in which her eyes seemed to behold
+what her heart desired to see. She communicated her vision to the others,
+and by a sort of nervous contagion, they, too, fell to seeing visions, and
+it is the report of these that we have in the gospels. The
+vision-hypothesis takes with some, Strauss for instance, a different form.
+These deny that the tomb was found empty at all, and regard this story as
+a contribution of the later legend-making spirit. They hold that the
+disciples fled from Jerusalem as soon as the death of Jesus was an assured
+fact, and not until after they found themselves amid the familiar scenes
+of Galilee, did their faith recover from the shock it had received in
+Jerusalem. In Galilee the experiences of their life with Jesus were lived
+over again, and the old confidence in him as Messiah revived. Thus
+thinking about the Lord, their hearts would say, "He cannot have died,"
+and after a while their faith rose to the conviction which declared, "He
+is not dead;" then they passed into an ecstatic mood and visions followed
+which are the germ out of which the gospel stories have grown.
+
+219. These different forms of the vision-hypothesis have been subjected to
+most searching criticism by Keim, who is all the more severe because his
+own thought has so much that is akin to them. There are two objections
+which refute the hypothesis. The first is that the uniform tradition
+which connects the resurrection and the first appearances with the "third
+day" after the crucifixion leaves far too short a time for the recovery of
+faith and the growth of ecstatic feeling which are requisite for these
+visions, even supposing that the disciples' faith had such recuperative
+powers. The second is that once such an ecstatic mood was acquired it
+would be according to experience in analogous cases for the visions to
+continue, if not to increase, as the thought of the risen Lord grew more
+clear and familiar; yet the tradition is uniform that the appearances of
+the risen Christ ceased after, at most, a few weeks. The only later one
+was that which led to the conversion of Paul; and though Paul was a man
+somewhat given to ecstatic experiences (see II. Cor. xii.), he carefully
+distinguishes in his own thought his seeing of the Lord and his heavenly
+visions. In a word, the disciples of Jesus never showed a more healthy,
+normal life than that which gave them strength to found a church of
+believers in the resurrection in the face of persecution and scorn.
+
+220. Keim seeks to avoid the difficulties which his own acute criticism
+disclosed in the ordinary vision-theory, by another which rejects the
+gospel stories as legendary, yet frankly acknowledges that the faith of
+the apostles in the resurrection was based on a miracle. Their certainty
+was so unshakable, so uniform, so abiding, that it can be accounted for
+only by acknowledging that they did actually see the Lord. This seeing,
+however, was not with the eyes of sense, but with the spiritual vision,
+which properly perceives what pertains to the spirit world into which the
+glorified Lord had withdrawn when he died. In his spiritual estate he
+manifested himself to his disciples, by a series of divinely caused and
+therefore essentially objective visions, in which he proved to them
+abundantly that he was alive, was victor over death, and had been exalted
+by God to his right hand. This theory is not in itself offensive to faith.
+It concedes that the belief of the disciples rested on actual disclosures
+of himself to them by the glorified Lord. The difficulty with the theory
+is that it relegates the empty tomb to the limbo of legend, though it is a
+feature of the tradition which is found in all the gospels and clearly
+implied in Paul (I. Cor. xv. 4; compare Rom. vi. 4); it also fails to show
+how this glorified Christ came to be thought of by the disciples as
+_risen_, rather than simply glorified in spirit. This criticism brings us
+back to the necessity of recognizing a resurrection which was in some real
+sense corporeal, difficult as that conception is for us. The gospels
+assert this with great simplicity and delicate reserve. They represent
+Jesus as returning to his disciples with a body which was superior to the
+limitations which hedge our lives about. It may be well described by
+Paul's words, "It is sown a natural body; it is raised a spiritual body."
+Yet the records indicate that when he willed Jesus could offer himself to
+the perception of other senses than sight and hearing--"handle me and see"
+is not an invitation that we expect from a spiritual presence. If,
+however, we have to confess an unsolved mystery here, and still more in
+the record of his eating in the presence of the disciples (Luke xxiv.
+41-43), it is permitted us to own that our knowledge of the possible
+conditions of the fully perfected life are not such as to warrant great
+dogmatism in criticising the account. The empty tomb, the objective
+presence of the risen Jesus, the renewed faith of his followers, and their
+new power are established data for our thought. With these, many of the
+details may be left in mystery, because we have not yet light sufficient
+to reveal to us all that we should like to know.
+
+221. The ascension of the risen Christ to his Father is the presupposition
+of all the New Testament teaching. The Acts, the Epistles, and the
+Apocalypse join in the representation that he is now at the right hand of
+God. In fact it may be said that such a view is involved in the doctrine
+of the resurrection, for the very idea of that victory was that death had
+no more dominion over him. It is a fact, however, that none of our gospels
+in their correct text (see Luke xxiv. 51, R.V. margin) tell of the
+ascension. Luke clearly implies it, and John says that Jesus told Mary to
+tell the disciples that he was about to ascend to his Father and their
+Father. In Luke's later book, however (Acts i. 1-11), he gives a full
+account of a last meeting of Jesus with the disciples, and of
+his ascension to heaven before their eyes. This withdrawal in the cloud
+must be understood as an acted parable; for, in reality, there is no
+reason for thinking that the clouds which hung over Olivet that day were
+any nearer God's presence than the ground on which the disciples stood.
+For them, however, such a disappearance would signify vividly the
+cessation of their earthly intercourse with their Lord, and his return to
+his home with the Father. The word of Jesus to Mary (John xx. 17) may
+fairly be interpreted to mean that Jesus had ascended to the Father on
+the day of the resurrection, and that each of his subsequent
+manifestations of himself were like that which later he granted to Paul
+near Damascus. In fact it is easier to view the matter in this way than to
+conceive of Jesus as sojourning in some hidden place for forty days after
+his resurrection. What the disciples witnessed ten days before Pentecost
+was a withdrawal similar to those which had separated him from them
+frequently during the recent weeks, only now set before their eyes in such
+a way as to tell them that these manifestations had reached an end; they
+must henceforth wait for the other representative of God and Christ, the
+Spirit, given to them at Pentecost.
+
+222. The faith with which the disciples waited for the promised spirit was
+a very different faith from that which Peter confessed for his fellows at
+Cæsarea Philippi. It had the same supreme attachment to a personal friend
+who had proved to be God's Anointed; the same readiness to let him lead
+whithersoever he would; the same firm expectation of a restitution of all
+things, in which God should set up his kingdom visibly, with Jesus as the
+King of men. Now, however, their trust was much fuller than before, and
+they looked for a still more glorious kingdom when their friend and Lord
+should come from heaven to assume his reign. They expected Christ to
+return soon in glory, yet his death and victory made them ready to endure
+any persecution for him, certain that, like the sufferings which he
+endured, it would lead to victory. These disciples had no idea that in
+preaching a religion of personal attachment to their Master, in filling
+all men's thoughts with his name, in building all hope on his return, and
+guiding all life by his teaching and spirit, they were cutting their
+moorings from the religion of their fathers. They remained loyal to the
+law, they were constant in the worship; but they had poured new wine into
+the bottles, and in time it proved the inadequacy of the old forms and
+revolutionized the world's religious life.
+
+
+
+
+
+Part III
+
+The Minister
+
+
+
+
+I
+
+The Friend of Men
+
+
+
+223. In nothing does the contrast between Jesus and John the Baptist
+appear more clearly than in their attitude towards common social life.
+John had his training and did his work apart from the homes of men. The
+wilderness was his chosen and fit scene of labor. From this solitude he
+sent forth his summons and warning to his people. They who sought him for
+fuller teaching went after him and found him where he was. They then
+returned to their homes and their work, leaving the prophet with his few
+disciples in their seclusion. With Jesus it was otherwise. His first act,
+after attaching to himself a few followers, was to go into Galilee to the
+town of Cana, and there with them to partake in the festivities of a
+wedding. While it is true that most of his teaching was by the wayside,
+among the hills, or by the sea, it is still a surprise to discover how
+often his ministry found its occasion as he was sitting at table in the
+house of some friend, real or feigned. The genuine friendships of Jesus as
+they appear in the gospels are among the most characteristic features of
+his life--witness the home at Bethany, the women who followed him even to
+the cross, and ministered to him of their substance, and the "beloved
+disciple." Jesus calls attention to this contrast between himself and
+John, reminding the people how some of the scornful pointed the finger at
+himself as "a gluttonous man and a wine-bibber, a friend of publicans and
+sinners." He received his training as a carpenter while John was in his
+wilderness solitude. Men who would probably have stood with admiration
+before John had he visited their synagogue, found Jesus too much one of
+themselves, and would none of him as a prophet (Mark vi. 2, 3).
+
+224. A like contrast sets Jesus apart from the scribes of his day. These
+were revered by the people, in part perhaps because they held the common
+folk in such contempt. Their attitude was frank--"this multitude which
+knoweth not the law is accursed" (John vii. 49). The popular enthusiasm
+for Jesus filled them with scorn, until it began to give them alarm. They
+were glad to be reverenced by the people, to interpret the law for them
+"binding heavy burdens and grievous to be borne;" but showed little
+genuine interest in them. Jesus, on the other hand, not only had the
+reverence of the multitudes, but welcomed them. First his words and his
+works drew them, then he himself enchained their hearts. Outcasts, rich
+and poor, crowded into his company, and found him not only a teacher, a
+prophet of righteousness rebuking their sins and calling to repentance,
+but a friend, who was not ashamed to be seen in their homes, to have them
+among his closest attendants, and to be known as their champion. It was
+when such as these were pressing upon him to hear him that Jesus replied
+to the criticism of the scribes in the three parables of recovered
+treasure which stand among the rarest gems of the Master's teaching (Luke
+xv.).
+
+225. One class only in the community failed of his sympathy,--the
+self-righteous hypocrites, who thought that godliness consisted in
+scrupulous regard for pious ceremonies, and that zeal was most laudable
+when directed to the removal of motes from their brothers' eyes. For these
+Jesus had words of rebuke and burning scorn. It has been common with some
+to emphasize his friendship for the poor as if he chose them for their
+poverty, and the unlettered for their ignorance. Yet Jesus had no faster
+friends than the women who followed from Galilee and ministered to him of
+their substance, and the two sanhedrists, Joseph whose new tomb received
+his body, and Nicodemus whose liberality provided the spices which
+embalmed him; for these, and not the Galilean fishermen, were faithful to
+the last at the cross and at the grave. In no home did Jesus find a fuller
+or more welcome friendship than in Bethany, where all that is told us of
+its conditions suggests the opposite of poverty. The rich young ruler, who
+showed his too great devotion to his possessions, would hardly have sought
+out Jesus with his question, if he was known as the champion of poverty as
+in itself essential to godliness. The demand made of him surprised him,
+and was suited to his special case. Jesus saw clearly the difficulties
+which wealth puts in the way of faith, but he recognized the power of God
+to overcome them, and when Zaccheus turned disciple, the demand for
+complete surrender of possessions was not repeated. On the contrary Jesus
+taught his disciples that even "the unrighteous mammon" should be used to
+win friends (Luke xvi. 9), so ministering unto some of "the least of these
+my brethren" (Matt. xxv. 40). The beatitude in Luke's report of the
+sermon on the mount (Luke vi. 20) was not for the poor as poor simply, but
+for those poor folk lightly esteemed who had spiritual sense enough to
+follow Jesus, while the well-to-do as a class were content with the
+"consolation" already in hand. Jesus' interest was in character, wherever
+it was manifest, whether in the repentance of a chief of the publicans, or
+in the widow woman's gift of "all her living;" whether it appeared in the
+hunger for truth shown by Nicodemus, a teacher of Israel, or in the woman
+that was a sinner who washed his feet with her tears. He was the great
+revealer of the worth of simple humanity, in man, woman, or child. Our
+world has never seen another who so surely penetrated all masks or
+disguising circumstances and found the man himself, and having found him
+loved him.
+
+226. This sympathy for simple manhood was manifested in a genuine interest
+in the common life of men in business, pleasure, or trouble. It is
+significant that the first exercise of his miraculous power should have
+been to relieve the embarrassment of his host at a wedding feast.
+Doubtless we are to understand that the miracle had a deeper purpose than
+simply supplying the needed wine (John ii. 11); but the significant thing
+is that Jesus should choose to manifest his glory in this way. It shows a
+genuine appreciation of social life quite impossible to an ascetic like
+the Baptist. The same appears in the way Jesus allowed his publican
+apostle to introduce him to his former associates, to the great scandal of
+the Pharisees; for a feast at which Jesus and a number of publicans were
+the chief guests accorded not with religion as they understood it. Jesus,
+however, seems to have found it a welcome opportunity to seek some of his
+lost sheep. The illustrations which he used in his teaching were often his
+best introduction to the common heart, for they were drawn from the
+occupations of the people who came to listen; while the aid Jesus gave to
+his disciples in their fishing showed not only his power, but also his
+respect for their work, a respect further proved when he called them to be
+fishers of men.
+
+227. Beyond this interest in life's joy and its occupations was that
+unfailing sympathy with its troubles which drew the multitudes to him. He
+was far more than a healer; he studied to rid the people of the idea that
+he was a mere miracle-monger. He healed them because he loved them, and he
+asked of those who sought his help that they too should feel the personal
+relation into which his power had brought them. This seems to be in part
+the significance of his uniform demand for faith. Doubtless Mary, out of
+whom he had cast seven devils, and Simon the leper, who seems to have
+experienced his power to heal, are only single instances of many who found
+in him far more than at first they sought. No further record remains of
+the paralytic who carried off his bed, but left the burden of his sins
+behind, nor of the woman who loved much because she had been forgiven
+much, nor of the Samaritan whose life he uncovered that he might be able
+to give her the living water. Some who had his help for body or heart may
+have gone away forgetful, after the fashion of men, but in the company of
+those who were bold to bear his name after his resurrection there must
+have been many who could not forget.
+
+228. Jesus' interest in common life was genuine, and he entered into it
+with his heart. The incident of the anointing of his feet as he sat a
+guest in a Pharisee's house shows that he was keenly sensitive to the
+treatment he received at the hands of men. He had nothing to say of the
+slights his host had shown him, until that host began mentally to
+criticise the woman who was ministering to him in her love and penitence.
+Then with quiet dignity Jesus mentioned the several omissions of courtesy
+which he had noticed since he came in, contrasting the woman's attention
+with Simon's neglect (Luke vii. 36-50). One of the saddest things about
+Gethsemane was Jesus' vain pleading with his disciples for sympathy in his
+awful hour. They were too much dazed with awe and fear to lend him their
+hearts' support. He recognized indeed that it was only a weakness of the
+flesh; yet he craved their friendship's help, and repeatedly asked them to
+watch with him, for his soul was exceeding sorrowful. In contrast with
+this disappointment stands the joy with which Jesus heard from Peter the
+confession which proved that the falling off of popular enthusiasm had not
+shaken the loyalty of his chosen companions,--"Blessed art thou, Simon
+Bar-Jonah: for flesh and blood have not revealed it unto thee, but my
+Father which is in heaven" (Matt. xvi. 17). There is the sorrow of
+loneliness as well as rebuke in his complaint, "O faithless generation,
+how long shall I be with you? how long shall I bear with you?" (Mark ix.
+19), and the lamentation over Jerusalem comes from a longing heart (Luke
+xiii. 34).
+
+229. The independence of human sympathy which Jesus often showed is all
+the more glorious for the evidence the gospels give of his longing for
+it. When he put the question to the twelve, "Would ye also go away?" (John
+vi. 67), there is no hint in his manner that their defection with the rest
+would turn him at all from faithfully fulfilling the task appointed to him
+by his Father. In fact only now and then did he allow his own hunger to
+appear. Ordinarily he showed himself as the friend longing to help, but
+not seeking ministry from others; he rather sought to win his disciples to
+unselfishness by showing as well as saying that he came not to be
+ministered unto but to minister. He washed the feet of his disciples to
+rebuke their petty jealousies, but we have no hint that he showed that he
+felt personal neglect. His own heart was full of "sorrow even unto death,"
+but his word was, "Let not your heart be troubled;" he asked in vain for
+the sympathy of his nearest friends in Gethsemane, yet when the band came
+to arrest him he pleaded, "Let these, the disciples, go their way."
+
+
+
+
+II
+
+The Teacher with Authority
+
+
+
+230. To his contemporaries Jesus was primarily a teacher. The name by
+which he is oftenest named in the gospels is Teacher,--translated Master
+in the English versions and the equivalent of Rabbi in the language used
+by Jesus (John i. 38). People thought of him as a rabbi approved of God by
+his power to work miracles (John iii. 2), but it was not the miracles that
+most impressed them. The popular comment was, "He taught them as one
+having authority, and not as the scribes" (Matt. vii. 29). Two leading
+characteristics of the scribes were their pride of learning, and their
+bondage to tradition. In fact the learning of which they were proud was
+knowledge of the body of tradition on whose sanctity they insisted; their
+teaching was scholastic and pedantic, an endless citing of precedents and
+discussion of trifles. To all this Jesus presented a refreshing contrast.
+In commending truth to the people, he was content with a simple "verily,"
+and in defining duty he rested on his unsupported "I say unto you," even
+when his dictum stood opposed to that which had been said to them of old
+time.
+
+231. In this freedom from the bondage of tradition Jesus was not alone.
+John the Baptist's message had been as simple and unsupported by appeal to
+the elders. Jesus and John both revived the method of the older prophets,
+and it is in large measure due to this that the people distinguished them
+clearly from their ordinary teachers, and held them both to be prophets.
+One thing involved in this authoritative method was a frank appeal to the
+conscience of men. So completely had the scribes substituted memory of
+tradition for appeal to the simple sense of right, that they were utterly
+dazed when Jesus undertook to settle questions of Sabbath observance and
+ceremonial cleanliness by asking his hearers to use their religious common
+sense, and consider whether a man is not much better than a sheep, or
+whether a man is not defiled rather by what comes out of his mouth than by
+what enters into it (Matt. xii. 12; Mark vii. 15). Jesus was for his
+generation the great discoverer of the conscience, and for all time the
+champion of its dignity against finespun theory and traditional practice.
+All his teaching has this quality in greater or less degree. It appears
+when by means of the parable of the Good Samaritan he makes the lawyer
+answer his own question (Luke x. 25-37), when he bids the multitude in
+Jerusalem "judge not according to the appearance, but judge righteous
+judgment" (John vii. 24), when he asks his inquisitors in the temple whose
+image and superscription the coin they used in common business bears (Mark
+xii. 16). His whole work in Galilee was proof of his confidence that in
+earnest souls the conscience would be his ally, and that he could impress
+himself on them far more indelibly than any sign from heaven could enforce
+his claim.
+
+232. Jesus was not only independent of the traditions of the scribes, he
+was also very free at times with the letter of the Old Testament. When by
+a word he "made all meats clean" (Mark vii. 19), he set himself against
+the permanent validity of the Levitical ritual. When the Pharisees pleaded
+Moses for their authority in the matter of divorce, Jesus referred them
+back of Moses to the original constitution of mankind (Matt. xix. 3-9).
+His general attitude to the Sabbath was not only opposed to the traditions
+of the scribes, it also disregarded the Old Testament conception of the
+Sabbath as an institution. Yet Jesus took pains to declare that he came
+not to set aside the old but to fulfil it (Matt. v. 17). The contrasts
+which he draws between things said to them of old and his new teachings
+(Matt. v. 21-48) look at first much like a doing away of the old. Jesus
+did not so conceive them. He rather thought of them as fresh statements of
+the idea which underlay the old; they fulfilled the old by realizing more
+fully that which it had set before an earlier generation. He was the most
+radical teacher the men of his day could conceive, but his work was
+clearing rubbish away from the roots of venerable truth that it might bear
+fruit, rather than rooting up the old to put something else in its place.
+
+233. The Old Testament was for Jesus a holy book. His mind was filled with
+its stories and its language. In the teachings which have been preserved
+for us he has made use of writings from all parts of the Jewish
+scriptures--Law, Prophets, and Psalms. The Old Testament furnished him the
+weapons for his own soul's struggle with temptation (Matt. iv. 4, 7, 10),
+it gave him arguments for use against his opponents (Mark xii. 24-27; ii.
+25-27), and it was for him an inexhaustible storehouse of illustration in
+his teaching. When inquirers sought the way of life he pointed them to the
+scriptures (Mark x. 19; see also John v. 39), and declared that the rising
+of one from the dead would not avail for the warning of those who were
+unmoved by Moses and the prophets (Luke xvi. 31). When Jesus' personal
+attitude to the Old Testament is considered it is noticeable that while
+his quotations and allusions cover a wide range, and show very general
+familiarity with the whole book, there appears a decided predominance of
+Deuteronomy, the last part of Isaiah, and the Psalms. It is not difficult
+to see that these books are closer in spirit to his own thought than much
+else in the old writings; his use of the scripture shows that some parts
+appealed to him more than others.
+
+234. Jesus as a teacher was popular and practical rather than systematic
+and theoretical. The freshness of his ideas is proof that he was not
+lacking in thorough and orderly thinking, for his complete departure from
+current conceptions of the kingdom of God indicates perfect mastery of
+ethical and theological truth. It is all the more remarkable, therefore,
+that so much of his profoundest teaching seems to have been almost
+accidental. The most formal discourse preserved to us is the sermon on the
+mount, in which human conduct is regulated by the thought of God as Father
+and Searcher of hearts. For the rest the great ideas of Jesus have
+utterance in response to specific conditions presented to him in his
+ministry. His most radical sayings concerning the Sabbath followed a
+criticism of his disciples for plucking ears of grain as they passed
+through the fields on the Sabbath day (Mark ii. 23-28); his authority to
+forgive sins was announced when a paralytic was brought to him for
+healing (Mark ii. 1-12); so far as the gospels indicate, we should have
+missed Jesus' clearest statement of the significance of his own death but
+for the ambitious request of James and John (Mark x. 35-45). Examples of
+the occasional character of his teaching might be greatly multiplied. He
+did not seek to be the founder of a school; important as his teachings
+were, they take a place in his work second to his personal influence on
+his followers. He desired to win disciples whose faith in him would
+withstand all shocks, rather than to train experts who would pass on his
+ideas to others. His disciples did become experts, for we owe to them the
+vivid presentation we have of the exalted and unique teaching of their
+Master; but they were thus skilful because they surrendered themselves to
+his personal mastery, and learned to know the springs of his own life and
+thought.
+
+235. Nothing in the teaching of Jesus is more remarkable than his
+confidence that men who believed in him would adequately represent him and
+his message to the world. The parable of the Leaven seems to have set
+forth his own method. We owe our gospels to no injunction given by him to
+write down what he said and did. He impressed himself on his followers,
+filled them with a love to himself which made them sensitive to his ideas
+as a photographic plate is to light, teaching them his truth in forms that
+did not at first show any effect on their thought, but were developed into
+strength and clearness by the experiences of the passing years. Christian
+ethics and theology are far more than an orderly presentation of the
+teaching of Jesus; in so far as they are purely Christian they are the
+systematic setting forth of truth involved, though not expressed, in what
+he said and did in his ministry among men. His ideas were radical and
+thoroughly revolutionary. His method, however, had in it all the patience
+of God's working in nature, and the hidden noiseless power of an evolution
+is its characteristic. Hence it was that he chose to teach some things
+exclusively in figure. So great and unfamiliar a truth as the gradual
+development of God's kingdom was unwelcome to the thought of his time. He
+made it, therefore, the theme of many of his parables; and although the
+disciples did not understand what he meant, the picture remained with
+them, and in after years they grew up to his idea.
+
+236. Jesus' use of illustration is one of the most marked features of his
+teaching. In one sense this simply proves him to be a genuine Oriental,
+for to contemplate and present abstract truths in concrete form is
+characteristic of the Semitic mind. In the case of Jesus, however, it
+proves more: the variety and homeliness of his illustrations show how
+completely conversant he was alike with common life and with spiritual
+truth. There is a freedom and ease about his use of figurative language
+which suggests, as nothing else could, his own clear certainty concerning
+the things of which he spoke. The fact, too, that his mind dealt so
+naturally with the highest thoughts has made his illustrations unique for
+profound truth and simple beauty. Nearly the whole range of figurative
+speech is represented in his recorded words, including forms like irony
+and hyperbole, often held to be unnatural to such serious speech as his.
+
+237. Another figure has become almost identified with the name of
+Jesus,--such abundant and incomparable use did he make of it. Parable
+was, however, no invention of his, for the rabbis of his own and later
+times, as well as the sages and prophets who went before them, made use of
+it. As distinguished from other forms of illustration, the parable is a
+picture true to actual human life, used to enforce a religious truth. The
+picture may be drawn in detail, as in the story of the Lost Son (Luke xv.
+11-32), or it may be the concisest narration possible, as in the parable
+of the Leaven (Matt. xiii. 33); but it always retains its character as a
+narrative true to human experience. It is this that gives parable the
+peculiar value it has for religious teaching, since it brings unfamiliar
+truth close home to every-day life. Like all the illustrations used by
+Jesus, the parable was ordinarily chosen as a means of making clear the
+spiritual truth which he was presenting. Illustration never finds place as
+mere ornament in his addresses. His parables, however, were sometimes used
+to baffle the unteachable and critical. Such was the case on the occasion
+in Jesus' life when attention is first called in the gospels to this mode
+of teaching (Mark iv. 1-34). The parable of the Sower would mean little to
+hearers who held the crude and material ideas of the kingdom which
+prevailed among Jesus' contemporaries. It was used as an invitation to
+consider a great truth, and for teachable disciples was full of suggestion
+and meaning; while for the critical curiosity of unfriendly hearers it was
+only a pointless story,--a means adopted by Jesus to save his pearls from
+being trampled under foot, and perhaps also to prevent too early a
+decision against him on the part of his opponents.
+
+238. In nothing is Jesus' ease in handling deepest truth more apparent
+than in his use of irony and hyperbole in his illustrations. In his
+reference to the Pharisees as "ninety and nine just persons which need no
+repentance" (Luke xv. 7), and in his question, "Many good works have I
+shewed you from the Father, for which of these works do you stone me?"
+(John x. 32), the irony is plain, but not any plainer than the rhetorical
+exaggeration of his accusation against the scribes, "You strain out a gnat
+and swallow a camel" (Matt, xxiii. 24), or his declaration that "it is
+easier for a camel to go through a needle's eye than for a rich man to
+enter into the kingdom of God" (Mark x. 25), or his charge, "If a man
+cometh unto me and hateth not his own father and mother ... he cannot be
+my disciple" (Luke xiv. 26). The force of these statements is in their
+hyperbole. Only to an interpretation which regards the letter above the
+spirit can they cause difficulty. In so far as they remove Jesus utterly
+from the pedantic carefulness for words which marked the scribes they are
+among the rare treasures of his teachings. The simple spirit will not busy
+itself about finding something that may be called a needle's eye through
+which a camel can pass by squeezing, nor will it seek a camel which could
+conceivably be swallowed, nor will it stumble at a seeming command to hate
+those for whom God's law, as emphasized indeed by Jesus (Mark vii. 6-13),
+demands peculiar love and honor. The childlike spirit which is heir of
+God's kingdom readily understands this warning against the snare of
+riches, this rebuke of the hypocritical life, and this demand for a love
+for the Master which shall take the first place in the heart.
+
+239. Jesus sometimes used object lessons as well as illustrations, and
+for the same purpose,--to make his thought transparently clear to his
+hearers. The demand for a childlike faith in order to enter the kingdom of
+God was enforced by the presence of a little child whom Jesus set in the
+midst of the circle to whom he was talking (Mark ix. 35-37). The unworthy
+ambitions of the disciples were rebuked by Jesus' taking himself the
+menial place and washing their feet (John xiii. 1-15).
+
+240. The simplicity and homeliness of Jesus' teaching are not more
+remarkable than the alertness of mind which he showed on all occasions.
+The comment of the fourth gospel, "he needed not that any one should bear
+witness concerning man, for he himself knew what was in man" (ii. 25),
+doubtless refers to his supernatural insight, but it also tells of his
+quick perception of what was involved in each situation in which he found
+himself. Whether it was Nicodemus coming to him by night, or the lawyer
+asking, "Who is my neighbor?" or a dissatisfied heir demanding that his
+brother divide the inheritance with him, or a group of Pharisees seeking
+to undermine his power by attributing his cures to the devil, or trying to
+entrap him by a question about tribute, Jesus was never caught unawares.
+His absorption in heavenly truth was not accompanied by any blindness to
+earthly facts. He knew what the men of his day were thinking about, what
+they hoped for, to what follies they gave their hearts, and what sins hid
+God from them. He was eminently a man of the people, thoroughly acquainted
+with all that interested his fellows, and in the most natural, human way.
+Whatever of the supernatural there was in his knowledge did not make it
+unnatural. As he was socially at ease with the best and most cultivated
+of his day, so he was intellectually the master of every situation. This
+appears nowhere more strikingly than in his dealing with his pharisaic
+critics. When they were shocked by his forgiveness of sins, or offended by
+his indifference to the Sabbath tradition, or goaded into blasphemy by his
+growing influence over the people, or troubled by his disciples' disregard
+of the traditional washings, or when later they conspired to entrap him in
+his speech,--from first to last he was so manifestly superior to his
+opponents that they withdrew discomfited, until at length they in madness
+killed, without reason, him against whom they could find no adequate
+charge. His lack of "learning" (John vii. 15) was simply his innocence of
+rabbinic training; he had no diploma from their schools. In keenness of
+argument, however, and invincibleness of reasoning, as well as in the
+clearness of his insight, he was ever their unapproachable superior. His
+reply to the charge of league with Beelzebub is as merciless an exposure
+of feeble malice as can be found in human literature. He was as worthy to
+be Master of his disciples' thinking as he was to be Lord of their hearts.
+
+241. In the teaching of Jesus two topics have the leading place,--the
+Kingdom of God, and Himself. His thought about himself calls for separate
+consideration, but it may be remarked here that as his ministry progressed
+he spoke with increasing frankness about his own claims. It became more
+and more apparent that he sought to be Lord rather than Teacher simply,
+and to impress men with himself rather than with his ideas. Yet his ideas
+were constantly urged on his disciples, and they were summed up in his
+conception of the kingdom of God, or the kingdom of heaven. This was the
+topic, directly or indirectly, of far the greater part of his teaching.
+The phrase was as familiar to his contemporaries as it is common in his
+words; but his understanding of it was radically different from theirs. He
+and they took it to mean the realization on earth of heavenly conditions
+(kingdom of heaven), or of God's actual sovereignty over the world
+(kingdom of God); but of the God whose will was thus to be realized they
+conceived quite differently. Strictly speaking there is nothing novel in
+the idea of God as Father which abounds in the teaching of Jesus. He never
+offers it as novel, but takes it for granted that his hearers are familiar
+with the name. It appears in some earlier writers both in and out of the
+Old Testament. Yet no one of them uses it as constantly, as naturally, and
+as confidently as did Jesus. With him it was the simple equivalent of his
+idea of God, and it was central for his personal religious life as well as
+for his teaching. "My Father" always lies back of references in his
+teaching to "your Father." This is the key to what is novel in Jesus' idea
+of the kingdom of God. His contemporaries thought of God as the covenant
+king of Israel who would in his own time make good his promises, rid his
+people of their foes, set them on high among the nations, establish his
+law in their hearts, and rule over them as their king. The whole
+conception, while in a real sense religious, was concerned more with the
+nation than with individuals, and looked rather for temporal blessings
+than for spiritual good. With Jesus the kingdom is the realization of
+God's fatherly sway over the hearts of his children. It begins when men
+come to own God as their Father, and seek to do his will for the love
+they bear him. It shows development towards its full manifestation when
+men as children of God look on each other as brothers, and govern conduct
+by love which will no more limit itself to friends than God shuts off his
+sunlight from sinners. From this love to God and men it will grow into a
+new order of things in which God's will shall be done as it is in heaven,
+even as from the little leaven the whole lump is leavened. Jesus did not
+set aside the idea of a judgment, but while his fellows commonly made it
+the inauguration, he made it the consummation of the kingdom; they thought
+of it as the day of confusion for apostates and Gentiles, he taught that
+it would be the day of condemnation of all unbrotherliness (Matt. xxv.
+31-46). This central idea--a new order of life in which men have come to
+love and obey God as their Father, and to love and live for men as their
+brothers--attaches to itself naturally all the various phases of the
+teaching of Jesus, including his emphasis on himself; for he made that
+emphasis in order that, as the Way, the Truth, and the Life, he might lead
+men unto the Father.
+
+
+
+
+III
+
+Jesus' Knowledge of Truth
+
+
+
+242. The note of authority in the teaching of Jesus is evidence of his own
+clear knowledge of the things of which he spoke. As if by swift intuition,
+his mind penetrated to the heart of things. In the scriptures he saw the
+underlying truth which should stand till heaven and earth shall pass
+(Matt. v. 18); in the ceremonies of his people's religion he saw so
+clearly the spiritual significance that he did not hesitate to sacrifice
+the passing form (Mark vii. 14-23); such a theological development as the
+pharisaic doctrine of the resurrection he unhesitatingly adopted because
+he saw that it was based on the ultimate significance of the soul's
+fellowship with God (Mark xiii. 24-27); he reduced religion and ethics to
+simplicity by summing up all commandments in one,--Thou shalt love (Matt.
+xxii. 37-40); and at the same time insisted as no other prophet had done
+on the finality of conduct and the necessity of obedience (Matt. vii.
+21-27). His penetration to the heart of an idea was nowhere more clear
+than in his doctrine of the kingdom of God as realized in the filial soul,
+and as involving a judgment which should take cognizance only of
+brotherliness of conduct. It would not be difficult to show that all these
+different aspects of his teaching grew naturally out of his knowledge of
+God as his Father and the Father of all men; they were the fruit,
+therefore, of personal certainty of ultimate and all-dominating truth.
+
+243. If the knowledge of Jesus had been shown only in matters of spiritual
+truth, it would still have marked him as one apart from ordinary men.
+There were other directions, however, in which he surpassed the common
+mind. The fourth gospel declares that "he knew what was in man" (ii. 25),
+and all the evangelists give evidence of such knowledge. Not only the
+designation of Judas as the traitor, and of Peter as the one who should
+deny him, before their weakness and sin had shown themselves, but also
+Jesus' quick reading of the heart of the paralytic who was brought to him
+for healing, and of the woman who washed his feet with her tears (Mark ii.
+5; Luke vii. 47), and his knowledge of the character of Simon and
+Nathanael (John i. 42, 47,) as well as his sure perception of the intent
+of the various questioners whom he met, indicate that he had powers of
+insight unshared by his fellow men.
+
+244. Furthermore, the gospels state explicitly that Jesus predicted his
+own death from a time at least six months before the end (Matt. xvi. 21),
+and they indicate that the idea was not new to him when he first
+communicated it to his disciples (Matt. xvi. 23; Mark ii. 20). He viewed
+his approaching death, moreover, as a necessity (Mark viii. 31-33), yet he
+was no fatalist concerning it. He could still in Gethsemane plead with his
+Father, to whom all things are possible, to open to him some other way of
+accomplishing his work (Mark xiv. 36). The old Testament picture of the
+suffering and dying servant of Jehovah (Isa. liii.) was doubtless
+familiar to Jesus. Although it was not interpreted Messianically by the
+scribes, Jesus probably applied it to himself when thinking of his death;
+yet the predictions of the prophets always provided for a non-fulfilment
+in case Israel should turn unto the Lord in truth (see Ezek. xxxiii.
+10-20). Moreover, the contradiction which Jesus felt between his ideas and
+those cherished by the leaders of his people, whether priests or scribes,
+was so radical that his death might well seem inevitable; yet it was
+possible that his people might repent, and Jerusalem consent to accept him
+as God's anointed. Neither prophecy, nor the actual conditions of his
+life, therefore, would give Jesus any fatalistic certainty of his coming
+death. In Gethsemane his heart pleaded against it, while his will bowed
+still to God in perfect loyalty. It is not for us to explain his
+prediction of death by appealing to the connection which the apostolic
+thought established between the death of Christ and the salvation of men,
+for we are not competent to say that God could not have effected
+redemption in some other way if the repentance of the Jews had, humanly
+speaking, removed from Jesus the necessity of death. All that can be said
+is that he knew the prophetic picture, knew also the hardness of heart
+which had taken possession of the Jews, and knew that he must not swerve
+from his course of obedience to what he saw to be God's will for him.
+Since that obedience brought him into fatal opposition to human prejudice
+and passion, he saw that he must die, and that such a death was one of the
+steps in his establishment of God's kingdom among men. So he went on his
+way ready "not to be ministered unto but to minister, and to give his
+life a ransom for many" (Mark x. 45).
+
+245. With his prediction of his death the gospels usually associate a
+prophecy of his speedy resurrection. As has been already remarked (sect.
+210), it is being generally recognized that if Jesus believed that he was
+the Messiah, he must have associated with the thought of death that of
+victory over death, which for all Jewish minds meant a resurrection from
+the dead. Jesus certainly taught that his death was part of his Messianic
+work, it could not therefore be his end. The prediction of the
+resurrection is the necessary corollary of his expectation of death; and
+it may reverently be believed that his knowledge of it was intimately
+involved with his certainty that it was as Messiah that he was to die.
+
+246. From the time when he began to tell his disciples that he must die,
+Jesus began also to teach that his earthly ministry was not to finish his
+work, but that he should return in glory from heaven to realize fully all
+that was involved in the idea of God's kingdom. His predictions resemble
+in form the representations found in the Book of Daniel and the Book of
+Enoch; and the understanding of them is involved in difficulties like
+those which beset such apocalyptic writings. In general, apocalypses were
+written in times of great distress for God's people, and represented the
+deliverance which should usher in God's kingdom as near at hand. One
+feature of them is a complete lack of perspective in the picture of the
+future. It may be that this fact will in part account for one great
+perplexity in the apocalyptic sayings of Jesus. In the chief of these
+(Mark xiii. and parallels), predictions of the destruction of Jerusalem
+are so mingled with promises of his own second coming and the end of all
+things that many have sought to resolve the difficulty by separating the
+discourse into two different ones,--one a short Jewish apocalypse
+predicting the destruction of Jerusalem and the coming of the Son of Man
+within the life of that generation; the other, Jesus' own prediction of
+the end of all things, concerning which he warns his disciples that they
+be not deceived, but watch diligently and patiently for God's full
+salvation. The difficulties of this discourse as it stands are so great
+that any solution which accounts for all the facts must be welcomed. So
+far as this analysis seeks to remove from the account of Jesus' own words
+the references to a fulfilment of the predictions within the life of that
+generation, it is confronted by other sayings of Jesus (Mark ix. 1) and by
+the problem of the uniform belief of the apostolic age that he would
+speedily return. That belief must have had some ground. What more natural
+than that words of Jesus, rightly or wrongly understood, led to the common
+Christian expectation? Some such analysis may yet establish itself as the
+true solution of the difficulties; it may be, however, that in adopting
+the apocalyptic form of discourse, Jesus also adopted its lack of
+perspective, and spoke coincidently of future events in the progress of
+the kingdom, which, in their complete realization at least, were widely
+separated in time. In such a case it would not be strange if the disciples
+looked for the fulfilment of all of the predictions within the limit
+assigned for the accomplishment of some of them.
+
+247. Whatever the explanation of these difficulties, the gospels clearly
+represent Jesus as predicting his own return in glory to establish his
+kingdom,--a crowning evidence of his claim to supernatural knowledge. It
+is all the more significant, therefore, that it is in connection with his
+prediction of his future coming that he made the most definite declaration
+of his own ignorance: "Of that day or that hour knoweth no one, not even
+the angels in heaven, neither the Son, but the Father" (Mark xiii. 32).
+This confession of the limitation of his knowledge is conclusive. Yet it
+is not isolated. With his undoubted power to read "what was in man," he
+was not independent of ordinary ways of learning facts. When the woman was
+healed who touched the hem of his garment, Jesus knew that his power had
+been exercised, but he discovered the object of his healing by asking,
+"Who touched me?" and calling the woman out from the crowd to acknowledge
+her blessing (Mark v. 30-34); when the centurion urged Jesus to heal his
+boy without taking the trouble to come to his house, Jesus "marvelled" at
+his faith (Matt. viii. 10); when he came to Bethany, assured of his
+Father's answer to his prayer for the raising of Lazarus, he asked as
+simply as any other one in the company, "Where have ye laid him?" (John
+xi. 34). It should not be forgotten that his knowledge of approaching
+death, resurrection, and return in glory did not prevent the earnest
+pleading in Gethsemane, and it may be that his reply to the ambition of
+James and John, it "is not mine to give" (Mark x. 40), is a confession of
+ignorance as well as subordination to his Father.
+
+248. The supernatural knowledge of Jesus, so far as its exercise is
+apparent in the gospels, was concerned with the truths intimately related
+to his religious teaching or his Messianic work. There is no evidence
+that it occupied itself at all with facts of nature or of history
+discovered by others at a later day. When he says of God that "he maketh
+his sun to rise on the evil and the good" (Matt. v. 45), there is no
+evidence that he thought of the earth and its relation to the sun
+differently from his contemporaries; it is probable that his thought
+anticipated Galileo's discovery no more than do his words. Much the same
+may be said with reference to the purely literary or historical questions
+of Old Testament criticism, now so much discussed. If it is proved by just
+interpretation of all the facts that the Pentateuch is only in an ideal
+sense to be attributed to Moses, and that many of the psalms inscribed
+with his name cannot have been written by David, the propriety of Jesus'
+references to what "Moses said" (Mark vii. 10), and the validity of his
+argument for the relative unimportance of the Davidic descent of the
+Messiah, will not suffer. Had Jesus had in mind the ultimate facts
+concerning the literary structure of the Pentateuch, he could not have
+hoped to hold the attention of his hearers upon the religious teaching he
+was seeking to enforce, unless he referred to the early books of the Old
+Testament as written by Moses. Jesus did repeatedly go back of Moses to
+more primitive origins (Mark x. 5, 6; John vii. 22); yet there is no
+likelihood that the literary question was ever present in his thinking.
+This phase of his intellectual life, like that which concerned his
+knowledge of the natural universe, was in all probability one of the
+points in which he was made like unto his brethren, sharing, as matter of
+course, their views on questions that were indifferent for the spiritual
+mission he came to fulfil. If this was the case, his argument from the one
+hundred and tenth Psalm (Mark xii. 35-37) would simply give evidence that
+he accepted the views of his time concerning the Psalm, and proceeded to
+use it to correct other views of his time concerning what was of most
+importance in the doctrine of the Messiah. The last of these was of vital
+importance for his teaching; the first was for this teaching quite as
+indifferent a matter as the relations of the earth and the sun in the
+solar system.
+
+249. A more perplexing difficulty arises from his handling of the cases of
+so-called demoniac possession. He certainly treated these invalids as if
+they were actually under the control of demons: he rebuked, banished, gave
+commands to the demons, and in this way wrought his cures upon the
+possessed. It has already been remarked that the symptoms shown in the
+cases cured by Jesus can be duplicated from cases of hysteria, epilepsy,
+or insanity, which have come under modern medical examination. Three
+questions then arise concerning his treatment of the possessed. 1. Did he
+unquestioningly share the interpretation which his contemporaries put upon
+the symptoms, and simply bring relief by his miraculous power? 2. Did he
+know that those whom he healed were not afflicted by evil spirits, and
+accommodate himself in his cures to their notions? 3. Does he prove by his
+treatment that the unfortunates actually were being tormented by
+diabolical agencies, which he banished by his word? The last of these
+possibilities should not be held to be impossible until much more is known
+than we now know about the mysterious phenomena of abnormal psychical
+states. If this is the explanation of the maladies for Jesus' day,
+however, it should be accepted also as the explanation of similar abnormal
+symptoms when they appear in our modern life, for the old hypothesis of a
+special activity of evil spirits at the time of the incarnation is
+inadequate to account for the fact that in some quarters similar maladies
+have been similarly explained from the earliest times until the present
+day. If, however, he knew his people to be in error in ascribing these
+afflictions to diabolical influence, he need have felt no call to correct
+it. If the disease had been the direct effect of such a delusion, Jesus
+would have encouraged the error by accommodating himself to the popular
+notion. The idea of possession, however, was only an attempt to explain
+very real distress. Jesus desired to cure, not to inform his patients. The
+notion in no way interfered with his turning the thought of those he
+healed towards God, the centre of help and of health. He is not open,
+therefore, to the charge of having failed to free men from the thraldom of
+superstition if he accommodated himself to their belief concerning
+demoniac possession. His cure, and his infusion of true thoughts of God
+into the heart, furnished an antidote to superstition more efficacious
+than any amount of discussion of the truth or falseness of the current
+explanation of the disease. On the other hand, if we are not ready to
+conclude that the action of Jesus has demonstrated the validity of the
+ancient explanation, we may acknowledge that it would do no violence to
+his power, or dignity, or integrity, if it should be held that he did not
+concern himself with an inquiry into the cause of the disease which
+presented itself to him for help, but adopted unquestioningly the
+explanation held by all his contemporaries, even as he used their
+language, dress, manner of life, and in one particular, at least, their
+representation of the life after death (Luke xvi. 22--Abraham's bosom).
+His own confession of ignorance of a large item of religious knowledge
+(Mark xiii. 32) leaves open the possibility that in so minor a matter as
+the explanation of a common disease he simply shared the ideas of his
+time. In this case, when one so afflicted came under his treatment, he
+applied his supernatural power, even as in cases of leprosy or fever, and
+cured the trouble, needing no scientific knowledge of its cause. If
+accommodation or ignorance led Jesus to treat these sick folk as
+possessed, it does not challenge his integrity nor his trustworthiness in
+all the matters which belong properly to his own peculiar work.
+
+250. There is one incident in the gospels which favors the conclusion that
+Jesus definitely adopted the current idea,--the permission granted by him
+to the demons to go from the Gadarene into the herd of swine, and the
+consequent drowning of the herd (Mark v. 11-13). On any theory this
+incident is full of difficulty. Bernhard Weiss (LXt II. 226 ff.) holds
+that Jesus accommodated himself to current views, and that the man, having
+received for the possessing demons permission to go into the swine, was at
+once seized by a final paroxysm, and rushed among the swine, stampeding
+them so that they ran down the hillside into the sea.
+
+251. In recent years the view has been somewhat widely advocated that his
+power over demoniacs was to Jesus himself one of the chief proofs of his
+Messiahship. His words are quoted: "If I, by the Spirit of God, cast out
+demons, then is the kingdom of God come upon you" (Matt. xii. 28); and "I
+beheld Satan falling as lightning from heaven" (Luke x. 18). The first of
+these is in the midst of an _ad hominem_ reply of Jesus to the charge that
+he owed his power to a league with the devil (Matt. xii. 28); and the
+second was his remark when the seventy reported with joy that the demons
+were subject unto them (Luke x. 18). The gospels, however, trace his
+certainty of his Messiahship to quite other causes, primarily to his
+knowledge of himself as God's child, then to the Voice which, coming at
+the baptism, summoned him as God's beloved Son to do the work of the
+Messiah. Throughout his ministry Jesus exhibits a certainty of his mission
+quite independent of external evidences,--"Even if I bear witness of
+myself, my witness is true; for I know whence I came and whither I go"
+(John viii. 14).
+
+
+
+
+IV
+
+Jesus' Conception of Himself
+
+
+
+252. When Jesus called forth the confession of Peter at Cæsarea Philippi
+he brought into prominence the question which during the earlier stages of
+the Galilean ministry he had studiously kept in the background. This is no
+indication, however, that he was late in reaching a conclusion for himself
+concerning his relation to the kingdom which he was preaching. From the
+time of his baptism and temptation every manifestation of the inner facts
+of his life shows unhesitating confidence in the reality of his call and
+in his understanding of his mission. This is the case whether the fourth
+gospel or the first three be appealed to for evidence. It is generally
+felt that the Gospel of John presents its sharpest contrast to the
+synoptic gospels in respect of the development of Jesus' self-disclosures.
+A careful consideration of the first three gospels, however, shows that
+the difference is not in Jesus' thought about himself.
+
+253. The first thing which impressed the people during the ministry in
+Galilee was Jesus' assumption of authority, whether in teaching or in
+action (Mark i. 27; Matt. vii. 28, 29). His method of teaching
+distinguished him sharply from the scribes, who were constantly appealing
+to the opinion of the elders to establish the validity of their
+conclusions. Jesus taught with a simple "I say unto you." In this,
+however, he differed not only from the scribes, but also from the
+prophets, to whom in many ways he bore so strong a likeness. They
+proclaimed their messages with the sanction of a "Thus saith the Lord;" he
+did not hesitate to oppose the letter of scripture as well as the
+tradition of the elders with his unsupported word (Matt. v. 38, 39; Mark
+vii. 1-23). His teaching revealed his unhesitating certainty concerning
+spiritual truth, and although he reverenced deeply the Jewish scriptures,
+and knew that his work was the fulfilment of their promises, he used them
+always as one whose superiority to God's earlier messengers was as
+complete as his reverence for them. He was confident that what they
+suggested of truth he was able to declare clearly; he used them as a
+master does his tools.
+
+254. More striking than Jesus' independence in his teaching is the
+calmness of his self-assertion when he was opposed by pharisaic criticism
+and hostility. He preferred to teach the truth of the kingdom, working his
+cures in such a way that men should think about God's goodness rather than
+their healer's significance. Yet coincidently with this method of his
+choice he did not hesitate to reply to pharisaic opposition with
+unqualified self-assertion and exalted personal claim. Even if the
+conflicts which Mark has gathered together at the opening of his gospel
+(ii. 1 to iii. 6) did not all occur as early as he has placed them, the
+nucleus of the group belongs to the early time. Since the people greatly
+reverenced his critics, he felt it unnecessary to guard against arousing
+undue enthusiasm by this frank avowal of his claims. He consequently
+asserted his authority to forgive sins, his special mission to the sick in
+soul whom the scribes shunned as defiling, his right to modify the
+conception of Sabbath observance; even as, later, he warned his critics of
+their fearful danger if they ascribed his good deeds to diabolical power
+(Mark iii. 28-30), and as, after the collapse of popularity, he rebuked
+them for making void the word of God by their tradition (Mark vii. 13).
+His attitude to the scribes in Galilee from the beginning discloses as
+definite Messianic claims as any ascribed by the fourth gospel to this
+early period.
+
+255. These facts of the independence of Jesus in his teaching and his
+self-assertion in response to criticism confirm the impression that his
+answer to John the Baptist (Matt. xi. 2-6) gives the key to his method in
+Galilee. In John's inquiry the question of Jesus' personal relation to the
+kingdom was definitely asked. The answer, "Blessed is he whosoever shall
+find none occasion of stumbling in me," showed plainly that Jesus was in
+no doubt in the matter, although for the time he still preferred to let
+his ministry be the means of leading men to form their conclusions
+concerning him. What he brought into prominence at Cæsarea Philippi,
+therefore, was that which had been the familiar subject of his own
+thinking from the time of his baptism.
+
+256. In the ministry subsequent to the confession of Peter the
+self-disclosures of Jesus became more frequent and clear. His predictions
+of his approaching death were at the time the greatest difficulty to his
+disciples; when considered in their significance for his own life,
+however, they prove that his conviction of his Messiahship was as
+independent of current and inherited ideas as was his teaching concerning
+the kingdom. When he came to see that death was the inevitable issue of
+his work, he at once discovered in it a divine necessity; it does not seem
+to have shaken in the least his certainty that he was the Messiah.
+Associated with this conception of his death is the conviction which
+appears in all the later teachings, that in rejecting him his people were
+pronouncing their own doom. Because she would not accept him as her
+deliverer, Jerusalem's "house was left unto her desolate" (Luke xiii. 35).
+His sense of his supreme significance appears most clearly in some of the
+later parables, such as The Marriage of the King's Son (Matt. xxii. 1-14)
+and The Wicked Husbandmen (Matt. xxi. 33-44), which definitely connect the
+condemnation of the chosen people with their rejection of God's Son. Two
+other sayings in the first three gospels express the personal claim of
+Jesus in the most exalted form,--his declaration on the return of the
+seventy: "All things have been delivered unto me of my Father, and no man
+knoweth who the Son is save the Father, and who the Father is save the
+Son, and he to whomsoever the Son willeth to reveal him" (Luke x. 22;
+Matt. xi. 27); and his confession of the limits of his own knowledge: "But
+of that day and hour knoweth no one, not even the angels in heaven,
+neither the Son, but the Father" (Mark xiii. 32). The confession of
+ignorance, by the position given to the Son in the climax which denied
+that any save the Father had a knowledge of the time of the end, is quite
+as extraordinary as the claim to sole qualification to reveal the Father.
+
+257. The similarity of these last two sayings to the discourses in the
+fourth gospel has often been remarked; the likeness is particularly close
+between them and the claims of Jesus recorded in the fifth chapter of
+John. It is interesting to note that in the incident which introduces the
+discourse in that chapter Jesus shows that he preferred, after healing the
+man at the pool, to avoid the attention of the multitudes, precisely as in
+Galilee he sought to check too great popular excitement by withdrawing
+from Capernaum after his first ministry there (Mark i. 35-39), and
+enjoining silence on the leper who had been healed by him (Mark ii. 44).
+When, however, he found himself opposed by the criticism of the Pharisees
+he spoke with unhesitating self-assertion and exalted personal claim, even
+as he did in like situations in Galilee. During his earlier ministry in
+Judea he had not shown this reserve. The cleansing of the temple, although
+it was no more than any prophet sure of his divine commission would have
+done, was a bold challenge to the people to consider who he was who
+ventured thus to criticise the priestly administration of God's house. In
+his subsequent dealings with Nicodemus and the Samaritan woman Jesus
+manifested a like readiness to draw attention to himself. From the time of
+the feeding of the multitudes all four of the gospels represent him as
+asserting his claims, with this difference, however, that in John it is
+the rule rather than the exception to find sayings similar to the two in
+which the self-assertion in the other gospels reaches its highest
+expression. Although the method of Jesus varied at different times and in
+different localities, yet it is evident that he stood before the people
+from the first with the consciousness that he had the right to claim
+their allegiance as no one of the prophets who preceded him would have
+been bold to do.
+
+258. During the course of his ministry Jesus used of himself, or suffered
+others to use with reference to him, many of the titles by which his
+people were accustomed to refer to the Messiah. Thus he was named "the
+Messiah" (Mark viii. 29; xiv. 61; John iv. 26); "the King of the Jews"
+(Mark xv. 2; John i. 49; xviii. 33, 36, 37); "the Son of David" (Mark x.
+47, 48; Matt. xv. 22; xxi. 9, 15); "the Holy One of God" (John vi. 69;
+compare Mark i. 24); "the Prophet" (John vi. 14; vii. 40). It is evident
+that none of these titles was common; they represent, rather, the bold
+venture of more or less intelligent faith on the part of men who were
+impressed by him. There are two names, however, that are more significant
+of Jesus' thought about himself,--"the Son of God" and "the Son of Man."
+
+259. The latter of these titles is unique in the use Jesus made of it.
+Excepting Stephen's speech (Acts vii. 56), it is found in the New
+Testament only in the sayings of Jesus, and its precise significance is
+still a subject of learned debate. The expression is found in the Old
+Testament as a poetical equivalent for Man, usually with emphasis on human
+frailty (Ps. viii. 4; Num. xxiii. 19; Isa. li. 12), though sometimes it
+signifies special dignity (Ps. lxxx. 17). Ezekiel was regularly addressed
+in his visions as Son of Man (Ezek. ii. 1 and often; see also Dan. viii.
+17), probably in contrast with the divine majesty.
+
+260. In one of Daniel's visions (vii. 1-14) the world-kingdoms which had
+oppressed God's people and were to be destroyed were symbolized by beasts
+that came up out of the sea,--a winged lion, a bear, a four-headed winged
+leopard, and a terrible ten-horned beast; in contrast with these the
+kingdom of the saints of the Most High was represented by "one like unto a
+son of man," who came with the clouds of heaven (vii. 13, 14). Here the
+language is obviously poetic, and is used to suggest the unapproachable
+superiority of the kingdom of heaven to the kingdoms of the world. The
+expression "one like unto a son of man" is equivalent, therefore, to "one
+resembling mankind." The vision in Daniel had great influence over the
+author of the so-called Similitudes of Enoch (Book of Enoch, chapters
+xxxvii. to lxxi.). He, however, personified the "one like unto a son of
+man," and gave the title "the Son of Man" to the heavenly man who will
+come at the end of all things, seated on God's throne, to judge the world.
+This author used also the titles "the Elect One" and "the Righteous One"
+(or "the Holy One of God"), but "the Son of Man" is the prevalent name for
+the Messiah in these Similitudes.
+
+261. The facts thus stated do not account for Jesus' use of the
+expression. Many of his sayings undoubtedly suggest a development of the
+Daniel vision resembling that in the Similitudes. This does not prove that
+Jesus or his disciples had read these writings, though it does suggest the
+possibility that they knew them. It is probable, however, that the
+apocalypses gave formulated expression to thoughts that were more widely
+current than those writings ever came to be. The likeness between the
+language of Jesus and that found in the Similitudes may therefore prove no
+more than that the Daniel vision was more or less commonly interpreted of
+a personal Messiah in Jesus' day.
+
+262. Much of the use of the title by Jesus, however, is completely foreign
+to the ideas suggested by Enoch and Daniel. Besides apocalyptic sayings
+like those in Enoch (Mark viii. 38 and often), the name occurs in
+predictions of his sufferings and death (Mark viii. 31 and often), and in
+claims to extraordinary if not essentially divine authority (Mark ii. 10,
+28 and parallels); it is also used sometimes simply as an emphatic "I"
+(Matt. xi. 19 and often). Whatever relation Jesus bore to the Enoch
+writings, therefore, the name "the Son of Man" as he used it was his own
+creation.
+
+263. Students of Aramaic have in recent years asserted that it was not
+customary in the dialect which Jesus spoke to make distinction between
+"the son of man" and "man," since the expression commonly used for "man"
+would be literally translated "son of man." It is asserted, moreover, that
+if our gospels be read substituting "man" for "the Son of Man" wherever it
+appears, it will be found that many supposed Messianic claims become
+general statements of Jesus' conception of the high prerogatives of man,
+while in other places the name stands simply as an emphatic substitute for
+the personal pronoun. Thus, for instance, Jesus is found to assert that
+authority on earth to forgive sins belongs to man (Mark ii. 10), and,
+toward the end of his course, to have taught simply that he himself must
+meet with suffering (Mark viii. 31), and will come on the clouds to judge
+the world (Mark viii. 38). The proportion of cases in which the general
+reference is possible is, however, very small; and even if the
+equivalence of "man" and "son of man" should be established, most of the
+statements of Jesus in which our gospels use the latter expression exhibit
+a conception of himself which challenges attention, transcending that
+which would be tolerated in any other man. The debate concerning the usage
+in the language spoken by Jesus is not yet closed, however, and Dr. Gustaf
+Dalman (WJ I. 191-197) has recently argued that the equivalence of the two
+expressions holds only in poetic passages, precisely as it does in Hebrew,
+and that our gospels represent correctly a distinction observed by Jesus
+when they report him, for instance, as saying in one sentence, "the
+Sabbath was made for man" (Mark ii. 27), and in the next, "the Son of Man
+is lord even of the Sabbath." The antecedent probability is so great that
+the dialect of Jesus' time would be capable of expressing a distinction
+found in the Hebrew of the Old Testament and in the Syriac of the
+second-century version of the New Testament, that Dalman's opinion carries
+much weight.
+
+264. Many of those who look for a distinct significance in the title "the
+Son of Man," find in it a claim by Jesus to be the ideal or typical man,
+in whom humanity has found its highest expression. It thus stands sharply
+in contrast with "the Son of God," which is held to express his claim to
+divinity. So understood, the titles represent truth early recognized by
+the church in its thought about its Lord. Yet it must be acknowledged that
+the conception "the ideal man" is too Hellenic to have been at home in the
+thought of those to whom Jesus addressed his teaching. If the phrase
+suggested anything more to his hearers than the human frailty or the
+human dignity of him who bore it, it probably had a Messianic meaning like
+that found in the Similitudes of Enoch. A hint of this understanding of
+the name appears in the perplexed question reported in John (xii. 34): "We
+have heard out of the law that the Messiah abideth forever; and how sayest
+thou, The Son of Man must be lifted up? who is this Son of Man?" Here the
+difficulty arose because the people identified the Son of Man with the
+Messiah, yet could not conceive how such a Messiah could die. In fact, if
+the conception of the Son of Man which is found in Enoch had obtained any
+general currency among the people, either from that book or independently
+of it, it was so foreign to the earthly condition and manner of life of
+the Galilean prophet, that it would not have occurred to his hearers to
+treat his use of the title as a Messianic claim until after that claim had
+been published in some other and more definite form. Their Son of Man was
+to come with the clouds of heaven, seated on God's throne, to execute
+judgment on all sinners and apostates; the Nazarene fulfilled none of
+these conditions. The name, as used by Jesus, was probably always an
+enigma to the people, at least until he openly declared its Messianic
+significance in his reply to the high-priest's question at his trial (Mark
+xiv. 62), and gave the council the ground it desired for a charge of
+blasphemy against him.
+
+265. What did this title signify to Jesus? His use of it alone can furnish
+answer, and in this the variety is so great that it causes perplexity.
+"The Son of Man came eating and drinking" is his description of his own
+life in contrast with John the Baptist (Matt. xi. 18, 19). "The Son of
+Man hath not where to lay his head" was his reply to one over-zealous
+follower (Matt. viii. 20). Unseemly rivalry among his disciples was
+rebuked by the reminder that "even the Son of Man came not to be
+ministered unto but to minister" (Mark x. 42-45). When it became needful
+to prepare the disciples for his approaching death he taught them that
+"the Son of Man must suffer many things ... and be killed, and after three
+days rise again" (Mark viii. 31). On the other hand, the paralytic's cure
+was made to demonstrate that "the Son of Man hath authority upon the earth
+to forgive sins" (Mark ii. 10). Similarly it is the Son of Man who after
+his exaltation shall come "in the glory of his Father with the holy
+angels" (Mark viii. 38). In these typical cases the title expresses Jesus'
+consciousness of heavenly authority as well as self-sacrificing ministry,
+of coming exaltation as well as present lowliness; and the suffering and
+death which were the common lot of other sons of men were appointed for
+this Son of Man by a divine necessity. The name is, therefore, more than a
+substitute for the personal pronoun; it expresses Jesus' consciousness of
+a mission that set him apart from the rest of men.
+
+266. We do not know how Jesus came to adopt this title. Its association
+with the predictions of his coming glory shows that he knew that in him
+the Daniel vision was to have fulfilment. The predictions of suffering and
+death, however, are completely foreign to that apocalyptic conception,
+being akin rather, as Professor Charles has suggested, to the prophecies
+of the suffering servant in the Book of Isaiah (Book of Enoch, p.
+314-317). Moreover, it may not be fanciful to find in his claims to
+heavenly authority a hint of the thought of the eighth Psalm, "Thou madest
+him to have dominion over the works of thy hands; thou hast put all things
+under his feet" (see Dalman WJ I. 218). Although the name expresses a
+consciousness of dignity, vicarious ministry, and authority, similar to
+thoughts found in Daniel, Isaiah, and the Psalms, it was not deduced from
+these scriptures by any synthesis of diverse ideas. It rather indicates
+that Jesus in his own nature realized a synthesis which no amount of study
+of scripture would ever have suggested. He drew his conception of himself
+from his own self-knowledge, not from his Messianic meditations. On his
+lips, then, "the Son of Man" indicates that he knew himself to be the Man
+whom God had chosen to be Lord over all (compare Dalman as above). The
+lowly estate which contradicted the Daniel vision prevented Jesus' hearers
+from recognizing in the title a Messianic claim; for him, however, it was
+the expression of the very heart of his Messianic consciousness.
+
+267. If Jesus gave expression to his official consciousness when he used
+the name "the Son of Man," the title "the Son of God" may be said to
+express his more personal thought about himself. It is necessary to
+distinguish between the meaning of this title to the contemporaries of
+Jesus and his own conception of it. In the popular thought "the Son of
+God" was the designation of that man whom God would at length raise up and
+crown with dignity and power for the deliverance of his people. This
+meaning followed from the Messianic interpretation of the second Psalm, in
+which the theocratic king is called God's son (Ps. ii. 7). In another
+psalm, which Jesus himself quotes (John x. 34), magistrates and judges are
+called "sons of the Most High" (lxxxii. 6). Another Old Testament use
+casts light on this,--the designation of Israel as God's son, his
+firstborn (Ex. iv. 22; Hos. i. 10), with which may be compared a
+remarkable expression in the so-called Psalms of Solomon (xviii. 4), "Thy
+chastisement was upon us [that is, Israel] as upon a son, firstborn, only
+begotten." In all these passages that which constitutes a man the son of
+God is God's choice of him for a special work, while Israel collectively
+bears the title to suggest God's fatherly love for the people he had taken
+for his own. The Messianic title, therefore, described not a metaphysical,
+but an official or ethical, relation to God. It is certainly in this sense
+that the high-priest asked Jesus "Art thou the Messiah the son of the
+Blessed?" (Mark xiv. 61), and that the crowd about the cross flung their
+taunts at him (Matt, xxvii. 43), and the demoniacs proclaimed their
+knowledge of him (Mark iii. 11; v. 7). The name must be interpreted in
+this sense also in the confession of Nathanael (John i. 49); moreover, it
+was not the coupling of the names "Messiah" and "son of the living God" in
+Peter's confession that gave it its great significance for Jesus. In all
+of these cases there is no evidence that there has been any advance over
+the theocratic significance which made the title "the Son of God" fitting
+for the man chosen by God for the fulfilment of his promises.
+
+268. The case is different with the name by which Jesus was called at his
+baptism (Mark i. 11). The difference here, however, arises not from
+anything in the name as used on this occasion, but from that in Jesus
+which acknowledged and accepted the title. With Jesus the consciousness
+that God was his Father preceded the knowledge that as "his Son" he was to
+undertake the work of the Messiah. The force of the call at the baptism is
+found in the response which his own soul gave to the word "Thou art my
+Son." The nature of that response is seen in his habitual reference to God
+as in a peculiar sense _his_ Father. The name "Father" for God was used by
+him in all his teaching, and there is no evidence that he or any of his
+hearers regarded it as a novelty. Psalm ciii. 13 and Isaiah lxiii. 16
+indicate that the conception was natural to Jewish thinking. The unique
+feature in Jesus' usage is his careful distinction between the general
+references to "your Father" and his constant personal allusions to "my
+Father." Witness the reply to his mother in the temple (Luke ii. 49); his
+word to Peter, "Flesh and blood hath not revealed it unto thee, but my
+Father which is in heaven" (Matt. xvi. 17), his solemn warning, "Not every
+one that saith unto me Lord, Lord, shall enter into the kingdom of heaven,
+but he that doeth the will of my Father which is in heaven" (Matt. vii.
+21), and the promise, "Every one who shall confess me before men ... him
+will I also confess before my Father" (Matt. x. 32). In the fourth gospel
+the same intimate reference is common: so, for example, the temple is "my
+Father's house" (ii. 16), the Sabbath cure is defended because "my Father
+worketh even until now" (v. 17), the cures are done "in My Father's name"
+(x. 25), "I am the vine, and my Father is the husbandman" (xv. 1). This
+mode of expression discloses a consciousness of unique filial relation to
+God which is independent of, even as it was antecedent to, the
+consciousness of official relation.
+
+269. The full name "the Son of God" was seldom applied by Jesus to
+himself, the only recorded instances being found in the fourth gospel (v.
+25; ix. 35?; x. 36; xi. 4). He frequently acquiesced in the use of the
+title by others in addressing him (for example, John i. 49; Matt. xvi. 16;
+xxvi. 63f.; Mark xiv. 61f.; Luke xxii. 70); but for himself he preferred
+the simpler phrase "the Son." This mode of expression occurs often in
+John, and is found also in the two passages, already noticed, in which the
+other gospels give clearest expression to the extraordinary self-assertion
+of Jesus (Matt. xi. 27; Luke x. 22; and Mark xiii. 32). In the first of
+them his claim to be the only one who can adequately reveal God is founded
+on the consciousness that the relation between himself and God is so
+intimate that God alone adequately knows him, whom men were so ready to
+set at nought, and he alone knows God. This relation, in which he and God
+stand together in contrast with all other men, is expressed by the
+unqualified names, "the Father" and "the Son." In the second passage Jesus
+confessed the limitation of his knowledge, but again in such a way as to
+set himself and God in contrast not only with men, but also with "the
+angels in heaven." Such assertions as these indicate that he who, knowing
+his full humanity, chose the title "the Son of Man" to express his
+consciousness that he had been appointed by God to be the Messiah, was yet
+aware in his inner heart that his relation to God was even closer than
+that in which he stood to men.
+
+270. There is no word in John which goes beyond the two self-declarations
+of Jesus which crown the record of the other evangelists, yet in the
+fourth gospel the same claim to unique relation to God is more frequently
+and frankly avowed. The most unqualified assertion of intimacy--"I and the
+Father are one" (x. 30)--states what is clearly implied throughout the
+gospel (so xiv. 6-11; xvi. 25; and particularly xvii. 21, "that they may
+be one, even as we are one"). It has often been said, and truly, that this
+claim to unity with the Father, taken by itself, signifies no more than
+perfect spiritual and ethical harmony with God. Yet when the words are
+considered in their connection, and more particularly when the two supreme
+self-declarations in the synoptic gospels are associated with them, they
+express a sense of relation to God so utterly unique, so strongly
+contrasting the Father and the Son with all others, that we cannot
+conceive of any other man, even the saintliest, taking like words upon his
+lips.
+
+271. These titles in which Jesus gave expression to his official and his
+personal consciousness present clearly the problem which he offers to
+human thought. Jesus stands before us in the gospels as a man aware of
+completest kinship with his brethren, yet conscious at the same time of
+standing nearer to God than he does to men.
+
+272. It is highly significant that the gospel which records most fully the
+claim of Jesus to be more closely related to God than he was to men, most
+fully records also his definite acknowledgment of dependence on his
+Father, and of that Father's supremacy over him and all others. "The Son
+can do nothing of himself" (John v. 19), "I speak not from myself" (xiv.
+10), "my Father is greater than all" (x. 29), "the Father is greater than
+I" (xiv. 28),--these confessions join with the common reference to God as
+"him that sent me" (v. 30 and often) in giving voice to his own spirit of
+reverence. It appears as clearly in his habitual submission to his
+Father's will,--"My meat is to do the will of him that sent me, and to
+accomplish his work" (John iv. 34); "I am come down from heaven, not to do
+mine own will, but the will of him that sent me" (John vi. 38). This
+submission reached its fulness in the prayer of Gethsemane, recorded in
+the earlier gospels,--"Father, all things are possible unto thee; remove
+this cup from me: howbeit not what I will, but what thou wilt" (Mark xiv.
+36). Jesus was a man of prayer; not only in Gethsemane, but also
+throughout his ministry he habitually sought his Father in that communion
+in which the soul of man finds its light and strength for life's duty.
+When he was baptized (Luke iii. 21), after the first flush of success in
+Capernaum (Mark i. 35), before choosing the twelve (Luke vi. 12), before
+the question at Cæsarea Philippi (Luke ix. 18), at the transfiguration
+(Luke ix. 29), on the cross (Luke xxiii. 46),--at all the crises of his
+life he turned to God in prayer. Moreover, prayer was his habit, for it
+was after a night of prayer which has no connection with any crisis
+reported for us (Luke xi. 1), that he taught his disciples the Lord's
+prayer in response to their requests. The prayer beside the grave of
+Lazarus (John xi. 41, 42) suggests that his miracles were often, if not
+always (compare Mark ix. 29), preceded by definite prayer to God. His
+habit of prayer was the natural expression of his trust in God. From the
+resistance to the temptations in the wilderness to the last cry, "Father,
+into thy hands I commend my spirit," his life is an example of childlike
+faith in God.
+
+273. Yet throughout his life of obedience and trust Jesus never gave one
+indication that he felt the need of penitence when he came before God. He
+perceived as no one else has ever done the searching inwardness of God's
+law, and demanded of men that they tolerate no lower ambition than to be
+like God, yet he never breathed a sigh of conscious failure, or gave sign
+that he blushed when the eternal light shone into his own soul. He was
+baptized, but without confession of sin. He challenged his enemies to
+convict him of sin (John viii. 46). Such a challenge might have rested on
+a man's certainty that his critics did not know his inner life; but
+hypocrisy has no place in the character of Jesus. The reply to the rich
+young ruler, "Why callest thou me good?" (Mark x. 18), even if it was a
+confession that freedom from past sin was still far less than that
+absolute goodness that God alone possesses, simply sets in stronger light
+his silence concerning personal failure, and his omission in all his
+praying to seek forgiveness. It is probable, however, that that reply
+deals not with the "good" as the "ethically perfect," but as the
+"supremely beneficent," so that Jesus simply reminded the seeker after
+life that God alone is the one to be approached as the Gracious and
+Merciful One by sinful men (see Dalman WJ I. 277). Thus the reply becomes
+a fresh expression of the reverence of Jesus, and still further emphasizes
+his failure to confess his sinfulness.
+
+274. In all this thought about himself Jesus stands before us as a man,
+conscious of his close kinship with his fellows. Like them he hungered and
+thirsted and grew weary, like them he longed for friendship and for
+sympathy, like them he trusted God and prayed to God and learned still to
+trust when his request was denied. He stands before us also as a man
+conscious of being anointed by God for the great work which all the
+prophets had foretold, and of being fully equipped with authority and
+power and the promise of unapproachable dignity. Of deep religious spirit
+and great reverence for the scriptures of his people, he yet used these
+scriptures as a master does his tools, to serve his work rather than to
+instruct him in it. He drew his knowledge from within and from above, and
+proclaimed his own fulfilment of the scriptures when he filled them with
+new meaning. A man always devout, always at prayer, he is never seen, like
+Isaiah, prostrate before the Most High, crying, "I am undone" (Isa. vi.
+5). In his moments of greatest seriousness and most manifest communion
+with heaven he looked to God as his nearest of kin, and felt himself a
+stranger on the earth fulfilling his Father's will. He felt heaven to be
+his home not simply by God's gracious promise, but by the right of
+previous possession. His kinship with men was a condescension, his natural
+fellowship was with God.
+
+275. The miracles with which the gospels have filled the record of Jesus'
+life have caused perplexity to many, and they belong with other mysterious
+things recorded for us in the story of the past or occurring under the
+incredulous observation of our scientific generation. They all pale,
+however, before the unaccountable exception presented to universal human
+experience by this Man of Nazareth. It confronts us when we think of the
+unschooled Jew who, in his thought of God, rose not only above all of his
+generation, but higher than all who had gone before him, or have come
+after, one who built on the foundation of the past a superstructure of
+religion new, and simple, and clearly heavenly. It confronts us when we
+think of this Man who believed that it was given to him to establish the
+kingdom that should fill the whole earth, and who had the boldness and the
+faith to ignore the opposition of all the world's wisdom and of all its
+enthroned power, and to fulfil his task as the woman does who hides her
+leaven in the meal, content to wait for years, or millenniums, until his
+truth shall conquer in the realization of God's will on earth even as it
+is done in heaven. It confronts us when we consider that the Man who has
+shown his brethren what obedience means, who has taught them to pray, who
+has been for all these centuries the Way, the Truth, the Life, by whom
+they come to God, habitually claimed without shadow of abashment or
+slightest hint of conscious presumption, a nature, a relation to God, a
+freedom from sin, that other men according to the measure of their
+godliness would shun as blasphemy. If the personal claim was true, and not
+the blind pretence of vanity, the Jesus of the gospels is the exception to
+the uniform fact of human nature, but he is no longer unaccountable; and
+if his claim was true, his knowledge of the absolute religion, and his
+choice of the irresistible propaganda, are no less extraordinary, but they
+are not unaccountable. Paul, whose life was transformed and his thinking
+revolutionized by his meeting with the risen Jesus, thought on these
+things and believed that "the name which, is above every name" was his by
+right of nature as well as by the reward of obedience (Phil. ii. 5-11).
+John, who leaned on Jesus' breast during his earthly life, and who
+meditated on the meaning of that life through a ministry of many decades,
+came to believe that he whom he had seen with his eyes, heard with his
+ears, handled with his hands, was, indeed, "the Word made flesh" (John i.
+14), through whom the very God revealed his love to men. Through all the
+perplexities of doubt, amidst all the obscurings of irrelevant
+speculations, the hearts of men to-day turn to this Jesus of Nazareth as
+their supreme revelation of God, and find in him "the Master of their
+thinking and the Lord of their lives."
+
+"Lord, to whom shall we go? Thou hast the words of eternal life. And we
+have believed and know that thou art the Holy One of God."
+
+
+
+
+Appendix
+
+Books of Reference on the Life of Jesus
+
+
+
+1. A concise account of the voluminous literature on this subject maybe
+found at the close of the article JESUS CHRIST by Zockler in
+_Schaff-Herzog, Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge_. Of the earlier of
+the modern works it is well to mention David Friedrich Strauss, _Das Leben
+Jesu_ (2 vols. 1835), in which he sought to reduce all the gospel miracles
+to myths. August Neander, _Das Leben Jesu Christi_, 1837, wrote in
+opposition to the attitude taken by Strauss. Both of these works have been
+translated into English. Ernst Renan, _Vie de Jésus_ (1863, 16th ed.
+1879), translated, _The Life of Jesus_ (1863), is a charming, though often
+superficial and patronizing, presentation of the subject. For vivid word
+pictures of scenes in the life of Jesus his book is unsurpassed. Renan's
+inability to appreciate the more serious aspects of the work of Christ
+appears constantly, while his effort to discover romance in the life of
+Jesus is offensive. More important than any of these is Theodor Keim,
+_Geschichte Jesu von Nazara_ (1867-72, 3 vols.), translated, _The History
+of Jesus of Nazara_ (1876-81, 6 vols.). The author rejects the fourth
+gospel and holds that Matthew is the most primitive of the synoptic
+gospels; he does not reject the supernatural as such, but reduces it as
+much as possible by recognizing a legendary element in the gospels. When
+the work is read with these peculiarities in mind, it is one of the most
+stimulating and spiritually illuminating treatments of the subject.
+
+2. Critically more trustworthy, and exegetically very valuable, is
+Bernhard Weiss, _Das Leben Jesu_ (3d ed. 1889, 2 vols.), translated from
+the first ed., _The Life of Christ_ (1883, 3 vols.). It is more helpful
+for correct understanding of details than for a complete view of the Life
+of Jesus. Rivalling Weiss in many ways, yet neither so exact nor so
+trustworthy, though more interesting, is Willibald Beyschlag, _Das Leben
+Jesu_ (3d ed. 1893, 2 vols.). The most important discussion in English is
+Alfred Edersheim, _The Life and Times of Jesus the Messiah_ (1883 and
+later editions, 2 vols.). This is valuable for its illustration of
+conditions in Palestine in the time of Jesus by quotations from the
+rabbinic literature. The material used is enormous, but is not always
+treated with due criticism, and the book should be read with the fact in
+mind that most of the rabbinic writings date from several centuries after
+Christ. Schürer (see below) should be used wherever possible as a
+counter-balance. Dr. Edersheim follows the gospel story in detail; his
+book is, therefore, a commentary as well as a biography.
+
+3. Albert Réville, _Jesus de Nazareth_ (1897, 2 vols.), aims to bring the
+work of Renan up to date, and to supply some of the lacks which are felt
+in the earlier treatise. The book is pretentious and learned. In some
+parts, as in the treatment of the youth of Jesus, and of the sermon on the
+mount, it is helpfully suggestive. The Jesus whom the author admires,
+however, is the Jesus of Galilee. The journey to Jerusalem was a sad
+mistake, and the assumption of the Messianic rôle a fall from the high
+ideal maintained in the teaching in Galilee. In criticism M. Réville
+accepts the two document synoptic theory, and assigns the fourth gospel to
+about 140 A.D. He rejects the supernatural, explaining many of the
+miracles as legendary embellishments of actual events.
+
+4. The most important treatment of the subject is the article JESUS CHRIST
+by William Sanday in the _Hastings Bible Dictionary_ (1899). It is of the
+highest value, discussing the subject topically with great clearness and
+with a rare combination of learning and common sense. S. T. Andrews, _The
+Life of Our Lord_ (2d ed. 1892), is a thorough and very useful study of
+the gospels, considering minutely all questions of chronology, harmony,
+and geography. It presents the different views with fairness, and offers
+conservative conclusions. G. H. Gilbert, _The Student's Life of Jesus_
+(1896), is complete in plan and careful in treatment, while being very
+concise. Dr. Gilbert faces the problems of the subject frankly, and his
+treatment is scholarly and reverent. James Stalker, _The Life of Jesus
+Christ_ (1880), is a short work whose value lies in the good conception
+which it gives of the ministry of Jesus viewed as a whole. In simplicity,
+insight, and clearness the book is a classic, though now somewhat out of
+date. _Studies in the Life of Christ_, by A.M. Fairbairn (1882), is of
+great value for the topics considered. The title indicates that the
+treatment is fragmentary. The long treatises of Farrar (1875, 2 vols.) and
+Geikie (1877, 2 vols.) are useful as commentaries on the words and works
+of Jesus. Farrar often interprets most helpfully the essence of an
+incident, and Geikie furnishes a mass of illustrative material from
+rabbinic sources, though with less criticism than even Edersheim has used.
+Neither of these works, however, deals with the fundamental problems of
+the composition of the gospels, nor are they satisfactory on other
+perplexing questions, for example, the miraculous birth.
+
+5. The most important accessory for the study of the life of Jesus is Emil
+Schürer, _Geschichte des Jüdischen Volkes im Zeitalter Jesu Christi_ (2d
+ed. 1886, 1890, 2 vols. A 3d ed. of 2d part in 2 vols., 1898), translated,
+_A History of the Jewish People in the Time of Jesus Christ_ (1885-6, 5
+vols.). The political history of the Jews from 175 B.C. to 135 A.D., and
+the intellectual and religious life of the times in which Jesus lived,
+with the Jewish literature of Palestine and the dispersion, are all
+treated with thoroughness and masterful learning. W. Baldensperger, _Das
+Selbstbewusstsein Jesu im Lichte der messianischen Hoffnungen seiner
+Zeit_ (2d ed. 1892), furnishes in the first part a survey of the Messianic
+hopes of the Jews which is in many respects the most satisfactory account
+that is accessible. The second part discusses the problem of Jesus'
+conception of himself in a reverent and learned way. George Adam Smith,
+_The Historical Geography of the Holy Land_ (1894), is indispensable for
+the study of the physical features of the land as they bear on its
+history, and on the work of Jesus. The maps are the best that have yet
+appeared.
+
+6. Discussions of the Teaching of Jesus in works on Biblical Theology have
+much that is important for the study of Jesus' life. The most significant
+is H. H. Wendt, _Die Lehre Jesu_ (1886, 2 vols.). The second volume has
+been translated _The Teaching of Jesus_ (1892, 2 vols.); the first volume
+of the original work is an elaborate discussion of the sources, and has
+not been done into English. Reference may be made especially to H. J.
+Holtzmann, _Lehrbuch der Neutestamentlichen Theologie_ (1897, 2 vols.),
+and also to G. H. Gilbert, _The Revelation of Jesus_ (1899). Gustaf
+Dalman, _Die Worte Jesu_ (1898), of which the first volume only has
+appeared, is a study of the meaning of the most significant expressions
+used in the gospel records of the teaching of Jesus, made with the aid of
+thorough knowledge of Aramaic usage and of the language of post-canonical
+Jewish literature.
+
+7. A good synopsis or Harmony of the gospels is most useful. The best
+_Harmony is_ that of Stevens and Burton (1894), which exhibits the
+divergencies of the parallel accounts in the gospels as faithfully as the
+agreements. A good synopsis of the Greek text of the first three gospels
+is Huck, _Synapse_ (1892). Robinson's _Greek Harmony of the Gospels_,
+edited by M. B. Biddle, using Tischendorf's text, has also valuable notes
+discussing questions of harmony.
+
+
+
+
+Abbreviations
+
+
+
+AndLOL        Andrews, The Life of Our Lord, 2d ed., 1892.
+BaldSJ        Baldensperger, Das Selbstbewusstsein Jesu, 2d ed., 1892.
+BeysLJ        Beyschlag, Das Leben Jesu, 3d ed., 2 vols., 1893.
+BovonNTTh     Bovon, Théologie du Nouveau Testament, 1892.
+DalmanWJ      Dalman, Die Worte Jesu, I., 1898.
+EdersLJM      Edersheim, The Life and Times of Jesus the Messiah, 2 vols.,
+              1883.
+FairbSLX      Fairbairn, Studies in the Life of Christ, 1882.
+GilbertLJ     Gilbert, The Student's Life of Jesus, 1896.
+GilbertRJ     Gilbert, The Revelation of Jesus, 1899.
+HoltzNtTh     Holtzmann, Neutestamentliche Theologie, 2 vols., 1897.
+KeimJN        Keim, The History of Jesus of Nazara, 6 vols., 1876-81.
+RévilleJN     Réville, Jésus de Nazareth, 2 vols., 1897.
+SandayHastBD  Sanday, the article JESUS CHRIST in the Hastings Bible
+              Dictionary, 1899.
+SchürerJPTX   Schürer, The History of the Jewish People in the Time of
+              Jesus Christ, 1885-86. Division I. vols. i. and ii.; Division
+              II. vols. i., ii., and iii.
+SmithHGHL     Smith, Historical Geography of the Holy Land, 1894.
+SB            Stevens and Burton, Harmony of the Gospels, 1894.
+WeissLX       Weiss, The Life of Christ, 3 vols., 1883.
+WendtLJ       Wendt, Die Lehre Jesu, 2 vols., 1886.
+WendtTJ       Wendt, The Teaching of Jesus, 2 vols., 1892.
+EnBib         Encyclopedia Biblica, 1899.
+HastBD        Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible, 1898.
+SBD^2         Smith's Dictionary of the Bible, revision of the first volume
+              of the original English edition, 1893.
+
+
+
+
+References
+
+
+
+Part I.--Preparatory
+
+
+I
+
+The Historical Situation
+
+8. Read SandayHastBD II. 604-609. On the Land, its physical
+characteristics, its political divisions, its climate, its roads, and its
+varying civilization, SmithHGHL is unsurpassed. Its identifications of
+disputed localities are cautions. Robinson, _Biblical Researches in
+Palestine_, and Thomson, _The Land and the Book_, give fuller detail
+concerning particular localities, but no such general view as Smith.
+
+9. On Political conditions, SchürerJPTX I. i. and ii. is the fullest and
+most trustworthy treatise. More concise essays are Oscar Holtzmann, _Nt.
+Zeitgeschichte_ (1895), 57-118; S. Mathews, _History of NT Times in
+Palestine_ (1899), 1-158; Riggs, _Maccabean and Roman Periods of Jewish
+History_ (1900), especially §§ 206-234, 257-267, 276-282. On the Religious
+Life and Parties in Palestine, SchürerJPTX II. i. and ii.; O. Holtzmann,
+_NtZeitg_, 136-177; Mathews, _NT Times_, see index; Riggs, _Mac. and Rom.
+Periods_, §§ 235-256; Muirhead, _The Times of Christ_ (1898), 69-150. In
+addition Wellhausen, _Die Pharisdäer und die Sadducäer_ (1874); on the
+_Essenes_, Conybeare in HastBD I. 767-772, also Lightfoot, _Colossians_,
+80-98, 347-419; Wellhausen, _Isr. u. jüd. Geschichte_^3 (1897), 258-262;
+on the Samaritans, A. Cowley, in _Expos_. V. i. 161-174; Jew. Quar. Rev.
+VIII. (1896) 562-575.
+
+10. On the Messianic hope, SchürerJPTX II. ii. 126-187; BaldSJ 3-122;
+Muirhead, _Times of Xt._, 112-150; Briggs, _Messiah of the Gospels_
+(1894), 1-40; WendtTJ I. 33-84; Mathews, _NT Times_, 159-169; Riggs, _Mac.
+and Rom. Periods_, §§ 251-256.
+
+11. On the language of Palestine see Arnold Meyer, _Jesu Muttersprache_
+(1896); DalmanWJ I. 1-57; SchürerJPTX II. i. 8-10, 47-51; Neubauer,
+_Studia Biblica_, I. 39-74.
+
+12. On Jewish literature dating near the times of Jesus see SchürerJPTX
+II. iii.; BaldSJ. 3-122; EdersLJM I. 31-39; Deane, _Pseudepigrapha_
+(1891); Thomson, _Books which influenced our Lord_, etc. (1891); and
+special editions, such as Alexandre, _Sibylline Oracles_ (1869); Deane,
+_The Wisdom of Solomon_ (1881); Charles, _The Book of Enoch_ (1893), _The
+Apocalypse of Baruch_ (1896), _The Assumption of Moses_ (1897), and _The
+Book of Jubilees_ (1895); Charles and Morfill, _The Secrets of Enoch_
+(1896); Ryle and James, _The Psalms of the Pharisees_ [Psalms of Solomon]
+(1891); Bensly and James, _Fourth Esdras_ (1895); Charles, EnBib I.
+213-250; HastBD I. 109f.; Porter, HastBD I. 110-123; James, EnBib I.
+249-261.
+
+
+II
+
+The Sources
+
+13. On the sources outside the gospels see Anthony, _Introduction to the
+Life of Jesus_, 19-108; KeimJN I. 12-59; BeysLJ I. 59-72; GilbertLJ 74-78;
+Knowling, _Witness of the Epistles_; Stevens, _Pauline Theol_. 204-208;
+Sabatier, _Apostle Paul_, 76-85. On Josephus as a source see also
+SchürerJPTX I. ii. 143-149; RévilleJN I. 272-280. On the individual
+gospels see Burton, _The Purpose and Plan of the Four Gospels_ (Univ.
+Chic. Press, 1900); Bruce, _With Open Face_, 1-61; Weiss, _Introduction to
+N.T._, II. 239-386; Jülicher, _Einleitung i. d. NT_, 189-207. On Matthew,
+Burton Bib. Wld. I. 1898, 37-44, 91-101; on Mark, Swete, _Comm. on Mark_,
+ix-lxxxix; on Luke, Plummer, _Comm. on Luke_, xi-lxx; Mathews, Bib. Wld.
+1895, I. 336-342, 448-455; on John, Burton, Bib. Wld. 1899, I. 16-41,
+102-105; Westcott, _Comm. on John_, v-lxxvii; Rhees in Abbott's _The Bible
+as Literature_, 281-297. On the synoptic question see Sanday SBD^2,
+1217-1243, and Expositor, Feb.-June, 1891; Woods, _Studia Biblica_, II.
+59-104; Salmon, _Introduction_^7, 99-151, 570-581; Stanton in HastBD II.
+234-243; Jülicher, _Einl._ 207-227. A. Wright, _Composition of the Four
+Gospels_ (1890) and _Some NT Problems_ (1898), defends the oral tradition
+theory in a modified form. On possible dislocations in John see Spitta,
+_Urchristentum_, I. 157-204; Bacon, Jour. Bib. Lit. 1894, 64-76; Burton,
+Bib. Wld. 1899, I. 27-35. For the history of opinion see specially H. J.
+Holtzmann, _Einl._^3 340-375. On the Johannine question see Sanday,
+Expositor, Nov. 1891-May 1892; Schürer, Cont. Rev. Sept. 1891; Watkins
+SBD^2 1739-1764; Burton, Bib. Wld. 1899, I. 16-41; Reynolds in HastBD II.
+694-722; Zahn, _Einl._ II. 445-564 (defends Johannine authorship);
+Jülicher, _Einl._ 238-250 (rejects Johannine authorship). For the history
+of opinion see Watkins, _Bampton Lecture_ for 1890; Holtzmann, _Einl._^3
+433-438. P. Ewald, _Hauptproblem der evang. Frage_, argues the
+authenticity of the fourth gospel from the one-sidedness of the synoptic
+story. See also Jour. Bib. Lit. 1898, I. 87-102.
+
+14. Réville proposes to reconstruct Jos. Ant. xviii. 3. 3 thus: "'At that
+time appeared Jesus, a wise man, who did astonishing things. That is why a
+good number of Jews and also of Greeks attached themselves to him.' Then
+follows some phrase probably signifying that these adherents had committed
+the error of proclaiming him Christ, and then 'denounced by the leading
+men of the nation, this Jesus was condemned by Pilate to die on the cross.
+But those who had loved him before persevered in their sentiment, and
+still to-day there exists a class of people who take from him their name
+Christians.'"
+
+15. On the testimony of Papias (Euseb. _Ch. Hist_. iii. 39. 4) see
+Lightfoot, Cont. Rev. 1875, II. 379 ff., and McGiffert's notes in his
+_Eusebius_, 170 ff.
+
+16. For a collection of probably genuine Agrapha see Ropes, _Die Spruche
+Jesu_, 154-161, and Amer. Jour. Theol. 1897, 758-776; Resch, _Agrapha_,
+gives a much longer list. He is criticised by Ropes. On lost and
+uncanonical gospels see Salmon, _Intr._^7 173-190, 580-591; Kruger, _Early
+Christian Literature_, 50-57. For the recently discovered Gospel of Peter
+see Swete, _The Gospel of Peter_; and on the so-called _Sayings of Jesus_
+found in Egypt in 1896 see Harnack, _Expositor_, V. vi. 321-340, 401-416,
+and essay by Sanday and Lock. _Apocryphal Gospels_ are most conveniently
+found in _Ante-nicene Fathers_, VIII. 361-476.
+
+
+III
+
+The Harmony of the Gospels
+
+17. The Diatessaron of Tatian is translated with notes by Hill, _The
+Earliest Life of Christ_. See also _Ante-nic. Fathers_, IX. 35-138.
+
+18. For the extreme position concerning Doublets see Holtzmann,
+_Hand-commentar zum NT_ I. passim. E. Haupt, Studien u. Kritiken, 1884,
+25, remarks that Jesus must often have repeated his teaching in
+essentially the same form.
+
+
+IV
+
+Chronology
+
+19. For data and discussion of the various problems see Wieseler,
+_Chronological Synopsis_; Lewin, _Fasti Sacra; _ KeimJN II. 379-402;
+AndLOL 1-52; SchürerJPTX I. ii. 30-32, 105-143; O. Holtzmann, _NtZeitg_,
+118-124, 125-127, 131-132; Turner HastBD I. 403-415; Ramsay, _Was Christ
+born at Bethlehem_; and von Soden in EnBib. I. 799-812. For patristic
+opinion concerning the length of Jesus' ministry, see HastBD I. 410. For
+the argument for a one-year ministry, see KeimJN II. 398; O. Holtzmann,
+_NtZeitg_, 131f. For two years, see Wieseler, _Chron. Synop_. 204-220;
+WeissLX I. 389-392; Turner, in HastBD. For three years, see AndLOL
+189-198; note by Robertson in Broadus, _Harmony of the Gospels_, 241-244.
+Compare RévilleJN II. 227-231; Zahn, _Einl._ II. 516f.
+
+
+V
+
+The Early Years
+
+20. On the problem of the Virgin birth see GilbertLJ 79-89; WeissLX I.
+211-233; Swete, _Apos. Creed_, 42-55; Bruce, _Apologetics_, 407-413;
+Ropes, Andover Rev. 1893, 695-712; FairbSLX 30-45; Godet, _Comm. on Luke_,
+Rem. on chaps. I. and II.; BovonNTTh I. 198-217. These maintain
+historicity. The other side: BeysLJ I. 148-174; Meyer, _Comm. on Matt_.,
+Rem. on 1.18; Keim JN II. 38-101; Réville, New World, 1892, 695-723, and
+JN I. 361-408; HoltzmannNtTh I. 409-415. On the early years of
+Jesus see EdersLJM I. 217-254; WeissLX I. 275-293; Hughes, _Manliness of
+Xt_, 35-60; WendtTJ I. 90-96; Stapfer, _Jesus Christ before his Ministry;
+_ FairbSLX 46-63; BeysLJ II. 44-65; RévilleJN I. 409-438.
+
+21. For some of the early legends concerning the birth and childhood of
+Jesus, see the so-called _Protevangelium of James_, the _Gospel of
+Pseudo-Matthew_, and the _Gospel of Thomas_, Ante-nic. Fathers, VIII.
+361-383, 395-398. For Jewish calumnies see Laible, _J. X. im Thalmud_,
+9-39.
+
+22. On the two genealogies see AndLOL 62-68; WeissLX I. 211-221; Godet on
+Luke, iii. 23-38. These refer Luke's genealogy to Marv. Hervey SBD^2
+1145-1148, Plummer on Luke, iii. 23, EdersLJM I. 149, GilbertLJ 81f.,
+with the early fathers (see Plummer), refer both to Joseph. For the view
+that they are unauthentic see Holtzmann, _Hand-comm._ I. 39-41; Bacon in
+HastBD II. 137-141.
+
+23. On the "brethren" of Jesus see Mayor, HastBD I. 320-326;
+AndrewsLOL 111-123. These make the brethren sons of Joseph and
+Mary. Lightfoot, _Galatians_^10, 252-291, regards them as sons of Joseph
+by a former marriage.
+
+
+VI
+
+John the Baptist
+
+24. On the character and work of John the Baptist see KeimJN II. 201-266
+and references in the index under John the Baptist. Keim's is much the
+most satisfactory treatment; it is, moreover, Keim at his best. See also
+Ewald, _Hist, of Israel_, VI. 160-200; WeissLX I. 307-316; FairbSLX 64-79;
+W. A. Stevens, Homil. Rev. 1891, II. 163 ff.; Bebb in HastBD II. 677-680;
+Wellhausen _Isr. u. judische Geschichte_, 342f.; Feather, _Last of the
+Prophets_. Reynolds, _John the Baptist_, obscures its excellencies by a
+vast amount of irrelevant discussion.
+
+25. On the existence of a separate company of disciples of John see Mk.
+ii. 18, Mt. ix. 14, Lk. v. 33; Mk. vi. 29, Mt. xiv. 12; Mt. xi. 2f., Lk.
+vii. 18f.; Lk. xi. 1; Jn. i. 35f.; iii. 25; Ac. xix. 1-3. Consult
+Lightfoot, _Colossians_, 400 ff.; Baldensperger, _Der Prolog des vierten
+Evangeliums_, 93-152.
+
+
+VII
+
+The Messianic Call
+
+26. On the baptism of Jesus see WendtTJ I. 96-101; EdersLJM I. 278-287;
+BaldSJ 219-229. WeissLX I. 316-336 says that the baptism meant for Jesus,
+already conscious of his Messiahship, "the close of his former life and
+the opening of one perfectly new" (322); KeimJN II. 290-299 makes it an
+act of consecration, but eliminates the Voice and Dove; BeysLJ I. 215-231
+thinks that Jesus, conscious of no sin, yet not aware of his Messiahship,
+sought the baptism carrying "the sins and guilt of his people on his
+heart, as if they were his own" (229). Against Beyschlag see E. Haupt in
+Studien u. Kritiken, 1887, 381. Baldensperger shows clearly that the
+Messianic call was a revelation to Jesus, not a conclusion from a course
+of reasoning.
+
+27. On the temptation see WendtTJ I. 101-105; WeissLX I. 337-354; EdersLJM
+I. 299-307; FairbairnSLX 80-98; BaldSJ 230-236; BeysLJ I.
+231-237; KeimJN II. 317-329. All these see in temptation the necessary
+result of the Messianic call at the baptism.
+
+28. The locality of the baptism of Jesus cannot be determined. Tradition
+has fixed on one of the fords of the Jordan near Jericho, see SmithHGHL
+496, note 1. On the probable location of Bethany (Bethabarah) (Jn. i. 28)
+see discussion in AndLOL 146-151; EnBib 548; and especially Smith's note
+as above.
+
+29. On the anointing of Jesus with the Holy Spirit see WeissLX I. 323-336;
+BeysLJ I. 230f. For the influence of the Spirit in the later life of Jesus
+see Mk. i. 12; Mt. iv. 1; Lk. iv. 1; iv. 14, 18, 21; Mk. iii. 29, 30; Mt.
+xii. 28; Jn. iii. 34; compare Ac. i. 2; x. 38. Clearly these refer not to
+the ethical and religious indwelling of the Divine Spirit (comp. Rom. i.
+4), but to the special equipment for official duty. This is the OT sense,
+see Ex. xxxi. 2-5; Jud. iii. 10; I. Sam. xi. 6; Isa. xi. 1f.; xlii. 1;
+lxi. 1; and consult Schultz, _Old Test. Theol._ II. 202f. Jesus seems to
+have needed a like divine equipment, notwithstanding his divine nature.
+See GilbertLJ 121f.
+
+30. How this Messianic anointing is to be related to the doctrine of
+Jesus' essential divine nature cannot be determined with certainty. It
+must not be forgotten, however, that it is a _datum_ for Christology, and
+that it cannot be explained away. It indicates one of the particulars in
+which Jesus was made like unto his brethren. What was involved when the
+Son of God "emptied himself and was made in the likeness of men" (Phil.
+ii. 7) we can only vaguely conceive. Two views of early heretical sects
+seem rightly to have been rejected. The Docetic view, held by some
+Gnostics of the 2d cent., dates the incarnation from the baptism, but
+distinguishes Christ from the human Jesus, who only served as a vehicle
+for the manifestation of the Son of God; the Christ descended on Jesus at
+the baptism, ascending again to heaven from the cross, compare Mt. iii. 16
+and xxvii. 50 in the Greek; see Schaff _Hist. of Xn Church_^2, II. 455f.
+The recently discovered Gospel of Peter presents this view, Gosp. Pet. §
+5. The Nestorian view represents that the baptism was, in a sense, Jesus'
+"birth from above" (Jn. iii. 3, 5); thus the incarnation was first
+complete at the baptism though the Logos had been associated with Jesus
+from the beginning. See Schaff, _Hist, of Xn Church_^2, III. 717 ff.;
+Conybeare, _History of Xmas_, Amer. Jour. Theol. 1899, 1-21.
+
+31. The traditional locality of the temptation is a mountain near Jericho
+called _Quarantana_, see AndLOL 155; the tradition seems to date no
+further back than the crusades. It is, however, probable that the
+"wilderness" (Mt. iv. 1, Mk. i. 12, Lk. iv. 1) is the same wilderness
+mentioned in connection with John's earlier life and work (Mt. iii. 1, Mk.
+i. 4), the region W and NW of the Dead Sea, see SmithHGHL 317. Others
+(Stanley, _Sinai and Palestine_, 308; EdersLJM I. 300, 339 notes) hold
+that the temptation took place in the desert regions SE of the sea of
+Galilee; this is possibly correct, though the record in the gospels
+suggests the wilderness of Judea. On the source of the temptation story
+see WeissLX I. 339 ff.; BeysLJ I. 234; Bacon, Bib. Wld. 1900, I. 18-25.
+
+
+VIII
+
+The First Disciples
+
+32. SandayHastBD II. 612f.; GilbertLJ 144-157; WeissLX I. 355-387; AndLOL
+155-165; EdersLJM I. 336-363; BeysLJ II. 129-148 (assigns here a
+considerable part of the synoptic account of work in Capernaum).
+
+33. _The early confessions_. On the genuineness of the Baptist's testimony
+to "the Lamb of God" see M. Dods in _Expos. Gk. Test_. I .695f.; Westcott,
+_Comm. on John_, 20; EdersLJM 1. 342 ff.; WeissLX 1. 362f. (thinks the
+evangelist added "who taketh away the sin of the world"); Holtzmann,
+_Hand-comm._ IV. 38f. holds that the evangelist has put in the mouth of
+the Baptist a conception which was first current after the death of Jesus.
+On the confessions of Nathanael and the others, see Jour. Bib. Lit. 1898,
+21-30.
+
+34. _Cana_ is probably the modern Khirbet Kana, eight miles N of Nazareth.
+A rival site is Kefr Kenna, three and one-half miles NE from Nazareth. See
+EnBib and HastBD, also AndLOL 162-164.
+
+35. _The miracles of Jesus_ are challenged by modern thought. It is
+customary in reading other documents than the N.T. instantly to relegate
+the miraculous to the domain of legend. Miracles, however, are integral
+parts of the story of Jesus' life, and those who attempt to write that
+life eliminating the supernatural are constrained to recognize that he had
+marvellous power as an exorcist and healer of some forms of nervous
+disease. So E. A. Abbott, _The Spirit on the Waters_, 169-201. Our
+knowledge of nature does not warrant a dogmatic definition of the limits
+of the possible; see James, _The Will to Believe_, vii.-xiii., 299-327.
+The question is confessedly one of adequate evidence. The evidence for the
+supreme miracle--the transcendent character of Jesus--is clear, see Part
+III. chap. iv.; and the miraculous element in the story of his life must
+be considered in view of this supreme miracle. In association with him his
+miracles gain in credibility. In estimating the evidence for them their
+dignity and worthiness is important. What the devout imagination would do
+in embellishing the story of Jesus is exhibited in the apocryphal gospels;
+the miracles of the canonical gospels are of an entirely different type,
+which commends them as authentic. By definition a miracle is an event not
+explicable in terms of ordinary human experience. It is therefore futile
+to attempt to picture the miracles of Jesus in their occurrence, for the
+imagination has no material except that furnished by ordinary experience.
+For our day the miracles are of importance chiefly for the exhibition they
+give of the character of Jesus; they can be studied with this in view
+without regard to the curious question how they happened. Read
+SandayHastBD II. 624-628; and see Fisher, _Grounds of Christian and
+Theistic Belief, _ chaps, iv.--vi., _Supernatural Origin of
+Christianity_^3, chap, xi.; Bruce, _Miraculous Element in the Gospels;
+Apologetics_, 409 ff.; Illingworth, _Divine Immanence_; Rainy, Orr, and
+Dods, _The Supernatural in Christianity_.
+
+
+
+Part II.--The Ministry
+
+
+I
+
+General Survey
+
+36. SandayHastBD II. 609f.; GilbertLJ 136-143; AndLOL 125-137; BeysLJ I.
+256-295.
+
+
+II
+
+The Early Ministry in Judea
+
+37. SandayHastBD II. 612^b-613^b; WeissLX II. 3-53; EdersLJM I. 364-429;
+BeysLJ II. 147-168; GilbertLJ 158-179.
+
+38. On _the chronological significance of John iv_. 35 see AndLOL 183;
+WeissLX II. 40; Wieseler, _Synop_. 212 ff, who find indication that the
+journey was in December. EdersLJM I. 419f.; Turner in HastBD I. 408, find
+indication of early summer. Some treat iv. 35 as a proverb with no
+chronological significance; so Alford, _Comm. on John_.
+
+39. Geographical notes. _Aenon_ near Salim has not been identified. Most
+favor a site in Samaria, seven miles from a place named Salim, which lay
+four miles E of Shechem, see Conder, _Tent Work in Palestine_, II. 57, 58;
+Stevens, Jour. Bib. Lit. 1883, 128-141. But can John have been baptizing
+in Samaria? WeissLX II. 28 says "it is perfectly impossible that he [John]
+can have taken up his station in Samaria." Other suggestions are: some
+place in the Jordan valley (but then why remark on the abundance of water,
+Jn. iii. 23?); near Jerusalem; and in the south of Judea. See AndLOL
+173-175. _Sychar_ is the modern 'Askar, about a mile and three-quarters
+from Nablus (Shechem), and half a mile N of Jacob's well. See SmithHGHL
+367-375.
+
+40. General questions. _Was the temple twice cleansed?_ (see sect. 116).
+Probably not. The two reports (Jn. ii. 13-22; Mk. xi. 15-18 ¶s) are
+similar in respect of Jesus' indignation, its cause, its expression, its
+result, and a consequent challenge of his authority. They differ in the
+time of the event (John assigns to first Passover, synoptics to the last)
+and in a possibly greater sternness in the synoptic account. These
+differences are no greater than appear in other records of identical
+events (compare Mt. viii. 5-13 with Lk. vii. 2-10), while the repetition
+of such an act would probably have been met by serious opposition. If the
+temple was cleansed but once, John indicates the true time. At the
+beginning of the ministry it was a demand that the people follow the new
+leader in the purification of God's house and the establishment of a truer
+worship. At the end it could have had only a vindictive significance,
+since the people had already signified to the clear insight of Jesus that
+they would not accept his leadership. For two distinct cleansings see the
+discussion in AndLOL 169f., 437; EdersLJM I. 373; Plummer on Luke xix.
+45f. For one cleansing at the end see KeimJN V. 113-131. For one cleansing
+at the beginning see WeissLX II. 6 ff.; BeysLJ II. 149 ff.; GilbertLJ 159
+ff.
+
+41. _The journey to Galilee_. Do John (iv. 1-4, 43-45) and Mark (i. 14 =
+Mt. iv. 12; Lk. iv. 14) report the same journey? Both are journeys from
+the south introducing work in Galilee; yet the reasons given for the
+journey are different (compare Jn. iv. 1-3 with Mk. i. 14). If the
+Pharisees had a hand in John's "delivering up" (Mk. i. 14; comp. Jos. Ant.
+xviii. 5. 2), the same hostile movement may have impelled Jesus to leave
+Judea. He may not have heard of John's imprisonment until after his
+departure, or some time before he opened his new ministry in Galilee. See
+GilbertLJ 173f. AndLOL 176-182 argues against the identification.
+
+42. _The nobleman's son_ (Jn. iv. 46-54). Is this a doublet of Mt. viii.
+5-13; Lk. vii. 2-10? John differs from synoptics in the time, the place,
+the disease, the suppliant, his plea, and Jesus' attitude. Matthew and
+Mark differ from each other concerning the bearers of the centurion's
+messages to Jesus. John's account is similar to synoptic superficially,
+but is probably not a doublet. Compare Syro-Phœnician's daughter (Mk. vii.
+29f.). See GilbertLJ 202; Meyer on John iv. 51-54; Plummer on Luke vii.
+10. WeissLX II. 45-51 identifies. Read SandayHastBD II. 613.
+
+
+
+III and IV
+
+The Ministry in Galilee
+
+43. Read SandayHastBD II. 613-630; GilbertLJ 180-283. Consult WeissLX II.
+44 to III. 153; EdersLJM I. 472 to II. 125; BeysLJ II. 140-147,168-294.
+See AndLOL 209-363 for discussion of details, and KeimJN III. 10 to IV.
+346 for an illuminating, though not unprejudiced, topical treatment.
+
+44. Geographical notes. _Capernaum_. The site is not clearly identified,
+two ruins on the NW of Sea of Galilee are rival claimants,--Tell Hum and
+Khan Minyeh. Tell Hum is advocated by Thomson, _Land and Book, Central
+Pal. and Phœnicia_ (1882), 416-420; Khan Minyeh, by SmithHGHL 456, EnBib
+I. 696 ff. Latter is probably correct. See AndLOL 224-237.
+
+_Bethsaida_. The full name is Bethsaida Julias, located at entrance of
+Jordan into the Sea of Galilee. SmithEnBib I. 565f., SmithHGHL
+457f., shows that there is no need of the hypothesis of a second Bethsaida
+to meet the statement in Mk. vi. 45, or that in Jn. i. 44. See also AndLOL
+230-236. Ewing HastBD I. 282f. renews the argument for two Bethsaidas.
+
+_Chorazin_ was probably the modern Kerazeh, about one mile N of Tell Hum,
+and back from the lake. See SmithEnBib I. 751; SmithHGHL 456;
+AndLOL 237f.
+
+45. _The mountain of the sermon on the mount_ (Mt. v. 1; Lk. vi. 12)
+probably refers to the Galilean highlands as distinct from the shore of
+the lake. More definite location is not possible. See AndLOL 268f.;
+EdersLJM I. 524. The traditional site, the Horns of Hattin, is a hill
+lying about seven miles SW from Khan Minyeh, which has near the top a
+level place (Lk. vi. 17) flanked by two low peaks or "horns."
+
+46. _The country of the Gerasenes, Gadarenes, or Gergesenes_. Gadarenes is
+the best attested reading in Mt. viii. 28, Gerasenes in Mk. v. 1 and Lk.
+viii. 26; Gergesenes has only secondary attestation. Gadara is identified
+with Um Keis on the Yarmuk, some six miles SE of the Sea of Galilee. This
+cannot have been the site of the miracle, though it is possible that
+Gadara may have controlled the country round about, including the shores
+of the sea. Gerasa is the name of a city in the highlands of Gilead,
+twenty miles E of Jordan, and thirty-five SE of the Sea of Galilee, and
+it clearly cannot have been the scene of the miracle. Near the E shore of
+the sea Thomson discovered the ruins of a village which now bears the name
+Khersa. The formation of the land in the neighborhood closely suits the
+narrative of the gospels. This is now accepted as the true identification.
+See Thomson _Land and Book, Central Palestine_, 353-355; SBD^2 1097-1100;
+HastBD II. 159f.; AndLOL 296-300. The name "Gadarenes" may indicate that
+Gadara had jurisdiction over the region of Khersa; the names "Gerasenes"
+and "Gergesenes" may be derived directly and independently from Khersa, or
+may be corruptions due to the obscurity of Khersa.
+
+47. _The feeding of the five thousand_ took place on the E of the sea, in
+a desert region, abundant in grass, and mountainous, and located in the
+neighborhood of a place named Bethsaida. Near the ruins of Bethsaida
+Julias is a plain called now Butaiha, "a smooth, grassy place near the sea
+and the mountains," which meets the requirements of the narrative. See
+AndLOL 322f.
+
+48. _The return of Jesus from the regions of Tyre "through Sidon"_ (Mk.
+vii. 31) avoided Galilee, crossing N of Galilee to the territory of Philip
+and "_the Decapolis_." This latter name applies to a group of free Greek
+cities, situated for the most part E of the Jordan. Most of the cities of
+the group were farther S than the Sea of Galilee; some, however, were E
+and NE of that sea, hence Jesus' approach from Cæsarea Philippi or
+Damascus could be described as "through Decapolis." See SmithHGHL 593-608;
+En Bib I. 1051 ff.; SchürerJPTX II. i. 94-121.
+
+49. Of _Magadan_ (Mt. xv. 39) or _Dalmanutha_ (Mk. viii. 10) all that is
+known is that they must have been on the W coast of the Sea of Galilee.
+They have never been identified, though there are many conjectures. See
+SBD^2, HastBD, and En Bib.
+
+50. _Cæsarea Philippi_ was situated at the easternmost and most important
+of the sources of the Jordan, it is called Panias by Jos. Ant. xv. 10.3,
+now Banias. Probably a sanctuary of the god Pan. Here Herod the Great
+built a temple which he dedicated to Cæsar; Philip the Tetrarch enlarged
+the town and called it Cæsarea Philippi. See SBD^2; HastBD; EnBib.
+
+51. _The mountain of the transfiguration_. The traditional site, since the
+fourth century, is Tabor in Galilee. Most recent opinion has favored one
+of the shoulders of Hermon, owing to the supposed connection of the event
+with the sojourn near Cæsarea Philippi. WeissLX III. 98 points out that
+there is no evidence that Jesus lingered for "six days" (Mk. ix. 2) near
+that town, and that therefore the effort to locate the transfiguration is
+futile. GilbertLJ 274 thinks that Mk. ix. 30 is decisive in favor of a
+place outside Galilee; he therefore holds to the common view that Hermon
+is the true locality. See AndLOL 357f.
+
+52. General questions. _Was Jesus twice rejected at Nazareth?_ (comp. Lk.
+iv. 16-30 with Mk. vi. 1-6^a; Mt. xiii. 54-58). Here are two accounts that
+read like independent traditions of the same event; they agree concerning
+the place, the teaching in the synagogue on the Sabbath, the astonishment
+of the Nazarenes, their scornful question, and Jesus' rejoinder. Luke
+makes no reference to the disciples (Mk. vi. 1) nor to the working of
+miracles (Mk. vi. 5); Matthew and Mark, on the other hand, say nothing of
+an attempt at violence. These differences are no more serious, however,
+than appear in the two accounts of the appeal of the centurion to Jesus
+(Mt. viii. 5-8; Lk. vii. 3-7). Moreover, Lk. iv. 23 indicates a time after
+the ministry in Capernaum had won renown, which agrees with the place
+given the rejection in Mark. The general statement (Lk. iv. 14f.) suggests
+that the visit to Nazareth is given at the beginning as an instance of
+"preaching in their synagogues." The three accounts probably refer to one
+event reported independently. For identification see WeissLX III. 34;
+Plummer on Luke iv. 30; GilbertLJ 254f. For two rejections see Godet's
+supplementary note on Lk. iv. 16-30; Meyer on Mt. xiii. 53-58; EdersLJM I.
+457, note 1; Wieseler, _Synopsis_, 278. BeysLJ I. 270 identifies but
+prefers Luke's date.
+
+53. _Were there two miraculous draughts of fish?_ Lk. v. 1-11 is sometimes
+identified with Jn. xxi. 3-13. So WendtLJ I. 211f., WeissLX II. 57f., and
+Meyer on Luke v. 1-11. Against the identification see Alford, Godet, and
+Plummer on the passage in Luke. The two are alike in scene, the night of
+bootless toil, the great catch at Jesus' word. They differ in personnel,
+antecedent relations of the fishermen with Jesus, the effect of the
+miracle on Peter, and the subsequent teaching of Jesus, as well as in
+time. These differences make identification difficult.
+
+54. _Where in the synoptic story should the journey to the feast in
+Jerusalem_ (Jn. v.) _be placed?_ There is nothing in John's narrative to
+identify the feast, although it is his custom to name the festivals to
+which he refers (Passover, ii. 13, 23; vi. 4; xi. 55; xii. 1; Tabernacles,
+vii. 2; Dedication, x. 22). Even if John wrote "the feast," rather than "a
+feast" (the MSS. vary, A B D and seven other uncials omit the article), it
+would be impossible to decide between Passover and Tabernacles. The
+omission of the article suggests either that the feast was of minor
+importance, or that its identification was of no significance for the
+understanding of the following discourse. Since a year and four months
+probably elapsed between the journey into Galilee (Jn. iv. 35) and the
+next Passover mentioned in John (vi. 4), v. 1 may refer to any one of the
+feasts of the Jewish year. The commonest interpretation prefers Purim, a
+festival of a secular and somewhat hilarious type, which occurred on the
+14th and 15th of Adar, a month before the Passover. It is difficult to
+believe that this feast would have called Jesus to Jerusalem. See WeissLX
+II. 391; GilbertLJ 137-139, 142, 234-235. Against this interpretation see
+EdersLJM II. 765. Edersheim advocates the feast of Wood Gathering on the
+15th of Ab--about our August. On this day all the people were permitted to
+offer wood for the use of the altar in the temple, while during the rest
+of the year the privilege was reserved for special families. See LJM II
+765f.; Westcott, _Comm. on John_, add. note on v. 1, argues for the feast
+of Trumpets, or the new moon of the month Tisri,--about our
+September,--which was celebrated as the beginning of the civil year.
+Others have suggested Pentecost, fifty days after the Passover; the day of
+Atonement--but this was a fast, not a feast; and Tabernacles. The majority
+of those who do not favor Purim prefer the Passover, notwithstanding the
+difficulty of thinking that John would refer to this feast simply as "a
+feast of the Jews." Read AndLOL 193-198, remembering that the question
+must be considered independently of the question of the length of Jesus'
+ministry. The impossibility of determining the feast renders the
+adjustment of this visit to the synoptic story very uncertain. It may be
+that there was some connection between the Sabbath controversy in Galilee
+(Mk. ii. 23-28) and the criticism Jesus aroused in Jerusalem (Jn. v.). If
+so, one of the spring feasts, Passover or Pentecost, would best suit the
+circumstances; but this arrangement is quite uncertain.
+
+55. _Do the five conflicts of Mk. ii. 1 to iii. 6 belong at the early
+place in the ministry of Jesus to which that gospel assigns them_? It is
+commonly held that they do not, and the argument for a two-year ministry
+rests on this assumption (see SandayHastBD II. 613). Holtzmann,
+_Hand-commentar_ I. 9f., remarks that at least for the cure of the
+paralytic and for the call and feast of Levi (Mk. ii. 1, 13, 15) the
+evangelist was confident that he was following the actual order of events;
+note the call of the fifth disciple, Mk. ii. 13, between the call of the
+four, Mk. i. 16-20, and that of the twelve, iii. 16-19. The question about
+fasting may owe its place (Mk. ii. 18-22) to association with the
+criticism of Jesus for eating with publicans (Mk. ii. 16). In like manner
+the second Sabbath conflict (Mk. iii. 1-6) may be attached to the first
+(ii. 23-28) as a result of the identity of subject, for it is noteworthy
+that Mark records only these two Sabbath conflicts; moreover, the plot of
+Herodians and Pharisees to kill Jesus strongly suggests a later time for
+the actual occurrence of this criticism. The first Sabbath question,
+however, may belong early, as Mark has placed it. Weiss, Markusevangelium,
+76, LX II. 232 ff., places these conflicts late. Edersheim, LJM II. 51
+ff., discusses the Sabbath controversies after the feeding of the
+multitudes. RévilleJN II. 229 places the first of them early.
+
+56. _The sermon on the mount._ Luke (vi. 12-19 = Mk. iii.
+13-19^a indicates the place in the Galilean ministry; Matthew
+has therefore anticipated in assigning it to the beginning. The identity
+of the two sermons (Mt. v. 1 to vii. 27; Lk. vi. 20-49) is shown by the
+fact that each begins with beatitudes, each closes with the parables of
+the wise and foolish builders, each is followed by the cure of a
+centurian's servant in Capernaum (Mt. viii. 5-13; Lk. vii. 1-10), and the
+teachings which are found in each account are given in the same order.
+Matthew is much fuller than Luke, many teachings given in the sermon in
+Matthew being found in later contexts in Luke. Much of the sermon in
+Matthew, however, evidently belonged to the original discourse, and was
+omitted by Luke, perhaps because of less interest to Gentile than to
+Jewish Christians. The following sections are found elsewhere in Luke, and
+were probably associated with the sermon by the first evangelist: Mt. v.
+25, 26; Lk. xii. 58, 59; Mt. vi. 9-13; Lk. xi. 2-4; Mt. vi. 19-34; Lk.
+xii. 21-34; xi. 34-36; xvi. 13; Mt. vii. 7-11; Lk. xi. 9-13; Mt. vii. 13,
+14; Lk. xiii. 24. The first evangelist's habit of grouping may explain
+also the presence in his sermon of teachings which he himself has
+duplicated later, thus: Mt. v. 29, 30 = xviii. 8,9; v. 32 = xix. 9, comp.
+Mk. x. 11, ix. 43-47, Lk. xvi. 18; Mt. vi. 14, 15 = Mk. xi. 25. Matthew
+vii. 22, 23 has the character of the teachings which follow the confession
+at Cæsarea Phillipi, and is quite unlike the other early teachings. It may
+belong to the later time, for it was natural for the early Christians to
+associate together teachings which the Lord uttered on widely separated
+occasions. The sermon as originally given may be analyzed as follows: The
+privileges of the heirs of the kingdom of God, Mt. v. 3-13; Lk. vi. 20-26;
+their responsibilities, Mt. v. 13-16; the relation of the new to the old,
+Mt. v. 17-19; the text of the discourse, Mt. v. 20; the new conception of
+morality, Mt. v. 21-48; Lk. vi. 27-36; the new practice of religion, Mt.
+vi. 1-8, 16-18; warning against a censorious spirit, Mt. vii. 16-20; Lk.
+vi. 43-46; the wise and foolish builders, Mt. vii. 24-27; Lk. vi. 47-49.
+
+57. _The discourse in parables._ Matthew gives seven parables at this
+point (xiii.), Mark (iv. 1-34) has three, one of them is not given in
+Matthew, Luke (viii. 4-18) gives in this connection but one,--the Sower.
+Many think that the Tares of Matthew (xiii. 24-30, 36-43) is a doublet of
+Mark's Seed growing secretly (iv. 26-29); so Weiss LX II. 209 note,
+against which view see WendtLJ I. 178 f., and Bruce, _Parabolic Teaching
+of Xt_, 119. Matthew has probably made here a group of parables, as in
+chapters v. to vii. he has made a group of other teachings. The
+interpretation of the Tares, and of the Draw-net (xiii. 40-43, 49, 50),
+may indicate that these parables were spoken after Jesus began to teach
+plainly concerning the end of the world (Mk. viii. 31 to ix. 1), Luke
+gives the Mustard Seed and Leaven in another connection (xiii. 18-21), and
+it may be that Matthew has taken them out of their true context to
+associate them with the other parables of his group; yet in popular
+teaching it must be recognized that illustrations are most likely to be
+repeated in different situations. On the parables see Goebel, _The
+Parables of Jesus_ (1890), Bruce, _The Parabolic Teaching of Christ_, 3d
+ed. (1886), Jülicher, _Die Gleichnissreden Jesu_ (2 vols. 1899), and the
+commentaries on the gospels.
+
+58. _The instructions to the twelve_. Mt. ix. 36 to xi. 1. x. 1, 5-14
+corresponds in general with Mk. vi. 7-11; Lk. ix. 1-5. The similarity is
+closer, however, between x. 7-15 and Lk. x. 3-12--the instructions to the
+seventy (see sect. A 68). The rest of Mt. x. (16-42) is paralleled by
+teachings found in the closing discourses in the synoptic gospels, and in
+teachings preserved in the section peculiar to Luke (ix. 51 to xviii. 14.
+See SB sects. 88-92, footnotes). It is probable that here the first
+evangelist has made a group of instructions to disciples gathered from all
+parts of the Lord's teachings; such a collection was of great practical
+value in the early time of persecution.
+
+59. _Did Jesus twice feed the multitudes_? All the gospels record the
+feeding of the five thousand (Mt. xiv. 13-23; Mk. vi. 30-46; Lk. ix.
+10-17; Jn. vi. 1-15), Matthew (xv. 32-38) and Mark (viii. 1-9) give also
+the feeding of the four thousand. The similarities are so great that the
+two accounts would be regarded as doublets if they occurred in different
+gospels. The difficulty with such an identification is chiefly the
+reference which in both Matthew (xvi. 9, 10) and Mark (viii. 19, 20) Jesus
+is said to have made to the two feedings. The evangelists clearly
+distinguished the two. In view of this fact the differences between the
+accounts become important. These concern the occasion of the two miracles,
+the number fed, the nationality of the multitudes (compare Jn. vi. 31 and
+Mk. vii. 31), the number of loaves and of baskets of broken pieces (the
+name for basket is different in the two cases, and is preserved
+consistently in Mk. viii. 19, 20; Mt. xvi. 9, 10). See GilbertLJ 259-262,
+Gould, and Swete, on Mk. viii. 1-9; Meyer, Alford, on Mt. xv. 32-38.
+WeissLX II. 376f., BeysLJ I. 279f., WendtLJ I. 42, Holtzmann _Hand-comm._
+I. 186 ff., identify the accounts. See also SandayHastBD II. 629.
+
+60. _Did Peter twice confess faith in Jesus as Messiah_? Synoptics give
+his confession at Cæesarea Philippi (Mk. viii. 27-30; Mt. xvi. 13-20; Lk.
+ix. 18-21). John, however, gives a confession earlier at Capernaum (vi.
+66-71). WeissLX III. 53 identifies the two, placing that in John at
+Cæsarea Philippi, since there is no evidence that all of the long
+discourse of Jn. vi. was spoken in Capernaum the day after the feeding of
+the five thousand. This may be correct, yet the marked recognition which
+Jesus gave to the confession at Cæsarea Philippi does not demand that he
+first at that time received a confession of his disciples' faith. The
+confession in Jn. vi. 68, 69 declared that the twelve were not shaken in
+their faith by the recent defection of many disciples. At Cæsarea Philippi
+the confession was made after the revulsion of popular feeling had been
+made fully evident, and after the twelve had had time for reaction of
+enthusiasm consequent upon the growing coldness of the multitudes and
+active opposition of the leaders. The confession of Cæsarea Philippi holds
+its unique significance, whether or not Jn. vi. 68 is identified with it.
+
+61. _The journey to Tabernacles_ (Jn. vii.). Where in the synoptic story
+should it be placed? Lk. ix. 51 ff. records the final departure from
+Galilee. The journey of Jn. vii. is the last journey from Galilee given in
+John. Yet the two are very different. In John, Jesus went in haste,
+unpremeditatedly, in secret, and unaccompanied, and confronted the people
+with himself unexpectedly during the feast. In Luke (Mk. x. 1 and Mt. xix.
+1 are so general that they give no aid) he advanced deliberately, with
+careful plans, announcing his coming in advance, accompanied by many
+disciples, with whom he went from place to place, arriving in Jerusalem
+long after he had set out. The two journeys cannot be identified. John
+seems to keep Jesus in the south after the Tabernacles, but his account
+does not forbid a return to Galilee between Tabernacles and Dedication (x.
+22). After the hurried visit to Tabernacles, Jesus probably went back to
+Galilee, and gathered his disciples again for the final journey towards
+his cross--for the visit to Jerusalem had given fresh evidence of the kind
+of treatment he must expect in the capital (Jn. vii. 32, 45-52; viii. 59).
+See AndLOL 369-379. Andrews suggests that the feast occurred before the
+withdrawal to Cæsarea Philippi (376); this is possible, but it seems more
+natural to place it during the sojourn in Capernaum after the return from
+the north (Mk. ix. 33-50). See SB, sects. 82-85.
+
+62. On the phenomena and interpretation of _Demoniac Possession_ see J. L.
+Nevius, _Demon Possession and allied Themes_; Conybeare, Jew. Quar. Rev.
+VIII. (1896) 576-608, IX. (1896-7) 59-114, 444-470, 581-603; J. Weiss in
+_Reälencyklopädie_,^3 Hauck-Herzog, IV. 408-419; Binet, _Alterations of
+Personality_, 325-356; James, _Psychology, _ I. 373-400; and the articles
+on DEMONS in EnBib and HastBD.
+
+
+The Journey through Perea to Jerusalem
+
+63. Read SandayHastBD II. 630-632; see GilbertLJ 298-310: WeissLX III.
+157-223; KeimJN V, 1-64; BeysLJ I. 287-294. II. 333-419; AndLOL 365-420;
+EdersLJM II. 126-360.
+
+64. This journey began sometime between Tabernacles and Dedication
+(October and December) of the last year of Jesus' life, and continued
+until the arrival in Bethany six days before the last Passover.
+
+65. Geographical notes. _Perea_--a part of the domain of Antipas--was the
+Jewish territory E of the Jordan. Its northern limit seems to have been
+marked by Pella (Jos. Wars, iii 3. 3) or Gadara (Wars, iv. 7. 3), and its
+E boundary was marked by Philadelphia (Ant. xx. 1. 1); it extended S to
+the domain of Aretas, king of Arabia. The population was mixed, though
+predominatingly Jewish. Cities of the Decapolis, however, lay within the
+limits of Perea, and introduced Greek life and ideas to the people. On the
+highlands back from the Jordan it was a fertile and well populated land.
+See SmithHGHL 539f.; SchürerJPTX II. i. 2-4.
+
+66. On _Bethany and Jericho_ see BDs and, for the latter, SmithHGHL 266
+ff.
+
+67. _Ephraim_, (John xi. 54) is generally identified with the Ephron of
+II. Chron. xiii. 19 (Jos. Wars, iv. 9. 9). Robinson located it at et
+Taiyibeh, 4 m. NE of Bethel, and 14 from Jerusalem. See HastBD l. 728;
+SBD^2 975.
+
+68. General questions. _The mission of the seventy_. Luke records two
+missions, that of the twelve (ix. 1-6), and that of the seventy (x. 1-24).
+Many regard these as doublets, similar to the two feedings in Mark. So
+WeissLX II. 307 ff., BeysLJ I. 275, WendtLJ I. 84f. In favor of this
+conclusion emphasis is given to the fact that in Jewish thought seventy
+symbolized the nations of the world as twelve symbolized Israel. It is
+suggested that in his search for full records Luke came upon an account of
+the mission of disciples which had already been modified in the interests
+of Gentile Christianity, and failing to recognize its identity with the
+account of the mission furnished by Mark, he added it in his peculiar
+section. The similarity of the instructions given follows from the nature
+of the case. A second sending out of disciples is suitable in view of the
+entrance into a region hitherto unvisited. As Dr. Sanday has remarked, the
+sayings connected by Luke with this mission bear witness to the
+authenticity of the account. There is therefore no need to identify the
+two missions. See particularly SandayHastBD II. 614, also GilbertLJ
+226-230, Plummer's _Comm. on Luke_, 269 ff. Luke probably gives the
+correct place for the thanksgiving, self-declaration, and invitation of
+Jesus, in which the synoptists approach most nearly to the thought of John
+(Lk. x. 21, 22; Mt. xi. 25-30). The return of the seventy (Lk. x. 17-20)
+followed the woes addressed to the unbelieving cities (Lk. x. 13-16; Mt.
+xi. 20-24).
+
+69. _The destination of the seventy_. It is customary to think of them as
+sent to the various cities of Perea (see AndLOL 381-383). Were it not for
+the words "whither he himself was about to come" (Lk. x. I), it would be
+natural to conclude that they were sent E to Gerasa and Philadelphia, and
+S to the regions of the Dead Sea. If John's account is accepted, Jesus
+spent not a little time of the interval between his departure from Galilee
+and his final arrival in Bethany in and near Jerusalem. It may be that
+after the withdrawal from the Dedication he went far into the Perean
+districts. But John x. 40 is against it. The question must be left
+unanswered. The messengers may have visited places in all parts of
+Palestine.
+
+
+VI
+
+The Controversies of the Last Week
+
+70. See GilbertLJ 311-335; WeissLX III. 224-270; AndLOL 421-450; KeimJN V.
+65-275; BeysLJ II. 422-434; EdersLJM II. 363-478; SandayHastBD II 632f.
+
+71. _The supper at Bethany_. John is definite, "six days before the
+passover" (xii. I). Synoptists place it after the day of controversy, on
+the Wednesday preceding the Passover (Mk. xiv. I, 3-9; Mt. xxvi. 2, 6-13).
+John is probably correct. The rebuke of Judas (Jn. xii. 4-8) was probably
+associated in the thought of the disciples with his later treachery;
+consequently the synoptists report the plot of Judas and this supper in
+close connection.
+
+72. _The Messianic entry into Jerusalem_ is regarded by Réville as a
+surrender by Jesus of his lofty Messianic ideal in response to the
+temptation to seek a popular following. Keim with finer insight says,
+"Even if it had certainly been his wish to bring the kingdom of heaven
+near in Jerusalem quietly and gradually, and with a healthy mental
+progress, as in Galilee, yet ... in the face of the irritability of his
+opponents, in the face of the powerful means at their disposal of crushing
+him ... there remained but one chance,--reckless publicity, the conquest
+of the partially prepared nation by means, not of force, but of idea....
+He came staking his life upon the venture, but also believing that God
+must finish his work through life or death" (JN V. 100f.).
+
+73. _The question about the resurrection_ was probably a familiar
+Sadducean problem with which they made merry at the expense of the
+scribes. On the resurrection in Jewish thought see Charles, _Eschatology,
+Hebrew, Jewish, and Christian_, by index. For the scepticism of the
+Sadducees see also Ac. xxiii. 8; Jos. Wars, ii, 8. 14.
+
+74. On the "_great commandment_" see EdersLJM II. 403 ff.
+
+75. The eschatological discourse presents serious exegetical difficulties.
+Many cut the knot by assuming that Mk. xiii. and ∥s contain a little
+Jewish apocalypse written shortly before the destruction of Jerusalem,
+which has been blended with genuine predictions of Jesus concerning his
+second coming. See Charles, _Eschatology_, 323-. 329; WendtLJ I. 9-21;
+HoltzmannNtTH I. 325 ff.; and Bruce's criticism in _Expos. Gk. Test_. I.
+287f., also Sanday's note in HastBD II. 635f.
+
+76. On _the relation of proselytes_ to Judaism see SchürerJPTX II. ii.
+291-327. The synagogue in heathen lands drew to itself by its monotheism
+and its pure ethics the finest spirits of paganism. But few of them,
+however, submitted to circumcision, and became thus proselytes. Most of
+them constituted the class of "them that fear God" to whom Paul constantly
+appealed in his apostolic mission. The Greeks of Jn. xii. 20 ff. were
+probably circumcised proselytes.
+
+77. On _Judas_ see Plummer in HastBD II. 796 ff.; EdersLJM II. 471-478;
+WeissLX III. 285-289; AndLOL by index. De Quincey's essay on _Judas
+Iscariot_ is an elaborate defence.
+
+
+VII
+
+The Last Supper
+
+78. GilbertLJ 335-354; WeissLX III. 273-318; EdersLJM II. 479-532; AndLOL
+450-497; KeimJN V. 275-343; BeysLJ II. 434-448; SandayHastBD II. 633-638.
+
+79. _The day of the last supper_. John seems clearly to place it on the
+day before the Passover--13 Nisan. See xiii. I, 29; xviii. 28; xix. 14,
+31, 42. Synoptists as clearly declare that the supper was prepared on the
+"first day of unleavened bread, when they sacrificed the Passover" (Mk.
+xiv. 12; see also Lk. xxii. 15); this is confirmed by the similarity
+between the Passover ritual as tradition has preserved it, and the course
+of events at the supper. Unless interpretation can remove the
+contradiction, John must have the preference. WeissLX III. 273-282, BeysLJ
+II. 390-399, accept John and correct the synoptists by him; thus the
+supper anticipated the Passover. Some hold that John can be interpreted
+harmoniously with synoptists, and be shown to indicate that the supper was
+on the 14th Nisan. So EdersLJM II. 508, 566f., 612f.; AndLOL 452-481;
+GilbertLJ 335-339. Others believe that a true interpretation of synoptists
+shows that in calling the last supper a Passover they correctly represent
+the character, but misapprehend the time, of the meal. For this argument
+see Muirhead, _Times of Xt_, 163-169, and read SandayHastBD II. 633-636
+and his references. The debate is still on, but the advantage seems to be
+with those who assign the supper to the 13th and the crucifixion to the
+14th Nisan.
+
+80. _Did Jesus institute a memorial sacrament_? Read SandayHastBD II.
+636-638, and Thayer, in Jour. Bib. Lit. 1899, 110-131; see also
+McGiffert, _Apostolic Age_, 68 ff. note; HoltzmannNtTh I. 296-304.
+
+81. _The Passover ritual_. The order according to the rabbis was the
+following: the first cup of wine and water was taken by the leader, who
+gave thanks over it, and then it was shared by all (compare Lk. xxii. 17);
+then the head of the company washed his hands--Dr. Edersheim connects with
+this the washing of the disciples' feet, which changed the ceremony from
+an act of distinction into one of humble service; after this the dishes
+were brought on the table, then the leader dipped some of the bitter herbs
+into salt water or vinegar, spoke a blessing, and partook of them, then
+handed them to each of the company; then one of the loaves of unleavened
+bread was broken; after this a second cup was filled, and before it was
+drunk the significance of the Passover was explained by the leader in
+reply to a question by the youngest of the company, after which the first
+part of the Hallel (Ps. cxiii., cxiv.) was sung, and then the cup was
+drunk; then followed the supper itself beginning with "the sop,"--a piece
+of the paschal lamb, a piece of unleavened bread, and bitter herbs,
+wrapped together and dipped in the vinegar,--which was passed around the
+company (compare the sop which Jesus gave to Judas); after the supper came
+a third cup, known as "the cup of blessing" (see I. Cor. x. 16); then
+followed grace after meat; then a fourth cup, in connection with which the
+remainder of the Hallel was sung (Ps. cxv. to cxviii.), followed by
+certain other songs and prayers. See EdersLJM II. 496-512; AndLOL 488-494.
+
+82. _The washing of the disciples' feet_. John (xiii. 1-11) says this
+occurred "during supper" (v. 2), and before the designation of the
+traitor. Luke (xxii. 23-30) tells of a dispute about greatness among the
+disciples. This dispute may have arisen over the assignment of places at
+table (compare Lk. xiv. 7 ff.; Mk. x. 33-45); if so, the reason for the
+lesson in humility is apparent. See AndLOL 482-484; EdersLJM II. 492-503.
+
+83. _Did Jesus twice predict Peter's denials_? Mark (xiv. 26-31) and
+Matthew (xxvi. 30-35) place the prediction after the departure for
+Gethsemane; Luke (xxii. 31-34) and John (xiii. 36-38), during the supper.
+AndLOL 494 ff. thinks Peter was warned twice, EdersLJM. II. 535-537 holds
+to one warning on the way to Gethsemane. Antecedent probability favors
+this view.
+
+84. _Where in John should the institution of the sacrament be placed_?
+Probably after the departure of Judas (Mark xiv. 21f.; Matt. xxvi. 26),
+thus not before xiii. 30. The most likely place is between, verses 32 and
+33. There is no break at this point, and it remains a mystery why John's
+account of the passion omitted this central feature of early Christian
+belief and practice. The omission argues for rather than against apostolic
+authorship, as a forger would not have ventured to disregard the leading
+service of the church in an account of the life of its Lord. See Westcott,
+_Comm. on John_, 188.
+
+85. On the possible _disarrangement of the last discourses_ (xiii. 31 to
+xvi. 33) in our text of John see Spitta, _Urchristentum_, I. 168-193;
+Bacon, Jour. Bib. Lit. 1894, 64-76; Burton, Bib. Wld. 1899 I. 32.
+
+
+VIII
+
+The Shadow of the Cross
+
+86. See GilbertLJ 354-384; AndLOL 497-588; WeissLX III. 319-381; BeysLJ I.
+390-432, II. 448-473; EdersLJM II. 533-620; KeimJN VI. 1-274; SandayHastBD
+II. 632f.
+
+87. On the location of _Gethsemane and Golgotha_ see AndLOL 499f.,
+575-588; and HastBD II. 164, 226f.
+
+88. On the progress of _Jesus' trial by the Jewish authorities, _ see
+AndLOL 505-516; GilbertLJ 359-363. The _legality of the trial_ has been
+carefully discussed by A. T. Innes, _The Trial of Jesus Christ_.
+
+89. On the form and sequence of _Peter's denials_, see Westcott, _Comm.
+on John_, 263-266; AndLOL 516-521.
+
+90. The _Words from the Cross_. Matthew (xxvii. 46) and Mark (xv. 34)
+report one; Luke (xxiii. 34?, 43, 46) adds three, omitting the one found
+in Matthew and Mark; John adds three more (xix. 26f., 28, 30). Luke xxiii.
+34 is bracketed by Westcott and Hort because omitted by a very important
+group of MSS. ([Hebrew: aleph]^aBD*) and some early versions. The saying
+is almost certainly authentic, though it may have been added to Luke by
+some early copyist. See Westcott and Hort, _N.T. in Greek_, II. Appendix,
+68; and Plummer, _Comm. on Luke_, 544f.
+
+
+IX
+
+The Resurrection and Ascension
+
+91. Read SandayHastBD II. 638-643; see KeimJK VI. 274-383, for a still
+valid criticism of the position of RévilleJN II. 428-478; see also WeissLX
+III. 382-409; BeysLJ I. 433-481, II. 474-493; BovonNTTh I. 350-375;
+GilbertLJ 385-405; Loofs, _Die Auferstehungsberichte und ihr Wert_;
+EdersLJM II. 621-652; AndLOL 589-639.
+
+92. The last twelve verses of Mark (xvi. 9-20) are omitted by the oldest
+MSS ([Hebrew: aleph]B) and by the recently discovered Sinaitic Syriac, as
+well as by other versions and fathers. An Armenian MS. has been found
+ascribing the section to one Ariston, or Aristion, a second century elder,
+and this explanation of the origin of the verses is widely accepted. The
+gospel cannot have ended with the words "for they were afraid," but no
+satisfactory explanation of the condition of its text has been found. For
+a recent hypothesis see Rohrbach, _Der Schluss des Markusevangeliums_; on
+Aristion as the author, see Conybeare in Expos. IV. viii. (1893) 241, IV.
+x. 219, V. ii. 401; see also SandayHastBD II. 638f., Bruce, _Expos. Gk.
+Test_. I. 454f. For discussion of textual evidence see Westcott and Hort,
+_NT in Greek_, II. Appendix, 28-51, and Burgon, _The last twelve verses
+of St. Mark_ (a passionate defence).
+
+Luke xxiv. 51 is omitted by [Hebrew: aleph]*D and several old Latin MSS.
+See Plummer and Bruce on the passage.
+
+93. "_After three days_." This formula, which appears often in Mark, is
+altered in parallels in Matthew and Luke to "on the third day" (see
+Concordance). Jesus died on Friday, lay in the tomb over Saturday, and
+rose very early Sunday morning. Thus he spent a part of Friday, and a part
+of Sunday, and all of Saturday in the grave. According to Jewish reckoning
+this was counted three days.
+
+94. _Emmaus_. A village about 60 furlongs from Jerusalem. Cannot have been
+the Emmaus in the Shephelah, 20 m. from Jerusalem. May have been el
+Kubeibeh, 63 furlongs distant on the road from Jerusalem to Lydda. See
+AndLOL 617-619; but also HastBD I. 700.
+
+
+
+
+Part III.--The Minister
+
+
+I
+
+The Friend of Men
+
+95. Head Mathews, _The Social Teachings of Jesus, _ especially 132-174;
+see also Robinson, _The Saviour in the Newer Light_, 343 ff.
+
+
+II
+
+The Teacher with Authority
+
+96. See WendtTJ I. 106-151; Stevens, _Theol. of the N.T._ 1-16; Beyschlag,
+_N.T. Theology, I_. 31-34. In particular on the Parables see references in
+sect. A 56. On the content of Jesus' teaching see WendtTJ 2 vols.;
+Dalman, _Die Worte Jesu; Stevens, Theol. of the N.T._ 17-244; Beyschlag,
+_N.T. Theol_. I. 27-299; Mathews, _Social Teaching of Jesus_; Gilbert,
+_The Revelation of Jesus_; Bruce, _The Kingdom of God_.
+
+
+III
+
+Jesus' Knowledge of Truth
+
+97. Adamson, _The Mind in Christ_; GilbertRJ 169f., 240-242; Schwartzkopf,
+_The Prophecies of Jesus Christ_.
+
+
+IV
+
+Jesus' Conception of Himself
+
+98. BaldSJ 125-282; Stalker, _Christology of Jesus_, HoltzmannNtTh I.
+234-304; WendtTJ II. 122-183; GilbertRJ 167-228; Stevens, _Theol. of the
+N.T._ 41-64, 199-212. On the title "Son of Man" see particularly DalmanWJ
+I. 191-219; Charles, _Eschatology_, 214f. note; against, A. Meyer, _Jesu
+Muttersprache_, 91-101, and others. See also HoltzmannNtTh I.
+246-264. On the name "Son of God," see Dalman WJ I. 219-237; Holtzmann
+NtTh I. 265-278; Stalker, _Christology_, 86-123; Gilbert, as above. On the
+personal religion of Jesus see Burton, Bib. Wld. 1899, II. 394-403. For
+the total impression of the character of Jesus, read Bushnell, _The
+Character of Jesus_.
+
+
+
+
+Indexes
+
+
+
+
+Index of Names and Subjects
+
+
+
+[References are to pages.]
+
+
+Ænon, site of, 288.
+"After three days," 307.
+Agrapha, 36, 149, 281.
+Andrew, of Bethsaida, 92, 94, 118.
+Angels, doctrine of, 10.
+Annas, 191, 193, 194.
+Antipas, 4, 192.
+Apocalypse, 17f., 122, 124, 241.
+Apocryphal gospels, 37, 281, 282.
+Archelaus, 4, 5.
+Aristion, author of Mark xvi. 9-20, 204f., 306f.
+Assumption of Moses, 75
+
+Baptism of John, see _John the Baptist_.
+Baptism of Jesus, 83-86, 283f.
+Barabbas, 174, 192.
+Bethany beyond Jordan, 92, 284.
+Bethany, supper at, 169, 301.
+Bethsaida, site of, 290.
+Books of reference, 273-277.
+Brethren of Jesus, 63f., 283.
+
+Cæsarea Philippi;, 4, 291.
+  confession at, see _Peter_.
+Caiaphas, 191, 193, 194.
+Cana of Galilee, 95, 222, 286.
+Cananeans or Zealots, party of, 11, 74.
+Capernaum, site of, 290.
+Census under Quirinius, 11, 52-55.
+Chorazin, site of, 290.
+
+Dalmanutha, 291.
+Dalmanutha, Books of, 17f., 241, 254f.
+Decapolis, the, 140, 291.
+Dedication, feast of, 150, 154.
+Demoniac possession, 131-133, 245-248, 299.
+Devout, the, 13, 17.
+Diatessaron of Tatian, 38, 47, 281.
+Doublets, 44, 281.
+Draughts of fish, miraculous, 293.
+
+Emmaus, site of, 307.
+Enoch, Book of, 241, 256-258.
+Ephraim, site of, 300.
+Essenes, manner of living, 11-12;
+  their hope of Messiah, 16;
+  their settlement, 73;
+  relation to John the Baptist, 73, 77.
+
+Five thousand, the feeding of, 135f., 291.
+
+Gadarenes, country of, 247, 290f.
+Genealogies of Jesus, 282.
+Gethsemane, 177, 186, 188f., 265, 305.
+Golgotha, 305.
+
+Herod the Great, 3;
+  began to rebuild temple, 49;
+  census during his reign, 54.
+Herod Antipas, 4, 192.
+Herodians, 14, 173.
+
+James, brother of John, 92, 94, 118.
+Jesus, language of, 19, 62, 279;
+  date of birth, 52-56;
+  the miraculous conception, 58-61;
+  growth, physical, intellectual, moral, and spiritual, 61-66;
+  his brothers and sisters, 64;
+  visit to Jerusalem in his twelfth year, 66-68;
+  life in Nazareth, 68f.;
+  his baptism, 83-86;
+  his temptation, 86-91;
+  his first disciples, 92-95;
+  at Cana, 95;
+  his social friendliness, 96, 219f.;
+  the cleansing of the temple, 108-110;
+  talk with Nicodemus, 111;
+  the woman of Samaria, 112;
+  cure of nobleman's son, 113;
+  in retirement in Galilee, 113f.;
+  call of four disciples, 118;
+  popular enthusiasm and pharisaic opposition, 119-121;
+  his withdrawals and injunctions of silence, 122 ff.;
+  blasphemy of the Pharisees, 124;
+  the reply to John's message, 125;
+  his twofold aim in Galilee, 126;
+  his method, 127;
+  the sermon on the mount, 127f.;
+  the parables, 128f., 231f., 296f.;
+  instruction of the twelve, 130, 297;
+  his mighty works, 131f.;
+  his personal influence, 133;
+  the feeding of the five thousand, 135f.;
+  the revulsion in popular feeling, 136;
+  the controversy about hand washing, 139;
+  the withdrawal to the north, 138;
+  the demand for a sign, 139;
+  disciples warned against the Pharisees, 139;
+  the question at Cæsarea Philippi, 141f.;
+  commendation of Peter, 143;
+  announcement of approaching death, 144;
+  rebuke of Peter, 145;
+  the transfiguration, 146f.;
+  the epileptic boy, 147;
+  rebuke of worldly ambition, 147f.;
+  Jesus and his brethren, 148;
+  at the feast of Tabernacles, 148;
+  return to Galilee, 150;
+  final departure from Galilee, 154;
+  the mission of the seventy, 158;
+  visit to the feast of Dedication, 159;
+  in Perea, 160;
+  the summons to Bethany, 161f.;
+  official determination to get rid of him, 161;
+  at Ephraim, 162;
+  question about divorce, 154;
+  blessing little children, 154;
+  the rich young ruler, 154;
+  request of Salome, 163;
+  Bartimeus, 163;
+  Zacchæus, 163;
+  anointing at Bethany, 169;
+  the Messianic entry, 170f.;
+  the barren fig-tree, 172;
+  the questions of the leaders, 173f.;
+  counter question, 175;
+  denunciation of scribes, 175;
+  the widow's mites, 176;
+  visit of the Greeks. 176f.;
+  the eschatological discourse, 178;
+  bargain of Judas, 169, 178f.;
+  the last supper, 181-184;
+  dispute and foot washing, 184;
+  withdrawal of Judas, 184;
+  prediction of Peter's denials, 185;
+  discourse and prayer, 185-187;
+  Gethsemane, 188-190;
+  betrayal and arrest, 190f.;
+  trial by Jews, 191f.;
+  trial by Pilate, 192-194;
+  crucifixion, 195-198;
+  burial of Jesus, 199;
+  the resurrection, 201-210;
+  the ascension, 214f.;
+  Jesus' attitude to common life, 219-223;
+  his hunger for sympathy, 223;
+  Jesus as a teacher, 226f.;
+  his attitude to Old Testament, 227-229;
+  his confidence in men, 230f.;
+  his use of illustration, 231-233;
+  his alertness of mind, 234;
+  his leading ideas, 235 ff.;
+  his supernatural knowledge, 239-244;
+  his confession of ignorance, 243;
+  his kinship with men, 244f.;
+  treatment of demoniac possession, 245-248;
+  his certainty of his Messianic call, 249-254;
+  his adoption of Messianic titles, 254-264;
+  his consciousness of dependence on God, 264-266;
+  the problem of Jesus, 267-269.
+John, Gospel of, 32-36, 40f., 181, 280, 305.
+John the Baptist, 70-81;
+  notice by Josephus, 71f., 279f.;
+  his idea of the kingdom of God, 73;
+  his relation to current thought, 73-76;
+  his baptism, 77f., 83;
+  baptism of Jesus, 82-84;
+  the embassy from the priests, 92;
+  testimony--"the Lamb of God," 93, 286;
+  baptizing at Ænon, 112;
+  his self-effacing witness to Jesus, 79, 112;
+  hostility of the Pharisees, 113, 289;
+  arrest by Antipas, 71f., 113;
+  his message to Jesus, 125;
+  death in prison, 134f.; his significance, 79-81, 226;
+  the disciples of John, 112, 283;
+  literature about John, 283.
+John, son of Zebedee, 36, 92, 94, 118, 193,269.
+John of Gischals, 121.
+Joseph of Arimathea, 182, 199.
+Josephus, 22;
+  notice of John the Baptist, 71, 279f.
+Judas of Galilee, 11, 121.
+Judas the betrayer, 169, 181, 302;
+  the bargain, 178;
+  his selection as an apostle, 179;
+  his criticism of Mary at Bethany, 179;
+  his kiss, 190;
+  his remorse, 179.
+Judea, province of, 6f.
+
+Kingdom of God, 68, 86, 90, 173, 190, 231, 232, 235 ff., 238, 241.
+
+Language used by Jesus, 19, 62, 279.
+Last supper, the, 181-187, 303-305.
+Lawyers, see _Scribes_.
+Length of Jesus' ministry, 45-49.
+Literature of the Jews, 18f., 279.
+"Logia," ascribed to Matthew, 32, 42, 158.
+Luke, Gospel of, 26f., 31f., 280.
+
+Mark, Gospel of, 25f., 27, 29, 32, 40, 42, 280, 294f.;
+  last twelve verses of, 204f., 306f.
+Mary Magdalene, 134, 208.
+Mary, the mother of Jesus, 59;
+  had other children, 60, 63f., 283.
+Matthew, Gospel of, 23 ff., 27, 30f., 32, 280.
+Messianic entry into Jerusalem, 170, 301f.
+Messianic hope, the, 16-18, 87, 175, 279.
+Miracles of Jesus, 96, 267, 286f.
+Miraculous birth, the, 57-61, 232.
+Mission of the twelve, 130, 297.
+Mission of the seventy, 158, 300f.
+
+Nathanael, of Cana, 92, 94, 286.
+Nazareth, the view from, 65f.
+  rejection at, 292.
+Nicodemus, 111, 199.
+
+Papias, 22, 29, 34, 47, 102, 281.
+Parables of Jesus, 128f., 231f., 296f.
+Passover, the, 181, 187, 304.
+Paul, 21, 36, 201, 206, 268.
+Pentateuch, Jesus' references to, 244.
+Perea, 104, 153f., 158, 299f.
+Peter, 29, 34, 92, 94, 118, 185, 193, 305, 306;
+  confession of, 136, 142 ff., 297f.
+Pharisees, the, 8-10;
+  attitude to John the Baptist, 82, 113, 289;
+  their blasphemy, 124, 156;
+  question about divorce, 154;
+  about tribute, 173;
+  about the great commandment, 174, 302.
+Philip of Bethsaida, 92, 94, 176.
+Philip the tetrarch, 4.
+Pliny the younger, 21.
+Pontius Pilate, 5, 192, 195.
+Priests, the, 7f., 107;
+  and the temple market, 108.
+Proselytes, 78, 176, 302.
+Psalms, Jesus' use of the, 244.
+Psalms of Solomon, 18, 261.
+Publicans, 6, 72, 222.
+
+Quirinius, census under, 52-55.
+
+Religion of Jesus, 264 ff., 308.
+Resurrection, pharisaic doctrine of, 10, 241;
+  Sadducean rejection of 10, 174.
+
+Sadducees, the, 8, 16, 82;
+  the question about the resurrection, 174, 303;
+  attitude towards Jesus, 193.
+Samaria, 6f.
+  Jesus' journey through, 112.
+Samaritans, how regarded, 14.
+Sanhedrin, the great, at Jerusalem, 7, 13, 192.
+Scribes, their business, 9;
+  power in the sanhedrin, 13;
+  their influence over the religious life, 14;
+  their hope of a Messiah, 16;
+  their washings, 78;
+  chief of them at Jerusalem, 107;
+  their pride of learning and their bondage to tradition, 228.
+Sermon on the mount, 127, 290, 295f.
+Signs, essential marks of the Messiah, 95, 131.
+Soldiers in Palestine, 6, 72, 191.
+Son of Man, the, 124f., 130f., 254-260, 308.
+Son of God, the, 260-264, 308.
+Star of the wise men, 56.
+Suetonius, 21.
+Sychar, site of, 288.
+Synagogue, the, 14.
+Synoptic gospels, 28.
+Synoptic problem, 27-32, 279f.
+
+Tabernacles, feast of, 148, 150, 298f.
+Tacitus, 3, 21, 54.
+Tatian, 23, 38, 47, 281.
+Taxes, Roman, in Judea, 6.
+Temple at Jerusalem, 107;
+  market in 107;
+  cleansing of, 107, 288f.
+Temptation of Jesus, 86-91, 145, 284;
+  locality of, 285;
+  source of the record, 90, 285.
+Tertullian, 45, 53.
+Thomas, 208.
+Tiberius, 1, 21, 50.
+Traditions of the elders, 9, 15f., 68, 74, 139.
+Transfiguration, the, 146f., 292.
+Trial of Jesus, the, 191-195, 305.
+
+Words from the cross, 196 ff., 306.
+
+Zealots, the, 11, 74, 122, 124.
+
+
+
+
+Index of Scripture References
+
+
+
+Ex.
+
+iv. 22                 261
+xix. 10                 78
+xxiv. 1-11             183
+
+
+
+Lev.
+
+xii. 8                  61
+xxiii. 5-11             47
+
+
+
+Num.
+
+xxiii. 19              254
+
+
+
+Deut.
+
+vi. 4-9                 62
+viii. 3                 88
+xviii. 15               92
+xxi. 23                196
+
+
+
+I. Sam.
+
+ii. 26                  61
+
+
+
+I. Kings.
+
+xvii. 1                 72
+
+
+
+II. Kings.
+
+i. 8
+xvii. 24-41             14
+
+
+
+Ps.
+
+ii. 7                  261
+viii. 4                254
+xxii.                  196
+lxxx. 17               254
+lxxxii. 6              261
+ciii. 13               262
+cxiii., cxiv.          304
+cxv. to cxviii.        185, 304
+
+
+
+Isa.
+
+i. 16                   76
+vi. 5                  267
+xi. 2                   85
+xxxv. 5f.              126
+xlii. 1                 85
+li. 2                  254
+liii.                   96, 239
+liii. 7                 93
+lviii.                  76
+lxi. 1f.                45, 85, 126
+lxiii. 16              262
+
+
+
+Jer.
+
+xxxi. 31-34            111, 183
+
+
+
+Ezek.
+
+ii. 1                  254
+xxxiii. 10-20          240
+xxxvi. 25-27           111
+
+
+Dan.
+
+vi. 10                 107
+vii. 1-14              254
+vii. 13f.              255
+viii. 17               254
+
+
+Hos.
+
+i. 10                  261
+
+
+Joel.
+
+ii. 1-14                76
+
+
+Micah.
+
+vi. 8                   76
+
+
+Matt.
+
+i. 1 to iv. 17          23
+ii. 1, 2                52
+iii. 7                  74
+iii. 9                  78
+iii. 10-12              82
+iii. 11                 77
+iii. 14                 82
+iii. 15                 83
+iii. 16                285
+iv. 4, 7, 10           228
+iv. 7                   89
+iv. 8                   90
+iv. 10                  90, 145
+iv. 12                 101, 102, 106, 289
+iv. 12-17               24, 39, 115
+iv. 12 to xviii. 35    102
+iv. 13                 106
+iv. 13-16              115
+iv. 17                 118
+iv. 18-22              106, 115
+iv. 18 to xvi. 20       24
+iv. 23                 115
+iv. 23-25              115
+v. 1                   290
+v. 3-12                296
+v. 13-16               296
+v. 17                   83, 228
+v. 17-19               296
+v. 18                  238
+v. 20                  296
+v. 21-48               228, 296
+v. 25f.                295
+v. 29f.                295
+v. 32                  295
+v. 38, 39              250
+v. 45                  244
+vi. 1-6                 84
+vi. 1-18                64, 296
+vi. 2-4                176
+vi. 9-15                 4, 117, 295
+vi. 19-34              103, 295
+vi. 24                 179
+vi. 25-34               42
+vii. 1-6               296
+vii. 7-11              117, 295
+vii. 13f.              295
+vii. 15-21             296
+vii. 21                262
+vii. 21-27             238
+vii. 22f.              295
+vii. 24-27             296
+vii. 28, 29            226, 249
+viii. 2-4              115
+viii. 5                  7
+viii. 5, 8              43
+viii. 5-13              41, 115, 288, 289
+viii. 10               243
+viii. 10-12             24
+viii. 14-17            115
+viii. 18, 23-27        116
+viii. 19-22            153
+viii. 20               259
+viii. 28-34            116
+ix. 1, 18-26           116
+ix. 2-8                115
+ix. 9-13               115
+ix. 14-17              115
+ix. 27-34              116
+ix. 35                 116
+ix. 36 to xi. 1        116, 118, 297
+x. 1, 5-15             297
+x. 5f.                 130
+x. 7-15                297
+x. 16-42               297
+x. 32                  262
+xi. 2-6                251
+xi. 2-19                41, 116
+xi. 4-6                131
+xi. 11                  80
+xi. 18f.               259
+xi. 19                  96, 220, 256
+xi. 20-24              301
+xi. 20-30              153
+xi. 25-30              300
+xi. 27                 252, 263
+xi. 28-30              160
+xii. 1-8               115
+xii. 9-14              115
+xii. 12                227
+xii. 15-21             115
+xii. 22-45             116, 156
+xii. 28                 85, 248
+xii. 46-50             116
+xii. 50                145
+xiii. 1-53             116, 296
+xiii. 24-30            296
+xiii. 31-33             44, 17
+xiii. 40-43, 49, 50    296
+xiii. 54-58            116, 292
+xiii. 55                61, 63
+xiv. 1-12              116
+xiv. 1 to xxviii. 20    28
+xiv. 13-23              39, 116, 297
+xiv. 19                 46
+xiv. 21-36             116
+xv. 1                   43
+xv. 1-20               116
+xv. 13f.               150
+xv. 21-28              116
+xv. 21-31              140
+xv. 22                 254
+xv. 24                 130
+xv. 29-31              117
+xv. 32-38              117, 297
+xv. 39                 291
+xv. 39 to xvi. 12       17
+xvi. 9f.               297
+xvi. 13-20              94, 117, 298
+xvi. 16                263
+xvi. 16ff.             142
+xvi. 17                142, 224, 262
+xvi. 21                118, 239
+xvi. 21-28             117
+xvi. 21 to xxviii. 20   24
+xvi. 23                239
+xvii. 1-13             117
+xvii. 10-13            193
+xvii. 14-20            117
+xvi. 22-23             117
+xvii. 24-27            117, 139
+xviii. 1-35            117, 148
+xviii. 4               220
+xviii. 12-14            44
+xix. 1f.                39, 153, 154, 298
+xix. 1 to xx. 34       104
+xix. 3-9               228
+xix. 3-12              153
+xix. 13-15             153
+xix. 16 to xx. 16      153
+xx. 17-19              153
+xx. 20-28              153
+xx. 29-34              153
+xxi. 1-11              166
+xxi. 1 to xxvii. 66    104
+xxi. 1 to xxviii. 20    39
+xxi. 4f.               170
+xxi. 9-15              254
+xxi. 14-16             172
+xxi. 17                166
+xxi. 18-19, 12-17      166
+xxi. 20-23             166
+xxi. 23-27             166
+xxi. 28 to xxii. 14    166, 173
+xxi. 33-46              25, 252
+xxii. 1-14             252
+xxii. 15-22            166
+xxii. 23-33            166
+xxii. 34-46            166, 238
+xxii. 41-46            166
+xxiii. 1-39            166
+xxiii. 2                13
+xxiii. 24              233
+xxiii. 37-39            34, 106
+xxiv. 1 to xxvi. 2     167
+xxiv. 6-13             166
+xxv.                   178
+xxv. 37-46             237
+xxv. 40                221
+xxvi. 1f.              147
+xxvi. 2, 6-13          301
+xxvi. 3-5, 14-16       167
+xxvi. 11-13            167
+xxvi. 20               181
+xxvi. 25               200
+xxvi. 26               305
+xxvi. 30, 36-46        167
+xxvi. 30-35            305
+xxvi. 47-56            167
+xxvi. 57 to xxvii. 10  167
+xxvi. 63f.             263
+xxvii. 11-31           167
+xxvii. 32-56           167
+xxvii. 43              261
+xxvii. 46              197, 306
+xxvii. 50              285
+xxvii. 57               34
+xxvii. 57-61           167
+xxvii. 62-66           167
+xxviii. 1-8            201
+xxviii. 9, 10          201
+xxviii. 11-15          201
+xxviii. 16-20          201, 204
+xxviii. 18-20           25
+
+
+Mark.
+
+i. 1-13                 26
+i. 3                    79
+i. 4                    77
+i. 7f.                  93
+i. 10                   84
+i. 11                   68, 84, 261
+i. 14                  101, 102, 106, 289
+i. 14f.                 39, 115
+i. 14 to ix. 50         26, 102
+i. 16-20               115
+i. 21-34               115
+i. 24                  254
+i. 27                  249
+i. 35                  265
+i. 35-39               253
+i. 35-45               115
+ii. 1-12                47, 115, 230, 294
+ii. 1-17                48
+ii. 1 to iii. 6         47, 48, 250, 204f.
+ii. 5                  239
+ii. 6f.                121
+ii. 10                  28, 256, 259
+ii. 10, 28 and ∥s      256
+ii. 12                  25
+ii. 13-17               47, 115, 294
+ii. 15-17               96
+ii. 16                  47, 121
+ii. 18-22               26, 47, 115
+ii. 20                 239
+ii. 23                  47
+ii. 23-28              115, 229, 294f.
+ii. 25-27              228
+ii. 27                 257
+ii. 44                 253
+iii. 1-6                26, 115, 295
+iii. 7-12              115
+iii. 11                261
+iii. 13-19             115, 295
+iii. 17, 41             25
+iii. 19-30              40, 42, 116
+iii. 21, 31-35          59, 97
+iii. 22                 34, 121
+iii. 22-30             156
+iii. 28-30             251
+iii. 31-35              59, 97, 116
+iv. 1-34               116, 232, 296
+iv. 3                   64
+iv. 12                 129
+iv. 13                 129
+iv. 26-29              296
+iv. 35-41              116
+v. 1                   290
+v. 1-20                116
+v. 7                   261
+v. 11-13               139
+v. 21-43               116
+v. 30-34               243
+v. 41                   20
+vi. 1-6                 43, 116, 292
+vi. 2f.                220
+vi. 6b                 116
+vi. 7-11               297
+vi. 7-13               116, 147
+vi. 14-29              116
+vi. 15                 290
+vi. 30-34               47
+vi. 30-46               39, 40, 116, 297
+vi. 39                  46
+vi. 47-56              116
+vii. 1                  34
+vii. 1-23, 48           48, 116, 121, 139, 250
+vii. 6-13              233
+vii. 8-13               10
+vii. 10                244
+vii. 13                251
+vii. 14-23             238
+vii. 15                227
+vii. 19                130, 228
+vii. 24-30             116
+vii. 27                140
+vii. 29f.              289
+vii. 31                291
+vii. 31-37             117, 297
+vii. 34                 20
+vii. 37                 25
+viii. 1f.              141
+viii. 1-9              117, 297
+viii. 10               291
+viii. 10-21            117
+viii. 11                96
+vii. 11-13             139
+viii. 14f.             139
+viii. 19f.             297
+viii. 22-26            117
+viii. 27-30            117, 141, 298
+viii. 29               254
+viii. 31               168 ,20, 256, 259
+viii. 31-33             87, 239
+viii. 31-ix. 1         117, 296
+viii. 32f.              93
+viii. 34f.             147
+viii. 34 to ix. 1      146
+viii. 38               256, 259
+ix. 1                  242
+ix. 2                  292
+ix. 2-13               117
+ix. 6                   28
+ix. 9                  147
+ix. 10                 203
+ix. 14-29              117, 147
+ix. 19                 224
+ix. 29                 265
+ix. 30-32              117, 147
+ix. 31                 204
+ix. 33-50              117, 299
+ix. 35-37              234
+ix. 43-47              295
+x. 1                     9, 104, 153, 154, 298
+x. 1 to xvi. 8          26
+x. 2-12                153, 154, 298
+x. 5f.                 244
+x. 11                  153, 154, 160
+x. 13-16               104
+x. 17-31               153, 155, 160
+x. 18                  226
+x. 19                  229
+x. 25                  233
+x. 32-34               147, 153, 155, 162
+x. 35-45               153, 155, 163, 165, 184, 230, 304
+x. 40                  243
+x. 42-45               259
+x. 45                  241
+x. 46                  162
+x. 46-52               153
+x. 47f.                254
+x. 48                  163
+xi. 1-11               166
+xi. 1 to xv. 47        104
+xi. 1 to xvi. 8 [20]    39
+xi. 2f.                 34
+xi. 2-5                112
+xi. 8-10               162
+xi. 9f.                170
+xi. 12-14, 15-18       166
+xi. 12-14, 20-25       172
+xi. 14-36               42
+xi. 15-19               43, 288
+xi. 17                 108
+xi. 19                 166
+xi. 20-27              166
+xi. 25                 295
+xi. 27-33              166
+xi. 29-33              173
+xii. 1-12              166
+xii. 13-17             166, 173
+xii. 16                227
+xii. 18-27             166, 174
+xii. 24-27             228
+xii. 27                186
+xii. 28-34             166, 174
+xii. 35-37             166, 245
+xii. 38-40             166
+xii. 41-44             166
+xiii. and ∥s           178, 241, 302
+xiii. 1-37             167
+xiii. 24-27            238
+xiii. 32               243, 247, 252, 263
+xiv. 1f., 10f.         167
+xiv. 3                 169
+xiv. 3-9               166, 301
+xiv. 3-11              169
+xiv. 8                 169
+xiv. 12                303
+xiv. 12-16             112
+xiv. 12-26             167
+xiv. 14                 34
+xiv. 17                181
+xiv. 18-21             184
+xiv. 20                185
+xiv. 21                180
+xiv. 26, 32-42         167
+xiv. 26-31             305
+xiv. 33f.              186
+xiv. 34                145
+xiv. 36                 20, 189, 239, 265
+xiv. 43-52             167
+xiv. 45                190
+xiv. 50                182
+xiv. 53 to xv. 1       190
+xiv. 61                167
+xiv. 61f.              254, 261
+xiv. 61-64             263
+xiv. 62                191
+xiv. 66-72              85, 258
+xv. 1                  192
+xv. 1-20               167
+xv. 2                  254
+xv. 6-15               192
+xv. 21                 182, 195
+xv. 21-41              167
+xv. 22                 305
+xv. 34                  20, 197, 306
+xv. 42                 182
+xv. 42-47              167
+xv. 43                  34
+xv. 46                 182
+xvi. 1                 202
+xvi. 1-8               201
+xvi. 6f.               209
+xvi. [9-20]            204f., 306
+xvi. [9-11]            201
+xvi. [12f.]            201
+xvi. [14]              201
+xvi. [15-18]           201
+xvi. [19f.]             201
+
+
+
+Luke.
+
+
+i. 1-4                  26, 42
+i. 3                    41
+i. 5                    52
+i. 36                   82
+i. 46-55                60
+i. 68-79                68-79
+i. 80                   61
+ii. 1f.                 52
+ii. 8                   56
+ii. 19-51               59
+ii. 24                  61
+ii. 40-52               61
+ii. 41                  62, 107
+ii. 48                  97
+ii. 49                  67, 262
+ii. 52                  63, 69
+iii. 1f.                45, 49, 52
+iii. 13f.               74
+iii. 15                 94
+iii. 21                 64, 82, 85, 265
+iii. 23                 52
+iv. 5                   90
+iv. 13                  87, 146
+iv. 14                 101, 102, 289
+iv. 14, 15              39, 115, 292
+iv. 14 to ix. 50        26, 102
+iv. 16                  62
+iv. 16-19               63
+iv. 16-30               43, 116, 292
+iv. 23                 292
+iv. 31                 106, 115
+iv. 31-41              115
+iv. 42-44              115
+v. 1-11                115, 293
+v. 4-11                 43
+v. 12-16               115
+v. 17                   34
+v. 17-26               115
+v. 24                   28
+v. 27-32               115
+v. 33-39               115
+vi. 1-5                115
+vi. 6-11               115
+vi. 12                  84, 265, 290
+vi. 12-19              115, 295
+vi. 17                 290
+vi. 20                 222
+vi. 20 to vii. 1       115, 295
+vi. 20-26              296
+vi. 27-42              296
+vi. 43-46              296
+vi. 47-49              296
+vii. 1-10               41, 115, 288, 289
+vii. 2-5                 7
+vii. 7                  43
+vii. 11-17              42, 116
+vii. 18-35              41, 116
+vii. 36-50              42, 116, 224
+vii. 47                239
+viii. 1-3              116
+viii. 4-18             116, 296
+viii. 19-21            116
+viii. 22-25            116
+viii. 26               290
+viii. 26-39            116
+viii. 40-56            116
+ix. 1-6                116, 297, 300
+ix. 7-9                116
+ix. 10-17               39, 116, 297
+ix. 11                 135
+ix. 18                 265
+ix. 18-21              117, 298
+ix. 22-27              117
+ix. 28f.                84, 146
+ix. 28-36              117
+ix. 29                 265
+ix. 31                 146
+ix. 37-42              117
+ix. 43-45              117
+ix. 46-50              117
+ix. 51                  39, 157
+ix. 51f.               158, 298
+ix. 51-62              153
+ix. 51 to xviii.        40, 42, 104, 154, 156
+ix. 51 to xix. 27       26
+ix. 57-62              156
+x. 1                   158, 301
+x. 3-12                297
+x. 1-24                153, 300
+x. 13-16               301
+x. 17-20               301
+x. 17-24               160
+x. 18                  248
+x. 22                  252, 263, 300
+x. 25-37                34, 153, 159, 227
+x. 28-37               159
+x. 38-42                34, 111, 153
+xi. 1                   42, 265
+xi. 1-4                 42, 295
+xi. 1-13               117
+xi. 9-13               295
+xi. 14-36               40, 116, 156
+xi. 34-36              295
+xi. 37-52              156
+xi. 37-54              154, 164
+xii. 1-12              156
+xii. 1-59              154, 164, 165
+xii. 13-21             117
+xii. 22-31              42
+xii. 22-34             103, 516, 295
+xii. 49-53             165
+xii. 58f.              295
+xiii. 1-9              154, 161, 164
+xiii. 10-17            117
+xiii. 18-21             44, 117, 296
+xiii. 22               157
+xiii. 22-30            153, 164
+xiii. 24               295
+xiii. 31f.             171, 193
+xiii. 31-35            153, 168
+xiii. 32                 5
+xiii. 34f.              34, 106, 224
+xiii. 35               252
+xiv. 1-24              117
+xiv. 7ff.              304
+xiv. 15-24             161
+xiv. 25-35             154, 156, 164, 165
+xiv. 26                233
+xv.  1f.                96
+xv. 1 to xvi. 31       117
+xv. 4-7                 44
+xv. 7                  233
+xv. 11-32              232
+xvi. 13                295
+xvi. 22                247
+xvi. 31                229
+xvii. 1-4              117
+xvii. 11               157
+xvii. 11-19            153
+xvii. 20-37            154
+xviii. 1-8             154, 164
+xviii. 9-14            154, 159
+xviii. 15-17           153
+xviii. 15 to xix. 28   104
+xviii. 18-30           153
+xviii.  31-34          153
+xviii.  34             203
+xviii.  35-43          153
+xviii. 35 to xix. 28   155, 164
+xix. 1-10              154
+xix. 11-28             154, 163
+xix. 28 to xxiv. 53     27
+xix. 29-44             166
+xix. 29 to xxiii. 56   104
+xix. 29 to xxiii. 53    39
+xix. 37-40             162
+xix. 39                170
+xix. 41-44             170
+xix. 45f.              289
+xix. 45-47f.           166
+xix. 47                172
+xx. 1                  166
+xx. 1-8                166
+xx. 9-19               166
+xx. 20-26              166
+xx. 27-40              166
+xx. 41-44              166
+xx. 45-47              166
+xxi. 1-4               166
+xxi. 5-38              167
+xxii. 37-38            166
+xxii. 1-6              167
+xxii. 7-30             167
+xxii. 14               181
+xxii. 15               181, 183, 303
+xxii. 17               304
+xxii. 17-20            185
+xxii. 19               184
+xxii. 23-30            304
+xxii. 28                87
+xxii. 31-34            185, 305
+xxii. 39-46            167
+xxii. 47-53            167
+xxii. 54-71            167
+xxii. 61f.             193
+xxii. 66-71            192
+xxii. 70               263
+xxiii. 1f.             192
+xxiii. 1-25            167
+xxiii. 4               192
+xxiii. 5-12            192
+xxiii. 13-16           192
+xxiii. 16-24           192
+xxiii. 26-49           167
+xxiii. 27-31           195
+xxiii. 34              197, 306, 307
+xxiii. 43              197, 306
+xxiii. 46               64, 197, 265, 306
+xxiii. 50-56           167
+xxiii. 56              182
+xxiv. 1-12             201
+xxiv. 12               205
+xxiv. 13-35            201
+xxiv. 21               200, 203
+xxiv. 36-43            201
+xxiv. 41-43            213
+xxiv. 44-53            201
+xxiv. 50               205
+xxiv. 51               214, 307
+
+
+
+John.
+
+
+i. 14                   58, 269
+1. 19 to iv. 42         40, 101
+i. 25                   78
+i. 26f.                 93
+i. 28                   92, 284
+i. 29                   93
+i. 29-36                80
+i. 30-34                93
+i. 31                   82
+i. 32-34                84
+i. 35f.                 93
+i. 38                   20, 226
+i. 40f., 43-45          92
+i. 41-45               142
+i. 42-47               239
+i. 44                  290
+i. 49                   94, 142, 254, 261, 263
+i. 51                   95
+ii. 3-5                 97
+ii. 11                 222
+ii. 12                  97
+ii. 13                  46
+ii. 13-22               43, 106, 288
+ii. 16                 262
+ii. 20                  49
+ii. 22                  96
+ii. 23 to iii. 15      106
+ii. 25                  68, 141, 234, 239
+iii. 2                 226
+iii. 16-21,30-36        32
+iii. 22-30             106
+iii. 24                 46, 101
+iii. 23                288
+iii. 24,35             113
+iii. 30                 80
+iii. 34                 85, 86
+iv. 1-3                113
+iv. 1-3, 44            112
+iv. 1-4                289
+iv. 1-42               106
+iv. 1-45               102
+iv. 21-24              109
+iv. 25                  14
+iv. 26                 254
+iv. 30                  95
+iv. 34                 265
+iv. 35                 107, 288, 293
+iv. 42                  40
+iv. 43-45               39, 106, 286
+iv. 46-54              102, 106, 115, 289
+v. 1                    40, 48, 293
+v. 1-9                  32
+v. 1-47                102, 115
+v. 17                  262
+v. 19                  264
+v. 25                  263
+v. 30                  265
+v. 39                  229
+vi. 1-15                39, 116
+vi. 1-71               102
+vi. 4                   46, 138, 293
+vi. 14                  25
+vi. 14f.               119
+vi. 15                  89, 120, 135, 170
+vi. 16-21              116
+vi. 22-71              116
+vi. 30-32               87
+vi. 38                 189, 265
+vi. 64                 178, 180
+vi. 66                 136
+vi. 67                 225
+vi. 67-71              298
+vi. 68                  81, 123
+vi. 68f.               142
+vi. 69                 254
+vii. 1-10               39, 298
+vii. 1-52              117
+vii. 1 to viii. 59     103, 149
+vii. 2                 138
+vii. 2-5               148
+vii. 5                  64
+vii. 10                150
+vii. 15                235
+vii. 22                244
+vii. 23                 32
+vii. 24                227
+vii. 25,32             160
+vii. 31                 95
+vii. 32                299
+vii. 36                149
+vii. 40                254
+vii. 45-52             299
+vii. 49                 13, 220
+vii. 50-52             111
+vii. 53 to viii. 11     37, 117, 149, 157
+viii. 12-59            117
+viii. 14               248
+viii. 15               157
+viii. 46                83, 266
+viii. 59               160, 299
+ix. 1 to x. 39         153
+ix. 1 to xi. 57        104
+ix. 10                 158, 159
+ix. 35                 263
+ix. 35-38              156
+x. 11-18               159
+x. 18                   89
+x. 21                  159
+x. 22                  150, 155, 298
+x. 22, 40-42            58
+x. 24-39               159
+x. 25                  161, 262
+x. 29                  265
+x. 30                  264
+x. 31-39               160
+x. 32                  233
+x. 34                  261
+x. 36                  263
+x. 39                  156
+x. 40                  154, 155, 301
+x. 40-42               153, 160
+xi. 1-7                155
+xi. 1-46               153, 161
+xi. 4                  263
+xi. 6                  161
+xi. 34                 243, 258
+xi. 41f.               161, 265
+xi. 47-50              193
+xi. 47-54              153, 161
+xi. 54                 155, 162, 300
+xi. 55 to xii. 11      166
+xi. 55 to xix. 42      104
+xii. 1                  46, 102, 163, 301
+xii. 1 to xxi. 25       39
+xii. 2                 169
+xii. 4-8               301
+xii. 6                 178
+xii. 7                 169
+xii. 12f.              170
+xii. 12-19             166
+xii. 20-36             166, 176, 302
+xii. 23-36             168
+xii. 36^b(-50)         166
+xii. 37-43              32
+xiii. 1                181, 303
+xiii. 1-15             234, 304
+xiii. 1-30             167
+xiii. 21-30            184
+xiii. 23-26            185
+xiii. 29               178, 303
+xiii. 31 to xvi. 33     32, 167, 305
+xiii. 32f.             305
+xiii. 36-38            305
+xiv. 6-11              264
+xiv. 10                161, 265
+xiv. 28                265
+xiv. 30f.               32
+xv.                     32, 167, 305
+xv. 1                  262
+xvi.                    32, 167, 305
+xvi. 25                264
+xvii. 1-26             167
+xvii. 21               264
+xviii. 1               167
+xviii. 1-12            167
+xviii. 8               190
+xviii. 11^b            189
+xviii. 12-27           167
+xviii. 15              193
+xviii. 28              182, 303
+xviii. 28 to xix. 16   167
+xviii. 31              192
+xviii. 33, 36f.        254
+xix. 7-12              192
+xix. 12-16             193
+xix. 14                606
+xix. 16-37             167
+xix. 19-22             198
+xix. 25                 97
+xix. 26                 97
+xix. 26f.              197, 306
+xix. 28                197, 306
+xix. 30                197, 306
+xix. 31                182, 199, 303
+xix. 31-37             198
+xix. 38                 34
+xix. 38-42             167
+xix. 39                111
+xix. 42                303
+xx. 1-10               201
+xx. 2                  206
+xx. 5-8                 43
+xx. 8                  203
+xx. 9                  200
+xx. 9f., 24f.           93, 94
+xx. 14-18              201
+xx. 17                 209, 214
+xx 19-25               201
+xx. 21                  23
+xx. 26-29              201
+xx. 30                  49
+xx. 30f.               32, 107
+xxi.                   206
+xxi. 2                  92
+xxi. 1-24              201
+xxi. 3-14              293
+xxi. 25                 39
+
+
+
+Acts.
+
+
+i. 1-11                214
+i. 1-12                201
+i. 14                   97
+ii. 36                 202
+v. 36                   89
+v. 37                   53
+vii. 56                254
+xvii. 31               202
+xix. 1-7                80
+xx. 35                  36
+xxi. 38                 89
+xxiii. 8               302
+
+
+
+Rom.
+
+
+i. 3                    21
+i. 4                   202
+v. 19                   21
+ix. 5                   21
+xv. 3                   21
+
+
+
+I. Cor.
+
+
+i. 23                  190
+v. 7                   183
+ix. 1                  202
+x. 16                  304
+xv.                    202
+xv. 3-8                 21, 105, 204
+xv. 4                  204, 213
+xv. 5                  201
+xv. 6                  201
+xv. 6f.                162
+xv. 7                  201
+
+
+
+II. Cor.
+
+
+v. 21                   83
+viii. 9                 21
+x. l                    21
+xii.                   212
+
+
+
+Gal.
+
+
+iii. 13                190
+
+
+
+Phil.
+
+
+ii. 5-11                21, 269
+ii. 7f.                190, 285
+ii. 8                  196
+
+
+
+II. Tim.
+
+
+iii. 15                 63
+
+
+
+Heb.
+
+
+ii. 17                  61
+ii. 17f.                64
+ii. 18                  87
+iv. 15                  61, 63, 67
+v. 7                   147
+v. 7-9                  87
+vii. 26                 57
+xii. 2                 190
+xii. 13                190
+
+
+
+I. Pet.
+
+
+ii. 22                  83
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's The Life of Jesus of Nazareth, by Rush Rhees
+
+*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 13228 ***
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+<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 13228 ***</div>
+
+<div id="tp">
+
+<h1 class="title"><a class="newpage" name="pageiii" id="pageiii" title="iii"></a>The Life of Jesus of Nazareth</h1>
+
+<h2 class="subtitle"><i>A Study</i></h2>
+
+<p class="byline">By</p>
+
+<h2 class="author">Rush Rhees</h2>
+
+<h3>1902</h3>
+</div>
+
+
+<div id="verso">
+<div><a class="newpage" name="pageiv" id="pageiv" title="iv"></a><i>Copyright, 1900,</i></div>
+<div>By Charles Scribner's Sons</div>
+</div>
+
+
+<div id="dedication">
+<h2><a id="v"></a>To</h2>
+
+<p>C. W. McC.</p>
+
+<p>In Recognition of Wise Counsel, Generous Help and Loving Appreciation</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<div id="epigraph">
+<blockquote><p><a class="newpage" name="pagevi" id="pagevi" title="vi"></a>"<i>I would preach ... the need to the world of the faith
+in a Christ, the claim that Jesus is the Christ, and the demand
+for an intelligent faith, which indeed shall transcend but shall
+not despise knowledge, or neglect to have a knowledge to
+transcend.</i>"--<cite>John Patterson Coyle</cite></p></blockquote>
+</div>
+
+
+<div id="preface">
+<h2><a class="newpage" name="pagevii" id="pagevii" title="vii"></a>Preface</h2>
+
+
+
+<p>The aim of this book is to help thoughtful readers of the gospels to
+discern more clearly the features of him whom those writings inimitably
+portray. It is avowedly a study rather than a story, and as a companion to
+the reading of the gospels it seeks to answer some of the questions which
+are raised by a sympathetic consideration of those narratives. These
+answers are offered in an unargumentative way, even where the questions
+are still in debate among scholars. This method has been adopted because
+technical discussion would be of interest to but few of those whom the
+book hopes to serve. On some of the questions a non-committal attitude is
+taken in the belief that for the understanding of the life of Jesus it is
+of little importance which way the decision finally goes. Less attention
+has been given to questions of geography and arch&aelig;ology than to those
+which have a more vital biographical significance.</p>
+
+<p>A word concerning the point of view adopted. The church has inherited a
+rich treasure of doctrine concerning its Lord, the result of patient study
+and, frequently, of heated controversy. It is customary to approach the
+gospels with this interpretation of Christ as a premise, and such a study
+has some unquestionable advantages. <a class="newpage" name="pageviii" id="pageviii" title="viii"></a>With the apostles and evangelists,
+however, the recognition of the divine nature of Jesus was a conclusion
+from their acquaintance with him. The Man of Nazareth was for them
+primarily a man, and they so regarded him until he showed them that he was
+more. Their knowledge of him progressed in the natural way from the human
+to the divine. The gospels, particularly the first three, are marvels of
+simplicity and objectivity. Their authors clearly regarded Jesus as the
+Man from heaven; yet in their thinking they were dominated by the
+influence of a personal Lord rather than by the force of an accepted
+doctrine. It is with no lack of reverence for the importance and truth of
+the divinity of Christ that this book essays to bring the Man Jesus before
+the mind in the reading of the gospels. The incarnation means that God
+chose to reveal the divine through a human life, rather than through a
+series of propositions which formulate truth (Heb. i. 1-4). The most
+perennially refreshing influence for Christian life and thought is
+personal discipleship to that Revealer who is able to-day as of old to
+exhibit in his humanity those qualities which compel the recognition of
+God manifest in the flesh.</p>
+
+<p>An <a href="#appendix">Appendix</a> is added to furnish references to the wide literature of the
+subject for the aid of those who wish to study it more extensively and
+technically; also to discuss some questions of detail which could not be
+considered in the text. This appendix will indicate the extent of my
+indebtedness to others. I would acknowledge special obligation to
+Professor Ernest D. Burton, <a class="newpage" name="pageix" id="pageix" title="ix"></a>of the University of Chicago, for generous
+help and permission to use material found in his "Notes on the Life of
+Jesus;" to Professor Shailer Mathews, also of Chicago, for very valuable
+criticisms; to my colleague, Professor Charles Rufus Brown, for most
+serviceable assistance; and to the editors of this series for helpful
+suggestions and criticism during the making of the book. An unmeasured
+debt is due to another who has sat at my side during the writing of these
+pages, and has given constant inspiration, most discerning criticism, and
+practical aid.</p>
+
+<p><cite>The Newton Theological Institution</cite>, April, 1900.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<div id="toc">
+<p><a class="newpage" name="pagex" id="pagex" title="x"></a></p>
+<h2><a class="newpage" name="pagexi" id="pagexi" title="xi"></a>Contents</h2>
+
+
+
+<h3>Part I</h3>
+
+<h4><a href="#p01">Preparatory</a></h4>
+
+
+<ol>
+<li>
+
+<a href="#p01-01">The Historical Situation</a>
+
+Sections <a href="#s001">1</a>-<a href="#s019">19.</a> Pages <a href="#page001">1</a>-<a href="#page020">20</a>
+
+<ul>
+   <li>Section <a href="#s001">1.</a> The Roman estimate of Judea.</li> <li><a href="#s002">2</a>, <a href="#s003">3.</a> Herod the Great and his
+   sons.</li> <li><a href="#s004">4.</a> Roman procurators in Palestine.</li> <li><a href="#s005">5.</a> Taxes.</li> <li><a href="#s006">6.</a> The army.</li> <li><a href="#s007">7.</a>
+   Administration of justice.</li> <li><a href="#s008">8.</a> The Sadducees.</li> <li><a href="#s009">9</a>, <a href="#s010">10.</a> The Pharisees.</li> <li><a href="#s011">11.</a>
+   The Zealots.</li> <li><a href="#s012">12.</a> The Essenes.</li> <li><a href="#s013">13.</a> The Devout.</li> <li><a href="#s014">14.</a> Herodians and
+   Samaritans.</li> <li><a href="#s015">15.</a> The synagogue.</li> <li><a href="#s016">16.</a> Life under the law.</li> <li><a href="#s017">17.</a> The
+   Messianic hope.</li> <li><a href="#s018">18.</a> Contemporary literature.</li> <li><a href="#s019">19.</a> Language of Palestine.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+
+
+
+<li><a href="#p01-02">Sources of Our Knowledge of Jesus</a>
+
+Sections <a href="#s020">20</a>-<a href="#s035">35</a>. Pages <a href="#page021">21</a>-<a href="#page037">37.</a>
+
+<ul>
+   <li>Section <a href="#s020">20.</a> The testimony of Paul.</li> <li><a href="#s021">21.</a> Secular history.</li> <li><a href="#s022">22.</a> The written
+   gospels.</li> <li><a href="#s023">23.</a> Characteristics of the first gospel.</li> <li><a href="#s024">24.</a> Of the second.</li>
+   <li><a href="#s025">25.</a> Of the third. 26-30. The synoptic problem. 31-32. The Johannine
+   problem.</li> <li><a href="#s034">34.</a> The two narrative sources.</li> <li><a href="#s035">35.</a> Agrapha and Apocrypha.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+
+
+
+<li><a class="newpage" name="pagexii" id="pagexii" title="xii"></a><a href="#p01-03">The Harmony of the Gospels</a>
+
+Sections <a href="#s036">36</a>-<a href="#s044">44</a>. Pages <a href="#page038">38</a>-<a href="#page014">14</a>
+
+<ul>
+   <li>Section <a href="#s036">36.</a> The value of four gospels.</li> <li><a href="#s037">37.</a> Tatian's Diatessaron. 38.
+   Agreement of the gospels concerning the chief events.</li> <li><a href="#s039">39.</a> The principal
+   problems.</li> <li><a href="#s040">40.</a> Relation of Mark and John. </li><li><a href="#s041">41</a>, <a href="#s042">42.</a> Matthew and Luke. 43.
+   Doublets.</li> <li><a href="#s044">44.</a> The degree of certainty attainable.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+
+
+
+<li><a href="#p01-04">The Chronology</a>
+
+Sections <a href="#s045">45</a>-<a href="#s057">57</a>. Pages <a href="#page045">45</a>-<a href="#page056">56</a>
+
+<ul>
+<li>   Sections <a href="#s045">45</a>-<a href="#s048">48</a>. The length of Jesus' public ministry.</li> <li><a href="#s049">49.</a> Date of the
+   first Passover.</li> <li><a href="#s050">50.</a> Date of the crucifixion. 51-56. Date of the
+   nativity.</li> <li><a href="#s057">57.</a> Summary.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+
+
+
+<li><a href="#p01-05">The Early Years of Jesus</a>
+
+Sections <a href="#s058">58</a>-<a href="#s071">71</a>. Pages <a href="#page057">57</a>-<a href="#page069">69</a>
+
+<ul>
+   <li>Section <a href="#s058">58.</a> Apocryphal stories.</li> <li><a href="#s059">59.</a> Silence of the New Testament
+   outside the gospels. 60-62. The miraculous birth.</li> <li><a href="#s063">63.</a> The childhood of
+   Jesus.</li> <li><a href="#s064">64.</a> Home.</li> <li><a href="#s065">65.</a> Religion, Education.</li> <li><a href="#s066">66.</a> Growth.</li> <li><a href="#s067">67.</a> Religious
+   development.</li> <li><a href="#s068">68.</a> The view from Nazareth. 69 The first visit to
+   Jerusalem. 70-71. The carpenter of Nazareth.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+
+
+
+<li><a href="#p01-06">John the Baptist</a>
+
+Sections <a href="#s072">72</a>-<a href="#s084">84</a>. Pages <a href="#page070">70</a>-<a href="#page081">81</a>
+
+<ul>
+   <li>Section <a href="#s072">72.</a> The gospel picture.</li> <li><a href="#s073">73.</a> Notice by Josephus. 74.
+   Characteristics of the prophet 75-78. John's relation to the Essenes;
+   the Pharisees; the Zealots; the Apocalyptists.</li> <li><a href="#s079">79.</a> John and the
+   Prophets. 80-82. Origin of his baptism.</li> <li><a href="#s083">83.</a> His greatness.</li> <li><a href="#s084">84.</a> His
+   limitations and self-effacement.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+
+
+
+<li><a class="newpage" name="pagexiii" id="pagexiii" title="xiii"></a><a href="#p01-07">The Messianic Call</a>
+
+Sections <a href="#s085">85</a>-<a href="#s096">96</a>. Pages <a href="#page082">82</a>-<a href="#page091">91</a>
+
+<ul>
+<li>   Sections </li><li><a href="#s085">85</a>, <a href="#s086">86.</a> John and Jesus.</li> <li><a href="#s087">87.</a> The baptism of Jesus. </li><li><a href="#s088">88</a>, <a href="#s089">89.</a> The
+   Messianic call.</li> <li><a href="#s090">90.</a> The gift of the Spirit. 91-94. The temptation. 95.
+   Source of the narrative.</li> <li><a href="#s096">96.</a> The issue.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+
+
+
+<li><a href="#p01-08">The First Disciples</a>
+
+Sections <a href="#s097">97</a>-<a href="#s105">105</a>. Pages <a href="#page092">92</a>-<a href="#page097">97</a>
+
+<ul>
+   <li>Section <a href="#s097">97.</a> John at Bethany beyond Jordan.</li> <li><a href="#s098">98.</a> The deputation from the
+   priests.</li> <li><a href="#s099">99.</a> John's first testimony.</li> <li><a href="#s100">100.</a> The first disciples.</li> <li><a href="#s101">101.</a> The
+   early Messianic confessions.</li> <li><a href="#s102">102.</a> The visit to Cana.</li> <li><a href="#s103">103.</a> The miracles
+   as disclosures of the character of Jesus.</li> <li><a href="#s104">104.</a> Jesus and his mother.</li>
+   <li><a href="#s105">105.</a> Removal to Capernaum.</li>
+</ul></li>
+</ol>
+
+
+<h3>Part II</h3>
+
+<h4><a href="#p02">The Ministry</a></h4>
+
+
+
+<ol>
+<li><a href="#p02-01">General Survey of the Ministry</a>
+
+Sections <a href="#s106">106</a>-<a href="#s112">112</a>. Pages <a href="#page101">101</a>-<a href="#page105">105</a>
+
+<ul>
+   <li>Section <a href="#s106">106.</a> The early Judean ministry.</li> <li><a href="#s107">107.</a> Withdrawal to Galilee; a
+   new beginning.</li> <li><a href="#s108">108.</a> The ministry in Galilee a unit.</li> <li><a href="#s109">109.</a> Best studied
+   topically.</li> <li><a href="#s110">110.</a> The last journey to Jerusalem.</li> <li><a href="#s111">111.</a> The last week. 112.
+   The resurrection and ascension.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+
+
+
+<li><a class="newpage" name="pagexiv" id="pagexiv" title="xiv"></a><a href="#p02-02">The Early Judean Ministry</a>
+
+Sections <a href="#s113">113</a>-<a href="#s124">124</a>. Pages <a href="#page106">106</a>-<a href="#page114">114</a>
+
+<ul>
+   <li>Outline of events in the Early Judean ministry.</li> <li>Section <a href="#s113">113.</a> The
+   opening ministry at Jerusalem.</li> <li><a href="#s114">114.</a> The record incomplete.</li> <li><a href="#s115">115.</a> The
+   cleansing of the temple.</li> <li><a href="#s116">116.</a> Relation to synoptic account.</li> <li><a href="#s117">117.</a> Jesus'
+   reply to the challenge of his authority.</li> <li><a href="#s118">118.</a> The reserve of Jesus.</li>
+   <li><a href="#s119">119.</a> Discourse with Nicodemus.</li> <li><a href="#s120">120.</a> Measure of success in Jerusalem.</li>
+   <li><a href="#s121">121.</a> The Baptist's last testimony.</li> <li><a href="#s122">122.</a> The arrest of John.</li> <li><a href="#s123">123.</a> The
+   second sign at Cana.</li> <li><a href="#s124">124.</a> Summary.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+
+
+
+<li><a href="#p02-03">The Ministry in Galilee--Its Aim and Method</a>
+
+Sections <a href="#s125">125</a>-<a href="#s149">149</a>. Pages <a href="#page115">115</a>-<a href="#page137">137</a>
+
+<ul>
+   <li>Outline of events in the Galilean ministry.</li> <li>Section <a href="#s125">125.</a> General view.
+   </li><li><a href="#s126">126</a>, <a href="#s127">127.</a> Development of popular enthusiasm.</li> <li><a href="#s128">128.</a> Pharisaic opposition.
+   </li><li><a href="#s129">129</a>, <a href="#s130">130.</a> Jesus and the Messianic hope.</li> <li><a href="#s131">131.</a> Injunctions of silence.
+   132-135. Jesus' twofold aim in Galilee. </li><li><a href="#s136">136</a>, <a href="#s137">137.</a> Character of the
+   teaching of this period: the sermon on the mount.</li> <li><a href="#s138">138.</a> The parables.</li>
+   <li><a href="#s139">139.</a> The instructions for the mission of the twelve.</li> <li><a href="#s140">140.</a> Jesus' tone
+   of authority.</li> <li><a href="#s141">141.</a> His mighty works. 142-144. Demoniac possession. 145.
+   Jesus' personal influence.</li> <li><a href="#s146">146.</a> The feeding of the five thousand. 147,</li>
+   <li><a href="#s148">148.</a> Revulsion of popular feeling.</li> <li><a href="#s149">149.</a> Results of the work in Galilee.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+
+
+
+<li><a href="#p02-04">The Ministry in Galilee--The New Lesson</a>
+
+Sections <a href="#s150">150</a>-<a href="#s165">165</a>. Pages <a href="#page138">138</a>-<a href="#page152">152</a>
+
+<ul>
+   <li>Section <a href="#s150">150.</a> The changed ministry.</li> <li><a href="#s151">151.</a> The question of tradition. 152.
+   Further pharisaic opposition.</li> <li><a href="#s153">153.</a> Jesus in Ph&oelig;nicia.</li> <li><a href="#s154">154.</a> Confirmation
+   of the disciples' faith.</li> <li><a href="#s155">155.</a> <a class="newpage" name="pagexv" id="pagexv" title="xv"></a>The question at C&aelig;sarea Philippi. 156.
+   The corner-stone of the Church. 157-159. The new lesson.</li> <li><a href="#s160">160.</a> The
+   transfiguration.</li> <li><a href="#s161">161.</a> Cure of the epileptic boy.</li> <li><a href="#s162">162.</a> The feast of
+   Tabernacles.</li> <li><a href="#s163">163.</a> Story of Jesus and the adulteress.</li> <li><a href="#s164">164.</a> The new note
+   in Jesus' teaching.</li> <li><a href="#s165">165.</a> Summary of the Galilean ministry.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+
+
+
+<li><a href="#p02-05">The Journey through Perea to Jerusalem</a>
+
+Sections <a href="#s166">166</a>-<a href="#s176">176</a>. Pages <a href="#page153">153</a>-<a href="#page165">165</a>
+
+<ul>
+   <li>Outline of events.</li> <li>Section <a href="#s166">166.</a> The Perean ministry.</li> <li><a href="#s167">167.</a> Account in
+   John. </li><li><a href="#s168">168</a>, <a href="#s169">169.</a> Account in Luke.</li> <li><a href="#s170">170.</a> The mission of the seventy. 171.
+   The feast of Dedication.</li> <li><a href="#s172">172.</a> Withdrawal beyond Jordan.</li> <li><a href="#s173">173.</a> The
+   raising of Lazarus.</li> <li><a href="#s174">174.</a> Ephraim and Jericho. 175,176. Summary.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+
+
+
+<li><a href="#p02-06">The Final Controversies in Jerusalem</a>
+
+Sections <a href="#s177">177</a>-<a href="#s188">188</a>. Pages <a href="#page166">166</a>-<a href="#page180">180</a>
+
+<ul>
+   <li>Outline of events in the last week of Jesus' life.</li> <li>Section <a href="#s177">177.</a> The
+   cross in apostolic preaching.</li> <li><a href="#s178">178.</a> The anointing in Bethany.</li> <li><a href="#s179">179.</a> The
+   Messianic entry.</li> <li><a href="#s180">180.</a> The barren fig-tree.</li> <li><a href="#s181">181.</a> The Monday of Passion
+   week. 182-186. The controversies of Tuesday.</li> <li><a href="#s187">187.</a> Judas. 188.
+   Wednesday, the day of seclusion.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+
+
+
+<li><a href="#p02-07">The Last Supper</a>
+
+Sections <a href="#s189">189</a>-<a href="#s195">195</a>. Pages <a href="#page181">181</a>-<a href="#page187">187</a>
+
+<ul>
+   <li>Section <a href="#s189">189.</a> Preparations. 190,191. Date of the supper.</li> <li><a href="#s192">192.</a> The lesson
+   of humility.</li> <li><a href="#s193">193.</a> The new covenant.</li> <li><a href="#s194">194.</a> The supper and the Passover.</li>
+   <li><a href="#s195">195.</a> Farewell words of admonition and comfort; the intercessory prayer.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+
+
+
+<li><a class="newpage" name="pagexvi" id="pagexvi" title="xvi"></a><a href="#p02-08">The Shadow of Death</a>
+
+Sections <a href="#s196">196</a>-<a href="#s208">208</a>. Pages <a href="#page188">188</a>-<a href="#page200">200</a>
+
+<ul>
+   <li>Sections <a href="#s196">196</a>, <a href="#s197">197.</a> Gethsemane.</li> <li><a href="#s198">198.</a> The betrayal.</li> <li><a href="#s199">199.</a> The trial. 200.
+   Peter's denials.</li> <li><a href="#s201">201.</a> The rejection of Jesus.</li> <li><a href="#s202">202.</a> The greatness of
+   Jesus. </li><li><a href="#s203">203</a>, <a href="#s204">204.</a> The crucifixion.</li> <li><a href="#s205">205.</a> The words from the cross. 206.
+   The death of Jesus.</li> <li><a href="#s207">207.</a> The burial.</li> <li><a href="#s208">208.</a> The Sabbath rest.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+
+
+
+<li><a href="#p02-09">The Resurrection</a>
+
+Sections <a href="#s209">209</a>-<a href="#s222">222</a>. Pages <a href="#page201">201</a>-<a href="#page216">216</a>
+
+<ul>
+   <li>Section <a href="#s209">209.</a> The primary Christian fact.</li> <li><a href="#s210">210.</a> The incredulity of the
+   disciples. 211-216. The appearances of the risen Lord. 217-220. Efforts
+   to explain the belief in the resurrection.</li> <li><a href="#s221">221.</a> The ascension.</li> <li><a href="#s222">222.</a> The
+   new faith of the disciples.</li>
+</ul></li>
+</ol>
+
+
+<h3>Part III</h3>
+
+<h4><a href="#p03">The Minister</a></h4>
+
+
+
+<ol>
+<li><a href="#p03-01">The Friend of Men</a>
+
+Sections <a href="#s223">223</a>-<a href="#s229">229</a>. Pages <a href="#page219">219</a>-<a href="#page225">225</a>
+
+<ul>
+   <li>Section <a href="#s223">223.</a> The contrast between Jesus' attitude and John's towards
+   common social life.</li> <li><a href="#s224">224.</a> Contrast with the scribes. </li><li><a href="#s225">225</a>, <a href="#s226">226.</a> His
+   interest in simple manhood.</li> <li><a href="#s227">227.</a> Regard for human need. 228, 229.
+   Sensitiveness to human sympathy.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+
+
+
+<li><a href="#p03-02">The Teacher with Authority</a>
+
+Sections <a href="#s230">230</a>-<a href="#s241">241</a>. Pages <a href="#page226">226</a>-<a href="#page237">237</a>
+
+<ul>
+   <li>Section <a href="#s230">230.</a> Contrast between Jesus and the scribes.</li> <li><a href="#s231">231.</a> His appeal to
+   the conscience. His attitude to the Old <a class="newpage" name="pagexvii" id="pagexvii" title="xvii"></a>Testament.</li> <li><a href="#s234">234.</a> His teaching
+   occasional.</li> <li><a href="#s235">235.</a> The patience of his method.</li> <li><a href="#s236">236.</a> His use of
+   illustration.</li> <li><a href="#s237">237.</a> Parable.</li> <li><a href="#s238">238.</a> Irony and hyperbole.</li> <li><a href="#s239">239.</a> Object
+   lessons.</li> <li><a href="#s240">240.</a> Jesus' intellectual superiority.</li> <li><a href="#s241">241.</a> His chief theme,
+   the kingdom of God.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+
+
+
+<li><a href="#p03-03">Jesus' Knowledge of Truth</a>
+
+Sections <a href="#s242">242</a>-<a href="#s251">251</a>. Pages <a href="#page238">238</a>-<a href="#page248">248</a>
+
+<ul>
+   <li>Sections <a href="#s242">242</a>, <a href="#s243">243.</a> Jesus' supernatural knowledge.</li> <li><a href="#s244">244.</a> His predictions
+   of his death.</li> <li><a href="#s245">245.</a> Of his resurrection.</li> <li><a href="#s246">246.</a> His apocalyptic
+   predictions. </li><li><a href="#s247">247</a>, <a href="#s248">248.</a> Limitation of his knowledge. </li><li><a href="#s249">249</a>, <a href="#s250">250.</a> Jesus and
+   demoniac possession.</li> <li><a href="#s251">251.</a> His certainty of his own mission.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+
+
+
+<li><a href="#p03-04">Jesus' Conception of Himself</a>
+
+Sections <a href="#s252">252</a>-<a href="#s275">275</a>. Pages <a href="#page249">249</a>-<a href="#page269">269</a>.
+
+<ul>
+   <li>Section <a href="#s252">252.</a> Jesus' confidence in his calling.</li> <li><a href="#s253">253.</a> His independence in
+   teaching.</li> <li><a href="#s254">254.</a> His self-assertions in response to pharisaic criticism.</li>
+   <li><a href="#s255">255.</a> His desire to beget faith in himself. 256,257. His extraordinary
+   personal claim.</li> <li><a href="#s258">258.</a> His acceptance of Messianic titles. 259-266. The
+   Son of Man. 267-269. The Son of God. </li><li><a href="#s270">270</a>, <a href="#s271">271.</a> His consciousness of
+   oneness with God.</li> <li><a href="#s272">272.</a> His confession of dependence; his habit of
+   prayer.</li> <li><a href="#s273">273.</a> No confession of sin. </li><li><a href="#s274">274</a>, <a href="#s275">275.</a> The Word made flesh.</li>
+</ul></li>
+</ol>
+
+<p><a href="#appendix">Appendix</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#index1">Index of Names and Subjects</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#index2">Index of Biblical References</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="images/map.jpg">Map of Palestine</a></p>
+<p><a class="newpage" name="pagexviii" id="pagexviii" title="xviii"></a></p>
+</div>
+
+
+<div class="part" id="p01">
+<h2><a class="newpage" name="page001" id="page001" title="1"></a>Part I</h2>
+
+
+<h3>Preparatory</h3>
+<p><a class="newpage" name="page002" id="page002" title="2"></a></p>
+
+
+<div class="chapter" id="p01-01">
+<h2><a class="newpage" name="page003" id="page003" title="3"></a>I</h2>
+
+<h3>The Historical Situation</h3>
+
+
+
+<div class="section" id="s001"><p><span class="versenum">1.</span> When Tacitus, the Roman historian, records the attempt of Nero to
+charge the Christians with the burning of Rome, he has patience for no
+more than the cursory remark that the sect originated with a Jew who had
+been put to death in Judea during the reign of Tiberius. This province was
+small and despised, and Tacitus could account for the influence of the
+sect which sprang thence only by the fact that all that was infamous and
+abominable flowed into Rome. The Roman's scornful judgment failed to grasp
+the nature and power of the movement whose unpopularity invited Nero's
+lying accusation, yet it emphasizes the significance of him who did "not
+strive, nor cry, nor cause his voice to be heard in the street," whose
+influence, nevertheless, was working as leaven throughout the empire.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s002"><p><span class="versenum">2.</span> Palestine was not under immediate Roman rule when Jesus was born. Herod
+the Great was drawing near the close of the long reign during which, owing
+to his skill in securing Roman favor, he had tyrannized over his unwilling
+people. His claim was that of an adventurer who had power to succeed, even
+as his method had been that of a suspicious tyrant, who murdered right and
+left, lest one of the many with better right than he should rise to
+dispute with him <a class="newpage" name="page004" id="page004" title="4"></a>his throne. When Herod died, his kingdom was divided
+into three parts, and Rome asserted a fuller sovereignty, allowing none of
+his sons to take his royal title. Herod's successors ruled with a measure
+of independence, however, and followed many of their father's ways, though
+none of them had his ability. The best of them was Philip, who had the
+territory farthest from Jerusalem, and least related to Jewish life. He
+ruled over Iturea and Trachonitis, the country to the north and east of
+the Sea of Galilee, having his capital at C&aelig;sarea Philippi, a city built
+and named by him on the site of an older town near the sources of the
+Jordan. He also rebuilt the city of Bethsaida, at the point where the
+Jordan flows into the Sea of Galilee, calling it Julias, after the
+daughter of Augustus. Philip enters the story of the life of Jesus only as
+the ruler of these towns and the intervening region, and as husband of
+Salome, the daughter of Herodias. Living far from Jerusalem and the Jewish
+people, he abandoned even the show of Judaism which characterized his
+father, and lived as a frank heathen in his heathen capital.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s003"><p><span class="versenum">3.</span> The other two who inherited Herod's dominion were brothers, Archelaus
+and Antipas, sons of Malthace, one of Herod's many wives. Archelaus had
+been designated king by Herod, with Judea, Samaria, and Idumea as his
+kingdom; but the emperor allowed him only the territory, with the title
+ethnarch. Antipas was named a tetrarch by Herod, and his territory was
+Galilee and the land east of the Jordan to the southward of the Sea of
+Galilee, called Perea. Antipas was the Herod under whose sway Jesus lived
+in Galilee, and who executed John the Baptist. He was a man of pas<a class="newpage" name="page005" id="page005" title="5"></a>sionate
+temper, with the pride and love of luxury of his father. Having Jews to
+govern, he held, as his father had done, to a show of Judaism, though at
+heart he was as much of a pagan as Philip. He, too, loved building, and
+Tiberias on the Sea of Galilee was built by him for his capital. His
+unscrupulous tyranny and his gross disregard of common righteousness
+appear in his relations with John the Baptist and with Herodias, his
+paramour. Jesus described him well as "that fox" (Luke xiii. 32), for he
+was sly, and worked often by indirection. While his father had energy and
+ability which command a sort of admiration, Antipas was not only bad but
+weak.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s004"><p><span class="versenum">4.</span> Both Philip and Antipas reigned until after the death of Jesus, Philip
+dying in A.D. 34, and Antipas being deposed several years later, probably
+in 39. Archelaus had a much shorter rule, for he was deposed in A.D. 6,
+having been accused by the Jews of unbearable barbarity and tyranny,--a
+charge in which Antipas and Philip joined. The territory of Archelaus was
+then made an imperial province of the second grade, ruled by a procurator
+appointed from among the Roman knights. In provinces under an imperial
+legate (propraetor) the procurator was an officer for the administration
+of the revenues; in provinces of the rank of Judea he was, however, the
+representative of the emperor in all the prerogatives of government,
+having command of the army, and being the final resort in legal procedure,
+as well as supervising the collection of the customs and taxes. Very
+little is known of the procurators appointed after the deposition of
+Archelaus, until Tiberius sent Pontius Pilate in A.D. 26. He held office
+until he was deposed in 36. <a class="newpage" name="page006" id="page006" title="6"></a>Josephus gives several examples of his wanton
+disregard of Jewish prejudice, and of his extreme cruelty. His conduct at
+the trial of Jesus was remarkably gentle and judicial in comparison with
+other acts recorded of his government; yet the fear of trial at Rome,
+which finally induced him to give Jesus over to be crucified, was
+thoroughly characteristic; in fact, his downfall resulted from a complaint
+lodged against him by certain Samaritans whom he had cruelly punished for
+a Messianic uprising.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s005"><p><span class="versenum">5.</span> There were two sorts of Roman taxes in Judea: direct, which were
+collected by salaried officials; and customs, which were farmed out to the
+highest bidder. The direct taxes consisted of a land tax and a poll tax,
+in the collection of which the procurator made use of the local Jewish
+courts; the customs consisted of various duties assessed on exports, and
+they were gathered by representatives of men who had bought the right to
+collect these dues. The chiefs as well as their underlings are called
+publicans in our New Testament, although the name strictly applies only to
+the chiefs. These tax-gatherers, small and great, were everywhere despised
+and execrated, because, in addition to their subserviency to a hated
+government, they had a reputation, usually deserved, for all sorts of
+extortion. Because of this evil repute they were commonly drawn from the
+unscrupulous among the people, so that the frequent coupling of publicans
+and sinners in the gospels probably rested on fact as much as on
+prejudice.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s006"><p><span class="versenum">6.</span> In Samaria and Judea soldiers were under the command of the procurator;
+they took orders from the tetrarch, in Galilee and Perea. The garrison of
+Jeru<a class="newpage" name="page007" id="page007" title="7"></a>salem consisted of one Roman cohort--from five to six hundred
+men--which was reinforced at the time of the principal feasts. These and
+the other forces at the disposal of the procurator were probably recruited
+from the country itself, largely from among the Samaritans. The centurion
+of Capernaum (Matt. viii. 5; Luke vii. 2-5) was an officer in the army of
+Antipas, who, however, doubtless organized his army on the Roman pattern,
+with officers who had had their training with the imperial forces.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s007"><p><span class="versenum">7.</span> The administration of justice in Samaria and Judea was theoretically in
+the hands of the procurator; practically, however, it was left with the
+Jewish courts, either the local councils or the great sanhedrin at
+Jerusalem. This last body consisted of seventy-one "elders." Its president
+was the high-priest, and its members were drawn in large degree from the
+most prominent representatives of the priestly aristocracy. The scribes,
+however, had a controlling influence because of the reverence in which the
+multitude held them. The sanhedrin of Jerusalem had jurisdiction only
+within the province of Judea, where it tried all kinds of offences; its
+judgment was final, except in capital cases, when it had to yield to the
+procurator, who alone could sentence to death. It had great influence also
+in Galilee, and among Jews everywhere, but this was due to the regard all
+Jews had for the holy city. It was, in fact, a sort of Jewish senate,
+which took cognizance of everything that seemed to affect the Jewish
+interests. In Galilee and Perea, Antipas held in his hands the judicial as
+well as the military and financial administration.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s008"><p><a class="newpage" name="page008" id="page008" title="8"></a><span class="versenum">8.</span> To the majority of the priests religion had become chiefly a form.
+They represented the worldly party among the Jews. Since the days of the
+priest-princes who ruled in Jerusalem after the return from the exile,
+they had constituted the Jewish aristocracy, and held most of the wealth
+of the people. It was to their interest to maintain the ritual and the
+traditional customs, and they were proud of their Jewish heritage; of
+genuine interest in religion, however, they had little. This secular
+priestly party was called the Sadducees, probably from Zadok, the
+high-priest in Solomon's time. What theology the Sadducees had was for the
+most part reactionary and negative. They were opposed to the more earnest
+spirit and new thought of the scribes, and naturally produced some
+champions who argued for their theological position; but the mass of them
+cared for other things.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s009"><p><span class="versenum">9.</span> The leaders of the popular thought, on the other hand, were chiefly
+noted for their religious zeal and theological acumen. They represented
+the outgrowth of that spirit which in the Maccabean time had risked all to
+defend the sanctity of the temple and the right of God's people to worship
+him according to his law. They were known as Pharisees, because, as the
+name ("separated") indicates, they insisted on the separation of the
+people of God from all the defilements and snares of the heathen life
+round about them. The Pharisees constituted a fraternity devoted to the
+scrupulous observance of law and tradition in all the concerns of daily
+life. They were specialists in religion, and were the ideal
+representatives of Judaism. Their distinguishing characteristic was
+reverence for the law; <a class="newpage" name="page009" id="page009" title="9"></a>their religion was the religion of a book. By
+punctilious obedience of the law man might hope to gain a record of merit
+which should stand to his credit and secure his reward when God should
+finally judge the world. Because life furnished many situations not dealt
+with in the written law, there was need of its authoritative
+interpretation, in order that ignorance might not cause a man to
+transgress. These interpretations constituted an oral law which
+practically superseded the written code, and they were handed down from
+generation to generation as "the traditions of the fathers." The existence
+of this oral law made necessary a company of scribes and lawyers whose
+business it was to know the traditions and transmit them to their pupils.
+These scribes were the teachers of Israel, the leaders of the Pharisees,
+and the most highly revered class in the community. Pharisaism at its
+beginning was intensely earnest, but in the time of Jesus the earnest
+spirit had died out in zealous formalism. This was the inevitable result
+of their virtual substitution of the written law for the living God. Their
+excessive reverence had banished God from practical relation to the daily
+life. They held that he had declared his will once for all in the law. His
+name was scrupulously revered, his worship was cultivated with minutest
+care, his judgment was anticipated with dread; but he himself, like an
+Oriental monarch, was kept far from common life in an isolation suitable
+to his awful holiness. By a natural consequence conscience gave place to
+scrupulous regard for tradition in the religion of the scribes. The chief
+question with them was not, Is this right? but, What say the elders? The
+soul's sensitiveness of response to God's will and God's truth was lost in
+a <a class="newpage" name="page010" id="page010" title="10"></a>maze of traditions which awoke no spontaneous Amen in the moral nature,
+consequently there was frequent substitution of reputation for character.
+The Pharisees could make void the command, Honor thy father, by an
+ingenious application of the principle of dedication of property to God
+(Mark vii. 8-13), and thus under the guise of scrupulous regard for law
+discovered ways for legal disregard of law. Their theory of religion gave
+abundant room for a piety which made broad its phylacteries and lengthened
+its prayers, while neglecting judgment, mercy, and the love of God.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s010"><p><span class="versenum">10.</span> Yet the earnest and true development in Jewish thinking was found
+among the Pharisees. The early hope of Israel was almost exclusively
+national. In the later books of the Old Testament, in connection with an
+enlarged sense of the importance of the individual, the doctrine of a
+personal resurrection to share the blessings of the Messiah's kingdom
+began to appear. It had its clear development and definite adoption as
+part of the faith of Judaism, however, under the influence of the
+Pharisees. Along with this increased emphasis on the worth of the
+individual came a large development of the doctrine of angels and spirits.
+Towards both of these doctrines the Sadducees took a reactionary position.
+Politically the Pharisees were theocratic in theory, but opportunists in
+practice, accommodating themselves to the existing state of things so long
+as the <i>de facto</i> government did not interfere with the religious life of
+the people. They looked for a kingdom in which God should be evidently the
+king of his people; but they believed that his sovereignty was to be
+realized through the law, hence their sole interest was in the obedi<a class="newpage" name="page011" id="page011" title="11"></a>ence
+of God's people to that law as interpreted by the traditions.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s011"><p><span class="versenum">11.</span> The theocratic spirit was more aggressive in a party which originated
+in the later years of Herod the Great, and found a reckless leader in
+Judas of Galilee, who started a revolt when the governor of Syria
+undertook to make a census of the Jews after the deposition of Archelaus.
+This party bore the name Cananeans or Zealots. They regarded with
+passionate resentment the subjection of God's people to a foreign power,
+and waited eagerly for an opportune time to take the sword and set up the
+kingdom of God; it was with them that the final war against Rome began.
+They were found in largest numbers in Galilee, where the scholasticism of
+the scribes was not so dominating an influence as in Judea. Dr. Edersheim
+has called them the nationalist party. In matters belonging strictly to
+the religious life they followed the Pharisees, only holding a more
+material conception of the hope of Israel.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s012"><p><span class="versenum">12.</span> Another development in Jewish religious life carried separatist
+doctrines to the extreme. Its representatives were called Essenes, though
+what the significance of the name was is no longer clear. Although they
+were allied with the Pharisees in doctrine, they show in some particulars
+the influence of Hellenistic Judaism. This is suggested not only by the
+attention which Philo and Josephus give to them, but also by certain of
+their views, which were very like the doctrines of the Pythagoreans. They
+carried the pharisaic demand for separateness to the extreme of
+asceticism. While they were found in nearly every town in Palestine, some
+of them even practising marriage, the largest group of them lived a
+celibate, <a class="newpage" name="page012" id="page012" title="12"></a>monastic life near the shores of the Dead Sea. This community
+was recruited by the initiation of converts, who only after a novitiate of
+three years were admitted to full membership in the order. They were
+characterized by an extreme scrupulousness concerning ceremonial purity,
+their meals were regarded as sacrifices, and were prepared by members of
+the order, who were looked upon as priests, nor were any allowed to
+partake of the food until they had first bathed themselves. Their regular
+garments were all white, and were regarded as vestments for use at the
+sacrificial meals,--other clothing being assumed as they went out to their
+work. They were industrious agriculturists, their life was communistic,
+and they were renowned for their uprightness. They revered Moses as highly
+as did the scribes; yet they were opposed to animal sacrifices, and,
+although they sent gifts to the temple, were apparently excluded from its
+worship. Their kinship with the Pythagoreans appears in that they
+addressed an invocation to the sun at its rising, and conducted all their
+natural functions with scrupulous modesty, "that they might not offend the
+brightness of God" (Jos. Wars, ii. 8, 9). Their rejection of bloody
+sacrifices, and their view that the soul is imprisoned in the body and at
+death is freed for a better life, besides many features of their life that
+are genuinely Jewish, such as their regard for ceremonial purity, also
+show similarity to the Pythagoreans. It has always been a matter of
+perplexity that these ascetics find no mention in the New Testament. They
+seem to have lived a life too much apart, and to have had little sympathy
+with the ideals of Jesus, or even of John the Baptist.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s013"><p><a class="newpage" name="page013" id="page013" title="13"></a><span class="versenum">13.</span> The common people followed the lead of the Pharisees, though afar
+off. They accepted the teaching concerning tradition, as well as that
+concerning the resurrection, conforming their lives to the prescriptions
+of the scribes more or less strictly, according as they were more or loss
+ruled by religious considerations. It was in consequence of their hold on
+the people that the scribes in the sanhedrin were able often to dictate a
+policy to the Sadducean majority. Jesus voiced the popular opinion when he
+said that "the scribes sit in Moses' seat" (Matt, xxiii. 2). Their leaders
+despised "this multitude which knoweth not the law" (John vii. 49), yet
+delighted to legislate for them, binding heavy burdens and grievous to be
+borne. Many of the people were doubtless too intent on work and gain to be
+very regardful of the <i>minuti&aelig;</i> of conduct as ordained by the scribes;
+many more were too simple-minded to follow the theories of the rabbis
+concerning the aloofness of God from the life of men. These last
+reverenced the scribes, followed their directions, in the main, for the
+conduct of life, yet lived in fellowship with God as their fathers had,
+trusting in his faithfulness, and hoping in his mercy. They are
+represented in the New Testament by such as Simeon and Anna, Zachariah and
+Elizabeth, Joseph and Mary, and the majority of those who heard and heeded
+John's call to repentance. They were Israel's remnant of pure and
+undefiled religion, and constituted what there was of good soil among the
+people for the reception of the seed sown by John's successor. They had no
+name, for they did not constitute a party; for convenience they may be
+called the Devout.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s014"><p><a class="newpage" name="page014" id="page014" title="14"></a><span class="versenum">14.</span> Two other classes among the people are mentioned in the gospels,--the
+Herodians and the Samaritans. The Herodians do not appear outside the New
+Testament, and seem to have been hardly more than a group of men in whom
+the secular spirit was dominant, who thought it best for their interests
+and for the people's to champion the claims of the Herodian family. They
+were probably more akin to the Pharisees than to the Sadducees, for the
+latter were hostile to the Herodian claims, from the first; yet in spirit
+they seem more like to the worldly aristocracy than to the pious scribes.
+The Samaritans lived in the land, a people despising and despised. Their
+territory separated Galilee from Judea, and they were a constant source of
+irritation to the Jews. The hatred was inherited from the days of Ezra,
+when the zealous Jews refused to allow any intercourse with the
+inhabitants of Samaria. These Samaritans were spurned as of impure blood
+and mixed religion (II. Kings xvii. 24-41). The severe attitude adopted
+towards them by Ezra and Nehemiah led to the building of a temple on Mount
+Gerizim, and the establishment of a worship which sought to rival that of
+Jerusalem in all particulars. Very little is known of the tenets of the
+Samaritans in the time of Jesus beyond their belief that Gerizim was the
+place which, according to the law, God chose for his temple, and that a
+Messiah should come to settle all questions of dispute (John iv. 25).</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s015"><p><span class="versenum">15.</span> Although the religious life of the Jews centred ideally in the temple,
+it found its practical expression in the synagogue. This in itself is
+evidence of the relative influence of priests and scribes. There was no
+confessed rivalry. The Pharisee was most insist<a class="newpage" name="page015" id="page015" title="15"></a>ent on the sanctity of the
+temple and the importance of its ritual. Yet with the growing sense of the
+religious significance of the individual as distinct from the nation,
+there arose of necessity a practical need for a system of worship possible
+for the great majority of the people, who could at best visit Jerusalem
+but once or twice a year. The synagogue seems to have been a development
+of the exile, when there was no temple and no sacrifice. It was the
+characteristic institution of Judaism as a religion of the law, furnishing
+in every place opportunity for prayer and study. The elders of each
+community seem ordinarily to have been in control of its synagogue, and to
+have had authority to exclude from its fellowship persons who had come
+under the ban. In addition to these officials there was a ruler of the
+synagogue, who had the direction of all that concerned the worship; a
+<i>chazzan</i>, or minister, who had the care of the sacred books, administered
+discipline, and instructed the children in reading the scripture; and two
+or more receivers of alms. The Sabbath services consisted of prayers, and
+reading of the scriptures--both law and prophets,--and an address or
+sermon. It was in the sermon that the people learned to know the
+"traditions of the elders," whether as applications of the law to the
+daily life, or as legendary embellishments of Hebrew history and prophecy.
+The preacher might be any one whom the ruler of the synagague recognized
+as worthy to address the congregation.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s016"><p><span class="versenum">16.</span> The religious life which centred in the synagogue found daily
+expression in the observance of the law and the traditions. In the measure
+of its control by the scribes it was concerned chiefly with the Sab<a class="newpage" name="page016" id="page016" title="16"></a>bath,
+with the various ablutions needful to the maintenance of ceremonial
+purity, with the distinctions between clean and unclean food, with the
+times and ways of fasting, and with the wearing of fringes and
+phylacteries. These lifeless ceremonies seem to our day wearisome and
+petty in the extreme. It is probable, however, that the growth of the
+various traditions had been so gradual that, as has been aptly said, the
+whole usage seemed no more unreasonable to the Jews than the etiquette of
+polite society does to its devotees. The evil was not so much in the
+minuteness of the regulations as in the external and superficial notion of
+religion which they induced.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s017"><p><span class="versenum">17.</span> Optimism was the mood of Israel's prophets from the earliest times.
+Every generation looked for the dawning of a day which should banish all
+ill and realize the dreams inspired by the covenant in which God had
+chosen Israel for his own. In proportion as the rabbinic formalism held
+control of the hearts of the people, the Messianic hope lost its warmth
+and vigor. Yet the scribes did not abandon the prophetic optimism; they
+held to the letter of the hope, but as its fulfilment was for them
+dependent on perfect obedience to the law, oral and written, their
+interest was diverted to the traditions, and their strength was given to
+legal disputations. Of the rest of the people, the Sadducees naturally
+gave little thought to the promise of future deliverance, they were too
+absorbed with regard for present concerns. Nor is there any evidence that
+the Essenes, with all their reputed knowledge of the future, cherished the
+hope of a Messiah. The other elements among the people who owned the
+general leadership <a class="newpage" name="page017" id="page017" title="17"></a>of the scribes looked eagerly for the coming time when
+God should bring to pass what he had promised through the prophets. While
+some expected God himself to come in judgment, and gave no thought to an
+Anointed one who should represent the Most High to the people, the
+majority looked for a Son of David to sit upon his father's throne. Even
+so, however, there were wide differences in the nature of the hope which
+was set on the coming of this Son of David. The Zealots were looking for a
+victory, which should set Israel on high over all his foes. To the rest of
+the people, however, the method of the consummation was not so clear, and
+they were ready to leave God to work out his purpose in his own way,
+longing meanwhile for the fulfilment of his promise. One class in
+particular gave themselves to visionary representations of the promised
+redemption. They differed from the Zealots in that they saw with unwelcome
+clearness the futility of physical attack upon their enemies; but their
+faith was strong, and at the moment when outward conditions seemed most
+disheartening they looked for a revelation of God's power from heaven,
+destroying all sinners in his wrath, and delivering and comforting his
+people, giving them their lot in a veritable Canaan situated in a renewed
+earth. Such visions are recorded in the Book of Daniel and the Revelation
+of John. They are found in many other apocalypses not included in our
+Bible, and indicate how persistently the minds of the people turned
+towards the promises spoken by the prophets, and meditated on their
+fulfilment. The Devout were midway between the Zealots and the
+Apocalyptists. The songs of Zach<a class="newpage" name="page018" id="page018" title="18"></a>ariah and Mary and the thanksgiving of
+Simeon express their faith. They hoped for a kingdom as tangible as the
+Zealots sought, yet they preferred to <i>wait</i> for the consolation of
+Israel. They believed that God was still in his heaven, that he was not
+disregardful of his people, and that in his own time he would raise up
+unto them their king. They looked for a Son of David, yet his reign was to
+be as remarkable for its purification of his own people as for its
+victories over their foes. These victories indeed were to be largely
+spiritual, for their Messiah was to conquer in the strength of the Spirit
+of God and "by the word of his mouth." Such as these were ready for a
+ministry like John's, and not unready for the new ideal which Jesus was
+about to offer them, though their highest spiritualization of the
+Messianic hope was but a shadow of the reality which Jesus asked them to
+accept.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s018"><p><span class="versenum">18.</span> This last conception of the Messiah is found in a group of psalms
+written in the first century before Christ, during the early days of the
+Roman interference in Judea. These Psalms of Solomon, as they are called,
+are pharisaic in point of view, yet they are not rabbinic in their ideas.
+Their feeling is too deep, and their reliance on God too immediate; they
+fitly follow the psalms of the Old Testament, though afar off. Of another
+type of contemporary literature, Apocalypse, at least two representatives
+besides the Book of Daniel have come down to us from the time of Jesus or
+earlier,--the so-called Book of Enoch, and the fragment known as the
+Assumption of Moses. These writings have peculiar interest, because they
+are probably the source of quotations found in the Epistle of <a class="newpage" name="page019" id="page019" title="19"></a>Jude;
+moreover, some sayings of Jesus reported in the gospels, and in particular
+his chosen title, The Son of Man, are strikingly similar to expressions
+found in Enoch. Can Jesus have read these books? The psalms of the Devout
+were the kind of literature to pass rapidly from heart to heart, until all
+who sympathized with their hope and faith had heard or seen them. The case
+was different with the apocalypses. They are more elaborate and
+enigmatical, and may have been only slightly known. Yet, as Jesus was
+familiar with the canonical Book of Daniel, although it was not read in
+the synagogue service in his time, it is possible that he may also have
+read or heard other books which had not won recognition as canonical. If,
+however, he knew nothing of them, the similarity between the apocalypses
+and some of Jesus' ideas and expressions becomes all the more significant;
+for it shows that these writings gave utterance to thoughts and feelings
+shared by men who never read them, which were, therefore, no isolated
+fancies, but characteristic of the religion of many of the people. With
+these ideas Jesus was familiar; whether he ever read the books must remain
+a question.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s019"><p><span class="versenum">19.</span> This literature exists for us only in translations made in the days of
+the early church. Most of these books were originally written in Hebrew,
+the language of the Old Testament, or in Aramaic, the language of
+Palestine in the time of Jesus. Traces of this language as spoken by Jesus
+have been preserved in the gospels,--the name <i>Rabbi; Abba</i>, translated
+Father; <i>Talitha cumi</i>, addressed to the daughter of Jairus; <i>Ephphatha</i>,
+to the deaf man of Bethsaida; and the cry from the cross, <i>Eloi, Eloi,
+lama sabachthani</i> <a class="newpage" name="page020" id="page020" title="20"></a>(John i. 38; Mark xiv. 36; v. 41; vii. 34; xv. 34). It
+is altogether probable that in his common dealings with men and in his
+teachings Jesus used this language. Greek was the language of the
+government and of trade, and in a measure the Jews were a bilingual
+people. Jesus may thus have had some knowledge of Greek, but it is
+unlikely that he ever used it to any extent either in Galilee, or Judea,
+or in the regions of Tyre and Sidon.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<div class="chapter" id="p01-02">
+<h2><a class="newpage" name="page021" id="page021" title="21"></a>II</h2>
+
+<h3>Sources of Our Knowledge Of Jesus</h3>
+
+
+
+<div class="section" id="s020"><p><span class="versenum">20.</span> The earliest existing record of events in the life of Jesus is given
+to us in the epistles of Paul. His account of the appearances of the Lord
+after his death and resurrection (I. Cor. xv. 3-8) was written within
+thirty years of these events. The date of the testimony, however, is much
+earlier, since Paul refers to the experience which transformed his own
+life, and so carries us back to within a few years of the crucifixion.
+Other facts from Jesus' life may be gathered from Paul, as his descent
+from Abraham and David (Rom. i. 3; ix. 5); his life of obedience (Rom. v.
+19; xv. 3; Phil. ii. 5-11); his poverty (II. Cor. viii. 9); his meekness
+and gentleness (II. Cor. x. 1); other New Testament writings outside of
+our gospels add somewhat to this restricted but very clear testimony.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s021"><p><span class="versenum">21.</span> Secular history knows little of the obscure Galilean. The testimony of
+Tacitus is that the Christians "derived their name and origin from one
+Christ, who in the reign of Tiberius had suffered death by the sentence of
+the procurator, Pontius Pilate" (Annals, xv. 44). Suetonius makes an
+obscure and seemingly ill-informed allusion to Christ in the reason he
+assigns for the edict of Claudius expelling the Jews from Rome (Vit.
+Claud. 25). The younger Pliny in the second century had learned that the
+<a class="newpage" name="page022" id="page022" title="22"></a>numerous Christian community in Bithynia was accustomed to honor Christ
+as God; but he shows no knowledge of the life of Jesus beyond what must be
+inferred concerning one who caused men "to bind themselves with an oath
+not to enter into any wickedness, or commit thefts, robberies, or
+adulteries, or falsify their word, or repudiate trusts committed to them"
+(Epistles X. 96). This secular ignorance is not surprising; but the
+silence of Josephus is. He mentions Jesus in but one clearly genuine
+passage, when telling of the martyrdom of James, the "brother of Jesus,
+who is called the Christ" (Ant. xx. 9. 1). Of John the Baptist, however,
+he has a very appreciative notice (Ant, xviii. 5. 2), and it cannot be
+that he was ignorant of Jesus. His appreciation of John suggests that he
+could not have mentioned Jesus more fully without some approval of his
+life and teaching. This would be a condemnation of his own people, whom he
+desired to commend to Gentile regard; and he seems to have taken the
+cowardly course of silence concerning a matter more noteworthy, even for
+that generation, than much else of which he writes very fully.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s022"><p><span class="versenum">22.</span> The reason for the lack of written Christian records of Jesus' life
+from the earliest time seems to be, not that the apostles had a small
+sense of the importance of his earthly ministry, but that the early
+generation preferred what at a later time was called the "living voice"
+(Papias in Euseb. Ch. Hist. iii. 39). The impression made by Jesus was
+supremely personal; he wrote nothing, did not command his disciples to
+write anything, preferring to influence men's minds by personal power,
+appointing them, in turn, to represent <a class="newpage" name="page023" id="page023" title="23"></a>him to men as he had represented
+the Father to them (John xx. 21). But the time came when the first
+witnesses were passing away, and they were not many who could say, "I saw
+him." Our gospels are the result of the natural desire to preserve the
+apostolic testimony for a generation that could no longer hear the
+apostolic voice; and they are precisely what such a sense of need would
+produce,--vivid pictures of Jesus, agreeing in general features, differing
+more or less in details, reflecting individual feeling for the Master, and
+written not simply to inform men but to convince them of that Master's
+claims. One evidence of the reality of the gospel pictures is the fact
+that we so seldom feel the individual characteristics of each gospel. This
+is especially true of the first three, which, to the vividness of their
+picture, add a remarkable similarity of detail. Tatian, in the second
+century, felt it necessary to make a continuous narrative for the use of
+the church by interweaving the four gospels into one, and he has had many
+successors down to our day; but the fact that unity of impression has
+practically resulted from the four pictures without recourse to such an
+interweaving, invites consideration of the characteristics of these
+remarkable documents.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s023"><p><span class="versenum">23.</span> The first gospel impresses the careful reader with three things: (1) A
+clear sense of the development of Jesus' ministry. The author introduces
+his narrative by an account of the birth of Jesus, of the ministry of John
+the Baptist, and of Jesus' baptism and temptation and withdrawal into
+Galilee (i. 1 to iv. 17). He then depicts the public ministry by grouping
+together, first, teachings of Jesus concerning <a class="newpage" name="page024" id="page024" title="24"></a>the law of the kingdom of
+heaven, then a series of great miracles confirming the new doctrine, then
+the expansion of the ministry and deepening hostility of the Pharisees,
+leading to the teaching by parables, and the final withdrawal from Galilee
+to the north. This ministry resulted in the chilling of popular enthusiasm
+which had been strong at the beginning, but in the winning of a few hearts
+to Jesus' own ideals of the kingdom of God (iv. 18 to xvi. 20). From this
+point the evangelist leads us to Jerusalem, where rejection culminates,
+the sterner teachings of Jesus are massed, and his victory in seeming
+defeat is exhibited (xvi. 21 to xxviii. 20). (2) The evangelist's interest
+is not satisfied by this clear, strong, picture; he wishes to convince men
+that Jesus is Israel's Messiah, hence, throughout, he indicates the
+fulfilment of prophecy. The things in which he sees the fulfilment are
+striking, for, with but one or two exceptions, they are features of the
+life of Jesus objectionable to Jewish feeling. This fact, taken in
+connection with the emphasis which the gospel gives to the death of Jesus
+at the hands of the Jews, and to the resurrection as God's seal of
+approval of him whom his people rejected, forms a forcible argument to
+prove the Messiahship of Jesus, not simply in spite of his rejection by
+the Jews, but by appeal to that rejection as leading to God's signal
+vindication of the crucified one. (3) This evangelist, while proving that
+Jesus is the Messiah promised to Israel, recognizes clearly the freedom of
+the new faith from the exclusiveness of Jewish feeling. The choice of
+Galilee for the Messianic ministry (iv. 12-17), the comment of Jesus on
+the faith of the centurion (viii. 10-12), the rebuke of Israel in the
+<a class="newpage" name="page025" id="page025" title="25"></a>parable of the Wicked Husbandmen (xxi. 33-46), and especially the last
+commission of the risen Lord (xxviii. 18-20), show that this gospel sought
+to convince men of Jewish feeling not only that Jesus is Messiah, but also
+that as Messiah he came to bring salvation to all the world.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s024"><p><span class="versenum">24.</span> The second gospel is much simpler in construction than the first,
+while presenting essentially the same picture of the ministry as is found
+in Matthew. To its simplicity it adds a vividness of narration which
+commends Mark's account as probably representing most nearly the actual
+course of the life of Jesus. While it reports fewer incidents and
+teachings than either of the others, a comparison with Matthew and Luke
+shows a preference in Mark for Jesus' deeds, though addresses are not
+wanting; and, while shorter as a whole, for matters which he reports
+Mark's record is most rich in detail, most dramatic in presentation, and
+actually longer than the parallel accounts in the other gospels. The whole
+narrative is animated in style (note the oft-repeated "immediately") and
+full of graphic traits. The story of Jesus seems to be reproduced from a
+memory which retains fresh personal impressions of events as they
+occurred. Hence the frequent comments on the effect of Jesus' ministry,
+such as "We never saw it on this fashion" (ii. 12), or "He hath done all
+things well" (vii. 37), and the introduction into the narrative of Aramaic
+words,--<i>Boanerges</i> (iii. 17), <i>Talitha, cumi</i> (v. 41), and the like,
+which immediately have to be translated. The gospel discloses no
+artificial plan, the chief word of transition is "and." While some of the
+incidents recorded, such as the second Sabbath controversy <a class="newpage" name="page026" id="page026" title="26"></a>(iii. 1-6) and
+the question about fasting (ii. 18-22), may owe their place to association
+in memory with an event of like character, the book impresses us as a
+collection of annals fresh from the living memory, which present the
+actual Jesus teaching and healing, and going on his way to the cross and
+resurrection. After the briefest possible reference to the ministry of
+John the Baptist and the baptism and temptation of Jesus (i. 1-13), this
+gospel proceeds to set forth the ministry in Galilee (i. 14 to ix. 50).
+The narrative then follows Jesus to Jerusalem, by way of Perea, and closes
+with his victory through death and resurrection (x. 1 to xvi. 8).</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s025"><p><span class="versenum">25.</span> The third gospel is more nearly a biography than any of its
+companions. It opens with a preface stating that after a study of many
+earlier attempts to record the life of Jesus the author has undertaken to
+present as complete an account as possible of that life from the
+beginning. The book is addressed to one Theophilus, doubtless a Greek
+Christian, and its chief aim is practical,--to confirm conviction
+concerning matters of faith (i. 1-4). The author's interest in the
+completeness of his account appears in the fact that it begins with
+incidents antecedent to the birth of John the Baptist and Jesus. Moreover,
+to his desire for completeness we owe much of the story of Jesus,
+otherwise unrecorded for us. Like the first two gospels, Luke represents
+the ministry of Jesus as inaugurated in Galilee, and carried on there
+until the approach of the tragedy at Jerusalem (iv. 14 to ix. 50). It is
+in connection with the journey to Jerusalem (ix. 51 to xix. 27) that he
+inserts most of that which is peculiar to his gospel. His account of the
+rejection at Jeru<a class="newpage" name="page027" id="page027" title="27"></a>salem, the crucifixion, and resurrection, follows in the
+main the same lines as Matthew and Mark; but he gained his knowledge of
+many particulars from different sources (xix. 28 to xxiv. 53). It is
+characteristic of Luke to name Jesus "Lord" more often than either of his
+predecessors. With this exalted conception is coupled a noticeable
+emphasis on Jesus' ministry of compassion; here more than in any other
+gospel he is pictured as the friend of sinners. Moreover, we owe chiefly
+to Luke our knowledge of him as a man of prayer and as subject to repeated
+temptation. An artificial exaltation of Christ, such as is often
+attributed to the later apostolic thought, would tend to reduce, not
+multiply, such evidences of human dependence on God. This fact increases
+our confidence in the accuracy of Luke's picture. The gospel is very full
+of comfort to those under the pressure of poverty, and of rebuke to
+unbelieving wealth, though the parable of the Unjust Steward and story of
+Zacch&aelig;us show that it does not exalt poverty for its own sake. If our
+first gospel pictures Jesus as the fulfilment of God's promises to his
+people, and Mark, as the man of power at work before our very eyes,
+astonishing the multitude while winning the few, Luke sets before us the
+Lord ministering with divine compassion to men subject to like temptations
+with himself, though, unlike them, he knew no sin.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s026"><p><span class="versenum">26.</span> The first three gospels, differing as they do in point of view and
+aim, present essentially one picture of the ministry of Jesus; for they
+agree concerning the locality and progress of his Messianic work, and the
+form and contents of his teaching, showing, in <a class="newpage" name="page028" id="page028" title="28"></a>fact, verbal identity in
+many parts of their narrative. For this reason they are commonly known as
+the Synoptic Gospels. Yet these gospels exhibit differences as remarkable
+as their likenesses. They differ perplexingly in the order in which they
+arrange some of the events in Jesus' life. Which of them should be given
+preference in constructing a harmonious picture of his ministry? They
+often agree to the letter in their report of deeds or words of Jesus, yet
+from beginning to end remarkable verbal differences stand side by side
+with remarkable verbal identities. Some of the identities of language
+suggest irresistibly that the evangelists have used, at least in part, the
+same previously existing written record. One of the clearest evidences of
+this is found in the introduction, at the same place in the parallel
+accounts, of the parenthesis "then saith he to the sick of the palsy"
+which interrupts the words of Jesus in the cure of the paralytic (Mark ii.
+10; Matt. ix. 6; Luke v. 24). When the three gospels are carefully
+compared it appears that Mark contains very little that is not found in
+Matthew and Luke, and that, with one or two exceptions, Luke presents in
+Mark's order the matter that he has in common with the second gospel. The
+same is also true of the relation between the latter part of the Gospel of
+Matthew (Matt. xiv. 1 to the end) and the parallel portion of Mark; while
+the comparison of Matthew's arrangement of his earlier half with Mark
+suggests that the order in the first gospel has been determined by other
+than chronological considerations. In a sense, therefore, we may say that
+the Gospel of Mark reveals the chronological framework on which all three
+of these gospels are constructed. <a class="newpage" name="page029" id="page029" title="28"></a>Comparison discloses further the
+interesting fact that the matter which Matthew and Luke have in common,
+after subtracting their parallels to Mark, consists almost entirely of
+teachings and addresses. Each gospel, however, has some matter peculiar to
+itself.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s027"><p><span class="versenum">27.</span> In considering the problem presented by these facts, it is well to
+remember that no one of these gospels contains within itself any statement
+concerning the identity of its author. We are indebted to tradition for
+the names by which we know them, and no one of them makes any claim to
+apostolic origin. The earliest reference in Christian literature which may
+be applied to our gospels comes from Papias, a Christian of Asia Minor in
+the second century. He reports that an earlier teacher had said, "Mark,
+having become the interpreter of Peter, wrote down accurately, though not,
+indeed, in order, whatsoever he remembered of the things said or done by
+Christ, for he neither heard the Lord nor followed him, but afterward, as
+I said, he followed Peter, who adapted his teachings to the needs of his
+hearers, but with no intention of giving a connected account of the Lord's
+discourses. So that Mark committed no error when he thus wrote some things
+as he remembered them, for he was careful of one thing, not to omit any of
+the things which he had heard and not to state any of them falsely....
+Matthew wrote the oracles [of the Lord] in the Hebrew language [Aramaic],
+and every one interpreted them as he was able" (Euseb. Ch. Hist. iii. 39).
+The result of many years' study by scholars of all shades of opinion is
+the very general conclusion that the writing which Papias attributed <a class="newpage" name="page030" id="page030" title="30"></a>to
+Mark was essentially what we have in our second gospel.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s028"><p><span class="versenum">28.</span> It is almost as universally acknowledged that the work ascribed by the
+second century elder to the apostle Matthew cannot be our first gospel;
+for its language has not the characteristics which other translations from
+Hebrew or Aramaic lead us to expect, while the completeness of its
+narrative exceeds what is suggested by the words of Papias. If, however,
+the matter which Matthew and Luke have in such rich measure in addition to
+Mark's narrative be considered, the likeness between this and the writing
+attributed by Papias to the apostle Matthew is noteworthy. The conclusion
+is now very general, that that apostolic writing is in large measure
+preserved in the discourses in our first and third gospels. The relation
+of our gospels to the two books mentioned by Papias may be conceived,
+then, somewhat as follows: The earliest gospel writing of which we know
+anything was a collection of the teachings of Jesus made by the apostle
+Matthew, in which he collected with simple narrative introductions, those
+sayings of the Lord which from the beginning had passed from mouth to
+mouth in the circle of the disciples. At a later time Mark wrote down the
+account of the ministry of Jesus which Peter had been accustomed to relate
+in his apostolic preaching. The work of the apostle Matthew, while much
+richer in the sayings of Jesus, lacked the completeness that characterizes
+a narrative; hence it occurred to some early disciple to blend together
+these two primitive gospel records, adding such other items of knowledge
+as came to his hand from oral tradition or written memoranda. As his <a class="newpage" name="page031" id="page031" title="31"></a>aim
+was practical rather than historical, he added such editorial comments as
+would make of the new gospel an argument for the Messiahship of Jesus, as
+we have seen. Since the most precious element in this new gospel was the
+apostolic record of the teachings of the Lord, the name of Matthew and not
+of his literary successor, was given to the book.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s029"><p><span class="versenum">29.</span> The third gospel is ascribed, by a probably trustworthy tradition, to
+Luke, the companion of Paul. The author himself says that he made use of
+such earlier records as were accessible, among which the chief seem to
+have been the writings of Mark and the apostle Matthew. To Luke's
+industry, however, we owe our knowledge of many incidents and teachings
+from the life of Jesus which were not contained in these two records, and
+with which we could ill afford to part. Some of these he doubtless found
+in written form, and some he gathered from oral testimony. His close
+agreement with Mark in the arrangement of his narrative suggests that he
+found no clear evidence of a ministry of wider extent in time and place.
+He therefore used Mark as his narrative framework, and of the rich
+materials which he had gathered made a gospel, the completest of any
+written up to his time.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s030"><p><span class="versenum">30.</span> Such in the main is the conclusion of modern study of our first three
+gospels; it explains the general identity of their picture of Jesus and of
+their report of his teaching; it leaves room for those individual
+characteristics which give them so much of their charm; and it traces the
+materials of the gospels far back of the writings as we have them,
+bringing us nearer to the events which they describe. The dates of these
+<a class="newpage" name="page032" id="page032" title="32"></a>documents can be only approximately known. It is probable that the
+"logia" collected by the apostle Matthew were written not later than 60 to
+65 A.D., while the Gospel of Mark dates from before the fall of Jerusalem
+in 70. Our first gospel must have been made between 70 and 100, and the
+Gospel of Luke may be dated about the year 80,--all within sixty or
+seventy years after the death of Jesus.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s031"><p><span class="versenum">31.</span> The fourth gospel gives us a picture of Jesus in striking contrast to
+that of the other three. These present chiefly the works of the Master and
+his teachings concerning the kingdom of God and human conduct, leaving the
+truth concerning the teacher himself to be inferred. John opens the heart
+of Jesus and makes him disclose his thought about himself in a remarkable
+series of teachings of which he is the prime topic. This gospel is
+avowedly an argument (xx. 30, 31); its selection of material is
+confessedly partial; its aim is to confirm the faith of Christians in the
+heavenly nature and saving power of their Lord; and its method is that of
+appeal to testimony, to signs, and to his own self-disclosures. The
+opening verses of the gospel have a somewhat abstract theological
+character; the body of the book, however, consists of a succession of
+incidents and teachings which follow each other in unstudied fashion like
+a collection of annals. This impression is not compromised by the
+recognition, at some points, of accidental displacements, like that which
+has placed xiv. 30, 31 before xv. and xvi., or that which has left a long
+gap between vii. 23 and the incident of v. 1-9, to which it refers. The
+theme of the gospel is the self-disclosure of Jesus. This seems to have
+determined the evangelist's choice of material, <a class="newpage" name="page033" id="page033" title="33"></a>and, as the gospel is an
+argument, he does not hesitate to mingle his own comments with his report
+of Jesus' words, for example (iii. 16-21, 30-36; xii. 37-43). The book is
+characterized by a vividness of detail which indicates a clear memory of
+personal experience. While it is evident that the author has the most
+exalted conception of the nature of his Lord, this seems to have been the
+result of loving meditation on a friend who had early won the mastery over
+his heart and life, and who through long years of contemplation had forced
+upon his disciple's mind the conviction of his transcendent nature. The
+book discloses a profoundly objective attitude; the Christ whom John
+portrays is not the creature of his speculations, but the Master who has
+entered into his experience as a living influence and has compelled
+recognition of his significance. The Son of God is for John the human
+Jesus who, though named at the outset the Word--the Logos,--is the Word
+who was made flesh, that men through him might become the sons of God.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s032"><p><span class="versenum">32.</span> The contrast which the Gospel of John presents to the other three
+concerns not only the teaching of Jesus, but the scene of his ministry and
+its historic development as well. Whatever may be the final judgment
+concerning the fourth gospel, it is manifestly constructed as a simple
+collection of incidents following each other in what was meant to appear a
+chronological sequence. It has been seen that the biographical framework
+of the first three gospels is principally Mark's report of Peter's
+narrative. Now it is a fact that in portions of Matthew and Luke, derived
+elsewhere than from Mark, there are various allusions most easily
+understood if it be assumed that Jesus <a class="newpage" name="page034" id="page034" title="34"></a>visited Jerusalem before his
+appearance there at the end of his ministry. Such, for instance, are the
+parable of the Good Samaritan (Luke x. 25-37), the story of the visit to
+Mary and Martha (Luke x. 38-42), and the lamentation of Jesus over
+Jerusalem (Luke xiii. 34, 35; Matt, xxiii. 37-39). All three gospels,
+moreover, agree in attributing to emissaries from Jerusalem much of the
+hostility manifested against Jesus in his Galilean ministry (Luke v. 17;
+Mark iii. 22; Matt. xv. 1; Mark vii. 1), and presuppose such an
+acquaintance of Jesus with households in and near Jerusalem as is not easy
+to explain if he never visited Judea before his passion (Mark xi. 2, 3;
+xiv. 14; xv. 43 and parallels; compare especially Matt, xxvii. 57; John
+xix. 38). These all suggest that the narrative of Mark does not tell the
+whole story, a conclusion quite in accordance with the account of his work
+given by Papias. It has been assumed that Peter was a Galilean, a man of
+family living in Capernaum. It is not impossible that on some of the
+earlier visits of Jesus to Jerusalem he did not accompany his Master, and
+in reporting the things which he knew he naturally confined himself to his
+own experiences. If this can explain the predominance of Galilean
+incidents in the ministry as depicted in Mark, it will explain the
+predominance of Galilee in the first three gospels, and the contradiction
+between John and the three is reduced to a divergence between two accounts
+of Jesus' ministry written from two different points of view.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s033"><p><span class="versenum">33.</span> The question of the trustworthiness of the fourth gospel is greatly
+simplified by the consideration of the one-sidedness of Mark's
+representation. It is further relieved by the fact that a ministry by
+Jesus in <a class="newpage" name="page035" id="page035" title="35"></a>Jerusalem must have been one of constant self-assertion, for
+Jerusalem represented at its highest those aspects of thought and practice
+which were fundamentally opposed to all that Jesus did and taught.
+Whenever in Galilee, in the ministry pictured by the first three gospels,
+Jesus came in contact with the spirit and feeling characteristic of
+Jerusalem, we find him meeting it by unqualified assertion of his own
+independence and exalted claim to authority, altogether similar to that
+emphasis of his own significance and importance which is the chief
+characteristic of his teachings in the fourth gospel. If it be remembered
+that that gospel was avowedly an argument written to commend to others the
+reverent conclusion concerning the Lord reached by a disciple whose
+thought had dwelt for long years on the marvel of that life, and if we
+recognize that for such an argument the author would select the instances
+and teachings most telling for his own purpose, and would do this as
+naturally as the magnet draws to itself iron filings which are mingled
+with a pile of sand, the exclusively personal character of the teachings
+of Jesus in this gospel need cause little perplexity. Nor need it seem
+surprising that the words of Jesus as reported in John share the
+peculiarities of style which mark the work of the evangelist in the
+prologue to the gospel and in his epistles. His purpose was not primarily
+biographical but argumentative, and he has set forth the picture of his
+Lord as it rose before his own heart, his memory of events being
+interwoven with contemplation on the significance of that life with which
+his had been so blessedly associated. In a gospel written avowedly to
+produce in others a conviction like his own, the evangelist would not have
+<a class="newpage" name="page036" id="page036" title="36"></a>been sensible of any obligation to draw sharp lines between his
+recollection of his Lord's words and his own contemplations upon them and
+upon their significance for his life. If these considerations be kept in
+mind we may accept the uniform tradition of antiquity, confirmed by the
+plain intimation of the gospel itself, that it is essentially the work of
+John, the son of Zebedee, written near the close of his life in Ephesus,
+in the last decade of the first century.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s034"><p><span class="versenum">34.</span> We have in our gospel records, therefore, two authorities for the
+general course of the ministry of Jesus,--Mark and John. Even if the
+fourth gospel should be proved not to be the work of John, its picture of
+the ministry of Jesus must be recognized as coming from some apostolic
+source. A forger would hardly have invited the rejection of his work by
+inventing a narrative which seems to contradict at so many points the
+tradition of the other gospels. The first and third gospels furnish us
+from various sources rich additions to Mark's narrative, and it is to
+these two with the fourth that we turn chiefly for the teachings of Jesus.
+Each gospel should be read, therefore, remembering its incompleteness,
+remembering also the particular purpose and individual enthusiasm for
+Jesus which produced it.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s035"><p><span class="versenum">35.</span> A word may be due to two other claimants to recognition as original
+records from the life of Jesus. One class is represented by that word of
+the Lord which Paul quoted to the Ephesian elders at Miletus (Acts xx.
+35). Scattered here and there in writings of the apostolic and succeeding
+ages are other sayings attributed to Jesus which cannot be found in our
+gospels. A few of these so-called Agrapha seem worthy <a class="newpage" name="page037" id="page037" title="37"></a>of him, and are
+recognized as probably genuine. The most important of them is the story of
+the woman taken in adultery (John vii. 53 to viii. 11), which, though not
+a part of the gospel of John, doubtless gives a true incident from Jesus'
+life. They represent the "many other" things which John and the other
+gospels have omitted, but their small number proves that our gospels have
+preserved for us practically all that was known of Jesus after the first
+witnesses fell asleep. It is certainly surprising that so little exists to
+supplement the story of the gospels, for they are manifestly fragmentary,
+and leave much of Jesus' public life without any record. The other class
+of claimants is of a quite different character,--the so-called Apocryphal
+Gospels. These consist chiefly of legends connected with the birth and
+early years of Jesus, and with his death and resurrection. They are for
+the most part crude tales that have entirely mistaken the real character
+of him whom they seek to exalt, and need only to be read to be rejected.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<div class="chapter" id="p01-03">
+<h2><a class="newpage" name="page038" id="page038" title="38"></a>III</h2>
+
+<h3>The Harmony of the Gospels</h3>
+
+
+
+<div class="section" id="s036"><p><span class="versenum">36.</span> The church early appreciated the value and the difficulty of having
+four different pictures of the life and teachings of the Lord. Iren&aelig;us at
+the close of the second century felt it to be as essential that there
+should be four gospels as that there should be "four zones of the world,
+four principal winds, and four faces of the cherubim" (Against Heresies
+III. ii. 8).</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s037"><p><span class="versenum">37.</span> Before Iren&aelig;us, however, another had sought to obviate the difficulty
+of having four records which seem at some points to disagree, by making a
+combination of the gospels, to which he gave the title "Diatessaron."
+Tatian, the author of this work, was converted from paganism about 152
+A.D., and prepared his unified gospel, probably for the use of the Syrian
+churches, sometime after 172. His work is one of the treasures of the
+early Christian literature recovered for us within the last
+quarter-century. It seems to have won great popularity in the Syrian
+churches, having practically displaced the canonical gospels for nearly
+three centuries, when, owing to its supposed heretical tendency, it was
+suppressed by the determined effort of the church authorities. It is a
+continuous record of Jesus' ministry, beginning with the first six verses
+of the Gospel of John, passing then to the early chapters <a class="newpage" name="page039" id="page039" title="39"></a>of Luke. It
+closes with an account of the resurrection interwoven from all four
+gospels, concluding with John xxi. 25. The arrangement follows generally
+the order of Matthew, additional matter from the other gospels being
+inserted at places which approved themselves to Tatian's judgment. Some
+portions--in particular the genealogies of Jesus--were omitted altogether,
+in accordance with views held by the compiler.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s038"><p><span class="versenum">38.</span> From Tatian's time to the present there have been repeated attempts to
+construct a harmonious representation of events and teachings in the
+ministry of Jesus, generally by setting the parallel accounts side by
+side, following such a succession of events as seemed most probable. Our
+evangelists cared little, if they thought at all, about the requirements
+of strict biography, and they have left us records not easy to arrange on
+any one chronological scheme. Concerning the chief events, however, the
+gospels agree. All four report, for instance, the beginning of the work in
+Galilee (Matt. iv. 12, 17; Mark i. 14, 15; Luke iv. 14, 15; John iv.
+43-45); the feeding of the five thousand when Jesus' popularity in Galilee
+passed its climax (Matt. xiv. 13-23; Mark vi. 30-46; Luke ix. 10-17; John
+vi. 1-15); the departure from Galilee for the final visit to Jerusalem
+(Matt. xix. 1, 2; Mark x. 1; Luke ix. 51; John vii. 1-10); and the week of
+suffering and victory at the end (Matt. xxi. 1 to xxviii. 20; Mark xi. 1
+to xvi. 8 [20]; Luke xix. 29 to xxiv. 53; John xii. 1 to xxi. 25).</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s039"><p><span class="versenum">39.</span> These facts are enough to give us a clear and unified impression of
+the course of Jesus' ministry. When, however, we seek to fill in the
+details given <a class="newpage" name="page040" id="page040" title="40"></a>in the different gospels, difficulties at once arise. Thus,
+first, what shall be done with the long section which John introduces (i.
+19 to iv. 42) before Jesus' withdrawal into Galilee? The other gospels
+make that withdrawal the beginning of his public work. A second difficulty
+arises from the unnamed feast of John v. 1. By one or another scholar this
+feast has been identified with almost every Jewish festival known to us.
+Another problem is furnished by the long section in Luke which is so
+nearly peculiar to his gospel (ix. 51 to xviii. 14). If the section had no
+parallels in the other gospels we might easily conclude that it all
+belongs to a time subsequent to the final departure for Jerusalem; but it
+contains at least one incident from the earlier ministry in Galilee (Luke
+xi. 14-36; compare Mark iii. 19-30), and many teachings of Jesus given by
+Matthew in an earlier connection appear here in Luke. Furthermore, the
+section has to be adjusted to that portion of the Gospel of John which
+deals with the same period and yet reports none of the same details.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s040"><p><span class="versenum">40.</span> If Mark has furnished the narrative framework adopted in the main by
+the first and third gospels, the problem of the order of events in Jesus'
+life becomes a question of the chronological value of Mark, and of the
+estimate to be placed on the narrative of John. If the fourth gospel is
+held to be of apostolic origin and trustworthy, the task of the harmonist
+is chiefly that of combining these two records of Mark and John. The
+testimony of the Baptist, with which the fourth gospel opens, must have
+been given some time after he had baptized Jesus, and the ministry which
+preceded Jesus' return to Galilee (i. 19 to iv. 42) be<a class="newpage" name="page041" id="page041" title="41"></a>longs to a period
+ignored by the other gospels. The first three gospels contain indications
+that Jesus must have visited Judea before the close of his life. They give
+no hint, however, of the time or circumstances of such earlier Judean
+labor. In giving the emphasis they do to the work in Galilee, they present
+a one-sided picture. When, therefore, we find in John a narrative of work
+in Judea, confirmed by hints in the other gospels, we may justly assume
+that the arrangement which fills out the ministry of Jesus by inserting at
+the proper places in Mark's record the events found in John is essentially
+true.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s041"><p><span class="versenum">41.</span> The consideration of the one-sidedness of Mark's narrative simplifies
+the problem of harmony, but it does not solve all of the perplexities.
+Matthew and Luke have much matter, some of it narrative, which Mark has
+not, and for which he suggests no place. Where shall we put, for instance,
+the cure of the centurion's servant (Matt. viii. 5-13; Luke vii. 1-10), or
+John the Baptist's last message (Matt. xi. 2-19; Luke vii. 18-35)? It
+would simplify matters if we could take Luke's statement that he had
+"traced the course of all things accurately from the first" (Luke i. 3),
+as indicating that he had arrived at exact certainty concerning the order
+of events of Jesus' life. It is probable, however, that his statement was
+simply a claim that he had carefully gathered material for a record of the
+whole life of Jesus, from the annunciation of his birth to his ascension.
+While we may believe that some trustworthy tradition led him to give the
+place he has to many of the incidents which he adds to Mark's story, it
+seems impossible to follow him in all respects; for instance, in severing
+the account of the blasphemy <a class="newpage" name="page042" id="page042" title="42"></a>of the Pharisees (xi. 14-36) from the place
+which it holds in Mark (iii. 19-30).</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s042"><p><span class="versenum">42.</span> Still more uncertainty exists concerning the historic connection of
+teachings of Jesus to which Matthew and Luke give different settings; for
+example, the Lord's Prayer (Matt. vi. 9-15; Luke xi. 1-4), and the
+exhortations against anxiety (Matt. vi. 25-34; Luke xii. 22-31). We have
+seen that much of the teaching common to these gospels is probably derived
+from the collection of the "oracles" of the Lord made by the apostle
+Matthew. Everything that we can infer concerning such a collection of
+oracles indicates that, while some of the teachings may have been
+connected with particular historic situations (compare Luke xi. 1), many
+would altogether lack such introductory words. A later example of what
+such a collection may have been has come to light recently in the
+so-called "Sayings of Jesus," discovered in Egypt and published in 1897.
+In these the occasion for the teaching has been quite lost; the sole
+interest centres in the fact that Jesus is supposed to have said the
+things recorded. If Matthew's book contained such "logia" or "oracles," it
+is probable that the original connection in which most of them were spoken
+was a matter of no concern to the apostle, and consequently has been lost
+This in no way compromises the genuineness of these sayings of Jesus. The
+treatment of Luke ix. 51 to xviii. 14 is much simplified by this
+consideration. To Luke's industry (i. 1-4) we owe the preservation of some
+events and very many teachings which no other evangelist has recorded.
+Some of this new material (for instance, vii. 11-17, 36-50) he has
+assigned a place in the midst of Mark's narrative. <a class="newpage" name="page043" id="page043" title="43"></a>Most of it, however,
+he has gathered together in what seems to be a sort of appendix, which he
+has inserted between the close of the ministry in Galilee and the final
+arrival in Judea. For many of the teachings it is now impossible to assign
+a time or place. That this is so will cause no surprise or difficulty if
+we remember that in the earliest days the report of what Jesus said and
+did circulated in the form of oral tradition only. It was the knowledge
+that first-hand witnesses were passing away that led to the writing of the
+gospels. During the period of oral tradition many teachings of the Lord
+were doubtless kept clearly and accurately in memory after the historic
+situations which led to their first utterance were quite forgotten.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s043"><p><span class="versenum">43.</span> This fact helps to explain another perplexity in our gospel
+narratives. A comparison of the two accounts of the cure of the
+centurion's servant reveals differences of detail most perplexing, if we
+ask for minute agreement in records of the same events. When we see that
+of two accounts evidently reporting the same incident, one can say that
+the centurion himself sought Jesus and asked the cure of his servant
+(Matt. viii. 5, 8), while the other makes him declare himself unworthy to
+come in person to the Lord (Luke vii. 7), the question arises whether
+other accounts, similar in the main but differing in detail, should not be
+identified as independent records of one event. Were there two cleansings
+of the temple (John ii. 13-22; Mark xi. 15-19), two miraculous draughts of
+fishes (Luke v. 4-11; John xxi. 5-8), two rejections at Nazareth (Mark vi.
+1-6; Luke iv. 16-30), two parables of the Leaven, of the Mustard <a class="newpage" name="page044" id="page044" title="44"></a>Seed
+(Matt. xiii. 31-33; Luke xiii. 18-21), and of the Lost Sheep (Matt, xviii.
+12-14; Luke xv. 4-7)? Such similar records are often called doublets, and
+the question of identity or distinctness can be answered only after a
+special study of each case. It is important to notice that a given
+teaching, particularly if it took the form of an illustration, would
+naturally be used by Jesus on many different occasions. When, on the other
+hand, we find two accounts of specific doings of Jesus similar in detail
+it is needful to recognize that definite historic situations do not so
+often repeat themselves as do occasions for similar or identical
+teachings.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s044"><p><span class="versenum">44.</span> All these considerations show that while the general order of events
+in the life of Jesus may be determined with a good degree of probability,
+we must be content to remain uncertain concerning the place to be given to
+many incidents and to more teachings. Such uncertainty is of small
+concern, since our unharmonized gospels have not failed during all these
+centuries to produce one fair picture, to the total impression of which
+each teaching and deed make definite contribution quite independently of
+our ability to give to each its particular place in relation to the whole.
+The degree of certainty attainable justifies, however, a continued
+interest in the old study of harmony, because of the more comprehensive
+idea it gives of the ministry depicted in the partial narratives of our
+several gospels.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<div class="chapter" id="p01-04">
+<h2>IV</h2>
+
+<h3><a class="newpage" name="page045" id="page045" title="45"></a>The Chronology</h3>
+
+
+
+<div class="section" id="s045"><p><span class="versenum">45.</span> The length of the public ministry of Jesus was one of the earliest
+questions which arose in the study of the four gospels. In the second and
+third centuries it was not uncommon to find the answer in the passage from
+Isaiah (lxi. 1, 2), which Jesus declared was fulfilled in himself. "The
+acceptable year of the Lord" was taken to indicate that the ministry
+covered little more than a year. The fact that the first three gospels
+mention but one Passover (that at the end), and but one journey to
+Jerusalem, seems at first to be favorable to this conclusion, and to make
+peculiarly significant the care taken by Luke to give the exact date for
+the opening of Jesus' ministry (iii. 1, 2). In fact, the second century
+Gnostics, relying apparently on Luke, assigned both the ministry and death
+of Jesus to the fifteenth year of Tiberius C&aelig;sar,--an interpretation which
+may have given rise to the widely spread, early tradition, found, for
+example, in Tertullian (Ante-nicene Fathers, in. 160), which placed the
+death of Jesus in A.D. 29, during the consulship of L. Rubellius Geminus
+and C. Fufius Geminus.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s046"><p><span class="versenum">46.</span> The theory that the ministry of Jesus extended over but little more
+than one year is beset, however, by difficulties that seem insuperable.
+The first is presented by the three Passovers distinctly mentioned in <a class="newpage" name="page046" id="page046" title="46"></a>the
+Gospel of John (ii. 13; vi. 4; xii. 1). The last of these is plainly
+identical with the one named in the other gospels. The second gives the
+time of year for the feeding of the five thousand, and agrees with the
+mention of "the green grass" in the account of Mark and Matthew (Mark vi.
+39; Matt. xiv. 19). John's first Passover falls in a section which demands
+a place before Mark i. 14 (compare John iii. 24). Hence it must be shown
+that this first Passover is chronologically out of order in the Gospel of
+John, or the one year ministry advocated by the second century Gnostics,
+by Clement of Alexandria, by Origen, and of late years by Keim and others,
+is seen to be impossible. The fact that at this Passover Jesus cleansed
+the temple, and that the other gospels assign such a cleansing to the
+close of the ministry, suggests the possibility that John has set it at
+the opening of his narrative for reasons connected with his argument. This
+interpretation falls, however, before the perfect simplicity of structure
+of John's narrative. The transitions from incident to incident in this
+gospel are those of simple succession, and indicate, on the writer's part,
+no suspicion that he was contradicting notions concerning the ministry of
+Jesus familiar to his contemporaries. Whatever the conclusion reached
+concerning the authorship of the gospel, the fact that it gained currency
+very early as apostolic would seem to prove that its conception of the
+length of Jesus' ministry was not opposed to the recognized apostolic
+testimony. It is safe to conclude, therefore, that time must be allowed in
+Jesus' ministry for at least three Passover seasons.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s047"><p><span class="versenum">47.</span> With this conclusion most modern discussions of the question rest, and
+it is possible that it may <a class="newpage" name="page047" id="page047" title="47"></a>finally win common consent. The order of
+Mark's narrative, however, challenges it. This gospel records near the
+beginning (ii. 23) a controversy with the Pharisees occasioned by the fact
+that Jesus' disciples plucked and ate the ripening grain as they passed on
+a Sabbath day through the fields. As Mark places much later (vi. 30-34)
+the feeding of the five thousand, which occurred at a Passover, that is
+the beginning of the harvest (Lev. xxiii. 5-11), his order suggests the
+necessity of including two harvest seasons in the ministry in Galilee, and
+consequently four Passovers in the public life of Jesus. Two
+considerations are urged against this conclusion. (1) Papias in his
+reference to the Gospel of Mark criticises the order of the gospel; (2)
+Mark ii. 1 to iii. 6 contains a group of five conflicts with the critics
+of Jesus, which represents a massing of opposition that seems unlikely at
+the outset of his Galilean work. The remark of Papias must remain obscure
+until his standard of comparison is known. Some suggest that he knew
+John's order and preferred it, others that he agreed with that adopted by
+Tatian in his Diatessaron. Mark is in accord with neither of these. No
+one, however, knows what order Papias preferred. The early conflict group
+does appear like a collection drawn from different parts of the ministry.
+Yet the nucleus of the group--the cure of the paralytic (ii. 1-12) and the
+call of Levi (ii. 13-17)--is clearly in its right place in Mark (see
+Holtzmann, Hand-commentar, I. 10). The question about fasting (ii. 18-22)
+may have been asked much later, and its present place may be due to
+association in tradition with the criticism of Jesus' fellowship with
+publicans (ii. 16). <a class="newpage" name="page048" id="page048" title="48"></a>In like manner the cure of the withered hand (iii.
+1-6) may have become artificially grouped with the incident of the
+cornfields. It is possible, also, that both Sabbath controversies owe
+their early place in the gospel to traditional association with the early
+conflicts (ii. 1-17). If so, the plucking of the grain actually occurred
+some weeks after the feeding of the five thousand, and probably after the
+controversy about tradition (vii. 1-23), with which, according to Mark,
+Jesus' activity in Galilee practically closed. It is not clear, however,
+what principle of association drew forward to the early group the Sabbath
+conflict, and left in its place the controversy about tradition. It is
+thus possible that the incident of the cornfields belongs also to the
+early nucleus of the group; and in this case the longer ministry,
+including four Passovers, must be accepted. The decision of the question
+is not of vital importance, but it affects the determination of the
+sequence of events in Jesus' life. Whatever the explanation of the remark
+of Papias, the more the gospels are studied the more does Mark's order of
+events commend itself in general as representing the probable fact. Many
+students have inferred the three year ministry from the Gospel of John
+alone, identifying the unnamed feast in John v. 1 with a Passover. But
+John's allusion to that feast is so indefinite that the length of Jesus'
+ministry must be determined quite independently of it.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s048"><p><span class="versenum">48.</span> So long a ministry as three years presents some difficulties, for all
+that is told us in the four gospels would cover but a small fraction of
+this time. John's statement (xx. 30) that he omitted many things from
+Jesus' life in making his book is evidently true of all <a class="newpage" name="page049" id="page049" title="49"></a>the evangelists,
+and long gaps, such as are evident in the fourth gospel, must be assumed
+in the other three. Recalling the character of the gospels as pictures of
+Jesus rather than narratives of his life, we may easily acknowledge the
+incompleteness of our record of the three years of ministry, and wonder
+the more at the vividness of impression produced with such economy of
+material. This meagreness of material is not decisive for the shorter
+rather than the longer ministry, for it is evident that to effect such a
+change in conviction and feeling as Jesus wrought in the minds of the
+ardent Galileans who were his disciples, required time. Three years are
+better suited to effect this change than two.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s049"><p><span class="versenum">49.</span> Closely related to the question of the length of Jesus' ministry is
+another: Can definite dates be given for the chief events in his life? For
+the year of the opening of his public activity the gospels furnish two
+independent testimonies: the remark of the Jews on the occasion of Jesus'
+first visit to Jerusalem, "Forty and six years was this temple in
+building" (John ii. 20), and Luke's careful dating of the appearance of
+John the Baptist, "in the fifteenth year of Tiberius C&aelig;sar" (iii. 1, 2).
+John ii. 20 leads to the conclusion that the first Passover fell in the
+spring of A.D. 26 or 27, since we learn from Josephus (Ant. xv. 11. 1)
+that Herod began to rebuild the temple in the eighteenth year of his
+reign, which closed in the spring of B.C. 19. Luke iii. 1 gives a date
+contradictory to the one just found, if the fifteenth year of Tiberius is
+to be counted from the death of his predecessor, for Augustus died August
+19, A.D. 14. Reckoned from this time the opening of John's work falls in
+the year <a class="newpage" name="page050" id="page050" title="50"></a>A.D. 28, and the first Passover of Jesus' ministry could not be
+earlier than the spring of 29. This is at least two years later than is
+indicated by the statement in John. The remark in John is, however, so
+incidental and so lacking in significance for his argument that its
+definiteness can be explained only as due to a clear historic
+reminiscence; but it does not follow that Luke has erred in the date given
+by him. Although Augustus did not die until A.D. 14, there is evidence
+that Tiberius was associated with him in authority over the army and the
+provinces not later than January, A.D. 12. One who lived and wrote in the
+reign of Titus may possibly have applied to the reign of Tiberius a mode
+of reckoning customary in the case of Titus, as Professor Ramsay has shown
+(Was Christ born at Bethlehem, 202). If this is the fact, Luke reckoned
+from the co-regency of Tiberius; hence the fifteenth year would be A.D. 25
+or 26, according as the co-regency began before or after the first of
+January, A.D. 12. This would place the first Passover of Jesus' ministry
+in the spring of 26 or 27, in agreement with the hint found in John.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s050"><p><span class="versenum">50.</span> If the public ministry of Jesus began with the spring of 26 or 27, the
+close of three years of activity would, come at the Passover of 29 or 30.
+The former of these dates agrees with the early Christian tradition
+already mentioned. But before accepting that traditional date another
+matter must be considered. Jesus was crucified on the Friday at the
+opening of the feast of the Passover. Whether it was the day of the
+sacrifice of the Passover (14 Nisan) or the day following (15 Nisan), is
+not essential for the present question. As the Jewish month began with the
+first appearance <a class="newpage" name="page051" id="page051" title="51"></a>of the new moon, it is evident that, in the year of
+Jesus' death, the month of Nisan must have begun on a day that would make
+the 14th or the 15th fall on Friday. Now it can be shown that in the year
+30 the 14th of Nisan was Thursday (April 6) or Friday (April 7), for at
+best only approximate certainty is attainable. The tradition which assigns
+the passion to 29, generally names March 25 as the day of the month. This
+date is impossible, because it does not coincide with the full moon of
+that month. The choice of March 25 by a late tradition may be explained by
+the fact that it was commonly regarded as the date of the spring equinox,
+the turning of the year towards its renewing. Mr. Turner has shown
+(HastBD. I. 415) that another date found in an early document cannot be so
+explained. Epiphanius was familiar with copies of the Acts of Pilate,
+which gave March 18 as the date of the crucifixion; and it is remarkable
+that this date coincides with the full moon, and also falls on Friday.
+Such a combination gives unusual weight to the tradition, particularly as
+there is no ready way to account for its rise, as in the case of March 25.
+From this supplementary tradition the year 29 gains in probability as the
+year of the passion. Without attempting to arrive at a final
+conclusion,--a task which must be left for chronological specialists,--it
+is safe to assume that Jesus died at the Passover of A.D. 29 or 30.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s051"><p><span class="versenum">51.</span> Concluding that Jesus' active ministry fell within the years A.D. 26
+to 30, is it possible to determine the date of his birth? Four hints are
+furnished by the gospels: he was born before the death of Herod (Matt. ii.
+1; Luke i. 5); he was about thirty years of age at his baptism (Luke iii.
+23); he was <a class="newpage" name="page052" id="page052" title="52"></a>born during a census conducted in Judea in accordance with
+the decree of Augustus at a time when Quirinius was in authority in Syria
+(Luke ii. 1, 2); after his birth wise men from the East were led to visit
+him by observing "his star" (Matt. ii. 1, 2). From these facts it follows
+that the birth of Jesus cannot be placed later than B.C. 4, since Herod
+died about the first of April in that year (Jos. Ant. xvii. 6. 4; 8. 1,
+4). The awkwardness of having to find a date <i>Before Christ</i> for the birth
+of Jesus is due to the miscalculation of the monk, Dionysius the Little,
+who in the sixth century introduced our modern reckoning from "the year of
+our Lord."</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s052"><p><span class="versenum">52.</span> But is it impossible to determine the time of Jesus' birth more
+exactly? Luke (ii. 1, 2) offers what seems to be more definite
+information, but his reference to the decree of Augustus and the enrolment
+under Quirinius are among the most seriously challenged statements in the
+gospels. It has been said (1) that history knows of no edict of Augustus
+ordering a general enrolment of "the world;" (2) that a Roman census could
+not have been taken in Palestine before the death of Herod; (3) that if
+such an enrolment had been taken it would have been unnecessary for Joseph
+and Mary to journey from Nazareth to Bethlehem; (4) that the census taken
+when Quirinius was governor of Syria is definitely assigned by Josephus to
+the year after the deposition of Archelaus, A.D. 6 (Ant. xviii. 1. 1; see
+also Acts v. 37); (5) that if Luke's reference to this census as the
+"first" be appealed to, it must be replied that Quirinius was not governor
+of Syria at any time during the lifetime of Herod. This array of
+difficulties is impressive, and has persuaded <a class="newpage" name="page053" id="page053" title="53"></a>many conservative students
+to concede that in his reference to the census Luke has fallen into error.
+Some recent discoveries in Egypt, however, have furnished new information
+concerning the imperial administration of that province. Inferring that a
+policy adopted in Egypt may have prevailed also in Syria, Professor Ramsay
+has recently put forth a strong argument for Luke's accuracy in respect of
+this census (Was Christ born at Bethlehem, 95-248). That argument may be
+condensed as follows: We have evidence of a system of Roman enrolments in
+Egypt taken every fourteen years, and already traced back to the time of
+Augustus, the earliest document so far recovered belonging, apparently, to
+the census of A.D. 20. It is at least possible that this system of
+Egyptian enrolments may have been part of an imperial policy, of which all
+other trace is lost excepting the statement of Luke. It is significant
+that the date of the census referred to by Josephus (A.D. 6) fits exactly
+the fourteen-year cycle which obtained in Egypt. If the census of A.D. 6
+was preceded by an earlier one its date would be B.C. 8; that is, it would
+be actually taken in B.C. 7, in order to secure the full acts for B.C. 8.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s053"><p><span class="versenum">53.</span> The statement of Tertullian (Against Marcion, iv. 19) that a census
+had been taken in Judea under Augustus by Sentius Saturninus, who was
+governor of Syria about 9 to 7 B.C., certainly comes from some source
+independent of the gospels, and tends to confirm Luke's account of a
+census before the death of Herod. That a Roman census might have been
+taken in Palestine during Herod's life is seen from the fact that in A.D.
+36 Vitellius, the governor of Syria, <a class="newpage" name="page054" id="page054" title="54"></a>had to send Roman forces into
+Cilicia Trach&aelig;a to assist Archelaus, the king of that country, to quell a
+revolt caused by native resistance to a census taken after the Roman
+fashion (Tacitus, Ann. vi. 41). Herod would almost certainly resent as a
+mark of subjection the order to enrol his people; and the fact that he was
+in disfavor with Augustus during the governorship of Saturninus (Josephus,
+Ant. xvi. 9. 1-3), suggests to Professor Ramsay that he may have sought to
+avoid obedience to the imperial will in the matter of the census. If after
+some delay Herod was forced to obey, the enrolment may have been taken in
+the year 7-6. Since it is probable that the Romans would allow Herod to
+give the census as distinctly Jewish a character as possible, it is easy
+to credit the order that all Jews should be registered, so far as
+possible, in their ancestral homes. Hence the journey of Joseph to
+Bethlehem; and if Mary wished to have her child also registered as from
+David's line, her removal with Joseph to Bethlehem is explained. Such a
+delay in the taking of the census would have postponed it until after the
+recall of Saturninus. The statement of Tertullian may therefore indicate
+simply that he knew that a census was taken in Syria by Saturninus.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s054"><p><span class="versenum">54.</span> The successor of Saturninus was Varus, who held the governorship until
+after the death of Herod. How then does Luke refer to the enrolment as
+taken when Quirinius was in authority? It has for a long time been known
+that this man was in Syria before he was there as legate of the emperor in
+A.D. 6. There seems to be evidence that Quirinius was in the East about
+the year B.C. 6, putting down a rebellion on the borders of Cilicia, a
+district joined with Syria into <a class="newpage" name="page055" id="page055" title="55"></a>one province under the early empire.
+Varus was at this time governor, but Quirinius might easily have been
+looked upon as representing for the time the power of the Roman arms. If
+Herod was forced to yield to the imperial wish by the presence in Syria of
+this renowned captain, the statement of Luke is confirmed, and the census
+at which Jesus was born was taken, according to a Jewish fashion, during
+the life of Herod, but under compulsion of Rome exacted by Quirinius,
+while he was in command of the Roman forces in the province of
+Syria-Cilicia. This gives as a probable date for the birth of Jesus B.C.
+6, which accords well with the hints previously considered, inasmuch as it
+is earlier than the death of Herod, and, if born in B.C. 6, Jesus would
+have been thirty-two at his baptism in A.D. 26.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s055"><p><span class="versenum">55.</span> The account given in Matthew of "the star" which drew the wise men to
+Judea gives no sure help in determining the date of the birth of Jesus,
+but it is at least suggestive that in the spring and autumn of B.C. 7
+there occurred a remarkable conjunction of the planets Jupiter and Saturn.
+This was first noticed by Kepler in consequence of a similar conjunction
+observed by him in A.D. 1603. Men much influenced by astrology must have
+been impressed by such a celestial phenomenon, but that it furnishes an
+explanation of the star of the wise men is not clear. If it does, it
+confirms the date otherwise probable for the nativity, that is, not far
+from B.C. 6.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s056"><p><span class="versenum">56.</span> Can we go further and determine the time of year or the month and day
+of the nativity? It should be borne in mind that our Christmas festival
+was not observed earlier than the fourth century, and that the <a class="newpage" name="page056" id="page056" title="56"></a>evidence
+is well-nigh conclusive that December 25th was finally selected for the
+Nativity in order to hallow a much earlier and widely spread pagan
+festival coincident with the winter solstice. If anything exists to
+suggest the time of year it is Luke's mention of "shepherds in the field
+keeping watch by night over their flock" (ii. 8). This seems to indicate
+that it must have been the summer season. In winter the flocks would be
+folded, not pastured, by night.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s057"><p><span class="versenum">57.</span> It therefore seems probable that Jesus was born in the summer of B.C.
+6; that he was baptized in A.D. 26; that the first Passover of his
+ministry was in the spring of 26 or 27; and that he was crucified in the
+spring of 29 or 30.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<div class="chapter" id="p01-05">
+<h2><a class="newpage" name="page057" id="page057" title="57"></a>V</h2>
+
+<h3>The Early Years of Jesus</h3>
+
+<h4>Matt. i. 1 to ii. 23; Luke i. 5 to ii. 52; iii. 23-38</h4>
+
+
+
+<div class="section" id="s058"><p><span class="versenum">58.</span> It is surprising that within a century of the life of the apostles,
+Christian imagination could have so completely mistaken the real greatness
+of Jesus as to let its thirst for wonder fill his early years with scenes
+in which his conduct is as unlovely as it is shocking. That he who in
+manhood was "holy, harmless, undefiled, separate from sinners" (Heb. vii.
+26), could in youth, in a fit of ill-temper, strike a companion with death
+and then meet remonstrance by cursing his accusers with blindness (Gospel
+of Thomas, 4, 5); that he could mock his teachers and spitefully resent
+their control (Pseudo-Matthew, 30, 31); that it could be thought worthy of
+him to exhibit his superiority to common human conditions by carrying
+water in his mantle when his pitcher had been broken (same, 33), or by
+making clay birds in play on the Sabbath and causing them to fly when he
+was rebuked for naughtiness (same, 27);--these and many like legends
+exhibit incredible blindness to the real glory of the Lord. Yet such
+things abound in the early attempts of the pious imagination to write the
+story of the youth of Jesus, and the account of the nativity and its
+antecedents fares as ill, being pitifully trivial where it is not
+revolting.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s059"><p><a class="newpage" name="page058" id="page058" title="58"></a><span class="versenum">59.</span> How completely foreign all this is to the apostolic thought and
+feeling is clear when we notice that excepting the first two chapters of
+Matthew and Luke the New Testament tells us nothing whatever of the years
+which preceded John the Baptist's ministry in the wilderness. The gospels
+are books of testimony to what men had seen and heard (John i. 14); and
+the epistles are practical interpretations of the same in its bearing on
+religious life and hope. The apostles found no difficulty in recognizing
+the divinity and sinlessness of their Lord without inquiring how he came
+into the world or how he spent his early years; it was what he showed
+himself to be, not how he came to be, that formed their conception of him.
+Yet the early chapters of Matthew and Luke should not be classed with the
+later legends. Notwithstanding the attempts of Keim to associate the
+narratives of the infancy in the canonical and apocryphal gospels, a great
+gulf separates them: on the one side there is a reverent and beautiful
+reserve, on the other indelicate, unlovely, and trivial audacity.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s060"><p><span class="versenum">60.</span> The gospel narratives have, however, perplexities of their own, for
+the two accounts agree only in the main features,--the miraculous birth in
+Bethlehem in the days of Herod, Mary being the mother and Joseph the
+foster-father, and Nazareth the subsequent residence. In further details
+they are quite different, and at first sight seem contradictory. Moreover,
+while Matthew sheds a halo of glory over the birth of Jesus, Luke draws a
+picture of humble circumstances and obscurity. These differences, taken
+with the silence of the rest of the New Testament concerning a miraculous
+birth, constitute a real difficulty. To many it <a class="newpage" name="page059" id="page059" title="59"></a>seems strange that the
+disciples and the brethren of Jesus did not refer to these things if they
+knew them to be true. But it must not be overlooked that any familiar
+reference to the circumstances of the birth of Jesus which are narrated in
+the gospels would have invited from the Jews simply a challenge of the
+honor of his home. Moreover, as the knowledge of these wonders did not
+keep Mary from misunderstanding her son (Luke ii. 19, 51; compare Mark in.
+21, 31-35), the publication of them could hardly have helped greatly the
+belief of others. The fact that Mary was so perplexed by the course of
+Jesus in his ministry makes it probable that even until quite late in her
+life she "kept these things and pondered them in her heart."</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s061"><p><span class="versenum">61.</span> No parts of the New Testament are challenged so widely and so
+confidently as these narratives of the infancy. But if they are not to be
+credited with essential truth it is necessary to show what ideas cherished
+in the apostolic church could have led to their invention. That John and
+Paul maintain the divinity of their Lord, yet give no hint that this
+involved a miraculous birth, shows that these stories are no necessary
+outgrowth of that doctrine. The early Christians whether Jewish or Gentile
+would not naturally choose to give pictorial form to their belief in their
+Lord's divinity by the story of an incarnation. The heathen myths
+concerning sons of the gods were in all their associations revolting to
+Christian feeling, and, while the Jewish mind was ready to see divine
+influence at work in the birth of great men in Israel (as Isaac, and
+Samson, and Samuel), the whole tendency of later Judaism was hostile to
+any such idea as actual incarnation. Some would explain the story of the
+<a class="newpage" name="page060" id="page060" title="60"></a>miraculous birth as a conclusion drawn by the Christian consciousness
+from the doctrine of the sinlessness of Jesus. Yet neither Paul nor John,
+who are both clear concerning the doctrine, give any idea that a
+miraculous birth was essential for a sinless being. Some appeal to the
+eagerness of the early Christians to exalt the virginity of Mary, This is
+certainly the animus of many apocryphal legends. But the feeling is as
+foreign to Jewish sentiment and New Testament teaching as it is
+contradictory to the evidence in the gospels that Mary had other children
+born after Jesus.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s062"><p><span class="versenum">62.</span> Moreover, the songs of Mary (Luke i. 46-55) and Zachariah (Luke i.
+68--79) bear in themselves the evidence of origin before the doctrine of
+the cross had transformed the Christian idea of the Messiah. That
+transformed idea abounds in the Epistles and the Acts, and it is difficult
+to conceive how these songs (if they were later inventions) could have
+been left free of any trace of specifically Christian ideas. A Jewish
+Christian would almost certainly have made them more Christian than they
+are; a Gentile Christian could not have made them so strongly and
+naturally Jewish as they are; while a non-Christian Jew would never have
+invented them. Taken with the evidence in Ignatius (Ad Eph. xviii., xix.)
+of the very early currency of the belief in a miraculous birth, they
+confirm the impression that it is easier to accept the evidence offered
+for the miracle than to account for the origin of the stories as legends.
+The idea of a miraculous birth is very foreign to modern thought; it
+becomes credible only as the transcendent nature of Jesus is recognized on
+other grounds. It may not be said that the incarnation required a
+<a class="newpage" name="page061" id="page061" title="61"></a>miraculous conception, yet it may be acknowledged that a miraculous
+conception is a most suitable method for a divine incarnation.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s063"><p><span class="versenum">63.</span> These gospel stories are chiefly significant for us in that they show
+that he in whom his disciples came to recognize a divine nature began his
+earthly life in the utter helplessness and dependence of infancy, and grew
+through boyhood and youth to manhood with such naturalness that his
+neighbors, dull concerning the things of the spirit, could not credit his
+exalted claims. He is shown as one in all points like unto his brethren
+(Heb. ii. 17). Two statements in Luke (ii. 40, 52) describe the growth of
+the divine child as simply as that of his forerunner (Luke i. 80), or that
+of the prophet of old (I. Sam. ii. 26). The clear impression of these
+statements is that Jesus had a normal growth from infancy to manhood,
+while the whole course of the later life as set before us in the gospels
+confirms the scripture doctrine that his normal growth was free from sin
+(Heb. iv. 15).</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s064"><p><span class="versenum">64.</span> The knowledge of the probable conditions of his childhood is as
+satisfying as the apocryphal stories are revolting. The lofty Jewish
+conception of home and its relations is worthy of Jesus. The circumstances
+of the home in Nazareth were humble (Matt. xiii. 55; Luke ii. 24; compare
+Lev. xii. 8). Probably the house was not unlike those seen to-day, of but
+one room, or at most two or three,--the tools of trade mingling with the
+meagre furnishings for home-life. We should not think it a home of penury;
+doubtless the circumstances of Joseph were like those of his neighbors. In
+one respect this home was rich. The wife and mother had an exalted place
+in the Jewish <a class="newpage" name="page062" id="page062" title="62"></a>life, notwithstanding the trivial opinions of some
+supercilious rabbis; and what the gospel tells of the chivalry of Joseph
+renders it certain that love reigned in his home, making it fit for the
+growth of the holy child.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s065"><p><span class="versenum">65.</span> Religion held sway in all the phases of Jewish life. With some it was
+a religion of ceremony,--of prayers and fastings, tithes and boastful
+alms, fringes and phylacteries. But Joseph and Mary belonged to the
+simpler folk, who, while they reverenced the scribes as teachers, knew not
+enough of their subtlety to have substituted barren rites for sincere love
+for the God of their fathers and childlike trust in his mercy. Jesus knew
+not only home life at its fairest, but religion at its best. A father's
+most sacred duty was the teaching of his child in the religion of his
+people (Deut. vi. 4-9), and then, as ever since, the son learned at his
+mother's side to know and love her God, to pray to him, and to know the
+scriptures. No story more thrilling and full of interest, no prospect more
+rich and full of glowing hope, could be found to satisfy the child's
+spirit of wonder than the story of Israel's past and God's promises for
+the future. Religious culture was not confined to the home, however. The
+temple at Jerusalem was the ideal centre of religious life for this
+Nazareth household (Luke ii. 41) as for all the people, yet practically
+worship and instruction were cultivated chiefly by the synagogue (Luke iv.
+16); there God was present in his Holy Word. Week after week the boy Jesus
+heard the scripture in its original Hebrew form, followed by translation
+into Aramaic, and received instruction from it for daily conduct. The
+synagogue probably influenced the boy's intellectual life even more
+directly. In the time of Jesus schools <a class="newpage" name="page063" id="page063" title="63"></a>had been established in all the
+important towns, and were apparently under the control of the synagogue.
+To such a school he may have been sent from about six years of age to be
+taught the scriptures (compare II. Tim. iii. 15), together with the
+reading (Luke iv. 16-19), and perhaps the writing, of the Hebrew language.
+Of his school experience we know nothing beyond the fact that he grew in
+"wisdom and in stature and in favor with God and man" (Luke ii. 52),--a
+sufficient contradiction of the repulsive legends of the apocryphal
+gospels.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s066"><p><span class="versenum">66.</span> The physical growth incident to Jesus' development from boyhood to
+manhood is a familiar thought. The intellectual unfolding which belongs to
+this development is readily recognized. Not so commonly acknowledged, but
+none the less clearly essential to the gospel picture, is the gradual
+unfolding of the child's moral life under circumstances and stimulus
+similar to those with which other children meet (Heb. iv. 15). The man
+Jesus was known as the carpenter (Matt. xiii. 55). The learning of such a
+trade would contribute much to the boy's mastery of his own powers. Far
+more discipline would come from his fellowship with brothers and sisters
+who did not understand his ways nor appreciate the deepest realities of
+his life. Without robbing boyhood days of their naturalness and reality,
+we may be sure that long before Jesus knew how and why he differed from
+his fellows he felt more or less clearly that they were not like him. The
+resulting sense of isolation was a school for self-mastery, lest isolation
+foster any such pride or unloveliness as that with which later legend
+dared to stain the picture of the Lord's youth. Four brothers of <a class="newpage" name="page064" id="page064" title="64"></a>Jesus
+are named by Mark (vi. 3),--James, and Joses, and Judas, and Simon,--the
+gospel adds also that he had sisters living at a later time in Nazareth.
+They were all subject with him to the same home influences, and apparently
+were not unresponsive to them. The similarity of thought and feeling
+between the sermon on the mount and the Epistle of James is not readily
+explained by the influence of master over disciple, since the days of
+James's discipleship began after the resurrection of Jesus. In any case
+there is no reason to think that the companions of Jesus' home were
+uncommonly irritating or in any way irreligious, only Jesus was not
+altogether like them (John vii. 5), and the fact of difference was a moral
+discipline, which among other things led to that moral growth by which
+innocence passed into positive goodness. If the home was such a school of
+discipline, its neighbors, less earnest and less favored with spiritual
+training, furnished more abundant occasion for self-mastery and growth.
+The very fact that in his later years Jesus was no desert preacher, like
+John, but social, and socially sought for, indicates that he did not win
+his manhood's perfection in solitude, but in fellowship with common life
+and in victory over the trials and temptations incident to it (Heb. ii.
+17, 18).</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s067"><p><span class="versenum">67.</span> Yet he must have been familiar with the life which is in secret (Matt.
+vi. 1-18). He who in his later years was a man of much prayer, who began
+(Luke iii. 21) and closed (Luke xxiii. 46) his public life with prayer, as
+a boy was certainly familiar not only with the prayers of home and
+synagogue, but also with quiet, personal resort to the presence of God. It
+would be unjust to think of any abnormal religious <a class="newpage" name="page065" id="page065" title="65"></a>precocity. Jesus was
+the best example the world has seen of perfect spiritual health, but we
+must believe that he came early to know God and to live much with him.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s068"><p><span class="versenum">68.</span> It is instructive in connection with this inwardness of Jesus' life to
+recall the rich familiarity with the whole world of nature which appears
+in his parables and other teachings. The prospect which met his eye if he
+sought escape from the distractions of home and village life, has been
+described by Renan: "The view from the town is limited; but if we ascend a
+little to the plateau swept by a perpetual breeze, which stands above the
+highest houses, the landscape is magnificent. On the west stretch the fine
+outlines of Carmel, terminating in an abrupt spur which seems to run down
+sheer to the sea. Next, one sees the double summit which towers above
+Megiddo; the mountains of the country of Shechem, with their holy places
+of the patriarchal period; the hills of Gilboa, the small picturesque
+group to which is attached the graceful or terrible recollections of
+Shunem and of Endor; and Tabor, with its beautiful rounded form, which
+antiquity compared to a bosom. Through a gap between the mountains of
+Shunem and Tabor are visible the valley of the Jordan and the high plains
+of Perea, which form a continuous line from the eastern side. On the
+north, the mountains of Safed, stretching towards the sea, conceal St.
+Jean d'Acre, but leave the Gulf of Khaifa in sight. Such was the horizon,
+of Jesus. This enchanted circle, cradle of the kingdom of God, was for
+years his world. Indeed, during his whole life he went but little beyond
+the familiar bounds of his childhood. For yonder, <a class="newpage" name="page066" id="page066" title="66"></a>northwards, one can
+almost see, on the flank of Hermon, C&aelig;sarea-Philippi, his farthest point
+of advance into the Gentile world; and to the south the less smiling
+aspect of these Samaritan hills foreshadows the dreariness of Judea
+beyond, parched as by a burning wind of desolation and death." In the
+midst of such scenes we are to understand that, with the physical growth,
+and opening of mind, and moral discipline which filled the early years of
+Jesus, there came also the gradual spiritual unfolding in which the boy
+rose step by step to the fuller knowledge of God and himself.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s069"><p><span class="versenum">69.</span> That unfolding is pictured in an early stage in the story given us
+from the youth of Jesus. It was customary for a Jewish boy not long after
+passing his twelfth year to come under full adult obligation to the law.
+The visit to Jerusalem was probably in preparation for such assumption of
+obligation by Jesus. All his earlier training had filled his mind with the
+sacredness of the Holy City and the glory of the temple. It is easy to
+feel with what joy he would first look upon Zion from the shoulder of the
+Mount of Olives, as he came over it on his journey from Galilee; to
+conceive how the temple and the ritual would fill him with awe in his
+readiness not to criticise, but to idealize everything he saw, and to
+think only of the significance given by it all to the scripture; to
+imagine how eagerly he would talk in the temple court with the learned men
+of his people about the law and the promises with which in home and school
+his youth had been made familiar. Nor is it difficult to appreciate his
+surprise, when Joseph and Mary, only after long searching for him, at last
+found him <a class="newpage" name="page067" id="page067" title="67"></a>in the temple, for he felt that it was the most natural place
+in which he could be found. In his wondering question to Mary, "Did not
+you know that I must be in my Father's house?" (Luke ii. 49), there is a
+premonition of his later consciousness of peculiarly intimate relation to
+God. The question was, however, a sincere inquiry. It was no precocious
+rebuke of Mary's anxiety. The knowledge of himself as Son of God was only
+dawning within him, and was not yet full and clear. This is shown by his
+immediate obedience and his subjection to his parents in Nazareth through
+many years. It is safe, in the interpretation of the acts and words of
+Jesus, to banish utterly as inconceivable anything that savors of the
+theatrical. We must believe that he was always true to himself, and that
+the subjection which he rendered to Joseph and Mary sprang from a real
+sense of childhood's dependence, and was not a show of obedience for any
+edifying end however high.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s070"><p><span class="versenum">70.</span> That question "Did not you know?" is the only hint we possess of
+Jesus' inner life before John's call to repentance rang through the land.
+Meanwhile the carpenter's son became himself the carpenter. Joseph seems
+to have died before the opening of Jesus' ministry. For Jesus as the
+eldest son, this death made those years far other than a time of spiritual
+retreat; responsibility for the home and the pressing duties of trade must
+have filled most of the hours of his days. This is a welcome thought to
+our healthiest sentiment, and true also to the earliest Christian feeling
+(Heb. iv. 15). John the Baptist had his training in the wilderness, but
+Jesus came from familiar intercourse with men, was welcomed <a class="newpage" name="page068" id="page068" title="68"></a>in their
+homes (John ii. 2), knew their life in its homely ongoing, and was the
+friend of all sorts and conditions of men. After that visit to Jerusalem,
+a few more years may have been spent in school, for, whether from school
+instruction, or synagogue preaching, or simple daily experience, the young
+man came to know the traditions of the elders and also to know that
+observance of them is a mockery of the righteousness which God requires.
+Yet he seems to have felt so fully in harmony with God as to be conscious
+of nothing new in the fresh and vital conceptions of righteousness which
+he found in the law and prophets. We may be certain that much of his
+thought was given to Israel's hope of redemption, and that with the
+prophets of old and the singer much nearer his own day (Ps. of Sol. xvii.
+23), he longed that God, according to his promise, would raise up unto his
+people, their King, the Son of David.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s071"><p><span class="versenum">71.</span> He must also have read often from that other book open before him as
+he walked upon the hills of Nazareth. The beauty of the grass and of the
+lilies was surely not a new discovery to him after he began to preach the
+coming kingdom, nor is it likely that he waited until after his baptism to
+form his habit of spending the night in prayer upon the mountain. We may
+be equally sure that he did not first learn to love men and women and long
+for their good after he received the call, "Thou art my beloved son" (Mark
+i. 11). He who in later life read hearts clearly (John ii. 25) doubtless
+gained that skill, as well as the knowledge of human sin and need, early
+in his intercourse with his friends and neighbors in Nazareth; while a
+clear conviction that God's kingdom consists in his sover<a class="newpage" name="page069" id="page069" title="69"></a>eignty over
+loyal hearts must have filled much of his thought about the promised good
+which God would bring to Israel in due time. Thus we may think that in
+quietness and homely industry, in secret life with God and open love for
+men, in study of history and prophecy, in longing for the actual sway of
+God in human life, Jesus lived his life, did his work, and grew in "wisdom
+and in stature and in favor with God and man" (Luke ii. 52).</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<div class="chapter" id="p01-06">
+<h2><a class="newpage" name="page070" id="page070" title="70"></a>VI</h2>
+
+<h3>John The Baptist</h3>
+
+<h4>Matt. iii. 1-17; iv. 12; xiv. 1-12; Mark i. 1-14; vi. 14-29; Luke i. 5-25,
+57-80; iii. 1-22; ix. 7-9; John i. 19-37; iii. 22-30.</h4>
+
+
+
+<div class="section" id="s072"><p><span class="versenum">72.</span> The first reappearance of Jesus in the gospel story, after the temple
+scene in his twelfth year, is on the banks of the Jordan seeking baptism
+from the new prophet. One of the silent evidences of the greatness of
+Jesus is the fact that so great a character as John the Baptist stands in
+our thought simply as accessory to his life. For that the prophet of the
+wilderness was great has been the opinion of all who have been willing to
+seek him in his retirement. One reason for the common neglect of John is
+doubtless the meagreness of information about him. But though details are
+few, the picture of him is drawn in clearest lines: a rugged son of the
+wilderness scorning the gentler things of life, threatening his people
+with coming wrath and calling to repentance while yet there was time; a
+preacher of practical righteousness heeded by publicans and harlots but
+scorned by the elders of his people; a bold and fearless spirit, yet
+subdued in the presence of another who did not strive, nor cry, nor cause
+his voice to be heard in the streets. When the people thought to find in
+John <a class="newpage" name="page071" id="page071" title="71"></a>the promised Messiah, with unparalleled self-effacement he pointed
+them to his rival and rejoiced in that rival's growing success. Side by
+side they worked for a time; then the picture fails, but for a hint of a
+royal audience, with a fearless rebuke of royal disgrace and sin; a prison
+life, with its pathetic shaking of confidence in the early certainties; a
+long and forced inaction, and the question put by a wavering faith, with
+its patient and affectionate reply; then a lewd orgy, a king's oath, a
+girl's demands, a martyr's release, the disciples' lamentation and their
+report to that other who, though seeming a rival, was known to appreciate
+best the greatness of this prophet. Such is the picture in the gospels.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s073"><p><span class="versenum">73.</span> John, unlike his greater successor, has a highly appreciative notice
+from Josephus: "Now some of the Jews thought that the destruction of
+Herod's army came from God, and that very justly, as a punishment for what
+he did against John, who was called the Baptist. For Herod had had him put
+to death though he was a good man, and commanded the Jews to exercise
+virtue, both as to justice towards one another, and piety towards God, and
+so to come to baptism; for baptism would be acceptable to God, if they
+made use of it not in order to expiate some sin, but for the purification
+of the body, provided that the soul was thoroughly purified beforehand by
+righteousness. Now, as many flocked to him, for they were greatly moved by
+hearing his words, Herod, fearing that the great influence, John had over
+the people might lead to some rebellion (for the people seemed likely to
+do anything he should advise), thought it far best, by putting him to
+death, to prevent any mischief he <a class="newpage" name="page072" id="page072" title="72"></a>might cause, and not bring himself into
+difficulties by sparing a man who might make him repent of his leniency
+when it should be too late. Accordingly he was sent a prisoner, in
+consequence of Herod's suspicious temper, to Machaerus, the fortress
+before mentioned, and was there put to death. So the Jews had the opinion
+that the destruction of this army [by Aretas] was sent as a punishment
+upon Herod and was the mark of God's displeasure at him" (Ant. xviii. 5.
+2). This section is commonly accepted as trustworthy. Superficially
+different from the gospel record and assigning quite another cause for
+John's imprisonment and death, it correctly describes his character and
+his influence with the people, and leaves abundant room for a more
+intimately personal motive on the part of Antipas for the imprisonment of
+John. If the jealousy of Herodias was the actual reason for John's arrest,
+it is highly probable that another cause would be named to the world, and
+a likelier one than that given by Josephus could not be found.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s074"><p><span class="versenum">74.</span> The first problem that offers itself in the study of this man is the
+man himself. Whence did he come? Everything about him is surprising. He
+appears as a dweller in the desert, an ascetic, holding aloof from common
+life and content with the scanty fare the wilderness could offer; yet he
+was keenly appreciative of his people's needs, and he knew their
+sins,--the particular ones that beset Pharisees, publicans, soldiers. If a
+recluse in habit, he was far from such in thought; he was therefore no
+seeker for his own soul's peace in his desert life. His dress was
+strikingly suggestive of the old prophet of judgment on national
+infidelity (I. Kings xvii. 1; II. Kings i, 8), the Elijah whom John <a class="newpage" name="page073" id="page073" title="73"></a>would
+not claim to be. His message was commanding, with its double word "Repent"
+and "The kingdom is near." His idea of the kingdom was definite, though
+not at all developed; it signified to him God's dominion, inaugurated by a
+divine judgment which should mean good for the penitent and utter
+destruction for the ungodly; hence the prophet's call to repentance. His
+ministry was one of grace, but the time was drawing near when the Greater
+One would appear to complete by a swift judgment the work which his
+forerunner was beginning. That Greater One would hew down the fruitless
+tree, winnow the wheat from the chaff on the threshing floor, baptize the
+penitent with divine power, and the wicked with the fire of judgment,
+since his was to be a ministry of judgment, not of grace.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s075"><p><span class="versenum">75.</span> Whence, then, came this strange prophet? Near the desert region where
+he spent his youth and where he first proclaimed his message of repentance
+and judgment was the chief settlement of that strange company of Jews
+known as Essenes. It has long been customary to think that during his
+early years John was associated with these fellow-dwellers in the desert,
+if he did not actually join the order. He certainly may have learned from
+them many things. Their sympathy with his ascetic life and with his
+thorough moral earnestness would make them attractive to him, but he was
+far too original a man to get from them more than some suggestions to be
+worked out in his own fashion. The simplicity of his teaching of
+repentance and the disregard of ceremonial in his preaching separate him
+from these monks. John may have known his desert companions, may have
+appreciated some <a class="newpage" name="page074" id="page074" title="74"></a>things in their discipline, but he remained independent
+of their guidance.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s076"><p><span class="versenum">76.</span> The leaders of religious life and thought in his day were
+unquestionably the Pharisees. The controlling idea with them, and
+consequently with the people, was the sanctity of God's law. They were
+conscious of the sinfulness of the people, and their demand for repentance
+was constant. It is a rabbinic commonplace that the delay of the Messiah's
+coming is due to lack of repentance in Israel. But near as this conception
+is to John's, we need but to recall his words to the Pharisees (Matt. iii.
+7) to realize how clearly he saw through the hollowness of their religious
+pretence. With the quibbles of the scribes concerning small and great
+commandments, Sabbaths and hand-washings, John shows no affinity. He may
+have learned some things from these "sitters in Moses' seat," but he was
+not of them.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s077"><p><span class="versenum">77.</span> John's message announced the near approach of the kingdom of God. It
+is probable that many of those who sought his baptism were ardent
+nationalists,--eager to take a hand in realizing that consummation.
+Josephus indicates that it was Herod's fear lest John should lead these
+Zealots to revolt that furnished the ostensible cause of his death. But
+similar as were the interests of John and these nationalists, the distance
+between them was great. The prophet's replies to the publicans and to the
+soldiers, which contain not a word of rebuke for the hated callings (Luke
+iii. 13, 14), show how fundamentally he differed from the Zealots.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s078"><p><span class="versenum">78.</span> But there was another branch of the Pharisees than that which quibbled
+over Sabbath laws, tradi<a class="newpage" name="page075" id="page075" title="75"></a>tions, and tithes, or that which itched to grasp
+the sword; they were men who saw visions and dreamed dreams like those of
+Daniel and the Revelation, and in their visions saw God bringing
+deliverance to his people by swift and sudden judgment. There are some
+marked likenesses between this type of thought and that of John,--the
+impending judgment, the word of warning, the coming blessing, were all in
+John; but one need only compare John's words with such an apocalypse as
+the Assumption of Moses, probably written in Palestine during John's life
+in the desert, to discover that the two messages do not move in the same
+circle of thought at all; there is something practical, something severely
+heart-searching, something at home in every-day life, about John's
+announcement of the coming kingdom that is quite absent from the visions
+of his contemporaries. John had not, like some of these seers, a coddling
+sympathy for people steeped in sin. He traced their troubles to their own
+doors, and would not let ceremonies pass in place of "fruits meet for
+repentance." He came from the desert with rebuke and warning on his lips;
+with no word against the hated Romans, but many against hypocritical
+claimants to the privileges of Abraham; no apology for his message nor
+artificial device of dream or ancient name to secure a hearing, but the
+old-fashioned prophetic method of declaration of truth "whether men will
+hear or whether they will forbear." "All was sharp and cutting, imperious
+earnestness about final questions, unsparing overthrow of all fictitious
+shams in individual as in national life. There are no theories of the law,
+no new good works, no belief in the old, but simply and solely a prophetic
+<a class="newpage" name="page076" id="page076" title="76"></a>clutch at men's consciences, a mighty accusation, a crushing summons to
+contrite repentance and speedy sanctification" (KeimJN. II. 228). We look
+in vain for a parallel in any of John's contemporaries, except in that one
+before whom he bowed, saying, "I have need to be baptized of thee."</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s079"><p><span class="versenum">79.</span> John had, however, predecessors whose work he revived. In Isaiah's
+words, "Wash you, make you clean" (Isa. i 16), one recognizes the type
+which reappeared in John. The great prophetic conception of the Day of the
+Lord--the day of wrath and salvation (Joel ii. 1-14)--is revived in John,
+free from all the fantastic accompaniments which his contemporaries loved.
+The invitations to repentance and new fidelity which abound in Isaiah,
+Ezekiel, Hosea, and Joel; the summons to simple righteousness, which rang
+from the lips of Micah (vi. 8), and of the great prophet of the exile
+(Isa. lviii.), these tell us where John went to school and how well he
+learned his lesson. It is hard for us to realize how great a novelty such
+simplicity was in John's day, or how much originality it required to
+attain to this discipleship of the prophets. From the time when the
+curtain rises on the later history of Israel in the days of the Maccabean
+struggle to the coming of that "voice crying in the wilderness," Israel
+had listened in vain for a prophet who could speak God's will with
+authority. The last thing that people expected when John came was such a
+simple message. He was not the creature of his time, but a revival of the
+older type; yet, as in the days of Elijah God had kept him seven thousand
+in Israel that had not bowed the knee to Baal, so, in the later time, not
+all were bereft of liv<a class="newpage" name="page077" id="page077" title="77"></a>ing faith. These devout souls furnished the soil
+which could produce a life like John's, gifted and chosen by God to
+restore and advance the older and more genuine religion.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s080"><p><span class="versenum">80.</span> If John was thus a revival of the older prophetic order, a second
+question arises: Whence came his baptism, and what did it signify? The
+gospels describe it as a "baptism of repentance for the remission of sins"
+(Mark i. 4). John's declaration that his greater successor should baptize
+with the Holy Spirit and fire (Matt. iii. 11) shows that he viewed his
+baptism as a symbol, rather than as a means, of remission of sin. But it
+was more than a sign of repentance, it was a confession of loyalty to the
+kingdom which John's successor was to establish. It had thus a twofold
+significance: (<i>a</i>) confession of and turning from the old life of sin,
+and (<i>b</i>) consecration to the coming kingdom. Whence, then, came this
+ordinance? Not from the Essenes, for, unlike John's baptism, the bath
+required by these Jewish ascetics was an oft-repeated act. Further, John's
+rite had a far deeper religious significance than the Essene washings.
+These performed their ablutions to secure ritual cleanness as exemplary
+disciples of the Mosaic ideal. The searching of heart which preceded
+John's baptism, and the radical change of life it demanded, seem foreign
+to Essenism. The baptism of John, considered as a ceremony of consecration
+for the coming kingdom, was parallel rather to the initiatory oaths of the
+Essene brotherhood than to their ablutions. Their custom may have served
+to suggest to John a different application of the familiar sacred use of
+the bath; indeed John could hardly have been uninfluenced by the <a class="newpage" name="page078" id="page078" title="78"></a>usage of
+his contemporaries; yet in this, as in his thought, he was not a product
+of their school.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s081"><p><span class="versenum">81.</span> John's baptism was equally independent of the pharisaic influence. The
+scribes made much of "divers washings," but not with any such significance
+as would furnish to John his baptism of repentance and of radical change
+of life. That he was not following a pharisaic leading appears in the
+question put to him by the Pharisees, "Why, then, baptizest thou?" (John
+i. 25). They saw something unique in the ceremony as he conducted it.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s082"><p><span class="versenum">82.</span> Many have held that he derived his baptism from the method of
+admitting proselytes into the Jewish fellowship. It is clear, at least,
+that the later ritual prescribed a ceremonial bath as well as circumcision
+and sacrifice for all who came into Judaism from the Gentiles, and it is
+difficult to conceive of a time when a ceremonial bath would not seem
+indispensable, since Jews regarded all Gentile life as defiling. While
+such an origin for John's baptism would give peculiar force to his rebuke
+of Jewish confidence in the merits of Abraham (Matt. iii. 9), it is more
+likely, as Keim has shown (JN. II. 243 and note), that in this as in his
+other thought John learned of his predecessors rather than his
+contemporaries. Before the giving of the older covenant from Sinai, it is
+said that Moses was required "to sanctify the people and bid them wash
+their garments" (Ex. xix. 10). John was proclaiming the establishment of a
+new covenant, as the prophets had promised. That the people should prepare
+for this by a similar bath of sanctification seems most natural. John
+appeared with a revival of the older and simpler religious ideas of
+Israel's past, deriving his rite as well <a class="newpage" name="page079" id="page079" title="79"></a>as his thought from the springs
+of his people's religious life.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s083"><p><span class="versenum">83.</span> This revival of the prophetic past had nothing scholastic or
+antiquarian about it. John was a disciple, not an imitator, of the great
+men of Israel; his message was not learned from Isaiah or any other,
+though he was educated by studying them. What he declared, he declared as
+truth immediately seen by his own soul, the essence of his power being a
+revival, not in letter but in spirit, of the old, direct cry, "Thus saith
+the Lord." Inasmuch as John's day was otherwise hopelessly in bondage to
+tradition and the study of the letter, by so much is his greatness
+enhanced in bringing again God's direct message to the human conscience.
+John's greatness was that of a pioneer. The Friend of publicans and
+sinners also spoke a simple speech to human hearts; he built on and
+advanced from the old prophets, but it was John who was appointed to
+prepare the people for the new life, "to make ready the way of the Lord"
+(Mark i. 3). The clearness of his perception of truth is not the least of
+his claims to greatness. His knowledge of the simplicity of God's
+requirements in contrast with the hopeless maze of pharisaic traditions,
+and his insight into the characters with whom he had to deal, whether the
+sinless Jesus or the hypocritical Pharisees, show a man marvellously
+gifted by God who made good use of his gift. This greatness appears in
+superlative degree in the self-effacement of him who possessed these
+powers. Greatness always knows itself more or less fully. It was not
+self-ignorance that led John to claim to be but a voice, nor was it mock
+humility. The confession of his unworthiness in com<a class="newpage" name="page080" id="page080" title="80"></a>parison with the
+mightier one who should follow is unmistakably sincere, as is the
+completed joy of this friend of the bridegroom rejoicing greatly because
+of the bridegroom's voice, even when the bridegroom's presence meant the
+recedence of the friend into ever deepening obscurity (John iii. 30).</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s084"><p><span class="versenum">84.</span> But John had marked limitations. He knew well the righteousness of
+God; he knew, and, in effect, proclaimed God's readiness to forgive them
+that would turn from their wicked ways; he knew the simplicity as well as
+the exceeding breadth of the divine commandment; but beyond one flash of
+insight (John i. 29-36), which did not avail to remould his thought, he
+did not know the yearning love of God which seeks to save. It is not
+strange that he did not. Some of the prophets had more knowledge of it
+than he, his own favorite Isaiah knew more of it than he, but it was not
+the thought of John's day. The wonder is that the Baptist so far freed
+himself from current thought; yet he did not belong to the new order. He
+thundered as from Sinai. The simplest child that has learned from the
+heart its "Our Father" has reached a higher knowledge and entered a higher
+privilege (Matt. xi. 11). John's self-effacement, wonderful as it was,
+fell short of discipleship to his greater successor; in fact, at a much
+later time there was still a circle of disciples of the Baptist who kept
+themselves separate from the church (Acts xix. 1-7). He was doubtless too
+strenuous a man readily to become a follower. He could yield his place
+with unapproachable grace, but he remained the prophet of the wilderness
+still. He seemed to belong consciously to the old order, and, by the very
+circumstances ordained of <a class="newpage" name="page081" id="page081" title="81"></a>God who sent him, he could not be of those who,
+sitting at Jesus' feet, learned to surrender to him their preconceptions
+and hopes, and in heart, if not in word, to say, "To whom shall we go,
+thou hast the words of eternal life?" (John vi. 68).</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<div class="chapter" id="p01-07">
+<h2><a class="newpage" name="page082" id="page082" title="82"></a>VII</h2>
+
+<h3>The Messianic Call</h3>
+
+<h4>Matt. iii. 13 TO iv. 11; Mark i. 9-13; Luke iii. 21, 22; iv. 1-13; John i.
+30-34</h4>
+
+
+
+<div class="section" id="s085"><p><span class="versenum">85.</span> In the circle about John all classes of the people were represented:
+Pharisees and Sadducees, jealous of innovation and apprehensive of popular
+excitement; publicans and soldiers, interested in the new preacher or
+touched in conscience; outcasts who came in penitence, and devout souls in
+consecration. The wonder of the new message was carried throughout the
+land and brought great multitudes to the Jordan. Jesus in Nazareth heard
+it, and recognized in John a revival of the long-silent prophetic voice.
+The summons appealed to his loyalty to God's truth, and after the
+multitudes had been baptized (Luke iii. 21) he too sought the prophet of
+the wilderness.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s086"><p><span class="versenum">86.</span> The connection which Luke mentions (i. 36) between the families of
+Jesus and John had not led to any intimacy between the two young men. John
+certainly did not know of his kinsman's mission (John i. 31), nor was his
+conception of the Messiah such that he would look for its fulfilment in
+one like Jesus (Matt. iii. 10-12). One thing, however, was clear as soon
+as they met,--John recognized in Jesus one holier than himself (Matt. iii.
+14). With a prophet's spiritual <a class="newpage" name="page083" id="page083" title="83"></a>insight he read the character of Jesus
+at a glance, and although that character did not prove him to be the
+Messiah, it prepared John for the revelation which was soon to follow.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s087"><p><span class="versenum">87.</span> The reply of Jesus to the unwillingness of John to give him baptism
+(Matt. iii. 15) was an expression of firm purpose to do God's will; the
+absence of any confession of sin is therefore all the more noticeable. In
+all generations the holiest men have been those most conscious of
+imperfection, and in John's message and baptism confession and repentance
+were primary demands; yet Jesus felt no need for repentance, and asked for
+baptism with no word of confession. But for the fact that the total
+impression of his life begat in his disciples the conviction that "he did
+no sin" (I. Pet. ii. 22; compare John viii. 46; II. Cor. v. 21), this
+silence of Jesus would offend the religious sense. Jesus, however, had no
+air of self-sufficiency, he came to make surrender and "to fulfil
+all-righteousness" (Matt. iii. 15). It was the positive aspect of John's
+baptism that drew him to the Jordan. John was preaching the coming of
+God's kingdom. The place held by the doctrine of that kingdom in the later
+teaching of Jesus makes it all but certain that his thought had been
+filled with it for many years. In his reading of the prophets Jesus
+undoubtedly emphasized the spiritual phases of their promises, but it is
+not likely that he had done much criticising of the ideas held by his
+contemporaries before he came to John. As already remarked he seems to
+have been quicker to discover his affinity with the older truth than to be
+conscious of the novelty of his own ways of apprehending it (Matt. v. 17).
+When, then, Jesus heard <a class="newpage" name="page084" id="page084" title="84"></a>John's call for consecration to the approaching
+kingdom he recognized the voice of duty, and he sought the baptism that he
+might do all that he could to "make ready the way of the Lord."</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s088"><p><span class="versenum">88.</span> This act of consecration on Jesus' part was one of personal obedience.
+There were no crowds present (Luke iii. 21), and his thoughts were full of
+prayer. It was an experience which concerned his innermost life with God,
+and it called him to communion with heaven like that in which he sought
+for wisdom before choosing his apostles (Luke vi. 12), and for strength in
+view of his approaching death (Luke ix. 28, 29). His outward declaration
+of loyalty to the coming kingdom was thus not an act of righteousness "to
+be seen of men," but one of personal devotion to him who is and who sees
+in secret (Matt. vi. 1, 6). As the transfiguration followed the prayer on
+Hermon, so this initial consecration was answered from heaven. A part of
+the answer was evident to John, for he saw a visible token of the gift of
+the divine Spirit which was granted to Jesus for the conduct of the work
+he had to do, and he recognized in Jesus the greater successor for whom he
+was simply making preparation (Mark i. 10; John i. 32-34). To Jesus there
+came also with the gift of the Spirit a definite word from heaven, "Thou
+art my beloved Son, in thee I am well pleased" (Mark i. 11). The language
+in Mark and Luke, and the silence of the Baptist concerning the voice from
+heaven (John i. 32-34), indicate that the word came to Jesus alone, and
+was his summons to undertake the work of setting up that kingdom to which
+he had just pledged his loyalty. The expression "My beloved Son" had clear
+Messianic signifi<a class="newpage" name="page085" id="page085" title="85"></a>cance for Jesus' contemporaries (comp. Mark xiv. 62),
+and the message can have signified for him nothing less than a Messianic
+call. It implied more than that child-relation to God which was the
+fundamental fact in his religious life from the beginning: it had an
+official meaning.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s089"><p><span class="versenum">89.</span> For Jesus the sense of being God's child was normally human, and in
+his ministry he invited all men to a similar consciousness of sonship. Yet
+his early years must have brought to him a realization that he was
+different from his fellows. That in him which made a confession at the
+baptism unnatural and which led to John's word, "I have need to be
+baptized by thee," was ready to echo assent when God said, "Thou art my
+Son." He accepted the call and the new office and mission which it
+implied, and he must have recognized that it was for this moment that all
+the past of his life had been making preparation.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s090"><p><span class="versenum">90.</span> The gift of the Spirit to Jesus, which furnished to John the proof
+that the Greater One had appeared, was not an arbitrary sign. The old
+prophetic thought (Isa. xi. 2; xlii. 1; lxi. 1) as well as a later popular
+expectation (Ps. of Sol. xvii. 42) provided for such an anointing of the
+Messiah; and in the actual conduct of his life Jesus was constantly under
+the leading of this Spirit (see Matt. xii. 28 and John iii. 34). The
+temptation which followed the baptism, and in which he faced the
+difficulties in his new task, was the first result of the Spirit's
+control. Its later influence is not so clearly marked in the gospels, but
+they imply that as the older servants of God were guided and strengthened
+by him, so his Son also was aided,--with this difference, however, that he
+possessed com<a class="newpage" name="page086" id="page086" title="86"></a>pletely the heavenly gift (John iii. 34). Jesus' uniform
+confession of dependence on God confirms this teaching of the gift of the
+divine Spirit; and his uniform consciousness of complete power and
+authority confirms the testimony that he had the Spirit "without measure."</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s091"><p><span class="versenum">91.</span> The temptation to which the Spirit "drove" Jesus after his baptism
+gives proof that the call to assume the Messianic office came to him
+unexpectedly; for the three temptations with which his long struggle ended
+were echoes of the voice which he had heard at the Jordan, and subtle
+insinuations of doubt of its meaning. Some withdrawal to contemplate the
+significance of his appointment to a Messianic work was a mental and
+spiritual necessity. As has often been said, if the gospels had not
+recorded the temptation, we should have had to assume one. Jesus being the
+man he was, could not have thought that his call was a summons to an
+entire change in his ideals and his thoughts about God and duty. Yet he
+must have been conscious of the wide differences between his conceptions
+of God's kingdom and the popular expectation. Those differences, by the
+measure of the definiteness of the popular thought and the ardor of the
+popular hope, were the proof of the difficulty of his task. The call meant
+that the Messiah could be such as he was; it meant that the kingdom could
+be and must be a dominion of God primarily in the hearts of men and
+consequently in their world; it meant that his work must be religious
+rather than political, and gracious rather than judicial. These essentials
+of the work which he could do contradicted at nearly every point the
+expectations of his people. How could he <a class="newpage" name="page087" id="page087" title="87"></a>succeed in the face of such
+opposition? His long meditation during forty days doubtless showed him the
+difficulty of his task in all its baldness, yet it did not shake his
+certainty that the call had come to him from God, nor his faith that what
+God had called him to do he could accomplish.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s092"><p><span class="versenum">92.</span> The gospels show no hesitation in calling the experience of these days
+a temptation, nor had the Christian feeling of the first century any
+difficulty in thinking of its Lord as actually suffering temptation (Heb.
+ii. 18; iv. 15). A temptation to be real cannot be hypothetical; evil must
+actually present itself as attractive to the tempted soul. A suggestion of
+evil that takes no hold concretely of the heart is no temptation, nor is
+the resistance of it any victory. The sinlessness of him who sought
+baptism with no confession on his lips nor sense of penitence in his heart
+offers no barrier to his experience of genuine temptation, unless we think
+him incapable of sin, and therefore not "like unto his brethren." Not only
+do the gospels repeatedly refer to his temptations (Luke iv. 13; Mark
+viii. 31-33; Luke xxii. 28; compare Heb. v. 7-9), but they also depict
+clearly the reality of these initial testings. The account as given in
+Matthew and Luke represents the experience with which the forty days'
+struggle culminated. The absorption of Jesus' mind had been so complete
+that he had neglected the needs of his body, and when he turned to think
+of earthly things he was pressed by hunger. A popular notion at a later
+time, and probably also in Jesus' day, was that the Messiah would be able
+to feed his people as Moses had given them manna in the wilderness (John
+vi. 30-32; see EdersLJM. I. 176). He had just <a class="newpage" name="page088" id="page088" title="88"></a>been endowed with the
+divine Spirit for the work before him; it was therefore no fantastic idea
+when the suggestion came that he should use his power to supply his own
+needs in the desert. Nor was the temptation without attractiveness; his
+own physical nature urged its need, and Jesus was no ascetic who found
+discomfort a way of holiness. The evil in the suggestion was that it asked
+him to use his newly given powers for the supply of his own needs, as if
+doubting that God would care for him as for any other of his children.
+There was more than distrust of God suggested; the temptation came with a
+hint of another doubt,--"<i>If</i> thou art God's Son." A miracle would prove
+to himself his appointment and his power. The suggested doubt of his call
+he passed unnoticed; distrust of God he repudiated instantly, falling back
+on his faith in the God he had served these many years (Deut. viii. 3).
+His victory is remarkable because his spirit conquered unhesitatingly
+after a long ecstasy which would naturally have induced a reaction and a
+surrender for the moment to the demand of lower needs.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s093"><p><span class="versenum">93.</span> This firmness of trust opened the way for another evil suggestion. In
+the work before him as God's Anointed many difficulties were on either
+side and across his path. He knew his people, their prejudices, and their
+hardness of heart; and he knew how far he was from their ideal of a
+Messiah. He knew also the watchful jealousy of Rome. Others before him,
+like Judas of Galilee, had tried the Messianic r&ocirc;le and had failed. He,
+however, was confident of his divine call: should he not, therefore, press
+forward with his work, heedless of all danger and regardless of the
+dictates of prudence,--as heedless as if, trus<a class="newpage" name="page089" id="page089" title="89"></a>ting God's promised care,
+he should cast himself down from a pinnacle of the temple to the rocks in
+Kidron below? A fanatic would have yielded to such a temptation. Many
+another than Jesus did so,--Theudas (Acts v. 36), the Egyptian (Acts xxi.
+38); and Bar Cochba (Dio Cassius, lxix. 12-14; Euseb. Ch. Hist. iv. 6).
+Jesus, however, showed his perfect mental health, repudiating the
+temptation by declaring that while man may trust God's care, he must not
+presumptuously put it to the test (Matt. iv. 7). The after life of Jesus
+was a clear commentary on this reply. He constantly sought to avoid
+situations which would compromise his mission or cut short his work (see
+John vi. 15), and when at the end he suffered the death prepared for him
+by his people's hatred, it was because his hour had come and he could say,
+"I lay down my life of myself" (John x. 18). His marvellous control of
+enthusiasm and his self-mastery in all circumstances separate Jesus from
+all ecstatics and fanatics. Yet presumption must have seemed the easier
+course, and could readily wear the mask of trust. He was tempted, yet
+without sin.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s094"><p><span class="versenum">94.</span> As the refusal to doubt led to the temptation to presume, so the
+determination to be prudent opened the way for a third assault upon his
+perfect loyalty to God. The world he was to seek to save was swayed by
+passions; his own people were longing for a Messiah, but they must have
+their kind of a Messiah. If he would acknowledge this actual supremacy of
+evil and self-will in the world, the opposition of passion and prejudice
+might be avoided. If he would own the evil inevitable for the time, and
+accommodate his work to it, he might then be free to lead men to <a class="newpage" name="page090" id="page090" title="90"></a>higher
+and more spiritual views of God's kingdom. His knowledge of his people's
+grossness of heart and materialism of hope made a real temptation of the
+suggestion that he should not openly oppose but should accommodate himself
+to them. Jesus did not underestimate the opposition of "the kingdoms of
+the world," but he truly estimated God's intolerance of any rivalry (Matt.
+iv. 10), and he was true to God and to his own soul. Again, in this as in
+the preceding temptations, Jesus conquered the evil suggestions by
+appropriating to himself truth spoken by God's servants to Israel. Tempted
+in all points like his brethren, he resisted as any one of them could have
+resisted, and won a victory possible, ideally considered, to any other of
+the children of men.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s095"><p><span class="versenum">95.</span> It is not idle curiosity which inquires whence the evangelists got
+this story of the temptation of Jesus. Even if the whole transaction took
+place on the plane of outer sensuous life, and Jesus was bodily carried to
+Jerusalem and to the mountain-top, there is no probability that any
+witnesses were at hand who could tell the tale. But the fact that in any
+case the vision of the kingdoms of the world in a moment of time (Luke iv.
+5) could have been spiritual only, since no mountain, however high (Matt.
+iv. 8), could give, physically, that wide sweep of view, suggests that the
+whole account tells in pictorial language an intensely real, inner
+experience of Jesus. This in no respect reduces the truthfulness of the
+narratives. Temptation never becomes temptation till it passes to that
+inner scene of action and debate. Since Jesus shows in all his teaching a
+natural use of parabolic language to set forth spiritual truth, the
+inference is <a class="newpage" name="page091" id="page091" title="91"></a>almost inevitable that the gospels have in like manner
+adopted the language of vivid picture as alone adequate to depict the
+essential reality of his inner struggle. In any case the narrative could
+have come from no other source than himself. How he came to tell it we do
+not know. On one of the days of private converse with his disciples after
+the confession at C&aelig;sarea Philippi he may have given them this account of
+his own experience, in order to help his loyal Galileans to understand
+more fully his work and the way of it, and to prepare them for that
+disappointment of their expectations which they were so slow to
+acknowledge as possible.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s096"><p><span class="versenum">96.</span> From this struggle in the wilderness Jesus came forth with the clear
+conviction that he was God's Anointed, and in all his after life no
+hesitation appeared. The kingdom which he undertook to establish was that
+dominion of simple righteousness which he had learned to know and love in
+the years of quiet life in Nazareth. He set out to do his work fearlessly,
+but prudently, seeking to win men in his Father's way to acknowledge that
+Father's sovereignty. There is no evidence that, beyond such firm
+conviction and purpose, he had any fixed plan for the work he was to do,
+nor that he saw clearly as yet how his earthly career would end. The third
+temptation, however, shows that he was not unprepared for seeming defeat.
+The struggle had been long and serious,--for the three temptations of the
+end are doubtless typical of the whole of the forty days,--and the victory
+was great and final. With the light of victory as well as the marks of
+warfare on his face, he took his way back towards Galilee.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<div class="chapter" id="p01-08">
+<h2><a class="newpage" name="page092" id="page092" title="92"></a>VIII</h2>
+
+<h3>The First Disciples</h3>
+
+<h4>John i. 19 TO ii. 12</h4>
+
+
+
+<div class="section" id="s097"><p><span class="versenum">97.</span> After the withdrawal of Jesus into the wilderness, John the Baptist
+continued his ministry of preaching and baptizing, moving northward up the
+Jordan valley to Bethany, on the eastern side of the river, near one of
+the fords below the Sea of Galilee (John i. 28). Here Galilee, doubtless,
+contributed more to his audience than Judea. It is certain that some from
+the borders of the lake were at this time among his constant attendants:
+Andrew and Simon of Bethsaida, John the son of Zebedee, and perhaps his
+brother James, probably also Philip of Bethsaida and Nathanael of Cana
+(John i. 40, 41, 43-45; compare xxi. 2).</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s098"><p><span class="versenum">98.</span> The leaders in Jerusalem, becoming apprehensive whither this work
+would lead, sent an embassy to question John. They chose for this mission
+priests and Levites of pharisaic leaning as most influential among the
+people. The impression John and his message were making on the popular
+mind is seen in the questions put to him, "Art thou the Messiah?"
+"Elijah?" "The prophet?" (see Deut. xviii. 15), and in the challenge,
+"Why, then, baptizest thou?" when John disclaimed the right to any of
+these names. John's reply is the echo of his earlier proclamation of <a class="newpage" name="page093" id="page093" title="93"></a>the
+one mightier than he who should baptize with the Spirit (Mark i. 7, 8),
+only now he added that this one was present among them (John i. 26, 27).</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s099"><p><span class="versenum">99.</span> This interview occurred several weeks after Jesus' baptism, for upon
+the next day John saw Jesus (John i. 29), now returned from the
+temptation, and pointed him out to a group of disciples. Something in
+Jesus' face or in his bearing, as he came from his temptation, must have
+impressed John even more than at their first meeting; for he was led to
+think of a prophetic word for the most part ignored by the Messianic
+thought of his day, "He was brought as a lamb to the slaughter" (Isa.
+liii. 7). As he looked on Jesus the mysterious oracle was illuminated for
+him, and he cried, "Behold the lamb of God which taketh away the sin of
+the world." Once again on the next day the same thought rushed to his lips
+when, with two disciples, he saw Jesus passing by (John i. 35, 36). Then
+as Jesus left John's neighborhood and took up again the round of ordinary
+life, John seems to have reverted to his more ordinary Messianic thought,
+his momentary insight into highest truth standing as a thing apart in his
+life. Such a moment's insight, caused by extraordinary circumstances, no
+more requires that John should retain the high thought constantly than
+does Peter's confession of Christ at C&aelig;sarea Philippi exclude his later
+rebuke of his Lord (Mark viii. 32, 33), or his denials (Mark xiv. 66-72).</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s100"><p><span class="versenum">100.</span> The disciples who heard these testimonies from John understood them
+to be Messianic (John i. 30-34), though their later consternation, when
+the cross seemed to shatter their hopes (John xx. 9, 10, 24, <a class="newpage" name="page094" id="page094" title="94"></a>25), shows
+that they did not comprehend their deeper meaning. Two of these disciples
+at once attached themselves to Jesus, and one of them, Andrew of
+Bethsaida, was so impressed by the new master that, having sought out his
+brother Simon, he declared that they had found the Messiah. The other of
+these earliest followers was John the son of Zebedee, and it is possible
+that he also found his brother and introduced James from the very first
+into the circle of the disciples. Jesus was about to take his departure
+for Galilee, and on the next day, as he was leaving, added Philip of
+Bethsaida to the little company of followers. Philip, impressed as Andrew
+had been, brought Nathanael of Cana to Jesus. The undefined something
+about Jesus which drew noble hearts irresistibly to himself, and his
+marvellous knowledge of this new comer, produced the same effect in
+Nathanael, as was seen earlier in Andrew and Philip, and he acknowledged
+the new master as "Son of God, King of Israel" (John i. 49).</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s101"><p><span class="versenum">101.</span> These early confessions in the fourth gospel present a difficulty in
+view of Jesus' warm approval of Peter's acknowledgment of him at C&aelig;sarea
+Philippi (Matt. xvi. 13-20). Jesus saw in that confession a distinct
+advance in the disciples' thought and faith. Yet the religious feeling
+which early questioned whether the Baptist even were not the Messiah (Luke
+iii. 15) would almost certainly have concluded that John's greater
+successor must be God's anointed. The very fact that men's thoughts about
+the Messiah were varied and complex made them ready for some modifications
+of their preconceptions. One with such subtle personal power as Jesus had
+exercised was almost sure to be hailed by some with enthusiasm as the
+looked-<a class="newpage" name="page095" id="page095" title="95"></a>for representative of God. In fact, it is probable that at any
+time in the early days of his ministry Jesus could have been proclaimed
+Messiah, provided he had accepted the people's terms. Such a confession
+would have been merely the outcome of enthusiasm. The people, even the
+disciples, did not know Jesus. They all had high hopes and somewhat fixed
+ideas about the Messiah, nearly every one of which was destined to rude
+shock. How little they knew him Jesus realized (John i. 51), and his
+self-mastery is manifest in his attitude to this early enthusiasm. He was
+no visionary; he had a great work to do and a long lesson to teach, and he
+was patient enough to teach it little by little. He did not rebuke the
+ill-informed faith of a Nathanael, but sought gradually to supplant the
+old thought of the Messiah and of the kingdom by new truth, and to bind
+men's affections to himself for his own sake and the truth's sake, not
+simply for the idea which he impersonated to them.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s102"><p><span class="versenum">102.</span> The visit to Cana seems to have found a place in the fourth gospel,
+because there the new disciples discovered in their master miraculous
+powers which were to them a sign that he was in truth God's anointed. It
+is probable that at the time of this miracle the disciples thought only of
+the power and the marvel, yet the sharp contrast between John's ascetic
+habit and Jesus' use of his divine resources to relieve embarrassment at a
+wedding feast must have impressed every man among them. Their minds,
+however, were as yet too full of Messianic hopes to leave much room for
+reflection. They were content to have a sign, for in the view of Jesus'
+contemporaries signs were essential marks of the Messiah (John vi. 30;
+vii. 31; <a class="newpage" name="page096" id="page096" title="96"></a>Mark viii. 11). They did their reflecting later (John ii. 22).</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s103"><p><span class="versenum">103.</span> Miracles are as great a stumbling-block to modern thought as they
+were a help to the contemporaries of Jesus. The study of Jesus' life
+cannot ignore this fact, nor make little of it. It is fair to insist,
+however, that the question is one of evidence, not of metaphysical
+possibility. Men are wisely slow to-day to claim that they can tell what
+are the limits of the possible. If the question is one of evidence, it is
+in an important sense true that the evidence for miracle in the life of
+Jesus is appreciable only when that life is viewed in its completeness.
+The miracles attributed to Jesus may be studied, however, for the
+disclosure which they give of his character, and of his relation to common
+human need. So it is with this first sign at Cana. Jesus had just heard
+the call to be Messiah, and in his lonely struggle in the wilderness had
+given a loyal answer to that call, and had set out to do his Father's
+business in his Father's way. He who by the Jordan still carried the marks
+of struggle, so that the Baptist saw in him the suffering Saviour of
+Isaiah liii., now returned to the ordinary daily life in Galilee, and as a
+guest at a wedding feast he commenced that ministry of simple human
+friendliness (Matt. xi. 19; compare Mark ii. 15-17; Luke xv. 1, 2), which
+set him in sharp contrast alike with John's asceticism and with the
+ritualism and pedantry of the Pharisees.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s104"><p><span class="versenum">104.</span> His human friendliness is all the more worthy of note, inasmuch as on
+his return to Cana Jesus did not take up again the old relations of life
+as they existed before his baptism. This is clear from his reply to his
+mother when she reported the scarcity <a class="newpage" name="page097" id="page097" title="97"></a>of wine (John ii. 3-5). While it is
+true that the title by which Jesus addressed Mary was neither
+disrespectful nor unkind (John xix. 26), the reply itself was a warning
+that now he was no longer hers in the old sense. A new mission had been
+given him, which henceforth would determine all his conduct, and in that
+mission she could not now share. Here is one of the many indications
+(compare Mark iii. 21, 31-35; Luke ii. 48) that Mary did not understand
+her son nor his work until much later (John xix. 25; Acts i. 14). That
+with such a clear sense of his new and serious mission Jesus' first
+official act was one of kindly relief for social embarrassment is most
+significant. He chose to show his divine authority to his new disciples in
+a way that brought joy to a festal company. Little as the disciples were
+likely to appreciate it at the time, it was beautifully indicative of the
+simplicity and everyday lovableness of Jesus' idea of the earnest service
+of God.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s105"><p><span class="versenum">105.</span> With the disciples thus strengthened in faith, and the mother not
+separated from him though unable to know his deepest thoughts, and the
+brethren who could not yet nor later understand their kinsman and his
+work, Jesus went down to Capernaum (John ii. 12), which proved thenceforth
+to be the centre of his greatest work and teaching. There for a time, how
+long cannot be known, he continued in quiet fellowship with his new
+friends, until the approach of the Passover drew him to Jerusalem to make
+formal opening of his Messianic work in that centre of his people's
+religious life.</p></div>
+</div>
+<p><a class="newpage" name="page098" id="page098" title="98"></a></p>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<div class="part" id="p02">
+<h2><a class="newpage" name="page099" id="page099" title="99"></a>Part II</h2>
+
+<h3>The Ministry</h3>
+
+<p><a class="newpage" name="page100" id="page100" title="100"></a></p>
+
+<div class="chapter" id="p02-01">
+<h2><a class="newpage" name="page101" id="page101" title="101"></a>I</h2>
+
+<h3>General Survey of the Ministry</h3>
+
+
+
+<div class="section" id="s106"><p><span class="versenum">106.</span> The attempt to arrange an orderly account of the way in which Jesus
+set about the work to which he was called at his baptism is met at the
+outset by a problem. The vivid and familiar words of Mark (i. 14),
+seconded by the representation in both Matthew (iv. 12) and Luke (iv. 14),
+indicate the imprisonment of John as the occasion, and Galilee as the
+scene of the inauguration of Jesus' public ministry. The fourth gospel, on
+the other hand, tells of a work of Jesus and his disciples in Judea prior
+to the imprisonment of John (in. 24), and makes this work follow at some
+interval after the inauguration of the Messianic ministry in Jerusalem.
+The minuteness of detail of time and place in the early chapters of John
+(i. 19 to iv. 43), together with the vividness of their narrative, give
+them strong claim to credence. They thus record a ministry earlier than
+that narrated in the other gospels, proving that the actual inauguration
+of Jesus' work occurred in Jerusalem at a Passover season previous to the
+imprisonment of John. This is known as the Early Judean Ministry.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s107"><p><span class="versenum">107.</span> The fact that Peter was wont to tell the story of Jesus' life in such
+a way as to lead Mark to set the opening of the ministry after the close
+of John's activ<a class="newpage" name="page102" id="page102" title="102"></a>ity, indicates that that beginning of work in Galilee
+seemed to the disciples to be in a way the actual inauguration of Jesus'
+constructive and successful work. Peter cannot have been ignorant of the
+labors in Judea, though he may not himself have accompanied Jesus to the
+Passover. A new stage in the life of Jesus began, therefore, with his
+withdrawal to Galilee.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s108"><p><span class="versenum">108.</span> The story of the Galilean ministry is given chiefly by the first
+three gospels, John contributing but two incidents to the period covered
+by that ministry,--a second miracle at Cana (iv. 46-54), and a visit to
+Judea (v. 1-47),--and relating more fully the story of the feeding of the
+multitudes (vi. 1-71). The journey from Judea through Samaria (John iv.
+1-45) should be identified with the removal to Galilee which stands at the
+beginning of Mark's record (i. 14; Matt. iv. 12; Luke iv. 14). Mark's
+account of the Galilean activity of Jesus (i. 14 to ix. 50) is one of such
+simple and steady progress that the whole period must be considered as a
+unit.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s109"><p><span class="versenum">109.</span> In the use which Matthew (iv. 12 to xviii. 35) and Luke (iv. 14 to
+ix. 50) make of Mark's record this unity is emphasized. Their treatment of
+the matter which they add, however, makes it best to study the period
+topically rather than attempt to follow closely a chronological sequence.
+As it is probable that the early writing ascribed by Papias to the apostle
+Matthew failed to preserve in many cases any record of the time and place
+of the teachings of Jesus, so is it certain that the first and third
+evangelists have distributed quite differently the material which they
+seem to have derived from that apostolic document. Mention need only be
+made of the exhor<a class="newpage" name="page103" id="page103" title="103"></a>tation against anxiety which Matthew places in the
+sermon on the mount (vi. 19-34), and which Luke has given after the close
+of the Galilean activity (xii. 22-34). It is possible to form some
+judgment of the general relations of such discourses from the character of
+their contents, but in the absence of positive statement by the
+evangelists it is hopeless to seek to give them a more definite historical
+setting. A topical study can consider them as contributions to the period
+to which they belong, while a chronological study would be lost in
+uncertain conjectures. A topical study may, however, disclose the fact
+that sequence of time was identical with development of method. This is,
+in general, the case with the Galilean ministry. The new lesson which
+Jesus began to teach after the confession at C&aelig;sarea Philippi marked the
+supreme turning point in his whole public activity. Before that crisis the
+work of Jesus was a constructive preparation for the question which called
+forth Peter's confession. Subsequently his work was that of making ready
+for the end, which from that time on he foretold. As has been stated, the
+Galilean ministry is the story of the first three gospels, except for two
+incidents and a discourse added by John. The visit to the feast of
+Tabernacles (John vii. 1 to viii. 59) stands on the border between the
+work in Galilee and that which followed. It was one of Jesus' many
+attempts to win Jerusalem, and is evidence that the author of the fourth
+gospel--either because of special interest in the capital, or because of
+superior knowledge of the work of his Master in Judea--gave emphasis to a
+side of the life of Jesus which the other gospels have neglected.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s110"><p><a class="newpage" name="page104" id="page104" title="104"></a><span class="versenum">110.</span> With the close of the constructive ministry in Galilee, the account
+of Mark (x. 1; compare Matt xix. 1; Luke ix. 51) turns towards Jerusalem
+and the cross. The journey was not direct, but traversed Perea, the domain
+of Antipas beyond Jordan, and was accompanied by continued ministry of
+teaching and healing (Mark x. 1-52; Matt. xix. 1 to xx. 34). It is at this
+point that Luke has inserted the long section peculiar to his gospel (ix.
+51 to xviii. 14), becoming again parallel with Mark as Jesus drew near to
+Jerusalem (xviii. 15 to xix. 28; compare Mark x. 13-52). Much of that
+which Luke adds gives evidence that in all probability it should be placed
+before the change in method at C&aelig;sarea Philippi, while much of it
+undoubtedly belongs to the last months of Jesus' life. Since the last
+journey to Jerusalem is reported with considerable fulness, it is natural
+in a study of Jesus' life to treat that journey by itself. At this point
+John contributes important additions to the record (ix. 1 to xi. 57)
+showing that the journey was not continuous, but was interrupted by
+several more or less hurried visits to the capital, renewed efforts of
+Jesus to win the city.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s111"><p><span class="versenum">111.</span> With the final arrival in Jerusalem the four gospels come together in
+a record of the last days and the crucifixion (Mark xi. 1 to xv. 47; Matt,
+xxi 1 to xxvii. 66; Luke xix. 29 to xxiii. 56; John xi. 55 to xix. 42).
+The evangelists, in their accounts of the last week, seem to have had
+access to completer and more varied information than for any other part of
+the ministry. This causes some difficulties in constructing an ordered
+conception of the events, yet it greatly adds to the fulness of our
+knowledge. It is easier, therefore, <a class="newpage" name="page105" id="page105" title="105"></a>to consider the period in three
+parts,--the final controversies in Jerusalem, the Last Supper, and the
+betrayal, trial, and crucifixion.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s112"><p><span class="versenum">112.</span> In a sense the resurrection and ascension form the conclusion of the
+final visit to Jerusalem, and should be treated with the last week. In a
+larger sense, however, they form the culmination of the whole ministry,
+and therefore constitute a final stage in the study of Jesus' life. At
+this point the record of the gospels is supplemented by the first chapter
+of the Acts and by Paul's concise report of the appearances of the risen
+Christ (I. Cor. xv. 3-8). The various accounts exhibit perplexing
+independence of each other. In total impression, however, they agree, and
+show that the tragedy, by which the enemies of Jesus thought to end his
+career, was turned into signal triumph.</p></div>
+</div><div class="chapter" id="p02-02">
+<div class="outline">
+<h2><a class="newpage" name="page106" id="page106" title="106"></a>   Outline of Events in the Early Judean Ministry</h2>
+
+
+<p>   The first Passover of the public ministry: Cleansing of the
+   temple--John ii. 13-22.</p>
+
+<p>   Early results in Jerusalem: Discourse with Nicodemus--John ii. 23 to
+   iii. 15.</p>
+
+<p>   Withdrawal into rural parts of Judea to preach and baptize--John in.
+   22-30; iv. 1, 2.</p>
+
+<p>   Imprisonment of John the Baptist--Matt. iv. 12; Mark i. 14.</p>
+
+<p>   Withdrawal from Judea through Samaria--John iv. 1-42.</p>
+
+<p>   Unlooked-for welcome in Galilee--John iv. 43-45.</p>
+
+<p>   ? Second sign at Cana: Cure of the Nobleman's son--John iv. 46-54 (see
+   sect. <a href="#a041">A 41</a>).</p>
+
+<p>   [Retirement at Nazareth, the disciples resuming their accustomed
+   calling. Inferred from Matt. iv. 13; Luke iv. 31; Matt. iv. 18-22 and
+   &#8741;s.]</p>
+
+<p>   Events marked ? should possibly be given a different place; &#8741;s stands
+   for "parallel accounts;" for sections marked A--as <a href="#a041">A 41</a>--see Appendix.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+<h2>II</h2>
+
+<h3>The Early Ministry in Judea</h3>
+
+
+
+<div class="section" id="s113"><p><span class="versenum">113.</span> We owe to the fourth gospel our knowledge of the fact that Jesus
+began his general ministry in Jerusalem. The silence of the other records
+concerning this beginning cannot discredit the testimony of John. For
+these other records themselves indicate in various ways that Jesus had
+repeatedly sought to win Jerusalem before his final visit at the end of
+his life (compare Luke xiii. 34; Matt. xxiii. 37). Moreover, the fourth
+gospel is confirmed by the probability, rising <a class="newpage" name="page107" id="page107" title="107"></a>almost to necessity, that
+such a mission as Jesus conceived his to be must seek first to win the
+leaders of his people. The temple at Jerusalem was the centre of worship,
+drawing all Jews sooner or later to itself--even as Jesus in early youth
+was accustomed to go thither at the time of feasts (Luke ii. 41).
+Worshippers of God throughout the world prayed with their faces towards
+Jerusalem (Dan. vi. 10). Moreover, at Jerusalem the chief of the scribes,
+as well as the chief of the priests, were to be found. Compared with
+Jerusalem all other places were provincial and of small influence. A
+Messiah, who had not from the outset given up hope of winning the capital,
+cannot have long delayed his effort to find a following there.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s114"><p><span class="versenum">114.</span> Arriving at Jerusalem at the Passover season, in the early spring,
+Jesus remained in Judea until the following December (John iv. 35).
+Evidently the record which John gives of these months is most fragmentary,
+and from his own statement (xx. 30, 31) it seems highly probable that it
+is one sided, emphasizing those events and teachings in which Jesus
+disclosed more or less clearly his claim to be the Messiah. Doubtless the
+full record would show a much closer similarity between this early work in
+Judea and that later conducted in Galilee than a comparison of John with
+the other gospels would suggest; yet it is evident that Jesus opened his
+ministry in Jerusalem with an unrestrained frankness that is not found
+later in Galilee.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s115"><p><span class="versenum">115.</span> It is a mistake to think of the cleansing of the temple as a distinct
+Messianic manifesto. The market in the temple was a licensed affront to
+spiritual religion. It found its excuse for being in the require<a class="newpage" name="page108" id="page108" title="108"></a>ment that
+worshippers offer to the priests for sacrifice animals levitically clean
+and acceptable, and that gifts for the temple treasury be made in no coin
+other than the sacred "shekel of the sanctuary." The chief priests
+appreciated the convenience which worshippers coming from a distance would
+find if they could obtain all the means of worship within the temple
+enclosure itself. The hierarchy or its representatives seem also to have
+appreciated the opportunity to charge good prices for the accommodation so
+afforded. The result was the intrusion of the spirit of the market-place,
+with all its disputes and haggling, into the place set apart for worship.
+In fact, the only part of the temple open to Gentiles who might wish to
+worship Israel's God was filled with distraction, unseemly strife, and
+extortion (compare Mark xi. 17). Such despite done the sanctity of God's
+house must have outraged the pious sense of many a devout Israelite. There
+is no doubt of what an Isaiah or a Micah would have said and done in such
+a situation. This is exactly what Jesus did. His act was the assumption of
+a full prophetic authority. In itself considered it was nothing more. In
+his expulsion of the traders he had the conscience of the people for his
+ally. There is no need to think of any use of miraculous power. His moral
+earnestness, coupled with the underlying consciousness on the part of the
+traders themselves that they had no business in God's house, readily
+explains the confusion and departure of the intruders. Even those who
+challenged Jesus' conduct did not venture to defend the presence of the
+market in the temple. They only demanded that Jesus show his warrant for
+disturbing a condition of things authorized by the priests.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s116"><p><a class="newpage" name="page109" id="page109" title="109"></a><span class="versenum">116.</span> The temple cleansing is recorded in the other gospels at the end of
+Jesus' ministry, just before the hostility of the Jews culminated in his
+condemnation and death. Inasmuch as these gospels give no account of a
+ministry by Jesus in Jerusalem before the last week of his life, it is
+easy to see how this event came to be associated by them with the only
+Jerusalem sojourn which they record. The definite place given to the event
+in John, together with the seeming necessity that Jesus should condemn
+such authorized affront to the very idea of worship, mark this cleansing
+as the inaugural act of Jesus' ministry of spiritual religion, rather than
+as a final stern rebuke closing his effort to win his people. Against the
+conclusion commonly held that Jesus cleansed the temple both at the
+opening and at the close of his course is the extreme improbability that
+the traders would have been caught twice in the same way. The event fits
+in closely with the story of the last week, because it actually led to the
+beginning of opposition in Jerusalem to the prophet from Galilee. At the
+first the opposition was doubtless of a scornful sort. Later it grew in
+bitterness when it saw how Jesus was able to arouse a popular enthusiasm
+that seemed to threaten the stability of existing conditions.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s117"><p><span class="versenum">117.</span> The reply of Jesus to the challenge of his authority for his
+high-handed act shows that he offered it to the people as an invitation;
+he would lead them to a higher idea and practice of worship (compare John
+iv. 21-24). When they demanded the warrant for his act, he saw that they
+were not ready to follow him, and could not appreciate the only warrant he
+needed for his course. He cleansed the temple because they were destroying
+<a class="newpage" name="page110" id="page110" title="110"></a>it as a place where men could worship God in spirit. In reply to the
+challenge, he who later taught the Samaritan woman that the worship of God
+is not dependent on any place however sacred, answered that they might
+finish their work and destroy the temple as a house of God, yet he would
+speedily re-establish a true means of approach to the Most High for the
+souls of men. He clothed his reply in a figurative dress, as he was often
+wont to do in his teaching,--"Destroy this temple, and in three days I
+will raise it up." To his unsympathetic hearers it must have been
+completely enigmatic. Even the disciples did not catch its meaning until
+after the resurrection had taught them that in their Master a new chapter
+in God's dealing with men had begun.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s118"><p><span class="versenum">118.</span> The unreadiness of the Jewish leaders to receive the only kind of
+message he had to offer produced in Jesus a decided reserve. He did not
+lack a certain kind of success in Jerusalem. His cures of the sick won him
+many followers who seemed ready to believe almost anything of him. But the
+attitude taken by the leaders made it evident that Jesus must make
+disciples who should understand in some measure at least his idea of God's
+kingdom, and, understanding, must be ready to be loyal to it through good
+report and evil. For the position taken by the leaders of the people had
+an ominous significance. It could mean but one thing for
+Jesus,--unrelenting conflict. If they could not be won, they who would so
+legalize the desecration of God's house would not hesitate at any extreme
+in opposing his messenger. This possibility confronted Jesus at the very
+outset; therefore he held the popular enthusiasm in check, knowing that
+<a class="newpage" name="page111" id="page111" title="111"></a>as yet it had little of that kind of faith which could endure seeming
+defeat.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s119"><p><span class="versenum">119.</span> One of those who were drawn to him, however, gave Jesus opportunity
+to lay aside his reserve and speak clearly of the truth lie came to
+publish. He was a member of the Jewish sanhedrin, a rabbi apparently held
+in high regard in Jerusalem. While his associates were dismissing the
+claims of Jesus with a wave of the hand, Nicodemus sought out the new
+teacher by night, and showed his desire to learn what Jesus held to be
+truth concerning God's kingdom. Jesus first reminded the teacher of Israel
+of the old doctrine of the prophets, that Israel must find a new heart
+before God's kingdom can come (Jer. xxxi. 31-34; Ezek. xxxvi. 25-27), and
+then declared that the heavenly truth which God now would reveal to men is
+that all can have the needed new life as freely as the plague-stricken
+Israelites found relief when Moses lifted up the brazen serpent. This
+conversation serves to introduce the evangelist's interpretation of Jesus
+as the only begotten Son of God sent in love to redeem the world (John
+iii. 16-21).</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s120"><p><span class="versenum">120.</span> John's record suggests that Jesus left Jerusalem shortly after the
+conversation with Nicodemus. His work there was not without success, for
+Nicodemus seems to have been henceforth his loyal advocate (compare John
+vii. 50-52; xix. 39); and it may be that at the time of this sojourn he
+won the hearts of his friends in Bethany, for the first picture the
+gospels give of this household seems to presuppose a somewhat intimate
+relation of Jesus to the family (Luke x. 38-42). It would be idle to
+speculate whether it was at this time or later that he became acquainted
+with Joseph of Arimathea, or the friends who during the last week of <a class="newpage" name="page112" id="page112" title="112"></a>his
+life showed him hospitality (Mark xi. 2-6; xiv. 12-16).</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s121"><p><span class="versenum">121.</span> For a time after his withdrawal from Jerusalem he lingered in Judea,
+carrying on a simple ministry of preparation like that of John the
+Baptist. In this way the summer and early autumn seem to have passed,
+Jesus growing more popular as a prophet than John himself had been. The
+fact that Jesus' disciples administered baptism in connection with his
+work roused the jealousy of some of John's followers, and attracted again
+the attention of Jerusalem to the new activity of the bold disturber of
+the temple market. John's disciples complained to him of Jesus' rivalry,
+and received his self-effacing confession, "He must increase, I must
+decrease." The Pharisees, on the other hand, made Jesus feel that further
+work in Judea was for the time unwise, and he withdrew into Galilee for
+retirement, since "a prophet has no honor in his own country" (John iv.
+1-3, 44). Baffled in his first effort to win his people, this journey back
+from the region of the holy city must have been one of no little sadness
+for Jesus. Some urgency for haste led him by the direct road through
+despised Samaria. A seemingly chance conversation with a woman at Jacob's
+well, where he was resting at noonday, gave him an opportunity for
+ministry which was more ingenuously received than any which he had been
+able to render in Judea; and to this woman he declared himself even more
+plainly than to Nicodemus, and preached to her that spiritual idea of
+worship which he had sought to enforce by cleansing Jerusalem's temple.
+Samaria was so isolated from all Jewish interest that Jesus felt no need
+for reserve in this "strange" land. The few days spent there must <a class="newpage" name="page113" id="page113" title="113"></a>have
+been peculiarly welcome to his heart, fresh from rejection in Judea.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s122"><p><span class="versenum">122.</span> One reason why he wished to hasten from Judea seems to have been his
+knowledge of the hostile movement which was making against John the
+Baptist. Either before or soon after Jesus started for Galilee Herod had
+arrested John, ostensibly as a measure of public safety owing to John's
+undue popularity (Jos. Ant. xviii. 5. 2). Herod may have been encouraged
+to take this step by the hostility of the Pharisees to the plain-spoken
+prophet of the desert (see John iv. 1-3). The fourth gospel leaves its
+readers to infer that the imprisonment took place somewhere about this
+time (compare iii. 24 and v. 35), while the other gospels unite in giving
+this arrest as the occasion for Jesus' withdrawal into Galilee.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s123"><p><span class="versenum">123.</span> Arrived in Galilee, Jesus seems to have returned to his home at
+Nazareth, while his disciples went back to their customary occupations,
+until he summoned them again to join him in a new ministry (see sect.
+125). John assigns to this time the cure of a nobleman's son. The father
+sought out Jesus at Cana, having left his son sick at Capernaum. At first
+Jesus apparently repelled his approach, even as he had dealt with seekers
+after marvels at Jerusalem; but on hearing the father's cry of need and
+trust, he at once spoke the word of healing. This event is in so many ways
+a duplicate of the cure of a centurion's servant recorded in Matthew and
+Luke, that to many it seems but another version of the same incident.
+Considering the variations in the story reported by Matthew and Luke, it
+is clearly not possible to prove that John tells of a different case. Yet
+the simple fact of similarity of some details in two <a class="newpage" name="page114" id="page114" title="114"></a>events should not
+exclude the possibility of their still being quite distinct. The reception
+which Jesus gave the two requests for help is very different, and the case
+reported in John is in keeping with the attitude of Jesus before he began
+his new ministry in Galilee. On his arrival in Galilee he wished to avoid
+a mere wonder faith begotten of the enthusiasm he excited in Jerusalem,
+yet this wish yielded at once when a genuine need sought relief at his
+hands.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s124"><p><span class="versenum">124.</span> The apparent result of this first activity in Judea was
+disappointment and failure. He had won no considerable following in the
+capital. He had definitely excited the jealousy and opposition of the
+leading men of his nation. Even such popular enthusiasm as had followed
+his mighty works was of a sort that Jesus could not encourage. The
+situation in Judea had at length become so nearly untenable that he
+decided to withdraw into seclusion in Galilee, where, as a prophet, he
+could be "without honor." He had gone to Jerusalem eager to begin there,
+where God should have had readiest service, the ministry of the kingdom of
+God. Challenge, cold criticism, and superficial faith were the results. A
+new beginning must be made on other lines in other places. Meanwhile Jesus
+retired to his home and his followers to theirs.</p></div></div>
+<div class="chapter" id="p02-03">
+<div class="outline">
+<h2><a class="newpage" name="page115" id="page115" title="115"></a>   Outline of Events in the Galilean Ministry (Chapters <a href="#p02-03">III.</a> and <a href="#p02-04">IV.</a>)</h2>
+
+
+<p>   The imprisonment of John and the withdrawal of Jesus into
+   Galilee--Matt. iv. 12-17; Mark i. 14, 15; Luke iv. 14, 15.</p>
+
+<p>   Removal from Nazareth to Capernaum--Matt. iv. 13-16; Luke iv. 31.</p>
+
+<p>   The call of Simon and Andrew, James and John--Matt. iv. 18-22; Mark i.
+   16-20; Luke v. 1-11.
+
+</p>
+
+<p>   First work in Capernaum--Matt. viii. 14-17; Mark i. 21-34; Luke iv.
+   31-41.</p>
+
+<p>   First circuit of Galilee--Matt. iv. 23; viii. 2-4; Mark i. 35-45; Luke
+   iv. 42-44; v. 12-16.</p>
+
+<p>   Cure of a paralytic in Capernaum--Matt. ix. 2-8; Mark ii. 1-12; Luke v.
+   17-26.</p>
+
+<p>   The call of Matthew--Matt. ix. 9-13; Mark ii. 13-17; Luke v. 27-32.</p>
+
+<p>   ? The question about fasting--Matt ix. 14-17; Mark ii. 18-22; Luke v.
+   33-39 (see sects. 47; <a href="#a054">A 54</a>).</p>
+
+<p>   ? Sabbath cure at Jerusalem at the unnamed feast--John v. 1-47 (see
+   sect. <a href="#a053">A 53</a>).</p>
+
+<p>   ? The Sabbath controversy in the Galilean grain fields--Matt. xii. 1-8;
+   Mark ii. 23-28; Luke vi. 1-5 (see sects. 47; <a href="#a054">A 54</a>).</p>
+
+<p>   ? Another Sabbath controversy: cure of a withered hand--Matt. xii.
+   9-14; Mark iii. 1-6; Luke vi. 6-11 (see sects. 47; <a href="#a054">A 54</a>).</p>
+
+<p>   Jesus followed by multitudes from all parts--Matt. iv. 23-25; xii.
+   15-21; Mark iii. 7-12; Luke vi. 17-19.</p>
+
+<p>   The choosing of the twelve--Matt. x. 2-4; Mark iii. 13-19; Luke vi.
+   12-19.</p>
+
+<p>   The sermon on the mount--Matt. v. 1 to viii. 1; Luke vi. 20 to vii. 1
+   (see sect. <a href="#a055">A 55</a>).</p>
+
+<p>   The cure of a centurion's servant--Matt. viii. 5-13; Luke vii. 1-10;
+   John iv. 46-54.</p>
+
+<p><a class="newpage" name="page116" id="page116" title="116"></a>   The restoration of the widow's son at Nain--Luke vii. 11-17.</p>
+
+<p>   The message from John in prison--Matt. xi. 2-19; Luke vii. 18-35.</p>
+
+<p>   The anointing of Jesus by a sinful woman--Luke vii. 36-50.</p>
+
+<p>   The companions of Jesus on his second circuit of Galilee--Luke viii.
+   1-3.</p>
+
+<p>   Cure of a demoniac in Capernaum and blasphemy by the Pharisees--Matt.
+   xii. 22-45; Mark iii. 19<sup>a</sup>-30; Luke xi. 14-36.</p>
+
+<p>   The true kindred of Jesus--Matt. xii. 46-50; Mark iii. 31-35; Luke
+   viii. 19-21.</p>
+
+<p>   The parables by the sea--Matt. xiii. 1-53; Mark iv. 1-34; Luke viii.
+   4-18 (see sect. <a href="#a056">A 56</a>).</p>
+
+<p>   The tempest stilled--Matt. viii. 18, 23-27; Mark iv. 35-41; Luke viii.
+   22-25.</p>
+
+<p>   Cure of the Gadarene demoniac--Matt. viii. 28-34; Mark v. 1-20; Luke
+   viii. 26-39.</p>
+
+<p>   The restoration of the daughter of Jairus and cure of an invalid
+   woman--Matt. ix. 1, 18-26; Mark v. 21-43; Luke viii. 40-56.</p>
+
+<p>   Cure of blind and dumb--Matt. ix. 27-34.</p>
+
+<p>   Rejection at Nazareth--Matt. xiii. 54-58; Mark vi. 1-6<sup>a</sup>; Luke iv.
+   16-30 (see sect. <a href="#a052">A 52</a>).</p>
+
+<p>   Third circuit of Galilee--Matt. ix. 35; Mark vi. 6<sup>b</sup>.</p>
+
+<p>   The mission of the twelve--Matt. ix. 36 to xi. 1; Mark vi. 7-13; Luke
+   ix. 1-6 (see sect. <a href="#a057">A 57</a>).</p>
+
+<p>   The death of John the Baptist--Matt. xiv. 1-12; Mark vi. 14-29; Luke
+   ix. 7-9.</p>
+
+<p>   Withdrawal of Jesus across the sea and feeding of the five
+   thousand--Matt. xiv. 13-23; Mark vi. 30-46; Luke ix. 10-17; John vi.
+   1-15.</p>
+
+<p>   Return to Capernaum, Jesus walking on the water--Matt. xiv. 24-36; Mark
+   vi. 47-56; John vi. 16-21.</p>
+
+<p>   Teaching about the Bread of Life in the synagogue at Capernaum--John
+   vi. 22-71 (see sect. <a href="#a059">A 59</a>).</p>
+
+<p>   Controversy concerning tradition: handwashing, etc.--Matt. xv. 1-20;
+   Mark vii. 1-23.</p>
+
+<p>   Withdrawal to regions of Tyre and Sidon: the Syroph&oelig;nician woman's
+   daughter--Matt. xv. 21-28; Mark vii. 24-30.</p>
+
+<p><a class="newpage" name="page117" id="page117" title="117"></a>   Return through Decapolis--Matt. xv. 29-31; Mark vii. 31-37.
+</p>
+
+<p>   ? The feeding of the four thousand--Matt. xv. 32-38; Mark viii. 1-9
+   (see sect. <a href="#a058">A 58</a>).</p>
+
+<p>   Pharisaic challenge in Galilee, and warning against the leaven of the
+   Pharisees--Matt xv. 39 to xvi. 12; Mark viii. 10-21.</p>
+
+<p>   Cure of blind man near Bethsaida--Mark viii. 22-26.</p>
+
+<p>   Peter's confession of Jesus as Christ near C&aelig;sarea Philippi--Matt. xvi.
+   13-20; Mark viii. 27-30; Luke ix. 18-21.</p>
+
+<p>   The new lesson, that the Christ must die--Matt. xvi. 21-28; Mark viii.
+   31 to ix. 1; Luke ix. 22-27.</p>
+
+<p>   The transfiguration--Matt. xvii. 1-13; Mark ix. 2-13; Luke ix. 28-36.</p>
+
+<p>   Cure of the epileptic boy--Matt. xvii. 14-20; Mark ix. 14-29; Luke ix.
+   37-43<sup>a</sup>.</p>
+
+<p>   Second prediction of approaching death and resurrection--Matt. xvii.
+   22, 23; Mark ix. 30-32; Luke ix. 43<sup>b</sup>-45.</p>
+
+<p>   Return to Capernaum: the temple tax--Matt. xvii. 24-27; Mark ix. 33<sup>a</sup>.</p>
+
+<p>   Teachings concerning humility and forgiveness--Matt. xviii. 1-35; Mark
+   ix. 33-50; Luke ix. 46-50.</p>
+
+<p>   Visit of Jesus to Jerusalem at the feast of Tabernacles--John vii.
+   1-52; viii. 12-59 (see sect. <a href="#a060">A 60</a>).</p>
+
+<p>   ? The woman taken in adultery--John vii. 53 to viii. 11 (see sect.
+   163).</p>
+
+<p>   The following probably belong to the Galilean ministry before the
+   confession at C&aelig;sarea Philippi (see sect. 168):--</p>
+
+<p>   The disciples taught to pray--Matt. vi. 9-15; vii. 7-11; Luke xi. 1-13.</p>
+
+<p>   The cure of an infirm woman on the Sabbath--Luke xiii. 10-17.</p>
+
+<p>   Two parables: mustard-seed and leaven--Matt. xiii. 31-33; Luke xiii.
+   18-21 (see sect. <a href="#a056">A 56</a>).</p>
+
+<p>   The parable of the rich fool--Luke xii. 13-21.</p>
+
+<p>   Cure on a Sabbath and teaching at a Pharisee's table--Luke xiv. 1-24.</p>
+
+<p>   Five parables--Luke xv. 1 to xvi. 31.</p>
+
+<p>   Certain disconnected teachings--Luke xvii. 1-4.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+<h2><a class="newpage" name="page118" id="page118" title="118"></a>III</h2>
+
+<h3>The Ministry In Galilee--Its Aim and Method</h3>
+
+
+
+<div class="section" id="s125"><p><span class="versenum">125.</span> The work of Jesus in Galilee, which is the principal theme of the
+first three gospels, began with a removal from Nazareth to Capernaum, and
+the calling of four fishermen to be his constant followers. The ready
+obedience which Simon and Andrew and James and John gave to this call is
+an interesting evidence that they did not first come to know Jesus at the
+time of this summons. The narrative presupposes some such earlier
+association as is reported in John, followed by a temporary return to
+their old homes and occupations, while Jesus sought seclusion after his
+work in Judea. The first evangelist has most vividly indicated the
+development of the Galilean ministry, directing attention to two points of
+beginning,--the beginning of Jesus' preaching of the kingdom (Matt. iv.
+17) and the beginning of his predictions of his own sufferings and death
+(xvi. 21). Between these two beginnings lies the ministry of Jesus to the
+enthusiastic multitudes, the second of them marking his choice of a more
+restricted audience and a less popular message. Within the first of these
+periods two events mark epochs,--the mission of the twelve (Matt. ix. 36;
+x. I) to preach the coming kingdom of God and to multiply Jesus' ministry
+of healing, and the feeding of the five thousand when the popular
+enthusiasm <a class="newpage" name="page119" id="page119" title="119"></a>reached its climax (John vi. 14, 15). These events fall not
+far apart, and mark two different phases of the same stage of development
+in his work. The first is emphasized by Matthew, the second by John; both
+help to a clearer understanding of the narrative which Mark has furnished
+to the other gospels for their story of the Galilean ministry. The table
+at the head of this chapter indicates in outline the probable succession
+of events in the Galilean period. The order adopted is that of Mark,
+supplemented by the other gospels. Luke's additions are inserted in his
+order where there is not some reason for believing that he himself
+disregarded the exact sequence of events. Thus the rejection at Nazareth
+is placed late, as in Mark. Much of the material in the long section
+peculiar to Luke is assigned in general to this Galilean period, since all
+knowledge of its precise location in time and place has been lost for us,
+as it not unlikely was for Luke. Although Matthew is the gospel giving the
+clearest general view of the Galilean work, it shows the greatest
+disarrangement of details, and aids but little in determining the sequence
+of events. The material from that gospel is assigned place in accordance
+with such hints as are discoverable in parallel or associated parts of
+Mark or Luke. Of John's contributions one--the feeding of the
+multitudes--is clearly located by its identity with a narrative found in
+all the other gospels. The visit to Jerusalem at the unnamed feast can be
+only tentatively placed.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s126"><p><span class="versenum">126.</span> Viewing this gospel story as a whole, the parallel development of
+popular enthusiasm and official hostility at once attracts attention.
+Jesus' first cures in the synagogue at Capernaum roused the interest and
+<a class="newpage" name="page120" id="page120" title="120"></a>wonder of the multitudes to such an extent that he felt constrained to
+withdraw to other towns. On his return to Capernaum he was so beset with
+crowds that the friends of the paralytic could get at him only by breaking
+up the roof. It was when Jesus found himself followed by multitudes from
+all parts of the land that he selected twelve of his disciples "that they
+might be with him and that he might send them forth to preach," and
+addressed to them in the hearing of the multitudes the exacting, although
+unspeakably winsome teaching of the sermon on the mount. This condition of
+things continued even after Herod had killed John the Baptist, for when
+Jesus, having heard of John's fate, sought retirement with his disciples
+across the sea of Galilee, he was robbed of his seclusion by throngs who
+flocked to him to be healed and to hear of the kingdom of God.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s127"><p><span class="versenum">127.</span> The popular enthusiasm was not indifferent to the question who this
+new teacher might be. At first Jesus impressed the people by his
+authoritative teaching and cures. After the raising of the widow's son at
+Nain the popular feeling found a more definite declaration,--"a great
+prophet has risen up among us." The cure of a demoniac in Capernaum raised
+the further incredulous query, "Can this be the Son of David?" The notion
+that he might be the Messiah seems to have gained acceptance more and more
+as Jesus' popularity grew, for at the time of the feeding of the
+multitudes the enthusiasm burst into a flame of determination to force him
+to undertake the work for which he was so eminently fitted, but from which
+for some inexplicable reason he seemed to shrink (John vi. 15).</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s128"><p><a class="newpage" name="page121" id="page121" title="121"></a><span class="versenum">128.</span> Parallel with the growth of popular enthusiasm, and in part because
+of it, the religious leaders early assumed and consistently maintained an
+attitude of opposition. The gospels connect the critics of Jesus now and
+again with the Pharisees of the capital--the Galilean Pharisees being
+represented as more or less friendly. At the first appearance of Jesus in
+Capernaum even the Sabbath cure in the synagogue passed unchallenged; but
+on the return from his first excursion to other towns, Jesus found critics
+in his audience (Luke connects them directly with Jerusalem). From time to
+time such censors as these objected to the forgiveness by Jesus of the
+sins of the paralytic (Mark ii. 6, 7), criticised his social relations
+with outcasts like the publicans (Mark ii. 16), took offence at his
+carelessness of the Sabbath tradition in his instruction of his disciples
+(Mark ii. 24), and sought to turn the tide of rising popular enthusiasm by
+ascribing his power to cure to a league with the devil (Mark iii. 22).
+Baffled in one charge, they would turn to another, until, after the
+feeding of the multitudes, Jesus showed his complete disregard of all they
+held most dear, replying to a criticism of his disciples for carelessness
+of the ritual of hand-washing by an authoritative setting aside of the
+whole body of their traditions, as well as of the Levitical ceremonial of
+clean and unclean meats (Mark vii. 1-23).</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s129"><p><span class="versenum">129.</span> The wonder is, not that popular enthusiasm for Jesus was great, but
+that it was so hesitating in its judgment about him. The province which
+provided a following to Judas of Galilee a generation earlier than the
+public ministry of Jesus, and which under John of Gischala furnished the
+chief support to the <a class="newpage" name="page122" id="page122" title="122"></a>revolt against Rome a generation later, could have
+been excited to uncontrollable passion by the simple idea that a leader
+was present who could be made to head a movement for Jewish liberty. But
+there was something about Jesus which made it impossible to think of him
+as such a Messiah. He was much more moved by sin lurking within than by
+wrong inflicted from without. He looked for God's kingdom, as did the
+Zealots, but he looked for it within the heart more than in outward
+circumstances. Even the dreamers among the people, who were as unready as
+Jesus for any uprising against Rome, and who waited for God to show his
+own hand in judgment, found in Jesus--come to seek and to save that which
+was lost--something so contradictory of their idea of the celestial judge
+that they could not easily think of him as a Messiah. Jesus was a puzzle
+to the people. They were sure that he was a prophet; but if at any time
+some were tempted to query, "Can this be the Son of David?" the
+incredulous folk expected ever a negative reply.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s130"><p><span class="versenum">130.</span> This was as Jesus wished it to be. An unreasoning enthusiasm could
+only hinder his work. When his early cures in Capernaum stirred the ardent
+feelings of the multitudes, he took occasion to withdraw to other towns
+and allow popular feeling to cool. When later he found himself pressed
+upon by crowds from all quarters of the land, by the sermon on the mount
+he set them thinking on strange and highly spiritual things, far removed
+from the thoughts of Zealots and apocalyptic dreamers.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s131"><p><span class="versenum">131.</span> The manifest contradiction of popular Messianic ideas which Jesus
+presented in his own person <a class="newpage" name="page123" id="page123" title="123"></a>usually served to check undue ardor as long
+as he was present. But when some demoniac proclaimed the high station of
+Jesus, and thus seemed to the people to give supernatural testimony; or
+when some one in need sought him apart from the multitudes, Jesus
+frequently enjoined silence. These injunctions of silence are enigmas
+until they are viewed as a part of Jesus' effort to keep control of
+popular feeling. In his absence the people might dwell on his power and
+easily come to imagine him to be what he was not and could not be. Jesus
+was able by these means to restrain unthinking enthusiasm until the
+multitudes whom he fed on the east side of the sea determined to force him
+to do their will as a Messiah. Then he refused to follow where they
+called, and that happened which would doubtless have happened at an
+earlier time but for Jesus' caution,--the popular enthusiasm subsided, and
+his active work with the common people was at an end. But he had held off
+this crisis until there were a few who did not follow the popular
+defection, but rather clung to him from whom they had heard the words of
+eternal life (John vi. 68).</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s132"><p><span class="versenum">132.</span> Jesus' caution brings to light one aspect of his aim in the Galilean
+ministry,--he sought to win acceptance for the truth he proclaimed. His
+message as reported in the synoptic gospels was the near approach of the
+kingdom of God. Any such proclamation was sure of eager hearing. At first
+he seems to have been content to gather and interest the multitudes by
+this preaching and the works which accompanied it. But he early took
+occasion to state his ideas in the hearing of the multitudes, and in terms
+so simple, so concerned <a class="newpage" name="page124" id="page124" title="124"></a>with every-day life, so exacting as respects
+conduct, and so lacking in the customary glowing picture of the future,
+that the people could not mistake such a teacher for a simple fulfiller of
+their ideas. In this early sermon in effect, and later with increasing
+plainness, he set forth his doctrine of a kingdom of heaven coming not
+with observation, present actually among a people who knew it not, like a
+seed growing secretly in the earth, or leaven quietly leavening a lump of
+meal. By word and deed, in sermon and by parable, he insisted on this
+simple and every-day conception of God's rule among men. With Pharisee,
+Zealot, and dreamer, he held that "the best is yet to be," yet all three
+classes found their most cherished ideals set at nought by the new
+champion of the soul's inner life in fellowship with the living God. In
+all his teaching there was a claim of authority and a manifest
+independence which indicate certainty on his part concerning his own
+mission. Yet so completely is the personal question retired for the time,
+that in his rebuke of the blasphemy of the Pharisees he took pains to
+declare that it was not because they had spoken against the Son of Man,
+that they were in danger, but because they had spoken against the Spirit
+of God, whose presence was manifest in his works. He wished, primarily, to
+win disciples to the kingdom of God.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s133"><p><span class="versenum">133.</span> Yet Jesus was not indifferent in Galilee to what the people thought
+about himself. The question at C&aelig;sarea Philippi shows more fully the aim
+of his ministry. During all the period of the preaching of the kingdom he
+never hesitated to assert himself whenever need for such self-assertion
+arose. This <a class="newpage" name="page125" id="page125" title="125"></a>was evident in his dealing with his pharisaic critics. He
+rarely argued with them, and always assumed a tone of authority which was
+above challenge, asserting that the Son of Man had authority to forgive
+sins, was lord of the Sabbath, was greater than the temple or Jonah or
+Solomon. Moreover, in his positive teaching of the new truth he assumed
+such an authoritative tone that any who thought upon it could but remark
+the extraordinary claim involved in his simple "I say unto you." He wished
+also to win disciples to himself.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s134"><p><span class="versenum">134.</span> The key to the ministry in Galilee is furnished in Jesus' answer to
+the message from John the Baptist. John in prison had heard of the works
+of his successor. Jesus did so much that promised a fulfilment of the
+Messianic hope, yet left so much undone, contradicting in so many ways the
+current idea of a Messiah by his studied avoidance of any demonstration,
+that the older prophet felt a momentary doubt of the correctness of his
+earlier conviction. It is in no way strange that he experienced a reaction
+from that exalted moment of insight when he pointed out Jesus as the Lamb
+of God, particularly after his restless activity had been caged within the
+walls of his prison. Jesus showed that he did not count it strange, by his
+treatment of John's quesestion and by his words about John after the
+messengers had gone. Yet in his reply he gently suggested that the
+question already had its answer if John would but look rightly for it. He
+simply referred to the things that were being done before the eyes of all,
+and asked John to form from them a conclusion concerning him who did them.
+One aid he offered to the imprisoned prophet,--a word from the <a class="newpage" name="page126" id="page126" title="126"></a>Book of
+Isaiah (xxxv. 5f., lxi. 1f.),--and added a blessing for such as "should
+find nothing to stumble at in him." Here Jesus emphasized his works, and
+allowed his message to speak for itself; but he frankly indicated that he
+expected people to pass from wonder at his ministry to an opinion about
+himself. At C&aelig;sarea Philippi he showed to his disciples that this opinion
+about himself was the significant thing in his eyes. Throughout the
+ministry in Galilee, therefore, this twofold aim appears. Jesus would
+first divert attention from himself to his message, in order that he might
+win disciples to the kingdom of God as he conceived it. Having so attached
+them to his idea of the kingdom, he desired to be recognized as that
+kingdom's prince, the Messiah promised by God for his people. He retired
+behind his message in order that men might be drawn to the truth which he
+held dear, knowing that thus they would find themselves led captive to
+himself in a willing devotion.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s135"><p><span class="versenum">135.</span> This aim explains his retirement when popularity pressed, his
+exacting teaching about the spirituality of the kingdom of God, and his
+injunctions of silence. He wished to be known, to be thought about, to be
+accepted as God's anointed, but he would have this only by a genuine
+surrender to his leadership. His disciples must own him master and follow
+him, however much he might disappoint their misconceptions. This aim, too,
+explains his frank self-assertions and exalted personal claims in
+opposition to official criticism. He would not be false to his own sense
+of masterhood, nor allow people to think him bold when his critics were
+away, and cowardly in their presence. Therefore, when needful, he invited
+attention to him<a class="newpage" name="page127" id="page127" title="127"></a>self as greater than the temple or as lord of the
+Sabbath. This kind of self-assertion, however, served his purpose as well
+as his customary self-retirement, for it forced people to face the
+contradiction which he offered to the accepted religious ideas of their
+leaders.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s136"><p><span class="versenum">136.</span> The method which Jesus chose has already been repeatedly
+indicated,--teaching and preaching on the one hand, and works of
+helpfulness to men on the other. The character of the teaching of this
+period is shown in three discourses,--the Sermon on the Mount, the
+Discourse in Parables, and the Instructions to the Twelve. The sermon on
+the mount is given in different forms in Matthew and Luke, that in Matthew
+being evidently the more complete, even after deduction has been made of
+those parts which Luke has assigned with high probability to a later time.
+This address was spoken to the disciples of Jesus found among the
+multitudes who flocked to him from all quarters. It opened with words of
+congratulation for those who, characterized by qualities often despised,
+were yet heirs of God's kingdom. The thought then passed to the
+responsibility of such heirs of the kingdom for the help of a needy world.
+Next, since much in the words and works of Jesus hitherto might have
+suggested to men that he was indifferent to the older religion of his
+people, he carefully explained that he came, not to set aside the old, but
+to realize the spiritual idea for which it stood, by establishing a more
+exacting standard of righteousness. This more exacting righteousness Jesus
+illustrated by a series of restatements of the older law, and then by a
+group of criticisms of current religious practice. The sermon closed with
+warnings against complacent <a class="newpage" name="page128" id="page128" title="128"></a>censoriousness in judging other men's
+failures, and a solemn declaration of the vital seriousness of "these
+sayings of mine." The righteousness required by this new law is not only
+more exacting but unspeakably worthier than the old, being more simply
+manifested in common life, and demanding more intimate filial fellowship
+with the living God.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s137"><p><span class="versenum">137.</span> The teachings included in the sermon by the first gospel, but placed
+later by Luke, supplement the sermon by bidding God's child to lead a
+trustful life, knowing that the heavenly Father cares for him. That Luke
+has omitted much which from Matthew's account clearly belonged to the
+original sermon may be explained by the fact that Gentile readers did not
+share the interest which Jesus' hearers had, and which the readers of the
+first gospel had, in the relation of the new gospel to the older law.
+Hence the restatement of older commands and the criticism of current
+practice was omitted. Similar to the teachings which the first gospel has
+included in the sermon, are many which Luke has preserved in the section
+peculiar to himself. It is not unlikely that they belong also to the
+Galilean ministry. They urge the same sincere, reverent life in the sight
+of God, the same trust in the heavenly Father, the same certainty of his
+love and care; and they do not have that peculiar note of impending
+judgment which entered into the teachings of Jesus after the confession at
+C&aelig;sarea Philippi.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s138"><p><span class="versenum">138.</span> In the story of Mark, which is reproduced in the first and third
+gospels, the use of parable was first introduced in a way to attract the
+attention of the disciples, after pharisaic opposition to Jesus had become
+somewhat bitter and there was need of checking <a class="newpage" name="page129" id="page129" title="129"></a>a too speedy culmination
+of opposition. He chose at that time a form of parable which was enigmatic
+to his disciples, and could but further puzzle hearers who had no sympathy
+with him and his message. Mark (iv. 12) states that this perplexity was in
+accordance with the purpose of Jesus. But it is equally clear that Jesus
+meant to teach the teachable as well as to perplex the critical by these
+illustrations, for in explaining the Sower he suggested that the disciples
+should have understood it without explanation (Mark iv. 13). Many of
+Jesus' parables, however, had no such enigmatic character, but were
+intended simply to help his hearers to understand him. He made use of this
+kind of teaching from first to last. The pictures of the wise and foolish
+builders with which the sermon on the mount concludes show that it was not
+the use of illustration which surprised the disciples in the parables
+associated with the Sower, but his use of such puzzling illustrations.
+Some of the parables of Luke's peculiar section may belong to the Galilean
+ministry, and even to the earlier stages of it. These have none of the
+enigmatic character; the parables of the last days of Jesus' life also
+seem to have been simple and clear to his hearers. The Oriental mind
+prefers the concrete to the abstract, and its teachers have ever made
+large use of illustration. Jesus stands unique, not in that he used
+parables, but in the simplicity and effective beauty of those which he
+used. These illustrations, whether Jesus intended them for the moment to
+enlighten or to confound, served always to set forth concretely some truth
+concerning the relation of men to God, or concerning his kingdom and their
+relation to it. The form of teaching was welcome to his <a class="newpage" name="page130" id="page130" title="130"></a>hearers, and
+served as one of the attractions to draw men to him.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s139"><p><span class="versenum">139.</span> The first gospel assigns another extended discourse to this Galilean
+period,--the Instructions to the Twelve. The mission of the twelve formed
+a new departure as Jesus saw the Galilean crisis approaching. He sought
+thereby to multiply his own work, and commissioned his disciples to heal
+and preach as he was doing. The restriction of their field to Israel
+(Matt. x. 5, 6) simply applied to them the rule he adopted for himself
+during the Galilean period (Matt. xv. 24). Comparison with the accounts in
+Mark and Luke, as well as the character of the instructions found in
+Matthew, show that here the first evangelist has followed his habit of
+gathering together teachings on the same general theme from different
+periods in Jesus' life. Much in the tenth chapter of Matthew indicates
+clearly that the ministry of Jesus had already passed the period of
+popularity, and that his disciples could now look for little but scorn and
+persecution. This was the situation at the end of Jesus' public life, and
+parallel sayings are found in the record of the last week in Jerusalem.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s140"><p><span class="versenum">140.</span> When the teaching of the sermon and the parables is compared with
+Jesus' self-assertion in his replies to pharisaic criticism and blasphemy,
+the difference is striking. Ordinarily he avoided calling attention to
+himself, wishing men to form their opinion of him after they had learned
+to know him as he was. Yet when one looks beneath the surface of his
+teaching, the tone of authority which astonished the multitudes is
+identical with the calm self-confidence which replied to pharisaic
+censure: "The <a class="newpage" name="page131" id="page131" title="131"></a>Son of Man hath authority on the earth to forgive sins."</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s141"><p><span class="versenum">141.</span> Jesus drew the multitudes after him not only by his teachings, but
+also by his mighty works. He certainly was for his contemporaries a
+wonder-worker and healer of disease, and, in order to appreciate the
+impression which he made, the miracles recorded in the gospels must be
+allowed to reveal what they can of his character. The mighty works which
+enchained attention in Galilee were chiefly cures of disease, with
+occasional exhibitions of power over physical nature,--such as the
+stilling of the tempest and the feeding of the five thousand. The
+significant thing about them is their uniform beneficence of purpose and
+simplicity of method. Nothing of the spectacular attached itself to them.
+Jesus repeatedly refused to the critical Pharisees a sign from heaven.
+This was not because he disregarded the importance of signs for his
+generation,--witness his appeal to his works in the reply to John (Matt.
+xi. 4-6); but he felt that in his customary ministry to the needy
+multitudes he had furnished signs in abundance, for his deeds both gave
+evidence of heavenly power and revealed the character of the Father who
+had sent him.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s142"><p><span class="versenum">142.</span> One of the commonest of the ailments cured by Jesus is described in
+the gospels as demoniac possession, the popular idea being that evil
+spirits were accustomed to take up their abode in men, speaking with their
+tongues and acting through their bodies, at the same time afflicting them
+with various physical diseases. Six specific cures of such possession are
+recorded in the story of the Galilean ministry, besides general references
+to the cure of many that were pos<a class="newpage" name="page132" id="page132" title="132"></a>sessed. Of these specific cases the
+Gadarene demoniac shows symptoms of violent insanity; the boy cured near
+C&aelig;sarea Philippi, those of epilepsy; in other cases the disease was more
+local, showing itself in deafness, or blindness, or both. In the cures
+recorded Jesus addressed the possessed with a command to the invading
+demon to depart. He was ordinarily greeted, either before or after such a
+command, with a loud outcry, often accompanied with a recognition of him
+as God's Holy One.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s143"><p><span class="versenum">143.</span> The record of such maladies and their cure is not confined to the New
+Testament. The evil spirit which came upon King Saul is a similar case,
+and Josephus tells of Jewish exorcists who cured possessed persons by the
+use of incantations handed down from King Solomon. The early Christian
+fathers frequently argued the truth of Christianity from the way in which
+demons departed at the command of Christian exorcists, while in the middle
+ages and down to modern times belief in demoniac possession has been
+common, particularly among some of the more superstitious of the peasantry
+in Europe. Moreover, from missionaries in China and other eastern lands it
+is learned that diseases closely resembling the cases of possession
+recorded in the New Testament are frequently met with, and are often cured
+by native Christian ministers.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s144"><p><span class="versenum">144.</span> The similarity of the symptoms of so-called possession to recognized
+mental and physical derangements such as insanity, epilepsy, and hysteria,
+suggests the conclusion that possession should be classed with other
+ailments due to ill adjustment of the relations of the mental and physical
+life. If this conclu<a class="newpage" name="page133" id="page133" title="133"></a>sion is valid, the idea of actual possession by evil
+spirits becomes only an ancient effort to interpret the mysterious
+symptoms in accordance with wide-spread primitive beliefs. This
+explanation would doubtless be generally adopted were it not that it seems
+to compromise either the integrity or the knowledge of Jesus. The gospels
+plainly represent him as treating the supposed demoniac influence as real,
+addressing in his cures not the invalid, but the invading demon. If he did
+this knowing that the whole view was a superstition, was he true to his
+mission to release mankind from its bondage to evil and sin? If he shared
+the superstition of his time, had he the complete knowledge necessary to
+make him the deliverer he claimed to be? These questions are serious and
+difficult, but they form a part of the general problem of the extent of
+Jesus' knowledge, and can be more intelligently discussed in connection
+with that whole problem (sects. 249-251). It is reasonable to demand,
+however, that any conclusion reached concerning the nature of possession
+in the time of Jesus must be considered valid for similar manifestations
+of disease in our own day.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s145"><p><span class="versenum">145.</span> What astonished people in Jesus' cures was not so much that he healed
+the sick as that he did it with such evidence of personal authority. His
+cures and his teachings alike served to attract attention to himself and
+to invite question as to who he could be. Yet a far more powerful means to
+the end he had in view was the subtle, unobtrusive, personal influence
+which without their knowledge knit the hearts of a few to himself. In
+reality both his teaching and his cures were only means of
+self-disclosure. His permanent work during this Galilean period was the
+winning <a class="newpage" name="page134" id="page134" title="134"></a>of personal friends. His chief agency in accomplishing his work
+was what Renan somewhat too romantically has called his "charm." It was
+that in him which drew to his side and kept with him the fishermen of
+Galilee and the publican of Capernaum, during months of constant
+disappointment of their preconceived religious ideas and Messianic hopes;
+it was that which won the confidence of the woman who was a sinner, and
+the constant devotion of Mary Magdalene and Susanna and the others who
+followed him "and ministered to him of their substance." The outstanding
+wonder of early Christianity is the complete transformation not only of
+life but of established religious ideas by the personal impress of Jesus
+on a Peter, a John, and a Paul. The secret of the new element of the
+Christian religion--salvation through personal attachment to Jesus
+Christ--is simply this personal power of the man of Nazareth. The
+multitudes followed because they saw wonderful works or heard wonderful
+words; many because they hoped at length to find in the new prophet the
+champion of their hopes in deliverance from Roman bondage. But these
+sooner or later fell away, disappointed in their desire to use the new
+leader for their own ends. It was only because from out the multitudes
+there were a few who could answer, "To whom shall we go? thou hast the
+words of eternal life," when Jesus asked, "Will ye also go away?" that the
+work in Galilee did not end in complete failure. These few had felt his
+personal power, and they became the nucleus of a new religion of love to a
+personal Saviour.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s146"><p><span class="versenum">146.</span> The test of the personal attachment of the few came shortly after the
+execution of John the Baptist <a class="newpage" name="page135" id="page135" title="135"></a>by Antipas. Word of this tragedy was
+brought to Jesus by John's disciples about the time that he and the twelve
+returned to Capernaum from their tour of preaching. At the suggestion of
+Jesus they withdrew to the eastern side of the lake in search of rest. It
+is not unlikely that the little company also wished to avoid for the time
+the territory of the tyrant who had just put John to death, for Jesus was
+not yet ready for the crisis of his own life. Such a desire for seclusion
+would be intensified by the continued impetuous enthusiasm of the
+multitudes who flocked about him again in Capernaum. In fact, so insistent
+was their interest in Jesus that they would not allow him the quiet he
+sought, but followed around the lake in great numbers when they learned
+that he had taken ship for the other side. He who came not to be
+ministered unto but to minister could not repel the crowds who came to
+him, and he at once "welcomed them, and spake to them of the kingdom of
+God, and them that had need of healing he healed" (Luke ix. 11). The day
+having passed in this ministry, he multiplied the small store of bread and
+fish brought by his disciples in order to feed the weary people. This work
+of power seemed to some among the multitudes to be the last thing needed
+to prove that Jesus was to be their promised deliverer, and they "were
+about to come and take him by force and make him king" (John vi. 15), when
+he withdrew from them and spent the night in prayer.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s147"><p><span class="versenum">147.</span> This sudden determination on the part of the multitudes to force the
+hand of Jesus was probably due to the prevalence of an idea, found also in
+the later rabbinic writers, that the Messiah should feed his <a class="newpage" name="page136" id="page136" title="136"></a>people as
+Moses had provided them manna in the desert. The rebuff which Jesus
+quietly gave them did not cool their ardor, until on the following day, in
+the synagogue in Capernaum, he plainly taught them that they had quite
+missed the significance of his miracle. They thought of loaves and
+material sustenance. He would have had them find in these a sign that he
+could also supply their spirits' need, and he insisted that this, and this
+alone, was his actual mission. From the first the popular enthusiasm had
+had to ignore many contradictions of its cherished notions. But his power
+and the indescribable force of his personality had served hitherto to hold
+them to a hope that he would soon discard the perplexing r&ocirc;le which he had
+chosen for the time to assume, and take up avowedly the proper work of the
+Messiah. This last refusal to accept what seemed to them to be his evident
+duty caused a revulsion in the popular feeling, and "many of his disciples
+turned back and walked no more with him" (John vi. 66). The time of
+sifting had come. Jesus had known that such a rash determination to make
+him king was possible to the Galilean multitudes, and that whenever it
+should come it must be followed by a disillusionment. Now the open
+ministry had run its course. As the multitudes were turning back and
+walking no more with him, he turned to the twelve with the question, "Will
+ye also go away?" and found that with them his method had borne fruit.
+They clung to him in spite of disillusionment, for in him they had found
+what was better than their preconceptions.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s148"><p><span class="versenum">148.</span> It is the fourth gospel that shows clearly the critical significance
+of this event. The others tell <a class="newpage" name="page137" id="page137" title="137"></a>nothing of the sudden determination of the
+multitude, nor of the revulsion of feeling that followed Jesus' refusal to
+yield to their will. Yet these other gospels indicate in their narratives
+that from this time on Jesus avoided the scenes of his former labors, and
+show that when from time to time he returned to the neighborhood of
+Capernaum he was met by such a spirit of hostility that he withdrew again
+immediately to regions where he and his disciples could have time for
+quiet intercourse.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s149"><p><span class="versenum">149.</span> The months of toil in Galilee show results hardly more significant
+than the grain of mustard seed or the little leaven. Popular enthusiasm
+had risen, increased, reached its climax, and waned. Official opposition
+had early been aroused, and had continued with a steadily deepened
+intensity. The wonderful teaching with authority, and the signs wrought on
+them that were sick, had been as seed sown by the wayside or in thorny or
+in stony ground, except for the little handful of hearers who had felt the
+personal power of Jesus and had surrendered to it, ready henceforth to
+follow where he should lead, whether or not it should be in a path of
+their choice. These, however, were the proof that those months had been a
+time of rewarded toil.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<div class="chapter" id="p02-04">
+<h2><a class="newpage" name="page138" id="page138" title="138"></a>IV</h2>
+
+<h3>The Ministry in Galilee--The New Lesson</h3>
+
+
+
+<div class="section" id="s150"><p><span class="versenum">150.</span> With the crisis in Capernaum the ministry in Galilee may be said in
+one sense to have come to an end. Yet Jesus did not immediately go up to
+Jerusalem. Once and again he was found in or near Capernaum, while the
+time between these visits was spent in regions to the north and northwest.
+In fact, the disciples were far from ready for the trial their loyalty was
+to meet before they had seen the end of the opposition to their Lord. The
+time intervening between the collapse of popularity and Jesus' final
+departure from Galilee may well be thought of, then, as a time of further
+discipline of the faith of his followers and of added instruction
+concerning the truth for which their Master stood. The length of this
+supplementary period in Galilee is not definitely known. It extended from
+the Passover to about the feast of Tabernacles (April to October, see John
+vi. 4 and vii. 2). The record of what Jesus did and said in this time is
+meagre, only enough being reported to show that it was a time of repeated
+withdrawals from Galilee and of private instruction for the disciples.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s151"><p><span class="versenum">151.</span> The disciples were trained in faith by further exhibitions of the
+complete break between their Master and the leaders of the people. This
+break appeared <a class="newpage" name="page139" id="page139" title="139"></a>most clearly, soon after the feeding of the multitudes, in
+his reply to a criticism of the disciples for disregard of pharisaic
+traditions concerning hand-washing (Mark vii. 1-23). The critics insisted
+on the sacredness of their traditions. Jesus in reply scored them for
+disregard for the plain demands of God's law, and with a word freed men
+from bondage to the whole ritual of ceremonial cleanness and uncleanness
+(Mark vii. 19), thus attacking Judaism in its citadel.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s152"><p><span class="versenum">152.</span> It was immediately after this that he withdrew with his disciples to
+the regions of Tyre. On his return a little later to the west side of the
+sea of Galilee he was met by hostile Pharisees with a demand for a sign
+(Mark viii. 11-13), and after refusing to satisfy the unbelieving
+challenge,--signs in plenty having been before their eyes since the
+opening of his work among them,--he and his disciples withdrew again from
+Galilee towards C&aelig;sarea Philippi. As they went on their way, Jesus
+distinctly warned them against the influence of their leaders, religious
+and political (Mark viii. 14f.). So far as our records tell us Jesus was
+but once again in Capernaum. Then he was met with the demand that he pay
+the temple tax (Matt. xvii. 24-27). This tax was usually collected just
+before the Passover. As this last visit to Capernaum was probably not far
+from the feast of Tabernacles, Jesus seems to have been in arrears. This
+may have been due to his absence from Capernaum at the time of the
+collection. The prompt answer of Peter may indicate that he knew that in
+other years Jesus had paid this tax, as it is altogether probable that he
+did. The question, however, implies official suspicion that Jesus was
+seeking to evade pay<a class="newpage" name="page140" id="page140" title="140"></a>ment, and exhibits further the straining of the
+relations between him and the Jewish leaders. The conversation of Jesus
+with Peter served to show his clear consciousness of superiority, and was
+a further summons to the disciples to choose between him and his
+opponents.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s153"><p><span class="versenum">153.</span> Within the limits of the Holy Land the faith of the disciples had
+been constantly tested by the increasing opposition between their master
+and their old leaders. When the little company withdrew to Gentile
+regions, however, Jesus had regard for their Jewish feeling. The time
+would come when he would send them forth to make disciples of all the
+nations. For the present he made it his business to nurture their faith in
+him, and when appealed to for help by one of these foreigners, he refused
+to "take the children's bread and cast it to the dogs" (Mark vii. 27).
+Jesus had assumed a different attitude to the Samaritans before the
+opening of his work in Galilee, and in general had shown ready sympathy
+for all in distress. In fact it seems as if he welcomed the Syroph&oelig;nician
+woman's great faith with a feeling of relief from a restriction that he
+had felt it wise to adopt for his work in Ph&oelig;nicia. It appears from his
+later attitude in the Gentile regions of the Decapolis (Mark vii. 31-37;
+Matt. xv. 21-31) that, having once shown his regard for the limitations of
+his disciples' faith in the case of the Syroph&oelig;nician, he felt no longer
+obliged to check his natural readiness to help the needy who sought him
+out. Although in one instance, for reasons no longer known to us, Jesus
+charged a man whom he had cured to keep it secret (Mark vii. 32-37), in
+general his work in these heathen regions seems, after <a class="newpage" name="page141" id="page141" title="141"></a>the visit to
+Ph&oelig;nicia, to have been quite unrestrained, and to have produced the same
+enthusiasm that had earlier brought the multitudes to him in Galilee (Mark
+viii. 1f.).</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s154"><p><span class="versenum">154.</span> This continued activity of healing must have served greatly to
+strengthen the determination of the disciples to cling to Jesus, let the
+leaders say what they would. We can only conjecture what various teachings
+filled the days, and what personal fellowship the disciples had with him
+who spake as never man spake. There was need for advance in the faith of
+these loyal friends. Their enthusiastic declaration when the multitudes
+turned away could easily have been followed by reaction. Each new
+exhibition of the irrevocableness of the break between Jesus and the
+leaders was a severe test of their loyalty. These weeks of withdrawal were
+doubtless filled, therefore, with new proofs that Jesus had the words of
+eternal life.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s155"><p><span class="versenum">155.</span> Before he put to his disciples the crucial question, he who knew what
+was in man (John ii. 25) was confident that they were ready for it. It was
+after the rebuff in Galilee, when the unbelieving Pharisees had again
+demanded a sign of his authority, and after he had definitely warned the
+disciples against the influence of their leaders, that Jesus led his
+little company far to the north towards the slopes of Hermon. There, near
+the recently built C&aelig;sarea Philippi, Jesus plainly asked his disciples
+what the people thought of him (Mark viii. 27-30). We have seen how
+gradually sentiment in Galilee concerning the new teacher crystallized
+until, from thinking him a prophet, the people, first timidly, then
+boldly, con<a class="newpage" name="page142" id="page142" title="142"></a>cluded that such a teacher and worker of signs must be the
+promised king. We have seen also how the popular estimate changed when
+Jesus refused to be guided by the popular will. Now, after the lapse of a
+few weeks, in answer to his inquiry concerning the common opinion of him,
+he is told that the people look on him as a prophet, in whom the spirit of
+the men of old had been revived; but not a whisper remains of the former
+readiness to hail him as the Messiah. It was in the face of such a
+definite revulsion in the popular feeling, in the face, too, of the
+increasing hostility of all the great in the nation, that Peter answered
+for the twelve that they believed Jesus to be the Messiah, God's appointed
+Deliverer of his people (Matt. xvi. 16 ff.). In form this confession was
+no more than Nathanael had rendered on his first meeting with Jesus (John
+i. 49), and was practically the same as the report made by Andrew to Simon
+his brother, and by Philip to Nathanael (John i. 41, 45). In both idea and
+expression the reply to Jesus' question, "Will ye also go away?" (John vi.
+68, 69), was virtually equivalent to this later confession of Peter. Yet
+Jesus found in Peter's answer at C&aelig;sarea Philippi something so significant
+and remarkable that he declared that the faith that could answer thus
+could spring only from a heavenly source (Matt. xvi. 17). The early
+confessions were in fact no more than expressions of more or less
+intelligent expectation that Jesus would fulfil the confessor's hopes. The
+confession at Capernaum followed one of Jesus' mightiest exhibitions of
+power, and was given before the disciples had had time to consider the
+extent of the defection from their Master. Here at C&aelig;sarea Philippi,
+however, the <a class="newpage" name="page143" id="page143" title="143"></a>word was spoken immediately after an acknowledgment that the
+people had no more thought of finding in Jesus their Messiah. It was
+spoken after the disciples had had repeated evidence of the determined
+hostility of the leaders to Jesus. All the disappointment he had given to
+their cherished ideas was emphasized by the isolation in which the little
+company now found itself. One after another their ideas of how a Messiah
+should act and what he should be had received contradiction in what Jesus
+was and did. Yet after the weeks of withdrawal from Galilee, Peter could
+only in effect assert anew what he had declared at Capernaum,--that Jesus
+had the words of eternal life. It was a faith chastened by perplexity, and
+taught at length to follow the Lord let him lead where he would. It was an
+actual surrender to his mastery over thought and life. Here at length
+Jesus had won what he had been seeking during all his work in Galilee,--a
+corner-stone on which to build up the new community of the kingdom of God.
+Peter was the first to confess openly to this simple surrender to the full
+mastery of Jesus. He was the first stone in the foundation of the new
+"building of God."</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s156"><p><span class="versenum">156.</span> In his commendation of Peter Jesus revealed the secret of his method
+in the work which, because of this confession, he could now proceed to do
+more rapidly. He cuts loose utterly from the method of the scribes. He,
+the new teacher, commits to them no body of teaching which they are to
+give to others as the key to eternal life. The salvation they are to
+preach is a salvation by personal attachment; that is, by faith. The rock
+on which he will build his church is personal attachment, faith that is
+ready to leave all <a class="newpage" name="page144" id="page144" title="144"></a>and follow him. Peter, not the substance of his
+confession, was its corner-stone, but Peter, as the first clear confessor
+of a faith that is ready to leave all, a faith whose very nature it is to
+be contagious, and associate with itself others of "like precious faith."
+His faith was as yet meagre, as he showed at once; but it was genuine, the
+surrender of his heart to his Lord's guidance and control. This was the
+distinctive mark of the new religious life inaugurated by Jesus of
+Nazareth.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s157"><p><span class="versenum">157.</span> If anything were needed to prove that the idea that he was the
+Messiah was no new thought to Jesus, it could be found in the new lesson
+which he at once began to teach his disciples. The confession of Peter
+indicated to him simply that the first stage in his work had been
+accomplished. He immediately began to prepare the disciples for the end
+which for some time past he had seen to be inevitable. He taught them more
+than that his death was inevitable; he declared that it was divinely
+necessary that he should be put to death as a result of the hostility of
+the Jews to him ("the Son of Man must suffer"). All the contradictions
+which he had offered to the Messianic ideas of his disciples paled into
+insignificance beside this one. When they saw how he failed to meet the
+hopes that were commonly held, they needed only to urge themselves to
+patience, expecting that in time he would cast off the strange mask and
+take to himself his power and reign. But it was too much for the late
+confessed and very genuine faith of Peter to hear that the Messiah must
+die. So unthinkable was the idea, that he assumed that Jesus had become
+unduly discouraged by the relentlessness of the opposition which <a class="newpage" name="page145" id="page145" title="145"></a>had
+driven him first out of Judea and later out of Galilee. Accordingly Peter
+sought to turn his Master's mind to a brighter prospect, asserting that
+his forebodings could not be true. It is hard for us to conceive the chill
+of heart which must have followed the glow of his confession when he heard
+the stern rebuke of Jesus, who found in Peter's later words the voice of
+the Evil One, as before in his confession he had recognized the Spirit of
+God.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s158"><p><span class="versenum">158.</span> The sternness of Jesus' rebuke escapes extravagance only in view of
+the fact that the words of Peter had greatly affected Jesus himself. At
+the outset of his public life he had faced the difficulty of doing the
+Messiah's work in his Father's way, and had withstood the temptation to
+accommodate himself to the ideas of his world, declaring allegiance to God
+alone (Matt. iv. 10). Yet once and again in the course of his ministry he
+showed that this allegiance cost him much. Luke reports a saying in which
+Jesus confessed that, in view of this prospect of death which Peter was
+opposing so eagerly, he was greatly "straitened" (xii. 50), and at the
+near approach of the end "his soul was exceeding sorrowful" (Mark xiv.
+34). It should never be forgotten that Jesus was a Jew, and heir to all
+the Messianic ideas of his people. In these, glory, not rejection and
+death, was to be the Messiah's portion. That he was always superior to
+current expectations is no sign that he did not feel their force. They
+quite mistake who find the bitterness of Jesus' "cup" simply in his
+physical shrinking from suffering. The temptation was ever with him to
+find some other way to the goal of his work than that which led through
+death. What Peter said hid a force greater <a class="newpage" name="page146" id="page146" title="146"></a>than any word of the
+disciple's. It voiced the crucial temptation of Jesus' life. The answer
+addressed to Peter showed that his words had drawn the thought of Jesus
+away from the disciple to that earlier temptation which was never absent
+from him more than "for a season" (Luke iv. 13).</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s159"><p><span class="versenum">159.</span> Jesus was not content with a mere rebuke of his impulsive disciple.
+In his first announcement of his death as necessary he had also declared
+that it would not be a tragedy, but would be followed by a resurrection.
+This the disciples could not appreciate, as they found the idea of the
+Messiah's death unthinkable. Jesus, however, saw in it the general law,
+that life must ever win its goal by disregard of itself, and called his
+disciples also to walk in the path of self-sacrifice. In order that the
+new lesson might not quite overwhelm the yet feeble faith of these
+followers, Jesus assured them that after his death and resurrection he
+would come as Messianic Judge and fulfil the hopes which his prediction of
+death seemed to blot out utterly (Mark viii. 34 to ix. 1).</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s160"><p><span class="versenum">160.</span> That this new lesson was a difficult one for master as well as
+disciple seems to be shown by the experience which came a few days later
+to Jesus and his three closest friends. He had withdrawn with them to a
+"high mountain" for prayer (Luke ix. 28f.). While he prayed the light of
+heaven came into his face, and his disciples were granted a vision of him
+in celestial glory, conversing with Moses and Elijah, representatives of
+Old Testament law and prophecy. The theme of the discourse was that death
+which had so troubled the disciples, and which then and later weighed
+heavily on Jesus' own spirit (Luke ix. 31). <a class="newpage" name="page147" id="page147" title="147"></a>At the conclusion of the
+vision came a divine injunction to hear him who now was superseding law
+and prophets. The effect of the transfiguration can only be inferred. It
+doubtless brought strengthening to Jesus for his difficult task (compare
+Heb. v. 7), and at least a silencing of remonstrance when he spoke again
+to his disciples of his approaching death. This he did while the little
+company was making its way back towards Capernaum (Mark ix. 30-32), and
+repeatedly later before the end came (Mark x. 32-34; Matt. xxvi. 1f.).</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s161"><p><span class="versenum">161.</span> On Jesus' return from the mountain, he was met by the despairing plea
+of a father and healed his epileptic son, out of whom the disciples were
+unable to cast the demon (Mark ix. 14-29; compare vi. 7, 13). It may have
+been the shock which the new lesson had given the disciples that accounted
+for the reproof of their lack of faith. The new evidence of Jesus' power,
+coupled with this reproof, seems to have restored their confidence in him.
+Perhaps, too, there was something contagious about the spirit of hope with
+which the three came from their vision of the Master's glory. For,
+although they were not free to tell what they had seen (Mark ix. 9), they
+could not have concealed the fact that their faith had received great
+encouragement. Whatever the cause, hope revived for the disciples, for on
+the way back to Capernaum a dispute arose among them concerning personal
+precedence in the kingdom which their Master should soon set up. In this
+rapid reaction from unbelief to faith the disciples seem to have forgotten
+the lesson of self-denial recently given them (Mark viii. 34, 35). In
+Peter's confession the corner-stone of the church <a class="newpage" name="page148" id="page148" title="148"></a>was laid; but the
+superstructure was yet far out of sight. Although his own soul, taking its
+way down into the valley of shadows, might rightly have asked for sympathy
+and complained of its lack, Jesus simply set a little child in the midst
+of them, and taught them again the first lessons of faith,--gentle
+humility and trust. Thereby he rebuked the spirit of rivalry and asked of
+his disciples a generous, unselfish, and forgiving spirit (Matt, xviii.
+1-35).</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s162"><p><span class="versenum">162.</span> It was possibly at this time, certainly near the end of the Galilean
+ministry, that Jesus was approached by his own brethren, who urged him to
+try to win the capital. Their attitude was not one of indifference, though
+clearly not one of actual faith in his claim (John vii. 2-5). They seem to
+have felt that Jesus had not made adequate effort to secure a following in
+Jerusalem, and that he could not hope for success in his work if he
+continued to confine his attention to Galilee. Jesus knew conditions in
+Jerusalem far better than they did, and had no idea as yet of resuming a
+general ministry there. He therefore dismissed the suggestion, and left
+his brethren to go up to the feast disappointed in their desire that he
+make a demonstration at that time. Yet Jesus still yearned over Jerusalem.
+He knew in what organized opposition a general demonstration would result.
+There were some, however, in the capital who had real faith in him. His
+repeated efforts to win Jerusalem mean nothing if we do not recognize that
+he hoped against hope that many of the people might yet turn and let him
+lead them. With some such purpose, therefore, he went up a little later
+without ostentation, and quietly appeared in the temple teaching. The
+effect <a class="newpage" name="page149" id="page149" title="149"></a>of this unannounced arrival was that the opposition was not ready
+for him. The multitude was compelled to form an opinion of him for itself,
+and he had opportunity to make his own impression for a time,
+independently of official suggestion as to what ought to be thought of
+him. This course resulted in a division of sentiment among the people, so
+much so that when the leaders, both secular and religious, sought to
+compass his arrest, the officers sent to take Jesus were themselves
+entranced by his teaching. In spite of the wish of the leaders Jesus
+continued to teach, and many of the people began to think of him with
+favor. When, however, he tried to lead them on to become "disciples
+indeed," they took offence, and showed that they were not ready yet to
+follow him. This effort to "gather the children of Jerusalem" resulted in
+new proof that they preferred his death to his message (John vii. 2 to
+viii. 59).</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s163"><p><span class="versenum">163.</span> Interesting evidence of the fact that "Jesus did many other signs
+which are not written" in our accepted gospels is found in the story of
+his dealing with an adulteress whom the Pharisees brought to him for
+judgment (John vii. 53 to viii. 11). This narrative had no secure place in
+any of the gospels in the earliest days, yet was so highly regarded that
+men would not let it go. Hence in the manuscripts which contain it, it is
+found in various places. Some give it in Luke after chapter xxi., some at
+the end of the Gospel of John, one placing it after John vii. 36. Many
+considerations combine to prove that it was no part of the Gospel of John,
+but as many show that it preserves a true incident in the ministry of
+Jesus. In scene it belongs to the temple, therefore in time to <a class="newpage" name="page150" id="page150" title="150"></a>one of the
+Jerusalem visits. To which of those visits it should he assigned is not
+now discoverable. The ancient copyists who assigned it to this feast of
+Tabernacles, chose as well as later students can. If the incident belongs
+to this visit, it illustrates the patience and the keen insight of Jesus
+in his effort to win self-satisfied Jerusalem.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s164"><p><span class="versenum">164.</span> John is silent concerning the doings of Jesus after the feast of
+Tabernacles. In x. 22 he notes that Jesus was at Jerusalem at the feast of
+Dedication, which followed two months later. It seems probable that after
+his hurried and private journey to the feast of Tabernacles (John vii. 10)
+he returned to Galilee and gathered to himself again the little company of
+his loyal followers, preparatory to that final journey to Jerusalem which
+should bring the end foreseen, unless, perchance, Israel should yet repent
+and turn unto the Lord. As the shadow deepened over his own life, and the
+persistency of the unbelief of his people appeared more and more clearly,
+the teachings of Jesus took on a new note of tragedy which was not
+characteristic of the earlier preaching in Galilee. Even when his topic
+was similar and his treatment of it not unlike some earlier discourse,
+there appeared in it here and there a warning of impending judgment. This
+is seen as early as the reply to the criticism of the disciples for
+disregard of traditions (Matt. xv. 13f.). Many discourses in the section
+peculiar to Luke show by the presence of this note of doom that they
+belong to this later time rather than to the Galilean period proper. (See
+the table prefixed to Chapter V.)</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s165"><p><span class="versenum">165.</span> Two years had nearly passed since Jesus withdrew from Judea to start
+his ministry anew in a differ<a class="newpage" name="page151" id="page151" title="151"></a>ent region and following a different method.
+The fruit of that ministry was small, but significant. His proclamation of
+the coming kingdom and his call to a deeper righteousness, coupled as they
+were with his works of heavenly power, had won at first an enthusiastic
+following. Realizing that an uncontrolled enthusiasm would thwart his
+purpose to introduce a kingdom of the spirit, Jesus had kept his Messianic
+claim in the background, seeking first to win disciples to the kingdom
+that he was proclaiming. Yet emphasize his message as he would, he could
+not conceal his personal significance. In fact he wished by winning
+disciples to his doctrine of the kingdom to attach followers to himself,
+the bearer of the words of eternal life. The great development of popular
+enthusiasm did not deceive him, nor did he hesitate, when the multitude
+would force him to do its will, to show clearly how far he was from being
+a fulfiller of their desires. By successive disappointments of the popular
+ideas he sifted his followers until a few were ready to follow him
+whithersoever he might lead. With these he allowed time for the fact of
+his unpopularity to appear, giving them opportunity to consider the
+relentless hostility of their national leaders to the teacher from
+Galilee. Then when the time was ripe he drew from the loyal few their
+declaration that they would follow him in spite of disappointments and
+unpopularity, their confession that he had come to be to them more than
+their cherished preconceptions, that he had won the mastery over their
+thought and life. He began then to prepare them for the end he had long
+foreseen, and at length, after giving them time for that perplexing
+mystery to find place in their <a class="newpage" name="page152" id="page152" title="152"></a>hearts, he was ready to move on toward the
+crisis which he knew his public appearance in Jerusalem would precipitate.
+Before setting out on this journey his desire still to seek to win
+Jerusalem, if perchance it would repent, led him to visit the capital
+unannounced at the feast of Tabernacles. This taught him that, however
+ready some might be superficially to believe in him, he could as yet win
+in Jerusalem only hatred and plots against his life, and he returned to
+his faithful friends in Galilee.</p></div></div>
+<div class="chapter" id="p02-05">
+<div class="outline">
+<h2><a class="newpage" name="page153" id="page153" title="153"></a>   Outline of Events in the Journey through Perea to Jerusalem</h2>
+
+
+<p>   The final departure from Galilee--Matt. xix. 1, 2; viii. 19-22; Mark x.
+   1; Luke ix. 51-62.</p>
+
+<p>   The mission of the seventy--Matt. xi. 20-30; Luke x. 1-24.</p>
+
+<p>   The visit to the feast of Dedication--John ix. 1 to x. 39.</p>
+
+<p>   Possibly at this time: The parable of the Good Samaritan--Luke x.
+   25-37. The visit to Mary and Martha--Luke x. 38-42.</p>
+
+<p>   Return to Perea--John x. 40-42.</p>
+
+<p>   The visit to Bethany and the raising of Lazarus--John xi. 1-46.</p>
+
+<p>   The withdrawal to Ephraim--John xi. 47-54.</p>
+
+<p>   Events connected with the last journey to Jerusalem, which cannot be
+   more definitely located:</p>
+
+<p>   The question whether few are saved--Luke xiii. 22-30.</p>
+
+<p>   Reply to the warning against Herod, probably near the close--Luke xiii.
+   31-35.</p>
+
+<p>   The cure of ten lepers--Luke xvii. 11-19.</p>
+
+<p>   The question of the Pharisees concerning divorce--Matt. xix. 3-12; Mark
+   x. 2-12.
+
+</p>
+
+<p>   The blessing of little children--Matt. xix. 13-15; Mark x. 13-16; Luke
+   xviii. 15-17.</p>
+
+<p>   The question of the rich young ruler--Matt. xix. 16 to xx. 16; Mark x.
+   17-31; Luke xviii. 18-30.</p>
+
+<p>   The third prediction of death and resurrection--Matt xx. 17-19; Mark x.
+   32-34; Luke xviii. 31-34.</p>
+
+<p>   The ambitious request of the sons of Zebedee--Matt. xx. 20-28; Mark x.
+   35-45.</p>
+
+<p>   The last stage, Jericho to Jerusalem:</p>
+
+<p>   The blind men near Jericho--Matt. xx. 29-34; Mark x. 46-52; Luke xviii.
+   35-43.</p>
+
+<p><a class="newpage" name="page154" id="page154" title="154"></a>   The visit to Zacch&aelig;us--Luke xix. 1-10.</p>
+
+<p>   The parable of the pounds (min&aelig;)--Luke xix. 11-28. Events and
+   discourses found in Luke ix. 51 to xviii. 14, which probably belong
+   after the confession of Peter, and very likely to some stage of the
+   journey to Jerusalem:</p>
+
+<p>   Woes against the Pharisees, uttered at a Pharisee's table--Luke xi.
+   37-54.</p>
+
+<p>   Warnings against the spirit of pharisaism--Luke xii. 1-59.</p>
+
+<p>   Comment on the slaughter of Galileans by Pilate--Luke xiii. 1-9.</p>
+
+<p>   Discourse on counting the cost of discipleship--Luke xiv. 25-35.</p>
+
+<p>   Discourse on the coming of the kingdom--Luke xvii. 20-37.</p>
+
+<p>   Parable of the Unjust Judge--Luke xviii. 1-8.</p>
+
+<p>   Parable of the Pharisee and the Publican--Luke xviii. 9-14.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+<h2>V</h2>
+
+<h3>The Journey through Perea to Jerusalem</h3>
+
+
+
+<div class="section" id="s166"><p><span class="versenum">166.</span> The fourth gospel says that after the visit to Jerusalem at the feast
+of Dedication Jesus withdrew beyond Jordan to the place where John at the
+first was baptizing (x. 40). Matthew and Mark also say that at the close
+of the ministry in Galilee Jesus departed and came into the borders of
+Judea and beyond Jordan, and that in this new region the multitudes again
+flocked to him, and he resumed his ministry of teaching (Matt. xix. 1f.;
+Mark x. 1). What he did and taught at this time is not shown at all by
+John, and only in scant fashion by the other two. They tell of a
+discussion with the Pharisees concerning divorce (Mark x. 2-12); of the
+welcome extended by Jesus to certain little children (Mark x. 13-16); of
+the disappointment of a rich young ruler, who wished to learn <a class="newpage" name="page155" id="page155" title="155"></a>from Jesus
+the way of life, but loved better his great possessions (Mark x. 17-31);
+of a further manifestation of the unlovely spirit of rivalry among the
+disciples in the request of James and John for the best places in the
+kingdom (Mark x. 35-45),--a request following in the records directly
+after another prediction by Jesus of his death and resurrection (Mark x.
+32-34). Then, after a visit to Jericho (Luke xviii. 35 to xix. 28), these
+records come into coincidence with John in the account of the Messianic
+entry into Jerusalem just before the last Passover.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s167"><p><span class="versenum">167.</span> The fourth gospel tells in addition of a considerable activity of
+Jesus in and near Jerusalem during this period. In making the journey
+beyond Jordan start from Jerusalem (x. 40), John shows that Jesus must
+have returned to the capital after his withdrawal from the feast of
+Tabernacles. When and how this took place is not indicated. Later, after
+his retirement from the feast of Dedication Jesus hastened at the summons
+of his friends from beyond Jordan to Bethany when Lazarus died (xi. 1-7).
+From Bethany he went not to the other side of Jordan again, but to Ephraim
+(xi. 54), a town on the border between Judea and Samaria, and from there
+he started towards Jerusalem when the Passover drew near. This record of
+John has, as Dr. Sanday has recently remarked (HastBD II. 630), so many
+marks of verisimilitude that it must be accepted as a true tradition. It
+demands thus that in our conception of the last journey from Galilee room
+be found for several excursions to Jerusalem or its neighborhood. One of
+these at least--to the feast of Dedication (x. 22)--represents another
+effort to "gather the children of Jerusalem." <a class="newpage" name="page156" id="page156" title="156"></a>While not without success,
+for at least the blind man restored by Jesus gave him the full faith he
+sought (ix. 35-38), it showed with fuller clearness the determined
+hostility to Jesus of the influential class (x. 39).</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s168"><p><span class="versenum">168.</span> It has been customary to find in the long section peculiar to Luke
+(ix. 51 to xviii. 14) a fuller account of the Perean ministry, as it has
+been called. For it opens with a final departure from Galilee, and comes
+at its close into parallelism with the record of Matthew and Mark. Yet
+some parts of this section in Luke belong in the earlier Galilean
+ministry. The blasphemy of the Pharisees (xi. 14-36) is clearly identical
+with the incident recorded in Mark iii. 22-30, and Matt. xii. 22-45; while
+several incidents and discourses (see outline prefixed to Chapter III.)
+bear so plainly the marks of the ministry before the revulsion of popular
+favor, that it is easiest to think of them as actually belonging to the
+earlier time, but assigned by Luke to this peculiar section because he
+found no clear place offered for them in the record of Mark. Not a little,
+however, of what Luke records here manifestly belongs to the time when
+Jesus referred openly to his rejection by the Jewish people. The note of
+tragedy characteristic of later discourses appears in the replies of Jesus
+to certain would-be disciples (ix. 57-62), and in his warning that his
+followers count the cost of discipleship (xiv. 25-35). The woes spoken at
+a Pharisee's table (xi. 37-52), the warning to the disciples against
+pharisaism (xii. 1-12), and the encouragement of the "little flock" (xii.
+22-34), with many other paragraphs from this part of the gospel (see
+outline at the head of this chapter), evidently were spoken <a class="newpage" name="page157" id="page157" title="157"></a>at the time
+of the approaching end. Some narratives reflect the neighborhood of
+Jerusalem, and naturally corroborate the indications in the fourth gospel
+that Jesus was repeatedly at the capital during this time. The parable of
+the good Samaritan, for instance, must have been spoken in Judea, else why
+choose the road from Jerusalem to Jericho for the illustration? The visit
+to Mary and Martha shows Jesus at Bethany, and the parable of the Pharisee
+and the Publican, naming the temple as the place of prayer, belongs
+naturally to Judea.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s169"><p><span class="versenum">169.</span> The effort to find the definite progress of events in this part of
+Luke has not been successful. There are three hints of movement towards
+Jerusalem,--the introductory mention of the departure from Galilee (ix.
+51); a statement that Jesus went on his way through cities and villages,
+journeying on unto Jerusalem (xiii. 22); and again a reference to passing
+through the midst of Samaria and Galilee on the way to Jerusalem (xvii.
+11). The attempt to make the third of these belong actually to the last
+stages of the final journey seems artificial. Confessedly the expression
+"through the midst of Samaria and Galilee" is obscure. It is much easier
+to understand, however, if the journey so described is identified with the
+visit to Samaria with which the departure from Galilee opened. It seems
+probable that Luke found these records of events and teachings in Jesus'
+life, and was unable to learn exactly their connection in time and place,
+so placed them after the close of the Galilean story and before the
+account of the passion, much as later some copyist found the story of the
+adulteress (John vii. 53 to viii. 11), and, certain that <a class="newpage" name="page158" id="page158" title="158"></a>it was a true
+incident, gave it a place in connection with the visit to the feast of
+Tabernacles (perhaps influenced by John viii. 15). It must always be
+remembered that the earliest apostolic writing--Matthew's Logia--probably
+consisted of just such disconnected records (see sects. 28, 42), and that,
+as J&uuml;licher (Einleitung i. d. NT. 235) has said, the early church was not
+interested in <i>when</i> Jesus said or did anything. Its interest was in
+<i>what</i> he said and did.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s170"><p><span class="versenum">170.</span> The time of the departure from Galilee for Jerusalem may be set with
+much probability not long before the feast of the Dedication in December;
+for at that feast Jesus was again in Jerusalem, and from it he returned to
+Perea (John x. 22, 40-42). He started southward through Samaria (Luke ix.
+51 ff.), and probably in connection with the early stages of the journey
+he sent out the seventy "into every city and place whither he himself was
+about to come" (Luke x. 1). It is not unlikely that, after the sending out
+of these heralds, he went with a few disciples to make one more effort to
+turn the heart of Jerusalem to himself (John ix., x.). It is impossible to
+determine whither the seventy were sent. The "towns and cities" whither
+Jesus was about to come may have included some from all portions of the
+land, not excepting Judea. The matter must be left in considerable
+obscurity. This, however, may be said, that the reasons offered for
+holding that the story of the sending out of the seventy is only a
+"doublet" of the mission of the twelve are not conclusive (see sect. A
+68). The connection in Luke of the woes against Capernaum, Bethsaida, and
+Chorazin with the instruction of the seventy is very natural, and marks
+this mission as belonging to <a class="newpage" name="page159" id="page159" title="159"></a>the close of the Galilean period, while the
+mission of the twelve belongs to the height of Jesus' popularity.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s171"><p><span class="versenum">171.</span> Our knowledge of Jesus' visit to the feast of Dedication is due to
+John's interest in the cure at about that time of one born blind (John
+ix., x.). The prejudice of the sanhedrists who excommunicated the man for
+his loyalty to Jesus led him in indignation to contrast their method of
+caring for God's "sheep" with his own love and sympathy and genuine
+ministry to their needs. He saw clearly that his course must end in death,
+unless a great change should come over his enemies; yet, as the Good
+Shepherd, he was ready to lay down his life for the sheep, rather than
+leave them to the heartlessness of leaders who cared only for themselves
+(x. 11-18). The critics of Jesus could not, or would not, understand his
+charge against them, and accused him of madness for his extraordinary
+claims. There were some, however, who could not credit the notion that
+Jesus had a devil (John x. 21). It is possible that it was at this time
+that the lawyer questioned him about the breadth of interpretation to be
+given to the word "neighbor" in the law of love, and was answered by the
+parable of the Good Samaritan (Luke x. 25-37). Possibly the parable of the
+Pharisee and the Publican (Luke xviii. 9-14) belongs also to this time. In
+general, however, the visit proved anew that Jerusalem was in no mood to
+accept Jesus (John x. 24-39). His enemies sought to draw from him a
+declaration of his claim to be the Messiah, and Jesus appealed to his
+works, asserting that only their incorrigible prejudice prevented their
+recognizing his claims. He added that his Father, with whom he was ever in
+perfect accord, had drawn <a class="newpage" name="page160" id="page160" title="160"></a>some faithful followers to him, and thereupon,
+angered by his claim to close kinship with God, they appealed to the rough
+logic of violence (John x. 31-39; compare viii. 59).</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s172"><p><span class="versenum">172.</span> After this added attempt to win Jerusalem Jesus withdrew to the
+region beyond Jordan, where John had carried on his ministry to the eager
+multitudes. Here he anew attracted great attention, causing people to
+contrast his ministry with the less remarkable work of John, and to
+acknowledge that John's testimony to him was true (John x. 40-42).
+Possibly it was in this place that the seventy found Jesus when they
+returned to report the success of their mission (Luke x. 17-24), for the
+thanksgiving which Jesus rendered for the faith of the common people in
+contrast with the unbelief of the "wise and prudent" might well express
+his feeling after the fresh evidence he had at the feast of Dedication
+that Jerusalem would none of his mission. The invitation to all the heavy
+laden to take his yoke illustrates, though under another figure, his claim
+to be the Good Shepherd (Matt. xi. 28-30). We have no means of knowing how
+much more of what the gospels assign to the last journey to Jerusalem
+should be put in connection with this sojourn across the Jordan. The
+multitudes that came to him there may have included the Pharisees who
+questioned him about divorce (Mark x. 2-12), and the young ruler who loved
+his great possessions (Mark x. 17-31), as well as the parents who eagerly
+sought the Lord's blessing for their children (Mark x. 13-16). Some parts
+of Luke's narrative seem to belong still later in this journey, yet such a
+section as the reply of Jesus to the report of <a class="newpage" name="page161" id="page161" title="161"></a>Pilate's slaughter of the
+Galileans (xiii. 1-9), or the parable of the Great Supper (xiv. 15-24), is
+suitable to any stage of it.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s173"><p><span class="versenum">173.</span> This sojourn on the other side of Jordan was brought to a close by
+the summons to come to the aid of his friends in Bethany (John xi.). It is
+not strange that the disciples feared his return to Judea, nor that Jesus
+did not hesitate when he recognized the call of duty as well as of
+friendship. In no recorded miracle of Jesus is his power more signally set
+forth, yet here more clearly than anywhere else he is represented as
+dependent on his Father in his exercise of that power. The words of Jesus
+at the grave (John xi. 41, 42) show that he was confident of the
+resurrection of Lazarus, because he had prayed and was sure he was heard.
+It may be that his delay after hearing of the sickness of his friend (xi.
+6) was a time of waiting for answer, and that this explains his confidence
+of safety when the time came for him to expose himself again to the
+hostility of Judea. Jesus indicated not only that on this occasion he had
+help from above in doing his miracles, but that it was the rule in his
+life to seek such help and guidance (xi. 42). In fact, at a later time he
+ascribed all his works to the Father abiding in him (John xiv. 10; compare
+x. 25). The effect of the resurrection of Lazarus was such as to intensify
+the determination of the leaders in Jerusalem--both Pharisees and
+Sadducees--to get rid of Jesus as dangerous to the quiet of the nation
+(John xi. 47-54). In this it simply served to fix a determination already
+present (John vii. 25, 32; viii. 59; x. 31, 39). The miracle does not
+appear in John as the cause of the apprehension of Jesus, but <a class="newpage" name="page162" id="page162" title="162"></a>rather as
+one influence leading to it. It was indeed the total contradiction between
+Jesus and all current and cherished ideas that led to his condemnation;
+the raising of Lazarus only showed that he was becoming dangerously
+popular, and made the priestly leaders feel the necessity of haste. The
+silence of the first three gospels concerning this event is truly
+perplexing, yet it is not any more difficult of explanation, as Beyschlag
+(LJ I. 495) has shown, than the silence of all four evangelists concerning
+the appearance of the risen Jesus to James, or to the five hundred
+brethren (I. Cor. xv. 6, 7). Room must be allowed in our conception of the
+life of Jesus for many things of which no record remains, all the more,
+therefore, for incidents to which but one of the gospels is witness.
+Moreover, after the collapse of popularity in Galilee, the great
+enthusiasm of the multitudes over Jesus when he entered Jerusalem (Luke
+xix. 37-40; Mark xi. 8-10) is most easily understood if he had made some
+such manifestation of power as the restoration of Lazarus.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s174"><p><span class="versenum">174.</span> After the visit to Bethany Jesus withdrew to a little town named
+Ephraim, on the border between Judea and Samaria, and spent some time
+there in seclusion with his disciples (John xi. 54), doubtless
+strengthening his personal hold on them preparatory to the shock their
+faith was about to receive. Of the length of this sojourn nothing is told
+us, nor of the road by which Jesus left Ephraim for Jerusalem (John xii.
+1). The first three gospels show that he began his final approach to the
+Holy City at Jericho (Mark x. 46). It may be that he descended from
+Ephraim direct to Jericho some days before the Passover, rejoining there
+some of the people who had been <a class="newpage" name="page163" id="page163" title="163"></a>impressed by his recent ministry in the
+region "where John at the first was baptizing." It is natural to suppose
+that it was on this journey to Jericho that he warned his disciples again
+of the fate which he saw before him in Jerusalem (Mark x. 32-34), and
+quite probably it was at this time that he rebuked the crude ambition of
+the sons of Zebedee by reminding them that his disciples must be more
+ambitious to serve than to rule, since even "the Son of Man came not to be
+ministered unto but to minister, and to give his life a ransom for many"
+(Mark x. 35-45). At Jericho he was at once crowded upon by enthusiastic
+multitudes. The feeling they had for him may perhaps be inferred from the
+cry of blind Bartimeus, "Thou son of David, have mercy on me" (Mark x.
+48). This enthusiasm received a shock when Jesus chose to be guest in
+Jericho of a chief of the publicans, a shock which Jesus probably intended
+to give, for much the same reason that led him afterwards on his way up to
+Jerusalem to teach his followers in the parable of the pounds that they
+must be ready for long delay in his actual assumption of his kingly right
+(Luke xix. 11-28). Finally, six days before the Passover, he and his
+disciples left Jericho and went up to Bethany preparatory to his final
+appearance in Jerusalem (John xii. 1).</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s175"><p><span class="versenum">175.</span> The interval between the final departure from Galilee and the public
+entry into Jerusalem was given to three different tasks: the renewed
+proclamation of the coming of the kingdom, further efforts to win
+acceptance in Jerusalem, if perchance she might learn to know the things
+that belonged to her peace; and continued training of the disciples,
+specially needed <a class="newpage" name="page164" id="page164" title="164"></a>because of the ill-considered enthusiasm with which they
+were inclined to view the probable issue of this journey to Jerusalem. The
+first of these tasks was conducted as the earlier work in Galilee had
+been, both by teaching and healing, in which Jesus used his disciples even
+more extensively than before. It proved that here as in Galilee the common
+people were ready to hear him gladly, until he showed too radical a
+disappointment of their hopes. In this new ministry to the people Jesus
+spoke very frankly of the seriousness of the opposition which the leaders
+of the people were manifesting, and of the need that those who would be
+his disciples should count the cost of their allegiance (Luke xiii. 22-30;
+xiv. 25-35; xii. 1-59). He did not hesitate to administer the most
+scathing rebuke to the Pharisees for the superficiality and hypocrisy of
+their religious life and teaching (Luke xi. 37-54),--a rebuke which is
+emphasized by the parable in which, on another occasion, he taught God's
+preference for a contrite sinner over a complacent saint (Luke xviii.
+9-14). When reminded of Pilate's outrage upon certain Galilean
+worshippers, he used the calamity to warn his hearers that personal
+godliness was the only protection which could secure them against a more
+serious outbreak of the hostility of the Roman power (Luke xiii. 1-9); and
+it was probably in reply to such an appeal as accompanied this report of
+Pilate's cruelty that Jesus spoke the parable of the Unjust Judge (Luke
+xviii. 1-8), teaching that God's love may be trusted to be no less
+regardful of his people's cry than a selfish man's love of ease would be.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s176"><p><span class="versenum">176.</span> The second of these tasks must not be held to <a class="newpage" name="page165" id="page165" title="165"></a>be perfunctory, even
+though each new effort for Jerusalem proved that genuine acceptance of its
+saviour was increasingly improbable. As the denunciations of the older
+prophets ever left open a way of escape <i>if </i> Israel would return and seek
+the Lord, so the anticipation of rejection and death which filled the
+heart of Jesus does not banish a like <i>if</i> from his own thought of
+Jerusalem in his repeated efforts to "gather her children." The
+combination of the new popular enthusiasm and the fresh proofs of the
+hopelessness of winning Jerusalem made more important the third task,--the
+founding of the faith of the disciples on the rock of personal certainty,
+from which the rising floods of hatred and seeming ruin for the Master's
+cause could not sweep it. It was for them that much of his instruction of
+the multitudes was doubtless primarily intended; they needed above all
+others to count the cost of discipleship (Luke xiv. 25-35), and the
+warnings against the spirit of Pharisaism (Luke xii.) were addressed
+principally to them, even as it was to them that Jesus confessed the
+"straitening" of his own soul in view of the "fire which he had come to
+cast upon the earth" (Luke xii. 49-53),--a confession which had another
+expression when he found it needful to rebuke the personal ambition of the
+sons of Zebedee (Mark x. 35-45). As for Jesus himself, the popular
+enthusiasm had not deceived him, nor the obdurate unbelief of Jerusalem
+daunted him, nor his disciples' misconception of his kingdom disheartened
+him; he still steadfastly set his face to go to Jerusalem.</p></div></div>
+<div class="chapter" id="p02-06">
+<div class="ouline">
+<h2><a class="newpage" name="page166" id="page166" title="166"></a>   Outline of Events in the Last Week of Jesus' Life</h2>
+
+
+<p>   <i>Saturday</i> (?). The anointing in Bethany six days before the
+   Passover--Matt. xxvi. 6-13; Mark xiv. 3-9; John xi. 55 to xii. 11.
+
+</p>
+
+<p>   <i>Sunday</i> (?). The Messianic entry--Matt. xxi. 1-11; Mark xi. 1-11; Luke
+   six. 29-44; John xii. 12-19.</p>
+
+<p>   <i>Monday</i> (?). Visit to the temple: the cursing of the barren
+   fig-tree--Matt. xxi. 18-19, 12-17; Mark xi. 12-14, 15-18; Luke xix. 45,
+   47, 48.</p>
+
+<p>   Return to Bethany for the night--Matt. xxi. 17; Mark xi. 19; Luke xxi.
+   37, 38.</p>
+
+<p>   <i>Tuesday</i> (?). Visit to the temple: the fig-tree found withered--Matt,
+   xxi 20-23; Mark xi. 20-27; Luke xx. 1.</p>
+
+<p>   Challenge of Jesus' authority--Matt. xxi. 23-27; Mark xi. 27-33; Luke
+   xx. 1-8.</p>
+
+<p>   Three parables against the religious leaders--Matt. xxi. 28 to xxii.
+   14; Mark xii. 1-12; Luke xx. 9-19.</p>
+
+<p>   The question about tribute--Matt. xxii. 15-22; Mark xii. 13-17; Luke
+   xx. 20-26.</p>
+
+<p>   The question of the Sadducees about the resurrection--Matt. xxii.
+   23-33; Mark xii. 18-27; Luke xx. 27-40.</p>
+
+<p>   The question of the Pharisees about the great commandment--Matt. xxii.
+   34-40; Mark xii. 28-34.</p>
+
+<p>   Jesus' counter-question about David's son and Lord--Matt. xxii. 41-46;
+   Mark xii. 35-37; Luke xx. 41-44.</p>
+
+<p>   Jesus' denunciation of the scribes and Pharisees--Matt, xxiii. 1-39;
+   Mark xii. 38-40; Luke xx. 45-47.</p>
+
+<p>   The widow's two mites--Mark xii. 41-44; Luke xxi. 1-4.</p>
+
+<p>   The visit of the Greeks--John xii. 20-36<sup>a</sup>.</p>
+
+<p>   Final departure from the temple--John xii. 36<sup>b</sup> (-50).</p>
+
+<p><a class="newpage" name="page167" id="page167" title="167"></a>   Discourse concerning the destruction of Jerusalem and the end of the
+   world--Matt. xxiv. 1 to xxvi. 2; Mark xiii. 1-37; Luke xxi. 5-38.</p>
+
+<p>   Plot of Judas to betray Jesus--Matt. xxvi. 3-5, 14-16; Mark xiv. 1, 2,
+   10, 11; Luke xxii. 1-6.</p>
+
+<p>   <i>Wednesday</i>. Retirement at Bethany. (?)</p>
+
+<p>   <i>Thursday</i>. The Last Supper--Matt. xxvi. 17-30; Mark xiv. 12-26; Luke
+   xxii. 7-30; John xiii. 1-30.</p>
+
+<p>   The farewell words of admonition and comfort--John xiii. 31 to xvi. 33.</p>
+
+<p>   The intercessory prayer--John xvii. 1-26.</p>
+
+<p>   <i>Friday</i>. The agony in Gethsemane--Matt. xxvi. 30, 36-46; Mark xiv. 26,
+   32-42; Luke xxii. 39-46; John xviii. 1.</p>
+
+<p>   The betrayal and arrest--Matt xxvi. 47-56; Mark xiv. 43-52; Luke xxii.
+   47-53; John xviii. 1-12.</p>
+
+<p>   Trial before the high-priests and sanhedrin--Matt. xxvi. 57 to xxvii.
+   10; Mark xiv. 53 to xv. 1<sup>a</sup>; Luke xxii. 54-71; John xviii. 12-27.</p>
+
+<p>   Trial before Pilate--Matt, xxvii. 11-31; Mark xv. 1-20; Luke xxiii.
+   1-25; John xviii. 28 to xix. 16<sup>a</sup>.</p>
+
+<p>   The crucifixion--Matt, xxvii. 32-56; Mark xv. 21-41; Luke xxiii. 26-49;
+   John xix. 16-37.</p>
+
+<p>   The burial--Matt, xxvii. 57-61; Mark xv. 42-47; Luke xxiii. 50-56; John
+   xix. 38-42.</p>
+
+<p>   <i>Saturday</i>. The Sabbath rest--Luke xxiii. 56<sup>b</sup>.</p>
+
+<p>   The watch at the tomb--Matt, xxvii. 62-66.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+<h2>VI</h2>
+
+<h3>The Final Controversies in Jerusalem</h3>
+
+
+
+<div class="section" id="s177"><p><span class="versenum">177.</span> The early Christians were greatly interested in the teachings of
+Jesus and in his deeds, but they thought oftenest of the victory which by
+his resurrection he won out of seeming defeat. This is proved by the fact
+that of the first two gospels over one third, of Luke over one fifth, and
+of the fourth gospel nearly <a class="newpage" name="page168" id="page168" title="168"></a>one half are devoted to the story of the
+passion and resurrection. This preponderance is not strange in view of the
+shock which the death of Jesus caused his disciples, and the new life
+which the resurrection brought to their hearts. The resurrection was the
+fundamental theme of apostolic preaching, the supreme evidence that Jesus
+was the Messiah. Hence the cross early became the object of exultant
+Christian joy and boasting; and in this the church entered actually into
+the Lord's own thought, for through the cross he looked for his exaltation
+and glory (Mark viii. 31; John xii. 23-36). From the time of the
+confession at C&aelig;sarea Philippi, he had had his death avowedly in view, and
+had repeatedly checked the ambitious and unthinking enthusiasm of his
+disciples by reminding them of what he must receive at the hands of the
+leaders of the people. The few months preceding his final appearance in
+Jerusalem had been devoted to the journey to the cross. This explains the
+note of tragedy which appears in his teachings at this period. The people
+had shown that they would none of his ministry. In this they had written
+their national and religious death warrant, and as he approached Jerusalem
+for the final crisis he declared, though with almost breaking heart, "Your
+house is left unto you desolate" (Luke xiii. 31-35). Each new effort of
+Jesus to turn aside the impending judgment of his people by winning their
+acceptance of himself and his message resulted in a new certainty of his
+ultimate rejection, and thus in confirmation of the early recognized
+necessity, that, if he continued the work God had given him to do, he
+should suffer many things, and die at the hands of his own people.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s178"><p><a class="newpage" name="page169" id="page169" title="169"></a><span class="versenum">178.</span> The last chapter in his public ministry began with his arrival at
+Bethany six days before the Passover. It is probable that the caravan with
+which Jesus was travelling reached Bethany not far from the sunset which
+marked the beginning of the Sabbath preceding the feast. Jesus had friends
+there who gladly gave him entertainment, and the Sabbath was doubtless
+spent quietly in this retreat. The holy day closed with the setting sun,
+and then his hosts were able to show him the special attention which they
+desired. The general cordiality of welcome expressed itself in a feast
+given in the house of one Simon, a leper who had probably experienced the
+power of Jesus to heal. He may have been a relative also of Lazarus, for
+Martha assisted in the entertainment, and Lazarus was one of the guests of
+honor (Mark xiv. 3; John xii. 2). During the feast, Mary, the sister of
+Lazarus, poured forth on the head and feet of Jesus a box of the rarest
+perfume. This act of costly adoration seemed extravagant to some,
+particularly to one of Jesus' disciples, who complained that the money
+could have been better spent. This criticism of one who had not counted
+cost in her service was rebuked by Jesus, who defended and commended Mary;
+for in the act he recognized her fear that he might not be long with her
+(Mark xiv. 8; John xii. 7). It is probable that this rebuke, with the
+clear reference to his approaching death, led Judas to decide to abandon
+the apparently waning cause of his Master, and bargain with the leaders in
+Jerusalem to betray him (Mark xiv. 3-11).</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s179"><p><span class="versenum">179.</span> The day following the supper at Bethany--that is, the first day of
+the week--witnessed the welcome of Jesus to Jerusalem by the jubilant
+multitudes. <a class="newpage" name="page170" id="page170" title="170"></a>His mode of entering the city affords a marked contrast to
+his treatment of the determination to make him king after he had fed the
+multitudes in Galilee (John vi. 15). In some respects the circumstances
+were similar. A multitude of the visitors to the feast, hearing that Jesus
+was at Bethany on his way to Jerusalem, went out to meet him with a
+welcome that showed their enthusiastic confidence that at last he would
+assume Messianic power and redeem Israel (John xii. 12, 13). Jesus was now
+ready for a popular demonstration, for the rulers were unwilling longer to
+tolerate his work and his teaching. He had never hesitated to assert his
+superiority to official criticism, and at length the hour had come to
+proclaim the full significance of his independence. In fact it was for
+this that some months before he had set his face steadfastly to go to
+Jerusalem. When, therefore, the crowd from Jerusalem appeared, Jesus took
+the initiative in a genuine Messianic demonstration. He sent two of his
+disciples to a place near by to borrow an ass's colt, on which he might
+ride into the city, fulfilling Zechariah's prophecy of the "king that
+cometh meek, and riding upon an ass" (see Matt. xxi. 4, 5). At this, the
+enthusiasm of his followers, and of those who had come to meet him, became
+unbounded, and without rebuke from Jesus they proceeded towards Jerusalem
+crying, "Hosanna; Blessed <i>is</i> he that cometh in the name of the Lord"
+(Mark xi. 9, 10). Notwithstanding the remonstrances of certain Pharisees
+among the multitude (Luke xix. 39), Jesus accepted the hosannas, for they
+served to emphasize the claim which he now wished, without reserve or
+ambiguity, to make in Jerusalem. The <a class="newpage" name="page171" id="page171" title="171"></a>time for reserve had passed. The
+mass of the people with their leaders had shown clearly that for his
+truth, and himself as bearer of it, they had no liking; while the few had
+become attached to him sufficiently to warrant the supreme test of their
+faith. He could not continue longer his efforts to win the people, for
+both Galilee and Judea were closed to him. Even if he had been content,
+without contradicting popular ideas, to work wonders and proclaim promises
+of coming good, he could with difficulty have continued this work, for
+Herod had already been regarding him with suspicion (Luke xiii. 31). He
+had run his course and must measure strength with the hostile forces in
+Jerusalem. For the last encounter he assumed the aggressive, and entered
+the city as its promised deliverer, the Prince of Peace. The very method
+of his Messianic proclamation was a challenge of current Jewish ideas, for
+they were not looking for so meek and peaceful a leader as Zechariah had
+conceived; this entrance emphasized the old contradiction between Jesus
+and his people's expectations. He accepted the popular welcome with full
+knowledge of the transitoriness of the present enthusiasm. As he advanced
+he saw in thought the fate to which the city and people were blindly
+hurrying, and his day of popular triumph was a day of tears (Luke xix.
+41-44). The city was stirred when the prophet of Nazareth thus entered it;
+but he simply went into the temple, looked about with heavy heart, and, as
+it was late, returned to Bethany with the twelve for the night.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s180"><p><span class="versenum">180.</span> On the following day Jesus furnished to his disciples a parable in
+action illustrating the fate awaiting the nation; for it is only as a
+parable that the <a class="newpage" name="page172" id="page172" title="172"></a>curse of the barren fig-tree can be understood. The idea
+that Jesus showed resentment at disappointment of his hunger when he found
+no figs on the tree out of season is too petty for consideration. He was
+drawn to it by the early foliage, for it was not yet the season for either
+fruit or leaves. One is tempted to believe, as Dr. Bruce has suggested,
+that he had small expectation of finding fruit, and that even before he
+reached the tree with its early leaves he felt a likeness between it and
+the nation of hypocrites whose fate was so clear in his mind. The
+withering of the fig-tree set his disciples thinking; and Jesus showed
+that it was an object lesson, promising that the disciples, by the
+exercise of but a little faith, could do more, even remove
+mountains,--such mountains of difficulty as the opposition of the whole
+Jewish nation would offer to the success of their work in their Master's
+name.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s181"><p><span class="versenum">181.</span> The curse upon the barren fig-tree was spoken as Jesus was going from
+Bethany to Jerusalem on the morning after his Messianic entry, that is, on
+Monday, and it was Tuesday when the disciples found it withered away (Mark
+xi. 12-14, 20-25). On Monday Jesus entered into the temple and taught and
+healed (Luke xix. 47; Matt. xxi. 14-16). It is at this point that Mark
+inserts the cleansing of the temple which John shows to belong rather to
+Jesus' first public visit to Jerusalem. The place which this incident
+holds in the first three gospels has already been explained by the fact
+that it furnished one cause for the official hostility to Jesus, and that
+Mark's story included no earlier visit to the holy city (sect. 116; see A
+39).</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s182"><p><span class="versenum">182.</span> Tuesday, the last day of public activity, ex<a class="newpage" name="page173" id="page173" title="173"></a>hibits Jesus in four
+different lights, according as he had to do with his critics, with the
+devout widow, with the inquiring Greeks, and with his own disciples. The
+opposition to him expressed itself, after the general challenge of his
+authority, in three questions put in succession by Pharisees and
+Herodians, by Sadducees, and by a scribe, more earnest than most, whom the
+Pharisees put forward after they had seen how Jesus silenced the
+Sadducees. Jesus met the opening challenge by a question about John's
+baptism (Mark xi. 29-33) which completely destroyed the complacency of his
+critics, putting them on the defensive. This was more than a clever
+stroke, they could not know what his authority was unless they had a quick
+sense for spiritual things. His question would have served to bring this
+to the surface if they had possessed it. Their reply showed them incapable
+of receiving a real answer to their question. It also gave him opportunity
+to say in three significant parables (Matt. xxi. 28 to xxii. 14) what
+their spiritual blindness signified for them and their nation, giving thus
+a turn to the interview not at all to their minds. As Jesus' rebuke was
+spoken in the hearing of the people, a determined effort was at once made
+to discredit him in the popular mind. The question (Mark xii. 13-17) with
+which the Pharisees and Herodians hoped to ensnare him was most subtle,
+for the popular feeling was as sensitive to the mark of subserviency which
+the payment of tribute kept ever before them as the Roman authorities were
+to the slightest suspicion of revolt against their sway. In none of his
+words had Jesus so clearly asserted the simple other-worldliness of his
+doctrine of the kingdom of God as in his answer <a class="newpage" name="page174" id="page174" title="174"></a>to the question about
+tribute. For him loyalty to the actual earthly sovereign was quite
+compatible with loyalty to God, the lower obligation was in fact a summons
+to be scrupulous also to render to God his due,--a duty in which this
+nation was sadly delinquent. The reply gave no ground for an accusation
+before the governor; but the popular feeling against Rome was so strong
+that it is not unlikely that it contributed somewhat to the readiness of
+the multitude a few days later to prefer Barabbas to Jesus.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s183"><p><span class="versenum">183.</span> A second assault was made by some Sadducees who put to him a crude
+question about the relations of a seven-times married woman in the
+resurrection (Mark xii. 18-27). If this question was asked with the
+expectation of making Jesus ridiculous in the sight of the people it was a
+marked failure, for his reply was so simple and straightforward that he
+won the admiration even of some of the Pharisees. The most significant
+feature of it was his argument from God's reference to himself as God of
+Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob; for in that he taught that the fact of
+fellowship with God implies that God's servants share with him a life that
+death cannot vanquish. The skill with which Jesus met these two questions
+interested some of his hearers and showed to his opponents that they must
+put forward their ablest champions to cope with him. The next test was
+more purely academic in character,--as to what class of commands is
+greatest in the law (Mark xii. 28-34). For the pharisaic scholars this was
+a favorite problem. For Jesus, however, the question contained no problem,
+since all the law is summed up in the two commandments of love. His
+contemporaries were not without power to see the truth of his
+<a class="newpage" name="page175" id="page175" title="175"></a>generalization, and their champion in this last attack was moved with
+admiration for the fineness and sufficiency of Jesus' answer.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s184"><p><span class="versenum">184.</span> All of the assaults served only to show freshly the clearness and
+profoundness of his thought; his critics were quite discomfited in their
+effort to entangle him. They had done with him, but he had still a word
+for them. The business of these scribes was the study of the scriptures.
+They furnished the people with authoritative statements of truth. One of
+the common-places of the current thought was that the Messiah should be
+David's son. Jesus did not deny the truth of this view, yet he showed them
+how partial their ideas were by quoting a word of scripture in which the
+Messiah is shown as David's Lord. If they had been open-minded they might
+have inferred from this that perhaps the man before them was not so
+impossible a Messiah as they thought. This last question closed the
+colloquy; there awaited yet, however, Jesus' calm, scathing arraignment of
+the hypocrisy of these religious leaders. There was no longer any need for
+prudence and every reason for a clear indication of the difference between
+himself and the scribes in motive, in teaching, and in character. The
+final conflict was on, and Jesus freely spoke his mind concerning their
+whole life of piety without godliness. Never have sharper words of
+reproach fallen from human lips than these which Jesus directed against
+the scribes and Pharisees; they are burdened with indignation for the
+misleading of the people, with rebuke for the misrepresentation of God's
+truth, and with scorn for their hollow pretence of righteousness. Through
+it all breathes a note of sorrow for the city <a class="newpage" name="page176" id="page176" title="176"></a>whose house was now left to
+her desolate. The change of scene which introduces the widow offering her
+gift in the temple treasury heightens the significance of the
+controversies through which Jesus had just passed. In his comment on the
+worth of her two mites we hear again the preacher of the sermon on the
+mount, and are assured that it is indeed from him that the severe rebukes
+which have fallen on the scribes have come. There is again a reference to
+the insight of him who sees in secret, and who judges as he sees; while
+allusion is not lacking to the others whose larger gifts attracted a wider
+attention. The whole scene is like a commentary on Matt. vi. 2-4.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s185"><p><span class="versenum">185.</span> Still a different side of Jesus' life appears when the Greeks seek
+him in the temple. They were probably proselytes from some of the Greek
+cities about the Mediterranean where the synagogue offered to the
+earnest-minded a welcome relief from the foolishness and corruption of
+what was left of religion in the heathen world. Having visited Jerusalem
+for the feast, they heard on every hand about the new teacher. They were
+not so bound to rabbinic traditions as the Jews themselves, they had been
+drawn by the finer features of Judaism,--its high morality and its noble
+idea of God. What they heard of Jesus might well attract them, and they
+sought out Philip, a disciple with a Greek name, to request an interview
+with his Master. The evangelist who has preserved the incident (John xii.
+20-36) evidently introduced it because of what it showed of Jesus' inner
+life; hence we have no report of the conversation between him and his
+visitors. The effect of their seeking him was marked, however, for it
+offered sharp contrast to the <a class="newpage" name="page177" id="page177" title="177"></a>rejection which he already felt in his
+dealings with the people who but two days before had hailed him as
+Messiah. This foreign interest in him did not suggest a new avenue for
+Messianic work, it only brought before his mind the influence which was to
+be his in the world which these inquirers represented, and immediately
+with the thought of his glorification came that of the means thereto,--the
+cross whose shadow was already darkening his path. Excepting Gethsemane,
+no more solemn moment in Jesus' life is reported for us. A glimpse is
+given into the inner currents of his soul, and the storm which tossed them
+is seen. It is in marked contrast to the calmness of his controversy with
+the leaders, and to the gentleness of his commendation of the widow. The
+agitation passed almost at once, but it left Jesus in a mood which he had
+not shown before on that day; in it his own thoughts had their way, and
+the doctrine of the grain of wheat dying to appear in larger life, of the
+Son of Man lifted up to draw all men unto him, had utterance, greatly to
+the perplexity of his hearers. It seems to have been one of the few times
+when Jesus spoke for his own soul's relief.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s186"><p><span class="versenum">186.</span> In all the earlier events of the day the disciples of Jesus appear
+but little. He is occupied with others, accepting the challenge of the
+leaders, and completing his testimony to the truth they refused to hear.
+The quieter hours of the later part of the day gave time for further words
+with his friends. The comment on the widow's gift was meant for them, and
+the uncovering of his own soul when the Greeks sought him was in their
+presence. After he had left the temple and the city he gave himself to
+them more ex<a class="newpage" name="page178" id="page178" title="178"></a>clusively. His disciples were perplexed by what they saw and
+felt, for the temper of the people toward their Master could not be
+mistaken. Yet they were sure of him. The leaders among them, therefore,
+asked him privately to tell them when the catastrophe should come, to
+which during the day he had made repeated reference. The conversation
+which followed is reported for us in the discourse on the destruction of
+Jerusalem and the end of the world (Mark xiii. and parallels), in which
+Jesus taught his disciples to expect trouble in their ministry, as he was
+meeting trouble in his; and to be ready for complete disappointment of
+their inherited hopes for the glory of their holy city. He also taught
+them to expect that his work would shortly be carried to perfection, and
+to live in expectancy of his coming to complete all that he was now
+seeming to leave undone. This lesson of patience and expectancy is
+enforced in a group of parables preserved for us in Matthew (chap. xxv.),
+closing with the remarkable picture of the end of all things when the
+Master should return in glory as judge of all to make final announcement
+of the simplicity of God's requirement of righteousness, as it had been
+exhibited in the life which by the despite of men was now drawing to its
+close.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s187"><p><span class="versenum">187.</span> The bargain made by Judas to betray his Lord has always been
+difficult to understand. The man must have had fine possibilities or Jesus
+would not have chosen him for an apostle, nor would the little company
+have made him its treasurer (John xii. 6; xiii. 29). The fact that Jesus
+early discovered his character (John vi. 64) does not compel us to think
+that his selection as an apostle was not perfectly sin<a class="newpage" name="page179" id="page179" title="179"></a>cere; the man must
+have seemed to be still savable and worthy thus to be associated with the
+eleven others who were Jesus' nearest companions. It has often been
+noticed that he was probably the only Judean among the twelve, for
+Kerioth, his home, was a town in southern Judea. The effort has frequently
+been made to redeem his reputation by attributing his betrayal to some
+high motive--such as a desire to force his Master to use his Messianic
+power, and confound his opponents by escaping from their hands and setting
+up the hoped-for kingdom. But the remorse of Judas, in which De Quincey
+finds support for this theory of the betrayal, must be more simply and
+sadly understood. It is more likely that the traitor illustrates Jesus'
+words: "No man can serve two masters; for either he will hate the one and
+love the other; or else he will hold to the one and despise the other. Ye
+cannot serve God and mammon" (Matt. vi. 24). The beginning of his fall may
+have been his disappointment when Jesus showed clearly that he would not
+establish a kingdom conformed to the popular ideas. As the enthusiasm
+which drew him to Jesus cooled, personal greed, with something of
+resentment at the cause of his disappointment, seem to have taken
+possession of him, and they led him on until the stinging rebuke which
+Jesus administered to the criticism of Mary at Bethany prompted the man to
+seek a bargain with the authorities which should insure him at least some
+profit in the general wreck of his hopes. His remorse after he saw in its
+bald hideousness what he had done was psychologically inevitable. Although
+Jesus was aware of Judas' character from the beginning (John vi. 64), he
+that came to <a class="newpage" name="page180" id="page180" title="180"></a>seek and to save that which was lost was no fatalist; and
+this knowledge was doubtless--like that which he had of the fate hanging
+over Jerusalem--subject to the possibility that repentance might change
+what was otherwise a certain destiny. As the event turned he could only
+say, "Good were it for that man if he had not been born" (Mark xiv. 21).</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s188"><p><span class="versenum">188.</span> With this the curtain falls on the public ministry of Jesus. The
+gospels suggest a day of quiet retirement following these controversies
+and warnings, with their fresh demonstration of the irreconcilable
+hostility of people of all classes to him and his work. After the
+seclusion of that day, he returned to give final proof of complete
+obedience to his Father's will.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<div class="chapter" id="p02-07">
+<h2><a class="newpage" name="page181" id="page181" title="181"></a>VII</h2>
+
+<h3>The Last Supper</h3>
+
+
+
+<div class="section" id="s189"><p><span class="versenum">189.</span> On Thursday Jesus and his disciples returned to Jerusalem for the
+last time. Knowing the temper of the leaders, and the danger of arrest at
+any time, Jesus was particularly eager to eat the Passover with his
+disciples (Luke xxii. 15), and he sent two of them--Luke names them as
+Peter and John--to prepare for the supper. In a way which would give no
+information to such a one as Judas, he directed them carefully how to find
+the house where a friend would provide them the upper room that was needed
+for an undisturbed meeting of the little band, and the two went on in
+advance to make ready. When the hour was come Jesus with the others went
+to the appointed place and sat down for the supper (Mark xiv. 17; Luke
+xxii. 14; Matt. xxvi. 20).</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s190"><p><span class="versenum">190.</span> The gospels all report the last evening which the little company
+spent together. There is a perplexing divergence, however, between John
+and the others concerning the relation of this supper to the feast of the
+Passover. In their introduction of the story, Mark and his companion
+gospels indicate that the supper which Jesus ate was the Passover meal
+itself. John, on the other hand, declares that it was "before the feast of
+the Passover" (xiii. 1) that Jesus took this meal with his disciples.
+John's account is consistent throughout, <a class="newpage" name="page182" id="page182" title="182"></a>for he states that on the next
+day the desire of the Jews to "eat the Passover" forbade them to enter the
+house of the governor lest they should incur defilement (xviii. 28). The
+other gospels, moreover, hint in several ways that the day of Jesus' death
+could not have been the day after the Passover; that is, the first day of
+the feast of unleavened bread. Dr. Sanday has recently enumerated these
+afresh, remarking that "the Synoptists make the Sanhedrin say beforehand
+that they will not arrest Jesus 'on the feast day,' and then actually
+arrest him on that day; that not only the guards, but one of the disciples
+(Mark xiv. 47), carries arms, which on the feast day was not allowed; that
+the trial was also held on the feast day, which would be unlawful; that
+the feast day would not be called simply Preparation (see Mark xv. 42, and
+compare John xix. 31); that the phrase 'coming from the field' (Mark xv.
+21 [Greek]) means properly 'coming from work;' that Joseph of Arimathea is
+represented as buying a linen cloth (Mark xv. 46) and the women as
+preparing spices and ointments (Luke xxiii. 56), all of which would be
+contrary to law and custom" (HastBD ii. 634). In these particulars the
+first three gospels seem to confirm the representation of the fourth that
+the day of the last supper was earlier than the regular Jewish Passover.
+On the other hand, a strong argument, though one that has not commended
+itself to other specialists in Jewish arch&aelig;ology, has been put forth by
+Dr. Edersheim (LJM ii. 567f.) to prove that John also indicates that the
+last supper was eaten at the time of the regular Passover. In the present
+condition of our knowledge certainty is impossible. If John does differ
+from the others, his testimony has the greatest <a class="newpage" name="page183" id="page183" title="183"></a>weight. While not
+conclusive, it has some significance that Paul identified Christ with the
+sacrifice of the passover (I. Cor. v. 7), a statement which may indicate
+that he held that Jesus died about the time of the killing of the paschal
+lamb. If John be taken to prove that the last supper occurred a day before
+the regular Passover, Jesus must have felt that the anticipation was
+necessary in order to avoid the publicity and consequent danger of a
+celebration at the same time with all the rest of the city.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s191"><p><span class="versenum">191.</span> Whatever the conclusion concerning the date of the last supper, and
+consequently of the crucifixion, the last meal of Jesus with his disciples
+was for that little company the equivalent of the Passover supper. Luke
+states that the desire of Jesus had looked specially to eating this feast
+with his disciples (xxii. 15). The reason must be found in his certainty
+of the very near end, and in his wish to make the meal a preparation for
+the bitter experiences which were overhanging him and them.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s192"><p><span class="versenum">192.</span> It is customary to connect as occasion and consequence the dispute
+concerning precedence which Luke reports (xxii. 24-30), and the rebuke
+which Jesus administered by washing the disciples' feet (John xiii. 1-20).
+The jealousies of the disciples may have arisen over the allotment of
+seats at the table, as Dr. Edersheim has most fully shown (LJM ii.
+492-503); such a controversy would be the natural sequel of earlier
+disputes concerning greatness, and particularly of the request of James
+and John for the best places in the coming kingdom (Mark x. 35-45), and
+would lead as naturally to the distress of heart with which Jesus declared
+that one of the disciples should betray <a class="newpage" name="page184" id="page184" title="184"></a>him, and that another of them
+should deny him. The narrative in Mark favors the withdrawal of Judas
+before the new rite was appointed. This must seem to be the probability in
+the case, for the presence of Judas would be most incongruous at such a
+memorial service. John's mention of his departure before the announcement
+of Peter's approaching fall confirms this interpretation of Mark (Mark
+xiv. 18-21; John xiii. 21-30).</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s193"><p><span class="versenum">193.</span> The paschal memories furnished to Jesus an opportunity to establish
+for his disciples an institution which should symbolize the new covenant
+which he was soon to seal with his blood. Jesus regarded this new covenant
+as that which was promised by the prophets, especially Jeremiah (xxxi.
+31-34), and his thought, like that of the prophets, goes back to the story
+of the covenant established at Sinai (Ex. xxiv. 1-11). In this way he gave
+to his disciples a conception of his death, which later, if not
+immediately, would help them to regard it as a necessary part of his work
+as Messiah. They were now oppressed by the evident certainty that the near
+future would bring their Master to death; he accordingly gave them a
+sacred reminder of himself and of his death as an essential part of his
+self-giving "for them;" for whatever the conclusion concerning the
+disputed text of Luke (xxii. 19), the institutional character of the act
+and words of Jesus is clear. As Holtzmann remarks (NtTh i. 304): "The
+words 'this do in remembrance of me' were perhaps not spoken; all the more
+certainly do they of themselves express what lay in the situation and made
+itself felt with incontestable conclusiveness."</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s194"><p><span class="versenum">194.</span> Several hints in the records seem to connect <a class="newpage" name="page185" id="page185" title="185"></a>the meal in various
+details with what is known of ancient custom in the celebration of the
+Passover. The hymn with which according to Mark and Matthew the supper
+closed is easily identified with the last part (Psalms cxv. to cxviii.) of
+the so called <i>Hallel</i>, which was sung at the close of the Passover meal.
+The mention of two cups in the familiar text of Luke (xxii. 17-20) agrees
+with the repeated cups of the Passover ritual; so also do the sop and the
+dipping of it with which Jesus indicated to John who the traitor was (John
+xiii. 23-26; Mark xiv. 20). If it could be proved that the customs
+recorded in the Talmud correctly represent the usage in Jesus' time it
+would be of extreme interest to seek to connect what is told us of the
+last supper with that Passover ritual as Dr. Edersheim has done (LJM ii.
+490-512). The antiquity of the rabbinic record is so uncertain, however,
+that it is only useful as showing what possibly may have been the case.
+All that can be asserted is that the rabbinic ritual probably originated
+long before it was recorded, and that as the last supper was a meal which
+Jesus and his disciples celebrated as a Passover, it is probable that some
+such ritual was more or less closely followed.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s195"><p><span class="versenum">195.</span> Luke and John give the fullest reports of what was said at the table.
+All the gospels tell of Peter's declaration of superior loyalty and the
+prediction of his threefold denial; Luke, however, adds that in connection
+with it Jesus assured Peter of his restoration, and charged him to
+strengthen his brethren (Luke xxii. 31-34). John alone gives the long and
+full discourse of admonition and comfort, followed by Jesus' prayer for
+his disciples (xiii. 31 to xvii. 26). It is evident <a class="newpage" name="page186" id="page186" title="186"></a>from the words of
+Jesus as he entered the garden of Gethsemane (Mark xiv. 33, 34), as from
+those which had escaped him when the Greeks sought him the last day in the
+temple (John xii. 27), that his own heart was greatly troubled during the
+supper by the apparent defeat which was now close at hand. His quietness
+and self-possession during the supper, particularly when tenderly
+reproving his disciples for petty ambition, or when solemnly dismissing
+the traitor, or warning Peter of his denials, must not blind us to the
+depth of the emotion which was stirring his own soul. It is only as we
+remember his trouble of heart that it is possible justly to value the
+ministry which in varied ways he rendered to his disciples that night. In
+the discourses reported by John he showed that he realized that the
+approaching separation would sorely try the faith of his followers, and he
+sought to strengthen them by showing his own calmness in view of it, and
+by promising them another who should abide with them spiritually as his
+representative, and continue for them the work which he had begun. He
+therefore urged them to maintain their devotion to him, still to seek and
+find the source of their life and secret of their strength in fellowship
+with him--present, though unseen among them. He sought to convince them
+that his departure was to be for their advantage, that fellowship with him
+spiritually would be far more real and efficacious than the intercourse
+they had already enjoyed. He whose own heart was "exceeding sorrowful even
+unto death" bade his disciples not to let their hearts be troubled nor
+afraid. How long the conversation continued, of when the company left the
+upper chamber, cannot be told. At some time before the arrival at
+Gethsemane <a class="newpage" name="page187" id="page187" title="187"></a>Jesus turned to God in prayer for the disciples whom he was
+about to leave to the severe trial of their faith, asking for them that
+realization of eternal life which he had enjoyed and exemplified in his
+own intimate life with his Father. With this his ministry to them closed
+for the time, and, crossing the Kidron, he entered the garden of
+Gethsemane weighed down by the sorrow of his own soul.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<div class="chapter" id="p02-08">
+<h2><a class="newpage" name="page188" id="page188" title="188"></a>VIII</h2>
+
+<h3>The Shadow of Death</h3>
+
+
+
+<div class="section" id="s196"><p><span class="versenum">196.</span> Of the garden of Gethsemane it is only known that it was across the
+Kidron, on the slope of the Mount of Olives. Tradition has long pointed to
+an enclosure some fifty yards beyond the bridge that crosses the ravine on
+the road leading eastward from St. Stephen's gate. Most students feel that
+this is too near the city and the highway for the place of retreat chosen
+by Jesus. Arch&aelig;ologically and sentimentally the identification of places
+connected with the life of Jesus is of great interest. Practically,
+however, it is easy to over-emphasize the importance of such an
+identification. Granted the fact that in some olive grove on the
+mountain-side, where an oil-press gave a name to the place (Gethsemane),
+Jesus withdrew with his disciples on that last night, and all that is
+important is known. It is of far higher importance to see rightly the
+relation of what took place in that garden to the things which preceded
+and followed it in the life of Jesus. At that time Jesus saw pressed to
+his lips the "cup" from the bitterness of which his whole soul shrank. It
+was not an unlooked-for trial; some time earlier he had sought to cool the
+ardor of the ambition of James and John by telling them that they should
+drink of his cup, and declared that even the Son of Man came not to be
+<a class="newpage" name="page189" id="page189" title="189"></a>ministered unto but to minister, and to give his life a ransom for many.
+The fourth gospel, whose representation omits the agony of Gethsemane and
+only reports its victory, tells how Jesus rebuked the violent impulse of
+Peter with the word, "The cup which my Father hath given me to drink shall
+I not drink it?" (John xviii. 11<sup>b</sup>); and all the gospels exhibit the
+marvellous quietness of spirit and dignity of self-surrender which
+characterized Jesus throughout his trial and execution. In Gethsemane,
+however, we see the struggle in which that calmness and self-mastery were
+won.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s197"><p><span class="versenum">197.</span> It is unbecoming to consider that scene with any vulgar curiosity to
+know what it was that made Jesus so draw back from the drinking of his
+"cup." It is not unfitting, however, to recognize that in his cry, "Abba,
+Father, all things are possible unto thee; remove this cup from me" (Mark
+xiv. 36), an intense longing of his own soul's life had expression. There
+was something in the fate which he saw before him from which his whole
+being shrank. But stronger than this was his fixed desire to do his
+Father's will. Here was supremely illustrated the truth that "he came down
+from heaven, not to do his own will, but the will of him that sent him"
+(John vi. 38). The fullest allowance for the shrinking of the most
+delicately constituted nature from pain and death completely fails to
+account for this dread of Jesus. He was no coward, drawing back from
+sufferings which for simple physical pain were over and again more than
+matched by many of the martyrs to truth who preceded and followed him. He
+himself declared to the sons of Zebedee that they should share a cup in
+kind like <a class="newpage" name="page190" id="page190" title="190"></a>unto his, suffering for the kingdom of God, for the salvation
+of the world. Yet there is a difference evident between what others have
+had to bear and the cup from which Jesus shrank. The death which now stood
+before him in the path of obedience had in it a bitterness quite
+unexplained by the pain and disappointment it entailed. That excess of
+bitterness can probably never be understood by us. A hint of its nature
+may be found in the "shame of the cross" which the author of Hebrews (xii.
+2; xiii. 13) emphasizes, and in the "curse" of the cross which made it a
+stumbling block to Paul and his Jewish brethren (Gal. iii. 13; I. Cor. i.
+23). Jesus came from the garden ready to endure the cross in obedience to
+his Father's will; but it was a costly obedience, a complete emptying of
+himself (Phil. ii. 7, 8).</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s198"><p><span class="versenum">198.</span> The loneliness of Jesus in his struggle is emphasized in the gospels
+of Mark and Matthew. In search of sympathy he had confessed to the
+disciples his trouble of heart, and had taken his three intimates with him
+when he withdrew from the others for prayer, asking them to watch with
+him. They were too heavy of heart and weary of body to stand by in his
+bitter hour, and instead of being in readiness to warn him of the approach
+of the hostile band, he had to awake them to their danger. The fourth
+gospel reports that after the struggle Jesus bore marks of majesty which
+astonished and overawed his foes when he calmly told them that he was the
+one they were seeking. Their fear was overcome, however, when Judas gave
+the appointed sign by kissing his Master (Mark xiv. 45). The thought for
+the disciples' safety which John records (xviii. 8) is another proof <a class="newpage" name="page191" id="page191" title="191"></a>that
+the fight had been won, and Jesus had fully resumed the self-emptying
+ministry appointed to him by his Father.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s199"><p><span class="versenum">199.</span> The band that arrested Jesus was accompanied by a Roman cohort from
+the garrison of the city, but it was not needed, for the disciples offered
+no appreciable resistance; on the contrary, "they all forsook him and
+fled" (Mark xiv. 50). Having arrested Jesus, the band took him to Annas,
+the actual leader of Jewish affairs, though not at the time the official
+high-priest. He had held that office some time before, but had been
+deposed by the Roman governor of Syria after being in power for nine
+years. His influence continued, however, for although he was never
+reinstated, he seems to have been able to secure the appointment for
+members of his own family during a period of many years. Caiaphas, the
+legal high-priest, was his son-in-law. Annas, as the leader of
+aristocratic opinion in Jerusalem, had doubtless been foremost in the
+secret counsels which led to the decision to get rid of Jesus, hence the
+captive was, as a matter of course, taken first to his house. The trial by
+the Jewish authorities was irregular. There seems to have been an informal
+examination of Jesus and various witnesses, first before Annas, and then
+before Caiaphas and a group of members of the sanhedrin, the outcome of
+which was complete failure to secure evidence against Jesus from their
+false witnesses, and the formulation of a charge of blasphemy in
+consequence of his answer to the high-priest acknowledging himself to be
+the Messiah (Mark xiv. 61-64). The early hours before the day were given
+over to mockery and ill-usage of the captive Jesus. When <a class="newpage" name="page192" id="page192" title="192"></a>morning was
+come, the sanhedrin was convened, and he was condemned to death on the
+charge of blasphemy (Mark xv. 1; Luke xxii. 66-71), and then was led in
+bonds to the Roman governor for execution, since the Romans had taken from
+the sanhedrin the authority to execute a death sentence (John xviii. 31).
+Before Pilate the Jews had to name an offence recognized by Roman law; his
+accusers therefore falsified his claim and made him out a political
+Messiah, hostile to Roman rule (Luke xxiii. 1, 2). Pilate soon saw that
+the charge was trumped up, and sought in every way, while keeping the
+good-will of the people, to escape the responsibility of giving sentence
+against Jesus. His first effort was a simple declaration that he found no
+fault in the prisoner (Luke xxiii. 4); then, having heard that he was a
+Galilean, he tried to transfer the case to Herod, who happened to be in
+the city at the time (Luke xxiii. 5-12); he then sought to compromise by
+agreeing to chastise Jesus and then release him (Luke xxiii. 13-16); next
+he offered the people their choice between the innocent Jesus and
+Barabbas, a convicted insurrectionist (Mark xv. 6-15; Luke xxiii. 16-24),
+and the people, instructed by the priests, chose Barabbas, caring nothing
+for a Messiah who would allow himself to be arrested without resistance;
+the fourth gospel tells of Pilate's still further effort, by appealing to
+the people's sympathy, to escape giving sentence, even after he had
+delivered Jesus to the soldiers for the preliminary scourging. Finding the
+Jews ready to urge, at length, a religious charge, Pilate's superstitious
+fear was roused (John xix. 7-12), and he sought again to release him, but
+was finally cowed by the <a class="newpage" name="page193" id="page193" title="193"></a>threat of an accusation against him at Rome,
+and, mocking the people by sitting in judgment to condemn Jesus as their
+king, he gave sentence against the man whom he knew to be innocent (John
+xix. 12-16).</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s200"><p><span class="versenum">200.</span> Some of Jesus' disciples and friends were witnesses of the early
+stages of the informal trial, in particular, John (John xviii. 15) and
+Peter. It was during the progress of the early examination that Peter was
+drawn into his denials by the comments made by the bystanders on his
+connection with the accused. It has been suggested that the house of the
+high-priest where Jesus was tried was built, like other Oriental houses,
+about a court so that the room where Jesus was examined was open to view
+from the court. In this case it is easy to see how Jesus could overhear
+his disciple's strenuous denials of any acquaintance with him, and could
+turn and give him that look which sent him out to weep bitterly (Luke
+xxii. 61, 62). If it be further assumed that Annas and Caiaphas occupied
+different sides of the same high-priestly palace, the double examination
+reported by John would still be within hearing from the one court in which
+the faithless disciple was a fascinated witness of his Master's trial.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s201"><p><span class="versenum">201.</span> Humanly speaking, it may be said that the fate of Jesus was sealed
+when the Sadducean leaders came to look on him seriously as a danger to
+the State (John xi. 47-50, note the mention of chief priests). The
+religious opposition was serious, and might have brought trouble, in some
+such way as it seems to have done to John the Baptist (see Matt. xvii.
+10-13; Luke xiii. 31, 32); but it is doubtful whether the gov<a class="newpage" name="page194" id="page194" title="194"></a>ernor would
+have given much attention to a charge not urged by the men of influence in
+Jerusalem. The notable thing in connection with the last days of Jesus'
+life is the joint opposition of Sadducean priests and Pharisaic scribes.
+That the populace easily changed their cry from "hosanna" to "crucify him"
+is not surprising. Their hosannas were due to a complete misconception of
+Jesus' aim and purpose; disappointed in him, they would be the earliest to
+cry out against him, especially when the choice lay between him and a
+genuine insurrectionist.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s202"><p><span class="versenum">202.</span> Each fresh study of the trial of Jesus gives a fresh impression of
+his greatness. He who but a few hours before was pouring out his soul in
+prayer that his cup might pass, stands forth as the one calm and
+undisturbed actor among all those who took part in the tragic doings of
+that day. His judges and foes were all swayed by passion and self-interest
+and were ready to make travesty of justice, from the leaders of the
+sanhedrin who condemned him on one charge and accused him to the governor
+on another, to the governor himself, who appeared determined to release
+him if he could do it without risk of personal popularity, and who yet, in
+order to avoid accusation at Rome, gave sentence according to the people's
+will. The fickle populace crying "crucify him," the disciples who forsook
+him, the rock-apostle who denied even so much as knowledge of the man,
+show how all the currents of life about him were stirred and full of
+tumult. In all this, of which he was the occasion and centre, he stands
+the supreme example of dignity, self-mastery, and quietness. This is seen
+in his silence in the presence of Annas and Caiaphas, and later before
+<a class="newpage" name="page195" id="page195" title="195"></a>Pilate; in his frank avowal of his Messianic claim in reply to the
+high-priest's challenge, and of his kingly rank in answer to the
+governor's question; and in the look of reproof which he turned upon
+Peter. Not that he was without feeling. There is strong sense of outrage
+in his words, "If I have spoken evil, bear witness of the evil, but if
+well, why smitest thou me?" It was not the quietness of stoic
+indifference, but of perfect self-devotion to the Father's will. He
+maintained it from the time of his arrest to the last cry of trust with
+which he committed his spirit to his Father.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s203"><p><span class="versenum">203.</span> The scourging over, the mock homage of the soldiers done, he was led
+out beyond the city wall to be crucified. The exact place of the
+crucifixion can be determined as little as that of Gethsemane, though
+there is a tradition from the fourth century, and in addition there are
+many conjectures. Jesus was led, apparently, to the ordinary place of
+criminal execution, and with two others, probably insurrectionary robbers
+like those with whom Barabbas had been associated, he was crucified. Two
+episodes in the journey to the place of crucifixion are recorded,--the
+help which Simon of Cyrene was compelled to give to Jesus in carrying his
+cross (Mark xv. 21), and the word of Jesus to those who, following him,
+bewailed his fate (Luke xxiii. 27-31).</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s204"><p><span class="versenum">204.</span> Of the cruelty and torture of crucifixion much has been written and
+often. It would be difficult to exaggerate it. The death by the cross was
+a death by hunger and exhaustion in ordinary cases; it was thus torture
+prolonged for many hours. It is noticeable, however, that it is not the
+suffering but the disgrace and shame of the cross that occupied the
+thought of <a class="newpage" name="page196" id="page196" title="196"></a>the apostolic days. Indeed, were physical suffering chiefly to
+be considered, it would have to be owned that the fact that Jesus died
+within a few hours released him from the most excruciating pains incident
+to this barbarous form of execution. The later ascetic thought loved, and
+still loves, to dwell on the physical torments of the Lord's death. They
+were severe enough to give us awe; but the biblical writers show a much
+healthier mind, and their thought does not invite comparison between the
+pains endured by the Master and those which some of his martyred followers
+bore with great fortitude. The disgrace of the cross was the uttermost;
+for the Romans it was the death of a slave, for the Jews it was patent
+proof of the curse of God (Deut. xxi. 23). The obedience of Jesus was
+unlimited when he submitted to death (Phil. ii. 8). It is on the shame of
+the cross, and on the sacrifice of himself for the life of the world when
+in obedience to his Father's will he "despised the shame," that the
+thought of the apostolic day laid emphasis. In this experience Jesus found
+himself in truth numbered with the transgressors; he was the object of
+scorn for all them that passed by, they mocked at him, at his works, and
+at his confident trust in God. In this last extremity the darkness of
+Gethsemane again swept over Jesus' soul, when he cried out "My God, my
+God," recalling the words of one of the saints of old in his hour of
+distress (Ps. xxii.). Yet, like him, Jesus kept hold on the certainty of
+deliverance; the darkness passed at length.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s205"><p><span class="versenum">205.</span> The evangelists preserve several sayings of Jesus from the cross, the
+records of the different gospels being remarkably diverse. Mark and
+Mat<a class="newpage" name="page197" id="page197" title="197"></a>thew record the exclamation, "My God, my God <i>(Eloi, Eloi</i>), why hast
+thou forsaken me," which the bystander misconstrued as a call for Elijah,
+thinking this pseudo-Messiah was reproaching Elijah for failing to come to
+his help. The same gospels tell of the loud cry with which Jesus died.
+Luke omits the call <i>Eloi</i>, and gives in place of the last expiring cry
+the prayer of trust, "Father, into thy hands I commend my spirit" (xxiii.
+46). Earlier, however, this gospel tells of Jesus' word to the penitent
+robber, "To-day shalt thou be with me in Paradise" (xxiii. 43), and of the
+prayer for his foes, that is, for the Jewish people who blindly condemned
+him (xxiii. 34). The oldest manuscripts cause some doubt whether this last
+saying was originally a part of the Gospel of Luke. If it was not it would
+belong in the same class with the story of the sinful woman which we now
+find in John, both being authentic records of the life of Jesus, though
+from some other source than that in which we now find them. The fourth
+gospel gives quite an independent group of sayings. It interprets the
+dying cry as, "It is finished" (xix. 30), and preceding this it gives the
+cry, "I thirst" (xix. 28), which led to the offering of the vinegar of
+which the first two gospels speak. Earlier it tells of the committal of
+Mary to the care of the beloved disciple (xix. 26, 27). Of these seven
+sayings, "Eloi," "I thirst," "Father, into thy hand I commend my spirit,"
+and "It is finished" belong to the last hours of the life of the crucified
+one, after the darkness of which the first three gospels speak had
+overshadowed the land. Of the cause of that darkness they give no hint,
+for Luke's expression cannot mean an eclipse, since an eclipse at Passover
+<a class="newpage" name="page198" id="page198" title="198"></a>time, that is, at full moon, is an impossibility. The conjecture that
+dense clouds hid the sun is common, and is as suitable as any other.
+Whatever the cause, the evangelists saw in it a token of nature's awe at
+the death of the Son of God. During the hours of the darkness the waves
+swept over his soul, as the cry "my God" shows to our reverent thought.
+But the last word of trust proves that the dying Jesus was not forsaken,
+and that Calvary, like Gethsemane, was a battle won. The earlier sayings
+all express Jesus' continued spirit of ministry, showing even in his
+bitter pain his accustomed thoughtfulness for others' need.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s206"><p><span class="versenum">206.</span> It is futile to speculate on the cause of Jesus' early death. He
+certainly suffered a much shorter time than was ordinarily the case, as
+appears in the fact that at sunset it was necessary to break the legs of
+the robbers so as to hasten death, Jesus having already been some time
+dead. There is something attractive in the theory of Dr. Stroud (The
+Physical Cause of Christ's Death) that Jesus died of rupture of the heart.
+It may have been true, but the evidences on which he based his argument
+are insufficient for proof. To the Jews the death of their victim did not
+give all the satisfaction they desired. In the first place, Pilate
+insisted on mocking them by posting over the head of Jesus the placard,
+"The King of the Jews" (see John xix. 19-22); moreover, their haste had
+brought the crime into close proximity to the feast which they were eager
+to keep from defilement; so that they had still to beg of Pilate that he
+would hasten the death of the victims, that their bodies might not remain
+to desecrate the following Sabbath sanctity (John xix. 31-37); while for
+those <a class="newpage" name="page199" id="page199" title="199"></a>who witnessed it the death of Jesus deepened the impression that a
+hideous crime had been committed in the slaughter of an innocent man (Mark
+xv. 39).</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s207"><p><span class="versenum">207.</span> Among the bystanders few of the disciples of Jesus were to be
+found--they were hiding in fear. Yet some faithful women, and two
+courageous councillors of Jerusalem, were bold enough to make their
+loyalty known. These two men, Joseph of Arimathea and Nicodemus, were
+members of the sanhedrin, but they had had no part in the condemnation of
+Jesus; and after knowing that he was dead, Joseph begged of Pilate the
+body, and he and Nicodemus took Jesus down from the cross and laid him in
+a tomb which Joseph owned near the place of crucifixion, rendering such
+tender ministries as were possible in the closing hours of the day. The
+women who had witnessed his end meanwhile were arranging also to anoint
+the body. They took notice where the two friends had laid him, and then
+went away to rest on the Sabbath day, according to the commandment.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s208"><p><span class="versenum">208.</span> To the Jews it was a high day, the first Sabbath in the eight days of
+their holy feast (John xix. 31). They had eagerly guarded their conduct
+that no ceremonial defilement might prevent their sharing in the paschal
+feast. They believed that they had rid their nation of a dangerous
+disturber of its peace, and men whose conscience shrank not from making
+God's house a house of merchandise, who would punish one who ventured to
+cure a mortal disease if it chanced to cross their Sabbath traditions, who
+had condemned to death the holiest man and godliest teacher the world had
+ever seen because he did not square with their heartless formalism,--such
+men hardly had conscience <a class="newpage" name="page200" id="page200" title="200"></a>enough to feel repentance or remorse for the
+cowardly injustice and crime with which of their own choice they had
+reddened their hands (Matt, xxvii. 25). They doubtless kept their feast
+with satisfaction. Not a few hearts, however, were heavy with grief and
+disappointed hope. They had believed that Jesus "was he that should redeem
+Israel" (Luke xxiv. 21). Stunned, they could not throw away the faith
+which he had kindled in their hearts. Yet he was dead, and only faintly,
+if at all, did they recall his prediction of suffering and his certainty
+of triumph through it all (John xx. 9). What remained for them was the
+last tender ministry to their dead Lord.</p></div></div>
+<div class="chapter" id="p02-09">
+<div class="outline">
+<h2><a class="newpage" name="page201" id="page201" title="201"></a>   Outline of Events after the Resurrection</h2>
+
+
+<p>   <i>The day of the resurrection--Sunday</i>. The visit of the women to the
+   tomb--Matt. xxviii. 1-8; Mark xvi. 1-8; Luke xxiv. 1-12; John xx. 1-10.</p>
+
+<p>   Jesus' first appearance; to Mary--Matt. xxviii. 9 10; [Mark xvi. 9-11];
+   John xx. 11-18.</p>
+
+<p>   The report of the watch--Matt. xxviii. 11-15.</p>
+
+<p>   The appearance to Simon Peter--I. Cor. xv. 5.</p>
+
+<p>   The walk to Emmaus--[Mark xvi 12,13]; Luke xxiv. 13-35.</p>
+
+<p>   The appearance to the ten in the evening--[Mark xvi. 14]; Luke xxiv.
+   36-43; John xx. 19-25; I. Cor. xv. 5.</p>
+
+<p>   <i>One week later--Sunday</i>. The appearance to the eleven, with
+   Thomas--John xx. 26-29.</p>
+
+<p>   <i>Later appearances</i>. To seven disciples by the sea of Galilee--John
+   xxi. 1-24.</p>
+
+<p>   To a company of disciples in. Galilee--Matt, xxviii. 16-20; [Mark xvi.
+   15-18]; I. Cor. xv. 6.</p>
+
+<p>   The appearance to James--I. Cor. xv. 7.</p>
+
+<p>   To the disciples in Jerusalem, followed by the ascension--Mark xvi. 19,
+   20; Luke xxiv. 44-53; Acts i. 1-12; I. Cor. xv. 7.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<h2>IX</h2>
+
+<h3>The Resurrection</h3>
+
+
+
+<div class="section" id="s209"><p><span class="versenum">209.</span> Christianity as a historic religious movement starts from the
+resurrection of Jesus from the dead. This is very clear in the preaching
+and writings of Paul. The first distinctively Christian feature in his
+address at Athens is his statement that God had designated <a class="newpage" name="page202" id="page202" title="202"></a>Jesus to be
+the judge of men by having "raised him from the dead" (Acts xvii. 31), and
+for him the resurrection was the demonstration of the divinity of Christ
+(Rom. i. 4), and the confirmation of the Christian hope (I. Cor. xv.).
+With him the prime qualification for an apostle was that he should have
+seen the risen Lord (I. Cor. ix. 1). The early preaching as recorded in
+Acts shows the same feature, for after repeated testimony to the fact that
+God had raised up Jesus, Peter summed up his address with the declaration,
+"Let all the house of Israel therefore know assuredly, that God hath made
+him both Lord and Christ, this Jesus whom ye crucified" (Acts ii. 36). In
+fact the buoyancy of hope and confidence of faith which gave to the
+despised followers of the Nazarene their strength resulted directly from
+the experiences of the days which followed the deep gloom that settled
+over the disciples when Jesus died.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s210"><p><span class="versenum">210.</span> It can but seem strange to us that after Jesus had so often foretold
+his death and the resurrection which should follow it, his disciples were
+thrown into despair by the cross. Joseph of Arimathea and Nicodemus when
+they embalmed his body may not have known of these teachings which Jesus
+gave to the nearer circle of his followers, but it is difficult to believe
+that the women who prepared their spices to anoint his body (Mark xvi. 1)
+had heard nothing of these predictions, and it is certain that the
+apostles who received with incredulity the first news of the resurrection
+were the men whom Jesus had sought to prepare for this glorious victory.
+The disciples do not seem to have finished "questioning among themselves
+what the rising again from the dead should <a class="newpage" name="page203" id="page203" title="203"></a>mean" (Mark ix. 10, compare
+Luke xviii. 34) until Jesus himself explained it by his return to them
+after his crucifixion. It was formerly common to conclude from the
+scepticism of the disciples that Jesus could not have told them, as he is
+reported to have done, that he would rise again the third day. It is now
+widely conceded, however, that if he foresaw and foretold his death, he
+surely coupled with it a promise of resurrection, otherwise he must have
+surrendered his own conviction that he was Messiah; for a Messiah taken
+and held captive by death was apparently as foreign to Jesus' thought as
+it was unthinkable for the men of his generation. The inability of the
+disciples to adjust their Messianic ideas to the death of their Master was
+not removed by the rebuke Jesus administered to Peter at C&aelig;sarea Philippi;
+their objections were only silenced. It would seem that even when they saw
+his death to be inevitable, they were simply dumb with hope that in some
+way he would come off victor; the cross and the tomb crushed out that
+hope--at least from most of them. If one disciple, his closest friend,
+recalled and believed his words when he saw the empty tomb (John xx. 8),
+others were cast into still deeper sorrow by the report, and could only
+say, "But we hoped that it was he which should redeem Israel" (Luke xxiv.
+21).</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s211"><p><span class="versenum">211.</span> The light which banished the gloom from the hearts of Jesus'
+followers dawned suddenly. There was no time for gradual readjustment of
+ideas and the springing of hope from a faith which would not die. The
+uniform early tradition is that Jesus showed himself alive to his
+disciples "on the third day," that is, a little over thirty-six hours from
+the time of his <a class="newpage" name="page204" id="page204" title="204"></a>death. Not only the gospels, but Paul, who wrote many
+years before our evangelists, testify to this (I. Cor. xv. 4), as does the
+very early observance of the first day of the week as "the Lord's day,"
+and the substitution of "the third day" for "after three days" in the
+gospels which made use of our Gospel of Mark (compare parallels with Mark
+viii. 81; ix. 31; x. 34, and see Holtzmann, NtTh I. 309). Of the events
+which occurred on that third day and after, our earliest account is that
+of Paul. He gives a simple catalogue of the appearances of the risen Lord,
+referring to them as well known, in fact as the familiar subject matter of
+his earliest teaching (I. Cor. xv. 4-8). He gives definite date to none of
+these appearances, indicating only their sequence. He tells of six
+different manifestations, beginning with an appearance to Cephas on the
+third day, then to the twelve, then to a large company of
+disciples,--above five hundred,--then to James, then to all the apostles.
+The sixth in the list is his own experience, which he puts in the same
+class with the appearances of the first Easter morning. Two of these
+instances are found only in Paul's account, the appearance to James and to
+the five hundred brethren, though this last may probably be the same as is
+referred to in the Gospel of Matthew (xxviii. 16-20).</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s212"><p><span class="versenum">212.</span> The gospel records are much fuller, but they differ from each other
+even more than they do from Paul. Mark is unhappily incomplete, for the
+last twelve verses in that gospel, as we have it, are lacking in the
+oldest manuscripts, and were probably written by a second-century
+Christian named Aristion, as a substitute for the proper end of the gospel
+which seems by some acci<a class="newpage" name="page205" id="page205" title="205"></a>dent to have been lost. These twelve verses are
+clearly compiled from our other gospels. They have value as indicating the
+currency of the complete tradition in the early second century, but they
+contribute nothing to our knowledge of the resurrection. All, then, that
+Mark tells is that the women who came early on the first day of the week
+to anoint the body of Jesus found the tomb open and empty, and saw an
+angel who bade them tell the disciples that the Lord had risen. How the
+record originally continued no one knows, for Matthew and Luke use the
+same general testimony up to the point where Mark breaks off, and then go
+quite different ways. Of the two Matthew is closer to Mark than is Luke.
+The first gospel adds to the record of the second an account of an
+appearance of Jesus to the women as they went to report to the disciples,
+and then tells of the meeting of Jesus with the disciples on a mountain in
+Galilee, and his parting commission to them. It gives no account of the
+ascension. Luke agrees with Mark in general concerning the visit of the
+women to the tomb, the angelic vision, and the report to the disciples. He
+says nothing of an appearance of Jesus to the women on their flight from
+the tomb, but, if xxiv. 12 is genuine (see R.V. margin), he, like John,
+tells of Peter's visit to the sepulchre.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s213"><p><span class="versenum">213.</span> Luke further reports the appearances of Jesus to two on their way to
+Emmaus, to Simon, and to the eleven in Jerusalem,--this last being blended
+consciously or unconsciously with the final meeting of Jesus with the
+disciples before his ascension. The genuine text of the gospel (xxiv. 50)
+says nothing of the ascension itself, but clearly implies it. In contrast
+with Matthew it is noticeable that Luke shows no knowl<a class="newpage" name="page206" id="page206" title="206"></a>edge of any
+appearance of Jesus to his disciples in Galilee. John is quite independent
+of Mark, as well as of Matthew and Luke. He mentions only Mary Magdalene
+in connection with the early visit to the tomb, though perhaps he implies
+the presence of others with her ("we" in xx. 2). He tells of a visit of
+Peter and John to the tomb, of an appearance of Jesus to Mary Magdalene,
+of an appearance to ten of the disciples in the evening, and a week later
+to the eleven, including Thomas. So far this gospel makes no reference to
+appearances in Galilee; but in the appendix (chapter xxi.) there is added
+a manifestation to seven disciples as they were fishing on the Sea of
+Galilee.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s214"><p><span class="versenum">214.</span> Criticism which seeks to discredit the gospels, for instance most
+recently R&eacute;ville in his "J&eacute;sus de Nazareth," discovers two separate and
+mutually exclusive lines of tradition,--one telling of appearances in
+Galilee, represented by Mark and the last chapter in John, the other
+telling of appearances in or near Jerusalem, and found in Luke and the
+twentieth chapter of John. It is said that the gospels have sought to
+blend the two cycles, as when Matthew tells of an appearance to the women
+in Jerusalem on their way from the tomb, and when the last chapter of John
+adds to the original gospel a Galilean appearance. Luke, however, who
+makes no reference at all to Galilean manifestations, is taken to prove
+that originally the one cycle knew nothing of the other. This theory
+falls, however, before the uniform tradition of appearances on the third
+day, which must have been in Jerusalem, and the very early testimony of
+Paul to an appearance to above five hundred brethren at once, which could
+not have been in Judea. It need not surprise us that there <a class="newpage" name="page207" id="page207" title="207"></a>should have
+been two cycles of tradition, not however mutually exclusive, if Jesus did
+appear both in Jerusalem and in Galilee. The same kind of local interest
+which is supposed to explain the one-sidedness of the synoptic story of
+the public ministry would easily account for one line of tradition which
+reported Galilean appearances, and another which reported those in
+Jerusalem. Luke may have had access to information which furnished him
+only the Jerusalem story. John and Peter, however, must have known the
+wider facts. The very divergences and seeming contradictions of the
+gospels, troublesome as they are, indicate how completely certainty
+regarding the fact of the resurrection removed from the thought of the
+apostolic day nice carefulness concerning the testimony to individual
+manifestations of the risen Lord. Doubtless the first preaching rested, as
+in the case of Paul, on a simple "I have seen the Lord." When later the
+detailed testimony was wanted for written gospels, it had suffered the lot
+common to orally transmitted records, and divergences had sprung up which
+it is no longer possible for us to resolve. They do not, however,
+challenge the fact which lies behind all the varied testimony.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s215"><p><span class="versenum">215.</span> A general view of the events of that third day and those which
+followed can be constructed from our gospels and Paul. Early on the first
+day of the week certain women, including Mary Magdalene, Mary the mother
+of James and Joses, Salome, Joanna, and others, came to anoint the body of
+Jesus. On their arrival they found that the stone had been rolled back
+from the tomb. Mary Magdalene saw that the grave was empty and ran to tell
+Peter and John. The others saw <a class="newpage" name="page208" id="page208" title="208"></a>also a vision of angels which said that
+Jesus was alive and would see his disciples in Galilee, and ran to report
+this to the disciples. Meanwhile Mary Magdalene returned, following Peter
+and John who ran to see the tomb, and found it empty as she had said. She
+lingered after they left, and Jesus appeared to her, she mistaking him at
+first for the gardener. She then went to tell the disciples that she had
+seen the Lord. These events evidently occurred in the early morning. The
+next incident reported is that of the walk of two disciples, not of the
+twelve, to Emmaus, and the appearance of Jesus to them. At first they did
+not recognize him, not even when he taught them out of the scriptures the
+necessity that the Messiah should die. He was made known when at evening
+he sat down with them to a familiar meal. Either before or after this
+event he had shown himself to Peter. This is the first manifestation
+reported by Paul. If Luke xxiv. 12 is genuine (see R.V. margin), he also
+tells that when the two again reached Jerusalem the apostles received them
+with the news that Peter had seen the Lord. That same evening Jesus
+appeared suddenly among the disciples in their well-guarded upper room.
+His coming was such that he had to convince the disciples that he was not
+simply a disembodied spirit. Luke says that he did this by bidding them
+handle him, and by eating part of a fish before them. According to John,
+Thomas was not with the others at this first meeting with the disciples. A
+week later, presumably in Jerusalem, Jesus again manifested himself to the
+little company, Thomas being with them, and dispelled the doubt of that
+disciple who loved too deeply to indulge a hope which might <a class="newpage" name="page209" id="page209" title="209"></a>only
+disappoint. He had but to see in order to believe, and make supreme
+confession of his faith. The next appearance was probably that to the
+seven disciples by the Sea of Galilee, when Peter, who denied thrice, was
+thrice tested concerning his love for his Lord. Then apparently followed
+the meeting on the mountain reported in Matthew, which was probably the
+same as the appearance to the five hundred brethren; then, probably still
+in Galilee, Jesus appeared to his brother James, who from that time on was
+a leader among the disciples. The next manifestation of which record is
+preserved was the final one in Jerusalem, after which Jesus led his
+disciples out as far as Bethany and was separated from them, henceforth to
+be thought of by them as seated at the right hand of God.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s216"><p><span class="versenum">216.</span> This construction of the story as given in the New Testament does
+violence to the accounts in one particular. It holds that Matthew's report
+of the meeting of Jesus with the women on their way from the tomb on
+Easter morning is to be identified with his meeting with Mary Magdalene.
+This can be done only if it is supposed that in the transmission of the
+tradition the commission given the women by the angel (Mark xvi. 6f.)
+became blended with the message given to Mary by the Lord (John xx. 17),
+the result being virtually the same for the religious interest of the
+first Christians, while for the historic interest of our days it
+constitutes a discrepancy. The difficulty is less on this supposition than
+on any other. It is highly significant that the account of the most
+indubitable fact in the view of the early Christians is the most difficult
+portion of the gospels for the exact harmonist to deal with. This is not
+of <a class="newpage" name="page210" id="page210" title="210"></a>serious moment for the historical student. It is rather a warning
+against theoretical ideas of inspiration.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s217"><p><span class="versenum">217.</span> The universal acknowledgment that the early Christians firmly
+believed in the resurrection of their Lord has made the origin of that
+firm conviction a question of primary importance. The simple facts as set
+forth in the New Testament serve abundantly to account for the faith of
+the early church, but they not only involve a large recognition of the
+miraculous, they also contain perplexities for those who do not stumble at
+the supernatural; hence there have been many attempts to find other
+solutions of the problem. Some of the explanations offered may be
+dismissed with a word: for instance, those which, in one form or other,
+renew the old charge found in the first gospel, that the disciples stole
+the body of Jesus, and then declared that he had risen; and those which
+assume that the death of Jesus was apparent only, that he fainted on the
+cross, and then the chill of the night air and of the sepulchre served to
+revive him, so that in the morning he was able to leave the tomb and
+appear to his disciples as one risen from the dead. This apparent-death
+theory involves Jesus in an ugly deception, while the theory that the
+disciples or any group of them removed the body of Jesus and then gave
+currency to the notion that he had risen, builds the greatest ethical and
+religious movement known to history on a lie. A slightly different
+explanation which was very early suggested was that the Jews themselves,
+or perhaps the gardener, had the body removed, and that when Mary found
+the tomb empty she let her faith conclude that his absence must be due to
+his resurrection.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s218"><p><a class="newpage" name="page211" id="page211" title="211"></a><span class="versenum">218.</span> This last explanation has in recent times been revived in connection
+with the so-called vision-hypothesis by Renan and R&eacute;ville. Mary found the
+tomb empty, and being herself of a highly strung nervous nature--she had
+been cured by Jesus of seven devils--by thinking about the empty tomb she
+soon worked herself into an ecstasy in which her eyes seemed to behold
+what her heart desired to see. She communicated her vision to the others,
+and by a sort of nervous contagion, they, too, fell to seeing visions, and
+it is the report of these that we have in the gospels. The
+vision-hypothesis takes with some, Strauss for instance, a different form.
+These deny that the tomb was found empty at all, and regard this story as
+a contribution of the later legend-making spirit. They hold that the
+disciples fled from Jerusalem as soon as the death of Jesus was an assured
+fact, and not until after they found themselves amid the familiar scenes
+of Galilee, did their faith recover from the shock it had received in
+Jerusalem. In Galilee the experiences of their life with Jesus were lived
+over again, and the old confidence in him as Messiah revived. Thus
+thinking about the Lord, their hearts would say, "He cannot have died,"
+and after a while their faith rose to the conviction which declared, "He
+is not dead;" then they passed into an ecstatic mood and visions followed
+which are the germ out of which the gospel stories have grown.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s219"><p><span class="versenum">219.</span> These different forms of the vision-hypothesis have been subjected to
+most searching criticism by Keim, who is all the more severe because his
+own thought has so much that is akin to them. There are two objections
+which refute the hypothesis. The <a class="newpage" name="page212" id="page212" title="212"></a>first is that the uniform tradition
+which connects the resurrection and the first appearances with the "third
+day" after the crucifixion leaves far too short a time for the recovery of
+faith and the growth of ecstatic feeling which are requisite for these
+visions, even supposing that the disciples' faith had such recuperative
+powers. The second is that once such an ecstatic mood was acquired it
+would be according to experience in analogous cases for the visions to
+continue, if not to increase, as the thought of the risen Lord grew more
+clear and familiar; yet the tradition is uniform that the appearances of
+the risen Christ ceased after, at most, a few weeks. The only later one
+was that which led to the conversion of Paul; and though Paul was a man
+somewhat given to ecstatic experiences (see II. Cor. xii.), he carefully
+distinguishes in his own thought his seeing of the Lord and his heavenly
+visions. In a word, the disciples of Jesus never showed a more healthy,
+normal life than that which gave them strength to found a church of
+believers in the resurrection in the face of persecution and scorn.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s220"><p><span class="versenum">220.</span> Keim seeks to avoid the difficulties which his own acute criticism
+disclosed in the ordinary vision-theory, by another which rejects the
+gospel stories as legendary, yet frankly acknowledges that the faith of
+the apostles in the resurrection was based on a miracle. Their certainty
+was so unshakable, so uniform, so abiding, that it can be accounted for
+only by acknowledging that they did actually see the Lord. This seeing,
+however, was not with the eyes of sense, but with the spiritual vision,
+which properly perceives what pertains to the spirit world into which the
+glorified <a class="newpage" name="page213" id="page213" title="213"></a>Lord had withdrawn when he died. In his spiritual estate he
+manifested himself to his disciples, by a series of divinely caused and
+therefore essentially objective visions, in which he proved to them
+abundantly that he was alive, was victor over death, and had been exalted
+by God to his right hand. This theory is not in itself offensive to faith.
+It concedes that the belief of the disciples rested on actual disclosures
+of himself to them by the glorified Lord. The difficulty with the theory
+is that it relegates the empty tomb to the limbo of legend, though it is a
+feature of the tradition which is found in all the gospels and clearly
+implied in Paul (I. Cor. xv. 4; compare Rom. vi. 4); it also fails to show
+how this glorified Christ came to be thought of by the disciples as
+<i>risen</i>, rather than simply glorified in spirit. This criticism brings us
+back to the necessity of recognizing a resurrection which was in some real
+sense corporeal, difficult as that conception is for us. The gospels
+assert this with great simplicity and delicate reserve. They represent
+Jesus as returning to his disciples with a body which was superior to the
+limitations which hedge our lives about. It may be well described by
+Paul's words, "It is sown a natural body; it is raised a spiritual body."
+Yet the records indicate that when he willed Jesus could offer himself to
+the perception of other senses than sight and hearing--"handle me and see"
+is not an invitation that we expect from a spiritual presence. If,
+however, we have to confess an unsolved mystery here, and still more in
+the record of his eating in the presence of the disciples (Luke xxiv.
+41-43), it is permitted us to own that our knowledge of the possible
+conditions of the fully perfected <a class="newpage" name="page214" id="page214" title="214"></a>life are not such as to warrant great
+dogmatism in criticising the account. The empty tomb, the objective
+presence of the risen Jesus, the renewed faith of his followers, and their
+new power are established data for our thought. With these, many of the
+details may be left in mystery, because we have not yet light sufficient
+to reveal to us all that we should like to know.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s221"><p><span class="versenum">221.</span> The ascension of the risen Christ to his Father is the presupposition
+of all the New Testament teaching. The Acts, the Epistles, and the
+Apocalypse join in the representation that he is now at the right hand of
+God. In fact it may be said that such a view is involved in the doctrine
+of the resurrection, for the very idea of that victory was that death had
+no more dominion over him. It is a fact, however, that none of our gospels
+in their correct text (see Luke xxiv. 51, R.V. margin) tell of the
+ascension. Luke clearly implies it, and John says that Jesus told Mary to
+tell the disciples that he was about to ascend to his Father and their
+Father. In Luke's later book, however (Acts i. 1-11), he gives a full
+a<ins>c</ins>count of a last meeting of Jesus with the disciples, and of
+his ascension to heaven before their eyes. This withdrawal in the cloud
+must be understood as an acted parable; for, in reality, there is no
+reason for thinking that the clouds which hung over Olivet that day were
+any nearer God's presence than the ground on which the disciples stood.
+For them, however, such a disappearance would signify vividly the
+cessation of their earthly intercourse with their Lord, and his return to
+his home with the Father. The word of Jesus to Mary (John xx. 17) may
+fairly be interpreted to <a class="newpage" name="page215" id="page215" title="215"></a>mean that Jesus had ascended to the Father on
+the day of the resurrection, and that each of his subsequent
+manifestations of himself were like that which later he granted to Paul
+near Damascus. In fact it is easier to view the matter in this way than to
+conceive of Jesus as sojourning in some hidden place for forty days after
+his resurrection. What the disciples witnessed ten days before Pentecost
+was a withdrawal similar to those which had separated him from them
+frequently during the recent weeks, only now set before their eyes in such
+a way as to tell them that these manifestations had reached an end; they
+must henceforth wait for the other representative of God and Christ, the
+Spirit, given to them at Pentecost.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s222"><p><span class="versenum">222.</span> The faith with which the disciples waited for the promised spirit was
+a very different faith from that which Peter confessed for his fellows at
+C&aelig;sarea Philippi. It had the same supreme attachment to a personal friend
+who had proved to be God's Anointed; the same readiness to let him lead
+whithersoever he would; the same firm expectation of a restitution of all
+things, in which God should set up his kingdom visibly, with Jesus as the
+King of men. Now, however, their trust was much fuller than before, and
+they looked for a still more glorious kingdom when their friend and Lord
+should come from heaven to assume his reign. They expected Christ to
+return soon in glory, yet his death and victory made them ready to endure
+any persecution for him, certain that, like the sufferings which he
+endured, it would lead to victory. These disciples had no idea that in
+preaching a religion of personal attachment to their Master, in filling
+all men's thoughts with his name, in building <a class="newpage" name="page216" id="page216" title="216"></a>all hope on his return, and
+guiding all life by his teaching and spirit, they were cutting their
+moorings from the religion of their fathers. They remained loyal to the
+law, they were constant in the worship; but they had poured new wine into
+the bottles, and in time it proved the inadequacy of the old forms and
+revolutionized the world's religious life.</p></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+<div class="part" id="p03">
+<h2><a class="newpage" name="page217" id="page217" title="217"></a>Part III</h2>
+
+<h3>The Minister</h3>
+
+<p><a class="newpage" name="page218" id="page218" title="218"></a></p>
+
+<div class="chapter" id="p03-01">
+<h2><a class="newpage" name="page219" id="page219" title="219"></a>I</h2>
+
+<h3>The Friend of Men</h3>
+
+
+
+<div class="section" id="s223"><p><span class="versenum">223.</span> In nothing does the contrast between Jesus and John the Baptist
+appear more clearly than in their attitude towards common social life.
+John had his training and did his work apart from the homes of men. The
+wilderness was his chosen and fit scene of labor. From this solitude he
+sent forth his summons and warning to his people. They who sought him for
+fuller teaching went after him and found him where he was. They then
+returned to their homes and their work, leaving the prophet with his few
+disciples in their seclusion. With Jesus it was otherwise. His first act,
+after attaching to himself a few followers, was to go into Galilee to the
+town of Cana, and there with them to partake in the festivities of a
+wedding. While it is true that most of his teaching was by the wayside,
+among the hills, or by the sea, it is still a surprise to discover how
+often his ministry found its occasion as he was sitting at table in the
+house of some friend, real or feigned. The genuine friendships of Jesus as
+they appear in the gospels are among the most characteristic features of
+his life--witness the home at Bethany, the women who followed him even to
+the cross, and ministered to him of their substance, and the "beloved
+disciple." Jesus calls attention to this contrast between himself and
+John, reminding the people <a class="newpage" name="page220" id="page220" title="220"></a>how some of the scornful pointed the finger at
+himself as "a gluttonous man and a wine-bibber, a friend of publicans and
+sinners." He received his training as a carpenter while John was in his
+wilderness solitude. Men who would probably have stood with admiration
+before John had he visited their synagogue, found Jesus too much one of
+themselves, and would none of him as a prophet (Mark vi. 2, 3).</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s224"><p><span class="versenum">224.</span> A like contrast sets Jesus apart from the scribes of his day. These
+were revered by the people, in part perhaps because they held the common
+folk in such contempt. Their attitude was frank--"this multitude which
+knoweth not the law is accursed" (John vii. 49). The popular enthusiasm
+for Jesus filled them with scorn, until it began to give them alarm. They
+were glad to be reverenced by the people, to interpret the law for them
+"binding heavy burdens and grievous to be borne;" but showed little
+genuine interest in them. Jesus, on the other hand, not only had the
+reverence of the multitudes, but welcomed them. First his words and his
+works drew them, then he himself enchained their hearts. Outcasts, rich
+and poor, crowded into his company, and found him not only a teacher, a
+prophet of righteousness rebuking their sins and calling to repentance,
+but a friend, who was not ashamed to be seen in their homes, to have them
+among his closest attendants, and to be known as their champion. It was
+when such as these were pressing upon him to hear him that Jesus replied
+to the criticism of the scribes in the three parables of recovered
+treasure which stand among the rarest gems of the Master's teaching (Luke
+xv.).</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s225"><p><a class="newpage" name="page221" id="page221" title="221"></a><span class="versenum">225.</span> One class only in the community failed of his sympathy,--the
+self-righteous hypocrites, who thought that godliness consisted in
+scrupulous regard for pious ceremonies, and that zeal was most laudable
+when directed to the removal of motes from their brothers' eyes. For these
+Jesus had words of rebuke and burning scorn. It has been common with some
+to emphasize his friendship for the poor as if he chose them for their
+poverty, and the unlettered for their ignorance. Yet Jesus had no faster
+friends than the women who followed from Galilee and ministered to him of
+their substance, and the two sanhedrists, Joseph whose new tomb received
+his body, and Nicodemus whose liberality provided the spices which
+embalmed him; for these, and not the Galilean fishermen, were faithful to
+the last at the cross and at the grave. In no home did Jesus find a fuller
+or more welcome friendship than in Bethany, where all that is told us of
+its conditions suggests the opposite of poverty. The rich young ruler, who
+showed his too great devotion to his possessions, would hardly have sought
+out Jesus with his question, if he was known as the champion of poverty as
+in itself essential to godliness. The demand made of him surprised him,
+and was suited to his special case. Jesus saw clearly the difficulties
+which wealth puts in the way of faith, but he recognized the power of God
+to overcome them, and when Zaccheus turned disciple, the demand for
+complete surrender of possessions was not repeated. On the contrary Jesus
+taught his disciples that even "the unrighteous mammon" should be used to
+win friends (Luke xvi. 9), so ministering unto some of "the least of these
+my brethren" (Matt. xxv. 40). The beatitude <a class="newpage" name="page222" id="page222" title="222"></a>in Luke's report of the
+sermon on the mount (Luke vi. 20) was not for the poor as poor simply, but
+for those poor folk lightly esteemed who had spiritual sense enough to
+follow Jesus, while the well-to-do as a class were content with the
+"consolation" already in hand. Jesus' interest was in character, wherever
+it was manifest, whether in the repentance of a chief of the publicans, or
+in the widow woman's gift of "all her living;" whether it appeared in the
+hunger for truth shown by Nicodemus, a teacher of Israel, or in the woman
+that was a sinner who washed his feet with her tears. He was the great
+revealer of the worth of simple humanity, in man, woman, or child. Our
+world has never seen another who so surely penetrated all masks or
+disguising circumstances and found the man himself, and having found him
+loved him.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s226"><p><span class="versenum">226.</span> This sympathy for simple manhood was manifested in a genuine interest
+in the common life of men in business, pleasure, or trouble. It is
+significant that the first exercise of his miraculous power should have
+been to relieve the embarrassment of his host at a wedding feast.
+Doubtless we are to understand that the miracle had a deeper purpose than
+simply supplying the needed wine (John ii. 11); but the significant thing
+is that Jesus should choose to manifest his glory in this way. It shows a
+genuine appreciation of social life quite impossible to an ascetic like
+the Baptist. The same appears in the way Jesus allowed his publican
+apostle to introduce him to his former associates, to the great scandal of
+the Pharisees; for a feast at which Jesus and a number of publicans were
+the chief guests accorded not with religion as they understood it. Jesus,
+however, seems to have found <a class="newpage" name="page223" id="page223" title="223"></a>it a welcome opportunity to seek some of his
+lost sheep. The illustrations which he used in his teaching were often his
+best introduction to the common heart, for they were drawn from the
+occupations of the people who came to listen; while the aid Jesus gave to
+his disciples in their fishing showed not only his power, but also his
+respect for their work, a respect further proved when he called them to be
+fishers of men.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s227"><p><span class="versenum">227.</span> Beyond this interest in life's joy and its occupations was that
+unfailing sympathy with its troubles which drew the multitudes to him. He
+was far more than a healer; he studied to rid the people of the idea that
+he was a mere miracle-monger. He healed them because he loved them, and he
+asked of those who sought his help that they too should feel the personal
+relation into which his power had brought them. This seems to be in part
+the significance of his uniform demand for faith. Doubtless Mary, out of
+whom he had cast seven devils, and Simon the leper, who seems to have
+experienced his power to heal, are only single instances of many who found
+in him far more than at first they sought. No further record remains of
+the paralytic who carried off his bed, but left the burden of his sins
+behind, nor of the woman who loved much because she had been forgiven
+much, nor of the Samaritan whose life he uncovered that he might be able
+to give her the living water. Some who had his help for body or heart may
+have gone away forgetful, after the fashion of men, but in the company of
+those who were bold to bear his name after his resurrection there must
+have been many who could not forget.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s228"><p><a class="newpage" name="page224" id="page224" title="224"></a><span class="versenum">228.</span> Jesus' interest in common life was genuine, and he entered into it
+with his heart. The incident of the anointing of his feet as he sat a
+guest in a Pharisee's house shows that he was keenly sensitive to the
+treatment he received at the hands of men. He had nothing to say of the
+slights his host had shown him, until that host began mentally to
+criticise the woman who was ministering to him in her love and penitence.
+Then with quiet dignity Jesus mentioned the several omissions of courtesy
+which he had noticed since he came in, contrasting the woman's attention
+with Simon's neglect (Luke vii. 36-50). One of the saddest things about
+Gethsemane was Jesus' vain pleading with his disciples for sympathy in his
+awful hour. They were too much dazed with awe and fear to lend him their
+hearts' support. He recognized indeed that it was only a weakness of the
+flesh; yet he craved their friendship's help, and repeatedly asked them to
+watch with him, for his soul was exceeding sorrowful. In contrast with
+this disappointment stands the joy with which Jesus heard from Peter the
+confession which proved that the falling off of popular enthusiasm had not
+shaken the loyalty of his chosen companions,--"Blessed art thou, Simon
+Bar-Jonah: for flesh and blood have not revealed it unto thee, but my
+Father which is in heaven" (Matt. xvi. 17). There is the sorrow of
+loneliness as well as rebuke in his complaint, "O faithless generation,
+how long shall I be with you? how long shall I bear with you?" (Mark ix.
+19), and the lamentation over Jerusalem comes from a longing heart (Luke
+xiii. 34).</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s229"><p><span class="versenum">229.</span> The independence of human sympathy which Jesus often showed is all
+the more glorious for the <a class="newpage" name="page225" id="page225" title="225"></a>evidence the gospels give of his longing for
+it. When he put the question to the twelve, "Would ye also go away?" (John
+vi. 67), there is no hint in his manner that their defection with the rest
+would turn him at all from faithfully fulfilling the task appointed to him
+by his Father. In fact only now and then did he allow his own hunger to
+appear. Ordinarily he showed himself as the friend longing to help, but
+not seeking ministry from others; he rather sought to win his disciples to
+unselfishness by showing as well as saying that he came not to be
+ministered unto but to minister. He washed the feet of his disciples to
+rebuke their petty jealousies, but we have no hint that he showed that he
+felt personal neglect. His own heart was full of "sorrow even unto death,"
+but his word was, "Let not your heart be troubled;" he asked in vain for
+the sympathy of his nearest friends in Gethsemane, yet when the band came
+to arrest him he pleaded, "Let these, the disciples, go their way."</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<div class="chapter" id="p03-02">
+<h2><a class="newpage" name="page226" id="page226" title="226"></a>II</h2>
+
+<h3>The Teacher with Authority</h3>
+
+
+
+<div class="section" id="s230"><p><span class="versenum">230.</span> To his contemporaries Jesus was primarily a teacher. The name by
+which he is oftenest named in the gospels is Teacher,--translated Master
+in the English versions and the equivalent of Rabbi in the language used
+by Jesus (John i. 38). People thought of him as a rabbi approved of God by
+his power to work miracles (John iii. 2), but it was not the miracles that
+most impressed them. The popular comment was, "He taught them as one
+having authority, and not as the scribes" (Matt. vii. 29). Two leading
+characteristics of the scribes were their pride of learning, and their
+bondage to tradition. In fact the learning of which they were proud was
+knowledge of the body of tradition on whose sanctity they insisted; their
+teaching was scholastic and pedantic, an endless citing of precedents and
+discussion of trifles. To all this Jesus presented a refreshing contrast.
+In commending truth to the people, he was content with a simple "verily,"
+and in defining duty he rested on his unsupported "I say unto you," even
+when his dictum stood opposed to that which had been said to them of old
+time.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s231"><p><span class="versenum">231.</span> In this freedom from the bondage of tradition Jesus was not alone.
+John the Baptist's message had been as simple and unsupported by appeal to
+the elders. <a class="newpage" name="page227" id="page227" title="227"></a>Jesus and John both revived the method of the older prophets,
+and it is in large measure due to this that the people distinguished them
+clearly from their ordinary teachers, and held them both to be prophets.
+One thing involved in this authoritative method was a frank appeal to the
+conscience of men. So completely had the scribes substituted memory of
+tradition for appeal to the simple sense of right, that they were utterly
+dazed when Jesus undertook to settle questions of Sabbath observance and
+ceremonial cleanliness by asking his hearers to use their religious common
+sense, and consider whether a man is not much better than a sheep, or
+whether a man is not defiled rather by what comes out of his mouth than by
+what enters into it (Matt. xii. 12; Mark vii. 15). Jesus was for his
+generation the great discoverer of the conscience, and for all time the
+champion of its dignity against finespun theory and traditional practice.
+All his teaching has this quality in greater or less degree. It appears
+when by means of the parable of the Good Samaritan he makes the lawyer
+answer his own question (Luke x. 25-37), when he bids the multitude in
+Jerusalem "judge not according to the appearance, but judge righteous
+judgment" (John vii. 24), when he asks his inquisitors in the temple whose
+image and superscription the coin they used in common business bears (Mark
+xii. 16). His whole work in Galilee was proof of his confidence that in
+earnest souls the conscience would be his ally, and that he could impress
+himself on them far more indelibly than any sign from heaven could enforce
+his claim.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s232"><p><span class="versenum">232.</span> Jesus was not only independent of the traditions of the scribes, he
+was also very free at times with <a class="newpage" name="page228" id="page228" title="228"></a>the letter of the Old Testament. When by
+a word he "made all meats clean" (Mark vii. 19), he set himself against
+the permanent validity of the Levitical ritual. When the Pharisees pleaded
+Moses for their authority in the matter of divorce, Jesus referred them
+back of Moses to the original constitution of mankind (Matt. xix. 3-9).
+His general attitude to the Sabbath was not only opposed to the traditions
+of the scribes, it also disregarded the Old Testament conception of the
+Sabbath as an institution. Yet Jesus took pains to declare that he came
+not to set aside the old but to fulfil it (Matt. v. 17). The contrasts
+which he draws between things said to them of old and his new teachings
+(Matt. v. 21-48) look at first much like a doing away of the old. Jesus
+did not so conceive them. He rather thought of them as fresh statements of
+the idea which underlay the old; they fulfilled the old by realizing more
+fully that which it had set before an earlier generation. He was the most
+radical teacher the men of his day could conceive, but his work was
+clearing rubbish away from the roots of venerable truth that it might bear
+fruit, rather than rooting up the old to put something else in its place.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s233"><p><span class="versenum">233.</span> The Old Testament was for Jesus a holy book. His mind was filled with
+its stories and its language. In the teachings which have been preserved
+for us he has made use of writings from all parts of the Jewish
+scriptures--Law, Prophets, and Psalms. The Old Testament furnished him the
+weapons for his own soul's struggle with temptation (Matt. iv. 4, 7, 10),
+it gave him arguments for use against his opponents (Mark xii. 24-27; ii.
+25-27), and it was for him an inexhaustible storehouse of <a class="newpage" name="page229" id="page229" title="229"></a>illustration in
+his teaching. When inquirers sought the way of life he pointed them to the
+scriptures (Mark x. 19; see also John v. 39), and declared that the rising
+of one from the dead would not avail for the warning of those who were
+unmoved by Moses and the prophets (Luke xvi. 31). When Jesus' personal
+attitude to the Old Testament is considered it is noticeable that while
+his quotations and allusions cover a wide range, and show very general
+familiarity with the whole book, there appears a decided predominance of
+Deuteronomy, the last part of Isaiah, and the Psalms. It is not difficult
+to see that these books are closer in spirit to his own thought than much
+else in the old writings; his use of the scripture shows that some parts
+appealed to him more than others.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s234"><p><span class="versenum">234.</span> Jesus as a teacher was popular and practical rather than systematic
+and theoretical. The freshness of his ideas is proof that he was not
+lacking in thorough and orderly thinking, for his complete departure from
+current conceptions of the kingdom of God indicates perfect mastery of
+ethical and theological truth. It is all the more remarkable, therefore,
+that so much of his profoundest teaching seems to have been almost
+accidental. The most formal discourse preserved to us is the sermon on the
+mount, in which human conduct is regulated by the thought of God as Father
+and Searcher of hearts. For the rest the great ideas of Jesus have
+utterance in response to specific conditions presented to him in his
+ministry. His most radical sayings concerning the Sabbath followed a
+criticism of his disciples for plucking ears of grain as they passed
+through the fields on the Sabbath day (Mark ii. 23-28); his authority to
+forgive sins was announced when a paralytic <a class="newpage" name="page230" id="page230" title="230"></a>was brought to him for
+healing (Mark ii. 1-12); so far as the gospels indicate, we should have
+missed Jesus' clearest statement of the significance of his own death but
+for the ambitious request of James and John (Mark x. 35-45). Examples of
+the occasional character of his teaching might be greatly multiplied. He
+did not seek to be the founder of a school; important as his teachings
+were, they take a place in his work second to his personal influence on
+his followers. He desired to win disciples whose faith in him would
+withstand all shocks, rather than to train experts who would pass on his
+ideas to others. His disciples did become experts, for we owe to them the
+vivid presentation we have of the exalted and unique teaching of their
+Master; but they were thus skilful because they surrendered themselves to
+his personal mastery, and learned to know the springs of his own life and
+thought.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s235"><p><span class="versenum">235.</span> Nothing in the teaching of Jesus is more remarkable than his
+confidence that men who believed in him would adequately represent him and
+his message to the world. The parable of the Leaven seems to have set
+forth his own method. We owe our gospels to no injunction given by him to
+write down what he said and did. He impressed himself on his followers,
+filled them with a love to himself which made them sensitive to his ideas
+as a photographic plate is to light, teaching them his truth in forms that
+did not at first show any effect on their thought, but were developed into
+strength and clearness by the experiences of the passing years. Christian
+ethics and theology are far more than an orderly presentation of the
+teaching of Jesus; in so far as they are purely Christian they are the
+systematic setting forth of truth involved, <a class="newpage" name="page231" id="page231" title="231"></a>though not expressed, in what
+he said and did in his ministry among men. His ideas were radical and
+thoroughly revolutionary. His method, however, had in it all the patience
+of God's working in nature, and the hidden noiseless power of an evolution
+is its characteristic. Hence it was that he chose to teach some things
+exclusively in figure. So great and unfamiliar a truth as the gradual
+development of God's kingdom was unwelcome to the thought of his time. He
+made it, therefore, the theme of many of his parables; and although the
+disciples did not understand what he meant, the picture remained with
+them, and in after years they grew up to his idea.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s236"><p><span class="versenum">236.</span> Jesus' use of illustration is one of the most marked features of his
+teaching. In one sense this simply proves him to be a genuine Oriental,
+for to contemplate and present abstract truths in concrete form is
+characteristic of the Semitic mind. In the case of Jesus, however, it
+proves more: the variety and homeliness of his illustrations show how
+completely conversant he was alike with common life and with spiritual
+truth. There is a freedom and ease about his use of figurative language
+which suggests, as nothing else could, his own clear certainty concerning
+the things of which he spoke. The fact, too, that his mind dealt so
+naturally with the highest thoughts has made his illustrations unique for
+profound truth and simple beauty. Nearly the whole range of figurative
+speech is represented in his recorded words, including forms like irony
+and hyperbole, often held to be unnatural to such serious speech as his.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s237"><p><span class="versenum">237.</span> Another figure has become almost identified with the name of
+Jesus,--such abundant and incom<a class="newpage" name="page232" id="page232" title="232"></a>parable use did he make of it. Parable
+was, however, no invention of his, for the rabbis of his own and later
+times, as well as the sages and prophets who went before them, made use of
+it. As distinguished from other forms of illustration, the parable is a
+picture true to actual human life, used to enforce a religious truth. The
+picture may be drawn in detail, as in the story of the Lost Son (Luke xv.
+11-32), or it may be the concisest narration possible, as in the parable
+of the Leaven (Matt. xiii. 33); but it always retains its character as a
+narrative true to human experience. It is this that gives parable the
+peculiar value it has for religious teaching, since it brings unfamiliar
+truth close home to every-day life. Like all the illustrations used by
+Jesus, the parable was ordinarily chosen as a means of making clear the
+spiritual truth which he was presenting. Illustration never finds place as
+mere ornament in his addresses. His parables, however, were sometimes used
+to baffle the unteachable and critical. Such was the case on the occasion
+in Jesus' life when attention is first called in the gospels to this mode
+of teaching (Mark iv. 1-34). The parable of the Sower would mean little to
+hearers who held the crude and material ideas of the kingdom which
+prevailed among Jesus' contemporaries. It was used as an invitation to
+consider a great truth, and for teachable disciples was full of suggestion
+and meaning; while for the critical curiosity of unfriendly hearers it was
+only a pointless story,--a means adopted by Jesus to save his pearls from
+being trampled under foot, and perhaps also to prevent too early a
+decision against him on the part of his opponents.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s238"><p><span class="versenum">238.</span> In nothing is Jesus' ease in handling deepest <a class="newpage" name="page233" id="page233" title="233"></a>truth more apparent
+than in his use of irony and hyperbole in his illustrations. In his
+reference to the Pharisees as "ninety and nine just persons which need no
+repentance" (Luke xv. 7), and in his question, "Many good works have I
+shewed you from the Father, for which of these works do you stone me?"
+(John x. 32), the irony is plain, but not any plainer than the rhetorical
+exaggeration of his accusation against the scribes, "You strain out a gnat
+and swallow a camel" (Matt, xxiii. 24), or his declaration that "it is
+easier for a camel to go through a needle's eye than for a rich man to
+enter into the kingdom of God" (Mark x. 25), or his charge, "If a man
+cometh unto me and hateth not his own father and mother ... he cannot be
+my disciple" (Luke xiv. 26). The force of these statements is in their
+hyperbole. Only to an interpretation which regards the letter above the
+spirit can they cause difficulty. In so far as they remove Jesus utterly
+from the pedantic carefulness for words which marked the scribes they are
+among the rare treasures of his teachings. The simple spirit will not busy
+itself about finding something that may be called a needle's eye through
+which a camel can pass by squeezing, nor will it seek a camel which could
+conceivably be swallowed, nor will it stumble at a seeming command to hate
+those for whom God's law, as emphasized indeed by Jesus (Mark vii. 6-13),
+demands peculiar love and honor. The childlike spirit which is heir of
+God's kingdom readily understands this warning against the snare of
+riches, this rebuke of the hypocritical life, and this demand for a love
+for the Master which shall take the first place in the heart.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s239"><p><span class="versenum">239.</span> Jesus sometimes used object lessons as well as <a class="newpage" name="page234" id="page234" title="234"></a>illustrations, and
+for the same purpose,--to make his thought transparently clear to his
+hearers. The demand for a childlike faith in order to enter the kingdom of
+God was enforced by the presence of a little child whom Jesus set in the
+midst of the circle to whom he was talking (Mark ix. 35-37). The unworthy
+ambitions of the disciples were rebuked by Jesus' taking himself the
+menial place and washing their feet (John xiii. 1-15).</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s240"><p><span class="versenum">240.</span> The simplicity and homeliness of Jesus' teaching are not more
+remarkable than the alertness of mind which he showed on all occasions.
+The comment of the fourth gospel, "he needed not that any one should bear
+witness concerning man, for he himself knew what was in man" (ii. 25),
+doubtless refers to his supernatural insight, but it also tells of his
+quick perception of what was involved in each situation in which he found
+himself. Whether it was Nicodemus coming to him by night, or the lawyer
+asking, "Who is my neighbor?" or a dissatisfied heir demanding that his
+brother divide the inheritance with him, or a group of Pharisees seeking
+to undermine his power by attributing his cures to the devil, or trying to
+entrap him by a question about tribute, Jesus was never caught unawares.
+His absorption in heavenly truth was not accompanied by any blindness to
+earthly facts. He knew what the men of his day were thinking about, what
+they hoped for, to what follies they gave their hearts, and what sins hid
+God from them. He was eminently a man of the people, thoroughly acquainted
+with all that interested his fellows, and in the most natural, human way.
+Whatever of the supernatural there was in his knowledge did not make it
+unnatural. <a class="newpage" name="page235" id="page235" title="235"></a>As he was socially at ease with the best and most cultivated
+of his day, so he was intellectually the master of every situation. This
+appears nowhere more strikingly than in his dealing with his pharisaic
+critics. When they were shocked by his forgiveness of sins, or offended by
+his indifference to the Sabbath tradition, or goaded into blasphemy by his
+growing influence over the people, or troubled by his disciples' disregard
+of the traditional washings, or when later they conspired to entrap him in
+his speech,--from first to last he was so manifestly superior to his
+opponents that they withdrew discomfited, until at length they in madness
+killed, without reason, him against whom they could find no adequate
+charge. His lack of "learning" (John vii. 15) was simply his innocence of
+rabbinic training; he had no diploma from their schools. In keenness of
+argument, however, and invincibleness of reasoning, as well as in the
+clearness of his insight, he was ever their unapproachable superior. His
+reply to the charge of league with Beelzebub is as merciless an exposure
+of feeble malice as can be found in human literature. He was as worthy to
+be Master of his disciples' thinking as he was to be Lord of their hearts.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s241"><p><span class="versenum">241.</span> In the teaching of Jesus two topics have the leading place,--the
+Kingdom of God, and Himself. His thought about himself calls for separate
+consideration, but it may be remarked here that as his ministry progressed
+he spoke with increasing frankness about his own claims. It became more
+and more apparent that he sought to be Lord rather than Teacher simply,
+and to impress men with himself rather than with his ideas. Yet his ideas
+were constantly urged on his disciples, and they were summed up in his
+conception <a class="newpage" name="page236" id="page236" title="236"></a>of the kingdom of God, or the kingdom of heaven. This was the
+topic, directly or indirectly, of far the greater part of his teaching.
+The phrase was as familiar to his contemporaries as it is common in his
+words; but his understanding of it was radically different from theirs. He
+and they took it to mean the realization on earth of heavenly conditions
+(kingdom of heaven), or of God's actual sovereignty over the world
+(kingdom of God); but of the God whose will was thus to be realized they
+conceived quite differently. Strictly speaking there is nothing novel in
+the idea of God as Father which abounds in the teaching of Jesus. He never
+offers it as novel, but takes it for granted that his hearers are familiar
+with the name. It appears in some earlier writers both in and out of the
+Old Testament. Yet no one of them uses it as constantly, as naturally, and
+as confidently as did Jesus. With him it was the simple equivalent of his
+idea of God, and it was central for his personal religious life as well as
+for his teaching. "My Father" always lies back of references in his
+teaching to "your Father." This is the key to what is novel in Jesus' idea
+of the kingdom of God. His contemporaries thought of God as the covenant
+king of Israel who would in his own time make good his promises, rid his
+people of their foes, set them on high among the nations, establish his
+law in their hearts, and rule over them as their king. The whole
+conception, while in a real sense religious, was concerned more with the
+nation than with individuals, and looked rather for temporal blessings
+than for spiritual good. With Jesus the kingdom is the realization of
+God's fatherly sway over the hearts of his children. It begins when men
+come to own God as their Father, and <a class="newpage" name="page237" id="page237" title="237"></a>seek to do his will for the love
+they bear him. It shows development towards its full manifestation when
+men as children of God look on each other as brothers, and govern conduct
+by love which will no more limit itself to friends than God shuts off his
+sunlight from sinners. From this love to God and men it will grow into a
+new order of things in which God's will shall be done as it is in heaven,
+even as from the little leaven the whole lump is leavened. Jesus did not
+set aside the idea of a judgment, but while his fellows commonly made it
+the inauguration, he made it the consummation of the kingdom; they thought
+of it as the day of confusion for apostates and Gentiles, he taught that
+it would be the day of condemnation of all unbrotherliness (Matt. xxv.
+31-46). This central idea--a new order of life in which men have come to
+love and obey God as their Father, and to love and live for men as their
+brothers--attaches to itself naturally all the various phases of the
+teaching of Jesus, including his emphasis on himself; for he made that
+emphasis in order that, as the Way, the Truth, and the Life, he might lead
+men unto the Father.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<div class="chapter" id="p03-03">
+<h2><a class="newpage" name="page238" id="page238" title="238"></a>III</h2>
+
+<h3>Jesus' Knowledge of Truth</h3>
+
+
+
+<div class="section" id="s242"><p><span class="versenum">242.</span> The note of authority in the teaching of Jesus is evidence of his own
+clear knowledge of the things of which he spoke. As if by swift intuition,
+his mind penetrated to the heart of things. In the scriptures he saw the
+underlying truth which should stand till heaven and earth shall pass
+(Matt. v. 18); in the ceremonies of his people's religion he saw so
+clearly the spiritual significance that he did not hesitate to sacrifice
+the passing form (Mark vii. 14-23); such a theological development as the
+pharisaic doctrine of the resurrection he unhesitatingly adopted because
+he saw that it was based on the ultimate significance of the soul's
+fellowship with God (Mark xiii. 24-27); he reduced religion and ethics to
+simplicity by summing up all commandments in one,--Thou shalt love (Matt.
+xxii. 37-40); and at the same time insisted as no other prophet had done
+on the finality of conduct and the necessity of obedience (Matt. vii.
+21-27). His penetration to the heart of an idea was nowhere more clear
+than in his doctrine of the kingdom of God as realized in the filial soul,
+and as involving a judgment which should take cognizance only of
+brotherliness of conduct. It would not be difficult to show that all these
+different aspects of his teaching grew naturally out of <a class="newpage" name="page239" id="page239" title="239"></a>his knowledge of
+God as his Father and the Father of all men; they were the fruit,
+therefore, of personal certainty of ultimate and all-dominating truth.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s243"><p><span class="versenum">243.</span> If the knowledge of Jesus had been shown only in matters of spiritual
+truth, it would still have marked him as one apart from ordinary men.
+There were other directions, however, in which he surpassed the common
+mind. The fourth gospel declares that "he knew what was in man" (ii. 25),
+and all the evangelists give evidence of such knowledge. Not only the
+designation of Judas as the traitor, and of Peter as the one who should
+deny him, before their weakness and sin had shown themselves, but also
+Jesus' quick reading of the heart of the paralytic who was brought to him
+for healing, and of the woman who washed his feet with her tears (Mark ii.
+5; Luke vii. 47), and his knowledge of the character of Simon and
+Nathanael (John i. 42, 47,) as well as his sure perception of the intent
+of the various questioners whom he met, indicate that he had powers of
+insight unshared by his fellow men.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s244"><p><span class="versenum">244.</span> Furthermore, the gospels state explicitly that Jesus predicted his
+own death from a time at least six months before the end (Matt. xvi. 21),
+and they indicate that the idea was not new to him when he first
+communicated it to his disciples (Matt. xvi. 23; Mark ii. 20). He viewed
+his approaching death, moreover, as a necessity (Mark viii. 31-33), yet he
+was no fatalist concerning it. He could still in Gethsemane plead with his
+Father, to whom all things are possible, to open to him some other way of
+accomplishing his work (Mark xiv. 36). The old Testament picture of the
+suffering and dying servant of Jehovah (Isa. liii.) <a class="newpage" name="page240" id="page240" title="240"></a>was doubtless
+familiar to Jesus. Although it was not interpreted Messianically by the
+scribes, Jesus probably applied it to himself when thinking of his death;
+yet the predictions of the prophets always provided for a non-fulfilment
+in case Israel should turn unto the Lord in truth (see Ezek. xxxiii.
+10-20). Moreover, the contradiction which Jesus felt between his ideas and
+those cherished by the leaders of his people, whether priests or scribes,
+was so radical that his death might well seem inevitable; yet it was
+possible that his people might repent, and Jerusalem consent to accept him
+as God's anointed. Neither prophecy, nor the actual conditions of his
+life, therefore, would give Jesus any fatalistic certainty of his coming
+death. In Gethsemane his heart pleaded against it, while his will bowed
+still to God in perfect loyalty. It is not for us to explain his
+prediction of death by appealing to the connection which the apostolic
+thought established between the death of Christ and the salvation of men,
+for we are not competent to say that God could not have effected
+redemption in some other way if the repentance of the Jews had, humanly
+speaking, removed from Jesus the necessity of death. All that can be said
+is that he knew the prophetic picture, knew also the hardness of heart
+which had taken possession of the Jews, and knew that he must not swerve
+from his course of obedience to what he saw to be God's will for him.
+Since that obedience brought him into fatal opposition to human prejudice
+and passion, he saw that he must die, and that such a death was one of the
+steps in his establishment of God's kingdom among men. So he went on his
+way ready "not to be ministered unto but to <a class="newpage" name="page241" id="page241" title="241"></a>minister, and to give his
+life a ransom for many" (Mark x. 45).</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s245"><p><span class="versenum">245.</span> With his prediction of his death the gospels usually associate a
+prophecy of his speedy resurrection. As has been already remarked (sect.
+210), it is being generally recognized that if Jesus believed that he was
+the Messiah, he must have associated with the thought of death that of
+victory over death, which for all Jewish minds meant a resurrection from
+the dead. Jesus certainly taught that his death was part of his Messianic
+work, it could not therefore be his end. The prediction of the
+resurrection is the necessary corollary of his expectation of death; and
+it may reverently be believed that his knowledge of it was intimately
+involved with his certainty that it was as Messiah that he was to die.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s246"><p><span class="versenum">246.</span> From the time when he began to tell his disciples that he must die,
+Jesus began also to teach that his earthly ministry was not to finish his
+work, but that he should return in glory from heaven to realize fully all
+that was involved in the idea of God's kingdom. His predictions resemble
+in form the representations found in the Book of Daniel and the Book of
+Enoch; and the understanding of them is involved in difficulties like
+those which beset such apocalyptic writings. In general, apocalypses were
+written in times of great distress for God's people, and represented the
+deliverance which should usher in God's kingdom as near at hand. One
+feature of them is a complete lack of perspective in the picture of the
+future. It may be that this fact will in part account for one great
+perplexity in the apocalyptic sayings of Jesus. In the chief of these
+(Mark xiii. and parallels), <a class="newpage" name="page242" id="page242" title="242"></a>predictions of the destruction of Jerusalem
+are so mingled with promises of his own second coming and the end of all
+things that many have sought to resolve the difficulty by separating the
+discourse into two different ones,--one a short Jewish apocalypse
+predicting the destruction of Jerusalem and the coming of the Son of Man
+within the life of that generation; the other, Jesus' own prediction of
+the end of all things, concerning which he warns his disciples that they
+be not deceived, but watch diligently and patiently for God's full
+salvation. The difficulties of this discourse as it stands are so great
+that any solution which accounts for all the facts must be welcomed. So
+far as this analysis seeks to remove from the account of Jesus' own words
+the references to a fulfilment of the predictions within the life of that
+generation, it is confronted by other sayings of Jesus (Mark ix. 1) and by
+the problem of the uniform belief of the apostolic age that he would
+speedily return. That belief must have had some ground. What more natural
+than that words of Jesus, rightly or wrongly understood, led to the common
+Christian expectation? Some such analysis may yet establish itself as the
+true solution of the difficulties; it may be, however, that in adopting
+the apocalyptic form of discourse, Jesus also adopted its lack of
+perspective, and spoke coincidently of future events in the progress of
+the kingdom, which, in their complete realization at least, were widely
+separated in time. In such a case it would not be strange if the disciples
+looked for the fulfilment of all of the predictions within the limit
+assigned for the accomplishment of some of them.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s247"><p><span class="versenum">247.</span> Whatever the explanation of these difficulties, <a class="newpage" name="page243" id="page243" title="243"></a>the gospels clearly
+represent Jesus as predicting his own return in glory to establish his
+kingdom,--a crowning evidence of his claim to supernatural knowledge. It
+is all the more significant, therefore, that it is in connection with his
+prediction of his future coming that he made the most definite declaration
+of his own ignorance: "Of that day or that hour knoweth no one, not even
+the angels in heaven, neither the Son, but the Father" (Mark xiii. 32).
+This confession of the limitation of his knowledge is conclusive. Yet it
+is not isolated. With his undoubted power to read "what was in man," he
+was not independent of ordinary ways of learning facts. When the woman was
+healed who touched the hem of his garment, Jesus knew that his power had
+been exercised, but he discovered the object of his healing by asking,
+"Who touched me?" and calling the woman out from the crowd to acknowledge
+her blessing (Mark v. 30-34); when the centurion urged Jesus to heal his
+boy without taking the trouble to come to his house, Jesus "marvelled" at
+his faith (Matt. viii. 10); when he came to Bethany, assured of his
+Father's answer to his prayer for the raising of Lazarus, he asked as
+simply as any other one in the company, "Where have ye laid him?" (John
+xi. 34). It should not be forgotten that his knowledge of approaching
+death, resurrection, and return in glory did not prevent the earnest
+pleading in Gethsemane, and it may be that his reply to the ambition of
+James and John, it "is not mine to give" (Mark x. 40), is a confession of
+ignorance as well as subordination to his Father.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s248"><p><span class="versenum">248.</span> The supernatural knowledge of Jesus, so far as its exercise is
+apparent in the gospels, was concerned with the truths intimately related
+to his reli<a class="newpage" name="page244" id="page244" title="244"></a>gious teaching or his Messianic work. There is no evidence
+that it occupied itself at all with facts of nature or of history
+discovered by others at a later day. When he says of God that "he maketh
+his sun to rise on the evil and the good" (Matt. v. 45), there is no
+evidence that he thought of the earth and its relation to the sun
+differently from his contemporaries; it is probable that his thought
+anticipated Galileo's discovery no more than do his words. Much the same
+may be said with reference to the purely literary or historical questions
+of Old Testament criticism, now so much discussed. If it is proved by just
+interpretation of all the facts that the Pentateuch is only in an ideal
+sense to be attributed to Moses, and that many of the psalms inscribed
+with his name cannot have been written by David, the propriety of Jesus'
+references to what "Moses said" (Mark vii. 10), and the validity of his
+argument for the relative unimportance of the Davidic descent of the
+Messiah, will not suffer. Had Jesus had in mind the ultimate facts
+concerning the literary structure of the Pentateuch, he could not have
+hoped to hold the attention of his hearers upon the religious teaching he
+was seeking to enforce, unless he referred to the early books of the Old
+Testament as written by Moses. Jesus did repeatedly go back of Moses to
+more primitive origins (Mark x. 5, 6; John vii. 22); yet there is no
+likelihood that the literary question was ever present in his thinking.
+This phase of his intellectual life, like that which concerned his
+knowledge of the natural universe, was in all probability one of the
+points in which he was made like unto his brethren, sharing, as matter of
+course, their views on questions that were indif<a class="newpage" name="page245" id="page245" title="245"></a>ferent for the spiritual
+mission he came to fulfil. If this was the case, his argument from the one
+hundred and tenth Psalm (Mark xii. 35-37) would simply give evidence that
+he accepted the views of his time concerning the Psalm, and proceeded to
+use it to correct other views of his time concerning what was of most
+importance in the doctrine of the Messiah. The last of these was of vital
+importance for his teaching; the first was for this teaching quite as
+indifferent a matter as the relations of the earth and the sun in the
+solar system.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s249"><p><span class="versenum">249.</span> A more perplexing difficulty arises from his handling of the cases of
+so-called demoniac possession. He certainly treated these invalids as if
+they were actually under the control of demons: he rebuked, banished, gave
+commands to the demons, and in this way wrought his cures upon the
+possessed. It has already been remarked that the symptoms shown in the
+cases cured by Jesus can be duplicated from cases of hysteria, epilepsy,
+or insanity, which have come under modern medical examination. Three
+questions then arise concerning his treatment of the possessed. 1. Did he
+unquestioningly share the interpretation which his contemporaries put upon
+the symptoms, and simply bring relief by his miraculous power? 2. Did he
+know that those whom he healed were not afflicted by evil spirits, and
+accommodate himself in his cures to their notions? 3. Does he prove by his
+treatment that the unfortunates actually were being tormented by
+diabolical agencies, which he banished by his word? The last of these
+possibilities should not be held to be impossible until much more is known
+than we now know about <a class="newpage" name="page246" id="page246" title="246"></a>the mysterious phenomena of abnormal psychical
+states. If this is the explanation of the maladies for Jesus' day,
+however, it should be accepted also as the explanation of similar abnormal
+symptoms when they appear in our modern life, for the old hypothesis of a
+special activity of evil spirits at the time of the incarnation is
+inadequate to account for the fact that in some quarters similar maladies
+have been similarly explained from the earliest times until the present
+day. If, however, he knew his people to be in error in ascribing these
+afflictions to diabolical influence, he need have felt no call to correct
+it. If the disease had been the direct effect of such a delusion, Jesus
+would have encouraged the error by accommodating himself to the popular
+notion. The idea of possession, however, was only an attempt to explain
+very real distress. Jesus desired to cure, not to inform his patients. The
+notion in no way interfered with his turning the thought of those he
+healed towards God, the centre of help and of health. He is not open,
+therefore, to the charge of having failed to free men from the thraldom of
+superstition if he accommodated himself to their belief concerning
+demoniac possession. His cure, and his infusion of true thoughts of God
+into the heart, furnished an antidote to superstition more efficacious
+than any amount of discussion of the truth or falseness of the current
+explanation of the disease. On the other hand, if we are not ready to
+conclude that the action of Jesus has demonstrated the validity of the
+ancient explanation, we may acknowledge that it would do no violence to
+his power, or dignity, or integrity, if it should be held that he did not
+concern himself with an inquiry into the cause <a class="newpage" name="page247" id="page247" title="247"></a>of the disease which
+presented itself to him for help, but adopted unquestioningly the
+explanation held by all his contemporaries, even as he used their
+language, dress, manner of life, and in one particular, at least, their
+representation of the life after death (Luke xvi. 22--Abraham's bosom).
+His own confession of ignorance of a large item of religious knowledge
+(Mark xiii. 32) leaves open the possibility that in so minor a matter as
+the explanation of a common disease he simply shared the ideas of his
+time. In this case, when one so afflicted came under his treatment, he
+applied his supernatural power, even as in cases of leprosy or fever, and
+cured the trouble, needing no scientific knowledge of its cause. If
+accommodation or ignorance led Jesus to treat these sick folk as
+possessed, it does not challenge his integrity nor his trustworthiness in
+all the matters which belong properly to his own peculiar work.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s250"><p><span class="versenum">250.</span> There is one incident in the gospels which favors the conclusion that
+Jesus definitely adopted the current idea,--the permission granted by him
+to the demons to go from the Gadarene into the herd of swine, and the
+consequent drowning of the herd (Mark v. 11-13). On any theory this
+incident is full of difficulty. Bernhard Weiss (LXt II. 226 ff.) holds
+that Jesus accommodated himself to current views, and that the man, having
+received for the possessing demons permission to go into the swine, was at
+once seized by a final paroxysm, and rushed among the swine, stampeding
+them so that they ran down the hillside into the sea.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s251"><p><span class="versenum">251.</span> In recent years the view has been somewhat widely advocated that his
+power over demoniacs was <a class="newpage" name="page248" id="page248" title="248"></a>to Jesus himself one of the chief proofs of his
+Messiahship. His words are quoted: "If I, by the Spirit of God, cast out
+demons, then is the kingdom of God come upon you" (Matt. xii. 28); and "I
+beheld Satan falling as lightning from heaven" (Luke x. 18). The first of
+these is in the midst of an <i>ad hominem</i> reply of Jesus to the charge that
+he owed his power to a league with the devil (Matt. xii. 28); and the
+second was his remark when the seventy reported with joy that the demons
+were subject unto them (Luke x. 18). The gospels, however, trace his
+certainty of his Messiahship to quite other causes, primarily to his
+knowledge of himself as God's child, then to the Voice which, coming at
+the baptism, summoned him as God's beloved Son to do the work of the
+Messiah. Throughout his ministry Jesus exhibits a certainty of his mission
+quite independent of external evidences,--"Even if I bear witness of
+myself, my witness is true; for I know whence I came and whither I go"
+(John viii. 14).</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<div class="chapter" id="p03-04">
+<h2><a class="newpage" name="page249" id="page249" title="249"></a>IV</h2>
+
+<h3>Jesus' Conception of Himself</h3>
+
+
+
+<div class="section" id="s252"><p><span class="versenum">252.</span> When Jesus called forth the confession of Peter at C&aelig;sarea Philippi
+he brought into prominence the question which during the earlier stages of
+the Galilean ministry he had studiously kept in the background. This is no
+indication, however, that he was late in reaching a conclusion for himself
+concerning his relation to the kingdom which he was preaching. From the
+time of his baptism and temptation every manifestation of the inner facts
+of his life shows unhesitating confidence in the reality of his call and
+in his understanding of his mission. This is the case whether the fourth
+gospel or the first three be appealed to for evidence. It is generally
+felt that the Gospel of John presents its sharpest contrast to the
+synoptic gospels in respect of the development of Jesus' self-disclosures.
+A careful consideration of the first three gospels, however, shows that
+the difference is not in Jesus' thought about himself.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s253"><p><span class="versenum">253.</span> The first thing which impressed the people during the ministry in
+Galilee was Jesus' assumption of authority, whether in teaching or in
+action (Mark i. 27; Matt. vii. 28, 29). His method of teaching
+distinguished him sharply from the scribes, who were constantly appealing
+to the opinion of the elders to establish the validity of their
+conclusions. Jesus <a class="newpage" name="page250" id="page250" title="250"></a>taught with a simple "I say unto you." In this,
+however, he differed not only from the scribes, but also from the
+prophets, to whom in many ways he bore so strong a likeness. They
+proclaimed their messages with the sanction of a "Thus saith the Lord;" he
+did not hesitate to oppose the letter of scripture as well as the
+tradition of the elders with his unsupported word (Matt. v. 38, 39; Mark
+vii. 1-23). His teaching revealed his unhesitating certainty concerning
+spiritual truth, and although he reverenced deeply the Jewish scriptures,
+and knew that his work was the fulfilment of their promises, he used them
+always as one whose superiority to God's earlier messengers was as
+complete as his reverence for them. He was confident that what they
+suggested of truth he was able to declare clearly; he used them as a
+master does his tools.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s254"><p><span class="versenum">254.</span> More striking than Jesus' independence in his teaching is the
+calmness of his self-assertion when he was opposed by pharisaic criticism
+and hostility. He preferred to teach the truth of the kingdom, working his
+cures in such a way that men should think about God's goodness rather than
+their healer's significance. Yet coincidently with this method of his
+choice he did not hesitate to reply to pharisaic opposition with
+unqualified self-assertion and exalted personal claim. Even if the
+conflicts which Mark has gathered together at the opening of his gospel
+(ii. 1 to iii. 6) did not all occur as early as he has placed them, the
+nucleus of the group belongs to the early time. Since the people greatly
+reverenced his critics, he felt it unnecessary to guard against arousing
+undue enthusiasm by this frank avowal of his claims. He <a class="newpage" name="page251" id="page251" title="251"></a>consequently
+asserted his authority to forgive sins, his special mission to the sick in
+soul whom the scribes shunned as defiling, his right to modify the
+conception of Sabbath observance; even as, later, he warned his critics of
+their fearful danger if they ascribed his good deeds to diabolical power
+(Mark iii. 28-30), and as, after the collapse of popularity, he rebuked
+them for making void the word of God by their tradition (Mark vii. 13).
+His attitude to the scribes in Galilee from the beginning discloses as
+definite Messianic claims as any ascribed by the fourth gospel to this
+early period.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s255"><p><span class="versenum">255.</span> These facts of the independence of Jesus in his teaching and his
+self-assertion in response to criticism confirm the impression that his
+answer to John the Baptist (Matt. xi. 2-6) gives the key to his method in
+Galilee. In John's inquiry the question of Jesus' personal relation to the
+kingdom was definitely asked. The answer, "Blessed is he whosoever shall
+find none occasion of stumbling in me," showed plainly that Jesus was in
+no doubt in the matter, although for the time he still preferred to let
+his ministry be the means of leading men to form their conclusions
+concerning him. What he brought into prominence at C&aelig;sarea Philippi,
+therefore, was that which had been the familiar subject of his own
+thinking from the time of his baptism.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s256"><p><span class="versenum">256.</span> In the ministry subsequent to the confession of Peter the
+self-disclosures of Jesus became more frequent and clear. His predictions
+of his approaching death were at the time the greatest difficulty to his
+disciples; when considered in their significance for his own life,
+however, they prove that his conviction of his Messiahship was as
+independent of current <a class="newpage" name="page252" id="page252" title="252"></a>and inherited ideas as was his teaching concerning
+the kingdom. When he came to see that death was the inevitable issue of
+his work, he at once discovered in it a divine necessity; it does not seem
+to have shaken in the least his certainty that he was the Messiah.
+Associated with this conception of his death is the conviction which
+appears in all the later teachings, that in rejecting him his people were
+pronouncing their own doom. Because she would not accept him as her
+deliverer, Jerusalem's "house was left unto her desolate" (Luke xiii. 35).
+His sense of his supreme significance appears most clearly in some of the
+later parables, such as The Marriage of the King's Son (Matt. xxii. 1-14)
+and The Wicked Husbandmen (Matt. xxi. 33-44), which definitely connect the
+condemnation of the chosen people with their rejection of God's Son. Two
+other sayings in the first three gospels express the personal claim of
+Jesus in the most exalted form,--his declaration on the return of the
+seventy: "All things have been delivered unto me of my Father, and no man
+knoweth who the Son is save the Father, and who the Father is save the
+Son, and he to whomsoever the Son willeth to reveal him" (Luke x. 22;
+Matt. xi. 27); and his confession of the limits of his own knowledge: "But
+of that day and hour knoweth no one, not even the angels in heaven,
+neither the Son, but the Father" (Mark xiii. 32). The confession of
+ignorance, by the position given to the Son in the climax which denied
+that any save the Father had a knowledge of the time of the end, is quite
+as extraordinary as the claim to sole qualification to reveal the Father.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s257"><p><span class="versenum">257.</span> The similarity of these last two sayings to the <a class="newpage" name="page253" id="page253" title="253"></a>discourses in the
+fourth gospel has often been remarked; the likeness is particularly close
+between them and the claims of Jesus recorded in the fifth chapter of
+John. It is interesting to note that in the incident which introduces the
+discourse in that chapter Jesus shows that he preferred, after healing the
+man at the pool, to avoid the attention of the multitudes, precisely as in
+Galilee he sought to check too great popular excitement by withdrawing
+from Capernaum after his first ministry there (Mark i. 35-39), and
+enjoining silence on the leper who had been healed by him (Mark ii. 44).
+When, however, he found himself opposed by the criticism of the Pharisees
+he spoke with unhesitating self-assertion and exalted personal claim, even
+as he did in like situations in Galilee. During his earlier ministry in
+Judea he had not shown this reserve. The cleansing of the temple, although
+it was no more than any prophet sure of his divine commission would have
+done, was a bold challenge to the people to consider who he was who
+ventured thus to criticise the priestly administration of God's house. In
+his subsequent dealings with Nicodemus and the Samaritan woman Jesus
+manifested a like readiness to draw attention to himself. From the time of
+the feeding of the multitudes all four of the gospels represent him as
+asserting his claims, with this difference, however, that in John it is
+the rule rather than the exception to find sayings similar to the two in
+which the self-assertion in the other gospels reaches its highest
+expression. Although the method of Jesus varied at different times and in
+different localities, yet it is evident that he stood before the people
+from the first with the consciousness that he had the right to claim
+<a class="newpage" name="page254" id="page254" title="254"></a>their allegiance as no one of the prophets who preceded him would have
+been bold to do.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s258"><p><span class="versenum">258.</span> During the course of his ministry Jesus used of himself, or suffered
+others to use with reference to him, many of the titles by which his
+people were accustomed to refer to the Messiah. Thus he was named "the
+Messiah" (Mark viii. 29; xiv. 61; John iv. 26); "the King of the Jews"
+(Mark xv. 2; John i. 49; xviii. 33, 36, 37); "the Son of David" (Mark x.
+47, 48; Matt. xv. 22; xxi. 9, 15); "the Holy One of God" (John vi. 69;
+compare Mark i. 24); "the Prophet" (John vi. 14; vii. 40). It is evident
+that none of these titles was common; they represent, rather, the bold
+venture of more or less intelligent faith on the part of men who were
+impressed by him. There are two names, however, that are more significant
+of Jesus' thought about himself,--"the Son of God" and "the Son of Man."</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s259"><p><span class="versenum">259.</span> The latter of these titles is unique in the use Jesus made of it.
+Excepting Stephen's speech (Acts vii. 56), it is found in the New
+Testament only in the sayings of Jesus, and its precise significance is
+still a subject of learned debate. The expression is found in the Old
+Testament as a poetical equivalent for Man, usually with emphasis on human
+frailty (Ps. viii. 4; Num. xxiii. 19; Isa. li. 12), though sometimes it
+signifies special dignity (Ps. lxxx. 17). Ezekiel was regularly addressed
+in his visions as Son of Man (Ezek. ii. 1 and often; see also Dan. viii.
+17), probably in contrast with the divine majesty.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s260"><p><span class="versenum">260.</span> In one of Daniel's visions (vii. 1-14) the world-kingdoms which had
+oppressed God's people and were to be destroyed were symbolized by beasts
+<a class="newpage" name="page255" id="page255" title="255"></a>that came up out of the sea,--a winged lion, a bear, a four-headed winged
+leopard, and a terrible ten-horned beast; in contrast with these the
+kingdom of the saints of the Most High was represented by "one like unto a
+son of man," who came with the clouds of heaven (vii. 13, 14). Here the
+language is obviously poetic, and is used to suggest the unapproachable
+superiority of the kingdom of heaven to the kingdoms of the world. The
+expression "one like unto a son of man" is equivalent, therefore, to "one
+resembling mankind." The vision in Daniel had great influence over the
+author of the so-called Similitudes of Enoch (Book of Enoch, chapters
+xxxvii. to lxxi.). He, however, personified the "one like unto a son of
+man," and gave the title "the Son of Man" to the heavenly man who will
+come at the end of all things, seated on God's throne, to judge the world.
+This author used also the titles "the Elect One" and "the Righteous One"
+(or "the Holy One of God"), but "the Son of Man" is the prevalent name for
+the Messiah in these Similitudes.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s261"><p><span class="versenum">261.</span> The facts thus stated do not account for Jesus' use of the
+expression. Many of his sayings undoubtedly suggest a development of the
+Daniel vision resembling that in the Similitudes. This does not prove that
+Jesus or his disciples had read these writings, though it does suggest the
+possibility that they knew them. It is probable, however, that the
+apocalypses gave formulated expression to thoughts that were more widely
+current than those writings ever came to be. The likeness between the
+language of Jesus and that found in the Similitudes may therefore prove no
+more than that the Daniel vision <a class="newpage" name="page256" id="page256" title="256"></a>was more or less commonly interpreted of
+a personal Messiah in Jesus' day.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s262"><p><span class="versenum">262.</span> Much of the use of the title by Jesus, however, is completely foreign
+to the ideas suggested by Enoch and Daniel. Besides apocalyptic sayings
+like those in Enoch (Mark viii. 38 and often), the name occurs in
+predictions of his sufferings and death (Mark viii. 31 and often), and in
+claims to extraordinary if not essentially divine authority (Mark ii. 10,
+28 and parallels); it is also used sometimes simply as an emphatic "I"
+(Matt. xi. 19 and often). Whatever relation Jesus bore to the Enoch
+writings, therefore, the name "the Son of Man" as he used it was his own
+creation.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s263"><p><span class="versenum">263.</span> Students of Aramaic have in recent years asserted that it was not
+customary in the dialect which Jesus spoke to make distinction between
+"the son of man" and "man," since the expression commonly used for "man"
+would be literally translated "son of man." It is asserted, moreover, that
+if our gospels be read substituting "man" for "the Son of Man" wherever it
+appears, it will be found that many supposed Messianic claims become
+general statements of Jesus' conception of the high prerogatives of man,
+while in other places the name stands simply as an emphatic substitute for
+the personal pronoun. Thus, for instance, Jesus is found to assert that
+authority on earth to forgive sins belongs to man (Mark ii. 10), and,
+toward the end of his course, to have taught simply that he himself must
+meet with suffering (Mark viii. 31), and will come on the clouds to judge
+the world (Mark viii. 38). The proportion of cases in which the general
+reference is possible is, <a class="newpage" name="page257" id="page257" title="257"></a>however, very small; and even if the
+equivalence of "man" and "son of man" should be established, most of the
+statements of Jesus in which our gospels use the latter expression exhibit
+a conception of himself which challenges attention, transcending that
+which would be tolerated in any other man. The debate concerning the usage
+in the language spoken by Jesus is not yet closed, however, and Dr. Gustaf
+Dalman (WJ I. 191-197) has recently argued that the equivalence of the two
+expressions holds only in poetic passages, precisely as it does in Hebrew,
+and that our gospels represent correctly a distinction observed by Jesus
+when they report him, for instance, as saying in one sentence, "the
+Sabbath was made for man" (Mark ii. 27), and in the next, "the Son of Man
+is lord even of the Sabbath." The antecedent probability is so great that
+the dialect of Jesus' time would be capable of expressing a distinction
+found in the Hebrew of the Old Testament and in the Syriac of the
+second-century version of the New Testament, that Dalman's opinion carries
+much weight.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s264"><p><span class="versenum">264.</span> Many of those who look for a distinct significance in the title "the
+Son of Man," find in it a claim by Jesus to be the ideal or typical man,
+in whom humanity has found its highest expression. It thus stands sharply
+in contrast with "the Son of God," which is held to express his claim to
+divinity. So understood, the titles represent truth early recognized by
+the church in its thought about its Lord. Yet it must be acknowledged that
+the conception "the ideal man" is too Hellenic to have been at home in the
+thought of those to whom Jesus addressed his teaching. If the phrase
+suggested anything more to his <a class="newpage" name="page258" id="page258" title="258"></a>hearers than the human frailty or the
+human dignity of him who bore it, it probably had a Messianic meaning like
+that found in the Similitudes of Enoch. A hint of this understanding of
+the name appears in the perplexed question reported in John (xii. 34): "We
+have heard out of the law that the Messiah abideth forever; and how sayest
+thou, The Son of Man must be lifted up? who is this Son of Man?" Here the
+difficulty arose because the people identified the Son of Man with the
+Messiah, yet could not conceive how such a Messiah could die. In fact, if
+the conception of the Son of Man which is found in Enoch had obtained any
+general currency among the people, either from that book or independently
+of it, it was so foreign to the earthly condition and manner of life of
+the Galilean prophet, that it would not have occurred to his hearers to
+treat his use of the title as a Messianic claim until after that claim had
+been published in some other and more definite form. Their Son of Man was
+to come with the clouds of heaven, seated on God's throne, to execute
+judgment on all sinners and apostates; the Nazarene fulfilled none of
+these conditions. The name, as used by Jesus, was probably always an
+enigma to the people, at least until he openly declared its Messianic
+significance in his reply to the high-priest's question at his trial (Mark
+xiv. 62), and gave the council the ground it desired for a charge of
+blasphemy against him.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s265"><p><span class="versenum">265.</span> What did this title signify to Jesus? His use of it alone can furnish
+answer, and in this the variety is so great that it causes perplexity.
+"The Son of Man came eating and drinking" is his description of his own
+life in contrast with John the Baptist <a class="newpage" name="page259" id="page259" title="259"></a>(Matt. xi. 18, 19). "The Son of
+Man hath not where to lay his head" was his reply to one over-zealous
+follower (Matt. viii. 20). Unseemly rivalry among his disciples was
+rebuked by the reminder that "even the Son of Man came not to be
+ministered unto but to minister" (Mark x. 42-45). When it became needful
+to prepare the disciples for his approaching death he taught them that
+"the Son of Man must suffer many things ... and be killed, and after three
+days rise again" (Mark viii. 31). On the other hand, the paralytic's cure
+was made to demonstrate that "the Son of Man hath authority upon the earth
+to forgive sins" (Mark ii. 10). Similarly it is the Son of Man who after
+his exaltation shall come "in the glory of his Father with the holy
+angels" (Mark viii. 38). In these typical cases the title expresses Jesus'
+consciousness of heavenly authority as well as self-sacrificing ministry,
+of coming exaltation as well as present lowliness; and the suffering and
+death which were the common lot of other sons of men were appointed for
+this Son of Man by a divine necessity. The name is, therefore, more than a
+substitute for the personal pronoun; it expresses Jesus' consciousness of
+a mission that set him apart from the rest of men.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s266"><p><span class="versenum">266.</span> We do not know how Jesus came to adopt this title. Its association
+with the predictions of his coming glory shows that he knew that in him
+the Daniel vision was to have fulfilment. The predictions of suffering and
+death, however, are completely foreign to that apocalyptic conception,
+being akin rather, as Professor Charles has suggested, to the prophecies
+of the suffering servant in the Book of Isaiah (Book of Enoch, p.
+314-317). Moreover, it may not be fanci<a class="newpage" name="page260" id="page260" title="260"></a>ful to find in his claims to
+heavenly authority a hint of the thought of the eighth Psalm, "Thou madest
+him to have dominion over the works of thy hands; thou hast put all things
+under his feet" (see Dalman WJ I. 218). Although the name expresses a
+consciousness of dignity, vicarious ministry, and authority, similar to
+thoughts found in Daniel, Isaiah, and the Psalms, it was not deduced from
+these scriptures by any synthesis of diverse ideas. It rather indicates
+that Jesus in his own nature realized a synthesis which no amount of study
+of scripture would ever have suggested. He drew his conception of himself
+from his own self-knowledge, not from his Messianic meditations. On his
+lips, then, "the Son of Man" indicates that he knew himself to be the Man
+whom God had chosen to be Lord over all (compare Dalman as above). The
+lowly estate which contradicted the Daniel vision prevented Jesus' hearers
+from recognizing in the title a Messianic claim; for him, however, it was
+the expression of the very heart of his Messianic consciousness.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s267"><p><span class="versenum">267.</span> If Jesus gave expression to his official consciousness when he used
+the name "the Son of Man," the title "the Son of God" may be said to
+express his more personal thought about himself. It is necessary to
+distinguish between the meaning of this title to the contemporaries of
+Jesus and his own conception of it. In the popular thought "the Son of
+God" was the designation of that man whom God would at length raise up and
+crown with dignity and power for the deliverance of his people. This
+meaning followed from the Messianic interpretation of the second Psalm, in
+which the theocratic king is called God's son (Ps. <a class="newpage" name="page261" id="page261" title="261"></a>ii. 7). In another
+psalm, which Jesus himself quotes (John x. 34), magistrates and judges are
+called "sons of the Most High" (lxxxii. 6). Another Old Testament use
+casts light on this,--the designation of Israel as God's son, his
+firstborn (Ex. iv. 22; Hos. i. 10), with which may be compared a
+remarkable expression in the so-called Psalms of Solomon (xviii. 4), "Thy
+chastisement was upon us [that is, Israel] as upon a son, firstborn, only
+begotten." In all these passages that which constitutes a man the son of
+God is God's choice of him for a special work, while Israel collectively
+bears the title to suggest God's fatherly love for the people he had taken
+for his own. The Messianic title, therefore, described not a metaphysical,
+but an official or ethical, relation to God. It is certainly in this sense
+that the high-priest asked Jesus "Art thou the Messiah the son of the
+Blessed?" (Mark xiv. 61), and that the crowd about the cross flung their
+taunts at him (Matt, xxvii. 43), and the demoniacs proclaimed their
+knowledge of him (Mark iii. 11; v. 7). The name must be interpreted in
+this sense also in the confession of Nathanael (John i. 49); moreover, it
+was not the coupling of the names "Messiah" and "son of the living God" in
+Peter's confession that gave it its great significance for Jesus. In all
+of these cases there is no evidence that there has been any advance over
+the theocratic significance which made the title "the Son of God" fitting
+for the man chosen by God for the fulfilment of his promises.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s268"><p><span class="versenum">268.</span> The case is different with the name by which Jesus was called at his
+baptism (Mark i. 11). The difference here, however, arises not from
+anything in the name as used on this occasion, but from that in <a class="newpage" name="page262" id="page262" title="262"></a>Jesus
+which acknowledged and accepted the title. With Jesus the consciousness
+that God was his Father preceded the knowledge that as "his Son" he was to
+undertake the work of the Messiah. The force of the call at the baptism is
+found in the response which his own soul gave to the word "Thou art my
+Son." The nature of that response is seen in his habitual reference to God
+as in a peculiar sense <i>his</i> Father. The name "Father" for God was used by
+him in all his teaching, and there is no evidence that he or any of his
+hearers regarded it as a novelty. Psalm ciii. 13 and Isaiah lxiii. 16
+indicate that the conception was natural to Jewish thinking. The unique
+feature in Jesus' usage is his careful distinction between the general
+references to "your Father" and his constant personal allusions to "my
+Father." Witness the reply to his mother in the temple (Luke ii. 49); his
+word to Peter, "Flesh and blood hath not revealed it unto thee, but my
+Father which is in heaven" (Matt. xvi. 17), his solemn warning, "Not every
+one that saith unto me Lord, Lord, shall enter into the kingdom of heaven,
+but he that doeth the will of my Father which is in heaven" (Matt. vii.
+21), and the promise, "Every one who shall confess me before men ... him
+will I also confess before my Father" (Matt. x. 32). In the fourth gospel
+the same intimate reference is common: so, for example, the temple is "my
+Father's house" (ii. 16), the Sabbath cure is defended because "my Father
+worketh even until now" (v. 17), the cures are done "in My Father's name"
+(x. 25), "I am the vine, and my Father is the husbandman" (xv. 1). This
+mode of expression discloses a consciousness of unique filial relation to
+God which is independent of, even as <a class="newpage" name="page263" id="page263" title="263"></a>it was antecedent to, the
+consciousness of official relation.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s269"><p><span class="versenum">269.</span> The full name "the Son of God" was seldom applied by Jesus to
+himself, the only recorded instances being found in the fourth gospel (v.
+25; ix. 35?; x. 36; xi. 4). He frequently acquiesced in the use of the
+title by others in addressing him (for example, John i. 49; Matt. xvi. 16;
+xxvi. 63f.; Mark xiv. 61f.; Luke xxii. 70); but for himself he preferred
+the simpler phrase "the Son." This mode of expression occurs often in
+John, and is found also in the two passages, already noticed, in which the
+other gospels give clearest expression to the extraordinary self-assertion
+of Jesus (Matt. xi. 27; Luke x. 22; and Mark xiii. 32). In the first of
+them his claim to be the only one who can adequately reveal God is founded
+on the consciousness that the relation between himself and God is so
+intimate that God alone adequately knows him, whom men were so ready to
+set at nought, and he alone knows God. This relation, in which he and God
+stand together in contrast with all other men, is expressed by the
+unqualified names, "the Father" and "the Son." In the second passage Jesus
+confessed the limitation of his knowledge, but again in such a way as to
+set himself and God in contrast not only with men, but also with "the
+angels in heaven." Such assertions as these indicate that he who, knowing
+his full humanity, chose the title "the Son of Man" to express his
+consciousness that he had been appointed by God to be the Messiah, was yet
+aware in his inner heart that his relation to God was even closer than
+that in which he stood to men.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s270"><p><span class="versenum">270.</span> There is no word in John which goes beyond <a class="newpage" name="page264" id="page264" title="264"></a>the two self-declarations
+of Jesus which crown the record of the other evangelists, yet in the
+fourth gospel the same claim to unique relation to God is more frequently
+and frankly avowed. The most unqualified assertion of intimacy--"I and the
+Father are one" (x. 30)--states what is clearly implied throughout the
+gospel (so xiv. 6-11; xvi. 25; and particularly xvii. 21, "that they may
+be one, even as we are one"). It has often been said, and truly, that this
+claim to unity with the Father, taken by itself, signifies no more than
+perfect spiritual and ethical harmony with God. Yet when the words are
+considered in their connection, and more particularly when the two supreme
+self-declarations in the synoptic gospels are associated with them, they
+express a sense of relation to God so utterly unique, so strongly
+contrasting the Father and the Son with all others, that we cannot
+conceive of any other man, even the saintliest, taking like words upon his
+lips.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s271"><p><span class="versenum">271.</span> These titles in which Jesus gave expression to his official and his
+personal consciousness present clearly the problem which he offers to
+human thought. Jesus stands before us in the gospels as a man aware of
+completest kinship with his brethren, yet conscious at the same time of
+standing nearer to God than he does to men.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s272"><p><span class="versenum">272.</span> It is highly significant that the gospel which records most fully the
+claim of Jesus to be more closely related to God than he was to men, most
+fully records also his definite acknowledgment of dependence on his
+Father, and of that Father's supremacy over him and all others. "The Son
+can do nothing of himself" (John v. 19), "I speak not from myself" <a class="newpage" name="page265" id="page265" title="265"></a>(xiv.
+10), "my Father is greater than all" (x. 29), "the Father is greater than
+I" (xiv. 28),--these confessions join with the common reference to God as
+"him that sent me" (v. 30 and often) in giving voice to his own spirit of
+reverence. It appears as clearly in his habitual submission to his
+Father's will,--"My meat is to do the will of him that sent me, and to
+accomplish his work" (John iv. 34); "I am come down from heaven, not to do
+mine own will, but the will of him that sent me" (John vi. 38). This
+submission reached its fulness in the prayer of Gethsemane, recorded in
+the earlier gospels,--"Father, all things are possible unto thee; remove
+this cup from me: howbeit not what I will, but what thou wilt" (Mark xiv.
+36). Jesus was a man of prayer; not only in Gethsemane, but also
+throughout his ministry he habitually sought his Father in that communion
+in which the soul of man finds its light and strength for life's duty.
+When he was baptized (Luke iii. 21), after the first flush of success in
+Capernaum (Mark i. 35), before choosing the twelve (Luke vi. 12), before
+the question at C&aelig;sarea Philippi (Luke ix. 18), at the transfiguration
+(Luke ix. 29), on the cross (Luke xxiii. 46),--at all the crises of his
+life he turned to God in prayer. Moreover, prayer was his habit, for it
+was after a night of prayer which has no connection with any crisis
+reported for us (Luke xi. 1), that he taught his disciples the Lord's
+prayer in response to their requests. The prayer beside the grave of
+Lazarus (John xi. 41, 42) suggests that his miracles were often, if not
+always (compare Mark ix. 29), preceded by definite prayer to God. His
+habit of prayer was the natural expression of his trust in God. From the
+<a class="newpage" name="page266" id="page266" title="266"></a>resistance to the temptations in the wilderness to the last cry, "Father,
+into thy hands I commend my spirit," his life is an example of childlike
+faith in God.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s273"><p><span class="versenum">273.</span> Yet throughout his life of obedience and trust Jesus never gave one
+indication that he felt the need of penitence when he came before God. He
+perceived as no one else has ever done the searching inwardness of God's
+law, and demanded of men that they tolerate no lower ambition than to be
+like God, yet he never breathed a sigh of conscious failure, or gave sign
+that he blushed when the eternal light shone into his own soul. He was
+baptized, but without confession of sin. He challenged his enemies to
+convict him of sin (John viii. 46). Such a challenge might have rested on
+a man's certainty that his critics did not know his inner life; but
+hypocrisy has no place in the character of Jesus. The reply to the rich
+young ruler, "Why callest thou me good?" (Mark x. 18), even if it was a
+confession that freedom from past sin was still far less than that
+absolute goodness that God alone possesses, simply sets in stronger light
+his silence concerning personal failure, and his omission in all his
+praying to seek forgiveness. It is probable, however, that that reply
+deals not with the "good" as the "ethically perfect," but as the
+"supremely beneficent," so that Jesus simply reminded the seeker after
+life that God alone is the one to be approached as the Gracious and
+Merciful One by sinful men (see Dalman WJ I. 277). Thus the reply becomes
+a fresh expression of the reverence of Jesus, and still further emphasizes
+his failure to confess his sinfulness.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s274"><p><span class="versenum">274.</span> In all this thought about himself Jesus stands <a class="newpage" name="page267" id="page267" title="267"></a>before us as a man,
+conscious of his close kinship with his fellows. Like them he hungered and
+thirsted and grew weary, like them he longed for friendship and for
+sympathy, like them he trusted God and prayed to God and learned still to
+trust when his request was denied. He stands before us also as a man
+conscious of being anointed by God for the great work which all the
+prophets had foretold, and of being fully equipped with authority and
+power and the promise of unapproachable dignity. Of deep religious spirit
+and great reverence for the scriptures of his people, he yet used these
+scriptures as a master does his tools, to serve his work rather than to
+instruct him in it. He drew his knowledge from within and from above, and
+proclaimed his own fulfilment of the scriptures when he filled them with
+new meaning. A man always devout, always at prayer, he is never seen, like
+Isaiah, prostrate before the Most High, crying, "I am undone" (Isa. vi.
+5). In his moments of greatest seriousness and most manifest communion
+with heaven he looked to God as his nearest of kin, and felt himself a
+stranger on the earth fulfilling his Father's will. He felt heaven to be
+his home not simply by God's gracious promise, but by the right of
+previous possession. His kinship with men was a condescension, his natural
+fellowship was with God.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s275"><p><span class="versenum">275.</span> The miracles with which the gospels have filled the record of Jesus'
+life have caused perplexity to many, and they belong with other mysterious
+things recorded for us in the story of the past or occurring under the
+incredulous observation of our scientific generation. They all pale,
+however, before the unaccountable exception presented to universal human
+<a class="newpage" name="page268" id="page268" title="268"></a>experience by this Man of Nazareth. It confronts us when we think of the
+unschooled Jew who, in his thought of God, rose not only above all of his
+generation, but higher than all who had gone before him, or have come
+after, one who built on the foundation of the past a superstructure of
+religion new, and simple, and clearly heavenly. It confronts us when we
+think of this Man who believed that it was given to him to establish the
+kingdom that should fill the whole earth, and who had the boldness and the
+faith to ignore the opposition of all the world's wisdom and of all its
+enthroned power, and to fulfil his task as the woman does who hides her
+leaven in the meal, content to wait for years, or millenniums, until his
+truth shall conquer in the realization of God's will on earth even as it
+is done in heaven. It confronts us when we consider that the Man who has
+shown his brethren what obedience means, who has taught them to pray, who
+has been for all these centuries the Way, the Truth, the Life, by whom
+they come to God, habitually claimed without shadow of abashment or
+slightest hint of conscious presumption, a nature, a relation to God, a
+freedom from sin, that other men according to the measure of their
+godliness would shun as blasphemy. If the personal claim was true, and not
+the blind pretence of vanity, the Jesus of the gospels is the exception to
+the uniform fact of human nature, but he is no longer unaccountable; and
+if his claim was true, his knowledge of the absolute religion, and his
+choice of the irresistible propaganda, are no less extraordinary, but they
+are not unaccountable. Paul, whose life was transformed and his thinking
+revolutionized by his meeting with the risen Jesus, thought on these
+things <a class="newpage" name="page269" id="page269" title="269"></a>and believed that "the name which, is above every name" was his by
+right of nature as well as by the reward of obedience (Phil. ii. 5-11).
+John, who leaned on Jesus' breast during his earthly life, and who
+meditated on the meaning of that life through a ministry of many decades,
+came to believe that he whom he had seen with his eyes, heard with his
+ears, handled with his hands, was, indeed, "the Word made flesh" (John i.
+14), through whom the very God revealed his love to men. Through all the
+perplexities of doubt, amidst all the obscurings of irrelevant
+speculations, the hearts of men to-day turn to this Jesus of Nazareth as
+their supreme revelation of God, and find in him "the Master of their
+thinking and the Lord of their lives."</p>
+
+<p>"Lord, to whom shall we go? Thou hast the words of eternal life. And we
+have believed and know that thou art the Holy One of God."</p></div>
+<p><a class="newpage" name="page270" id="page270" title="270"></a></p>
+</div></div>
+
+
+<div id="appendix">
+<h2><a class="newpage" name="page271" id="page271" title="271"></a><a class="newpage" name="page272" id="page272" title="272"></a><a class="newpage" name="page273" id="page273" title="273"></a>Appendix</h2>
+
+<h3>Books of Reference on the Life of Jesus</h3>
+
+
+
+<div class="section" id="a001"><p><span class="versenum">1.</span> A concise account of the voluminous literature on this subject maybe
+found at the close of the article JESUS CHRIST by Zockler in
+<i>Schaff-Herzog, Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge</i>. Of the earlier of
+the modern works it is well to mention David Friedrich Strauss, <i>Das Leben
+Jesu</i> (2 vols. 1835), in which he sought to reduce all the gospel miracles
+to myths. August Neander, <i>Das Leben Jesu Christi</i>, 1837, wrote in
+opposition to the attitude taken by Strauss. Both of these works have been
+translated into English. Ernst Renan, <i>Vie de J&eacute;sus</i> (1863, 16th ed.
+1879), translated, <i>The Life of Jesus</i> (1863), is a charming, though often
+superficial and patronizing, presentation of the subject. For vivid word
+pictures of scenes in the life of Jesus his book is unsurpassed. Renan's
+inability to appreciate the more serious aspects of the work of Christ
+appears constantly, while his effort to discover romance in the life of
+Jesus is offensive. More important than any of these is Theodor Keim,
+<i>Geschichte Jesu von Nazara</i> (1867-72, 3 vols.), translated, <i>The History
+of Jesus of Nazara</i> (1876-81, 6 vols.). The author rejects the fourth
+gospel and holds that Matthew is the most primitive of the synoptic
+gospels; he does not reject the supernatural as such, but reduces it as
+much as possible by recognizing a legendary element in the gospels. When
+the work is read with these peculiarities in mind, it is one of the most
+stimulating and spiritually illuminating treatments of the subject.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a002"><p><span class="versenum">2.</span> Critically more trustworthy, and exegetically very valuable, is
+Bernhard Weiss, <i>Das Leben Jesu</i> (3d ed. 1889, 2 vols.), translated from
+the first ed., <i>The Life of Christ</i> (1883, 3 vols.). It is more helpful
+for correct understanding of details than for a complete view of the Life
+of Jesus. Rivalling Weiss in many ways, yet neither so exact nor so
+trustworthy, though more interesting, is Willibald Beyschlag, <i>Das Leben
+Jesu</i> (3d ed. 1893, 2 vols.). The most important discussion in English is
+Alfred Edersheim, <i>The Life and Times of Jesus the Messiah</i> (1883 and
+later editions, 2 vols.). This is valuable for its illustration of
+conditions in Palestine in the time of Jesus by quotations from the
+rabbinic literature. The material used is enormous, but is not always
+treated with due criticism, and the book should be read with the fact in
+mind that most of the rabbinic writings date from several centuries after
+Christ. Sch&uuml;rer (see below) should be used wherever possible as a
+counter-balance. Dr. Edersheim follows the gospel story in detail; his
+book is, therefore, a commentary as well as a biography.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a003"><p><span class="versenum">3.</span> Albert R&eacute;ville, <i>Jesus de Nazareth</i> (1897, 2 vols.), aims to bring the
+work of Renan up to date, and to supply some of the lacks which are felt
+in the earlier treatise. The book is pretentious and learned. In some
+parts, as in the treatment of the youth of Jesus, and of the sermon on the
+mount, it is helpfully suggestive. The Jesus whom the author admires,
+however, is the Jesus of Galilee. The journey to Jerusalem was a sad
+mistake, and the assumption of the Messianic r&ocirc;le a fall from the high
+ideal maintained in the teaching in Galilee. In criticism M. R&eacute;ville
+accepts the two document synoptic theory, and assigns the fourth gospel to
+about 140 A.D. He rejects the supernatural, explaining many of the
+miracles as legendary embellishments of actual events.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a004"><p><span class="versenum">4.</span> The most important treatment of the subject is the article JESUS CHRIST
+by William Sanday in the <i>Hastings Bible Dictionary</i> (1899). It is of the
+highest value, discussing the subject topically with great clearness and
+with <a class="newpage" name="page275" id="page275" title="275"></a>a rare combination of learning and common sense. S. T. Andrews, <i>The
+Life of Our Lord</i> (2d ed. 1892), is a thorough and very useful study of
+the gospels, considering minutely all questions of chronology, harmony,
+and geography. It presents the different views with fairness, and offers
+conservative conclusions. G. H. Gilbert, <i>The Student's Life of Jesus</i>
+(1896), is complete in plan and careful in treatment, while being very
+concise. Dr. Gilbert faces the problems of the subject frankly, and his
+treatment is scholarly and reverent. James Stalker, <i>The Life of Jesus
+Christ</i> (1880), is a short work whose value lies in the good conception
+which it gives of the ministry of Jesus viewed as a whole. In simplicity,
+insight, and clearness the book is a classic, though now somewhat out of
+date. <i>Studies in the Life of Christ</i>, by A.M. Fairbairn (1882), is of
+great value for the topics considered. The title indicates that the
+treatment is fragmentary. The long treatises of Farrar (1875, 2 vols.) and
+Geikie (1877, 2 vols.) are useful as commentaries on the words and works
+of Jesus. Farrar often interprets most helpfully the essence of an
+incident, and Geikie furnishes a mass of illustrative material from
+rabbinic sources, though with less criticism than even Edersheim has used.
+Neither of these works, however, deals with the fundamental problems of
+the composition of the gospels, nor are they satisfactory on other
+perplexing questions, for example, the miraculous birth.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a005"><p><span class="versenum">5.</span> The most important accessory for the study of the life of Jesus is Emil
+Sch&uuml;rer, <i>Geschichte des J&uuml;dischen Volkes im Zeitalter Jesu Christi</i> (2d
+ed. 1886, 1890, 2 vols. A 3d ed. of 2d part in 2 vols., 1898), translated,
+<i>A History of the Jewish People in the Time of Jesus Christ</i> (1885-6, 5
+vols.). The political history of the Jews from 175 B.C. to 135 A.D., and
+the intellectual and religious life of the times in which Jesus lived,
+with the Jewish literature of Palestine and the dispersion, are all
+treated with thoroughness and masterful learning. W. Baldensperger, <i>Das
+Selbstbewusstsein Jesu im Lichte der messianischen <a class="newpage" name="page276" id="page276" title="276"></a>Hoffnungen seiner
+Zeit</i> (2d ed. 1892), furnishes in the first part a survey of the Messianic
+hopes of the Jews which is in many respects the most satisfactory account
+that is accessible. The second part discusses the problem of Jesus'
+conception of himself in a reverent and learned way. George Adam Smith,
+<i>The Historical Geography of the Holy Land</i> (1894), is indispensable for
+the study of the physical features of the land as they bear on its
+history, and on the work of Jesus. The maps are the best that have yet
+appeared.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a006"><p><span class="versenum">6.</span> Discussions of the Teaching of Jesus in works on Biblical Theology have
+much that is important for the study of Jesus' life. The most significant
+is H. H. Wendt, <i>Die Lehre Jesu</i> (1886, 2 vols.). The second volume has
+been translated <i>The Teaching of Jesus</i> (1892, 2 vols.); the first volume
+of the original work is an elaborate discussion of the sources, and has
+not been done into English. Reference may be made especially to H. J.
+Holtzmann, <i>Lehrbuch der Neutestamentlichen Theologie</i> (1897, 2 vols.),
+and also to G. H. Gilbert, <i>The Revelation of Jesus</i> (1899). Gustaf
+Dalman, <i>Die Worte Jesu</i> (1898), of which the first volume only has
+appeared, is a study of the meaning of the most significant expressions
+used in the gospel records of the teaching of Jesus, made with the aid of
+thorough knowledge of Aramaic usage and of the language of post-canonical
+Jewish literature.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a007"><p><span class="versenum">7.</span> A good synopsis or Harmony of the gospels is most useful. The best
+<i>Harmony is</i> that of Stevens and Burton (1894), which exhibits the
+divergencies of the parallel accounts in the gospels as faithfully as the
+agreements. A good synopsis of the Greek text of the first three gospels
+is Huck, <i>Synapse</i> (1892). Robinson's <i>Greek Harmony of the Gospels</i>,
+edited by M. B. Biddle, using Tischendorf's text, has also valuable notes
+discussing questions of harmony.</p></div>
+
+
+
+<div class="section" id="abbreviations">
+<h4><a class="newpage" name="page277" id="page277" title="277"></a>Abbreviations</h4>
+
+
+
+<table summary="Abbreviations">
+<tr><td>AndLOL</td><td>        Andrews, The Life of Our Lord, 2d ed., 1892.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>BaldSJ</td><td>        Baldensperger, Das Selbstbewusstsein Jesu, 2d ed., 1892.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>BeysLJ</td><td>        Beyschlag, Das Leben Jesu, 3d ed., 2 vols., 1893.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>BovonNTTh</td><td>     Bovon, Th&eacute;ologie du Nouveau Testament, 1892.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>DalmanWJ</td><td>      Dalman, Die Worte Jesu, I., 1898.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>EdersLJM</td><td>      Edersheim, The Life and Times of Jesus the Messiah, 2 vols.,
+              1883.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>FairbSLX</td><td>      Fairbairn, Studies in the Life of Christ, 1882.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>GilbertLJ</td><td>     Gilbert, The Student's Life of Jesus, 1896.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>GilbertRJ</td><td>     Gilbert, The Revelation of Jesus, 1899.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>HoltzNtTh</td><td>     Holtzmann, Neutestamentliche Theologie, 2 vols., 1897.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>KeimJN</td><td>        Keim, The History of Jesus of Nazara, 6 vols., 1876-81.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>R&eacute;villeJN</td><td>     R&eacute;ville, J&eacute;sus de Nazareth, 2 vols., 1897.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>SandayHastBD</td><td>  Sanday, the article JESUS CHRIST in the Hastings Bible
+              Dictionary, 1899.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Sch&uuml;rerJPTX</td><td>   Sch&uuml;rer, The History of the Jewish People in the Time of
+              Jesus Christ, 1885-86. Division I. vols. i. and ii.; Division
+              II. vols. i., ii., and iii.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>SmithHGHL</td><td>     Smith, Historical Geography of the Holy Land, 1894.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>SB</td><td>            Stevens and Burton, Harmony of the Gospels, 1894.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>WeissLX</td><td>       Weiss, The Life of Christ, 3 vols., 1883.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>WendtLJ</td><td>       Wendt, Die Lehre Jesu, 2 vols., 1886.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>WendtTJ</td><td>       Wendt, The Teaching of Jesus, 2 vols., 1892.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>EnBib</td><td>         Encyclopedia Biblica, 1899.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>HastBD</td><td>        Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible, 1898.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>SBD<sup>2</sup></td><td>         Smith's Dictionary of the Bible, revision of the first volume
+              of the original English edition, 1893.</td></tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<h2><a class="newpage" name="page278" id="page278" title="278"></a>References</h2>
+
+
+
+<h3>Part I.--Preparatory</h3>
+
+
+<h4>I</h4>
+
+<h5>The Historical Situation</h5>
+
+<div class="section" id="a008"><p><span class="versenum">8.</span> Read SandayHastBD II. 604-609. On the Land, its physical
+characteristics, its political divisions, its climate, its roads, and its
+varying civilization, SmithHGHL is unsurpassed. Its identifications of
+disputed localities are cautions. Robinson, <i>Biblical Researches in
+Palestine</i>, and Thomson, <i>The Land and the Book</i>, give fuller detail
+concerning particular localities, but no such general view as Smith.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a009"><p><span class="versenum">9.</span> On Political conditions, Sch&uuml;rerJPTX I. i. and ii. is the fullest and
+most trustworthy treatise. More concise essays are Oscar Holtzmann, <i>Nt.
+Zeitgeschichte</i> (1895), 57-118; S. Mathews, <i>History of NT Times in
+Palestine</i> (1899), 1-158; Riggs, <i>Maccabean and Roman Periods of Jewish
+History</i> (1900), especially &sect;&sect; 206-234, 257-267, 276-282. On the Religious
+Life and Parties in Palestine, Sch&uuml;rerJPTX II. i. and ii.; O. Holtzmann,
+<i>NtZeitg</i>, 136-177; Mathews, <i>NT Times</i>, see index; Riggs, <i>Mac. and Rom.
+Periods</i>, &sect;&sect; 235-256; Muirhead, <i>The Times of Christ</i> (1898), 69-150. In
+addition Wellhausen, <i>Die Pharisd&auml;er und die Sadduc&auml;er</i> (1874); on the
+<i>Essenes</i>, Conybeare in HastBD I. 767-772, also Lightfoot, <i>Colossians</i>,
+80-98, 347-419; Wellhausen, <i>Isr. u. j&uuml;d. Geschichte</i><sup>3</sup> (1897), 258-262;
+on the Samaritans, A. Cowley, in <i>Expos</i>. V. i. 161-174; Jew. Quar. Rev.
+VIII. (1896) 562-575.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a010"><p><a class="newpage" name="page279" id="page279" title="279"></a><span class="versenum">10.</span> On the Messianic hope, Sch&uuml;rerJPTX II. ii. 126-187; BaldSJ 3-122;
+Muirhead, <i>Times of Xt.</i>, 112-150; Briggs, <i>Messiah of the Gospels</i>
+(1894), 1-40; WendtTJ I. 33-84; Mathews, <i>NT Times</i>, 159-169; Riggs, <i>Mac.
+and Rom. Periods</i>, &sect;&sect; 251-256.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a011"><p><span class="versenum">11.</span> On the language of Palestine see Arnold Meyer, <i>Jesu Muttersprache</i>
+(1896); DalmanWJ I. 1-57; Sch&uuml;rerJPTX II. i. 8-10, 47-51; Neubauer,
+<i>Studia Biblica</i>, I. 39-74.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a012"><p><span class="versenum">12.</span> On Jewish literature dating near the times of Jesus see Sch&uuml;rerJPTX
+II. iii.; BaldSJ. 3-122; EdersLJM I. 31-39; Deane, <i>Pseudepigrapha</i>
+(1891); Thomson, <i>Books which influenced our Lord</i>, etc. (1891); and
+special editions, such as Alexandre, <i>Sibylline Oracles</i> (1869); Deane,
+<i>The Wisdom of Solomon</i> (1881); Charles, <i>The Book of Enoch</i> (1893), <i>The
+Apocalypse of Baruch</i> (1896), <i>The Assumption of Moses</i> (1897), and <i>The
+Book of Jubilees</i> (1895); Charles and Morfill, <i>The Secrets of Enoch</i>
+(1896); Ryle and James, <i>The Psalms of the Pharisees</i> [Psalms of Solomon]
+(1891); Bensly and James, <i>Fourth Esdras</i> (1895); Charles, EnBib I.
+213-250; HastBD I. 109f.; Porter, HastBD I. 110-123; James, EnBib I.
+249-261.</p></div>
+
+
+<h4>II</h4>
+
+<h5>The Sources</h5>
+
+<div class="section" id="a013"><p><span class="versenum">13.</span> On the sources outside the gospels see Anthony, <i>Introduction to the
+Life of Jesus</i>, 19-108; KeimJN I. 12-59; BeysLJ I. 59-72; GilbertLJ 74-78;
+Knowling, <i>Witness of the Epistles</i>; Stevens, <i>Pauline Theol</i>. 204-208;
+Sabatier, <i>Apostle Paul</i>, 76-85. On Josephus as a source see also
+Sch&uuml;rerJPTX I. ii. 143-149; R&eacute;villeJN I. 272-280. On the individual
+gospels see Burton, <i>The Purpose and Plan of the Four Gospels</i> (Univ.
+Chic. Press, 1900); Bruce, <i>With Open Face</i>, 1-61; Weiss, <i>Introduction to
+N.T.</i>, II. 239-386; J&uuml;licher, <i>Einleitung i. d. NT</i>, 189-207. On Matthew,
+<a class="newpage" name="page280" id="page280" title="280"></a>Burton Bib. Wld. I. 1898, 37-44, 91-101; on Mark, Swete, <i>Comm. on Mark</i>,
+ix-lxxxix; on Luke, Plummer, <i>Comm. on Luke</i>, xi-lxx; Mathews, Bib. Wld.
+1895, I. 336-342, 448-455; on John, Burton, Bib. Wld. 1899, I. 16-41,
+102-105; Westcott, <i>Comm. on John</i>, v-lxxvii; Rhees in Abbott's <i>The Bible
+as Literature</i>, 281-297. On the synoptic question see Sanday SBD<sup>2</sup>,
+1217-1243, and Expositor, Feb.-June, 1891; Woods, <i>Studia Biblica</i>, II.
+59-104; Salmon, <i>Introduction</i><sup>7</sup>, 99-151, 570-581; Stanton in HastBD II.
+234-243; J&uuml;licher, <i>Einl.</i> 207-227. A. Wright, <i>Composition of the Four
+Gospels</i> (1890) and <i>Some NT Problems</i> (1898), defends the oral tradition
+theory in a modified form. On possible dislocations in John see Spitta,
+<i>Urchristentum</i>, I. 157-204; Bacon, Jour. Bib. Lit. 1894, 64-76; Burton,
+Bib. Wld. 1899, I. 27-35. For the history of opinion see specially H. J.
+Holtzmann, <i>Einl.</i><sup>3</sup> 340-375. On the Johannine question see Sanday,
+Expositor, Nov. 1891-May 1892; Sch&uuml;rer, Cont. Rev. Sept. 1891; Watkins
+SBD<sup>2</sup> 1739-1764; Burton, Bib. Wld. 1899, I. 16-41; Reynolds in HastBD II.
+694-722; Zahn, <i>Einl.</i> II. 445-564 (defends Johannine authorship);
+J&uuml;licher, <i>Einl.</i> 238-250 (rejects Johannine authorship). For the history
+of opinion see Watkins, <i>Bampton Lecture</i> for 1890; Holtzmann, <i>Einl.</i><sup>3</sup>
+433-438. P. Ewald, <i>Hauptproblem der evang. Frage</i>, argues the
+authenticity of the fourth gospel from the one-sidedness of the synoptic
+story. See also Jour. Bib. Lit. 1898, I. 87-102.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a014"><p><span class="versenum">14.</span> R&eacute;ville proposes to reconstruct Jos. Ant. xviii. 3. 3 thus: "'At that
+time appeared Jesus, a wise man, who did astonishing things. That is why a
+good number of Jews and also of Greeks attached themselves to him.' Then
+follows some phrase probably signifying that these adherents had committed
+the error of proclaiming him Christ, and then 'denounced by the leading
+men of the nation, this Jesus was condemned by Pilate to die on the cross.
+But those who had loved him before persevered in their sentiment, and
+still to-day there exists a class of people who take from him their name
+Christians.'"</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a015"><p><a class="newpage" name="page281" id="page281" title="281"></a><span class="versenum">15.</span> On the testimony of Papias (Euseb. <i>Ch. Hist</i>. iii. 39. 4) see
+Lightfoot, Cont. Rev. 1875, II. 379 ff., and McGiffert's notes in his
+<i>Eusebius</i>, 170 ff.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a016"><p><span class="versenum">16.</span> For a collection of probably genuine Agrapha see Ropes, <i>Die Spruche
+Jesu</i>, 154-161, and Amer. Jour. Theol. 1897, 758-776; Resch, <i>Agrapha</i>,
+gives a much longer list. He is criticised by Ropes. On lost and
+uncanonical gospels see Salmon, <i>Intr.</i><sup>7</sup> 173-190, 580-591; Kruger, <i>Early
+Christian Literature</i>, 50-57. For the recently discovered Gospel of Peter
+see Swete, <i>The Gospel of Peter</i>; and on the so-called <i>Sayings of Jesus</i>
+found in Egypt in 1896 see Harnack, <i>Expositor</i>, V. vi. 321-340, 401-416,
+and essay by Sanday and Lock. <i>Apocryphal Gospels</i> are most conveniently
+found in <i>Ante-nicene Fathers</i>, VIII. 361-476.</p></div>
+
+
+<h4>III</h4>
+
+<h5>The Harmony of the Gospels</h5>
+
+<div class="section" id="a017"><p><span class="versenum">17.</span> The Diatessaron of Tatian is translated with notes by Hill, <i>The
+Earliest Life of Christ</i>. See also <i>Ante-nic. Fathers</i>, IX. 35-138.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a018"><p><span class="versenum">18.</span> For the extreme position concerning Doublets see Holtzmann,
+<i>Hand-commentar zum NT</i> I. passim. E. Haupt, Studien u. Kritiken, 1884,
+25, remarks that Jesus must often have repeated his teaching in
+essentially the same form.</p></div>
+
+
+<h4>IV</h4>
+
+<h5>Chronology</h5>
+
+<div class="section" id="a019"><p><span class="versenum">19.</span> For data and discussion of the various problems see Wieseler,
+<i>Chronological Synopsis</i>; Lewin, <i>Fasti Sacra; </i> KeimJN II. 379-402;
+AndLOL 1-52; Sch&uuml;rerJPTX I. ii. 30-32, 105-143; O. Holtzmann, <i>NtZeitg</i>,
+118-124, 125-127, 131-132; Turner HastBD I. 403-415; <a class="newpage" name="page282" id="page282" title="282"></a>Ramsay, <i>Was Christ
+born at Bethlehem</i>; and von Soden in EnBib. I. 799-812. For patristic
+opinion concerning the length of Jesus' ministry, see HastBD I. 410. For
+the argument for a one-year ministry, see KeimJN II. 398; O. Holtzmann,
+<i>NtZeitg</i>, 131f. For two years, see Wieseler, <i>Chron. Synop</i>. 204-220;
+WeissLX I. 389-392; Turner, in HastBD. For three years, see AndLOL
+189-198; note by Robertson in Broadus, <i>Harmony of the Gospels</i>, 241-244.
+Compare R&eacute;villeJN II. 227-231; Zahn, <i>Einl.</i> II. 516f.</p></div>
+
+
+<h4>V</h4>
+
+<h5>The Early Years</h5>
+
+<div class="section" id="a020"><p><span class="versenum">20.</span> On the problem of the Virgin birth see GilbertLJ 79-89; WeissLX I.
+211-233; Swete, <i>Apos. Creed</i>, 42-55; Bruce, <i>Apologetics</i>, 407-413;
+Ropes, Andover Rev. 1893, 695-712; FairbSLX 30-45; Godet, <i>Comm. on Luke</i>,
+Rem. on chaps. I. and II.; BovonNTTh I. 198-217. These maintain
+historicity. The other side: BeysLJ I. 148-174; Meyer, <i>Comm. on Matt</i>.,
+Rem. on 1.18; Keim JN II. 38-101; R&eacute;ville, New World, 1892, 695-723, and
+JN I. 361-408; Holtz<del>mann</del>NtTh I. 409-415. On the early years of
+Jesus see EdersLJM I. 217-254; WeissLX I. 275-293; Hughes, <i>Manliness of
+Xt</i>, 35-60; WendtTJ I. 90-96; Stapfer, <i>Jesus Christ before his Ministry;
+</i> FairbSLX 46-63; BeysLJ II. 44-65; R&eacute;villeJN I. 409-438.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a021"><p><span class="versenum">21.</span> For some of the early legends concerning the birth and childhood of
+Jesus, see the so-called <i>Protevangelium of James</i>, the <i>Gospel of
+Pseudo-Matthew</i>, and the <i>Gospel of Thomas</i>, Ante-nic. Fathers, VIII.
+361-383, 395-398. For Jewish calumnies see Laible, <i>J. X. im Thalmud</i>,
+9-39.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a022"><p><span class="versenum">22.</span> On the two genealogies see AndLOL 62-68; WeissLX I. 211-221; Godet on
+Luke, iii. 23-38. These refer Luke's genealogy to Marv. Hervey SBD<sup>2</sup>
+1145-1148, Plummer on Luke, iii. 23, EdersLJM I. 149, Gil<a class="newpage" name="page283" id="page283" title="283"></a>bertLJ 81f.,
+with the early fathers (see Plummer), refer both to Joseph. For the view
+that they are unauthentic see Holtzmann, <i>Hand-comm.</i> I. 39-41; Bacon in
+HastBD II. 137-141.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a023"><p><span class="versenum">23.</span> On the "brethren" of Jesus see Mayor, HastBD I. 320-326;
+And<del>rews</del>LOL 111-123. These make the brethren sons of Joseph and
+Mary. Lightfoot, <i>Galatians</i><sup>10</sup>, 252-291, regards them as sons of Joseph
+by a former marriage.</p></div>
+
+
+<h4>VI</h4>
+
+<h5>John the Baptist</h5>
+
+<div class="section" id="a024"><p><span class="versenum">24.</span> On the character and work of John the Baptist see KeimJN II. 201-266
+and references in the index under John the Baptist. Keim's is much the
+most satisfactory treatment; it is, moreover, Keim at his best. See also
+Ewald, <i>Hist, of Israel</i>, VI. 160-200; WeissLX I. 307-316; FairbSLX 64-79;
+W. A. Stevens, Homil. Rev. 1891, II. 163 ff.; Bebb in HastBD II. 677-680;
+Wellhausen <i>Isr. u. judische Geschichte</i>, 342f.; Feather, <i>Last of the
+Prophets</i>. Reynolds, <i>John the Baptist</i>, obscures its excellencies by a
+vast amount of irrelevant discussion.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a025"><p><span class="versenum">25.</span> On the existence of a separate company of disciples of John see Mk.
+ii. 18, Mt. ix. 14, Lk. v. 33; Mk. vi. 29, Mt. xiv. 12; Mt. xi. 2f., Lk.
+vii. 18f.; Lk. xi. 1; Jn. i. 35f.; iii. 25; Ac. xix. 1-3. Consult
+Lightfoot, <i>Colossians</i>, 400 ff.; Baldensperger, <i>Der Prolog des vierten
+Evangeliums</i>, 93-152.</p></div>
+
+
+<h4>VII</h4>
+
+<h5>The Messianic Call</h5>
+
+<div class="section" id="a026"><p><span class="versenum">26.</span> On the baptism of Jesus see WendtTJ I. 96-101; EdersLJM I. 278-287;
+BaldSJ 219-229. WeissLX I. 316-336 says that the baptism meant for Jesus,
+already <a class="newpage" name="page284" id="page284" title="284"></a>conscious of his Messiahship, "the close of his former life and
+the opening of one perfectly new" (322); KeimJN II. 290-299 makes it an
+act of consecration, but eliminates the Voice and Dove; BeysLJ I. 215-231
+thinks that Jesus, conscious of no sin, yet not aware of his Messiahship,
+sought the baptism carrying "the sins and guilt of his people on his
+heart, as if they were his own" (229). Against Beyschlag see E. Haupt in
+Studien u. Kritiken, 1887, 381. Baldensperger shows clearly that the
+Messianic call was a revelation to Jesus, not a conclusion from a course
+of reasoning.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a027"><p><span class="versenum">27.</span> On the temptation see WendtTJ I. 101-105; WeissLX I. 337-354; EdersLJM
+I. 299-307; Fairb<del>airn</del>SLX 80-98; BaldSJ 230-236; BeysLJ I.
+231-237; KeimJN II. 317-329. All these see in temptation the necessary
+result of the Messianic call at the baptism.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a028"><p><span class="versenum">28.</span> The locality of the baptism of Jesus cannot be determined. Tradition
+has fixed on one of the fords of the Jordan near Jericho, see SmithHGHL
+496, note 1. On the probable location of Bethany (Bethabarah) (Jn. i. 28)
+see discussion in AndLOL 146-151; EnBib 548; and especially Smith's note
+as above.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a029"><p><span class="versenum">29.</span> On the anointing of Jesus with the Holy Spirit see WeissLX I. 323-336;
+BeysLJ I. 230f. For the influence of the Spirit in the later life of Jesus
+see Mk. i. 12; Mt. iv. 1; Lk. iv. 1; iv. 14, 18, 21; Mk. iii. 29, 30; Mt.
+xii. 28; Jn. iii. 34; compare Ac. i. 2; x. 38. Clearly these refer not to
+the ethical and religious indwelling of the Divine Spirit (comp. Rom. i.
+4), but to the special equipment for official duty. This is the OT sense,
+see Ex. xxxi. 2-5; Jud. iii. 10; I. Sam. xi. 6; Isa. xi. 1f.; xlii. 1;
+lxi. 1; and consult Schultz, <i>Old Test. Theol.</i> II. 202f. Jesus seems to
+have needed a like divine equipment, notwithstanding his divine nature.
+See GilbertLJ 121f.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a030"><p><span class="versenum">30.</span> How this Messianic anointing is to be related to the doctrine of
+Jesus' essential divine nature cannot be determined with certainty. It
+must not be forgotten, <a class="newpage" name="page285" id="page285" title="285"></a>however, that it is a <i>datum</i> for Christology, and
+that it cannot be explained away. It indicates one of the particulars in
+which Jesus was made like unto his brethren. What was involved when the
+Son of God "emptied himself and was made in the likeness of men" (Phil.
+ii. 7) we can only vaguely conceive. Two views of early heretical sects
+seem rightly to have been rejected. The Docetic view, held by some
+Gnostics of the 2d cent., dates the incarnation from the baptism, but
+distinguishes Christ from the human Jesus, who only served as a vehicle
+for the manifestation of the Son of God; the Christ descended on Jesus at
+the baptism, ascending again to heaven from the cross, compare Mt. iii. 16
+and xxvii. 50 in the Greek; see Schaff <i>Hist. of Xn Church</i><sup>2</sup>, II. 455f.
+The recently discovered Gospel of Peter presents this view, Gosp. Pet. &sect;
+5. The Nestorian view represents that the baptism was, in a sense, Jesus'
+"birth from above" (Jn. iii. 3, 5); thus the incarnation was first
+complete at the baptism though the Logos had been associated with Jesus
+from the beginning. See Schaff, <i>Hist, of Xn Church</i><sup>2</sup>, III. 717 ff.;
+Conybeare, <i>History of Xmas</i>, Amer. Jour. Theol. 1899, 1-21.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a031"><p><span class="versenum">31.</span> The traditional locality of the temptation is a mountain near Jericho
+called <i>Quarantana</i>, see AndLOL 155; the tradition seems to date no
+further back than the crusades. It is, however, probable that the
+"wilderness" (Mt. iv. 1, Mk. i. 12, Lk. iv. 1) is the same wilderness
+mentioned in connection with John's earlier life and work (Mt. iii. 1, Mk.
+i. 4), the region W and NW of the Dead Sea, see SmithHGHL 317. Others
+(Stanley, <i>Sinai and Palestine</i>, 308; EdersLJM I. 300, 339 notes) hold
+that the temptation took place in the desert regions SE of the sea of
+Galilee; this is possibly correct, though the record in the gospels
+suggests the wilderness of Judea. On the source of the temptation story
+see WeissLX I. 339 ff.; BeysLJ I. 234; Bacon, Bib. Wld. 1900, I. 18-25.</p></div>
+
+
+<h4>VIII</h4>
+
+<h5>The First Disciples</h5>
+
+<div class="section" id="a032"><p><a class="newpage" name="page286" id="page286" title="286"></a><span class="versenum">32.</span> SandayHastBD II. 612f.; GilbertLJ 144-157; WeissLX I. 355-387; AndLOL
+155-165; EdersLJM I. 336-363; BeysLJ II. 129-148 (assigns here a
+considerable part of the synoptic account of work in Capernaum).</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a033"><p><span class="versenum">33.</span> <i>The early confessions</i>. On the genuineness of the Baptist's testimony
+to "the Lamb of God" see M. Dods in <i>Expos. Gk. Test</i>. I .695f.; Westcott,
+<i>Comm. on John</i>, 20; EdersLJM 1. 342 ff.; WeissLX 1. 362f. (thinks the
+evangelist added "who taketh away the sin of the world"); Holtzmann,
+<i>Hand-comm.</i> IV. 38f. holds that the evangelist has put in the mouth of
+the Baptist a conception which was first current after the death of Jesus.
+On the confessions of Nathanael and the others, see Jour. Bib. Lit. 1898,
+21-30.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a034"><p><span class="versenum">34.</span> <i>Cana</i> is probably the modern Khirbet Kana, eight miles N of Nazareth.
+A rival site is Kefr Kenna, three and one-half miles NE from Nazareth. See
+EnBib and HastBD, also AndLOL 162-164.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a035"><p><span class="versenum">35.</span> <i>The miracles of Jesus</i> are challenged by modern thought. It is
+customary in reading other documents than the N.T. instantly to relegate
+the miraculous to the domain of legend. Miracles, however, are integral
+parts of the story of Jesus' life, and those who attempt to write that
+life eliminating the supernatural are constrained to recognize that he had
+marvellous power as an exorcist and healer of some forms of nervous
+disease. So E. A. Abbott, <i>The Spirit on the Waters</i>, 169-201. Our
+knowledge of nature does not warrant a dogmatic definition of the limits
+of the possible; see James, <i>The Will to Believe</i>, vii.-xiii., 299-327.
+The question is confessedly one of adequate evidence. The evidence for the
+supreme miracle--the transcendent character of Jesus--is clear, see Part
+III. chap. iv.; and the miracu<a class="newpage" name="page287" id="page287" title="287"></a>lous element in the story of his life must
+be considered in view of this supreme miracle. In association with him his
+miracles gain in credibility. In estimating the evidence for them their
+dignity and worthiness is important. What the devout imagination would do
+in embellishing the story of Jesus is exhibited in the apocryphal gospels;
+the miracles of the canonical gospels are of an entirely different type,
+which commends them as authentic. By definition a miracle is an event not
+explicable in terms of ordinary human experience. It is therefore futile
+to attempt to picture the miracles of Jesus in their occurrence, for the
+imagination has no material except that furnished by ordinary experience.
+For our day the miracles are of importance chiefly for the exhibition they
+give of the character of Jesus; they can be studied with this in view
+without regard to the curious question how they happened. Read
+SandayHastBD II. 624-628; and see Fisher, <i>Grounds of Christian and
+Theistic Belief, </i> chaps, iv.--vi., <i>Supernatural Origin of
+Christianity</i><sup>3</sup>, chap, xi.; Bruce, <i>Miraculous Element in the Gospels;
+Apologetics</i>, 409 ff.; Illingworth, <i>Divine Immanence</i>; Rainy, Orr, and
+Dods, <i>The Supernatural in Christianity</i>.</p></div>
+
+
+
+<h3>Part II.--The Ministry</h3>
+
+
+<h4>I</h4>
+
+<h5>General Survey</h5>
+
+<div class="section" id="a036"><p><span class="versenum">36.</span> SandayHastBD II. 609f.; GilbertLJ 136-143; AndLOL 125-137; BeysLJ I.
+256-295.</p></div>
+
+
+<h4>II</h4>
+
+<h5>The Early Ministry in Judea</h5>
+
+<div class="section" id="a037"><p><span class="versenum">37.</span> SandayHastBD II. 612<sup>b</sup>-613<sup>b</sup>; WeissLX II. 3-53; EdersLJM I. 364-429;
+BeysLJ II. 147-168; GilbertLJ 158-179.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a038"><p><a class="newpage" name="page288" id="page288" title="288"></a><span class="versenum">38.</span> On <i>the chronological significance of John iv</i>. 35 see AndLOL 183;
+WeissLX II. 40; Wieseler, <i>Synop</i>. 212 ff, who find indication that the
+journey was in December. EdersLJM I. 419f.; Turner in HastBD I. 408, find
+indication of early summer. Some treat iv. 35 as a proverb with no
+chronological significance; so Alford, <i>Comm. on John</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a039"><p><span class="versenum">39.</span> Geographical notes. <i>Aenon</i> near Salim has not been identified. Most
+favor a site in Samaria, seven miles from a place named Salim, which lay
+four miles E of Shechem, see Conder, <i>Tent Work in Palestine</i>, II. 57, 58;
+Stevens, Jour. Bib. Lit. 1883, 128-141. But can John have been baptizing
+in Samaria? WeissLX II. 28 says "it is perfectly impossible that he [John]
+can have taken up his station in Samaria." Other suggestions are: some
+place in the Jordan valley (but then why remark on the abundance of water,
+Jn. iii. 23?); near Jerusalem; and in the south of Judea. See AndLOL
+173-175. <i>Sychar</i> is the modern 'Askar, about a mile and three-quarters
+from Nablus (Shechem), and half a mile N of Jacob's well. See SmithHGHL
+367-375.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a040"><p><span class="versenum">40.</span> General questions. <i>Was the temple twice cleansed?</i> (see sect. 116).
+Probably not. The two reports (Jn. ii. 13-22; Mk. xi. 15-18 &para;s) are
+similar in respect of Jesus' indignation, its cause, its expression, its
+result, and a consequent challenge of his authority. They differ in the
+time of the event (John assigns to first Passover, synoptics to the last)
+and in a possibly greater sternness in the synoptic account. These
+differences are no greater than appear in other records of identical
+events (compare Mt. viii. 5-13 with Lk. vii. 2-10), while the repetition
+of such an act would probably have been met by serious opposition. If the
+temple was cleansed but once, John indicates the true time. At the
+beginning of the ministry it was a demand that the people follow the new
+leader in the purification of God's house and the establishment of a truer
+worship. At the end it could have had only a vindictive significance,
+since the people <a class="newpage" name="page289" id="page289" title="289"></a>had already signified to the clear insight of Jesus that
+they would not accept his leadership. For two distinct cleansings see the
+discussion in AndLOL 169f., 437; EdersLJM I. 373; Plummer on Luke xix.
+45f. For one cleansing at the end see KeimJN V. 113-131. For one cleansing
+at the beginning see WeissLX II. 6 ff.; BeysLJ II. 149 ff.; GilbertLJ 159
+ff.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a041"><p><span class="versenum">41.</span> <i>The journey to Galilee</i>. Do John (iv. 1-4, 43-45) and Mark (i. 14 =
+Mt. iv. 12; Lk. iv. 14) report the same journey? Both are journeys from
+the south introducing work in Galilee; yet the reasons given for the
+journey are different (compare Jn. iv. 1-3 with Mk. i. 14). If the
+Pharisees had a hand in John's "delivering up" (Mk. i. 14; comp. Jos. Ant.
+xviii. 5. 2), the same hostile movement may have impelled Jesus to leave
+Judea. He may not have heard of John's imprisonment until after his
+departure, or some time before he opened his new ministry in Galilee. See
+GilbertLJ 173f. AndLOL 176-182 argues against the identification.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a042"><p><span class="versenum">42.</span> <i>The nobleman's son</i> (Jn. iv. 46-54). Is this a doublet of Mt. viii.
+5-13; Lk. vii. 2-10? John differs from synoptics in the time, the place,
+the disease, the suppliant, his plea, and Jesus' attitude. Matthew and
+Mark differ from each other concerning the bearers of the centurion's
+messages to Jesus. John's account is similar to synoptic superficially,
+but is probably not a doublet. Compare Syro-Ph&oelig;nician's daughter (Mk. vii.
+29f.). See GilbertLJ 202; Meyer on John iv. 51-54; Plummer on Luke vii.
+10. WeissLX II. 45-51 identifies. Read SandayHastBD II. 613.</p></div>
+
+
+
+<h4>III and IV</h4>
+
+<h5>The Ministry in Galilee</h5>
+
+<div class="section" id="a043"><p><span class="versenum">43.</span> Read SandayHastBD II. 613-630; GilbertLJ 180-283. Consult WeissLX II.
+44 to III. 153; EdersLJM I. 472 to II. 125; BeysLJ II. 140-147,168-294.
+See AndLOL <a class="newpage" name="page290" id="page290" title="290"></a>209-363 for discussion of details, and KeimJN III. 10 to IV.
+346 for an illuminating, though not unprejudiced, topical treatment.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a044"><p><span class="versenum">44.</span> Geographical notes. <i>Capernaum</i>. The site is not clearly identified,
+two ruins on the NW of Sea of Galilee are rival claimants,--Tell Hum and
+Khan Minyeh. Tell Hum is advocated by Thomson, <i>Land and Book, Central
+Pal. and Ph&oelig;nicia</i> (1882), 416-420; Khan Minyeh, by SmithHGHL 456, EnBib
+I. 696 ff. Latter is probably correct. See AndLOL 224-237.
+
+<i>Bethsaida</i>. The full name is Bethsaida Julias, located at entrance of
+Jordan into the Sea of Galilee. <del>Smith</del>EnBib I. 565f.,
+<ins>Smith</ins>HGHL 457f., shows that there is no need of the hypothesis
+of a second Bethsaida to meet the statement in Mk. vi. 45, or that in Jn.
+i. 44. See also AndLOL 230-236. Ewing HastBD I. 282f. renews the argument
+for two Bethsaidas.
+
+<i>Chorazin</i> was probably the modern Kerazeh, about one mile N of Tell Hum,
+and back from the lake. See <del>Smith</del>EnBib I. 751;
+<ins>Smith</ins>HGHL 456; AndLOL 237f.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a045"><p><span class="versenum">45.</span> <i>The mountain of the sermon on the mount</i> (Mt. v. 1; Lk. vi. 12)
+probably refers to the Galilean highlands as distinct from the shore of
+the lake. More definite location is not possible. See AndLOL 268f.;
+EdersLJM I. 524. The traditional site, the Horns of Hattin, is a hill
+lying about seven miles SW from Khan Minyeh, which has near the top a
+level place (Lk. vi. 17) flanked by two low peaks or "horns."</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a046"><p><span class="versenum">46.</span> <i>The country of the Gerasenes, Gadarenes, or Gergesenes</i>. Gadarenes is
+the best attested reading in Mt. viii. 28, Gerasenes in Mk. v. 1 and Lk.
+viii. 26; Gergesenes has only secondary attestation. Gadara is identified
+with Um Keis on the Yarmuk, some six miles SE of the Sea of Galilee. This
+cannot have been the site of the miracle, though it is possible that
+Gadara may have controlled the country round about, including the shores
+of the sea. Gerasa is the name of a city in the highlands of Gilead,
+twenty miles E of Jordan, and <a class="newpage" name="page291" id="page291" title="291"></a>thirty-five SE of the Sea of Galilee, and
+it clearly cannot have been the scene of the miracle. Near the E shore of
+the sea Thomson discovered the ruins of a village which now bears the name
+Khersa. The formation of the land in the neighborhood closely suits the
+narrative of the gospels. This is now accepted as the true identification.
+See Thomson <i>Land and Book, Central Palestine</i>, 353-355; SBD<sup>2</sup> 1097-1100;
+HastBD II. 159f.; AndLOL 296-300. The name "Gadarenes" may indicate that
+Gadara had jurisdiction over the region of Khersa; the names "Gerasenes"
+and "Gergesenes" may be derived directly and independently from Khersa, or
+may be corruptions due to the obscurity of Khersa.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a047"><p><span class="versenum">47.</span> <i>The feeding of the five thousand</i> took place on the E of the sea, in
+a desert region, abundant in grass, and mountainous, and located in the
+neighborhood of a place named Bethsaida. Near the ruins of Bethsaida
+Julias is a plain called now Butaiha, "a smooth, grassy place near the sea
+and the mountains," which meets the requirements of the narrative. See
+AndLOL 322f.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a048"><p><span class="versenum">48.</span> <i>The return of Jesus from the regions of Tyre "through Sidon"</i> (Mk.
+vii. 31) avoided Galilee, crossing N of Galilee to the territory of Philip
+and "<i>the Decapolis</i>." This latter name applies to a group of free Greek
+cities, situated for the most part E of the Jordan. Most of the cities of
+the group were farther S than the Sea of Galilee; some, however, were E
+and NE of that sea, hence Jesus' approach from C&aelig;sarea Philippi or
+Damascus could be described as "through Decapolis." See SmithHGHL 593-608;
+En Bib I. 1051 ff.; Sch&uuml;rerJPTX II. i. 94-121.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a049"><p><span class="versenum">49.</span> Of <i>Magadan</i> (Mt. xv. 39) or <i>Dalmanutha</i> (Mk. viii. 10) all that is
+known is that they must have been on the W coast of the Sea of Galilee.
+They have never been identified, though there are many conjectures. See
+SBD<sup>2</sup>, HastBD, and En Bib.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a050"><p><span class="versenum">50.</span> <i>C&aelig;sarea Philippi</i> was situated at the easternmost and most important
+of the sources of the Jordan, it is <a class="newpage" name="page292" id="page292" title="292"></a>called Panias by Jos. Ant. xv. 10.3,
+now Banias. Probably a sanctuary of the god Pan. Here Herod the Great
+built a temple which he dedicated to C&aelig;sar; Philip the Tetrarch enlarged
+the town and called it C&aelig;sarea Philippi. See SBD<sup>2</sup>; HastBD; EnBib.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a051"><p><span class="versenum">51.</span> <i>The mountain of the transfiguration</i>. The traditional site, since the
+fourth century, is Tabor in Galilee. Most recent opinion has favored one
+of the shoulders of Hermon, owing to the supposed connection of the event
+with the sojourn near C&aelig;sarea Philippi. WeissLX III. 98 points out that
+there is no evidence that Jesus lingered for "six days" (Mk. ix. 2) near
+that town, and that therefore the effort to locate the transfiguration is
+futile. GilbertLJ 274 thinks that Mk. ix. 30 is decisive in favor of a
+place outside Galilee; he therefore holds to the common view that Hermon
+is the true locality. See AndLOL 357f.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a052"><p><span class="versenum">52.</span> General questions. <i>Was Jesus twice rejected at Nazareth?</i> (comp. Lk.
+iv. 16-30 with Mk. vi. 1-6<sup>a</sup>; Mt. xiii. 54-58). Here are two accounts that
+read like independent traditions of the same event; they agree concerning
+the place, the teaching in the synagogue on the Sabbath, the astonishment
+of the Nazarenes, their scornful question, and Jesus' rejoinder. Luke
+makes no reference to the disciples (Mk. vi. 1) nor to the working of
+miracles (Mk. vi. 5); Matthew and Mark, on the other hand, say nothing of
+an attempt at violence. These differences are no more serious, however,
+than appear in the two accounts of the appeal of the centurion to Jesus
+(Mt. viii. 5-8; Lk. vii. 3-7). Moreover, Lk. iv. 23 indicates a time after
+the ministry in Capernaum had won renown, which agrees with the place
+given the rejection in Mark. The general statement (Lk. iv. 14f.) suggests
+that the visit to Nazareth is given at the beginning as an instance of
+"preaching in their synagogues." The three accounts probably refer to one
+event reported independently. For identification see WeissLX III. 34;
+Plummer on Luke iv. 30; GilbertLJ <a class="newpage" name="page293" id="page293" title="293"></a>254f. For two rejections see Godet's
+supplementary note on Lk. iv. 16-30; Meyer on Mt. xiii. 53-58; EdersLJM I.
+457, note 1; Wieseler, <i>Synopsis</i>, 278. BeysLJ I. 270 identifies but
+prefers Luke's date.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a053"><p><span class="versenum">53.</span> <i>Were there two miraculous draughts of fish?</i> Lk. v. 1-11 is sometimes
+identified with Jn. xxi. 3-13. So WendtLJ I. 211f., WeissLX II. 57f., and
+Meyer on Luke v. 1-11. Against the identification see Alford, Godet, and
+Plummer on the passage in Luke. The two are alike in scene, the night of
+bootless toil, the great catch at Jesus' word. They differ in personnel,
+antecedent relations of the fishermen with Jesus, the effect of the
+miracle on Peter, and the subsequent teaching of Jesus, as well as in
+time. These differences make identification difficult.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a054"><p><span class="versenum">54.</span> <i>Where in the synoptic story should the journey to the feast in
+Jerusalem</i> (Jn. v.) <i>be placed?</i> There is nothing in John's narrative to
+identify the feast, although it is his custom to name the festivals to
+which he refers (Passover, ii. 13, 23; vi. 4; xi. 55; xii. 1; Tabernacles,
+vii. 2; Dedication, x. 22). Even if John wrote "the feast," rather than "a
+feast" (the MSS. vary, A B D and seven other uncials omit the article), it
+would be impossible to decide between Passover and Tabernacles. The
+omission of the article suggests either that the feast was of minor
+importance, or that its identification was of no significance for the
+understanding of the following discourse. Since a year and four months
+probably elapsed between the journey into Galilee (Jn. iv. 35) and the
+next Passover mentioned in John (vi. 4), v. 1 may refer to any one of the
+feasts of the Jewish year. The commonest interpretation prefers Purim, a
+festival of a secular and somewhat hilarious type, which occurred on the
+14th and 15th of Adar, a month before the Passover. It is difficult to
+believe that this feast would have called Jesus to Jerusalem. See WeissLX
+II. 391; GilbertLJ 137-139, 142, 234-235. Against this interpretation see
+EdersLJM II. 765. Edersheim advocates the feast of <a class="newpage" name="page294" id="page294" title="294"></a>Wood Gathering on the
+15th of Ab--about our August. On this day all the people were permitted to
+offer wood for the use of the altar in the temple, while during the rest
+of the year the privilege was reserved for special families. See LJM II
+765f.; Westcott, <i>Comm. on John</i>, add. note on v. 1, argues for the feast
+of Trumpets, or the new moon of the month Tisri,--about our
+September,--which was celebrated as the beginning of the civil year.
+Others have suggested Pentecost, fifty days after the Passover; the day of
+Atonement--but this was a fast, not a feast; and Tabernacles. The majority
+of those who do not favor Purim prefer the Passover, notwithstanding the
+difficulty of thinking that John would refer to this feast simply as "a
+feast of the Jews." Read AndLOL 193-198, remembering that the question
+must be considered independently of the question of the length of Jesus'
+ministry. The impossibility of determining the feast renders the
+adjustment of this visit to the synoptic story very uncertain. It may be
+that there was some connection between the Sabbath controversy in Galilee
+(Mk. ii. 23-28) and the criticism Jesus aroused in Jerusalem (Jn. v.). If
+so, one of the spring feasts, Passover or Pentecost, would best suit the
+circumstances; but this arrangement is quite uncertain.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a055"><p><span class="versenum">55.</span> <i>Do the five conflicts of Mk. ii. 1 to iii. 6 belong at the early
+place in the ministry of Jesus to which that gospel assigns them</i>? It is
+commonly held that they do not, and the argument for a two-year ministry
+rests on this assumption (see SandayHastBD II. 613). Holtzmann,
+<i>Hand-commentar</i> I. 9f., remarks that at least for the cure of the
+paralytic and for the call and feast of Levi (Mk. ii. 1, 13, 15) the
+evangelist was confident that he was following the actual order of events;
+note the call of the fifth disciple, Mk. ii. 13, between the call of the
+four, Mk. i. 16-20, and that of the twelve, iii. 16-19. The question about
+fasting may owe its place (Mk. ii. 18-22) to association with the
+criticism of Jesus for eating with publicans (Mk. ii. 16). In like manner
+the <a class="newpage" name="page295" id="page295" title="295"></a>second Sabbath conflict (Mk. iii. 1-6) may be attached to the first
+(ii. 23-28) as a result of the identity of subject, for it is noteworthy
+that Mark records only these two Sabbath conflicts; moreover, the plot of
+Herodians and Pharisees to kill Jesus strongly suggests a later time
+for the actual occurrence of this criticism. The first Sabbath question, however,
+may belong early, as Mark has placed it. Weiss, Markusevangelium, 76, LX II.
+232 ff., places these conflicts late. Edersheim, LJM II. 51 ff., discusses
+the Sabbath controversies after the feeding of the multitudes. R&eacute;villeJN II.
+229 places the first of them early.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a056"><p>56. <i>The sermon on the mount.</i> Luke (vi. 12-19 = Mk. iii. 13-19<sup>a</sup>
+indicates the place in the Galilean ministry; Matthew has therefore anticipated
+in assigning it to the beginning. The identity of the two sermons
+(Mt. v. 1 to vii. 27; Lk. vi. 20-49) is shown by the fact
+that each begins with beatitudes, each closes with the
+parables of the wise and foolish builders, each is followed by the cure of
+a centurian's servant in Capernaum (Mt.
+viii. 5-13; Lk. vii. 1-10), and the teachings which are
+found in each account are given in the same order.
+Matthew is much fuller than Luke, many teachings
+given in the sermon in Matthew being found in later
+contexts in Luke. Much of the sermon in Matthew,
+however, evidently belonged to the original discourse,
+and was omitted by Luke, perhaps because of less interest
+to Gentile than to Jewish Christians. The following
+sections are found elsewhere in Luke, and were
+probably associated with the sermon by the first evangelist:
+Mt. v. 25, 26; Lk. xii. 58, 59; Mt. vi. 9-13; Lk. xi. 2-4; Mt. vi. 19-34; Lk. xii.
+21-34; xi. 34-36; xvi. 13; Mt. vii. 7-11; Lk. xi. 9-13; Mt. vii. 13, 14; Lk. xiii.
+24. The first evangelist's habit of grouping may explain also the presence
+in his sermon of teachings which he himself has duplicated later, thus:
+Mt. v. 29, 30 = xviii. 8,9; v. 32 = xix. 9, comp. Mk. x. 11, ix. 43-47, Lk. xvi. 18;
+Mt. vi. 14, 15 = Mk. xi. 25. Matthew vii. 22, 23 has the <a class="newpage" name="page296" id="page296" title="296"></a>
+character of the teachings which follow the confession at
+C&aelig;sarea Phillipi, and is quite unlike the other early
+teachings. It may belong to the later time, for it was
+natural for the early Christians to associate together
+teachings which the Lord uttered on widely separated
+occasions. The sermon as originally given may be
+analyzed as follows: The privileges of the heirs of the
+kingdom of God, Mt. v. 3-13; Lk. vi. 20-26; their responsibilities,
+Mt. v. 13-16; the relation of the new to the old, Mt. v. 17-19;
+the text of the discourse, Mt. v. 20; the new conception of morality, Mt. v. 21-48;
+Lk. vi. 27-36; the new practice of religion, Mt. vi. 1-8, 16-18; warning
+against a censorious spirit, Mt. vii. 16-20; Lk.
+vi. 43-46; the wise and foolish builders, Mt. vii. 24-27;
+Lk. vi. 47-49.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a057"><p>57. <i>The discourse in parables.</i> Matthew gives seven
+parables at this point (xiii.), Mark (iv. 1-34) has three,
+one of them is not given in Matthew, Luke (viii. 4-18) gives
+in this connection but one,--the Sower. Many think
+that the Tares of Matthew (xiii. 24-30, 36-43) is a doublet
+of Mark's Seed growing secretly (iv. 26-29); so Weiss
+LX II. 209 note, against which view see WendtLJ I.
+178 f., and Bruce, <i>Parabolic Teaching of Xt</i>, 119. Matthew
+has probably made here a group of parables, as in chapters v. to vii.
+he has made a group of other teachings.
+The interpretation of the Tares, and of the Draw-net (xiii. 40-43, 49, 50),
+may indicate that these parables were spoken after Jesus began to teach plainly
+concerning the end of the world (Mk. viii. 31 to ix. 1), Luke
+gives the Mustard Seed and Leaven in another connection (xiii. 18-21),
+and it may be that Matthew has taken them out of their true context to associate
+them with the other parables of his group; yet in popular teaching
+it must be recognized that illustrations are most likely
+to be repeated in different situations. On the parables see Goebel,
+<i>The Parables of Jesus</i> (1890), Bruce, <i>The Parabolic Teaching of Christ</i>,
+3d ed. (1886), J&uuml;licher, <a class="newpage" name="page297" id="page297" title="297"></a><i>Die Gleichnissreden Jesu</i> (2 vols. 1899), and the commentaries on
+the gospels.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a058"><p><span class="versenum">58.</span> <i>The instructions to the twelve</i>. Mt. ix. 36 to xi. 1. x. 1, 5-14
+corresponds in general with Mk. vi. 7-11; Lk. ix. 1-5. The similarity is
+closer, however, between x. 7-15 and Lk. x. 3-12--the instructions to the
+seventy (see sect. <a href="#a068">A 68</a>). The rest of Mt. x. (16-42) is paralleled by
+teachings found in the closing discourses in the synoptic gospels, and in
+teachings preserved in the section peculiar to Luke (ix. 51 to xviii. 14.
+See SB sects. 88-92, footnotes). It is probable that here the first
+evangelist has made a group of instructions to disciples gathered from all
+parts of the Lord's teachings; such a collection was of great practical
+value in the early time of persecution.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a059"><p><span class="versenum">59.</span> <i>Did Jesus twice feed the multitudes</i>? All the gospels record the
+feeding of the five thousand (Mt. xiv. 13-23; Mk. vi. 30-46; Lk. ix.
+10-17; Jn. vi. 1-15), Matthew (xv. 32-38) and Mark (viii. 1-9) give also
+the feeding of the four thousand. The similarities are so great that the
+two accounts would be regarded as doublets if they occurred in different
+gospels. The difficulty with such an identification is chiefly the
+reference which in both Matthew (xvi. 9, 10) and Mark (viii. 19, 20) Jesus
+is said to have made to the two feedings. The evangelists clearly
+distinguished the two. In view of this fact the differences between the
+accounts become important. These concern the occasion of the two miracles,
+the number fed, the nationality of the multitudes (compare Jn. vi. 31 and
+Mk. vii. 31), the number of loaves and of baskets of broken pieces (the
+name for basket is different in the two cases, and is preserved
+consistently in Mk. viii. 19, 20; Mt. xvi. 9, 10). See GilbertLJ 259-262,
+Gould, and Swete, on Mk. viii. 1-9; Meyer, Alford, on Mt. xv. 32-38.
+WeissLX II. 376f., BeysLJ I. 279f., WendtLJ I. 42, Holtzmann <i>Hand-comm.</i>
+I. 186 ff., identify the accounts. See also SandayHastBD II. 629.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a060"><p><span class="versenum">60.</span> <i>Did Peter twice confess faith in Jesus as Messiah</i>? <a class="newpage" name="page298" id="page298" title="298"></a>Synoptics give
+his confession at C&aelig;esarea Philippi (Mk. viii. 27-30; Mt. xvi. 13-20; Lk.
+ix. 18-21). John, however, gives a confession earlier at Capernaum (vi.
+66-71). WeissLX III. 53 identifies the two, placing that in John at
+C&aelig;sarea Philippi, since there is no evidence that all of the long
+discourse of Jn. vi. was spoken in Capernaum the day after the feeding of
+the five thousand. This may be correct, yet the marked recognition which
+Jesus gave to the confession at C&aelig;sarea Philippi does not demand that he
+first at that time received a confession of his disciples' faith. The
+confession in Jn. vi. 68, 69 declared that the twelve were not shaken in
+their faith by the recent defection of many disciples. At C&aelig;sarea Philippi
+the confession was made after the revulsion of popular feeling had been
+made fully evident, and after the twelve had had time for reaction of
+enthusiasm consequent upon the growing coldness of the multitudes and
+active opposition of the leaders. The confession of C&aelig;sarea Philippi holds
+its unique significance, whether or not Jn. vi. 68 is identified with it.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a061"><p><span class="versenum">61.</span> <i>The journey to Tabernacles</i> (Jn. vii.). Where in the synoptic story
+should it be placed? Lk. ix. 51 ff. records the final departure from
+Galilee. The journey of Jn. vii. is the last journey from Galilee given in
+John. Yet the two are very different. In John, Jesus went in haste,
+unpremeditatedly, in secret, and unaccompanied, and confronted the people
+with himself unexpectedly during the feast. In Luke (Mk. x. 1 and Mt. xix.
+1 are so general that they give no aid) he advanced deliberately, with
+careful plans, announcing his coming in advance, accompanied by many
+disciples, with whom he went from place to place, arriving in Jerusalem
+long after he had set out. The two journeys cannot be identified. John
+seems to keep Jesus in the south after the Tabernacles, but his account
+does not forbid a return to Galilee between Tabernacles and Dedication (x.
+22). After the hurried visit to Tabernacles, Jesus probably went back to
+Galilee, and gathered his disciples again <a class="newpage" name="page299" id="page299" title="299"></a>for the final journey towards
+his cross--for the visit to Jerusalem had given fresh evidence of the kind
+of treatment he must expect in the capital (Jn. vii. 32, 45-52; viii. 59).
+See AndLOL 369-379. Andrews suggests that the feast occurred before the
+withdrawal to C&aelig;sarea Philippi (376); this is possible, but it seems more
+natural to place it during the sojourn in Capernaum after the return from
+the north (Mk. ix. 33-50). See SB, sects. 82-85.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a062"><p><span class="versenum">62.</span> On the phenomena and interpretation of <i>Demoniac Possession</i> see J. L.
+Nevius, <i>Demon Possession and allied Themes</i>; Conybeare, Jew. Quar. Rev.
+VIII. (1896) 576-608, IX. (1896-7) 59-114, 444-470, 581-603; J. Weiss in
+<i>Re&auml;lencyklop&auml;die</i>,<sup>3</sup> Hauck-Herzog, IV. 408-419; Binet, <i>Alterations of
+Personality</i>, 325-356; James, <i>Psychology, </i> I. 373-400; and the articles
+on DEMONS in EnBib and HastBD.</p></div>
+
+<h4>V</h4>
+
+<h5>The Journey through Perea to Jerusalem</h5>
+
+<div class="section" id="a063"><p><span class="versenum">63.</span> Read SandayHastBD II. 630-632; see GilbertLJ 298-310: WeissLX III.
+157-223; KeimJN V, 1-64; BeysLJ I. 287-294. II. 333-419; AndLOL 365-420;
+EdersLJM II. 126-360.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a064"><p><span class="versenum">64.</span> This journey began sometime between Tabernacles and Dedication
+(October and December) of the last year of Jesus' life, and continued
+until the arrival in Bethany six days before the last Passover.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a065"><p><span class="versenum">65.</span> Geographical notes. <i>Perea</i>--a part of the domain of Antipas--was the
+Jewish territory E of the Jordan. Its northern limit seems to have been
+marked by Pella (Jos. Wars, iii 3. 3) or Gadara (Wars, iv. 7. 3), and its
+E boundary was marked by Philadelphia (Ant. xx. 1. 1); it extended S to
+the domain of Aretas, king of Arabia. The population was mixed, though
+predomi<a class="newpage" name="page300" id="page300" title="300"></a>natingly Jewish. Cities of the Decapolis, however, lay within the
+limits of Perea, and introduced Greek life and ideas to the people. On the
+highlands back from the Jordan it was a fertile and well populated land.
+See SmithHGHL 539f.; Sch&uuml;rerJPTX II. i. 2-4.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a066"><p><span class="versenum">66.</span> On <i>Bethany and Jericho</i> see BDs and, for the latter, SmithHGHL 266
+ff.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a067"><p><span class="versenum">67.</span> <i>Ephraim</i>, (John xi. 54) is generally identified with the Ephron of
+II. Chron. xiii. 19 (Jos. Wars, iv. 9. 9). Robinson located it at et
+Taiyibeh, 4 m. NE of Bethel, and 14 from Jerusalem. See HastBD l. 728;
+SBD<sup>2</sup> 975.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a068"><p><span class="versenum">68.</span> General questions. <i>The mission of the seventy</i>. Luke records two
+missions, that of the twelve (ix. 1-6), and that of the seventy (x. 1-24).
+Many regard these as doublets, similar to the two feedings in Mark. So
+WeissLX II. 307 ff., BeysLJ I. 275, WendtLJ I. 84f. In favor of this
+conclusion emphasis is given to the fact that in Jewish thought seventy
+symbolized the nations of the world as twelve symbolized Israel. It is
+suggested that in his search for full records Luke came upon an account of
+the mission of disciples which had already been modified in the interests
+of Gentile Christianity, and failing to recognize its identity with the
+account of the mission furnished by Mark, he added it in his peculiar
+section. The similarity of the instructions given follows from the nature
+of the case. A second sending out of disciples is suitable in view of the
+entrance into a region hitherto unvisited. As Dr. Sanday has remarked, the
+sayings connected by Luke with this mission bear witness to the
+authenticity of the account. There is therefore no need to identify the
+two missions. See particularly SandayHastBD II. 614, also GilbertLJ
+226-230, Plummer's <i>Comm. on Luke</i>, 269 ff. Luke probably gives the
+correct place for the thanksgiving, self-declaration, and invitation of
+Jesus, in which the synoptists approach most nearly to the thought of John
+(Lk. x. 21, 22; Mt. xi. 25-30). The return of the seventy (Lk. x. <a class="newpage" name="page301" id="page301" title="301"></a>17-20)
+followed the woes addressed to the unbelieving cities (Lk. x. 13-16; Mt.
+xi. 20-24).</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a069"><p><span class="versenum">69.</span> <i>The destination of the seventy</i>. It is customary to think of them as
+sent to the various cities of Perea (see AndLOL 381-383). Were it not for
+the words "whither he himself was about to come" (Lk. x. I), it would be
+natural to conclude that they were sent E to Gerasa and Philadelphia, and
+S to the regions of the Dead Sea. If John's account is accepted, Jesus
+spent not a little time of the interval between his departure from Galilee
+and his final arrival in Bethany in and near Jerusalem. It may be that
+after the withdrawal from the Dedication he went far into the Perean
+districts. But John x. 40 is against it. The question must be left
+unanswered. The messengers may have visited places in all parts of
+Palestine.</p></div>
+
+
+<h4>VI</h4>
+
+<h5>The Controversies of the Last Week</h5>
+
+<div class="section" id="a070"><p><span class="versenum">70.</span> See GilbertLJ 311-335; WeissLX III. 224-270; AndLOL 421-450; KeimJN V.
+65-275; BeysLJ II. 422-434; EdersLJM II. 363-478; SandayHastBD II 632f.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a071"><p><span class="versenum">71.</span> <i>The supper at Bethany</i>. John is definite, "six days before the
+passover" (xii. I). Synoptists place it after the day of controversy, on
+the Wednesday preceding the Passover (Mk. xiv. I, 3-9; Mt. xxvi. 2, 6-13).
+John is probably correct. The rebuke of Judas (Jn. xii. 4-8) was probably
+associated in the thought of the disciples with his later treachery;
+consequently the synoptists report the plot of Judas and this supper in
+close connection.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a072"><p><span class="versenum">72.</span> <i>The Messianic entry into Jerusalem</i> is regarded by R&eacute;ville as a
+surrender by Jesus of his lofty Messianic ideal in response to the
+temptation to seek a popular <a class="newpage" name="page302" id="page302" title="302"></a>following. Keim with finer insight says,
+"Even if it had certainly been his wish to bring the kingdom of heaven
+near in Jerusalem quietly and gradually, and with a healthy mental
+progress, as in Galilee, yet ... in the face of the irritability of his
+opponents, in the face of the powerful means at their disposal of crushing
+him ... there remained but one chance,--reckless publicity, the conquest
+of the partially prepared nation by means, not of force, but of idea....
+He came staking his life upon the venture, but also believing that God
+must finish his work through life or death" (JN V. 100f.).</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a073"><p><span class="versenum">73.</span> <i>The question about the resurrection</i> was probably a familiar
+Sadducean problem with which they made merry at the expense of the
+scribes. On the resurrection in Jewish thought see Charles, <i>Eschatology,
+Hebrew, Jewish, and Christian</i>, by index. For the scepticism of the
+Sadducees see also Ac. xxiii. 8; Jos. Wars, ii, 8. 14.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a074"><p><span class="versenum">74.</span> On the "<i>great commandment</i>" see EdersLJM II. 403 ff.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a075"><p><span class="versenum">75.</span> The eschatological discourse presents serious exegetical difficulties.
+Many cut the knot by assuming that Mk. xiii. and &#8741;s contain a little
+Jewish apocalypse written shortly before the destruction of Jerusalem,
+which has been blended with genuine predictions of Jesus concerning his
+second coming. See Charles, <i>Eschatology</i>, 323-. 329; WendtLJ I. 9-21;
+Holtz<del>mann</del>NtT<del>H</del><ins>h</ins> I. 325 ff.; and Bruce's
+criticism in <i>Expos. Gk. Test</i>. I. 287f., also Sanday's note in HastBD II.
+635f.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a076"><p><span class="versenum">76.</span> On <i>the relation of proselytes</i> to Judaism see Sch&uuml;rerJPTX II. ii.
+291-327. The synagogue in heathen lands drew to itself by its monotheism
+and its pure ethics the finest spirits of paganism. But few of them,
+however, submitted to circumcision, and became thus proselytes. Most of
+them constituted the class of "them that fear God" to whom Paul constantly
+appealed in his apostolic mission. The Greeks of Jn. xii. 20 ff. were
+probably circumcised proselytes.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a077"><p><span class="versenum">77.</span> On <i>Judas</i> see Plummer in HastBD II. 796 ff.; <a class="newpage" name="page303" id="page303" title="303"></a>EdersLJM II. 471-478;
+WeissLX III. 285-289; AndLOL by index. De Quincey's essay on <i>Judas
+Iscariot</i> is an elaborate defence.</p></div>
+
+
+<h4>VII</h4>
+
+<h5>The Last Supper</h5>
+
+<div class="section" id="a078"><p><span class="versenum">78.</span> GilbertLJ 335-354; WeissLX III. 273-318; EdersLJM II. 479-532; AndLOL
+450-497; KeimJN V. 275-343; BeysLJ II. 434-448; SandayHastBD II. 633-638.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a079"><p><span class="versenum">79.</span> <i>The day of the last supper</i>. John seems clearly to place it on the
+day before the Passover--13 Nisan. See xiii. I, 29; xviii. 28; xix. 14,
+31, 42. Synoptists as clearly declare that the supper was prepared on the
+"first day of unleavened bread, when they sacrificed the Passover" (Mk.
+xiv. 12; see also Lk. xxii. 15); this is confirmed by the similarity
+between the Passover ritual as tradition has preserved it, and the course
+of events at the supper. Unless interpretation can remove the
+contradiction, John must have the preference. WeissLX III. 273-282, BeysLJ
+II. 390-399, accept John and correct the synoptists by him; thus the
+supper anticipated the Passover. Some hold that John can be interpreted
+harmoniously with synoptists, and be shown to indicate that the supper was
+on the 14th Nisan. So EdersLJM II. 508, 566f., 612f.; AndLOL 452-481;
+GilbertLJ 335-339. Others believe that a true interpretation of synoptists
+shows that in calling the last supper a Passover they correctly represent
+the character, but misapprehend the time, of the meal. For this argument
+see Muirhead, <i>Times of Xt</i>, 163-169, and read SandayHastBD II. 633-636
+and his references. The debate is still on, but the advantage seems to be
+with those who assign the supper to the 13th and the crucifixion to the
+14th Nisan.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a080"><p><span class="versenum">80.</span> <i>Did Jesus institute a memorial sacrament</i>? Read SandayHastBD II.
+636-638, and Thayer, in Jour. Bib. <a class="newpage" name="page304" id="page304" title="304"></a>Lit. 1899, 110-131; see also
+McGiffert, <i>Apostolic Age</i>, 68 ff. note; Holtz<del>mann</del>NtTh I.
+296-304.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a081"><p><span class="versenum">81.</span> <i>The Passover ritual</i>. The order according to the rabbis was the
+following: the first cup of wine and water was taken by the leader, who
+gave thanks over it, and then it was shared by all (compare Lk. xxii. 17);
+then the head of the company washed his hands--Dr. Edersheim connects with
+this the washing of the disciples' feet, which changed the ceremony from
+an act of distinction into one of humble service; after this the dishes
+were brought on the table, then the leader dipped some of the bitter herbs
+into salt water or vinegar, spoke a blessing, and partook of them, then
+handed them to each of the company; then one of the loaves of unleavened
+bread was broken; after this a second cup was filled, and before it was
+drunk the significance of the Passover was explained by the leader in
+reply to a question by the youngest of the company, after which the first
+part of the Hallel (Ps. cxiii., cxiv.) was sung, and then the cup was
+drunk; then followed the supper itself beginning with "the sop,"--a piece
+of the paschal lamb, a piece of unleavened bread, and bitter herbs,
+wrapped together and dipped in the vinegar,--which was passed around the
+company (compare the sop which Jesus gave to Judas); after the supper came
+a third cup, known as "the cup of blessing" (see I. Cor. x. 16); then
+followed grace after meat; then a fourth cup, in connection with which the
+remainder of the Hallel was sung (Ps. cxv. to cxviii.), followed by
+certain other songs and prayers. See EdersLJM II. 496-512; AndLOL 488-494.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a082"><p><span class="versenum">82.</span> <i>The washing of the disciples' feet</i>. John (xiii. 1-11) says this
+occurred "during supper" (v. 2), and before the designation of the
+traitor. Luke (xxii. 23-30) tells of a dispute about greatness among the
+disciples. This dispute may have arisen over the assignment of places at
+table (compare Lk. xiv. 7 ff.; Mk. x. 33-45); if so, the reason for the
+lesson in humility is apparent. See AndLOL 482-484; EdersLJM II. 492-503.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a083"><p><a class="newpage" name="page305" id="page305" title="305"></a><span class="versenum">83.</span> <i>Did Jesus twice predict Peter's denials</i>? Mark (xiv. 26-31) and
+Matthew (xxvi. 30-35) place the prediction after the departure for
+Gethsemane; Luke (xxii. 31-34) and John (xiii. 36-38), during the supper.
+AndLOL 494 ff. thinks Peter was warned twice, EdersLJM. II. 535-537 holds
+to one warning on the way to Gethsemane. Antecedent probability favors
+this view.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a084"><p><span class="versenum">84.</span> <i>Where in John should the institution of the sacrament be placed</i>?
+Probably after the departure of Judas (Mark xiv. 21f.; Matt. xxvi. 26),
+thus not before xiii. 30. The most likely place is between, verses 32 and
+33. There is no break at this point, and it remains a mystery why John's
+account of the passion omitted this central feature of early Christian
+belief and practice. The omission argues for rather than against apostolic
+authorship, as a forger would not have ventured to disregard the leading
+service of the church in an account of the life of its Lord. See Westcott,
+<i>Comm. on John</i>, 188.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a085"><p><span class="versenum">85.</span> On the possible <i>disarrangement of the last discourses</i> (xiii. 31 to
+xvi. 33) in our text of John see Spitta, <i>Urchristentum</i>, I. 168-193;
+Bacon, Jour. Bib. Lit. 1894, 64-76; Burton, Bib. Wld. 1899 I. 32.</p></div>
+
+
+<h4>VIII</h4>
+
+<h5>The Shadow of the Cross</h5>
+
+<div class="section" id="a086"><p><span class="versenum">86.</span> See GilbertLJ 354-384; AndLOL 497-588; WeissLX III. 319-381; BeysLJ I.
+390-432, II. 448-473; EdersLJM II. 533-620; KeimJN VI. 1-274; SandayHastBD
+II. 632f.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a087"><p><span class="versenum">87.</span> On the location of <i>Gethsemane and Golgotha</i> see AndLOL 499f.,
+575-588; and HastBD II. 164, 226f.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a088"><p><span class="versenum">88.</span> On the progress of <i>Jesus' trial by the Jewish authorities, </i> see
+AndLOL 505-516; GilbertLJ 359-363. The <i>legality of the trial</i> has been
+carefully discussed by A. T. Innes, <i>The Trial of Jesus Christ</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a089"><p><a class="newpage" name="page306" id="page306" title="306"></a><span class="versenum">89.</span> On the form and sequence of <i>Peter's denials</i>, see Westcott, <i>Comm.
+on John</i>, 263-266; AndLOL 516-521.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a090"><p><span class="versenum">90.</span> The <i>Words from the Cross</i>. Matthew (xxvii. 46) and Mark (xv. 34)
+report one; Luke (xxiii. 34?, 43, 46) adds three, omitting the one found
+in Matthew and Mark; John adds three more (xix. 26f., 28, 30). Luke xxiii.
+34 is bracketed by Westcott and Hort because omitted by a very important
+group of MSS. (<span lang="he" xml:lang="he" title="Aleph">&#1488;</span><sup>a</sup>BD*) and some early versions. The saying
+is almost certainly authentic, though it may have been added to Luke by
+some early copyist. See Westcott and Hort, <i>N.T. in Greek</i>, II. Appendix,
+68; and Plummer, <i>Comm. on Luke</i>, 544f.</p></div>
+
+
+<h4>IX</h4>
+
+<h5>The Resurrection and Ascension</h5>
+
+<div class="section" id="a091"><p><span class="versenum">91.</span> Read SandayHastBD II. 638-643; see KeimJK VI. 274-383, for a still
+valid criticism of the position of R&eacute;villeJN II. 428-478; see also WeissLX
+III. 382-409; BeysLJ I. 433-481, II. 474-493; BovonNTTh I. 350-375;
+GilbertLJ 385-405; Loofs, <i>Die Auferstehungsberichte und ihr Wert</i>;
+EdersLJM II. 621-652; AndLOL 589-639.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a092"><p><span class="versenum">92.</span> The last twelve verses of Mark (xvi. 9-20) are omitted by the oldest
+MSS (<span lang="he" xml:lang="he" title="Aleph">&#1488;</span>B) and by the recently discovered Sinaitic Syriac, as
+well as by other versions and fathers. An Armenian MS. has been found
+ascribing the section to one Ariston, or Aristion, a second century elder,
+and this explanation of the origin of the verses is widely accepted. The
+gospel cannot have ended with the words "for they were afraid," but no
+satisfactory explanation of the condition of its text has been found. For
+a recent hypothesis see Rohrbach, <i>Der Schluss des Markusevangeliums</i>; on
+Aristion as the author, see Conybeare in Expos. IV. viii. (1893) 241, IV.
+x. 219, V. ii. 401; see also SandayHastBD II. 638f., Bruce, <i>Expos. Gk.
+Test</i>. I. 454f. For discussion of textual evidence see Westcott and Hort,
+<a class="newpage" name="page307" id="page307" title="307"></a><i>NT in Greek</i>, II. Appendix, 28-51, and Burgon, <i>The last twelve verses
+of St. Mark</i> (a passionate defence).</p>
+
+<p>Luke xxiv. 51 is omitted by <span lang="he" xml:lang="he" title="Aleph">&#1488;</span>*D and several old Latin MSS.
+See Plummer and Bruce on the passage.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a093"><p><span class="versenum">93.</span> "<i>After three days</i>." This formula, which appears often in Mark, is
+altered in parallels in Matthew and Luke to "on the third day" (see
+Concordance). Jesus died on Friday, lay in the tomb over Saturday, and
+rose very early Sunday morning. Thus he spent a part of Friday, and a part
+of Sunday, and all of Saturday in the grave. According to Jewish reckoning
+this was counted three days.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a094"><p><span class="versenum">94.</span> <i>Emmaus</i>. A village about 60 furlongs from Jerusalem. Cannot have been
+the Emmaus in the Shephelah, 20 m. from Jerusalem. May have been el
+Kubeibeh, 63 furlongs distant on the road from Jerusalem to Lydda. See
+AndLOL 617-619; but also HastBD I. 700.</p></div>
+
+
+
+
+<h3>Part III.--The Minister</h3>
+
+
+<h4>I</h4>
+
+<h5>The Friend of Men</h5>
+
+<div class="section" id="a095"><p><span class="versenum">95.</span> Head Mathews, <i>The Social Teachings of Jesus, </i> especially 132-174;
+see also Robinson, <i>The Saviour in the Newer Light</i>, 343 ff.</p></div>
+
+
+<h4>II</h4>
+
+<h5>The Teacher with Authority</h5>
+
+<div class="section" id="a096"><p><span class="versenum">96.</span> See WendtTJ I. 106-151; Stevens, <i>Theol. of the N.T.</i> 1-16; Beyschlag,
+<i>N.T. Theology, I</i>. 31-34. In particular on the Parables see references in
+sect. <a href="#a056">A 56</a>. On the content of Jesus' teaching see WendtTJ 2 vols.;
+<a class="newpage" name="page308" id="page308" title="308"></a>Dalman, <i>Die Worte Jesu; Stevens, Theol. of the N.T.</i> 17-244; Beyschlag,
+<i>N.T. Theol</i>. I. 27-299; Mathews, <i>Social Teaching of Jesus</i>; Gilbert,
+<i>The Revelation of Jesus</i>; Bruce, <i>The Kingdom of God</i>.</p></div>
+
+
+<h4>III</h4>
+
+<h5>Jesus' Knowledge of Truth</h5>
+
+<div class="section" id="a097"><p><span class="versenum">97.</span> Adamson, <i>The Mind in Christ</i>; GilbertRJ 169f., 240-242; Schwartzkopf,
+<i>The Prophecies of Jesus Christ</i>.</p></div>
+
+
+<h4>IV</h4>
+
+<h5>Jesus' Conception of Himself</h5>
+
+<div class="section" id="a098"><p><span class="versenum">98.</span> BaldSJ 125-282; Stalker, <i>Christology of Jesus</i>,
+Holtz<del>mann</del>NtTh I. 234-304; WendtTJ II. 122-183; GilbertRJ
+167-228; Stevens, <i>Theol. of the N.T.</i> 41-64, 199-212. On the title "Son
+of Man" see particularly DalmanWJ I. 191-219; Charles, <i>Eschatology</i>,
+214f. note; against, A. Meyer, <i>Jesu Muttersprache</i>, 91-101, and others.
+See also Holtz<del>mann</del>NtTh I. 246-264. On the name "Son of God,"
+see Dalman WJ I. 219-237; Holtzmann NtTh I. 265-278; Stalker,
+<i>Christology</i>, 86-123; Gilbert, as above. On the personal religion of
+Jesus see Burton, Bib. Wld. 1899, II. 394-403. For the total impression of
+the character of Jesus, read Bushnell, <i>The Character of Jesus</i>.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<div id="indexes">
+<h2><a class="newpage" name="page309" id="page309" title="309"></a>Indexes<a class="newpage" name="page310" id="page310" title="310"></a></h2>
+
+
+
+<div id="index1">
+<h3><a class="newpage" name="page311" id="page311" title="311"></a>Index of Names and Subjects</h3>
+
+
+
+<p>[References are to pages.]</p>
+
+
+<ul>
+<li>&AElig;non, site of, <a href="#page288">288</a>.</li>
+<li>"After three days," <a href="#page307">307</a>.</li>
+<li>Agrapha, <a href="#page036">36</a>, <a href="#page149">149</a>, <a href="#page281">281</a>.</li>
+<li>Andrew, of Bethsaida, <a href="#page092">92</a>, <a href="#page094">94</a>, <a href="#page118">118</a>.</li>
+<li>Angels, doctrine of, <a href="#page010">10</a>.</li>
+<li>Annas, <a href="#page191">191</a>, <a href="#page193">193</a>, <a href="#page194">194</a>.</li>
+<li>Antipas, <a href="#page004">4</a>, <a href="#page192">192</a>.</li>
+<li>Apocalypse, <a href="#page017">17</a>f., <a href="#page122">122</a>, <a href="#page124">124</a>, <a href="#page241">241</a>.</li>
+<li>Apocryphal gospels, <a href="#page037">37</a>, <a href="#page281">281</a>, <a href="#page282">282</a>.</li>
+<li>Archelaus, <a href="#page004">4</a>, <a href="#page005">5</a>.</li>
+<li>Aristion, author of Mark xvi. <a href="#page009">9</a>-<a href="#page020">20</a>, <a href="#page204">204</a>f., <a href="#page306">306</a>f.</li>
+<li>Assumption of Moses, <a href="#page075">75</a></li>
+
+<li>Baptism of John, see <i>John the Baptist</i>.</li>
+<li>Baptism of Jesus, <a href="#page083">83</a>-<a href="#page086">86</a>, <a href="#page283">283</a>f.</li>
+<li>Barabbas, <a href="#page174">174</a>, <a href="#page192">192</a>.</li>
+<li>Bethany beyond Jordan, <a href="#page092">92</a>, <a href="#page284">284</a>.</li>
+<li>Bethany, supper at, <a href="#page169">169</a>, <a href="#page301">301</a>.</li>
+<li>Bethsaida, site of, <a href="#page290">290</a>.</li>
+<li>Books of reference, <a href="#page273">273</a>-<a href="#page277">277</a>.</li>
+<li>Brethren of Jesus, <a href="#page063">63</a>f., <a href="#page283">283</a>.</li>
+
+<li>C&aelig;sarea Philippi, <a href="#page004">4</a>, <a href="#page291">291</a>.
+<ul>  <li>confession at, see <i>Peter</i>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Caiaphas, <a href="#page191">191</a>, <a href="#page193">193</a>, <a href="#page194">194</a>.</li>
+<li>Cana of Galilee, <a href="#page095">95</a>, <a href="#page222">222</a>, <a href="#page286">286</a>.</li>
+<li>Cananeans or Zealots, party of, <a href="#page011">11</a>, <a href="#page074">74</a>.</li>
+<li>Capernaum, site of, <a href="#page290">290</a>.</li>
+<li>Census under Quirinius, <a href="#page011">11</a>, <a href="#page052">52</a>-<a href="#page055">55</a>.</li>
+<li>Chorazin, site of, <a href="#page290">290</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Dalmanutha, <a href="#page291">291</a>.</li>
+<li>Dalmanutha, Books of, <a href="#page017">17</a>f., <a href="#page241">241</a>, <a href="#page254">254</a>f.</li>
+<li>Decapolis, the, <a href="#page140">140</a>, <a href="#page291">291</a>.</li>
+<li>Dedication, feast of, <a href="#page150">150</a>, <a href="#page154">154</a>.</li>
+<li>Demoniac possession, <a href="#page131">131</a>-<a href="#page133">133</a>, <a href="#page245">245</a>-<a href="#page248">248</a>, <a href="#page299">299</a>.</li>
+<li>Devout, the, <a href="#page013">13</a>, <a href="#page017">17</a>.</li>
+<li>Diatessaron of Tatian, <a href="#page038">38</a>, <a href="#page047">47</a>, <a href="#page281">281</a>.</li>
+<li>Doublets, <a href="#page044">44</a>, <a href="#page281">281</a>.</li>
+<li>Draughts of fish, miraculous, <a href="#page293">293</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Emmaus, site of, <a href="#page307">307</a>.</li>
+<li>Enoch, Book of, <a href="#page241">241</a>, <a href="#page256">256</a>-<a href="#page258">258</a>.</li>
+<li>Ephraim, site of, <a href="#page300">300</a>.</li>
+<li>Essenes,<ul><li> manner of living, <a href="#page011">11</a>-<a href="#page012">12</a>;</li>
+  <li>their hope of Messiah, <a href="#page016">16</a>;</li>
+  <li>their settlement, <a href="#page073">73</a>;</li>
+  <li>relation to John the Baptist, <a href="#page073">73</a>, <a href="#page077">77</a>.</li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Five thousand, the feeding of, <a href="#page135">135</a>f., <a href="#page291">291</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Gadarenes, country of, <a href="#page247">247</a>, <a href="#page290">290</a>f.</li>
+<li>Genealogies of Jesus, <a href="#page282">282</a>.</li>
+<li>Gethsemane, <a href="#page177">177</a>, <a href="#page186">186</a>, <a href="#page188">188</a>f., <a href="#page265">265</a>, <a href="#page305">305</a>.</li>
+<li>Golgotha, <a href="#page305">305</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Herod the Great, <a href="#page003">3</a>;
+<ul>  <li>began to rebuild temple, <a href="#page049">49</a>;</li>
+  <li>census during his reign, <a href="#page054">54</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Herod Antipas, <a href="#page004">4</a>, <a href="#page192">192</a>.</li>
+<li>Herodians, <a href="#page014">14</a>, <a href="#page173">173</a>.</li>
+
+<li>James, brother of John, <a href="#page092">92</a>, <a href="#page094">94</a>, <a href="#page118">118</a>.</li>
+<li>Jesus,<ul><li> language of, <a href="#page019">19</a>, <a href="#page062">62</a>, <a href="#page279">279</a>;</li>
+  <li>date of birth, <a href="#page052">52</a>-<a href="#page056">56</a>;</li>
+  <li>the miraculous conception, <a href="#page058">58</a>-<a href="#page061">61</a>;</li>
+  <li>growth, physical, intellectual, moral, and spiritual, <a href="#page061">61</a>-<a href="#page066">66</a>;</li>
+  <li>his brothers and sisters, <a href="#page064">64</a>;</li>
+  <li>visit to Jerusalem in his twelfth year, <a href="#page066">66</a>-<a class="newpage" name="page312" id="page312" title="312"></a><a href="#page068">68</a>;</li>
+  <li>life in Nazareth, <a href="#page068">68</a>f.;</li>
+  <li>his baptism, <a href="#page083">83</a>-<a href="#page086">86</a>;</li>
+  <li>his temptation, <a href="#page086">86</a>-<a href="#page091">91</a>;</li>
+  <li>his first disciples, <a href="#page092">92</a>-<a href="#page095">95</a>;</li>
+  <li>at Cana, <a href="#page095">95</a>;</li>
+  <li>his social friendliness, <a href="#page096">96</a>, <a href="#page219">219</a>f.;</li>
+  <li>the cleansing of the temple, <a href="#page108">108</a>-<a href="#page110">110</a>;</li>
+  <li>talk with Nicodemus, <a href="#page111">111</a>;</li>
+  <li>the woman of Samaria, <a href="#page112">112</a>;</li>
+  <li>cure of nobleman's son, <a href="#page113">113</a>;</li>
+  <li>in retirement in Galilee, <a href="#page113">113</a>f.;</li>
+  <li>call of four disciples, <a href="#page118">118</a>;</li>
+  <li>popular enthusiasm and pharisaic opposition, <a href="#page119">119</a>-<a href="#page121">121</a>;</li>
+  <li>his withdrawals and injunctions of silence, <a href="#page122">122</a> ff.;</li>
+  <li>blasphemy of the Pharisees, <a href="#page124">124</a>;</li>
+  <li>the reply to John's message, <a href="#page125">125</a>;</li>
+  <li>his twofold aim in Galilee, <a href="#page126">126</a>;</li>
+  <li>his method, <a href="#page127">127</a>;</li>
+  <li>the sermon on the mount, <a href="#page127">127</a>f.;</li>
+  <li>the parables, <a href="#page128">128</a>f., <a href="#page231">231</a>f., <a href="#page296">296</a>f.;</li>
+  <li>instruction of the twelve, <a href="#page130">130</a>, <a href="#page297">297</a>;</li>
+  <li>his mighty works, <a href="#page131">131</a>f.;</li>
+  <li>his personal influence, <a href="#page133">133</a>;</li>
+  <li>the feeding of the five thousand, <a href="#page135">135</a>f.;</li>
+  <li>the revulsion in popular feeling, <a href="#page136">136</a>;</li>
+  <li>the controversy about hand washing, <a href="#page139">139</a>;</li>
+  <li>the withdrawal to the north, <a href="#page138">138</a>;</li>
+  <li>the demand for a sign, <a href="#page139">139</a>;</li>
+  <li>disciples warned against the Pharisees, <a href="#page139">139</a>;</li>
+  <li>the question at C&aelig;sarea Philippi, <a href="#page141">141</a>f.;</li>
+  <li>commendation of Peter, <a href="#page143">143</a>;</li>
+  <li>announcement of approaching death, <a href="#page144">144</a>;</li>
+  <li>rebuke of Peter, <a href="#page145">145</a>;</li>
+  <li>the transfiguration, <a href="#page146">146</a>f.;</li>
+  <li>the epileptic boy, <a href="#page147">147</a>;</li>
+  <li>rebuke of worldly ambition, <a href="#page147">147</a>f.;</li>
+  <li>Jesus and his brethren, <a href="#page148">148</a>;</li>
+  <li>at the feast of Tabernacles, <a href="#page148">148</a>;</li>
+  <li>return to Galilee, <a href="#page150">150</a>;</li>
+  <li>final departure from Galilee, <a href="#page154">154</a>;</li>
+  <li>the mission of the seventy, <a href="#page158">158</a>;</li>
+  <li>visit to the feast of Dedication, <a href="#page159">159</a>;</li>
+  <li>in Perea, <a href="#page160">160</a>;</li>
+  <li>the summons to Bethany, <a href="#page161">161</a>f.;</li>
+  <li>official determination to get rid of him, <a href="#page161">161</a>;</li>
+  <li>at Ephraim, <a href="#page162">162</a>;</li>
+  <li>question about divorce, <a href="#page154">154</a>;</li>
+  <li>blessing little children, <a href="#page154">154</a>;</li>
+  <li>the rich young ruler, <a href="#page154">154</a>;</li>
+  <li>request of Salome, <a href="#page163">163</a>;</li>
+  <li>Bartimeus, <a href="#page163">163</a>;</li>
+  <li>Zacch&aelig;us, <a href="#page163">163</a>;</li>
+  <li>anointing at Bethany, <a href="#page169">169</a>;</li>
+  <li>the Messianic entry, <a href="#page170">170</a>f.;</li>
+  <li>the barren fig-tree, <a href="#page172">172</a>;</li>
+  <li>the questions of the leaders, <a href="#page173">173</a>f.;</li>
+  <li>counter question, <a href="#page175">175</a>;</li>
+  <li>denunciation of scribes, <a href="#page175">175</a>;</li>
+  <li>the widow's mites, <a href="#page176">176</a>;</li>
+  <li>visit of the Greeks. <a href="#page176">176</a>f.;</li>
+  <li>the eschatological discourse, <a href="#page178">178</a>;</li>
+  <li>bargain of Judas, <a href="#page169">169</a>, <a href="#page178">178</a>f.;</li>
+  <li>the last supper, <a href="#page181">181</a>-<a href="#page184">184</a>;</li>
+  <li>dispute and foot washing, <a href="#page184">184</a>;</li>
+  <li>withdrawal of Judas, <a href="#page184">184</a>;</li>
+  <li>prediction of Peter's denials, <a href="#page185">185</a>;</li>
+  <li>discourse and prayer, <a href="#page185">185</a>-<a href="#page187">187</a>;</li>
+  <li>Gethsemane, <a href="#page188">188</a>-<a href="#page190">190</a>;</li>
+  <li>betrayal and arrest, <a href="#page190">190</a>f.;</li>
+  <li>trial by Jews, <a href="#page191">191</a>f.;</li>
+  <li>trial by Pilate, <a href="#page192">192</a>-<a href="#page194">194</a>;</li>
+  <li>crucifixion, <a href="#page195">195</a>-<a href="#page198">198</a>;</li>
+  <li>burial of Jesus, <a href="#page199">199</a>;</li>
+  <li>the resurrection, <a href="#page201">201</a>-<a href="#page210">210</a>;</li>
+  <li>the ascension, <a href="#page214">214</a>f.;</li>
+  <li>Jesus' attitude to common life, <a href="#page219">219</a>-<a href="#page223">223</a>;</li>
+  <li>his hunger for sympathy, <a href="#page223">223</a>;</li>
+  <li>Jesus as a teacher, <a href="#page226">226</a>f.;</li>
+  <li>his attitude to Old Testament, <a href="#page227">227</a>-<a href="#page229">229</a>;</li>
+  <li>his confidence in men, <a href="#page230">230</a>f.;</li>
+  <li>his use of illustration, <a href="#page231">231</a>-<a href="#page233">233</a>;</li>
+  <li>his alertness of mind, <a href="#page234">234</a>;</li>
+  <li>his leading ideas, <a href="#page235">235</a> ff.;</li>
+  <li>his supernatural knowledge, <a href="#page239">239</a>-<a href="#page244">244</a>;</li>
+  <li>his confession of ignorance, <a href="#page243">243</a>;</li>
+  <li>his kinship with men, <a href="#page244">244</a>f.;</li>
+  <li>treatment of demoniac possession, <a href="#page245">245</a>-<a href="#page248">248</a>;</li>
+  <li>his certainty of his Messianic call, <a href="#page249">249</a>-<a href="#page254">254</a>;</li>
+  <li>his adoption of Messianic titles, <a href="#page254">254</a>-<a href="#page264">264</a>;</li>
+  <li>his consciousness of dependence on God, <a href="#page264">264</a>-<a href="#page266">266</a>;</li>
+  <li>the problem of Jesus, <a href="#page267">267</a>-<a href="#page269">269</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>John, Gospel of, <a href="#page032">32</a>-<a href="#page036">36</a>, <a href="#page040">40</a>f., <a href="#page181">181</a>, <a href="#page280">280</a>, <a href="#page305">305</a>.</li>
+<li>John the Baptist, <a href="#page070">70</a>-<a href="#page081">81</a>;
+<ul>  <li>notice by Josephus, <a href="#page071">71</a>f., <a href="#page279">279</a>f.;</li>
+  <li>his idea of the kingdom of God, <a href="#page073">73</a>;</li>
+  <li>his relation to current thought, <a href="#page073">73</a>-<a href="#page076">76</a>;</li>
+  <li>his baptism, <a href="#page077">77</a>f., <a href="#page083">83</a>;</li>
+  <li>baptism of Jesus, <a href="#page082">82</a>-<a href="#page084">84</a>;</li>
+  <li>the embassy from the priests, <a href="#page092">92</a>;</li>
+  <li>testimony--"the Lamb of God," <a href="#page093">93</a>, <a href="#page286">286</a>;</li>
+  <li>baptizing at &AElig;non, <a href="#page112">112</a>;</li>
+  <li>his self-effacing witness to Jesus, <a href="#page079">79</a>, <a href="#page112">112</a>;</li>
+  <li>hostility of the Pharisees, <a href="#page113">113</a>, <a href="#page289">289</a>;</li>
+  <li>arrest by Antipas, <a href="#page071">71</a>f., <a href="#page113">113</a>;</li>
+  <li>his message to Jesus, <a href="#page125">125</a>;</li>
+  <li>death in prison, <a href="#page134">134</a>f.; his significance, <a href="#page079">79</a>-<a href="#page081">81</a>, <a href="#page226">226</a>;</li>
+  <li>the disciples of John, <a href="#page112">112</a>, <a href="#page283">283</a>;</li>
+  <li>literature about John, <a href="#page283">283</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>John, son of Zebedee, <a href="#page036">36</a>, <a href="#page092">92</a>, <a href="#page094">94</a>, <a href="#page118">118</a>, <a href="#page193">193</a>,<a href="#page269">269</a>.</li>
+<li><a class="newpage" name="page313" id="page313" title="313"></a>John of Gischals, <a href="#page121">121</a>.</li>
+<li>Joseph of Arimathea, <a href="#page182">182</a>, <a href="#page199">199</a>.</li>
+<li>Josephus, <a href="#page022">22</a>;
+<ul>  <li>notice of John the Baptist, <a href="#page071">71</a>, <a href="#page279">279</a>f.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Judas of Galilee, <a href="#page011">11</a>, <a href="#page121">121</a>.</li>
+<li>Judas the betrayer, <a href="#page169">169</a>, <a href="#page181">181</a>, <a href="#page302">302</a>;
+<ul>  <li>the bargain, <a href="#page178">178</a>;</li>
+  <li>his selection as an apostle, <a href="#page179">179</a>;</li>
+  <li>his criticism of Mary at Bethany, <a href="#page179">179</a>;</li>
+  <li>his kiss, <a href="#page190">190</a>;</li>
+  <li>his remorse, <a href="#page179">179</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Judea, province of, <a href="#page006">6</a>f.</li>
+
+<li>Kingdom of God, <a href="#page068">68</a>, <a href="#page086">86</a>, <a href="#page090">90</a>, <a href="#page173">173</a>, <a href="#page190">190</a>, <a href="#page231">231</a>, <a href="#page232">232</a>, <a href="#page235">235</a> ff., <a href="#page238">238</a>, <a href="#page241">241</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Language used by Jesus, <a href="#page019">19</a>, <a href="#page062">62</a>, <a href="#page279">279</a>.</li>
+<li>Last supper, the, <a href="#page181">181</a>-<a href="#page187">187</a>, <a href="#page303">303</a>-<a href="#page305">305</a>.</li>
+<li>Lawyers, see <i>Scribes</i>.</li>
+<li>Length of Jesus' ministry, <a href="#page045">45</a>-<a href="#page049">49</a>.</li>
+<li>Literature of the Jews, <a href="#page018">18</a>f., <a href="#page279">279</a>.</li>
+<li>"Logia," ascribed to Matthew, <a href="#page032">32</a>, <a href="#page042">42</a>, <a href="#page158">158</a>.</li>
+<li>Luke, Gospel of, <a href="#page026">26</a>f., <a href="#page031">31</a>f., <a href="#page280">280</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Mark, Gospel of, <a href="#page025">25</a>f., <a href="#page027">27</a>, <a href="#page029">29</a>, <a href="#page032">32</a>, <a href="#page040">40</a>, <a href="#page042">42</a>, <a href="#page280">280</a>, <a href="#page294">294</a>f.;
+<ul>  <li>last twelve verses of, <a href="#page204">204</a>f., <a href="#page306">306</a>f.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Mary Magdalene, <a href="#page134">134</a>, <a href="#page208">208</a>.</li>
+<li>Mary, the mother of Jesus, <a href="#page059">59</a>;
+<ul>  <li>had other children, <a href="#page060">60</a>, <a href="#page063">63</a>f., <a href="#page283">283</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Matthew, Gospel of, <a href="#page023">23</a> ff., <a href="#page027">27</a>, <a href="#page030">30</a>f., <a href="#page032">32</a>, <a href="#page280">280</a>.</li>
+<li>Messianic entry into Jerusalem, <a href="#page170">170</a>, <a href="#page301">301</a>f.</li>
+<li>Messianic hope, the, <a href="#page016">16</a>-<a href="#page018">18</a>, <a href="#page087">87</a>, <a href="#page175">175</a>, <a href="#page279">279</a>.</li>
+<li>Miracles of Jesus, <a href="#page096">96</a>, <a href="#page267">267</a>, <a href="#page286">286</a>f.</li>
+<li>Miraculous birth, the, <a href="#page057">57</a>-<a href="#page061">61</a>, <a href="#page232">232</a>.</li>
+<li>Mission of the twelve, <a href="#page130">130</a>, <a href="#page297">297</a>.</li>
+<li>Mission of the seventy, <a href="#page158">158</a>, <a href="#page300">300</a>f.</li>
+
+<li>Nathanael, of Cana, <a href="#page092">92</a>, <a href="#page094">94</a>, <a href="#page286">286</a>.</li>
+<li>Nazareth,<ul><li> the view from, <a href="#page065">65</a>f.</li>
+  <li>rejection at, <a href="#page292">292</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Nicodemus, <a href="#page111">111</a>, <a href="#page199">199</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Papias, <a href="#page022">22</a>, <a href="#page029">29</a>, <a href="#page034">34</a>, <a href="#page047">47</a>, <a href="#page102">102</a>, <a href="#page281">281</a>.</li>
+<li>Parables of Jesus, <a href="#page128">128</a>f., <a href="#page231">231</a>f., <a href="#page296">296</a>f.</li>
+<li>Passover, the, <a href="#page181">181</a>, <a href="#page187">187</a>, <a href="#page304">304</a>.</li>
+<li>Paul, <a href="#page021">21</a>, <a href="#page036">36</a>, <a href="#page201">201</a>, <a href="#page206">206</a>, <a href="#page268">268</a>.</li>
+<li>Pentateuch, Jesus' references to, <a href="#page244">244</a>.</li>
+<li>Perea, <a href="#page104">104</a>, <a href="#page153">153</a>f., <a href="#page158">158</a>, <a href="#page299">299</a>f.</li>
+<li>Peter, <a href="#page029">29</a>, <a href="#page034">34</a>, <a href="#page092">92</a>, <a href="#page094">94</a>, <a href="#page118">118</a>, <a href="#page185">185</a>, <a href="#page193">193</a>, <a href="#page305">305</a>, <a href="#page306">306</a>;
+<ul>  <li>confession of, <a href="#page136">136</a>, <a href="#page142">142</a> ff., <a href="#page297">297</a>f.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Pharisees, the, <a href="#page008">8</a>-<a href="#page010">10</a>;
+<ul>  <li>attitude to John the Baptist, <a href="#page082">82</a>, <a href="#page113">113</a>, <a href="#page289">289</a>;</li>
+  <li>their blasphemy, <a href="#page124">124</a>, <a href="#page156">156</a>;</li>
+  <li>question about divorce, <a href="#page154">154</a>;</li>
+  <li>about tribute, <a href="#page173">173</a>;</li>
+  <li>about the great commandment, <a href="#page174">174</a>, <a href="#page302">302</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Philip of Bethsaida, <a href="#page092">92</a>, <a href="#page094">94</a>, <a href="#page176">176</a>.</li>
+<li>Philip the tetrarch, <a href="#page004">4</a>.</li>
+<li>Pliny the younger, <a href="#page021">21</a>.</li>
+<li>Pontius Pilate, <a href="#page005">5</a>, <a href="#page192">192</a>, <a href="#page195">195</a>.</li>
+<li>Priests, the, <a href="#page007">7</a>f., <a href="#page107">107</a>;
+<ul>  <li>and the temple market, <a href="#page108">108</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Proselytes, <a href="#page078">78</a>, <a href="#page176">176</a>, <a href="#page302">302</a>.</li>
+<li>Psalms, Jesus' use of the, <a href="#page244">244</a>.</li>
+<li>Psalms of Solomon, <a href="#page018">18</a>, <a href="#page261">261</a>.</li>
+<li>Publicans, <a href="#page006">6</a>, <a href="#page072">72</a>, <a href="#page222">222</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Quirinius, census under, <a href="#page052">52</a>-<a href="#page055">55</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Religion of Jesus, <a href="#page264">264</a> ff., <a href="#page308">308</a>.</li>
+<li>Resurrection,<ul><li> pharisaic doctrine of, <a href="#page010">10</a>, <a href="#page241">241</a>;</li>
+  <li>Sadducean rejection of <a href="#page010">10</a>, <a href="#page174">174</a>.</li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Sadducees, the, <a href="#page008">8</a>, <a href="#page016">16</a>, <a href="#page082">82</a>;
+<ul>  <li>the question about the resurrection, <a href="#page174">174</a>, <a href="#page303">303</a>;</li>
+  <li>attitude towards Jesus, <a href="#page193">193</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Samaria, <a href="#page006">6</a>f.
+<ul>  <li>Jesus' journey through, <a href="#page112">112</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Samaritans, how regarded, <a href="#page014">14</a>.</li>
+<li>Sanhedrin, the great, at Jerusalem, <a href="#page007">7</a>, <a href="#page013">13</a>, <a href="#page192">192</a>.</li>
+<li>Scribes,<ul><li> their business, <a href="#page009">9</a>;</li>
+  <li>power in the sanhedrin, <a href="#page013">13</a>;</li>
+  <li>their influence over the religious life, <a href="#page014">14</a>;</li>
+  <li>their hope of a Messiah, <a href="#page016">16</a>;</li>
+  <li>their washings, <a href="#page078">78</a>;</li>
+  <li>chief of them at Jerusalem, <a href="#page107">107</a>;</li>
+  <li>their pride of learning and their bondage to tradition, <a href="#page228">228</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Sermon on the mount, <a href="#page127">127</a>, <a href="#page290">290</a>, <a href="#page295">295</a>f.</li>
+<li>Signs, essential marks of the Messiah, <a href="#page095">95</a>, <a href="#page131">131</a>.</li>
+<li>Soldiers in Palestine, <a href="#page006">6</a>, <a href="#page072">72</a>, <a href="#page191">191</a>.</li>
+<li>Son of Man, the, <a href="#page124">124</a>f., <a href="#page130">130</a>f., <a href="#page254">254</a>-<a href="#page260">260</a>, <a href="#page308">308</a>.</li>
+<li><a class="newpage" name="page314" id="page314" title="314"></a>Son of God, the, <a href="#page260">260</a>-<a href="#page264">264</a>, <a href="#page308">308</a>.</li>
+<li>Star of the wise men, <a href="#page056">56</a>.</li>
+<li>Suetonius, <a href="#page021">21</a>.</li>
+<li>Sychar, site of, <a href="#page288">288</a>.</li>
+<li>Synagogue, the, <a href="#page014">14</a>.</li>
+<li>Synoptic gospels, <a href="#page028">28</a>.</li>
+<li>Synoptic problem, <a href="#page027">27</a>-<a href="#page032">32</a>, <a href="#page279">279</a>f.</li>
+
+<li>Tabernacles, feast of, <a href="#page148">148</a>, <a href="#page150">150</a>, <a href="#page298">298</a>f.</li>
+<li>Tacitus, <a href="#page003">3</a>, <a href="#page021">21</a>, <a href="#page054">54</a>.</li>
+<li>Tatian, <a href="#page023">23</a>, <a href="#page038">38</a>, <a href="#page047">47</a>, <a href="#page281">281</a>.</li>
+<li>Taxes, Roman, in Judea, <a href="#page006">6</a>.</li>
+<li>Temple at Jerusalem, <a href="#page107">107</a>;
+<ul>  <li>market in <a href="#page107">107</a>;</li>
+  <li>cleansing of, <a href="#page107">107</a>, <a href="#page288">288</a>f.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Temptation of Jesus, <a href="#page086">86</a>-<a href="#page091">91</a>, <a href="#page145">145</a>, <a href="#page284">284</a>;
+<ul>  <li>locality of, <a href="#page285">285</a>;</li>
+  <li>source of the record, <a href="#page090">90</a>, <a href="#page285">285</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Tertullian, <a href="#page045">45</a>, <a href="#page053">53</a>.</li>
+<li>Thomas, <a href="#page208">208</a>.</li>
+<li>Tiberius, <a href="#page001">1</a>, <a href="#page021">21</a>, <a href="#page050">50</a>.</li>
+<li>Traditions of the elders, <a href="#page009">9</a>, <a href="#page015">15</a>f., <a href="#page068">68</a>, <a href="#page074">74</a>, <a href="#page139">139</a>.</li>
+<li>Transfiguration, the, <a href="#page146">146</a>f., <a href="#page292">292</a>.</li>
+<li>Trial of Jesus, the, <a href="#page191">191</a>-<a href="#page195">195</a>, <a href="#page305">305</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Words from the cross, <a href="#page196">196</a> ff., <a href="#page306">306</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Zealots, the, <a href="#page011">11</a>, <a href="#page074">74</a>, <a href="#page122">122</a>, <a href="#page124">124</a>.</li>
+</ul></div>
+
+
+
+<div id="index2">
+<h3><a class="newpage" name="page315" id="page315" title="315"></a>Index of Scripture References</h3>
+
+
+
+<table summary="Index of Scripture References">
+<tr><th colspan="2">Ex.</th></tr>
+
+<tr><td>iv. 22                 </td><td><a href="#page261">261</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xix. 10                 </td><td><a href="#page078">78</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxiv. 1-11             </td><td><a href="#page183">183</a></td></tr>
+
+
+
+<tr><th colspan="2">Lev.</th></tr>
+
+<tr><td>xii. 8                  </td><td><a href="#page061">61</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxiii. 5-11             </td><td><a href="#page047">47</a></td></tr>
+
+
+
+<tr><th colspan="2">Num.</th></tr>
+
+<tr><td>xxiii. 19              </td><td><a href="#page254">254</a></td></tr>
+
+
+
+<tr><th colspan="2">Deut.</th></tr>
+
+<tr><td>vi. 4-9                 </td><td><a href="#page062">62</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>viii. 3                 </td><td><a href="#page088">88</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xviii. 15               </td><td><a href="#page092">92</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxi. 23                </td><td><a href="#page196">196</a></td></tr>
+
+
+
+<tr><th colspan="2">I. Sam.</th></tr>
+
+<tr><td>ii. 26                  </td><td><a href="#page061">61</a></td></tr>
+
+
+
+<tr><th colspan="2">I. Kings.</th></tr>
+
+<tr><td>xvii. 1                 </td><td><a href="#page072">72</a></td></tr>
+
+
+
+<tr><th colspan="2">II. Kings.</th></tr>
+
+<tr><td>i. 8                    </td><td><a href="#page078">78</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xvii. 24-41             </td><td><a href="#page014">14</a></td></tr>
+
+
+
+<tr><th colspan="2">Ps.</th></tr>
+
+<tr><td>ii. 7                  </td><td><a href="#page261">261</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>viii. 4                </td><td><a href="#page254">254</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxii.                  </td><td><a href="#page196">196</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>lxxx. 17               </td><td><a href="#page254">254</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>lxxxii. 6              </td><td><a href="#page261">261</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ciii. 13               </td><td><a href="#page262">262</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>cxiii., cxiv.          </td><td><a href="#page304">304</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>cxv. to cxviii.        </td><td><a href="#page185">185</a>, <a href="#page304">304</a></td></tr>
+
+
+
+<tr><th colspan="2">Isa.</th></tr>
+
+<tr><td>i. 16                   </td><td><a href="#page076">76</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vi. 5                  </td><td><a href="#page267">267</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xi. 2                   </td><td><a href="#page085">85</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxxv. 5f.              </td><td><a href="#page126">126</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xlii. 1                 </td><td><a href="#page085">85</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>li. 2                  </td><td><a href="#page254">254</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>liii.                   </td><td><a href="#page096">96</a>, <a href="#page239">239</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>liii. 7                 </td><td><a href="#page093">93</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>lviii.                  </td><td><a href="#page076">76</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>lxi. 1f.                </td><td><a href="#page045">45</a>, <a href="#page085">85</a>, <a href="#page126">126</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>lxiii. 16              </td><td><a href="#page262">262</a></td></tr>
+
+
+
+<tr><th colspan="2">Jer.</th></tr>
+
+<tr><td>xxxi. 31-34            </td><td><a href="#page111">111</a>, <a href="#page183">183</a></td></tr>
+
+
+
+<tr><th colspan="2">Ezek.</th></tr>
+
+<tr><td>ii. 1                  </td><td><a href="#page254">254</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxxiii. 10-20          </td><td><a href="#page240">240</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxxvi. 25-27           </td><td><a href="#page111">111</a></td></tr>
+
+
+<tr><th colspan="2">Dan.</th></tr>
+
+<tr><td>vi. 10                 </td><td><a href="#page107">107</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vii. 1-14              </td><td><a href="#page254">254</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vii. 13f.              </td><td><a href="#page255">255</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>viii. 17               </td><td><a href="#page254">254</a></td></tr>
+
+
+<tr><th colspan="2">Hos.</th></tr>
+
+<tr><td>i. 10                  </td><td><a href="#page261">261</a></td></tr>
+
+
+<tr><th colspan="2">Joel.</th></tr>
+
+<tr><td>ii. 1-14                </td><td><a href="#page076">76</a></td></tr>
+
+
+<tr><th colspan="2">Micah.</th></tr>
+
+<tr><td>vi. 8                   </td><td><a href="#page076">76</a></td></tr>
+
+
+<tr><th colspan="2">Matt.</th></tr>
+
+<tr><td>i. 1 to iv. 17          </td><td><a href="#page023">23</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ii. 1, 2                </td><td><a href="#page052">52</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iii. 7                  </td><td><a href="#page074">74</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iii. 9                  </td><td><a href="#page078">78</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iii. 10-12              </td><td><a href="#page082">82</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iii. 11                 </td><td><a href="#page077">77</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iii. 14                 </td><td><a href="#page082">82</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iii. 15                 </td><td><a href="#page083">83</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iii. 16                </td><td><a href="#page285">285</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iv. 4, 7, 10           </td><td><a href="#page228">228</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iv. 7                   </td><td><a href="#page089">89</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iv. 8                   </td><td><a href="#page090">90</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iv. 10                  </td><td><a href="#page090">90</a>, <a href="#page145">145</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iv. 12                 </td><td><a href="#page101">101</a>, <a href="#page102">102</a>, <a href="#page106">106</a>, <a href="#page289">289</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iv. 12-17               </td><td><a href="#page024">24</a>, <a href="#page039">39</a>, <a href="#page115">115</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iv. 12 to xviii. 35    </td><td><a href="#page102">102</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iv. 13                 </td><td><a href="#page106">106</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iv. 13-16              </td><td><a href="#page115">115</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iv. 17                 </td><td><a href="#page118">118</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iv. 18-22              </td><td><a href="#page106">106</a>, <a href="#page115">115</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iv. 18 to xvi. 20       </td><td><a href="#page024">24</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iv. 23                 </td><td><a href="#page115">115</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iv. 23-25              </td><td><a href="#page115">115</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>v. 1                   </td><td><a href="#page290">290</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>v. 3-12                </td><td><a href="#page296">296</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>v. 13-16               </td><td><a href="#page296">296</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>v. 17                   </td><td><a href="#page083">83</a>, <a href="#page228">228</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>v. 17-19               </td><td><a href="#page296">296</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>v. 18                  </td><td><a href="#page238">238</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>v. 20                  </td><td><a href="#page296">296</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>v. 21-48               </td><td><a href="#page228">228</a>, <a href="#page296">296</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>v. 25f.                </td><td><a href="#page295">295</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>v. 29f.                </td><td><a href="#page295">295</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>v. 32                  </td><td><a href="#page295">295</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>v. 38, 39              </td><td><a href="#page250">250</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>v. 45                  </td><td><a href="#page244">244</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vi. 1-6                 </td><td><a href="#page084">84</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vi. 1-18                </td><td><a href="#page064">64</a>, <a href="#page296">296</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vi. 2-4                </td><td><a href="#page176">176</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vi. 9-15                 </td><td><a href="#page004">4</a>, <a href="#page117">117</a>, <a href="#page295">295</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vi. 19-34              </td><td><a href="#page103">103</a>, <a href="#page295">295</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vi. 24                 </td><td><a href="#page179">179</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vi. 25-34               </td><td><a href="#page042">42</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vii. 1-6               </td><td><a href="#page296">296</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vii. 7-11              </td><td><a href="#page117">117</a>, <a href="#page295">295</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vii. 13f.              </td><td><a href="#page295">295</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vii. 15-21             </td><td><a href="#page296">296</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vii. 21                </td><td><a href="#page262">262</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vii. 21-27             </td><td><a href="#page238">238</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vii. 22f.              </td><td><a href="#page295">295</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vii. 24-27             </td><td><a href="#page296">296</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vii. 28, 29            </td><td><a href="#page226">226</a>, <a href="#page249">249</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>viii. 2-4              </td><td><a href="#page115">115</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>viii. 5                  </td><td><a href="#page007">7</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>viii. 5, 8              </td><td><a href="#page043">43</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>viii. 5-13              </td><td><a href="#page041">41</a>, <a href="#page115">115</a>, <a href="#page288">288</a>, <a href="#page289">289</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>viii. 10               </td><td><a href="#page243">243</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>viii. 10-12             </td><td><a href="#page024">24</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>viii. 14-17            </td><td><a href="#page115">115</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>viii. 18, 23-27        </td><td><a href="#page116">116</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>viii. 19-22            </td><td><a href="#page153">153</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>viii. 20               </td><td><a href="#page259">259</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>viii. 28-34            </td><td><a href="#page116">116</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ix. 1, 18-26           </td><td><a href="#page116">116</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ix. 2-8                </td><td><a href="#page115">115</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ix. 9-13               </td><td><a href="#page115">115</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ix. 14-17              </td><td><a href="#page115">115</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ix. 27-34              </td><td><a href="#page116">116</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ix. 35                 </td><td><a href="#page116">116</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ix. 36 to xi. 1        </td><td><a href="#page116">116</a>, <a href="#page118">118</a>, <a href="#page297">297</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>x. 1, 5-15             </td><td><a href="#page297">297</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>x. 5f.                 </td><td><a href="#page130">130</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>x. 7-15                </td><td><a href="#page297">297</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>x. 16-42               </td><td><a href="#page297">297</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>x. 32                  </td><td><a href="#page262">262</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xi. 2-6                </td><td><a href="#page251">251</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xi. 2-19                </td><td><a href="#page041">41</a>, <a href="#page116">116</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xi. 4-6                </td><td><a href="#page131">131</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xi. 11                  </td><td><a href="#page080">80</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xi. 18f.               </td><td><a href="#page259">259</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xi. 19                  </td><td><a href="#page096">96</a>, <a href="#page220">220</a>, <a href="#page256">256</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xi. 20-24              </td><td><a href="#page301">301</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xi. 20-30              </td><td><a href="#page153">153</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xi. 25-30              </td><td><a href="#page300">300</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xi. 27                 </td><td><a href="#page252">252</a>, <a href="#page263">263</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xi. 28-30              </td><td><a href="#page160">160</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><a class="newpage" name="page316" id="page316" title="316"></a>xii. 1-8               </td><td><a href="#page115">115</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xii. 9-14              </td><td><a href="#page115">115</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xii. 12                </td><td><a href="#page227">227</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xii. 15-21             </td><td><a href="#page115">115</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xii. 22-45             </td><td><a href="#page116">116</a>, <a href="#page156">156</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xii. 28                 </td><td><a href="#page085">85</a>, <a href="#page248">248</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xii. 46-50             </td><td><a href="#page116">116</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xii. 50                </td><td><a href="#page145">145</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xiii. 1-53             </td><td><a href="#page116">116</a>, <a href="#page296">296</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xiii. 24-30            </td><td><a href="#page296">296</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xiii. 31-33             </td><td><a href="#page044">44</a>, <a href="#page017">17</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xiii. 40-43, 49, 50    </td><td><a href="#page296">296</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xiii. 54-58            </td><td><a href="#page116">116</a>, <a href="#page292">292</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xiii. 55                </td><td><a href="#page061">61</a>, <a href="#page063">63</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xiv. 1-12              </td><td><a href="#page116">116</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xiv. 1 to xxviii. 20    </td><td><a href="#page028">28</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xiv. 13-23              </td><td><a href="#page039">39</a>, <a href="#page116">116</a>, <a href="#page297">297</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xiv. 19                 </td><td><a href="#page046">46</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xiv. 21-36             </td><td><a href="#page116">116</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xv. 1                   </td><td><a href="#page043">43</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xv. 1-20               </td><td><a href="#page116">116</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xv. 13f.               </td><td><a href="#page150">150</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xv. 21-28              </td><td><a href="#page116">116</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xv. 21-31              </td><td><a href="#page140">140</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xv. 22                 </td><td><a href="#page254">254</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xv. 24                 </td><td><a href="#page130">130</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xv. 29-31              </td><td><a href="#page117">117</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xv. 32-38              </td><td><a href="#page117">117</a>, <a href="#page297">297</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xv. 39                 </td><td><a href="#page291">291</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xv. 39 to xvi. 12       </td><td><a href="#page017">17</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xvi. 9f.               </td><td><a href="#page297">297</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xvi. 13-20              </td><td><a href="#page094">94</a>, <a href="#page117">117</a>, <a href="#page298">298</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xvi. 16                </td><td><a href="#page263">263</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xvi. 16ff.             </td><td><a href="#page142">142</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xvi. 17                </td><td><a href="#page142">142</a>, <a href="#page224">224</a>, <a href="#page262">262</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xvi. 21                </td><td><a href="#page118">118</a>, <a href="#page239">239</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xvi. 21-28             </td><td><a href="#page117">117</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xvi. 21 to xxviii. 20   </td><td><a href="#page024">24</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xvi. 23                </td><td><a href="#page239">239</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xvii. 1-13             </td><td><a href="#page117">117</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xvii. 10-13            </td><td><a href="#page193">193</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xvii. 14-20            </td><td><a href="#page117">117</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xvi. 22-23             </td><td><a href="#page117">117</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xvii. 24-27            </td><td><a href="#page117">117</a>, <a href="#page139">139</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xviii. 1-35            </td><td><a href="#page117">117</a>, <a href="#page148">148</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xviii. 4               </td><td><a href="#page220">220</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xviii. 12-14            </td><td><a href="#page044">44</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xix. 1f.                </td><td><a href="#page039">39</a>, <a href="#page153">153</a>, <a href="#page154">154</a>, <a href="#page298">298</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xix. 1 to xx. 34       </td><td><a href="#page104">104</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xix. 3-9               </td><td><a href="#page228">228</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xix. 3-12              </td><td><a href="#page153">153</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xix. 13-15             </td><td><a href="#page153">153</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xix. 16 to xx. 16      </td><td><a href="#page153">153</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xx. 17-19              </td><td><a href="#page153">153</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xx. 20-28              </td><td><a href="#page153">153</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xx. 29-34              </td><td><a href="#page153">153</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxi. 1-11              </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxi. 1 to xxvii. 66    </td><td><a href="#page104">104</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxi. 1 to xxviii. 20    </td><td><a href="#page039">39</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxi. 4f.               </td><td><a href="#page170">170</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxi. 9-15              </td><td><a href="#page254">254</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxi. 14-16             </td><td><a href="#page172">172</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxi. 17                </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxi. 18-19, 12-17      </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxi. 20-23             </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxi. 23-27             </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxi. 28 to xxii. 14    </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a>, <a href="#page173">173</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxi. 33-46              </td><td><a href="#page025">25</a>, <a href="#page252">252</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxii. 1-14             </td><td><a href="#page252">252</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxii. 15-22            </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxii. 23-33            </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxii. 34-46            </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a>, <a href="#page238">238</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxii. 41-46            </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxiii. 1-39            </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxiii. 2                </td><td><a href="#page013">13</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxiii. 24              </td><td><a href="#page233">233</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxiii. 37-39            </td><td><a href="#page034">34</a>, <a href="#page106">106</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxiv. 1 to xxvi. 2     </td><td><a href="#page167">167</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxiv. 6-13             </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxv.                   </td><td><a href="#page178">178</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxv. 37-46             </td><td><a href="#page237">237</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxv. 40                </td><td><a href="#page221">221</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxvi. 1f.              </td><td><a href="#page147">147</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxvi. 2, 6-13          </td><td><a href="#page301">301</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxvi. 3-5, 14-16       </td><td><a href="#page167">167</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxvi. 11-13            </td><td><a href="#page167">167</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxvi. 20               </td><td><a href="#page181">181</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxvi. 25               </td><td><a href="#page200">200</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxvi. 26               </td><td><a href="#page305">305</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxvi. 30, 36-46        </td><td><a href="#page167">167</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxvi. 30-35            </td><td><a href="#page305">305</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxvi. 47-56            </td><td><a href="#page167">167</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxvi. 57 to xxvii. 10  </td><td><a href="#page167">167</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxvi. 63f.             </td><td><a href="#page263">263</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxvii. 11-31           </td><td><a href="#page167">167</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxvii. 32-56           </td><td><a href="#page167">167</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxvii. 43              </td><td><a href="#page261">261</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxvii. 46              </td><td><a href="#page197">197</a>, <a href="#page306">306</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxvii. 50              </td><td><a href="#page285">285</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxvii. 57               </td><td><a href="#page034">34</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxvii. 57-61           </td><td><a href="#page167">167</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxvii. 62-66           </td><td><a href="#page167">167</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxviii. 1-8            </td><td><a href="#page201">201</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxviii. 9, 10          </td><td><a href="#page201">201</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxviii. 11-15          </td><td><a href="#page201">201</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxviii. 16-20          </td><td><a href="#page201">201</a>, <a href="#page204">204</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxviii. 18-20           </td><td><a href="#page025">25</a></td></tr>
+
+
+<tr><th colspan="2">Mark.</th></tr>
+
+<tr><td>i. 1-13                 </td><td><a href="#page026">26</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>i. 3                    </td><td><a href="#page079">79</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>i. 4                    </td><td><a href="#page077">77</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>i. 7f.                  </td><td><a href="#page093">93</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>i. 10                   </td><td><a href="#page084">84</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>i. 11                   </td><td><a href="#page068">68</a>, <a href="#page084">84</a>, <a href="#page261">261</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>i. 14                  </td><td><a href="#page101">101</a>, <a href="#page102">102</a>, <a href="#page106">106</a>, <a href="#page289">289</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>i. 14f.                 </td><td><a href="#page039">39</a>, <a href="#page115">115</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>i. 14 to ix. 50         </td><td><a href="#page026">26</a>, <a href="#page102">102</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>i. 16-20               </td><td><a href="#page115">115</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>i. 21-34               </td><td><a href="#page115">115</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>i. 24                  </td><td><a href="#page254">254</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>i. 27                  </td><td><a href="#page249">249</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>i. 35                  </td><td><a href="#page265">265</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>i. 35-39               </td><td><a href="#page253">253</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>i. 35-45               </td><td><a href="#page115">115</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ii. 1-12                </td><td><a href="#page047">47</a>, <a href="#page115">115</a>, <a href="#page230">230</a>, <a href="#page294">294</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ii. 1-17                </td><td><a href="#page048">48</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ii. 1 to iii. 6         </td><td><a href="#page047">47</a>, <a href="#page048">48</a>, <a href="#page250">250</a>, <a href="#page204">204</a>f.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>ii. 5                  </td><td><a href="#page239">239</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ii. 6f.                </td><td><a href="#page121">121</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ii. 10                  </td><td><a href="#page028">28</a>, <a href="#page256">256</a>, <a href="#page259">259</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ii. 10, 28 and &#8741;s      </td><td><a href="#page256">256</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ii. 12                  </td><td><a href="#page025">25</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ii. 13-17               </td><td><a href="#page047">47</a>, <a href="#page115">115</a>, <a href="#page294">294</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ii. 15-17               </td><td><a href="#page096">96</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ii. 16                  </td><td><a href="#page047">47</a>, <a href="#page121">121</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ii. 18-22               </td><td><a href="#page026">26</a>, <a href="#page047">47</a>, <a href="#page115">115</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ii. 20                 </td><td><a href="#page239">239</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ii. 23                  </td><td><a href="#page047">47</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ii. 23-28              </td><td><a href="#page115">115</a>, <a href="#page229">229</a>, <a href="#page294">294</a>f.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>ii. 25-27              </td><td><a href="#page228">228</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ii. 27                 </td><td><a href="#page257">257</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ii. 44                 </td><td><a href="#page253">253</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iii. 1-6                </td><td><a href="#page026">26</a>, <a href="#page115">115</a>, <a href="#page295">295</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iii. 7-12              </td><td><a href="#page115">115</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iii. 11                </td><td><a href="#page261">261</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iii. 13-19             </td><td><a href="#page115">115</a>, <a href="#page295">295</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iii. 17, 41             </td><td><a href="#page025">25</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iii. 19-30              </td><td><a href="#page040">40</a>, <a href="#page042">42</a>, <a href="#page116">116</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iii. 21, 31-35          </td><td><a href="#page059">59</a>, <a href="#page097">97</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iii. 22                 </td><td><a href="#page034">34</a>, <a href="#page121">121</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iii. 22-30             </td><td><a href="#page156">156</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iii. 28-30             </td><td><a href="#page251">251</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iii. 31-35              </td><td><a href="#page059">59</a>, <a href="#page097">97</a>, <a href="#page116">116</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iv. 1-34               </td><td><a href="#page116">116</a>, <a href="#page232">232</a>, <a href="#page296">296</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iv. 3                   </td><td><a href="#page064">64</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iv. 12                 </td><td><a href="#page129">129</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iv. 13                 </td><td><a href="#page129">129</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iv. 26-29              </td><td><a href="#page296">296</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iv. 35-41              </td><td><a href="#page116">116</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>v. 1                   </td><td><a href="#page290">290</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>v. 1-20                </td><td><a href="#page116">116</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>v. 7                   </td><td><a href="#page261">261</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>v. 11-13               </td><td><a href="#page139">139</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>v. 21-43               </td><td><a href="#page116">116</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>v. 30-34               </td><td><a href="#page243">243</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>v. 41                   </td><td><a href="#page020">20</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vi. 1-6                 </td><td><a href="#page043">43</a>, <a href="#page116">116</a>, <a href="#page292">292</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vi. 2f.                </td><td><a href="#page220">220</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vi. 6b                 </td><td><a href="#page116">116</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vi. 7-11               </td><td><a href="#page297">297</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vi. 7-13               </td><td><a href="#page116">116</a>, <a href="#page147">147</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vi. 14-29              </td><td><a href="#page116">116</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vi. 15                 </td><td><a href="#page290">290</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vi. 30-34               </td><td><a href="#page047">47</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vi. 30-46               </td><td><a href="#page039">39</a>, <a href="#page040">40</a>, <a href="#page116">116</a>, <a href="#page297">297</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vi. 39                  </td><td><a href="#page046">46</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vi. 47-56              </td><td><a href="#page116">116</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vii. 1                  </td><td><a href="#page034">34</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vii. 1-23, 48           </td><td><a href="#page048">48</a>, <a href="#page116">116</a>, <a href="#page121">121</a>, <a href="#page139">139</a>, <a href="#page250">250</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vii. 6-13              </td><td><a href="#page233">233</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vii. 8-13               </td><td><a href="#page010">10</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vii. 10                </td><td><a href="#page244">244</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vii. 13                </td><td><a href="#page251">251</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vii. 14-23             </td><td><a href="#page238">238</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vii. 15                </td><td><a href="#page227">227</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vii. 19                </td><td><a href="#page130">130</a>, <a href="#page228">228</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vii. 24-30             </td><td><a href="#page116">116</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vii. 27                </td><td><a href="#page140">140</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vii. 29f.              </td><td><a href="#page289">289</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vii. 31                </td><td><a href="#page291">291</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vii. 31-37             </td><td><a href="#page117">117</a>, <a href="#page297">297</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vii. 34                 </td><td><a href="#page020">20</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vii. 37                 </td><td><a href="#page025">25</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>viii. 1f.              </td><td><a href="#page141">141</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>viii. 1-9              </td><td><a href="#page117">117</a>, <a href="#page297">297</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>viii. 10               </td><td><a href="#page291">291</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>viii. 10-21            </td><td><a href="#page117">117</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>viii. 11                </td><td><a href="#page096">96</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vii. 11-13             </td><td><a href="#page139">139</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>viii. 14f.             </td><td><a href="#page139">139</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><a class="newpage" name="page317" id="page317" title="317"></a>viii. 19f.             </td><td><a href="#page297">297</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>viii. 22-26            </td><td><a href="#page117">117</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>viii. 27-30            </td><td><a href="#page117">117</a>, <a href="#page141">141</a>, <a href="#page298">298</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>viii. 29               </td><td><a href="#page254">254</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>viii. 31               </td><td><a href="#page168">168</a>, <a href="#page020">20</a>, <a href="#page256">256</a>, <a href="#page259">259</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>viii. 31-33             </td><td><a href="#page087">87</a>, <a href="#page239">239</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>viii. 31-ix. 1         </td><td><a href="#page117">117</a>, <a href="#page296">296</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>viii. 32f.              </td><td><a href="#page093">93</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>viii. 34f.             </td><td><a href="#page147">147</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>viii. 34 to ix. 1      </td><td><a href="#page146">146</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>viii. 38               </td><td><a href="#page256">256</a>, <a href="#page259">259</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ix. 1                  </td><td><a href="#page242">242</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ix. 2                  </td><td><a href="#page292">292</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ix. 2-13               </td><td><a href="#page117">117</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ix. 6                   </td><td><a href="#page028">28</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ix. 9                  </td><td><a href="#page147">147</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ix. 10                 </td><td><a href="#page203">203</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ix. 14-29              </td><td><a href="#page117">117</a>, <a href="#page147">147</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ix. 19                 </td><td><a href="#page224">224</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ix. 29                 </td><td><a href="#page265">265</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ix. 30-32              </td><td><a href="#page117">117</a>, <a href="#page147">147</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ix. 31                 </td><td><a href="#page204">204</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ix. 33-50              </td><td><a href="#page117">117</a>, <a href="#page299">299</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ix. 35-37              </td><td><a href="#page234">234</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ix. 43-47              </td><td><a href="#page295">295</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>x. 1                     </td><td><a href="#page009"></a>, <a href="#page104">104</a>, <a href="#page153">153</a>, <a href="#page154">154</a>, <a href="#page298">298</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>x. 1 to xvi. 8          </td><td><a href="#page026">26</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>x. 2-12                </td><td><a href="#page153">153</a>, <a href="#page154">154</a>, <a href="#page298">298</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>x. 5f.                 </td><td><a href="#page244">244</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>x. 11                  </td><td><a href="#page153">153</a>, <a href="#page154">154</a>, <a href="#page160">160</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>x. 13-16               </td><td><a href="#page104">104</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>x. 17-31               </td><td><a href="#page153">153</a>, <a href="#page155">155</a>, <a href="#page160">160</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>x. 18                  </td><td><a href="#page226">226</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>x. 19                  </td><td><a href="#page229">229</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>x. 25                  </td><td><a href="#page233">233</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>x. 32-34               </td><td><a href="#page147">147</a>, <a href="#page153">153</a>, <a href="#page155">155</a>, <a href="#page162">162</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>x. 35-45               </td><td><a href="#page153">153</a>, <a href="#page155">155</a>, <a href="#page163">163</a>, <a href="#page165">165</a>, <a href="#page184">184</a>, <a href="#page230">230</a>, <a href="#page304">304</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>x. 40                  </td><td><a href="#page243">243</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>x. 42-45               </td><td><a href="#page259">259</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>x. 45                  </td><td><a href="#page241">241</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>x. 46                  </td><td><a href="#page162">162</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>x. 46-52               </td><td><a href="#page153">153</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>x. 47f.                </td><td><a href="#page254">254</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>x. 48                  </td><td><a href="#page163">163</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xi. 1-11               </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xi. 1 to xv. 47        </td><td><a href="#page104">104</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xi. 1 to xvi. 8 [20]    </td><td><a href="#page039">39</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xi. 2f.                 </td><td><a href="#page034">34</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xi. 2-5                </td><td><a href="#page112">112</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xi. 8-10               </td><td><a href="#page162">162</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xi. 9f.                </td><td><a href="#page170">170</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xi. 12-14, 15-18       </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xi. 12-14, 20-25       </td><td><a href="#page172">172</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xi. 14-36               </td><td><a href="#page042">42</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xi. 15-19               </td><td><a href="#page043">43</a>, <a href="#page288">288</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xi. 17                 </td><td><a href="#page108">108</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xi. 19                 </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xi. 20-27              </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xi. 25                 </td><td><a href="#page295">295</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xi. 27-33              </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xi. 29-33              </td><td><a href="#page173">173</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xii. 1-12              </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xii. 13-17             </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a>, <a href="#page173">173</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xii. 16                </td><td><a href="#page227">227</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xii. 18-27             </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a>, <a href="#page174">174</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xii. 24-27             </td><td><a href="#page228">228</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xii. 27                </td><td><a href="#page186">186</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xii. 28-34             </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a>, <a href="#page174">174</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xii. 35-37             </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a>, <a href="#page245">245</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xii. 38-40             </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xii. 41-44             </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xiii. and &#8741;s           </td><td><a href="#page178">178</a>, <a href="#page241">241</a>, <a href="#page302">302</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xiii. 1-37             </td><td><a href="#page167">167</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xiii. 24-27            </td><td><a href="#page238">238</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xiii. 32               </td><td><a href="#page243">243</a>, <a href="#page247">247</a>, <a href="#page252">252</a>, <a href="#page263">263</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xiv. 1f., 10f.         </td><td><a href="#page167">167</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xiv. 3                 </td><td><a href="#page169">169</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xiv. 3-9               </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a>, <a href="#page301">301</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xiv. 3-11              </td><td><a href="#page169">169</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xiv. 8                 </td><td><a href="#page169">169</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xiv. 12                </td><td><a href="#page303">303</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xiv. 12-16             </td><td><a href="#page112">112</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xiv. 12-26             </td><td><a href="#page167">167</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xiv. 14                 </td><td><a href="#page034">34</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xiv. 17                </td><td><a href="#page181">181</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xiv. 18-21             </td><td><a href="#page184">184</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xiv. 20                </td><td><a href="#page185">185</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xiv. 21                </td><td><a href="#page180">180</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xiv. 26, 32-42         </td><td><a href="#page167">167</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xiv. 26-31             </td><td><a href="#page305">305</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xiv. 33f.              </td><td><a href="#page186">186</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xiv. 34                </td><td><a href="#page145">145</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xiv. 36                 </td><td><a href="#page020">20</a>, <a href="#page189">189</a>, <a href="#page239">239</a>, <a href="#page265">265</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xiv. 43-52             </td><td><a href="#page167">167</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xiv. 45                </td><td><a href="#page190">190</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xiv. 50                </td><td><a href="#page182">182</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xiv. 53 to xv. 1       </td><td><a href="#page190">190</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xiv. 61                </td><td><a href="#page167">167</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xiv. 61f.              </td><td><a href="#page254">254</a>, <a href="#page261">261</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xiv. 61-64             </td><td><a href="#page263">263</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xiv. 62                </td><td><a href="#page191">191</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xiv. 66-72              </td><td><a href="#page085">85</a>, <a href="#page258">258</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xv. 1                  </td><td><a href="#page192">192</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xv. 1-20               </td><td><a href="#page167">167</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xv. 2                  </td><td><a href="#page254">254</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xv. 6-15               </td><td><a href="#page192">192</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xv. 21                 </td><td><a href="#page182">182</a>, <a href="#page195">195</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xv. 21-41              </td><td><a href="#page167">167</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xv. 22                 </td><td><a href="#page305">305</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xv. 34                  </td><td><a href="#page020">20</a>, <a href="#page197">197</a>, <a href="#page306">306</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xv. 42                 </td><td><a href="#page182">182</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xv. 42-47              </td><td><a href="#page167">167</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xv. 43                  </td><td><a href="#page034">34</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xv. 46                 </td><td><a href="#page182">182</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xvi. 1                 </td><td><a href="#page202">202</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xvi. 1-8               </td><td><a href="#page201">201</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xvi. 6f.               </td><td><a href="#page209">209</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xvi. [9-20]            </td><td><a href="#page204">204</a>f., <a href="#page306">306</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xvi. [9-11]            </td><td><a href="#page201">201</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xvi. [12f.]            </td><td><a href="#page201">201</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xvi. [14]              </td><td><a href="#page201">201</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xvi. [15-18]           </td><td><a href="#page201">201</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xvi. [19f.]             </td><td><a href="#page201">201</a></td></tr>
+
+
+
+<tr><th colspan="2">Luke.</th></tr>
+
+
+<tr><td>i. 1-4                  </td><td><a href="#page026">26</a>, <a href="#page042">42</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>i. 3                    </td><td><a href="#page041">41</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>i. 5                    </td><td><a href="#page052">52</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>i. 36                   </td><td><a href="#page082">82</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>i. 46-55                </td><td><a href="#page060">60</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>i. 68-79                </td><td><a href="#page068">68</a>-<a href="#page079">79</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>i. 80                   </td><td><a href="#page061">61</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ii. 1f.                 </td><td><a href="#page052">52</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ii. 8                   </td><td><a href="#page056">56</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ii. 19-51               </td><td><a href="#page059">59</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ii. 24                  </td><td><a href="#page061">61</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ii. 40-52               </td><td><a href="#page061">61</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ii. 41                  </td><td><a href="#page062">62</a>, <a href="#page107">107</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ii. 48                  </td><td><a href="#page097">97</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ii. 49                  </td><td><a href="#page067">67</a>, <a href="#page262">262</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ii. 52                  </td><td><a href="#page063">63</a>, <a href="#page069">69</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iii. 1f.                </td><td><a href="#page045">45</a>, <a href="#page049">49</a>, <a href="#page052">52</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iii. 13f.               </td><td><a href="#page074">74</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iii. 15                 </td><td><a href="#page094">94</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iii. 21                 </td><td><a href="#page064">64</a>, <a href="#page082">82</a>, <a href="#page085">85</a>, <a href="#page265">265</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iii. 23                 </td><td><a href="#page052">52</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iv. 5                   </td><td><a href="#page090">90</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iv. 13                  </td><td><a href="#page087">87</a>, <a href="#page146">146</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iv. 14                 </td><td><a href="#page101">101</a>, <a href="#page102">102</a>, <a href="#page289">289</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iv. 14, 15              </td><td><a href="#page039">39</a>, <a href="#page115">115</a>, <a href="#page292">292</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iv. 14 to ix. 50        </td><td><a href="#page026">26</a>, <a href="#page102">102</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iv. 16                  </td><td><a href="#page062">62</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iv. 16-19               </td><td><a href="#page063">63</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iv. 16-30               </td><td><a href="#page043">43</a>, <a href="#page116">116</a>, <a href="#page292">292</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iv. 23                 </td><td><a href="#page292">292</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iv. 31                 </td><td><a href="#page106">106</a>, <a href="#page115">115</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iv. 31-41              </td><td><a href="#page115">115</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iv. 42-44              </td><td><a href="#page115">115</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>v. 1-11                </td><td><a href="#page115">115</a>, <a href="#page293">293</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>v. 4-11                 </td><td><a href="#page043">43</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>v. 12-16               </td><td><a href="#page115">115</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>v. 17                   </td><td><a href="#page034">34</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>v. 17-26               </td><td><a href="#page115">115</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>v. 24                   </td><td><a href="#page028">28</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>v. 27-32               </td><td><a href="#page115">115</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>v. 33-39               </td><td><a href="#page115">115</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vi. 1-5                </td><td><a href="#page115">115</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vi. 6-11               </td><td><a href="#page115">115</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vi. 12                  </td><td><a href="#page084">84</a>, <a href="#page265">265</a>, <a href="#page290">290</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vi. 12-19              </td><td><a href="#page115">115</a>, <a href="#page295">295</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vi. 17                 </td><td><a href="#page290">290</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vi. 20                 </td><td><a href="#page222">222</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vi. 20 to vii. 1       </td><td><a href="#page115">115</a>, <a href="#page295">295</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vi. 20-26              </td><td><a href="#page296">296</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vi. 27-42              </td><td><a href="#page296">296</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vi. 43-46              </td><td><a href="#page296">296</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vi. 47-49              </td><td><a href="#page296">296</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vii. 1-10               </td><td><a href="#page041">41</a>, <a href="#page115">115</a>, <a href="#page288">288</a>, <a href="#page289">289</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vii. 2-5                 </td><td><a href="#page007">7</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vii. 7                  </td><td><a href="#page043">43</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vii. 11-17              </td><td><a href="#page042">42</a>, <a href="#page116">116</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vii. 18-35              </td><td><a href="#page041">41</a>, <a href="#page116">116</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vii. 36-50              </td><td><a href="#page042">42</a>, <a href="#page116">116</a>, <a href="#page224">224</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vii. 47                </td><td><a href="#page239">239</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>viii. 1-3              </td><td><a href="#page116">116</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>viii. 4-18             </td><td><a href="#page116">116</a>, <a href="#page296">296</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>viii. 19-21            </td><td><a href="#page116">116</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>viii. 22-25            </td><td><a href="#page116">116</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>viii. 26               </td><td><a href="#page290">290</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>viii. 26-39            </td><td><a href="#page116">116</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>viii. 40-56            </td><td><a href="#page116">116</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ix. 1-6                </td><td><a href="#page116">116</a>, <a href="#page297">297</a>, <a href="#page300">300</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ix. 7-9                </td><td><a href="#page116">116</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ix. 10-17               </td><td><a href="#page039">39</a>, <a href="#page116">116</a>, <a href="#page297">297</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ix. 11                 </td><td><a href="#page135">135</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ix. 18                 </td><td><a href="#page265">265</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ix. 18-21              </td><td><a href="#page117">117</a>, <a href="#page298">298</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><a class="newpage" name="page318" id="page318" title="318"></a>ix. 22-27              </td><td><a href="#page117">117</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ix. 28f.                </td><td><a href="#page084">84</a>, <a href="#page146">146</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ix. 28-36              </td><td><a href="#page117">117</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ix. 29                 </td><td><a href="#page265">265</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ix. 31                 </td><td><a href="#page146">146</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ix. 37-42              </td><td><a href="#page117">117</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ix. 43-45              </td><td><a href="#page117">117</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ix. 46-50              </td><td><a href="#page117">117</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ix. 51                  </td><td><a href="#page039">39</a>, <a href="#page157">157</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ix. 51f.               </td><td><a href="#page158">158</a>, <a href="#page298">298</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ix. 51-62              </td><td><a href="#page153">153</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ix. 51 to xviii.        </td><td><a href="#page040">40</a>, <a href="#page042">42</a>, <a href="#page104">104</a>, <a href="#page154">154</a>, <a href="#page156">156</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ix. 51 to xix. 27       </td><td><a href="#page026">26</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ix. 57-62              </td><td><a href="#page156">156</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>x. 1                   </td><td><a href="#page158">158</a>, <a href="#page301">301</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>x. 3-12                </td><td><a href="#page297">297</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>x. 1-24                </td><td><a href="#page153">153</a>, <a href="#page300">300</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>x. 13-16               </td><td><a href="#page301">301</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>x. 17-20               </td><td><a href="#page301">301</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>x. 17-24               </td><td><a href="#page160">160</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>x. 18                  </td><td><a href="#page248">248</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>x. 22                  </td><td><a href="#page252">252</a>, <a href="#page263">263</a>, <a href="#page300">300</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>x. 25-37                </td><td><a href="#page034">34</a>, <a href="#page153">153</a>, <a href="#page159">159</a>, <a href="#page227">227</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>x. 28-37               </td><td><a href="#page159">159</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>x. 38-42                </td><td><a href="#page034">34</a>, <a href="#page111">111</a>, <a href="#page153">153</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xi. 1                   </td><td><a href="#page042">42</a>, <a href="#page265">265</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xi. 1-4                 </td><td><a href="#page042">42</a>, <a href="#page295">295</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xi. 1-13               </td><td><a href="#page117">117</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xi. 9-13               </td><td><a href="#page295">295</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xi. 14-36               </td><td><a href="#page040">40</a>, <a href="#page116">116</a>, <a href="#page156">156</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xi. 34-36              </td><td><a href="#page295">295</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xi. 37-52              </td><td><a href="#page156">156</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xi. 37-54              </td><td><a href="#page154">154</a>, <a href="#page164">164</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xii. 1-12              </td><td><a href="#page156">156</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xii. 1-59              </td><td><a href="#page154">154</a>, <a href="#page164">164</a>, <a href="#page165">165</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xii. 13-21             </td><td><a href="#page117">117</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xii. 22-31              </td><td><a href="#page042">42</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xii. 22-34             </td><td><a href="#page103">103</a>, <a href="#page156">156</a>, <a href="#page295">295</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xii. 49-53             </td><td><a href="#page165">165</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xii. 58f.              </td><td><a href="#page295">295</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xiii. 1-9              </td><td><a href="#page154">154</a>, <a href="#page161">161</a>, <a href="#page164">164</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xiii. 10-17            </td><td><a href="#page117">117</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xiii. 18-21             </td><td><a href="#page044">44</a>, <a href="#page117">117</a>, <a href="#page296">296</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xiii. 22               </td><td><a href="#page157">157</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xiii. 22-30            </td><td><a href="#page153">153</a>, <a href="#page164">164</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xiii. 24               </td><td><a href="#page295">295</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xiii. 31f.             </td><td><a href="#page171">171</a>, <a href="#page193">193</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xiii. 31-35            </td><td><a href="#page153">153</a>, <a href="#page168">168</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xiii. 32                 </td><td><a href="#page005">5</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xiii. 34f.              </td><td><a href="#page034">34</a>, <a href="#page106">106</a>, <a href="#page224">224</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xiii. 35               </td><td><a href="#page252">252</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xiv. 1-24              </td><td><a href="#page117">117</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xiv. 7ff.              </td><td><a href="#page304">304</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xiv. 15-24             </td><td><a href="#page161">161</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xiv. 25-35             </td><td><a href="#page154">154</a>, <a href="#page156">156</a>, <a href="#page164">164</a>, <a href="#page165">165</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xiv. 26                </td><td><a href="#page233">233</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xv.  1f.                </td><td><a href="#page096">96</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xv. 1 to xvi. 31       </td><td><a href="#page117">117</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xv. 4-7                 </td><td><a href="#page044">44</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xv. 7                  </td><td><a href="#page233">233</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xv. 11-32              </td><td><a href="#page232">232</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xvi. 13                </td><td><a href="#page295">295</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xvi. 22                </td><td><a href="#page247">247</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xvi. 31                </td><td><a href="#page229">229</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xvii. 1-4              </td><td><a href="#page117">117</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xvii. 11               </td><td><a href="#page157">157</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xvii. 11-19            </td><td><a href="#page153">153</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xvii. 20-37            </td><td><a href="#page154">154</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xviii. 1-8             </td><td><a href="#page154">154</a>, <a href="#page164">164</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xviii. 9-14            </td><td><a href="#page154">154</a>, <a href="#page159">159</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xviii. 15-17           </td><td><a href="#page153">153</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xviii. 15 to xix. 28   </td><td><a href="#page104">104</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xviii. 18-30           </td><td><a href="#page153">153</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xviii.  31-34          </td><td><a href="#page153">153</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xviii.  34             </td><td><a href="#page203">203</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xviii.  35-43          </td><td><a href="#page153">153</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xviii. 35 to xix. 28   </td><td><a href="#page155">155</a>, <a href="#page164">164</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xix. 1-10              </td><td><a href="#page154">154</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xix. 11-28             </td><td><a href="#page154">154</a>, <a href="#page163">163</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xix. 28 to xxiv. 53     </td><td><a href="#page027">27</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xix. 29-44             </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xix. 29 to xxiii. 56   </td><td><a href="#page104">104</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xix. 29 to xxiii. 53    </td><td><a href="#page039">39</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xix. 37-40             </td><td><a href="#page162">162</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xix. 39                </td><td><a href="#page170">170</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xix. 41-44             </td><td><a href="#page170">170</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xix. 45f.              </td><td><a href="#page289">289</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xix. 45-47f.           </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xix. 47                </td><td><a href="#page172">172</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xx. 1                  </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xx. 1-8                </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xx. 9-19               </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xx. 20-26              </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xx. 27-40              </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xx. 41-44              </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xx. 45-47              </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxi. 1-4               </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxi. 5-38              </td><td><a href="#page167">167</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxii. 37-38            </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxii. 1-6              </td><td><a href="#page167">167</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxii. 7-30             </td><td><a href="#page167">167</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxii. 14               </td><td><a href="#page181">181</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxii. 15               </td><td><a href="#page181">181</a>, <a href="#page183">183</a>, <a href="#page303">303</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxii. 17               </td><td><a href="#page304">304</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxii. 17-20            </td><td><a href="#page185">185</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxii. 19               </td><td><a href="#page184">184</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxii. 23-30            </td><td><a href="#page304">304</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxii. 28                </td><td><a href="#page087">87</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxii. 31-34            </td><td><a href="#page185">185</a>, <a href="#page305">305</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxii. 39-46            </td><td><a href="#page167">167</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxii. 47-53            </td><td><a href="#page167">167</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxii. 54-71            </td><td><a href="#page167">167</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxii. 61f.             </td><td><a href="#page193">193</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxii. 66-71            </td><td><a href="#page192">192</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxii. 70               </td><td><a href="#page263">263</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxiii. 1f.             </td><td><a href="#page192">192</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxiii. 1-25            </td><td><a href="#page167">167</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxiii. 4               </td><td><a href="#page192">192</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxiii. 5-12            </td><td><a href="#page192">192</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxiii. 13-16           </td><td><a href="#page192">192</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxiii. 16-24           </td><td><a href="#page192">192</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxiii. 26-49           </td><td><a href="#page167">167</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxiii. 27-31           </td><td><a href="#page195">195</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxiii. 34              </td><td><a href="#page197">197</a>, <a href="#page306">306</a>, <a href="#page307">307</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxiii. 43              </td><td><a href="#page197">197</a>, <a href="#page306">306</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxiii. 46               </td><td><a href="#page064">64</a>, <a href="#page197">197</a>, <a href="#page265">265</a>, <a href="#page306">306</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxiii. 50-56           </td><td><a href="#page167">167</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxiii. 56              </td><td><a href="#page182">182</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxiv. 1-12             </td><td><a href="#page201">201</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxiv. 12               </td><td><a href="#page205">205</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxiv. 13-35            </td><td><a href="#page201">201</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxiv. 21               </td><td><a href="#page200">200</a>, <a href="#page203">203</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxiv. 36-43            </td><td><a href="#page201">201</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxiv. 41-43            </td><td><a href="#page213">213</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxiv. 44-53            </td><td><a href="#page201">201</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxiv. 50               </td><td><a href="#page205">205</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxiv. 51               </td><td><a href="#page214">214</a>, <a href="#page307">307</a></td></tr>
+
+
+
+<tr><th colspan="2">John.</th></tr>
+
+
+<tr><td>i. 14                   </td><td><a href="#page058">58</a>, <a href="#page269">269</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>1. 19 to iv. 42         </td><td><a href="#page040">40</a>, <a href="#page101">101</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>i. 25                   </td><td><a href="#page078">78</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>i. 26f.                 </td><td><a href="#page093">93</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>i. 28                   </td><td><a href="#page092">92</a>, <a href="#page284">284</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>i. 29                   </td><td><a href="#page093">93</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>i. 29-36                </td><td><a href="#page080">80</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>i. 30-34                </td><td><a href="#page093">93</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>i. 31                   </td><td><a href="#page082">82</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>i. 32-34                </td><td><a href="#page084">84</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>i. 35f.                 </td><td><a href="#page093">93</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>i. 38                   </td><td><a href="#page020">20</a>, <a href="#page226">226</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>i. 40f., 43-45          </td><td><a href="#page092">92</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>i. 41-45               </td><td><a href="#page142">142</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>i. 42-47               </td><td><a href="#page239">239</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>i. 44                  </td><td><a href="#page290">290</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>i. 49                   </td><td><a href="#page094">94</a>, <a href="#page142">142</a>, <a href="#page254">254</a>, <a href="#page261">261</a>, <a href="#page263">263</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>i. 51                   </td><td><a href="#page095">95</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ii. 3-5                 </td><td><a href="#page097">97</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ii. 11                 </td><td><a href="#page222">222</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ii. 12                  </td><td><a href="#page097">97</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ii. 13                  </td><td><a href="#page046">46</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ii. 13-22               </td><td><a href="#page043">43</a>, <a href="#page106">106</a>, <a href="#page288">288</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ii. 16                 </td><td><a href="#page262">262</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ii. 20                  </td><td><a href="#page049">49</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ii. 22                  </td><td><a href="#page096">96</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ii. 23 to iii. 15      </td><td><a href="#page106">106</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ii. 25                  </td><td><a href="#page068">68</a>, <a href="#page141">141</a>, <a href="#page234">234</a>, <a href="#page239">239</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iii. 2                 </td><td><a href="#page226">226</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iii. 16-21,30-36        </td><td><a href="#page032">32</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iii. 22-30             </td><td><a href="#page106">106</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iii. 24                 </td><td><a href="#page046">46</a>, <a href="#page101">101</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iii. 23                </td><td><a href="#page288">288</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iii. 24,35             </td><td><a href="#page113">113</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iii. 30                 </td><td><a href="#page080">80</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iii. 34                 </td><td><a href="#page085">85</a>, <a href="#page086">86</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iv. 1-3                </td><td><a href="#page113">113</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iv. 1-3, 44            </td><td><a href="#page112">112</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iv. 1-4                </td><td><a href="#page289">289</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iv. 1-42               </td><td><a href="#page106">106</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iv. 1-45               </td><td><a href="#page102">102</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iv. 21-24              </td><td><a href="#page109">109</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iv. 25                  </td><td><a href="#page014">14</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iv. 26                 </td><td><a href="#page254">254</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iv. 30                  </td><td><a href="#page095">95</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iv. 34                 </td><td><a href="#page265">265</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iv. 35                 </td><td><a href="#page107">107</a>, <a href="#page288">288</a>, <a href="#page293">293</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iv. 42                  </td><td><a href="#page040">40</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iv. 43-45               </td><td><a href="#page039">39</a>, <a href="#page106">106</a>, <a href="#page286">286</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iv. 46-54              </td><td><a href="#page102">102</a>, <a href="#page106">106</a>, <a href="#page115">115</a>, <a href="#page289">289</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>v. 1                    </td><td><a href="#page040">40</a>, <a href="#page048">48</a>, <a href="#page293">293</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>v. 1-9                  </td><td><a href="#page032">32</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>v. 1-47                </td><td><a href="#page102">102</a>, <a href="#page115">115</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>v. 17                  </td><td><a href="#page262">262</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>v. 19                  </td><td><a href="#page264">264</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>v. 25                  </td><td><a href="#page263">263</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>v. 30                  </td><td><a href="#page265">265</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>v. 39                  </td><td><a href="#page229">229</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vi. 1-15                </td><td><a href="#page039">39</a>, <a href="#page116">116</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vi. 1-71               </td><td><a href="#page102">102</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><a class="newpage" name="page319" id="page319" title="319"></a>vi. 4                   </td><td><a href="#page046">46</a>, <a href="#page138">138</a>, <a href="#page293">293</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vi. 14                  </td><td><a href="#page025">25</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vi. 14f.               </td><td><a href="#page119">119</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vi. 15                  </td><td><a href="#page089">89</a>, <a href="#page120">120</a>, <a href="#page135">135</a>, <a href="#page170">170</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vi. 16-21              </td><td><a href="#page116">116</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vi. 22-71              </td><td><a href="#page116">116</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vi. 30-32               </td><td><a href="#page087">87</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vi. 38                 </td><td><a href="#page189">189</a>, <a href="#page265">265</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vi. 64                 </td><td><a href="#page178">178</a>, <a href="#page180">180</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vi. 66                 </td><td><a href="#page136">136</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vi. 67                 </td><td><a href="#page225">225</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vi. 67-71              </td><td><a href="#page298">298</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vi. 68                  </td><td><a href="#page081">81</a>, <a href="#page123">123</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vi. 68f.               </td><td><a href="#page142">142</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vi. 69                 </td><td><a href="#page254">254</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vii. 1-10               </td><td><a href="#page039">39</a>, <a href="#page298">298</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vii. 1-52              </td><td><a href="#page117">117</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vii. 1 to viii. 59     </td><td><a href="#page103">103</a>, <a href="#page149">149</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vii. 2                 </td><td><a href="#page138">138</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vii. 2-5               </td><td><a href="#page148">148</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vii. 5                  </td><td><a href="#page064">64</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vii. 10                </td><td><a href="#page150">150</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vii. 15                </td><td><a href="#page235">235</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vii. 22                </td><td><a href="#page244">244</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vii. 23                 </td><td><a href="#page032">32</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vii. 24                </td><td><a href="#page227">227</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vii. 25,32             </td><td><a href="#page160">160</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vii. 31                 </td><td><a href="#page095">95</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vii. 32                </td><td><a href="#page299">299</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vii. 36                </td><td><a href="#page149">149</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vii. 40                </td><td><a href="#page254">254</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vii. 45-52             </td><td><a href="#page299">299</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vii. 49                 </td><td><a href="#page013">13</a>, <a href="#page220">220</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vii. 50-52             </td><td><a href="#page111">111</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vii. 53 to viii. 11     </td><td><a href="#page037">37</a>, <a href="#page117">117</a>, <a href="#page149">149</a>, <a href="#page157">157</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>viii. 12-59            </td><td><a href="#page117">117</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>viii. 14               </td><td><a href="#page248">248</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>viii. 15               </td><td><a href="#page157">157</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>viii. 46                </td><td><a href="#page083">83</a>, <a href="#page266">266</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>viii. 59               </td><td><a href="#page160">160</a>, <a href="#page299">299</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ix. 1 to x. 39         </td><td><a href="#page153">153</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ix. 1 to xi. 57        </td><td><a href="#page104">104</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ix. 10                 </td><td><a href="#page158">158</a>, <a href="#page159">159</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ix. 35                 </td><td><a href="#page263">263</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ix. 35-38              </td><td><a href="#page156">156</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>x. 11-18               </td><td><a href="#page159">159</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>x. 18                   </td><td><a href="#page089">89</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>x. 21                  </td><td><a href="#page159">159</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>x. 22                  </td><td><a href="#page150">150</a>, <a href="#page155">155</a>, <a href="#page298">298</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>x. 22, 40-42            </td><td><a href="#page058">58</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>x. 24-39               </td><td><a href="#page159">159</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>x. 25                  </td><td><a href="#page161">161</a>, <a href="#page262">262</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>x. 29                  </td><td><a href="#page265">265</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>x. 30                  </td><td><a href="#page264">264</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>x. 31-39               </td><td><a href="#page160">160</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>x. 32                  </td><td><a href="#page233">233</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>x. 34                  </td><td><a href="#page261">261</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>x. 36                  </td><td><a href="#page263">263</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>x. 39                  </td><td><a href="#page156">156</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>x. 40                  </td><td><a href="#page154">154</a>, <a href="#page155">155</a>, <a href="#page301">301</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>x. 40-42               </td><td><a href="#page153">153</a>, <a href="#page160">160</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xi. 1-7                </td><td><a href="#page155">155</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xi. 1-46               </td><td><a href="#page153">153</a>, <a href="#page161">161</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xi. 4                  </td><td><a href="#page263">263</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xi. 6                  </td><td><a href="#page161">161</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xi. 34                 </td><td><a href="#page243">243</a>, <a href="#page258">258</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xi. 41f.               </td><td><a href="#page161">161</a>, <a href="#page265">265</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xi. 47-50              </td><td><a href="#page193">193</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xi. 47-54              </td><td><a href="#page153">153</a>, <a href="#page161">161</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xi. 54                 </td><td><a href="#page155">155</a>, <a href="#page162">162</a>, <a href="#page300">300</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xi. 55 to xii. 11      </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xi. 55 to xix. 42      </td><td><a href="#page104">104</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xii. 1                  </td><td><a href="#page046">46</a>, <a href="#page102">102</a>, <a href="#page163">163</a>, <a href="#page301">301</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xii. 1 to xxi. 25       </td><td><a href="#page039">39</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xii. 2                 </td><td><a href="#page169">169</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xii. 4-8               </td><td><a href="#page301">301</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xii. 6                 </td><td><a href="#page178">178</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xii. 7                 </td><td><a href="#page169">169</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xii. 12f.              </td><td><a href="#page170">170</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xii. 12-19             </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xii. 20-36             </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a>, <a href="#page176">176</a>, <a href="#page302">302</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xii. 23-36             </td><td><a href="#page168">168</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xii. 36<sup>b</sup>(-50)         </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xii. 37-43              </td><td><a href="#page032">32</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xiii. 1                </td><td><a href="#page181">181</a>, <a href="#page303">303</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xiii. 1-15             </td><td><a href="#page234">234</a>, <a href="#page304">304</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xiii. 1-30             </td><td><a href="#page167">167</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xiii. 21-30            </td><td><a href="#page184">184</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xiii. 23-26            </td><td><a href="#page185">185</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xiii. 29               </td><td><a href="#page178">178</a>, <a href="#page303">303</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xiii. 31 to xvi. 33     </td><td><a href="#page032">32</a>, <a href="#page167">167</a>, <a href="#page305">305</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xiii. 32f.             </td><td><a href="#page305">305</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xiii. 36-38            </td><td><a href="#page305">305</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xiv. 6-11              </td><td><a href="#page264">264</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xiv. 10                </td><td><a href="#page161">161</a>, <a href="#page265">265</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xiv. 28                </td><td><a href="#page265">265</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xiv. 30f.               </td><td><a href="#page032">32</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xv.                     </td><td><a href="#page032">32</a>, <a href="#page167">167</a>, <a href="#page305">305</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xv. 1                  </td><td><a href="#page262">262</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xvi.                    </td><td><a href="#page032">32</a>, <a href="#page167">167</a>, <a href="#page305">305</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xvi. 25                </td><td><a href="#page264">264</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xvii. 1-26             </td><td><a href="#page167">167</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xvii. 21               </td><td><a href="#page264">264</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xviii. 1               </td><td><a href="#page167">167</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xviii. 1-12            </td><td><a href="#page167">167</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xviii. 8               </td><td><a href="#page190">190</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xviii. 11<sup>b</sup>            </td><td><a href="#page189">189</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xviii. 12-27           </td><td><a href="#page167">167</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xviii. 15              </td><td><a href="#page193">193</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xviii. 28              </td><td><a href="#page182">182</a>, <a href="#page303">303</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xviii. 28 to xix. 16   </td><td><a href="#page167">167</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xviii. 31              </td><td><a href="#page192">192</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xviii. 33, 36f.        </td><td><a href="#page254">254</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xix. 7-12              </td><td><a href="#page192">192</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xix. 12-16             </td><td><a href="#page193">193</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xix. 14                </td><td><a href="#page303">303</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xix. 16-37             </td><td><a href="#page167">167</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xix. 19-22             </td><td><a href="#page198">198</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xix. 25                 </td><td><a href="#page097">97</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xix. 26                 </td><td><a href="#page097">97</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xix. 26f.              </td><td><a href="#page197">197</a>, <a href="#page306">306</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xix. 28                </td><td><a href="#page197">197</a>, <a href="#page306">306</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xix. 30                </td><td><a href="#page197">197</a>, <a href="#page306">306</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xix. 31                </td><td><a href="#page182">182</a>, <a href="#page199">199</a>, <a href="#page303">303</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xix. 31-37             </td><td><a href="#page198">198</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xix. 38                 </td><td><a href="#page034">34</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xix. 38-42             </td><td><a href="#page167">167</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xix. 39                </td><td><a href="#page111">111</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xix. 42                </td><td><a href="#page303">303</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xx. 1-10               </td><td><a href="#page201">201</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xx. 2                  </td><td><a href="#page206">206</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xx. 5-8                 </td><td><a href="#page043">43</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xx. 8                  </td><td><a href="#page203">203</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xx. 9                  </td><td><a href="#page200">200</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xx. 9f., 24f.           </td><td><a href="#page093">93</a>, <a href="#page094">94</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xx. 14-18              </td><td><a href="#page201">201</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xx. 17                 </td><td><a href="#page209">209</a>, <a href="#page214">214</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xx 19-25               </td><td><a href="#page201">201</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xx. 21                  </td><td><a href="#page023">23</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xx. 26-29              </td><td><a href="#page201">201</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xx. 30                  </td><td><a href="#page049">49</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xx. 30f.               </td><td><a href="#page032">32</a>, <a href="#page107">107</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxi.                   </td><td><a href="#page206">206</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxi. 2                  </td><td><a href="#page092">92</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxi. 1-24              </td><td><a href="#page201">201</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxi. 3-14              </td><td><a href="#page293">293</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxi. 25                 </td><td><a href="#page039">39</a></td></tr>
+
+
+
+<tr><th colspan="2">Acts.</th></tr>
+
+
+<tr><td>i. 1-11                </td><td><a href="#page214">214</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>i. 1-12                </td><td><a href="#page201">201</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>i. 14                   </td><td><a href="#page097">97</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ii. 36                 </td><td><a href="#page202">202</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>v. 36                   </td><td><a href="#page089">89</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>v. 37                   </td><td><a href="#page053">53</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vii. 56                </td><td><a href="#page254">254</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xvii. 31               </td><td><a href="#page202">202</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xix. 1-7                </td><td><a href="#page080">80</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xx. 35                  </td><td><a href="#page036">36</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxi. 38                 </td><td><a href="#page089">89</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxiii. 8               </td><td><a href="#page302">302</a></td></tr>
+
+
+
+<tr><th colspan="2">Rom.</th></tr>
+
+
+<tr><td>i. 3                    </td><td><a href="#page021">21</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>i. 4                   </td><td><a href="#page202">202</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>v. 19                   </td><td><a href="#page021">21</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ix. 5                   </td><td><a href="#page021">21</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xv. 3                   </td><td><a href="#page021">21</a></td></tr>
+
+
+
+<tr><th colspan="2">I. Cor.</th></tr>
+
+
+<tr><td>i. 23                  </td><td><a href="#page190">190</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>v. 7                   </td><td><a href="#page183">183</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ix. 1                  </td><td><a href="#page202">202</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>x. 16                  </td><td><a href="#page304">304</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xv.                    </td><td><a href="#page202">202</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xv. 3-8                 </td><td><a href="#page021">21</a>, <a href="#page105">105</a>, <a href="#page204">204</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xv. 4                  </td><td><a href="#page204">204</a>, <a href="#page213">213</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xv. 5                  </td><td><a href="#page201">201</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xv. 6                  </td><td><a href="#page201">201</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xv. 6f.                </td><td><a href="#page162">162</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xv. 7                  </td><td><a href="#page201">201</a></td></tr>
+
+
+
+<tr><th colspan="2">II. Cor.</th></tr>
+
+
+<tr><td>v. 21                   </td><td><a href="#page083">83</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>viii. 9                 </td><td><a href="#page021">21</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>x. l                    </td><td><a href="#page021">21</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xii.                   </td><td><a href="#page212">212</a></td></tr>
+
+
+
+<tr><th colspan="2">Gal.</th></tr>
+
+
+<tr><td>iii. 13                </td><td><a href="#page190">190</a></td></tr>
+
+
+
+<tr><th colspan="2"><a class="newpage" name="page320" id="page320" title="320"></a>Phil.</th></tr>
+
+
+<tr><td>ii. 5-11                </td><td><a href="#page021">21</a>, <a href="#page269">269</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ii. 7f.                </td><td><a href="#page190">190</a>, <a href="#page285">285</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ii. 8                  </td><td><a href="#page196">196</a></td></tr>
+
+
+
+<tr><th colspan="2">II. Tim.</th></tr>
+
+
+<tr><td>iii. 15                 </td><td><a href="#page063">63</a></td></tr>
+
+
+
+<tr><th colspan="2">Heb.</th></tr>
+
+
+<tr><td>ii. 17                  </td><td><a href="#page061">61</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ii. 17f.                </td><td><a href="#page064">64</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ii. 18                  </td><td><a href="#page087">87</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iv. 15                  </td><td><a href="#page061">61</a>, <a href="#page063">63</a>, <a href="#page067">67</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>v. 7                   </td><td><a href="#page147">147</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>v. 7-9                  </td><td><a href="#page087">87</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vii. 26                 </td><td><a href="#page057">57</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xii. 2                 </td><td><a href="#page190">190</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xii. 13                </td><td><a href="#page190">190</a></td></tr>
+
+
+
+<tr><th colspan="2">I. Pet.</th></tr>
+
+
+<tr><td>ii. 22                  </td><td><a href="#page083">83</a></td></tr>
+</table>
+</div></div>
+
+<div>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 13228 ***</div>
+</body>
+</html>
+
+
+
+
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+Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for
+eBook #13228 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/13228)
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Life of Jesus of Nazareth, by Rush Rhees
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Life of Jesus of Nazareth
+
+Author: Rush Rhees
+
+Release Date: August 20, 2004 [EBook #13228]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: UTF-8
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE LIFE OF JESUS OF NAZARETH ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Distributed Proofreaders
+
+
+
+
+[Transcriber's note: Superscripted letters and numbers have been marked
+with a preceding caret (^).]
+
+
+
+
+The Life of Jesus of Nazareth
+
+_A Study_
+
+By
+
+Rush Rhees
+
+1902
+
+
+
+
+_Copyright, 1900,_
+By Charles Scribner's Sons
+
+
+
+
+To
+
+C. W. McC.
+
+In Recognition of Wise Counsel, Generous Help and Loving Appreciation
+
+
+
+
+"_I would preach ... the need to the world of the faith
+in a Christ, the claim that Jesus is the Christ, and the demand
+for an intelligent faith, which indeed shall transcend but shall
+not despise knowledge, or neglect to have a knowledge to
+transcend._"--John Patterson Coyle
+
+
+
+
+Preface
+
+
+
+The aim of this book is to help thoughtful readers of the gospels to
+discern more clearly the features of him whom those writings inimitably
+portray. It is avowedly a study rather than a story, and as a companion to
+the reading of the gospels it seeks to answer some of the questions which
+are raised by a sympathetic consideration of those narratives. These
+answers are offered in an unargumentative way, even where the questions
+are still in debate among scholars. This method has been adopted because
+technical discussion would be of interest to but few of those whom the
+book hopes to serve. On some of the questions a non-committal attitude is
+taken in the belief that for the understanding of the life of Jesus it is
+of little importance which way the decision finally goes. Less attention
+has been given to questions of geography and archæology than to those
+which have a more vital biographical significance.
+
+A word concerning the point of view adopted. The church has inherited a
+rich treasure of doctrine concerning its Lord, the result of patient study
+and, frequently, of heated controversy. It is customary to approach the
+gospels with this interpretation of Christ as a premise, and such a study
+has some unquestionable advantages. With the apostles and evangelists,
+however, the recognition of the divine nature of Jesus was a conclusion
+from their acquaintance with him. The Man of Nazareth was for them
+primarily a man, and they so regarded him until he showed them that he was
+more. Their knowledge of him progressed in the natural way from the human
+to the divine. The gospels, particularly the first three, are marvels of
+simplicity and objectivity. Their authors clearly regarded Jesus as the
+Man from heaven; yet in their thinking they were dominated by the
+influence of a personal Lord rather than by the force of an accepted
+doctrine. It is with no lack of reverence for the importance and truth of
+the divinity of Christ that this book essays to bring the Man Jesus before
+the mind in the reading of the gospels. The incarnation means that God
+chose to reveal the divine through a human life, rather than through a
+series of propositions which formulate truth (Heb. i. 1-4). The most
+perennially refreshing influence for Christian life and thought is
+personal discipleship to that Revealer who is able to-day as of old to
+exhibit in his humanity those qualities which compel the recognition of
+God manifest in the flesh.
+
+An Appendix is added to furnish references to the wide literature of the
+subject for the aid of those who wish to study it more extensively and
+technically; also to discuss some questions of detail which could not be
+considered in the text. This appendix will indicate the extent of my
+indebtedness to others. I would acknowledge special obligation to
+Professor Ernest D. Burton, of the University of Chicago, for generous
+help and permission to use material found in his "Notes on the Life of
+Jesus;" to Professor Shailer Mathews, also of Chicago, for very valuable
+criticisms; to my colleague, Professor Charles Rufus Brown, for most
+serviceable assistance; and to the editors of this series for helpful
+suggestions and criticism during the making of the book. An unmeasured
+debt is due to another who has sat at my side during the writing of these
+pages, and has given constant inspiration, most discerning criticism, and
+practical aid.
+
+The Newton Theological Institution, April, 1900.
+
+
+
+
+Contents
+
+
+
+Part I
+
+Preparatory
+
+
+
+I
+
+The Historical Situation
+
+Sections 1-19. Pages 1-20
+
+   Section 1. The Roman estimate of Judea. 2, 3. Herod the Great and his
+   sons. 4. Roman procurators in Palestine. 5. Taxes. 6. The army. 7.
+   Administration of justice. 8. The Sadducees. 9,10. The Pharisees. 11.
+   The Zealots. 12. The Essenes. 13. The Devout. 14. Herodians and
+   Samaritans. 15. The synagogue. 16. Life under the law. 17. The
+   Messianic hope. 18. Contemporary literature. 19. Language of Palestine.
+
+
+II
+
+Sources of Our Knowledge of Jesus
+
+Sections 20-35. Pages 21-37
+
+   Section 20. The testimony of Paul. 21. Secular history. 22. The written
+   gospels. 23. Characteristics of the first gospel. 24. Of the second.
+   25. Of the third. 26-30. The synoptic problem. 31-32. The Johannine
+   problem. 34. The two narrative sources. 35. Agrapha and Apocrypha.
+
+
+III
+
+The Harmony of the Gospels
+
+Sections 36-44. Pages 38-14
+
+   Section 36. The value of four gospels. 37. Tatian's Diatessaron. 38.
+   Agreement of the gospels concerning the chief events. 39. The principal
+   problems. 40. Relation of Mark and John. 41, 42. Matthew and Luke. 43.
+   Doublets. 44. The degree of certainty attainable.
+
+
+IV
+
+The Chronology
+
+Sections 45-57. Pages 45-56
+
+   Sections 45-48. The length of Jesus' public ministry. 49. Date of the
+   first Passover. 50. Date of the crucifixion. 51-56. Date of the
+   nativity. 57. Summary.
+
+
+V
+
+The Early Years of Jesus
+
+Sections 58-71. Pages 57-69
+
+   Section 58. Apocryphal stories. 59. Silence of the New Testament
+   outside the gospels. 60-62. The miraculous birth. 63. The childhood of
+   Jesus. 64. Home. 65. Religion, Education. 66. Growth. 67. Religious
+   development. 68. The view from Nazareth. 69 The first visit to
+   Jerusalem. 70-71. The carpenter of Nazareth.
+
+
+VI
+
+John the Baptist
+
+Sections 72-84. Pages 70-81
+
+   Section 72. The gospel picture. 73. Notice by Josephus. 74.
+   Characteristics of the prophet 75-78. John's relation to the Essenes;
+   the Pharisees; the Zealots; the Apocalyptists. 79. John and the
+   Prophets. 80-82. Origin of his baptism. 83. His greatness. 84. His
+   limitations and self-effacement.
+
+
+VII
+
+The Messianic Call
+
+Sections 85-96. Pages 82-91
+
+   Sections 85, 86. John and Jesus. 87. The baptism of Jesus. 88, 89. The
+   Messianic call. 90. The gift of the Spirit. 91-94. The temptation. 95.
+   Source of the narrative. 96. The issue.
+
+
+VIII
+
+The First Disciples
+
+Sections 97-105. Pages 92-97
+
+   Section 97. John at Bethany beyond Jordan. 98. The deputation from the
+   priests. 99. John's first testimony. 100. The first disciples. 101. The
+   early Messianic confessions. 102. The visit to Cana. 103. The miracles
+   as disclosures of the character of Jesus. 104. Jesus and his mother.
+   105. Removal to Capernaum.
+
+
+
+Part II
+
+The Ministry
+
+
+I
+
+General Survey of the Ministry
+
+Sections 106-112. Pages 101-105
+
+   Section 106. The early Judean ministry. 107. Withdrawal to Galilee; a
+   new beginning. 108. The ministry in Galilee a unit. 109. Best studied
+   topically. 110. The last journey to Jerusalem. 111. The last week. 112.
+   The resurrection and ascension.
+
+
+II
+
+The Early Judean Ministry
+
+Sections 113-124. Pages 106-114
+
+   Outline of events in the Early Judean ministry. Section 113. The
+   opening ministry at Jerusalem. 114. The record incomplete. 115. The
+   cleansing of the temple. 116. Relation to synoptic account. 117. Jesus'
+   reply to the challenge of his authority. 118. The reserve of Jesus.
+   119. Discourse with Nicodemus. 120. Measure of success in Jerusalem.
+   121. The Baptist's last testimony. 122. The arrest of John. 123. The
+   second sign at Cana. 124. Summary.
+
+
+III
+
+The Ministry in Galilee--Its Aim and Method
+
+Sections 125-149. Pages 115-137
+
+   Outline of events in the Galilean ministry. Section 125. General view.
+   126, 127. Development of popular enthusiasm. 128. Pharisaic opposition.
+   129, 130. Jesus and the Messianic hope. 131. Injunctions of silence.
+   132-135. Jesus' twofold aim in Galilee. 136, 137. Character of the
+   teaching of this period: the sermon on the mount. 138. The parables.
+   139. The instructions for the mission of the twelve. 140. Jesus' tone
+   of authority. 141. His mighty works. 142-144. Demoniac possession. 145.
+   Jesus' personal influence. 146. The feeding of the five thousand. 147,
+   148. Revulsion of popular feeling. 149. Results of the work in Galilee.
+
+
+IV
+
+The Ministry in Galilee--The New Lesson
+
+Sections 150-165. Pages 138-152
+
+   Section 150. The changed ministry. 151. The question of tradition. 152.
+   Further pharisaic opposition. 153. Jesus in Phœnicia. 154. Confirmation
+   of the disciples' faith. 155. The question at Cæsarea Philippi. 156.
+   The corner-stone of the Church. 157-159. The new lesson. 160. The
+   transfiguration. 161. Cure of the epileptic boy. 162. The feast of
+   Tabernacles. 163. Story of Jesus and the adulteress. 164. The new note
+   in Jesus' teaching. 165. Summary of the Galilean ministry.
+
+
+V
+
+The Journey through Perea to Jerusalem
+
+Sections 166-176. Pages 153-165
+
+   Outline of events. Section 166. The Perean ministry. 167. Account in
+   John. 168, 169. Account in Luke. 170. The mission of the seventy. 171.
+   The feast of Dedication. 172. Withdrawal beyond Jordan. 173. The
+   raising of Lazarus. 174. Ephraim and Jericho. 175,176. Summary.
+
+
+VI
+
+The Final Controversies in Jerusalem
+
+Sections 177-188. Pages 166-180
+
+   Outline of events in the last week of Jesus' life. Section 177. The
+   cross in apostolic preaching. 178. The anointing in Bethany. 179. The
+   Messianic entry. 180. The barren fig-tree. 181. The Monday of Passion
+   week. 182-186. The controversies of Tuesday. 187. Judas. 188.
+   Wednesday, the day of seclusion.
+
+
+VII
+
+The Last Supper
+
+Sections 189-195. Pages 181-187
+
+   Section 189. Preparations. 190,191. Date of the supper. 192. The lesson
+   of humility. 193. The new covenant. 194. The supper and the Passover.
+   195. Farewell words of admonition and comfort; the intercessory prayer.
+
+
+VIII
+
+The Shadow of Death
+
+Sections 196-208. Pages 188-200
+
+   Sections 196, 197. Gethsemane. 198. The betrayal. 199. The trial. 200.
+   Peter's denials. 201. The rejection of Jesus. 202. The greatness of
+   Jesus. 203, 204. The crucifixion. 205. The words from the cross. 206.
+   The death of Jesus. 207. The burial. 208. The Sabbath rest.
+
+
+IX
+
+The Resurrection
+
+Sections 209-222. Pages 201-216
+
+   Section 209. The primary Christian fact. 210. The incredulity of the
+   disciples. 211-216. The appearances of the risen Lord. 217-220. Efforts
+   to explain the belief in the resurrection. 221. The ascension. 222. The
+   new faith of the disciples.
+
+
+
+Part III
+
+The Minister
+
+
+I
+
+The Friend of Men
+
+Sections 223-229. Pages 219-225
+
+   Section 223. The contrast between Jesus' attitude and John's towards
+   common social life. 224. Contrast with the scribes. 225, 226. His
+   interest in simple manhood. 227. Regard for human need. 228, 229.
+   Sensitiveness to human sympathy.
+
+
+II
+
+The Teacher with Authority
+
+Sections 230-241. Pages 226-237
+
+   Section 230. Contrast between Jesus and the scribes. 231. His appeal to
+   the conscience. His attitude to the Old Testament. 234. His teaching
+   occasional. 235. The patience of his method. 236. His use of
+   illustration. 237. Parable. 238. Irony and hyperbole. 239. Object
+   lessons. 240. Jesus' intellectual superiority. 241. His chief theme,
+   the kingdom of God.
+
+
+III
+
+Jesus' Knowledge of Truth
+
+Sections 242-251. Pages 238-248
+
+   Sections 242, 243. Jesus' supernatural knowledge. 244. His predictions
+   of his death. 245. Of his resurrection. 246. His apocalyptic
+   predictions. 247, 248. Limitation of his knowledge. 249, 250. Jesus and
+   demoniac possession. 251. His certainty of his own mission.
+
+
+IV
+
+Jesus' Conception of Himself
+
+Sections 252-275. Pages 249-269.
+
+   Section 252. Jesus' confidence in his calling. 253. His independence in
+   teaching. 254. His self-assertions in response to pharisaic criticism.
+   255. His desire to beget faith in himself. 256,257. His extraordinary
+   personal claim. 258. His acceptance of Messianic titles. 259-266. The
+   Son of Man. 267-269. The Son of God. 270, 271. His consciousness of
+   oneness with God. 272. His confession of dependence; his habit of
+   prayer. 273. No confession of sin. 274, 275. The Word made flesh.
+
+
+Appendix
+
+Index of Names and Subjects
+
+Index of Biblical References
+
+Map of Palestine
+
+
+
+
+Part I
+
+
+Preparatory
+
+
+
+
+I
+
+The Historical Situation
+
+
+
+1. When Tacitus, the Roman historian, records the attempt of Nero to
+charge the Christians with the burning of Rome, he has patience for no
+more than the cursory remark that the sect originated with a Jew who had
+been put to death in Judea during the reign of Tiberius. This province was
+small and despised, and Tacitus could account for the influence of the
+sect which sprang thence only by the fact that all that was infamous and
+abominable flowed into Rome. The Roman's scornful judgment failed to grasp
+the nature and power of the movement whose unpopularity invited Nero's
+lying accusation, yet it emphasizes the significance of him who did "not
+strive, nor cry, nor cause his voice to be heard in the street," whose
+influence, nevertheless, was working as leaven throughout the empire.
+
+2. Palestine was not under immediate Roman rule when Jesus was born. Herod
+the Great was drawing near the close of the long reign during which, owing
+to his skill in securing Roman favor, he had tyrannized over his unwilling
+people. His claim was that of an adventurer who had power to succeed, even
+as his method had been that of a suspicious tyrant, who murdered right and
+left, lest one of the many with better right than he should rise to
+dispute with him his throne. When Herod died, his kingdom was divided
+into three parts, and Rome asserted a fuller sovereignty, allowing none of
+his sons to take his royal title. Herod's successors ruled with a measure
+of independence, however, and followed many of their father's ways, though
+none of them had his ability. The best of them was Philip, who had the
+territory farthest from Jerusalem, and least related to Jewish life. He
+ruled over Iturea and Trachonitis, the country to the north and east of
+the Sea of Galilee, having his capital at Cæsarea Philippi, a city built
+and named by him on the site of an older town near the sources of the
+Jordan. He also rebuilt the city of Bethsaida, at the point where the
+Jordan flows into the Sea of Galilee, calling it Julias, after the
+daughter of Augustus. Philip enters the story of the life of Jesus only as
+the ruler of these towns and the intervening region, and as husband of
+Salome, the daughter of Herodias. Living far from Jerusalem and the Jewish
+people, he abandoned even the show of Judaism which characterized his
+father, and lived as a frank heathen in his heathen capital.
+
+3. The other two who inherited Herod's dominion were brothers, Archelaus
+and Antipas, sons of Malthace, one of Herod's many wives. Archelaus had
+been designated king by Herod, with Judea, Samaria, and Idumea as his
+kingdom; but the emperor allowed him only the territory, with the title
+ethnarch. Antipas was named a tetrarch by Herod, and his territory was
+Galilee and the land east of the Jordan to the southward of the Sea of
+Galilee, called Perea. Antipas was the Herod under whose sway Jesus lived
+in Galilee, and who executed John the Baptist. He was a man of passionate
+temper, with the pride and love of luxury of his father. Having Jews to
+govern, he held, as his father had done, to a show of Judaism, though at
+heart he was as much of a pagan as Philip. He, too, loved building, and
+Tiberias on the Sea of Galilee was built by him for his capital. His
+unscrupulous tyranny and his gross disregard of common righteousness
+appear in his relations with John the Baptist and with Herodias, his
+paramour. Jesus described him well as "that fox" (Luke xiii. 32), for he
+was sly, and worked often by indirection. While his father had energy and
+ability which command a sort of admiration, Antipas was not only bad but
+weak.
+
+4. Both Philip and Antipas reigned until after the death of Jesus, Philip
+dying in A.D. 34, and Antipas being deposed several years later, probably
+in 39. Archelaus had a much shorter rule, for he was deposed in A.D. 6,
+having been accused by the Jews of unbearable barbarity and tyranny,--a
+charge in which Antipas and Philip joined. The territory of Archelaus was
+then made an imperial province of the second grade, ruled by a procurator
+appointed from among the Roman knights. In provinces under an imperial
+legate (propraetor) the procurator was an officer for the administration
+of the revenues; in provinces of the rank of Judea he was, however, the
+representative of the emperor in all the prerogatives of government,
+having command of the army, and being the final resort in legal procedure,
+as well as supervising the collection of the customs and taxes. Very
+little is known of the procurators appointed after the deposition of
+Archelaus, until Tiberius sent Pontius Pilate in A.D. 26. He held office
+until he was deposed in 36. Josephus gives several examples of his wanton
+disregard of Jewish prejudice, and of his extreme cruelty. His conduct at
+the trial of Jesus was remarkably gentle and judicial in comparison with
+other acts recorded of his government; yet the fear of trial at Rome,
+which finally induced him to give Jesus over to be crucified, was
+thoroughly characteristic; in fact, his downfall resulted from a complaint
+lodged against him by certain Samaritans whom he had cruelly punished for
+a Messianic uprising.
+
+5. There were two sorts of Roman taxes in Judea: direct, which were
+collected by salaried officials; and customs, which were farmed out to the
+highest bidder. The direct taxes consisted of a land tax and a poll tax,
+in the collection of which the procurator made use of the local Jewish
+courts; the customs consisted of various duties assessed on exports, and
+they were gathered by representatives of men who had bought the right to
+collect these dues. The chiefs as well as their underlings are called
+publicans in our New Testament, although the name strictly applies only to
+the chiefs. These tax-gatherers, small and great, were everywhere despised
+and execrated, because, in addition to their subserviency to a hated
+government, they had a reputation, usually deserved, for all sorts of
+extortion. Because of this evil repute they were commonly drawn from the
+unscrupulous among the people, so that the frequent coupling of publicans
+and sinners in the gospels probably rested on fact as much as on
+prejudice.
+
+6. In Samaria and Judea soldiers were under the command of the procurator;
+they took orders from the tetrarch, in Galilee and Perea. The garrison of
+Jerusalem consisted of one Roman cohort--from five to six hundred
+men--which was reinforced at the time of the principal feasts. These and
+the other forces at the disposal of the procurator were probably recruited
+from the country itself, largely from among the Samaritans. The centurion
+of Capernaum (Matt. viii. 5; Luke vii. 2-5) was an officer in the army of
+Antipas, who, however, doubtless organized his army on the Roman pattern,
+with officers who had had their training with the imperial forces.
+
+7. The administration of justice in Samaria and Judea was theoretically in
+the hands of the procurator; practically, however, it was left with the
+Jewish courts, either the local councils or the great sanhedrin at
+Jerusalem. This last body consisted of seventy-one "elders." Its president
+was the high-priest, and its members were drawn in large degree from the
+most prominent representatives of the priestly aristocracy. The scribes,
+however, had a controlling influence because of the reverence in which the
+multitude held them. The sanhedrin of Jerusalem had jurisdiction only
+within the province of Judea, where it tried all kinds of offences; its
+judgment was final, except in capital cases, when it had to yield to the
+procurator, who alone could sentence to death. It had great influence also
+in Galilee, and among Jews everywhere, but this was due to the regard all
+Jews had for the holy city. It was, in fact, a sort of Jewish senate,
+which took cognizance of everything that seemed to affect the Jewish
+interests. In Galilee and Perea, Antipas held in his hands the judicial as
+well as the military and financial administration.
+
+8. To the majority of the priests religion had become chiefly a form.
+They represented the worldly party among the Jews. Since the days of the
+priest-princes who ruled in Jerusalem after the return from the exile,
+they had constituted the Jewish aristocracy, and held most of the wealth
+of the people. It was to their interest to maintain the ritual and the
+traditional customs, and they were proud of their Jewish heritage; of
+genuine interest in religion, however, they had little. This secular
+priestly party was called the Sadducees, probably from Zadok, the
+high-priest in Solomon's time. What theology the Sadducees had was for the
+most part reactionary and negative. They were opposed to the more earnest
+spirit and new thought of the scribes, and naturally produced some
+champions who argued for their theological position; but the mass of them
+cared for other things.
+
+9. The leaders of the popular thought, on the other hand, were chiefly
+noted for their religious zeal and theological acumen. They represented
+the outgrowth of that spirit which in the Maccabean time had risked all to
+defend the sanctity of the temple and the right of God's people to worship
+him according to his law. They were known as Pharisees, because, as the
+name ("separated") indicates, they insisted on the separation of the
+people of God from all the defilements and snares of the heathen life
+round about them. The Pharisees constituted a fraternity devoted to the
+scrupulous observance of law and tradition in all the concerns of daily
+life. They were specialists in religion, and were the ideal
+representatives of Judaism. Their distinguishing characteristic was
+reverence for the law; their religion was the religion of a book. By
+punctilious obedience of the law man might hope to gain a record of merit
+which should stand to his credit and secure his reward when God should
+finally judge the world. Because life furnished many situations not dealt
+with in the written law, there was need of its authoritative
+interpretation, in order that ignorance might not cause a man to
+transgress. These interpretations constituted an oral law which
+practically superseded the written code, and they were handed down from
+generation to generation as "the traditions of the fathers." The existence
+of this oral law made necessary a company of scribes and lawyers whose
+business it was to know the traditions and transmit them to their pupils.
+These scribes were the teachers of Israel, the leaders of the Pharisees,
+and the most highly revered class in the community. Pharisaism at its
+beginning was intensely earnest, but in the time of Jesus the earnest
+spirit had died out in zealous formalism. This was the inevitable result
+of their virtual substitution of the written law for the living God. Their
+excessive reverence had banished God from practical relation to the daily
+life. They held that he had declared his will once for all in the law. His
+name was scrupulously revered, his worship was cultivated with minutest
+care, his judgment was anticipated with dread; but he himself, like an
+Oriental monarch, was kept far from common life in an isolation suitable
+to his awful holiness. By a natural consequence conscience gave place to
+scrupulous regard for tradition in the religion of the scribes. The chief
+question with them was not, Is this right? but, What say the elders? The
+soul's sensitiveness of response to God's will and God's truth was lost in
+a maze of traditions which awoke no spontaneous Amen in the moral nature,
+consequently there was frequent substitution of reputation for character.
+The Pharisees could make void the command, Honor thy father, by an
+ingenious application of the principle of dedication of property to God
+(Mark vii. 8-13), and thus under the guise of scrupulous regard for law
+discovered ways for legal disregard of law. Their theory of religion gave
+abundant room for a piety which made broad its phylacteries and lengthened
+its prayers, while neglecting judgment, mercy, and the love of God.
+
+10. Yet the earnest and true development in Jewish thinking was found
+among the Pharisees. The early hope of Israel was almost exclusively
+national. In the later books of the Old Testament, in connection with an
+enlarged sense of the importance of the individual, the doctrine of a
+personal resurrection to share the blessings of the Messiah's kingdom
+began to appear. It had its clear development and definite adoption as
+part of the faith of Judaism, however, under the influence of the
+Pharisees. Along with this increased emphasis on the worth of the
+individual came a large development of the doctrine of angels and spirits.
+Towards both of these doctrines the Sadducees took a reactionary position.
+Politically the Pharisees were theocratic in theory, but opportunists in
+practice, accommodating themselves to the existing state of things so long
+as the _de facto_ government did not interfere with the religious life of
+the people. They looked for a kingdom in which God should be evidently the
+king of his people; but they believed that his sovereignty was to be
+realized through the law, hence their sole interest was in the obedience
+of God's people to that law as interpreted by the traditions.
+
+11. The theocratic spirit was more aggressive in a party which originated
+in the later years of Herod the Great, and found a reckless leader in
+Judas of Galilee, who started a revolt when the governor of Syria
+undertook to make a census of the Jews after the deposition of Archelaus.
+This party bore the name Cananeans or Zealots. They regarded with
+passionate resentment the subjection of God's people to a foreign power,
+and waited eagerly for an opportune time to take the sword and set up the
+kingdom of God; it was with them that the final war against Rome began.
+They were found in largest numbers in Galilee, where the scholasticism of
+the scribes was not so dominating an influence as in Judea. Dr. Edersheim
+has called them the nationalist party. In matters belonging strictly to
+the religious life they followed the Pharisees, only holding a more
+material conception of the hope of Israel.
+
+12. Another development in Jewish religious life carried separatist
+doctrines to the extreme. Its representatives were called Essenes, though
+what the significance of the name was is no longer clear. Although they
+were allied with the Pharisees in doctrine, they show in some particulars
+the influence of Hellenistic Judaism. This is suggested not only by the
+attention which Philo and Josephus give to them, but also by certain of
+their views, which were very like the doctrines of the Pythagoreans. They
+carried the pharisaic demand for separateness to the extreme of
+asceticism. While they were found in nearly every town in Palestine, some
+of them even practising marriage, the largest group of them lived a
+celibate, monastic life near the shores of the Dead Sea. This community
+was recruited by the initiation of converts, who only after a novitiate of
+three years were admitted to full membership in the order. They were
+characterized by an extreme scrupulousness concerning ceremonial purity,
+their meals were regarded as sacrifices, and were prepared by members of
+the order, who were looked upon as priests, nor were any allowed to
+partake of the food until they had first bathed themselves. Their regular
+garments were all white, and were regarded as vestments for use at the
+sacrificial meals,--other clothing being assumed as they went out to their
+work. They were industrious agriculturists, their life was communistic,
+and they were renowned for their uprightness. They revered Moses as highly
+as did the scribes; yet they were opposed to animal sacrifices, and,
+although they sent gifts to the temple, were apparently excluded from its
+worship. Their kinship with the Pythagoreans appears in that they
+addressed an invocation to the sun at its rising, and conducted all their
+natural functions with scrupulous modesty, "that they might not offend the
+brightness of God" (Jos. Wars, ii. 8, 9). Their rejection of bloody
+sacrifices, and their view that the soul is imprisoned in the body and at
+death is freed for a better life, besides many features of their life that
+are genuinely Jewish, such as their regard for ceremonial purity, also
+show similarity to the Pythagoreans. It has always been a matter of
+perplexity that these ascetics find no mention in the New Testament. They
+seem to have lived a life too much apart, and to have had little sympathy
+with the ideals of Jesus, or even of John the Baptist.
+
+13. The common people followed the lead of the Pharisees, though afar
+off. They accepted the teaching concerning tradition, as well as that
+concerning the resurrection, conforming their lives to the prescriptions
+of the scribes more or less strictly, according as they were more or loss
+ruled by religious considerations. It was in consequence of their hold on
+the people that the scribes in the sanhedrin were able often to dictate a
+policy to the Sadducean majority. Jesus voiced the popular opinion when he
+said that "the scribes sit in Moses' seat" (Matt, xxiii. 2). Their leaders
+despised "this multitude which knoweth not the law" (John vii. 49), yet
+delighted to legislate for them, binding heavy burdens and grievous to be
+borne. Many of the people were doubtless too intent on work and gain to be
+very regardful of the _minutiæ_ of conduct as ordained by the scribes;
+many more were too simple-minded to follow the theories of the rabbis
+concerning the aloofness of God from the life of men. These last
+reverenced the scribes, followed their directions, in the main, for the
+conduct of life, yet lived in fellowship with God as their fathers had,
+trusting in his faithfulness, and hoping in his mercy. They are
+represented in the New Testament by such as Simeon and Anna, Zachariah and
+Elizabeth, Joseph and Mary, and the majority of those who heard and heeded
+John's call to repentance. They were Israel's remnant of pure and
+undefiled religion, and constituted what there was of good soil among the
+people for the reception of the seed sown by John's successor. They had no
+name, for they did not constitute a party; for convenience they may be
+called the Devout.
+
+14. Two other classes among the people are mentioned in the gospels,--the
+Herodians and the Samaritans. The Herodians do not appear outside the New
+Testament, and seem to have been hardly more than a group of men in whom
+the secular spirit was dominant, who thought it best for their interests
+and for the people's to champion the claims of the Herodian family. They
+were probably more akin to the Pharisees than to the Sadducees, for the
+latter were hostile to the Herodian claims, from the first; yet in spirit
+they seem more like to the worldly aristocracy than to the pious scribes.
+The Samaritans lived in the land, a people despising and despised. Their
+territory separated Galilee from Judea, and they were a constant source of
+irritation to the Jews. The hatred was inherited from the days of Ezra,
+when the zealous Jews refused to allow any intercourse with the
+inhabitants of Samaria. These Samaritans were spurned as of impure blood
+and mixed religion (II. Kings xvii. 24-41). The severe attitude adopted
+towards them by Ezra and Nehemiah led to the building of a temple on Mount
+Gerizim, and the establishment of a worship which sought to rival that of
+Jerusalem in all particulars. Very little is known of the tenets of the
+Samaritans in the time of Jesus beyond their belief that Gerizim was the
+place which, according to the law, God chose for his temple, and that a
+Messiah should come to settle all questions of dispute (John iv. 25).
+
+15. Although the religious life of the Jews centred ideally in the temple,
+it found its practical expression in the synagogue. This in itself is
+evidence of the relative influence of priests and scribes. There was no
+confessed rivalry. The Pharisee was most insistent on the sanctity of the
+temple and the importance of its ritual. Yet with the growing sense of the
+religious significance of the individual as distinct from the nation,
+there arose of necessity a practical need for a system of worship possible
+for the great majority of the people, who could at best visit Jerusalem
+but once or twice a year. The synagogue seems to have been a development
+of the exile, when there was no temple and no sacrifice. It was the
+characteristic institution of Judaism as a religion of the law, furnishing
+in every place opportunity for prayer and study. The elders of each
+community seem ordinarily to have been in control of its synagogue, and to
+have had authority to exclude from its fellowship persons who had come
+under the ban. In addition to these officials there was a ruler of the
+synagogue, who had the direction of all that concerned the worship; a
+_chazzan_, or minister, who had the care of the sacred books, administered
+discipline, and instructed the children in reading the scripture; and two
+or more receivers of alms. The Sabbath services consisted of prayers, and
+reading of the scriptures--both law and prophets,--and an address or
+sermon. It was in the sermon that the people learned to know the
+"traditions of the elders," whether as applications of the law to the
+daily life, or as legendary embellishments of Hebrew history and prophecy.
+The preacher might be any one whom the ruler of the synagague recognized
+as worthy to address the congregation.
+
+16. The religious life which centred in the synagogue found daily
+expression in the observance of the law and the traditions. In the measure
+of its control by the scribes it was concerned chiefly with the Sabbath,
+with the various ablutions needful to the maintenance of ceremonial
+purity, with the distinctions between clean and unclean food, with the
+times and ways of fasting, and with the wearing of fringes and
+phylacteries. These lifeless ceremonies seem to our day wearisome and
+petty in the extreme. It is probable, however, that the growth of the
+various traditions had been so gradual that, as has been aptly said, the
+whole usage seemed no more unreasonable to the Jews than the etiquette of
+polite society does to its devotees. The evil was not so much in the
+minuteness of the regulations as in the external and superficial notion of
+religion which they induced.
+
+17. Optimism was the mood of Israel's prophets from the earliest times.
+Every generation looked for the dawning of a day which should banish all
+ill and realize the dreams inspired by the covenant in which God had
+chosen Israel for his own. In proportion as the rabbinic formalism held
+control of the hearts of the people, the Messianic hope lost its warmth
+and vigor. Yet the scribes did not abandon the prophetic optimism; they
+held to the letter of the hope, but as its fulfilment was for them
+dependent on perfect obedience to the law, oral and written, their
+interest was diverted to the traditions, and their strength was given to
+legal disputations. Of the rest of the people, the Sadducees naturally
+gave little thought to the promise of future deliverance, they were too
+absorbed with regard for present concerns. Nor is there any evidence that
+the Essenes, with all their reputed knowledge of the future, cherished the
+hope of a Messiah. The other elements among the people who owned the
+general leadership of the scribes looked eagerly for the coming time when
+God should bring to pass what he had promised through the prophets. While
+some expected God himself to come in judgment, and gave no thought to an
+Anointed one who should represent the Most High to the people, the
+majority looked for a Son of David to sit upon his father's throne. Even
+so, however, there were wide differences in the nature of the hope which
+was set on the coming of this Son of David. The Zealots were looking for a
+victory, which should set Israel on high over all his foes. To the rest of
+the people, however, the method of the consummation was not so clear, and
+they were ready to leave God to work out his purpose in his own way,
+longing meanwhile for the fulfilment of his promise. One class in
+particular gave themselves to visionary representations of the promised
+redemption. They differed from the Zealots in that they saw with unwelcome
+clearness the futility of physical attack upon their enemies; but their
+faith was strong, and at the moment when outward conditions seemed most
+disheartening they looked for a revelation of God's power from heaven,
+destroying all sinners in his wrath, and delivering and comforting his
+people, giving them their lot in a veritable Canaan situated in a renewed
+earth. Such visions are recorded in the Book of Daniel and the Revelation
+of John. They are found in many other apocalypses not included in our
+Bible, and indicate how persistently the minds of the people turned
+towards the promises spoken by the prophets, and meditated on their
+fulfilment. The Devout were midway between the Zealots and the
+Apocalyptists. The songs of Zachariah and Mary and the thanksgiving of
+Simeon express their faith. They hoped for a kingdom as tangible as the
+Zealots sought, yet they preferred to _wait_ for the consolation of
+Israel. They believed that God was still in his heaven, that he was not
+disregardful of his people, and that in his own time he would raise up
+unto them their king. They looked for a Son of David, yet his reign was to
+be as remarkable for its purification of his own people as for its
+victories over their foes. These victories indeed were to be largely
+spiritual, for their Messiah was to conquer in the strength of the Spirit
+of God and "by the word of his mouth." Such as these were ready for a
+ministry like John's, and not unready for the new ideal which Jesus was
+about to offer them, though their highest spiritualization of the
+Messianic hope was but a shadow of the reality which Jesus asked them to
+accept.
+
+18. This last conception of the Messiah is found in a group of psalms
+written in the first century before Christ, during the early days of the
+Roman interference in Judea. These Psalms of Solomon, as they are called,
+are pharisaic in point of view, yet they are not rabbinic in their ideas.
+Their feeling is too deep, and their reliance on God too immediate; they
+fitly follow the psalms of the Old Testament, though afar off. Of another
+type of contemporary literature, Apocalypse, at least two representatives
+besides the Book of Daniel have come down to us from the time of Jesus or
+earlier,--the so-called Book of Enoch, and the fragment known as the
+Assumption of Moses. These writings have peculiar interest, because they
+are probably the source of quotations found in the Epistle of Jude;
+moreover, some sayings of Jesus reported in the gospels, and in particular
+his chosen title, The Son of Man, are strikingly similar to expressions
+found in Enoch. Can Jesus have read these books? The psalms of the Devout
+were the kind of literature to pass rapidly from heart to heart, until all
+who sympathized with their hope and faith had heard or seen them. The case
+was different with the apocalypses. They are more elaborate and
+enigmatical, and may have been only slightly known. Yet, as Jesus was
+familiar with the canonical Book of Daniel, although it was not read in
+the synagogue service in his time, it is possible that he may also have
+read or heard other books which had not won recognition as canonical. If,
+however, he knew nothing of them, the similarity between the apocalypses
+and some of Jesus' ideas and expressions becomes all the more significant;
+for it shows that these writings gave utterance to thoughts and feelings
+shared by men who never read them, which were, therefore, no isolated
+fancies, but characteristic of the religion of many of the people. With
+these ideas Jesus was familiar; whether he ever read the books must remain
+a question.
+
+19. This literature exists for us only in translations made in the days of
+the early church. Most of these books were originally written in Hebrew,
+the language of the Old Testament, or in Aramaic, the language of
+Palestine in the time of Jesus. Traces of this language as spoken by Jesus
+have been preserved in the gospels,--the name _Rabbi; Abba_, translated
+Father; _Talitha cumi_, addressed to the daughter of Jairus; _Ephphatha_,
+to the deaf man of Bethsaida; and the cry from the cross, _Eloi, Eloi,
+lama sabachthani_ (John i. 38; Mark xiv. 36; v. 41; vii. 34; xv. 34). It
+is altogether probable that in his common dealings with men and in his
+teachings Jesus used this language. Greek was the language of the
+government and of trade, and in a measure the Jews were a bilingual
+people. Jesus may thus have had some knowledge of Greek, but it is
+unlikely that he ever used it to any extent either in Galilee, or Judea,
+or in the regions of Tyre and Sidon.
+
+
+
+
+II
+
+Sources of Our Knowledge Of Jesus
+
+
+
+20. The earliest existing record of events in the life of Jesus is given
+to us in the epistles of Paul. His account of the appearances of the Lord
+after his death and resurrection (I. Cor. xv. 3-8) was written within
+thirty years of these events. The date of the testimony, however, is much
+earlier, since Paul refers to the experience which transformed his own
+life, and so carries us back to within a few years of the crucifixion.
+Other facts from Jesus' life may be gathered from Paul, as his descent
+from Abraham and David (Rom. i. 3; ix. 5); his life of obedience (Rom. v.
+19; xv. 3; Phil. ii. 5-11); his poverty (II. Cor. viii. 9); his meekness
+and gentleness (II. Cor. x. 1); other New Testament writings outside of
+our gospels add somewhat to this restricted but very clear testimony.
+
+21. Secular history knows little of the obscure Galilean. The testimony of
+Tacitus is that the Christians "derived their name and origin from one
+Christ, who in the reign of Tiberius had suffered death by the sentence of
+the procurator, Pontius Pilate" (Annals, xv. 44). Suetonius makes an
+obscure and seemingly ill-informed allusion to Christ in the reason he
+assigns for the edict of Claudius expelling the Jews from Rome (Vit.
+Claud. 25). The younger Pliny in the second century had learned that the
+numerous Christian community in Bithynia was accustomed to honor Christ
+as God; but he shows no knowledge of the life of Jesus beyond what must be
+inferred concerning one who caused men "to bind themselves with an oath
+not to enter into any wickedness, or commit thefts, robberies, or
+adulteries, or falsify their word, or repudiate trusts committed to them"
+(Epistles X. 96). This secular ignorance is not surprising; but the
+silence of Josephus is. He mentions Jesus in but one clearly genuine
+passage, when telling of the martyrdom of James, the "brother of Jesus,
+who is called the Christ" (Ant. xx. 9. 1). Of John the Baptist, however,
+he has a very appreciative notice (Ant, xviii. 5. 2), and it cannot be
+that he was ignorant of Jesus. His appreciation of John suggests that he
+could not have mentioned Jesus more fully without some approval of his
+life and teaching. This would be a condemnation of his own people, whom he
+desired to commend to Gentile regard; and he seems to have taken the
+cowardly course of silence concerning a matter more noteworthy, even for
+that generation, than much else of which he writes very fully.
+
+22. The reason for the lack of written Christian records of Jesus' life
+from the earliest time seems to be, not that the apostles had a small
+sense of the importance of his earthly ministry, but that the early
+generation preferred what at a later time was called the "living voice"
+(Papias in Euseb. Ch. Hist. iii. 39). The impression made by Jesus was
+supremely personal; he wrote nothing, did not command his disciples to
+write anything, preferring to influence men's minds by personal power,
+appointing them, in turn, to represent him to men as he had represented
+the Father to them (John xx. 21). But the time came when the first
+witnesses were passing away, and they were not many who could say, "I saw
+him." Our gospels are the result of the natural desire to preserve the
+apostolic testimony for a generation that could no longer hear the
+apostolic voice; and they are precisely what such a sense of need would
+produce,--vivid pictures of Jesus, agreeing in general features, differing
+more or less in details, reflecting individual feeling for the Master, and
+written not simply to inform men but to convince them of that Master's
+claims. One evidence of the reality of the gospel pictures is the fact
+that we so seldom feel the individual characteristics of each gospel. This
+is especially true of the first three, which, to the vividness of their
+picture, add a remarkable similarity of detail. Tatian, in the second
+century, felt it necessary to make a continuous narrative for the use of
+the church by interweaving the four gospels into one, and he has had many
+successors down to our day; but the fact that unity of impression has
+practically resulted from the four pictures without recourse to such an
+interweaving, invites consideration of the characteristics of these
+remarkable documents.
+
+23. The first gospel impresses the careful reader with three things: (1) A
+clear sense of the development of Jesus' ministry. The author introduces
+his narrative by an account of the birth of Jesus, of the ministry of John
+the Baptist, and of Jesus' baptism and temptation and withdrawal into
+Galilee (i. 1 to iv. 17). He then depicts the public ministry by grouping
+together, first, teachings of Jesus concerning the law of the kingdom of
+heaven, then a series of great miracles confirming the new doctrine, then
+the expansion of the ministry and deepening hostility of the Pharisees,
+leading to the teaching by parables, and the final withdrawal from Galilee
+to the north. This ministry resulted in the chilling of popular enthusiasm
+which had been strong at the beginning, but in the winning of a few hearts
+to Jesus' own ideals of the kingdom of God (iv. 18 to xvi. 20). From this
+point the evangelist leads us to Jerusalem, where rejection culminates,
+the sterner teachings of Jesus are massed, and his victory in seeming
+defeat is exhibited (xvi. 21 to xxviii. 20). (2) The evangelist's interest
+is not satisfied by this clear, strong, picture; he wishes to convince men
+that Jesus is Israel's Messiah, hence, throughout, he indicates the
+fulfilment of prophecy. The things in which he sees the fulfilment are
+striking, for, with but one or two exceptions, they are features of the
+life of Jesus objectionable to Jewish feeling. This fact, taken in
+connection with the emphasis which the gospel gives to the death of Jesus
+at the hands of the Jews, and to the resurrection as God's seal of
+approval of him whom his people rejected, forms a forcible argument to
+prove the Messiahship of Jesus, not simply in spite of his rejection by
+the Jews, but by appeal to that rejection as leading to God's signal
+vindication of the crucified one. (3) This evangelist, while proving that
+Jesus is the Messiah promised to Israel, recognizes clearly the freedom of
+the new faith from the exclusiveness of Jewish feeling. The choice of
+Galilee for the Messianic ministry (iv. 12-17), the comment of Jesus on
+the faith of the centurion (viii. 10-12), the rebuke of Israel in the
+parable of the Wicked Husbandmen (xxi. 33-46), and especially the last
+commission of the risen Lord (xxviii. 18-20), show that this gospel sought
+to convince men of Jewish feeling not only that Jesus is Messiah, but also
+that as Messiah he came to bring salvation to all the world.
+
+24. The second gospel is much simpler in construction than the first,
+while presenting essentially the same picture of the ministry as is found
+in Matthew. To its simplicity it adds a vividness of narration which
+commends Mark's account as probably representing most nearly the actual
+course of the life of Jesus. While it reports fewer incidents and
+teachings than either of the others, a comparison with Matthew and Luke
+shows a preference in Mark for Jesus' deeds, though addresses are not
+wanting; and, while shorter as a whole, for matters which he reports
+Mark's record is most rich in detail, most dramatic in presentation, and
+actually longer than the parallel accounts in the other gospels. The whole
+narrative is animated in style (note the oft-repeated "immediately") and
+full of graphic traits. The story of Jesus seems to be reproduced from a
+memory which retains fresh personal impressions of events as they
+occurred. Hence the frequent comments on the effect of Jesus' ministry,
+such as "We never saw it on this fashion" (ii. 12), or "He hath done all
+things well" (vii. 37), and the introduction into the narrative of Aramaic
+words,--_Boanerges_ (iii. 17), _Talitha, cumi_ (v. 41), and the like,
+which immediately have to be translated. The gospel discloses no
+artificial plan, the chief word of transition is "and." While some of the
+incidents recorded, such as the second Sabbath controversy (iii. 1-6) and
+the question about fasting (ii. 18-22), may owe their place to association
+in memory with an event of like character, the book impresses us as a
+collection of annals fresh from the living memory, which present the
+actual Jesus teaching and healing, and going on his way to the cross and
+resurrection. After the briefest possible reference to the ministry of
+John the Baptist and the baptism and temptation of Jesus (i. 1-13), this
+gospel proceeds to set forth the ministry in Galilee (i. 14 to ix. 50).
+The narrative then follows Jesus to Jerusalem, by way of Perea, and closes
+with his victory through death and resurrection (x. 1 to xvi. 8).
+
+25. The third gospel is more nearly a biography than any of its
+companions. It opens with a preface stating that after a study of many
+earlier attempts to record the life of Jesus the author has undertaken to
+present as complete an account as possible of that life from the
+beginning. The book is addressed to one Theophilus, doubtless a Greek
+Christian, and its chief aim is practical,--to confirm conviction
+concerning matters of faith (i. 1-4). The author's interest in the
+completeness of his account appears in the fact that it begins with
+incidents antecedent to the birth of John the Baptist and Jesus. Moreover,
+to his desire for completeness we owe much of the story of Jesus,
+otherwise unrecorded for us. Like the first two gospels, Luke represents
+the ministry of Jesus as inaugurated in Galilee, and carried on there
+until the approach of the tragedy at Jerusalem (iv. 14 to ix. 50). It is
+in connection with the journey to Jerusalem (ix. 51 to xix. 27) that he
+inserts most of that which is peculiar to his gospel. His account of the
+rejection at Jerusalem, the crucifixion, and resurrection, follows in the
+main the same lines as Matthew and Mark; but he gained his knowledge of
+many particulars from different sources (xix. 28 to xxiv. 53). It is
+characteristic of Luke to name Jesus "Lord" more often than either of his
+predecessors. With this exalted conception is coupled a noticeable
+emphasis on Jesus' ministry of compassion; here more than in any other
+gospel he is pictured as the friend of sinners. Moreover, we owe chiefly
+to Luke our knowledge of him as a man of prayer and as subject to repeated
+temptation. An artificial exaltation of Christ, such as is often
+attributed to the later apostolic thought, would tend to reduce, not
+multiply, such evidences of human dependence on God. This fact increases
+our confidence in the accuracy of Luke's picture. The gospel is very full
+of comfort to those under the pressure of poverty, and of rebuke to
+unbelieving wealth, though the parable of the Unjust Steward and story of
+Zacchæus show that it does not exalt poverty for its own sake. If our
+first gospel pictures Jesus as the fulfilment of God's promises to his
+people, and Mark, as the man of power at work before our very eyes,
+astonishing the multitude while winning the few, Luke sets before us the
+Lord ministering with divine compassion to men subject to like temptations
+with himself, though, unlike them, he knew no sin.
+
+26. The first three gospels, differing as they do in point of view and
+aim, present essentially one picture of the ministry of Jesus; for they
+agree concerning the locality and progress of his Messianic work, and the
+form and contents of his teaching, showing, in fact, verbal identity in
+many parts of their narrative. For this reason they are commonly known as
+the Synoptic Gospels. Yet these gospels exhibit differences as remarkable
+as their likenesses. They differ perplexingly in the order in which they
+arrange some of the events in Jesus' life. Which of them should be given
+preference in constructing a harmonious picture of his ministry? They
+often agree to the letter in their report of deeds or words of Jesus, yet
+from beginning to end remarkable verbal differences stand side by side
+with remarkable verbal identities. Some of the identities of language
+suggest irresistibly that the evangelists have used, at least in part, the
+same previously existing written record. One of the clearest evidences of
+this is found in the introduction, at the same place in the parallel
+accounts, of the parenthesis "then saith he to the sick of the palsy"
+which interrupts the words of Jesus in the cure of the paralytic (Mark ii.
+10; Matt. ix. 6; Luke v. 24). When the three gospels are carefully
+compared it appears that Mark contains very little that is not found in
+Matthew and Luke, and that, with one or two exceptions, Luke presents in
+Mark's order the matter that he has in common with the second gospel. The
+same is also true of the relation between the latter part of the Gospel of
+Matthew (Matt. xiv. 1 to the end) and the parallel portion of Mark; while
+the comparison of Matthew's arrangement of his earlier half with Mark
+suggests that the order in the first gospel has been determined by other
+than chronological considerations. In a sense, therefore, we may say that
+the Gospel of Mark reveals the chronological framework on which all three
+of these gospels are constructed. Comparison discloses further the
+interesting fact that the matter which Matthew and Luke have in common,
+after subtracting their parallels to Mark, consists almost entirely of
+teachings and addresses. Each gospel, however, has some matter peculiar to
+itself.
+
+27. In considering the problem presented by these facts, it is well to
+remember that no one of these gospels contains within itself any statement
+concerning the identity of its author. We are indebted to tradition for
+the names by which we know them, and no one of them makes any claim to
+apostolic origin. The earliest reference in Christian literature which may
+be applied to our gospels comes from Papias, a Christian of Asia Minor in
+the second century. He reports that an earlier teacher had said, "Mark,
+having become the interpreter of Peter, wrote down accurately, though not,
+indeed, in order, whatsoever he remembered of the things said or done by
+Christ, for he neither heard the Lord nor followed him, but afterward, as
+I said, he followed Peter, who adapted his teachings to the needs of his
+hearers, but with no intention of giving a connected account of the Lord's
+discourses. So that Mark committed no error when he thus wrote some things
+as he remembered them, for he was careful of one thing, not to omit any of
+the things which he had heard and not to state any of them falsely....
+Matthew wrote the oracles [of the Lord] in the Hebrew language [Aramaic],
+and every one interpreted them as he was able" (Euseb. Ch. Hist. iii. 39).
+The result of many years' study by scholars of all shades of opinion is
+the very general conclusion that the writing which Papias attributed to
+Mark was essentially what we have in our second gospel.
+
+28. It is almost as universally acknowledged that the work ascribed by the
+second century elder to the apostle Matthew cannot be our first gospel;
+for its language has not the characteristics which other translations from
+Hebrew or Aramaic lead us to expect, while the completeness of its
+narrative exceeds what is suggested by the words of Papias. If, however,
+the matter which Matthew and Luke have in such rich measure in addition to
+Mark's narrative be considered, the likeness between this and the writing
+attributed by Papias to the apostle Matthew is noteworthy. The conclusion
+is now very general, that that apostolic writing is in large measure
+preserved in the discourses in our first and third gospels. The relation
+of our gospels to the two books mentioned by Papias may be conceived,
+then, somewhat as follows: The earliest gospel writing of which we know
+anything was a collection of the teachings of Jesus made by the apostle
+Matthew, in which he collected with simple narrative introductions, those
+sayings of the Lord which from the beginning had passed from mouth to
+mouth in the circle of the disciples. At a later time Mark wrote down the
+account of the ministry of Jesus which Peter had been accustomed to relate
+in his apostolic preaching. The work of the apostle Matthew, while much
+richer in the sayings of Jesus, lacked the completeness that characterizes
+a narrative; hence it occurred to some early disciple to blend together
+these two primitive gospel records, adding such other items of knowledge
+as came to his hand from oral tradition or written memoranda. As his aim
+was practical rather than historical, he added such editorial comments as
+would make of the new gospel an argument for the Messiahship of Jesus, as
+we have seen. Since the most precious element in this new gospel was the
+apostolic record of the teachings of the Lord, the name of Matthew and not
+of his literary successor, was given to the book.
+
+29. The third gospel is ascribed, by a probably trustworthy tradition, to
+Luke, the companion of Paul. The author himself says that he made use of
+such earlier records as were accessible, among which the chief seem to
+have been the writings of Mark and the apostle Matthew. To Luke's
+industry, however, we owe our knowledge of many incidents and teachings
+from the life of Jesus which were not contained in these two records, and
+with which we could ill afford to part. Some of these he doubtless found
+in written form, and some he gathered from oral testimony. His close
+agreement with Mark in the arrangement of his narrative suggests that he
+found no clear evidence of a ministry of wider extent in time and place.
+He therefore used Mark as his narrative framework, and of the rich
+materials which he had gathered made a gospel, the completest of any
+written up to his time.
+
+30. Such in the main is the conclusion of modern study of our first three
+gospels; it explains the general identity of their picture of Jesus and of
+their report of his teaching; it leaves room for those individual
+characteristics which give them so much of their charm; and it traces the
+materials of the gospels far back of the writings as we have them,
+bringing us nearer to the events which they describe. The dates of these
+documents can be only approximately known. It is probable that the
+"logia" collected by the apostle Matthew were written not later than 60 to
+65 A.D., while the Gospel of Mark dates from before the fall of Jerusalem
+in 70. Our first gospel must have been made between 70 and 100, and the
+Gospel of Luke may be dated about the year 80,--all within sixty or
+seventy years after the death of Jesus.
+
+31. The fourth gospel gives us a picture of Jesus in striking contrast to
+that of the other three. These present chiefly the works of the Master and
+his teachings concerning the kingdom of God and human conduct, leaving the
+truth concerning the teacher himself to be inferred. John opens the heart
+of Jesus and makes him disclose his thought about himself in a remarkable
+series of teachings of which he is the prime topic. This gospel is
+avowedly an argument (xx. 30, 31); its selection of material is
+confessedly partial; its aim is to confirm the faith of Christians in the
+heavenly nature and saving power of their Lord; and its method is that of
+appeal to testimony, to signs, and to his own self-disclosures. The
+opening verses of the gospel have a somewhat abstract theological
+character; the body of the book, however, consists of a succession of
+incidents and teachings which follow each other in unstudied fashion like
+a collection of annals. This impression is not compromised by the
+recognition, at some points, of accidental displacements, like that which
+has placed xiv. 30, 31 before xv. and xvi., or that which has left a long
+gap between vii. 23 and the incident of v. 1-9, to which it refers. The
+theme of the gospel is the self-disclosure of Jesus. This seems to have
+determined the evangelist's choice of material, and, as the gospel is an
+argument, he does not hesitate to mingle his own comments with his report
+of Jesus' words, for example (iii. 16-21, 30-36; xii. 37-43). The book is
+characterized by a vividness of detail which indicates a clear memory of
+personal experience. While it is evident that the author has the most
+exalted conception of the nature of his Lord, this seems to have been the
+result of loving meditation on a friend who had early won the mastery over
+his heart and life, and who through long years of contemplation had forced
+upon his disciple's mind the conviction of his transcendent nature. The
+book discloses a profoundly objective attitude; the Christ whom John
+portrays is not the creature of his speculations, but the Master who has
+entered into his experience as a living influence and has compelled
+recognition of his significance. The Son of God is for John the human
+Jesus who, though named at the outset the Word--the Logos,--is the Word
+who was made flesh, that men through him might become the sons of God.
+
+32. The contrast which the Gospel of John presents to the other three
+concerns not only the teaching of Jesus, but the scene of his ministry and
+its historic development as well. Whatever may be the final judgment
+concerning the fourth gospel, it is manifestly constructed as a simple
+collection of incidents following each other in what was meant to appear a
+chronological sequence. It has been seen that the biographical framework
+of the first three gospels is principally Mark's report of Peter's
+narrative. Now it is a fact that in portions of Matthew and Luke, derived
+elsewhere than from Mark, there are various allusions most easily
+understood if it be assumed that Jesus visited Jerusalem before his
+appearance there at the end of his ministry. Such, for instance, are the
+parable of the Good Samaritan (Luke x. 25-37), the story of the visit to
+Mary and Martha (Luke x. 38-42), and the lamentation of Jesus over
+Jerusalem (Luke xiii. 34, 35; Matt, xxiii. 37-39). All three gospels,
+moreover, agree in attributing to emissaries from Jerusalem much of the
+hostility manifested against Jesus in his Galilean ministry (Luke v. 17;
+Mark iii. 22; Matt. xv. 1; Mark vii. 1), and presuppose such an
+acquaintance of Jesus with households in and near Jerusalem as is not easy
+to explain if he never visited Judea before his passion (Mark xi. 2, 3;
+xiv. 14; xv. 43 and parallels; compare especially Matt, xxvii. 57; John
+xix. 38). These all suggest that the narrative of Mark does not tell the
+whole story, a conclusion quite in accordance with the account of his work
+given by Papias. It has been assumed that Peter was a Galilean, a man of
+family living in Capernaum. It is not impossible that on some of the
+earlier visits of Jesus to Jerusalem he did not accompany his Master, and
+in reporting the things which he knew he naturally confined himself to his
+own experiences. If this can explain the predominance of Galilean
+incidents in the ministry as depicted in Mark, it will explain the
+predominance of Galilee in the first three gospels, and the contradiction
+between John and the three is reduced to a divergence between two accounts
+of Jesus' ministry written from two different points of view.
+
+33. The question of the trustworthiness of the fourth gospel is greatly
+simplified by the consideration of the one-sidedness of Mark's
+representation. It is further relieved by the fact that a ministry by
+Jesus in Jerusalem must have been one of constant self-assertion, for
+Jerusalem represented at its highest those aspects of thought and practice
+which were fundamentally opposed to all that Jesus did and taught.
+Whenever in Galilee, in the ministry pictured by the first three gospels,
+Jesus came in contact with the spirit and feeling characteristic of
+Jerusalem, we find him meeting it by unqualified assertion of his own
+independence and exalted claim to authority, altogether similar to that
+emphasis of his own significance and importance which is the chief
+characteristic of his teachings in the fourth gospel. If it be remembered
+that that gospel was avowedly an argument written to commend to others the
+reverent conclusion concerning the Lord reached by a disciple whose
+thought had dwelt for long years on the marvel of that life, and if we
+recognize that for such an argument the author would select the instances
+and teachings most telling for his own purpose, and would do this as
+naturally as the magnet draws to itself iron filings which are mingled
+with a pile of sand, the exclusively personal character of the teachings
+of Jesus in this gospel need cause little perplexity. Nor need it seem
+surprising that the words of Jesus as reported in John share the
+peculiarities of style which mark the work of the evangelist in the
+prologue to the gospel and in his epistles. His purpose was not primarily
+biographical but argumentative, and he has set forth the picture of his
+Lord as it rose before his own heart, his memory of events being
+interwoven with contemplation on the significance of that life with which
+his had been so blessedly associated. In a gospel written avowedly to
+produce in others a conviction like his own, the evangelist would not have
+been sensible of any obligation to draw sharp lines between his
+recollection of his Lord's words and his own contemplations upon them and
+upon their significance for his life. If these considerations be kept in
+mind we may accept the uniform tradition of antiquity, confirmed by the
+plain intimation of the gospel itself, that it is essentially the work of
+John, the son of Zebedee, written near the close of his life in Ephesus,
+in the last decade of the first century.
+
+34. We have in our gospel records, therefore, two authorities for the
+general course of the ministry of Jesus,--Mark and John. Even if the
+fourth gospel should be proved not to be the work of John, its picture of
+the ministry of Jesus must be recognized as coming from some apostolic
+source. A forger would hardly have invited the rejection of his work by
+inventing a narrative which seems to contradict at so many points the
+tradition of the other gospels. The first and third gospels furnish us
+from various sources rich additions to Mark's narrative, and it is to
+these two with the fourth that we turn chiefly for the teachings of Jesus.
+Each gospel should be read, therefore, remembering its incompleteness,
+remembering also the particular purpose and individual enthusiasm for
+Jesus which produced it.
+
+35. A word may be due to two other claimants to recognition as original
+records from the life of Jesus. One class is represented by that word of
+the Lord which Paul quoted to the Ephesian elders at Miletus (Acts xx.
+35). Scattered here and there in writings of the apostolic and succeeding
+ages are other sayings attributed to Jesus which cannot be found in our
+gospels. A few of these so-called Agrapha seem worthy of him, and are
+recognized as probably genuine. The most important of them is the story of
+the woman taken in adultery (John vii. 53 to viii. 11), which, though not
+a part of the gospel of John, doubtless gives a true incident from Jesus'
+life. They represent the "many other" things which John and the other
+gospels have omitted, but their small number proves that our gospels have
+preserved for us practically all that was known of Jesus after the first
+witnesses fell asleep. It is certainly surprising that so little exists to
+supplement the story of the gospels, for they are manifestly fragmentary,
+and leave much of Jesus' public life without any record. The other class
+of claimants is of a quite different character,--the so-called Apocryphal
+Gospels. These consist chiefly of legends connected with the birth and
+early years of Jesus, and with his death and resurrection. They are for
+the most part crude tales that have entirely mistaken the real character
+of him whom they seek to exalt, and need only to be read to be rejected.
+
+
+
+
+III
+
+The Harmony of the Gospels
+
+
+
+36. The church early appreciated the value and the difficulty of having
+four different pictures of the life and teachings of the Lord. Irenæus at
+the close of the second century felt it to be as essential that there
+should be four gospels as that there should be "four zones of the world,
+four principal winds, and four faces of the cherubim" (Against Heresies
+III. ii. 8).
+
+37. Before Irenæus, however, another had sought to obviate the difficulty
+of having four records which seem at some points to disagree, by making a
+combination of the gospels, to which he gave the title "Diatessaron."
+Tatian, the author of this work, was converted from paganism about 152
+A.D., and prepared his unified gospel, probably for the use of the Syrian
+churches, sometime after 172. His work is one of the treasures of the
+early Christian literature recovered for us within the last
+quarter-century. It seems to have won great popularity in the Syrian
+churches, having practically displaced the canonical gospels for nearly
+three centuries, when, owing to its supposed heretical tendency, it was
+suppressed by the determined effort of the church authorities. It is a
+continuous record of Jesus' ministry, beginning with the first six verses
+of the Gospel of John, passing then to the early chapters of Luke. It
+closes with an account of the resurrection interwoven from all four
+gospels, concluding with John xxi. 25. The arrangement follows generally
+the order of Matthew, additional matter from the other gospels being
+inserted at places which approved themselves to Tatian's judgment. Some
+portions--in particular the genealogies of Jesus--were omitted altogether,
+in accordance with views held by the compiler.
+
+38. From Tatian's time to the present there have been repeated attempts to
+construct a harmonious representation of events and teachings in the
+ministry of Jesus, generally by setting the parallel accounts side by
+side, following such a succession of events as seemed most probable. Our
+evangelists cared little, if they thought at all, about the requirements
+of strict biography, and they have left us records not easy to arrange on
+any one chronological scheme. Concerning the chief events, however, the
+gospels agree. All four report, for instance, the beginning of the work in
+Galilee (Matt. iv. 12, 17; Mark i. 14, 15; Luke iv. 14, 15; John iv.
+43-45); the feeding of the five thousand when Jesus' popularity in Galilee
+passed its climax (Matt. xiv. 13-23; Mark vi. 30-46; Luke ix. 10-17; John
+vi. 1-15); the departure from Galilee for the final visit to Jerusalem
+(Matt. xix. 1, 2; Mark x. 1; Luke ix. 51; John vii. 1-10); and the week of
+suffering and victory at the end (Matt. xxi. 1 to xxviii. 20; Mark xi. 1
+to xvi. 8 [20]; Luke xix. 29 to xxiv. 53; John xii. 1 to xxi. 25).
+
+39. These facts are enough to give us a clear and unified impression of
+the course of Jesus' ministry. When, however, we seek to fill in the
+details given in the different gospels, difficulties at once arise. Thus,
+first, what shall be done with the long section which John introduces (i.
+19 to iv. 42) before Jesus' withdrawal into Galilee? The other gospels
+make that withdrawal the beginning of his public work. A second difficulty
+arises from the unnamed feast of John v. 1. By one or another scholar this
+feast has been identified with almost every Jewish festival known to us.
+Another problem is furnished by the long section in Luke which is so
+nearly peculiar to his gospel (ix. 51 to xviii. 14). If the section had no
+parallels in the other gospels we might easily conclude that it all
+belongs to a time subsequent to the final departure for Jerusalem; but it
+contains at least one incident from the earlier ministry in Galilee (Luke
+xi. 14-36; compare Mark iii. 19-30), and many teachings of Jesus given by
+Matthew in an earlier connection appear here in Luke. Furthermore, the
+section has to be adjusted to that portion of the Gospel of John which
+deals with the same period and yet reports none of the same details.
+
+40. If Mark has furnished the narrative framework adopted in the main by
+the first and third gospels, the problem of the order of events in Jesus'
+life becomes a question of the chronological value of Mark, and of the
+estimate to be placed on the narrative of John. If the fourth gospel is
+held to be of apostolic origin and trustworthy, the task of the harmonist
+is chiefly that of combining these two records of Mark and John. The
+testimony of the Baptist, with which the fourth gospel opens, must have
+been given some time after he had baptized Jesus, and the ministry which
+preceded Jesus' return to Galilee (i. 19 to iv. 42) belongs to a period
+ignored by the other gospels. The first three gospels contain indications
+that Jesus must have visited Judea before the close of his life. They give
+no hint, however, of the time or circumstances of such earlier Judean
+labor. In giving the emphasis they do to the work in Galilee, they present
+a one-sided picture. When, therefore, we find in John a narrative of work
+in Judea, confirmed by hints in the other gospels, we may justly assume
+that the arrangement which fills out the ministry of Jesus by inserting at
+the proper places in Mark's record the events found in John is essentially
+true.
+
+41. The consideration of the one-sidedness of Mark's narrative simplifies
+the problem of harmony, but it does not solve all of the perplexities.
+Matthew and Luke have much matter, some of it narrative, which Mark has
+not, and for which he suggests no place. Where shall we put, for instance,
+the cure of the centurion's servant (Matt. viii. 5-13; Luke vii. 1-10), or
+John the Baptist's last message (Matt. xi. 2-19; Luke vii. 18-35)? It
+would simplify matters if we could take Luke's statement that he had
+"traced the course of all things accurately from the first" (Luke i. 3),
+as indicating that he had arrived at exact certainty concerning the order
+of events of Jesus' life. It is probable, however, that his statement was
+simply a claim that he had carefully gathered material for a record of the
+whole life of Jesus, from the annunciation of his birth to his ascension.
+While we may believe that some trustworthy tradition led him to give the
+place he has to many of the incidents which he adds to Mark's story, it
+seems impossible to follow him in all respects; for instance, in severing
+the account of the blasphemy of the Pharisees (xi. 14-36) from the place
+which it holds in Mark (iii. 19-30).
+
+42. Still more uncertainty exists concerning the historic connection of
+teachings of Jesus to which Matthew and Luke give different settings; for
+example, the Lord's Prayer (Matt. vi. 9-15; Luke xi. 1-4), and the
+exhortations against anxiety (Matt. vi. 25-34; Luke xii. 22-31). We have
+seen that much of the teaching common to these gospels is probably derived
+from the collection of the "oracles" of the Lord made by the apostle
+Matthew. Everything that we can infer concerning such a collection of
+oracles indicates that, while some of the teachings may have been
+connected with particular historic situations (compare Luke xi. 1), many
+would altogether lack such introductory words. A later example of what
+such a collection may have been has come to light recently in the
+so-called "Sayings of Jesus," discovered in Egypt and published in 1897.
+In these the occasion for the teaching has been quite lost; the sole
+interest centres in the fact that Jesus is supposed to have said the
+things recorded. If Matthew's book contained such "logia" or "oracles," it
+is probable that the original connection in which most of them were spoken
+was a matter of no concern to the apostle, and consequently has been lost
+This in no way compromises the genuineness of these sayings of Jesus. The
+treatment of Luke ix. 51 to xviii. 14 is much simplified by this
+consideration. To Luke's industry (i. 1-4) we owe the preservation of some
+events and very many teachings which no other evangelist has recorded.
+Some of this new material (for instance, vii. 11-17, 36-50) he has
+assigned a place in the midst of Mark's narrative. Most of it, however,
+he has gathered together in what seems to be a sort of appendix, which he
+has inserted between the close of the ministry in Galilee and the final
+arrival in Judea. For many of the teachings it is now impossible to assign
+a time or place. That this is so will cause no surprise or difficulty if
+we remember that in the earliest days the report of what Jesus said and
+did circulated in the form of oral tradition only. It was the knowledge
+that first-hand witnesses were passing away that led to the writing of the
+gospels. During the period of oral tradition many teachings of the Lord
+were doubtless kept clearly and accurately in memory after the historic
+situations which led to their first utterance were quite forgotten.
+
+43. This fact helps to explain another perplexity in our gospel
+narratives. A comparison of the two accounts of the cure of the
+centurion's servant reveals differences of detail most perplexing, if we
+ask for minute agreement in records of the same events. When we see that
+of two accounts evidently reporting the same incident, one can say that
+the centurion himself sought Jesus and asked the cure of his servant
+(Matt. viii. 5, 8), while the other makes him declare himself unworthy to
+come in person to the Lord (Luke vii. 7), the question arises whether
+other accounts, similar in the main but differing in detail, should not be
+identified as independent records of one event. Were there two cleansings
+of the temple (John ii. 13-22; Mark xi. 15-19), two miraculous draughts of
+fishes (Luke v. 4-11; John xxi. 5-8), two rejections at Nazareth (Mark vi.
+1-6; Luke iv. 16-30), two parables of the Leaven, of the Mustard Seed
+(Matt. xiii. 31-33; Luke xiii. 18-21), and of the Lost Sheep (Matt, xviii.
+12-14; Luke xv. 4-7)? Such similar records are often called doublets, and
+the question of identity or distinctness can be answered only after a
+special study of each case. It is important to notice that a given
+teaching, particularly if it took the form of an illustration, would
+naturally be used by Jesus on many different occasions. When, on the other
+hand, we find two accounts of specific doings of Jesus similar in detail
+it is needful to recognize that definite historic situations do not so
+often repeat themselves as do occasions for similar or identical
+teachings.
+
+44. All these considerations show that while the general order of events
+in the life of Jesus may be determined with a good degree of probability,
+we must be content to remain uncertain concerning the place to be given to
+many incidents and to more teachings. Such uncertainty is of small
+concern, since our unharmonized gospels have not failed during all these
+centuries to produce one fair picture, to the total impression of which
+each teaching and deed make definite contribution quite independently of
+our ability to give to each its particular place in relation to the whole.
+The degree of certainty attainable justifies, however, a continued
+interest in the old study of harmony, because of the more comprehensive
+idea it gives of the ministry depicted in the partial narratives of our
+several gospels.
+
+
+
+
+IV
+
+The Chronology
+
+
+
+45. The length of the public ministry of Jesus was one of the earliest
+questions which arose in the study of the four gospels. In the second and
+third centuries it was not uncommon to find the answer in the passage from
+Isaiah (lxi. 1, 2), which Jesus declared was fulfilled in himself. "The
+acceptable year of the Lord" was taken to indicate that the ministry
+covered little more than a year. The fact that the first three gospels
+mention but one Passover (that at the end), and but one journey to
+Jerusalem, seems at first to be favorable to this conclusion, and to make
+peculiarly significant the care taken by Luke to give the exact date for
+the opening of Jesus' ministry (iii. 1, 2). In fact, the second century
+Gnostics, relying apparently on Luke, assigned both the ministry and death
+of Jesus to the fifteenth year of Tiberius Cæsar,--an interpretation which
+may have given rise to the widely spread, early tradition, found, for
+example, in Tertullian (Ante-nicene Fathers, in. 160), which placed the
+death of Jesus in A.D. 29, during the consulship of L. Rubellius Geminus
+and C. Fufius Geminus.
+
+46. The theory that the ministry of Jesus extended over but little more
+than one year is beset, however, by difficulties that seem insuperable.
+The first is presented by the three Passovers distinctly mentioned in the
+Gospel of John (ii. 13; vi. 4; xii. 1). The last of these is plainly
+identical with the one named in the other gospels. The second gives the
+time of year for the feeding of the five thousand, and agrees with the
+mention of "the green grass" in the account of Mark and Matthew (Mark vi.
+39; Matt. xiv. 19). John's first Passover falls in a section which demands
+a place before Mark i. 14 (compare John iii. 24). Hence it must be shown
+that this first Passover is chronologically out of order in the Gospel of
+John, or the one year ministry advocated by the second century Gnostics,
+by Clement of Alexandria, by Origen, and of late years by Keim and others,
+is seen to be impossible. The fact that at this Passover Jesus cleansed
+the temple, and that the other gospels assign such a cleansing to the
+close of the ministry, suggests the possibility that John has set it at
+the opening of his narrative for reasons connected with his argument. This
+interpretation falls, however, before the perfect simplicity of structure
+of John's narrative. The transitions from incident to incident in this
+gospel are those of simple succession, and indicate, on the writer's part,
+no suspicion that he was contradicting notions concerning the ministry of
+Jesus familiar to his contemporaries. Whatever the conclusion reached
+concerning the authorship of the gospel, the fact that it gained currency
+very early as apostolic would seem to prove that its conception of the
+length of Jesus' ministry was not opposed to the recognized apostolic
+testimony. It is safe to conclude, therefore, that time must be allowed in
+Jesus' ministry for at least three Passover seasons.
+
+47. With this conclusion most modern discussions of the question rest, and
+it is possible that it may finally win common consent. The order of
+Mark's narrative, however, challenges it. This gospel records near the
+beginning (ii. 23) a controversy with the Pharisees occasioned by the fact
+that Jesus' disciples plucked and ate the ripening grain as they passed on
+a Sabbath day through the fields. As Mark places much later (vi. 30-34)
+the feeding of the five thousand, which occurred at a Passover, that is
+the beginning of the harvest (Lev. xxiii. 5-11), his order suggests the
+necessity of including two harvest seasons in the ministry in Galilee, and
+consequently four Passovers in the public life of Jesus. Two
+considerations are urged against this conclusion. (1) Papias in his
+reference to the Gospel of Mark criticises the order of the gospel; (2)
+Mark ii. 1 to iii. 6 contains a group of five conflicts with the critics
+of Jesus, which represents a massing of opposition that seems unlikely at
+the outset of his Galilean work. The remark of Papias must remain obscure
+until his standard of comparison is known. Some suggest that he knew
+John's order and preferred it, others that he agreed with that adopted by
+Tatian in his Diatessaron. Mark is in accord with neither of these. No
+one, however, knows what order Papias preferred. The early conflict group
+does appear like a collection drawn from different parts of the ministry.
+Yet the nucleus of the group--the cure of the paralytic (ii. 1-12) and the
+call of Levi (ii. 13-17)--is clearly in its right place in Mark (see
+Holtzmann, Hand-commentar, I. 10). The question about fasting (ii. 18-22)
+may have been asked much later, and its present place may be due to
+association in tradition with the criticism of Jesus' fellowship with
+publicans (ii. 16). In like manner the cure of the withered hand (iii.
+1-6) may have become artificially grouped with the incident of the
+cornfields. It is possible, also, that both Sabbath controversies owe
+their early place in the gospel to traditional association with the early
+conflicts (ii. 1-17). If so, the plucking of the grain actually occurred
+some weeks after the feeding of the five thousand, and probably after the
+controversy about tradition (vii. 1-23), with which, according to Mark,
+Jesus' activity in Galilee practically closed. It is not clear, however,
+what principle of association drew forward to the early group the Sabbath
+conflict, and left in its place the controversy about tradition. It is
+thus possible that the incident of the cornfields belongs also to the
+early nucleus of the group; and in this case the longer ministry,
+including four Passovers, must be accepted. The decision of the question
+is not of vital importance, but it affects the determination of the
+sequence of events in Jesus' life. Whatever the explanation of the remark
+of Papias, the more the gospels are studied the more does Mark's order of
+events commend itself in general as representing the probable fact. Many
+students have inferred the three year ministry from the Gospel of John
+alone, identifying the unnamed feast in John v. 1 with a Passover. But
+John's allusion to that feast is so indefinite that the length of Jesus'
+ministry must be determined quite independently of it.
+
+48. So long a ministry as three years presents some difficulties, for all
+that is told us in the four gospels would cover but a small fraction of
+this time. John's statement (xx. 30) that he omitted many things from
+Jesus' life in making his book is evidently true of all the evangelists,
+and long gaps, such as are evident in the fourth gospel, must be assumed
+in the other three. Recalling the character of the gospels as pictures of
+Jesus rather than narratives of his life, we may easily acknowledge the
+incompleteness of our record of the three years of ministry, and wonder
+the more at the vividness of impression produced with such economy of
+material. This meagreness of material is not decisive for the shorter
+rather than the longer ministry, for it is evident that to effect such a
+change in conviction and feeling as Jesus wrought in the minds of the
+ardent Galileans who were his disciples, required time. Three years are
+better suited to effect this change than two.
+
+49. Closely related to the question of the length of Jesus' ministry is
+another: Can definite dates be given for the chief events in his life? For
+the year of the opening of his public activity the gospels furnish two
+independent testimonies: the remark of the Jews on the occasion of Jesus'
+first visit to Jerusalem, "Forty and six years was this temple in
+building" (John ii. 20), and Luke's careful dating of the appearance of
+John the Baptist, "in the fifteenth year of Tiberius Cæsar" (iii. 1, 2).
+John ii. 20 leads to the conclusion that the first Passover fell in the
+spring of A.D. 26 or 27, since we learn from Josephus (Ant. xv. 11. 1)
+that Herod began to rebuild the temple in the eighteenth year of his
+reign, which closed in the spring of B.C. 19. Luke iii. 1 gives a date
+contradictory to the one just found, if the fifteenth year of Tiberius is
+to be counted from the death of his predecessor, for Augustus died August
+19, A.D. 14. Reckoned from this time the opening of John's work falls in
+the year A.D. 28, and the first Passover of Jesus' ministry could not be
+earlier than the spring of 29. This is at least two years later than is
+indicated by the statement in John. The remark in John is, however, so
+incidental and so lacking in significance for his argument that its
+definiteness can be explained only as due to a clear historic
+reminiscence; but it does not follow that Luke has erred in the date given
+by him. Although Augustus did not die until A.D. 14, there is evidence
+that Tiberius was associated with him in authority over the army and the
+provinces not later than January, A.D. 12. One who lived and wrote in the
+reign of Titus may possibly have applied to the reign of Tiberius a mode
+of reckoning customary in the case of Titus, as Professor Ramsay has shown
+(Was Christ born at Bethlehem, 202). If this is the fact, Luke reckoned
+from the co-regency of Tiberius; hence the fifteenth year would be A.D. 25
+or 26, according as the co-regency began before or after the first of
+January, A.D. 12. This would place the first Passover of Jesus' ministry
+in the spring of 26 or 27, in agreement with the hint found in John.
+
+50. If the public ministry of Jesus began with the spring of 26 or 27, the
+close of three years of activity would, come at the Passover of 29 or 30.
+The former of these dates agrees with the early Christian tradition
+already mentioned. But before accepting that traditional date another
+matter must be considered. Jesus was crucified on the Friday at the
+opening of the feast of the Passover. Whether it was the day of the
+sacrifice of the Passover (14 Nisan) or the day following (15 Nisan), is
+not essential for the present question. As the Jewish month began with the
+first appearance of the new moon, it is evident that, in the year of
+Jesus' death, the month of Nisan must have begun on a day that would make
+the 14th or the 15th fall on Friday. Now it can be shown that in the year
+30 the 14th of Nisan was Thursday (April 6) or Friday (April 7), for at
+best only approximate certainty is attainable. The tradition which assigns
+the passion to 29, generally names March 25 as the day of the month. This
+date is impossible, because it does not coincide with the full moon of
+that month. The choice of March 25 by a late tradition may be explained by
+the fact that it was commonly regarded as the date of the spring equinox,
+the turning of the year towards its renewing. Mr. Turner has shown
+(HastBD. I. 415) that another date found in an early document cannot be so
+explained. Epiphanius was familiar with copies of the Acts of Pilate,
+which gave March 18 as the date of the crucifixion; and it is remarkable
+that this date coincides with the full moon, and also falls on Friday.
+Such a combination gives unusual weight to the tradition, particularly as
+there is no ready way to account for its rise, as in the case of March 25.
+From this supplementary tradition the year 29 gains in probability as the
+year of the passion. Without attempting to arrive at a final
+conclusion,--a task which must be left for chronological specialists,--it
+is safe to assume that Jesus died at the Passover of A.D. 29 or 30.
+
+51. Concluding that Jesus' active ministry fell within the years A.D. 26
+to 30, is it possible to determine the date of his birth? Four hints are
+furnished by the gospels: he was born before the death of Herod (Matt. ii.
+1; Luke i. 5); he was about thirty years of age at his baptism (Luke iii.
+23); he was born during a census conducted in Judea in accordance with
+the decree of Augustus at a time when Quirinius was in authority in Syria
+(Luke ii. 1, 2); after his birth wise men from the East were led to visit
+him by observing "his star" (Matt. ii. 1, 2). From these facts it follows
+that the birth of Jesus cannot be placed later than B.C. 4, since Herod
+died about the first of April in that year (Jos. Ant. xvii. 6. 4; 8. 1,
+4). The awkwardness of having to find a date _Before Christ_ for the birth
+of Jesus is due to the miscalculation of the monk, Dionysius the Little,
+who in the sixth century introduced our modern reckoning from "the year of
+our Lord."
+
+52. But is it impossible to determine the time of Jesus' birth more
+exactly? Luke (ii. 1, 2) offers what seems to be more definite
+information, but his reference to the decree of Augustus and the enrolment
+under Quirinius are among the most seriously challenged statements in the
+gospels. It has been said (1) that history knows of no edict of Augustus
+ordering a general enrolment of "the world;" (2) that a Roman census could
+not have been taken in Palestine before the death of Herod; (3) that if
+such an enrolment had been taken it would have been unnecessary for Joseph
+and Mary to journey from Nazareth to Bethlehem; (4) that the census taken
+when Quirinius was governor of Syria is definitely assigned by Josephus to
+the year after the deposition of Archelaus, A.D. 6 (Ant. xviii. 1. 1; see
+also Acts v. 37); (5) that if Luke's reference to this census as the
+"first" be appealed to, it must be replied that Quirinius was not governor
+of Syria at any time during the lifetime of Herod. This array of
+difficulties is impressive, and has persuaded many conservative students
+to concede that in his reference to the census Luke has fallen into error.
+Some recent discoveries in Egypt, however, have furnished new information
+concerning the imperial administration of that province. Inferring that a
+policy adopted in Egypt may have prevailed also in Syria, Professor Ramsay
+has recently put forth a strong argument for Luke's accuracy in respect of
+this census (Was Christ born at Bethlehem, 95-248). That argument may be
+condensed as follows: We have evidence of a system of Roman enrolments in
+Egypt taken every fourteen years, and already traced back to the time of
+Augustus, the earliest document so far recovered belonging, apparently, to
+the census of A.D. 20. It is at least possible that this system of
+Egyptian enrolments may have been part of an imperial policy, of which all
+other trace is lost excepting the statement of Luke. It is significant
+that the date of the census referred to by Josephus (A.D. 6) fits exactly
+the fourteen-year cycle which obtained in Egypt. If the census of A.D. 6
+was preceded by an earlier one its date would be B.C. 8; that is, it would
+be actually taken in B.C. 7, in order to secure the full acts for B.C. 8.
+
+53. The statement of Tertullian (Against Marcion, iv. 19) that a census
+had been taken in Judea under Augustus by Sentius Saturninus, who was
+governor of Syria about 9 to 7 B.C., certainly comes from some source
+independent of the gospels, and tends to confirm Luke's account of a
+census before the death of Herod. That a Roman census might have been
+taken in Palestine during Herod's life is seen from the fact that in A.D.
+36 Vitellius, the governor of Syria, had to send Roman forces into
+Cilicia Trachæa to assist Archelaus, the king of that country, to quell a
+revolt caused by native resistance to a census taken after the Roman
+fashion (Tacitus, Ann. vi. 41). Herod would almost certainly resent as a
+mark of subjection the order to enrol his people; and the fact that he was
+in disfavor with Augustus during the governorship of Saturninus (Josephus,
+Ant. xvi. 9. 1-3), suggests to Professor Ramsay that he may have sought to
+avoid obedience to the imperial will in the matter of the census. If after
+some delay Herod was forced to obey, the enrolment may have been taken in
+the year 7-6. Since it is probable that the Romans would allow Herod to
+give the census as distinctly Jewish a character as possible, it is easy
+to credit the order that all Jews should be registered, so far as
+possible, in their ancestral homes. Hence the journey of Joseph to
+Bethlehem; and if Mary wished to have her child also registered as from
+David's line, her removal with Joseph to Bethlehem is explained. Such a
+delay in the taking of the census would have postponed it until after the
+recall of Saturninus. The statement of Tertullian may therefore indicate
+simply that he knew that a census was taken in Syria by Saturninus.
+
+54. The successor of Saturninus was Varus, who held the governorship until
+after the death of Herod. How then does Luke refer to the enrolment as
+taken when Quirinius was in authority? It has for a long time been known
+that this man was in Syria before he was there as legate of the emperor in
+A.D. 6. There seems to be evidence that Quirinius was in the East about
+the year B.C. 6, putting down a rebellion on the borders of Cilicia, a
+district joined with Syria into one province under the early empire.
+Varus was at this time governor, but Quirinius might easily have been
+looked upon as representing for the time the power of the Roman arms. If
+Herod was forced to yield to the imperial wish by the presence in Syria of
+this renowned captain, the statement of Luke is confirmed, and the census
+at which Jesus was born was taken, according to a Jewish fashion, during
+the life of Herod, but under compulsion of Rome exacted by Quirinius,
+while he was in command of the Roman forces in the province of
+Syria-Cilicia. This gives as a probable date for the birth of Jesus B.C.
+6, which accords well with the hints previously considered, inasmuch as it
+is earlier than the death of Herod, and, if born in B.C. 6, Jesus would
+have been thirty-two at his baptism in A.D. 26.
+
+55. The account given in Matthew of "the star" which drew the wise men to
+Judea gives no sure help in determining the date of the birth of Jesus,
+but it is at least suggestive that in the spring and autumn of B.C. 7
+there occurred a remarkable conjunction of the planets Jupiter and Saturn.
+This was first noticed by Kepler in consequence of a similar conjunction
+observed by him in A.D. 1603. Men much influenced by astrology must have
+been impressed by such a celestial phenomenon, but that it furnishes an
+explanation of the star of the wise men is not clear. If it does, it
+confirms the date otherwise probable for the nativity, that is, not far
+from B.C. 6.
+
+56. Can we go further and determine the time of year or the month and day
+of the nativity? It should be borne in mind that our Christmas festival
+was not observed earlier than the fourth century, and that the evidence
+is well-nigh conclusive that December 25th was finally selected for the
+Nativity in order to hallow a much earlier and widely spread pagan
+festival coincident with the winter solstice. If anything exists to
+suggest the time of year it is Luke's mention of "shepherds in the field
+keeping watch by night over their flock" (ii. 8). This seems to indicate
+that it must have been the summer season. In winter the flocks would be
+folded, not pastured, by night.
+
+57. It therefore seems probable that Jesus was born in the summer of B.C.
+6; that he was baptized in A.D. 26; that the first Passover of his
+ministry was in the spring of 26 or 27; and that he was crucified in the
+spring of 29 or 30.
+
+
+
+
+V
+
+The Early Years of Jesus
+
+Matt. i. 1 to ii. 23; Luke i. 5 to ii. 52; iii. 23-38
+
+
+
+58. It is surprising that within a century of the life of the apostles,
+Christian imagination could have so completely mistaken the real greatness
+of Jesus as to let its thirst for wonder fill his early years with scenes
+in which his conduct is as unlovely as it is shocking. That he who in
+manhood was "holy, harmless, undefiled, separate from sinners" (Heb. vii.
+26), could in youth, in a fit of ill-temper, strike a companion with death
+and then meet remonstrance by cursing his accusers with blindness (Gospel
+of Thomas, 4, 5); that he could mock his teachers and spitefully resent
+their control (Pseudo-Matthew, 30, 31); that it could be thought worthy of
+him to exhibit his superiority to common human conditions by carrying
+water in his mantle when his pitcher had been broken (same, 33), or by
+making clay birds in play on the Sabbath and causing them to fly when he
+was rebuked for naughtiness (same, 27);--these and many like legends
+exhibit incredible blindness to the real glory of the Lord. Yet such
+things abound in the early attempts of the pious imagination to write the
+story of the youth of Jesus, and the account of the nativity and its
+antecedents fares as ill, being pitifully trivial where it is not
+revolting.
+
+59. How completely foreign all this is to the apostolic thought and
+feeling is clear when we notice that excepting the first two chapters of
+Matthew and Luke the New Testament tells us nothing whatever of the years
+which preceded John the Baptist's ministry in the wilderness. The gospels
+are books of testimony to what men had seen and heard (John i. 14); and
+the epistles are practical interpretations of the same in its bearing on
+religious life and hope. The apostles found no difficulty in recognizing
+the divinity and sinlessness of their Lord without inquiring how he came
+into the world or how he spent his early years; it was what he showed
+himself to be, not how he came to be, that formed their conception of him.
+Yet the early chapters of Matthew and Luke should not be classed with the
+later legends. Notwithstanding the attempts of Keim to associate the
+narratives of the infancy in the canonical and apocryphal gospels, a great
+gulf separates them: on the one side there is a reverent and beautiful
+reserve, on the other indelicate, unlovely, and trivial audacity.
+
+60. The gospel narratives have, however, perplexities of their own, for
+the two accounts agree only in the main features,--the miraculous birth in
+Bethlehem in the days of Herod, Mary being the mother and Joseph the
+foster-father, and Nazareth the subsequent residence. In further details
+they are quite different, and at first sight seem contradictory. Moreover,
+while Matthew sheds a halo of glory over the birth of Jesus, Luke draws a
+picture of humble circumstances and obscurity. These differences, taken
+with the silence of the rest of the New Testament concerning a miraculous
+birth, constitute a real difficulty. To many it seems strange that the
+disciples and the brethren of Jesus did not refer to these things if they
+knew them to be true. But it must not be overlooked that any familiar
+reference to the circumstances of the birth of Jesus which are narrated in
+the gospels would have invited from the Jews simply a challenge of the
+honor of his home. Moreover, as the knowledge of these wonders did not
+keep Mary from misunderstanding her son (Luke ii. 19, 51; compare Mark in.
+21, 31-35), the publication of them could hardly have helped greatly the
+belief of others. The fact that Mary was so perplexed by the course of
+Jesus in his ministry makes it probable that even until quite late in her
+life she "kept these things and pondered them in her heart."
+
+61. No parts of the New Testament are challenged so widely and so
+confidently as these narratives of the infancy. But if they are not to be
+credited with essential truth it is necessary to show what ideas cherished
+in the apostolic church could have led to their invention. That John and
+Paul maintain the divinity of their Lord, yet give no hint that this
+involved a miraculous birth, shows that these stories are no necessary
+outgrowth of that doctrine. The early Christians whether Jewish or Gentile
+would not naturally choose to give pictorial form to their belief in their
+Lord's divinity by the story of an incarnation. The heathen myths
+concerning sons of the gods were in all their associations revolting to
+Christian feeling, and, while the Jewish mind was ready to see divine
+influence at work in the birth of great men in Israel (as Isaac, and
+Samson, and Samuel), the whole tendency of later Judaism was hostile to
+any such idea as actual incarnation. Some would explain the story of the
+miraculous birth as a conclusion drawn by the Christian consciousness
+from the doctrine of the sinlessness of Jesus. Yet neither Paul nor John,
+who are both clear concerning the doctrine, give any idea that a
+miraculous birth was essential for a sinless being. Some appeal to the
+eagerness of the early Christians to exalt the virginity of Mary, This is
+certainly the animus of many apocryphal legends. But the feeling is as
+foreign to Jewish sentiment and New Testament teaching as it is
+contradictory to the evidence in the gospels that Mary had other children
+born after Jesus.
+
+62. Moreover, the songs of Mary (Luke i. 46-55) and Zachariah (Luke i.
+68--79) bear in themselves the evidence of origin before the doctrine of
+the cross had transformed the Christian idea of the Messiah. That
+transformed idea abounds in the Epistles and the Acts, and it is difficult
+to conceive how these songs (if they were later inventions) could have
+been left free of any trace of specifically Christian ideas. A Jewish
+Christian would almost certainly have made them more Christian than they
+are; a Gentile Christian could not have made them so strongly and
+naturally Jewish as they are; while a non-Christian Jew would never have
+invented them. Taken with the evidence in Ignatius (Ad Eph. xviii., xix.)
+of the very early currency of the belief in a miraculous birth, they
+confirm the impression that it is easier to accept the evidence offered
+for the miracle than to account for the origin of the stories as legends.
+The idea of a miraculous birth is very foreign to modern thought; it
+becomes credible only as the transcendent nature of Jesus is recognized on
+other grounds. It may not be said that the incarnation required a
+miraculous conception, yet it may be acknowledged that a miraculous
+conception is a most suitable method for a divine incarnation.
+
+63. These gospel stories are chiefly significant for us in that they show
+that he in whom his disciples came to recognize a divine nature began his
+earthly life in the utter helplessness and dependence of infancy, and grew
+through boyhood and youth to manhood with such naturalness that his
+neighbors, dull concerning the things of the spirit, could not credit his
+exalted claims. He is shown as one in all points like unto his brethren
+(Heb. ii. 17). Two statements in Luke (ii. 40, 52) describe the growth of
+the divine child as simply as that of his forerunner (Luke i. 80), or that
+of the prophet of old (I. Sam. ii. 26). The clear impression of these
+statements is that Jesus had a normal growth from infancy to manhood,
+while the whole course of the later life as set before us in the gospels
+confirms the scripture doctrine that his normal growth was free from sin
+(Heb. iv. 15).
+
+64. The knowledge of the probable conditions of his childhood is as
+satisfying as the apocryphal stories are revolting. The lofty Jewish
+conception of home and its relations is worthy of Jesus. The circumstances
+of the home in Nazareth were humble (Matt. xiii. 55; Luke ii. 24; compare
+Lev. xii. 8). Probably the house was not unlike those seen to-day, of but
+one room, or at most two or three,--the tools of trade mingling with the
+meagre furnishings for home-life. We should not think it a home of penury;
+doubtless the circumstances of Joseph were like those of his neighbors. In
+one respect this home was rich. The wife and mother had an exalted place
+in the Jewish life, notwithstanding the trivial opinions of some
+supercilious rabbis; and what the gospel tells of the chivalry of Joseph
+renders it certain that love reigned in his home, making it fit for the
+growth of the holy child.
+
+65. Religion held sway in all the phases of Jewish life. With some it was
+a religion of ceremony,--of prayers and fastings, tithes and boastful
+alms, fringes and phylacteries. But Joseph and Mary belonged to the
+simpler folk, who, while they reverenced the scribes as teachers, knew not
+enough of their subtlety to have substituted barren rites for sincere love
+for the God of their fathers and childlike trust in his mercy. Jesus knew
+not only home life at its fairest, but religion at its best. A father's
+most sacred duty was the teaching of his child in the religion of his
+people (Deut. vi. 4-9), and then, as ever since, the son learned at his
+mother's side to know and love her God, to pray to him, and to know the
+scriptures. No story more thrilling and full of interest, no prospect more
+rich and full of glowing hope, could be found to satisfy the child's
+spirit of wonder than the story of Israel's past and God's promises for
+the future. Religious culture was not confined to the home, however. The
+temple at Jerusalem was the ideal centre of religious life for this
+Nazareth household (Luke ii. 41) as for all the people, yet practically
+worship and instruction were cultivated chiefly by the synagogue (Luke iv.
+16); there God was present in his Holy Word. Week after week the boy Jesus
+heard the scripture in its original Hebrew form, followed by translation
+into Aramaic, and received instruction from it for daily conduct. The
+synagogue probably influenced the boy's intellectual life even more
+directly. In the time of Jesus schools had been established in all the
+important towns, and were apparently under the control of the synagogue.
+To such a school he may have been sent from about six years of age to be
+taught the scriptures (compare II. Tim. iii. 15), together with the
+reading (Luke iv. 16-19), and perhaps the writing, of the Hebrew language.
+Of his school experience we know nothing beyond the fact that he grew in
+"wisdom and in stature and in favor with God and man" (Luke ii. 52),--a
+sufficient contradiction of the repulsive legends of the apocryphal
+gospels.
+
+66. The physical growth incident to Jesus' development from boyhood to
+manhood is a familiar thought. The intellectual unfolding which belongs to
+this development is readily recognized. Not so commonly acknowledged, but
+none the less clearly essential to the gospel picture, is the gradual
+unfolding of the child's moral life under circumstances and stimulus
+similar to those with which other children meet (Heb. iv. 15). The man
+Jesus was known as the carpenter (Matt. xiii. 55). The learning of such a
+trade would contribute much to the boy's mastery of his own powers. Far
+more discipline would come from his fellowship with brothers and sisters
+who did not understand his ways nor appreciate the deepest realities of
+his life. Without robbing boyhood days of their naturalness and reality,
+we may be sure that long before Jesus knew how and why he differed from
+his fellows he felt more or less clearly that they were not like him. The
+resulting sense of isolation was a school for self-mastery, lest isolation
+foster any such pride or unloveliness as that with which later legend
+dared to stain the picture of the Lord's youth. Four brothers of Jesus
+are named by Mark (vi. 3),--James, and Joses, and Judas, and Simon,--the
+gospel adds also that he had sisters living at a later time in Nazareth.
+They were all subject with him to the same home influences, and apparently
+were not unresponsive to them. The similarity of thought and feeling
+between the sermon on the mount and the Epistle of James is not readily
+explained by the influence of master over disciple, since the days of
+James's discipleship began after the resurrection of Jesus. In any case
+there is no reason to think that the companions of Jesus' home were
+uncommonly irritating or in any way irreligious, only Jesus was not
+altogether like them (John vii. 5), and the fact of difference was a moral
+discipline, which among other things led to that moral growth by which
+innocence passed into positive goodness. If the home was such a school of
+discipline, its neighbors, less earnest and less favored with spiritual
+training, furnished more abundant occasion for self-mastery and growth.
+The very fact that in his later years Jesus was no desert preacher, like
+John, but social, and socially sought for, indicates that he did not win
+his manhood's perfection in solitude, but in fellowship with common life
+and in victory over the trials and temptations incident to it (Heb. ii.
+17, 18).
+
+67. Yet he must have been familiar with the life which is in secret (Matt.
+vi. 1-18). He who in his later years was a man of much prayer, who began
+(Luke iii. 21) and closed (Luke xxiii. 46) his public life with prayer, as
+a boy was certainly familiar not only with the prayers of home and
+synagogue, but also with quiet, personal resort to the presence of God. It
+would be unjust to think of any abnormal religious precocity. Jesus was
+the best example the world has seen of perfect spiritual health, but we
+must believe that he came early to know God and to live much with him.
+
+68. It is instructive in connection with this inwardness of Jesus' life to
+recall the rich familiarity with the whole world of nature which appears
+in his parables and other teachings. The prospect which met his eye if he
+sought escape from the distractions of home and village life, has been
+described by Renan: "The view from the town is limited; but if we ascend a
+little to the plateau swept by a perpetual breeze, which stands above the
+highest houses, the landscape is magnificent. On the west stretch the fine
+outlines of Carmel, terminating in an abrupt spur which seems to run down
+sheer to the sea. Next, one sees the double summit which towers above
+Megiddo; the mountains of the country of Shechem, with their holy places
+of the patriarchal period; the hills of Gilboa, the small picturesque
+group to which is attached the graceful or terrible recollections of
+Shunem and of Endor; and Tabor, with its beautiful rounded form, which
+antiquity compared to a bosom. Through a gap between the mountains of
+Shunem and Tabor are visible the valley of the Jordan and the high plains
+of Perea, which form a continuous line from the eastern side. On the
+north, the mountains of Safed, stretching towards the sea, conceal St.
+Jean d'Acre, but leave the Gulf of Khaifa in sight. Such was the horizon,
+of Jesus. This enchanted circle, cradle of the kingdom of God, was for
+years his world. Indeed, during his whole life he went but little beyond
+the familiar bounds of his childhood. For yonder, northwards, one can
+almost see, on the flank of Hermon, Cæsarea-Philippi, his farthest point
+of advance into the Gentile world; and to the south the less smiling
+aspect of these Samaritan hills foreshadows the dreariness of Judea
+beyond, parched as by a burning wind of desolation and death." In the
+midst of such scenes we are to understand that, with the physical growth,
+and opening of mind, and moral discipline which filled the early years of
+Jesus, there came also the gradual spiritual unfolding in which the boy
+rose step by step to the fuller knowledge of God and himself.
+
+69. That unfolding is pictured in an early stage in the story given us
+from the youth of Jesus. It was customary for a Jewish boy not long after
+passing his twelfth year to come under full adult obligation to the law.
+The visit to Jerusalem was probably in preparation for such assumption of
+obligation by Jesus. All his earlier training had filled his mind with the
+sacredness of the Holy City and the glory of the temple. It is easy to
+feel with what joy he would first look upon Zion from the shoulder of the
+Mount of Olives, as he came over it on his journey from Galilee; to
+conceive how the temple and the ritual would fill him with awe in his
+readiness not to criticise, but to idealize everything he saw, and to
+think only of the significance given by it all to the scripture; to
+imagine how eagerly he would talk in the temple court with the learned men
+of his people about the law and the promises with which in home and school
+his youth had been made familiar. Nor is it difficult to appreciate his
+surprise, when Joseph and Mary, only after long searching for him, at last
+found him in the temple, for he felt that it was the most natural place
+in which he could be found. In his wondering question to Mary, "Did not
+you know that I must be in my Father's house?" (Luke ii. 49), there is a
+premonition of his later consciousness of peculiarly intimate relation to
+God. The question was, however, a sincere inquiry. It was no precocious
+rebuke of Mary's anxiety. The knowledge of himself as Son of God was only
+dawning within him, and was not yet full and clear. This is shown by his
+immediate obedience and his subjection to his parents in Nazareth through
+many years. It is safe, in the interpretation of the acts and words of
+Jesus, to banish utterly as inconceivable anything that savors of the
+theatrical. We must believe that he was always true to himself, and that
+the subjection which he rendered to Joseph and Mary sprang from a real
+sense of childhood's dependence, and was not a show of obedience for any
+edifying end however high.
+
+70. That question "Did not you know?" is the only hint we possess of
+Jesus' inner life before John's call to repentance rang through the land.
+Meanwhile the carpenter's son became himself the carpenter. Joseph seems
+to have died before the opening of Jesus' ministry. For Jesus as the
+eldest son, this death made those years far other than a time of spiritual
+retreat; responsibility for the home and the pressing duties of trade must
+have filled most of the hours of his days. This is a welcome thought to
+our healthiest sentiment, and true also to the earliest Christian feeling
+(Heb. iv. 15). John the Baptist had his training in the wilderness, but
+Jesus came from familiar intercourse with men, was welcomed in their
+homes (John ii. 2), knew their life in its homely ongoing, and was the
+friend of all sorts and conditions of men. After that visit to Jerusalem,
+a few more years may have been spent in school, for, whether from school
+instruction, or synagogue preaching, or simple daily experience, the young
+man came to know the traditions of the elders and also to know that
+observance of them is a mockery of the righteousness which God requires.
+Yet he seems to have felt so fully in harmony with God as to be conscious
+of nothing new in the fresh and vital conceptions of righteousness which
+he found in the law and prophets. We may be certain that much of his
+thought was given to Israel's hope of redemption, and that with the
+prophets of old and the singer much nearer his own day (Ps. of Sol. xvii.
+23), he longed that God, according to his promise, would raise up unto his
+people, their King, the Son of David.
+
+71. He must also have read often from that other book open before him as
+he walked upon the hills of Nazareth. The beauty of the grass and of the
+lilies was surely not a new discovery to him after he began to preach the
+coming kingdom, nor is it likely that he waited until after his baptism to
+form his habit of spending the night in prayer upon the mountain. We may
+be equally sure that he did not first learn to love men and women and long
+for their good after he received the call, "Thou art my beloved son" (Mark
+i. 11). He who in later life read hearts clearly (John ii. 25) doubtless
+gained that skill, as well as the knowledge of human sin and need, early
+in his intercourse with his friends and neighbors in Nazareth; while a
+clear conviction that God's kingdom consists in his sovereignty over
+loyal hearts must have filled much of his thought about the promised good
+which God would bring to Israel in due time. Thus we may think that in
+quietness and homely industry, in secret life with God and open love for
+men, in study of history and prophecy, in longing for the actual sway of
+God in human life, Jesus lived his life, did his work, and grew in "wisdom
+and in stature and in favor with God and man" (Luke ii. 52).
+
+
+
+
+VI
+
+John The Baptist
+
+Matt. iii. 1-17; iv. 12; xiv. 1-12; Mark i. 1-14; vi. 14-29; Luke i. 5-25,
+57-80; iii. 1-22; ix. 7-9; John i. 19-37; iii. 22-30.
+
+
+
+72. The first reappearance of Jesus in the gospel story, after the temple
+scene in his twelfth year, is on the banks of the Jordan seeking baptism
+from the new prophet. One of the silent evidences of the greatness of
+Jesus is the fact that so great a character as John the Baptist stands in
+our thought simply as accessory to his life. For that the prophet of the
+wilderness was great has been the opinion of all who have been willing to
+seek him in his retirement. One reason for the common neglect of John is
+doubtless the meagreness of information about him. But though details are
+few, the picture of him is drawn in clearest lines: a rugged son of the
+wilderness scorning the gentler things of life, threatening his people
+with coming wrath and calling to repentance while yet there was time; a
+preacher of practical righteousness heeded by publicans and harlots but
+scorned by the elders of his people; a bold and fearless spirit, yet
+subdued in the presence of another who did not strive, nor cry, nor cause
+his voice to be heard in the streets. When the people thought to find in
+John the promised Messiah, with unparalleled self-effacement he pointed
+them to his rival and rejoiced in that rival's growing success. Side by
+side they worked for a time; then the picture fails, but for a hint of a
+royal audience, with a fearless rebuke of royal disgrace and sin; a prison
+life, with its pathetic shaking of confidence in the early certainties; a
+long and forced inaction, and the question put by a wavering faith, with
+its patient and affectionate reply; then a lewd orgy, a king's oath, a
+girl's demands, a martyr's release, the disciples' lamentation and their
+report to that other who, though seeming a rival, was known to appreciate
+best the greatness of this prophet. Such is the picture in the gospels.
+
+73. John, unlike his greater successor, has a highly appreciative notice
+from Josephus: "Now some of the Jews thought that the destruction of
+Herod's army came from God, and that very justly, as a punishment for what
+he did against John, who was called the Baptist. For Herod had had him put
+to death though he was a good man, and commanded the Jews to exercise
+virtue, both as to justice towards one another, and piety towards God, and
+so to come to baptism; for baptism would be acceptable to God, if they
+made use of it not in order to expiate some sin, but for the purification
+of the body, provided that the soul was thoroughly purified beforehand by
+righteousness. Now, as many flocked to him, for they were greatly moved by
+hearing his words, Herod, fearing that the great influence, John had over
+the people might lead to some rebellion (for the people seemed likely to
+do anything he should advise), thought it far best, by putting him to
+death, to prevent any mischief he might cause, and not bring himself into
+difficulties by sparing a man who might make him repent of his leniency
+when it should be too late. Accordingly he was sent a prisoner, in
+consequence of Herod's suspicious temper, to Machaerus, the fortress
+before mentioned, and was there put to death. So the Jews had the opinion
+that the destruction of this army [by Aretas] was sent as a punishment
+upon Herod and was the mark of God's displeasure at him" (Ant. xviii. 5.
+2). This section is commonly accepted as trustworthy. Superficially
+different from the gospel record and assigning quite another cause for
+John's imprisonment and death, it correctly describes his character and
+his influence with the people, and leaves abundant room for a more
+intimately personal motive on the part of Antipas for the imprisonment of
+John. If the jealousy of Herodias was the actual reason for John's arrest,
+it is highly probable that another cause would be named to the world, and
+a likelier one than that given by Josephus could not be found.
+
+74. The first problem that offers itself in the study of this man is the
+man himself. Whence did he come? Everything about him is surprising. He
+appears as a dweller in the desert, an ascetic, holding aloof from common
+life and content with the scanty fare the wilderness could offer; yet he
+was keenly appreciative of his people's needs, and he knew their
+sins,--the particular ones that beset Pharisees, publicans, soldiers. If a
+recluse in habit, he was far from such in thought; he was therefore no
+seeker for his own soul's peace in his desert life. His dress was
+strikingly suggestive of the old prophet of judgment on national
+infidelity (I. Kings xvii. 1; II. Kings i, 8), the Elijah whom John would
+not claim to be. His message was commanding, with its double word "Repent"
+and "The kingdom is near." His idea of the kingdom was definite, though
+not at all developed; it signified to him God's dominion, inaugurated by a
+divine judgment which should mean good for the penitent and utter
+destruction for the ungodly; hence the prophet's call to repentance. His
+ministry was one of grace, but the time was drawing near when the Greater
+One would appear to complete by a swift judgment the work which his
+forerunner was beginning. That Greater One would hew down the fruitless
+tree, winnow the wheat from the chaff on the threshing floor, baptize the
+penitent with divine power, and the wicked with the fire of judgment,
+since his was to be a ministry of judgment, not of grace.
+
+75. Whence, then, came this strange prophet? Near the desert region where
+he spent his youth and where he first proclaimed his message of repentance
+and judgment was the chief settlement of that strange company of Jews
+known as Essenes. It has long been customary to think that during his
+early years John was associated with these fellow-dwellers in the desert,
+if he did not actually join the order. He certainly may have learned from
+them many things. Their sympathy with his ascetic life and with his
+thorough moral earnestness would make them attractive to him, but he was
+far too original a man to get from them more than some suggestions to be
+worked out in his own fashion. The simplicity of his teaching of
+repentance and the disregard of ceremonial in his preaching separate him
+from these monks. John may have known his desert companions, may have
+appreciated some things in their discipline, but he remained independent
+of their guidance.
+
+76. The leaders of religious life and thought in his day were
+unquestionably the Pharisees. The controlling idea with them, and
+consequently with the people, was the sanctity of God's law. They were
+conscious of the sinfulness of the people, and their demand for repentance
+was constant. It is a rabbinic commonplace that the delay of the Messiah's
+coming is due to lack of repentance in Israel. But near as this conception
+is to John's, we need but to recall his words to the Pharisees (Matt. iii.
+7) to realize how clearly he saw through the hollowness of their religious
+pretence. With the quibbles of the scribes concerning small and great
+commandments, Sabbaths and hand-washings, John shows no affinity. He may
+have learned some things from these "sitters in Moses' seat," but he was
+not of them.
+
+77. John's message announced the near approach of the kingdom of God. It
+is probable that many of those who sought his baptism were ardent
+nationalists,--eager to take a hand in realizing that consummation.
+Josephus indicates that it was Herod's fear lest John should lead these
+Zealots to revolt that furnished the ostensible cause of his death. But
+similar as were the interests of John and these nationalists, the distance
+between them was great. The prophet's replies to the publicans and to the
+soldiers, which contain not a word of rebuke for the hated callings (Luke
+iii. 13, 14), show how fundamentally he differed from the Zealots.
+
+78. But there was another branch of the Pharisees than that which quibbled
+over Sabbath laws, traditions, and tithes, or that which itched to grasp
+the sword; they were men who saw visions and dreamed dreams like those of
+Daniel and the Revelation, and in their visions saw God bringing
+deliverance to his people by swift and sudden judgment. There are some
+marked likenesses between this type of thought and that of John,--the
+impending judgment, the word of warning, the coming blessing, were all in
+John; but one need only compare John's words with such an apocalypse as
+the Assumption of Moses, probably written in Palestine during John's life
+in the desert, to discover that the two messages do not move in the same
+circle of thought at all; there is something practical, something severely
+heart-searching, something at home in every-day life, about John's
+announcement of the coming kingdom that is quite absent from the visions
+of his contemporaries. John had not, like some of these seers, a coddling
+sympathy for people steeped in sin. He traced their troubles to their own
+doors, and would not let ceremonies pass in place of "fruits meet for
+repentance." He came from the desert with rebuke and warning on his lips;
+with no word against the hated Romans, but many against hypocritical
+claimants to the privileges of Abraham; no apology for his message nor
+artificial device of dream or ancient name to secure a hearing, but the
+old-fashioned prophetic method of declaration of truth "whether men will
+hear or whether they will forbear." "All was sharp and cutting, imperious
+earnestness about final questions, unsparing overthrow of all fictitious
+shams in individual as in national life. There are no theories of the law,
+no new good works, no belief in the old, but simply and solely a prophetic
+clutch at men's consciences, a mighty accusation, a crushing summons to
+contrite repentance and speedy sanctification" (KeimJN. II. 228). We look
+in vain for a parallel in any of John's contemporaries, except in that one
+before whom he bowed, saying, "I have need to be baptized of thee."
+
+79. John had, however, predecessors whose work he revived. In Isaiah's
+words, "Wash you, make you clean" (Isa. i 16), one recognizes the type
+which reappeared in John. The great prophetic conception of the Day of the
+Lord--the day of wrath and salvation (Joel ii. 1-14)--is revived in John,
+free from all the fantastic accompaniments which his contemporaries loved.
+The invitations to repentance and new fidelity which abound in Isaiah,
+Ezekiel, Hosea, and Joel; the summons to simple righteousness, which rang
+from the lips of Micah (vi. 8), and of the great prophet of the exile
+(Isa. lviii.), these tell us where John went to school and how well he
+learned his lesson. It is hard for us to realize how great a novelty such
+simplicity was in John's day, or how much originality it required to
+attain to this discipleship of the prophets. From the time when the
+curtain rises on the later history of Israel in the days of the Maccabean
+struggle to the coming of that "voice crying in the wilderness," Israel
+had listened in vain for a prophet who could speak God's will with
+authority. The last thing that people expected when John came was such a
+simple message. He was not the creature of his time, but a revival of the
+older type; yet, as in the days of Elijah God had kept him seven thousand
+in Israel that had not bowed the knee to Baal, so, in the later time, not
+all were bereft of living faith. These devout souls furnished the soil
+which could produce a life like John's, gifted and chosen by God to
+restore and advance the older and more genuine religion.
+
+80. If John was thus a revival of the older prophetic order, a second
+question arises: Whence came his baptism, and what did it signify? The
+gospels describe it as a "baptism of repentance for the remission of sins"
+(Mark i. 4). John's declaration that his greater successor should baptize
+with the Holy Spirit and fire (Matt. iii. 11) shows that he viewed his
+baptism as a symbol, rather than as a means, of remission of sin. But it
+was more than a sign of repentance, it was a confession of loyalty to the
+kingdom which John's successor was to establish. It had thus a twofold
+significance: (_a_) confession of and turning from the old life of sin,
+and (_b_) consecration to the coming kingdom. Whence, then, came this
+ordinance? Not from the Essenes, for, unlike John's baptism, the bath
+required by these Jewish ascetics was an oft-repeated act. Further, John's
+rite had a far deeper religious significance than the Essene washings.
+These performed their ablutions to secure ritual cleanness as exemplary
+disciples of the Mosaic ideal. The searching of heart which preceded
+John's baptism, and the radical change of life it demanded, seem foreign
+to Essenism. The baptism of John, considered as a ceremony of consecration
+for the coming kingdom, was parallel rather to the initiatory oaths of the
+Essene brotherhood than to their ablutions. Their custom may have served
+to suggest to John a different application of the familiar sacred use of
+the bath; indeed John could hardly have been uninfluenced by the usage of
+his contemporaries; yet in this, as in his thought, he was not a product
+of their school.
+
+81. John's baptism was equally independent of the pharisaic influence. The
+scribes made much of "divers washings," but not with any such significance
+as would furnish to John his baptism of repentance and of radical change
+of life. That he was not following a pharisaic leading appears in the
+question put to him by the Pharisees, "Why, then, baptizest thou?" (John
+i. 25). They saw something unique in the ceremony as he conducted it.
+
+82. Many have held that he derived his baptism from the method of
+admitting proselytes into the Jewish fellowship. It is clear, at least,
+that the later ritual prescribed a ceremonial bath as well as circumcision
+and sacrifice for all who came into Judaism from the Gentiles, and it is
+difficult to conceive of a time when a ceremonial bath would not seem
+indispensable, since Jews regarded all Gentile life as defiling. While
+such an origin for John's baptism would give peculiar force to his rebuke
+of Jewish confidence in the merits of Abraham (Matt. iii. 9), it is more
+likely, as Keim has shown (JN. II. 243 and note), that in this as in his
+other thought John learned of his predecessors rather than his
+contemporaries. Before the giving of the older covenant from Sinai, it is
+said that Moses was required "to sanctify the people and bid them wash
+their garments" (Ex. xix. 10). John was proclaiming the establishment of a
+new covenant, as the prophets had promised. That the people should prepare
+for this by a similar bath of sanctification seems most natural. John
+appeared with a revival of the older and simpler religious ideas of
+Israel's past, deriving his rite as well as his thought from the springs
+of his people's religious life.
+
+83. This revival of the prophetic past had nothing scholastic or
+antiquarian about it. John was a disciple, not an imitator, of the great
+men of Israel; his message was not learned from Isaiah or any other,
+though he was educated by studying them. What he declared, he declared as
+truth immediately seen by his own soul, the essence of his power being a
+revival, not in letter but in spirit, of the old, direct cry, "Thus saith
+the Lord." Inasmuch as John's day was otherwise hopelessly in bondage to
+tradition and the study of the letter, by so much is his greatness
+enhanced in bringing again God's direct message to the human conscience.
+John's greatness was that of a pioneer. The Friend of publicans and
+sinners also spoke a simple speech to human hearts; he built on and
+advanced from the old prophets, but it was John who was appointed to
+prepare the people for the new life, "to make ready the way of the Lord"
+(Mark i. 3). The clearness of his perception of truth is not the least of
+his claims to greatness. His knowledge of the simplicity of God's
+requirements in contrast with the hopeless maze of pharisaic traditions,
+and his insight into the characters with whom he had to deal, whether the
+sinless Jesus or the hypocritical Pharisees, show a man marvellously
+gifted by God who made good use of his gift. This greatness appears in
+superlative degree in the self-effacement of him who possessed these
+powers. Greatness always knows itself more or less fully. It was not
+self-ignorance that led John to claim to be but a voice, nor was it mock
+humility. The confession of his unworthiness in comparison with the
+mightier one who should follow is unmistakably sincere, as is the
+completed joy of this friend of the bridegroom rejoicing greatly because
+of the bridegroom's voice, even when the bridegroom's presence meant the
+recedence of the friend into ever deepening obscurity (John iii. 30).
+
+84. But John had marked limitations. He knew well the righteousness of
+God; he knew, and, in effect, proclaimed God's readiness to forgive them
+that would turn from their wicked ways; he knew the simplicity as well as
+the exceeding breadth of the divine commandment; but beyond one flash of
+insight (John i. 29-36), which did not avail to remould his thought, he
+did not know the yearning love of God which seeks to save. It is not
+strange that he did not. Some of the prophets had more knowledge of it
+than he, his own favorite Isaiah knew more of it than he, but it was not
+the thought of John's day. The wonder is that the Baptist so far freed
+himself from current thought; yet he did not belong to the new order. He
+thundered as from Sinai. The simplest child that has learned from the
+heart its "Our Father" has reached a higher knowledge and entered a higher
+privilege (Matt. xi. 11). John's self-effacement, wonderful as it was,
+fell short of discipleship to his greater successor; in fact, at a much
+later time there was still a circle of disciples of the Baptist who kept
+themselves separate from the church (Acts xix. 1-7). He was doubtless too
+strenuous a man readily to become a follower. He could yield his place
+with unapproachable grace, but he remained the prophet of the wilderness
+still. He seemed to belong consciously to the old order, and, by the very
+circumstances ordained of God who sent him, he could not be of those who,
+sitting at Jesus' feet, learned to surrender to him their preconceptions
+and hopes, and in heart, if not in word, to say, "To whom shall we go,
+thou hast the words of eternal life?" (John vi. 68).
+
+
+
+
+VII
+
+The Messianic Call
+
+Matt. iii. 13 TO iv. 11; Mark i. 9-13; Luke iii. 21, 22; iv. 1-13; John i.
+30-34
+
+
+
+85. In the circle about John all classes of the people were represented:
+Pharisees and Sadducees, jealous of innovation and apprehensive of popular
+excitement; publicans and soldiers, interested in the new preacher or
+touched in conscience; outcasts who came in penitence, and devout souls in
+consecration. The wonder of the new message was carried throughout the
+land and brought great multitudes to the Jordan. Jesus in Nazareth heard
+it, and recognized in John a revival of the long-silent prophetic voice.
+The summons appealed to his loyalty to God's truth, and after the
+multitudes had been baptized (Luke iii. 21) he too sought the prophet of
+the wilderness.
+
+86. The connection which Luke mentions (i. 36) between the families of
+Jesus and John had not led to any intimacy between the two young men. John
+certainly did not know of his kinsman's mission (John i. 31), nor was his
+conception of the Messiah such that he would look for its fulfilment in
+one like Jesus (Matt. iii. 10-12). One thing, however, was clear as soon
+as they met,--John recognized in Jesus one holier than himself (Matt. iii.
+14). With a prophet's spiritual insight he read the character of Jesus
+at a glance, and although that character did not prove him to be the
+Messiah, it prepared John for the revelation which was soon to follow.
+
+87. The reply of Jesus to the unwillingness of John to give him baptism
+(Matt. iii. 15) was an expression of firm purpose to do God's will; the
+absence of any confession of sin is therefore all the more noticeable. In
+all generations the holiest men have been those most conscious of
+imperfection, and in John's message and baptism confession and repentance
+were primary demands; yet Jesus felt no need for repentance, and asked for
+baptism with no word of confession. But for the fact that the total
+impression of his life begat in his disciples the conviction that "he did
+no sin" (I. Pet. ii. 22; compare John viii. 46; II. Cor. v. 21), this
+silence of Jesus would offend the religious sense. Jesus, however, had no
+air of self-sufficiency, he came to make surrender and "to fulfil
+all-righteousness" (Matt. iii. 15). It was the positive aspect of John's
+baptism that drew him to the Jordan. John was preaching the coming of
+God's kingdom. The place held by the doctrine of that kingdom in the later
+teaching of Jesus makes it all but certain that his thought had been
+filled with it for many years. In his reading of the prophets Jesus
+undoubtedly emphasized the spiritual phases of their promises, but it is
+not likely that he had done much criticising of the ideas held by his
+contemporaries before he came to John. As already remarked he seems to
+have been quicker to discover his affinity with the older truth than to be
+conscious of the novelty of his own ways of apprehending it (Matt. v. 17).
+When, then, Jesus heard John's call for consecration to the approaching
+kingdom he recognized the voice of duty, and he sought the baptism that he
+might do all that he could to "make ready the way of the Lord."
+
+88. This act of consecration on Jesus' part was one of personal obedience.
+There were no crowds present (Luke iii. 21), and his thoughts were full of
+prayer. It was an experience which concerned his innermost life with God,
+and it called him to communion with heaven like that in which he sought
+for wisdom before choosing his apostles (Luke vi. 12), and for strength in
+view of his approaching death (Luke ix. 28, 29). His outward declaration
+of loyalty to the coming kingdom was thus not an act of righteousness "to
+be seen of men," but one of personal devotion to him who is and who sees
+in secret (Matt. vi. 1, 6). As the transfiguration followed the prayer on
+Hermon, so this initial consecration was answered from heaven. A part of
+the answer was evident to John, for he saw a visible token of the gift of
+the divine Spirit which was granted to Jesus for the conduct of the work
+he had to do, and he recognized in Jesus the greater successor for whom he
+was simply making preparation (Mark i. 10; John i. 32-34). To Jesus there
+came also with the gift of the Spirit a definite word from heaven, "Thou
+art my beloved Son, in thee I am well pleased" (Mark i. 11). The language
+in Mark and Luke, and the silence of the Baptist concerning the voice from
+heaven (John i. 32-34), indicate that the word came to Jesus alone, and
+was his summons to undertake the work of setting up that kingdom to which
+he had just pledged his loyalty. The expression "My beloved Son" had clear
+Messianic significance for Jesus' contemporaries (comp. Mark xiv. 62),
+and the message can have signified for him nothing less than a Messianic
+call. It implied more than that child-relation to God which was the
+fundamental fact in his religious life from the beginning: it had an
+official meaning.
+
+89. For Jesus the sense of being God's child was normally human, and in
+his ministry he invited all men to a similar consciousness of sonship. Yet
+his early years must have brought to him a realization that he was
+different from his fellows. That in him which made a confession at the
+baptism unnatural and which led to John's word, "I have need to be
+baptized by thee," was ready to echo assent when God said, "Thou art my
+Son." He accepted the call and the new office and mission which it
+implied, and he must have recognized that it was for this moment that all
+the past of his life had been making preparation.
+
+90. The gift of the Spirit to Jesus, which furnished to John the proof
+that the Greater One had appeared, was not an arbitrary sign. The old
+prophetic thought (Isa. xi. 2; xlii. 1; lxi. 1) as well as a later popular
+expectation (Ps. of Sol. xvii. 42) provided for such an anointing of the
+Messiah; and in the actual conduct of his life Jesus was constantly under
+the leading of this Spirit (see Matt. xii. 28 and John iii. 34). The
+temptation which followed the baptism, and in which he faced the
+difficulties in his new task, was the first result of the Spirit's
+control. Its later influence is not so clearly marked in the gospels, but
+they imply that as the older servants of God were guided and strengthened
+by him, so his Son also was aided,--with this difference, however, that he
+possessed completely the heavenly gift (John iii. 34). Jesus' uniform
+confession of dependence on God confirms this teaching of the gift of the
+divine Spirit; and his uniform consciousness of complete power and
+authority confirms the testimony that he had the Spirit "without measure."
+
+91. The temptation to which the Spirit "drove" Jesus after his baptism
+gives proof that the call to assume the Messianic office came to him
+unexpectedly; for the three temptations with which his long struggle ended
+were echoes of the voice which he had heard at the Jordan, and subtle
+insinuations of doubt of its meaning. Some withdrawal to contemplate the
+significance of his appointment to a Messianic work was a mental and
+spiritual necessity. As has often been said, if the gospels had not
+recorded the temptation, we should have had to assume one. Jesus being the
+man he was, could not have thought that his call was a summons to an
+entire change in his ideals and his thoughts about God and duty. Yet he
+must have been conscious of the wide differences between his conceptions
+of God's kingdom and the popular expectation. Those differences, by the
+measure of the definiteness of the popular thought and the ardor of the
+popular hope, were the proof of the difficulty of his task. The call meant
+that the Messiah could be such as he was; it meant that the kingdom could
+be and must be a dominion of God primarily in the hearts of men and
+consequently in their world; it meant that his work must be religious
+rather than political, and gracious rather than judicial. These essentials
+of the work which he could do contradicted at nearly every point the
+expectations of his people. How could he succeed in the face of such
+opposition? His long meditation during forty days doubtless showed him the
+difficulty of his task in all its baldness, yet it did not shake his
+certainty that the call had come to him from God, nor his faith that what
+God had called him to do he could accomplish.
+
+92. The gospels show no hesitation in calling the experience of these days
+a temptation, nor had the Christian feeling of the first century any
+difficulty in thinking of its Lord as actually suffering temptation (Heb.
+ii. 18; iv. 15). A temptation to be real cannot be hypothetical; evil must
+actually present itself as attractive to the tempted soul. A suggestion of
+evil that takes no hold concretely of the heart is no temptation, nor is
+the resistance of it any victory. The sinlessness of him who sought
+baptism with no confession on his lips nor sense of penitence in his heart
+offers no barrier to his experience of genuine temptation, unless we think
+him incapable of sin, and therefore not "like unto his brethren." Not only
+do the gospels repeatedly refer to his temptations (Luke iv. 13; Mark
+viii. 31-33; Luke xxii. 28; compare Heb. v. 7-9), but they also depict
+clearly the reality of these initial testings. The account as given in
+Matthew and Luke represents the experience with which the forty days'
+struggle culminated. The absorption of Jesus' mind had been so complete
+that he had neglected the needs of his body, and when he turned to think
+of earthly things he was pressed by hunger. A popular notion at a later
+time, and probably also in Jesus' day, was that the Messiah would be able
+to feed his people as Moses had given them manna in the wilderness (John
+vi. 30-32; see EdersLJM. I. 176). He had just been endowed with the
+divine Spirit for the work before him; it was therefore no fantastic idea
+when the suggestion came that he should use his power to supply his own
+needs in the desert. Nor was the temptation without attractiveness; his
+own physical nature urged its need, and Jesus was no ascetic who found
+discomfort a way of holiness. The evil in the suggestion was that it asked
+him to use his newly given powers for the supply of his own needs, as if
+doubting that God would care for him as for any other of his children.
+There was more than distrust of God suggested; the temptation came with a
+hint of another doubt,--"_If_ thou art God's Son." A miracle would prove
+to himself his appointment and his power. The suggested doubt of his call
+he passed unnoticed; distrust of God he repudiated instantly, falling back
+on his faith in the God he had served these many years (Deut. viii. 3).
+His victory is remarkable because his spirit conquered unhesitatingly
+after a long ecstasy which would naturally have induced a reaction and a
+surrender for the moment to the demand of lower needs.
+
+93. This firmness of trust opened the way for another evil suggestion. In
+the work before him as God's Anointed many difficulties were on either
+side and across his path. He knew his people, their prejudices, and their
+hardness of heart; and he knew how far he was from their ideal of a
+Messiah. He knew also the watchful jealousy of Rome. Others before him,
+like Judas of Galilee, had tried the Messianic rôle and had failed. He,
+however, was confident of his divine call: should he not, therefore, press
+forward with his work, heedless of all danger and regardless of the
+dictates of prudence,--as heedless as if, trusting God's promised care,
+he should cast himself down from a pinnacle of the temple to the rocks in
+Kidron below? A fanatic would have yielded to such a temptation. Many
+another than Jesus did so,--Theudas (Acts v. 36), the Egyptian (Acts xxi.
+38); and Bar Cochba (Dio Cassius, lxix. 12-14; Euseb. Ch. Hist. iv. 6).
+Jesus, however, showed his perfect mental health, repudiating the
+temptation by declaring that while man may trust God's care, he must not
+presumptuously put it to the test (Matt. iv. 7). The after life of Jesus
+was a clear commentary on this reply. He constantly sought to avoid
+situations which would compromise his mission or cut short his work (see
+John vi. 15), and when at the end he suffered the death prepared for him
+by his people's hatred, it was because his hour had come and he could say,
+"I lay down my life of myself" (John x. 18). His marvellous control of
+enthusiasm and his self-mastery in all circumstances separate Jesus from
+all ecstatics and fanatics. Yet presumption must have seemed the easier
+course, and could readily wear the mask of trust. He was tempted, yet
+without sin.
+
+94. As the refusal to doubt led to the temptation to presume, so the
+determination to be prudent opened the way for a third assault upon his
+perfect loyalty to God. The world he was to seek to save was swayed by
+passions; his own people were longing for a Messiah, but they must have
+their kind of a Messiah. If he would acknowledge this actual supremacy of
+evil and self-will in the world, the opposition of passion and prejudice
+might be avoided. If he would own the evil inevitable for the time, and
+accommodate his work to it, he might then be free to lead men to higher
+and more spiritual views of God's kingdom. His knowledge of his people's
+grossness of heart and materialism of hope made a real temptation of the
+suggestion that he should not openly oppose but should accommodate himself
+to them. Jesus did not underestimate the opposition of "the kingdoms of
+the world," but he truly estimated God's intolerance of any rivalry (Matt.
+iv. 10), and he was true to God and to his own soul. Again, in this as in
+the preceding temptations, Jesus conquered the evil suggestions by
+appropriating to himself truth spoken by God's servants to Israel. Tempted
+in all points like his brethren, he resisted as any one of them could have
+resisted, and won a victory possible, ideally considered, to any other of
+the children of men.
+
+95. It is not idle curiosity which inquires whence the evangelists got
+this story of the temptation of Jesus. Even if the whole transaction took
+place on the plane of outer sensuous life, and Jesus was bodily carried to
+Jerusalem and to the mountain-top, there is no probability that any
+witnesses were at hand who could tell the tale. But the fact that in any
+case the vision of the kingdoms of the world in a moment of time (Luke iv.
+5) could have been spiritual only, since no mountain, however high (Matt.
+iv. 8), could give, physically, that wide sweep of view, suggests that the
+whole account tells in pictorial language an intensely real, inner
+experience of Jesus. This in no respect reduces the truthfulness of the
+narratives. Temptation never becomes temptation till it passes to that
+inner scene of action and debate. Since Jesus shows in all his teaching a
+natural use of parabolic language to set forth spiritual truth, the
+inference is almost inevitable that the gospels have in like manner
+adopted the language of vivid picture as alone adequate to depict the
+essential reality of his inner struggle. In any case the narrative could
+have come from no other source than himself. How he came to tell it we do
+not know. On one of the days of private converse with his disciples after
+the confession at Cæsarea Philippi he may have given them this account of
+his own experience, in order to help his loyal Galileans to understand
+more fully his work and the way of it, and to prepare them for that
+disappointment of their expectations which they were so slow to
+acknowledge as possible.
+
+96. From this struggle in the wilderness Jesus came forth with the clear
+conviction that he was God's Anointed, and in all his after life no
+hesitation appeared. The kingdom which he undertook to establish was that
+dominion of simple righteousness which he had learned to know and love in
+the years of quiet life in Nazareth. He set out to do his work fearlessly,
+but prudently, seeking to win men in his Father's way to acknowledge that
+Father's sovereignty. There is no evidence that, beyond such firm
+conviction and purpose, he had any fixed plan for the work he was to do,
+nor that he saw clearly as yet how his earthly career would end. The third
+temptation, however, shows that he was not unprepared for seeming defeat.
+The struggle had been long and serious,--for the three temptations of the
+end are doubtless typical of the whole of the forty days,--and the victory
+was great and final. With the light of victory as well as the marks of
+warfare on his face, he took his way back towards Galilee.
+
+
+
+
+VIII
+
+The First Disciples
+
+John i. 19 TO ii. 12
+
+
+
+97. After the withdrawal of Jesus into the wilderness, John the Baptist
+continued his ministry of preaching and baptizing, moving northward up the
+Jordan valley to Bethany, on the eastern side of the river, near one of
+the fords below the Sea of Galilee (John i. 28). Here Galilee, doubtless,
+contributed more to his audience than Judea. It is certain that some from
+the borders of the lake were at this time among his constant attendants:
+Andrew and Simon of Bethsaida, John the son of Zebedee, and perhaps his
+brother James, probably also Philip of Bethsaida and Nathanael of Cana
+(John i. 40, 41, 43-45; compare xxi. 2).
+
+98. The leaders in Jerusalem, becoming apprehensive whither this work
+would lead, sent an embassy to question John. They chose for this mission
+priests and Levites of pharisaic leaning as most influential among the
+people. The impression John and his message were making on the popular
+mind is seen in the questions put to him, "Art thou the Messiah?"
+"Elijah?" "The prophet?" (see Deut. xviii. 15), and in the challenge,
+"Why, then, baptizest thou?" when John disclaimed the right to any of
+these names. John's reply is the echo of his earlier proclamation of the
+one mightier than he who should baptize with the Spirit (Mark i. 7, 8),
+only now he added that this one was present among them (John i. 26, 27).
+
+99. This interview occurred several weeks after Jesus' baptism, for upon
+the next day John saw Jesus (John i. 29), now returned from the
+temptation, and pointed him out to a group of disciples. Something in
+Jesus' face or in his bearing, as he came from his temptation, must have
+impressed John even more than at their first meeting; for he was led to
+think of a prophetic word for the most part ignored by the Messianic
+thought of his day, "He was brought as a lamb to the slaughter" (Isa.
+liii. 7). As he looked on Jesus the mysterious oracle was illuminated for
+him, and he cried, "Behold the lamb of God which taketh away the sin of
+the world." Once again on the next day the same thought rushed to his lips
+when, with two disciples, he saw Jesus passing by (John i. 35, 36). Then
+as Jesus left John's neighborhood and took up again the round of ordinary
+life, John seems to have reverted to his more ordinary Messianic thought,
+his momentary insight into highest truth standing as a thing apart in his
+life. Such a moment's insight, caused by extraordinary circumstances, no
+more requires that John should retain the high thought constantly than
+does Peter's confession of Christ at Cæsarea Philippi exclude his later
+rebuke of his Lord (Mark viii. 32, 33), or his denials (Mark xiv. 66-72).
+
+100. The disciples who heard these testimonies from John understood them
+to be Messianic (John i. 30-34), though their later consternation, when
+the cross seemed to shatter their hopes (John xx. 9, 10, 24, 25), shows
+that they did not comprehend their deeper meaning. Two of these disciples
+at once attached themselves to Jesus, and one of them, Andrew of
+Bethsaida, was so impressed by the new master that, having sought out his
+brother Simon, he declared that they had found the Messiah. The other of
+these earliest followers was John the son of Zebedee, and it is possible
+that he also found his brother and introduced James from the very first
+into the circle of the disciples. Jesus was about to take his departure
+for Galilee, and on the next day, as he was leaving, added Philip of
+Bethsaida to the little company of followers. Philip, impressed as Andrew
+had been, brought Nathanael of Cana to Jesus. The undefined something
+about Jesus which drew noble hearts irresistibly to himself, and his
+marvellous knowledge of this new comer, produced the same effect in
+Nathanael, as was seen earlier in Andrew and Philip, and he acknowledged
+the new master as "Son of God, King of Israel" (John i. 49).
+
+101. These early confessions in the fourth gospel present a difficulty in
+view of Jesus' warm approval of Peter's acknowledgment of him at Cæsarea
+Philippi (Matt. xvi. 13-20). Jesus saw in that confession a distinct
+advance in the disciples' thought and faith. Yet the religious feeling
+which early questioned whether the Baptist even were not the Messiah (Luke
+iii. 15) would almost certainly have concluded that John's greater
+successor must be God's anointed. The very fact that men's thoughts about
+the Messiah were varied and complex made them ready for some modifications
+of their preconceptions. One with such subtle personal power as Jesus had
+exercised was almost sure to be hailed by some with enthusiasm as the
+looked-for representative of God. In fact, it is probable that at any
+time in the early days of his ministry Jesus could have been proclaimed
+Messiah, provided he had accepted the people's terms. Such a confession
+would have been merely the outcome of enthusiasm. The people, even the
+disciples, did not know Jesus. They all had high hopes and somewhat fixed
+ideas about the Messiah, nearly every one of which was destined to rude
+shock. How little they knew him Jesus realized (John i. 51), and his
+self-mastery is manifest in his attitude to this early enthusiasm. He was
+no visionary; he had a great work to do and a long lesson to teach, and he
+was patient enough to teach it little by little. He did not rebuke the
+ill-informed faith of a Nathanael, but sought gradually to supplant the
+old thought of the Messiah and of the kingdom by new truth, and to bind
+men's affections to himself for his own sake and the truth's sake, not
+simply for the idea which he impersonated to them.
+
+102. The visit to Cana seems to have found a place in the fourth gospel,
+because there the new disciples discovered in their master miraculous
+powers which were to them a sign that he was in truth God's anointed. It
+is probable that at the time of this miracle the disciples thought only of
+the power and the marvel, yet the sharp contrast between John's ascetic
+habit and Jesus' use of his divine resources to relieve embarrassment at a
+wedding feast must have impressed every man among them. Their minds,
+however, were as yet too full of Messianic hopes to leave much room for
+reflection. They were content to have a sign, for in the view of Jesus'
+contemporaries signs were essential marks of the Messiah (John vi. 30;
+vii. 31; Mark viii. 11). They did their reflecting later (John ii. 22).
+
+103. Miracles are as great a stumbling-block to modern thought as they
+were a help to the contemporaries of Jesus. The study of Jesus' life
+cannot ignore this fact, nor make little of it. It is fair to insist,
+however, that the question is one of evidence, not of metaphysical
+possibility. Men are wisely slow to-day to claim that they can tell what
+are the limits of the possible. If the question is one of evidence, it is
+in an important sense true that the evidence for miracle in the life of
+Jesus is appreciable only when that life is viewed in its completeness.
+The miracles attributed to Jesus may be studied, however, for the
+disclosure which they give of his character, and of his relation to common
+human need. So it is with this first sign at Cana. Jesus had just heard
+the call to be Messiah, and in his lonely struggle in the wilderness had
+given a loyal answer to that call, and had set out to do his Father's
+business in his Father's way. He who by the Jordan still carried the marks
+of struggle, so that the Baptist saw in him the suffering Saviour of
+Isaiah liii., now returned to the ordinary daily life in Galilee, and as a
+guest at a wedding feast he commenced that ministry of simple human
+friendliness (Matt. xi. 19; compare Mark ii. 15-17; Luke xv. 1, 2), which
+set him in sharp contrast alike with John's asceticism and with the
+ritualism and pedantry of the Pharisees.
+
+104. His human friendliness is all the more worthy of note, inasmuch as on
+his return to Cana Jesus did not take up again the old relations of life
+as they existed before his baptism. This is clear from his reply to his
+mother when she reported the scarcity of wine (John ii. 3-5). While it is
+true that the title by which Jesus addressed Mary was neither
+disrespectful nor unkind (John xix. 26), the reply itself was a warning
+that now he was no longer hers in the old sense. A new mission had been
+given him, which henceforth would determine all his conduct, and in that
+mission she could not now share. Here is one of the many indications
+(compare Mark iii. 21, 31-35; Luke ii. 48) that Mary did not understand
+her son nor his work until much later (John xix. 25; Acts i. 14). That
+with such a clear sense of his new and serious mission Jesus' first
+official act was one of kindly relief for social embarrassment is most
+significant. He chose to show his divine authority to his new disciples in
+a way that brought joy to a festal company. Little as the disciples were
+likely to appreciate it at the time, it was beautifully indicative of the
+simplicity and everyday lovableness of Jesus' idea of the earnest service
+of God.
+
+105. With the disciples thus strengthened in faith, and the mother not
+separated from him though unable to know his deepest thoughts, and the
+brethren who could not yet nor later understand their kinsman and his
+work, Jesus went down to Capernaum (John ii. 12), which proved thenceforth
+to be the centre of his greatest work and teaching. There for a time, how
+long cannot be known, he continued in quiet fellowship with his new
+friends, until the approach of the Passover drew him to Jerusalem to make
+formal opening of his Messianic work in that centre of his people's
+religious life.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Part II
+
+The Ministry
+
+
+
+
+I
+
+General Survey of the Ministry
+
+
+
+106. The attempt to arrange an orderly account of the way in which Jesus
+set about the work to which he was called at his baptism is met at the
+outset by a problem. The vivid and familiar words of Mark (i. 14),
+seconded by the representation in both Matthew (iv. 12) and Luke (iv. 14),
+indicate the imprisonment of John as the occasion, and Galilee as the
+scene of the inauguration of Jesus' public ministry. The fourth gospel, on
+the other hand, tells of a work of Jesus and his disciples in Judea prior
+to the imprisonment of John (in. 24), and makes this work follow at some
+interval after the inauguration of the Messianic ministry in Jerusalem.
+The minuteness of detail of time and place in the early chapters of John
+(i. 19 to iv. 43), together with the vividness of their narrative, give
+them strong claim to credence. They thus record a ministry earlier than
+that narrated in the other gospels, proving that the actual inauguration
+of Jesus' work occurred in Jerusalem at a Passover season previous to the
+imprisonment of John. This is known as the Early Judean Ministry.
+
+107. The fact that Peter was wont to tell the story of Jesus' life in such
+a way as to lead Mark to set the opening of the ministry after the close
+of John's activity, indicates that that beginning of work in Galilee
+seemed to the disciples to be in a way the actual inauguration of Jesus'
+constructive and successful work. Peter cannot have been ignorant of the
+labors in Judea, though he may not himself have accompanied Jesus to the
+Passover. A new stage in the life of Jesus began, therefore, with his
+withdrawal to Galilee.
+
+108. The story of the Galilean ministry is given chiefly by the first
+three gospels, John contributing but two incidents to the period covered
+by that ministry,--a second miracle at Cana (iv. 46-54), and a visit to
+Judea (v. 1-47),--and relating more fully the story of the feeding of the
+multitudes (vi. 1-71). The journey from Judea through Samaria (John iv.
+1-45) should be identified with the removal to Galilee which stands at the
+beginning of Mark's record (i. 14; Matt. iv. 12; Luke iv. 14). Mark's
+account of the Galilean activity of Jesus (i. 14 to ix. 50) is one of such
+simple and steady progress that the whole period must be considered as a
+unit.
+
+109. In the use which Matthew (iv. 12 to xviii. 35) and Luke (iv. 14 to
+ix. 50) make of Mark's record this unity is emphasized. Their treatment of
+the matter which they add, however, makes it best to study the period
+topically rather than attempt to follow closely a chronological sequence.
+As it is probable that the early writing ascribed by Papias to the apostle
+Matthew failed to preserve in many cases any record of the time and place
+of the teachings of Jesus, so is it certain that the first and third
+evangelists have distributed quite differently the material which they
+seem to have derived from that apostolic document. Mention need only be
+made of the exhortation against anxiety which Matthew places in the
+sermon on the mount (vi. 19-34), and which Luke has given after the close
+of the Galilean activity (xii. 22-34). It is possible to form some
+judgment of the general relations of such discourses from the character of
+their contents, but in the absence of positive statement by the
+evangelists it is hopeless to seek to give them a more definite historical
+setting. A topical study can consider them as contributions to the period
+to which they belong, while a chronological study would be lost in
+uncertain conjectures. A topical study may, however, disclose the fact
+that sequence of time was identical with development of method. This is,
+in general, the case with the Galilean ministry. The new lesson which
+Jesus began to teach after the confession at Cæsarea Philippi marked the
+supreme turning point in his whole public activity. Before that crisis the
+work of Jesus was a constructive preparation for the question which called
+forth Peter's confession. Subsequently his work was that of making ready
+for the end, which from that time on he foretold. As has been stated, the
+Galilean ministry is the story of the first three gospels, except for two
+incidents and a discourse added by John. The visit to the feast of
+Tabernacles (John vii. 1 to viii. 59) stands on the border between the
+work in Galilee and that which followed. It was one of Jesus' many
+attempts to win Jerusalem, and is evidence that the author of the fourth
+gospel--either because of special interest in the capital, or because of
+superior knowledge of the work of his Master in Judea--gave emphasis to a
+side of the life of Jesus which the other gospels have neglected.
+
+110. With the close of the constructive ministry in Galilee, the account
+of Mark (x. 1; compare Matt xix. 1; Luke ix. 51) turns towards Jerusalem
+and the cross. The journey was not direct, but traversed Perea, the domain
+of Antipas beyond Jordan, and was accompanied by continued ministry of
+teaching and healing (Mark x. 1-52; Matt. xix. 1 to xx. 34). It is at this
+point that Luke has inserted the long section peculiar to his gospel (ix.
+51 to xviii. 14), becoming again parallel with Mark as Jesus drew near to
+Jerusalem (xviii. 15 to xix. 28; compare Mark x. 13-52). Much of that
+which Luke adds gives evidence that in all probability it should be placed
+before the change in method at Cæsarea Philippi, while much of it
+undoubtedly belongs to the last months of Jesus' life. Since the last
+journey to Jerusalem is reported with considerable fulness, it is natural
+in a study of Jesus' life to treat that journey by itself. At this point
+John contributes important additions to the record (ix. 1 to xi. 57)
+showing that the journey was not continuous, but was interrupted by
+several more or less hurried visits to the capital, renewed efforts of
+Jesus to win the city.
+
+111. With the final arrival in Jerusalem the four gospels come together in
+a record of the last days and the crucifixion (Mark xi. 1 to xv. 47; Matt,
+xxi 1 to xxvii. 66; Luke xix. 29 to xxiii. 56; John xi. 55 to xix. 42).
+The evangelists, in their accounts of the last week, seem to have had
+access to completer and more varied information than for any other part of
+the ministry. This causes some difficulties in constructing an ordered
+conception of the events, yet it greatly adds to the fulness of our
+knowledge. It is easier, therefore, to consider the period in three
+parts,--the final controversies in Jerusalem, the Last Supper, and the
+betrayal, trial, and crucifixion.
+
+112. In a sense the resurrection and ascension form the conclusion of the
+final visit to Jerusalem, and should be treated with the last week. In a
+larger sense, however, they form the culmination of the whole ministry,
+and therefore constitute a final stage in the study of Jesus' life. At
+this point the record of the gospels is supplemented by the first chapter
+of the Acts and by Paul's concise report of the appearances of the risen
+Christ (I. Cor. xv. 3-8). The various accounts exhibit perplexing
+independence of each other. In total impression, however, they agree, and
+show that the tragedy, by which the enemies of Jesus thought to end his
+career, was turned into signal triumph.
+
+   Outline of Events in the Early Judean Ministry
+
+
+   The first Passover of the public ministry: Cleansing of the
+   temple--John ii. 13-22.
+
+   Early results in Jerusalem: Discourse with Nicodemus--John ii. 23 to
+   iii. 15.
+
+   Withdrawal into rural parts of Judea to preach and baptize--John in.
+   22-30; iv. 1, 2.
+
+   Imprisonment of John the Baptist--Matt. iv. 12; Mark i. 14.
+
+   Withdrawal from Judea through Samaria--John iv. 1-42.
+
+   Unlooked-for welcome in Galilee--John iv. 43-45.
+
+   ? Second sign at Cana: Cure of the Nobleman's son--John iv. 46-54 (see
+   sect. A 41).
+
+   [Retirement at Nazareth, the disciples resuming their accustomed
+   calling. Inferred from Matt. iv. 13; Luke iv. 31; Matt. iv. 18-22 and
+   ∥s.]
+
+   Events marked ? should possibly be given a different place; ∥s stands
+   for "parallel accounts;" for sections marked A--as A 41--see Appendix.
+
+
+
+
+II
+
+The Early Ministry in Judea
+
+
+
+113. We owe to the fourth gospel our knowledge of the fact that Jesus
+began his general ministry in Jerusalem. The silence of the other records
+concerning this beginning cannot discredit the testimony of John. For
+these other records themselves indicate in various ways that Jesus had
+repeatedly sought to win Jerusalem before his final visit at the end of
+his life (compare Luke xiii. 34; Matt. xxiii. 37). Moreover, the fourth
+gospel is confirmed by the probability, rising almost to necessity, that
+such a mission as Jesus conceived his to be must seek first to win the
+leaders of his people. The temple at Jerusalem was the centre of worship,
+drawing all Jews sooner or later to itself--even as Jesus in early youth
+was accustomed to go thither at the time of feasts (Luke ii. 41).
+Worshippers of God throughout the world prayed with their faces towards
+Jerusalem (Dan. vi. 10). Moreover, at Jerusalem the chief of the scribes,
+as well as the chief of the priests, were to be found. Compared with
+Jerusalem all other places were provincial and of small influence. A
+Messiah, who had not from the outset given up hope of winning the capital,
+cannot have long delayed his effort to find a following there.
+
+114. Arriving at Jerusalem at the Passover season, in the early spring,
+Jesus remained in Judea until the following December (John iv. 35).
+Evidently the record which John gives of these months is most fragmentary,
+and from his own statement (xx. 30, 31) it seems highly probable that it
+is one sided, emphasizing those events and teachings in which Jesus
+disclosed more or less clearly his claim to be the Messiah. Doubtless the
+full record would show a much closer similarity between this early work in
+Judea and that later conducted in Galilee than a comparison of John with
+the other gospels would suggest; yet it is evident that Jesus opened his
+ministry in Jerusalem with an unrestrained frankness that is not found
+later in Galilee.
+
+115. It is a mistake to think of the cleansing of the temple as a distinct
+Messianic manifesto. The market in the temple was a licensed affront to
+spiritual religion. It found its excuse for being in the requirement that
+worshippers offer to the priests for sacrifice animals levitically clean
+and acceptable, and that gifts for the temple treasury be made in no coin
+other than the sacred "shekel of the sanctuary." The chief priests
+appreciated the convenience which worshippers coming from a distance would
+find if they could obtain all the means of worship within the temple
+enclosure itself. The hierarchy or its representatives seem also to have
+appreciated the opportunity to charge good prices for the accommodation so
+afforded. The result was the intrusion of the spirit of the market-place,
+with all its disputes and haggling, into the place set apart for worship.
+In fact, the only part of the temple open to Gentiles who might wish to
+worship Israel's God was filled with distraction, unseemly strife, and
+extortion (compare Mark xi. 17). Such despite done the sanctity of God's
+house must have outraged the pious sense of many a devout Israelite. There
+is no doubt of what an Isaiah or a Micah would have said and done in such
+a situation. This is exactly what Jesus did. His act was the assumption of
+a full prophetic authority. In itself considered it was nothing more. In
+his expulsion of the traders he had the conscience of the people for his
+ally. There is no need to think of any use of miraculous power. His moral
+earnestness, coupled with the underlying consciousness on the part of the
+traders themselves that they had no business in God's house, readily
+explains the confusion and departure of the intruders. Even those who
+challenged Jesus' conduct did not venture to defend the presence of the
+market in the temple. They only demanded that Jesus show his warrant for
+disturbing a condition of things authorized by the priests.
+
+116. The temple cleansing is recorded in the other gospels at the end of
+Jesus' ministry, just before the hostility of the Jews culminated in his
+condemnation and death. Inasmuch as these gospels give no account of a
+ministry by Jesus in Jerusalem before the last week of his life, it is
+easy to see how this event came to be associated by them with the only
+Jerusalem sojourn which they record. The definite place given to the event
+in John, together with the seeming necessity that Jesus should condemn
+such authorized affront to the very idea of worship, mark this cleansing
+as the inaugural act of Jesus' ministry of spiritual religion, rather than
+as a final stern rebuke closing his effort to win his people. Against the
+conclusion commonly held that Jesus cleansed the temple both at the
+opening and at the close of his course is the extreme improbability that
+the traders would have been caught twice in the same way. The event fits
+in closely with the story of the last week, because it actually led to the
+beginning of opposition in Jerusalem to the prophet from Galilee. At the
+first the opposition was doubtless of a scornful sort. Later it grew in
+bitterness when it saw how Jesus was able to arouse a popular enthusiasm
+that seemed to threaten the stability of existing conditions.
+
+117. The reply of Jesus to the challenge of his authority for his
+high-handed act shows that he offered it to the people as an invitation;
+he would lead them to a higher idea and practice of worship (compare John
+iv. 21-24). When they demanded the warrant for his act, he saw that they
+were not ready to follow him, and could not appreciate the only warrant he
+needed for his course. He cleansed the temple because they were destroying
+it as a place where men could worship God in spirit. In reply to the
+challenge, he who later taught the Samaritan woman that the worship of God
+is not dependent on any place however sacred, answered that they might
+finish their work and destroy the temple as a house of God, yet he would
+speedily re-establish a true means of approach to the Most High for the
+souls of men. He clothed his reply in a figurative dress, as he was often
+wont to do in his teaching,--"Destroy this temple, and in three days I
+will raise it up." To his unsympathetic hearers it must have been
+completely enigmatic. Even the disciples did not catch its meaning until
+after the resurrection had taught them that in their Master a new chapter
+in God's dealing with men had begun.
+
+118. The unreadiness of the Jewish leaders to receive the only kind of
+message he had to offer produced in Jesus a decided reserve. He did not
+lack a certain kind of success in Jerusalem. His cures of the sick won him
+many followers who seemed ready to believe almost anything of him. But the
+attitude taken by the leaders made it evident that Jesus must make
+disciples who should understand in some measure at least his idea of God's
+kingdom, and, understanding, must be ready to be loyal to it through good
+report and evil. For the position taken by the leaders of the people had
+an ominous significance. It could mean but one thing for
+Jesus,--unrelenting conflict. If they could not be won, they who would so
+legalize the desecration of God's house would not hesitate at any extreme
+in opposing his messenger. This possibility confronted Jesus at the very
+outset; therefore he held the popular enthusiasm in check, knowing that
+as yet it had little of that kind of faith which could endure seeming
+defeat.
+
+119. One of those who were drawn to him, however, gave Jesus opportunity
+to lay aside his reserve and speak clearly of the truth lie came to
+publish. He was a member of the Jewish sanhedrin, a rabbi apparently held
+in high regard in Jerusalem. While his associates were dismissing the
+claims of Jesus with a wave of the hand, Nicodemus sought out the new
+teacher by night, and showed his desire to learn what Jesus held to be
+truth concerning God's kingdom. Jesus first reminded the teacher of Israel
+of the old doctrine of the prophets, that Israel must find a new heart
+before God's kingdom can come (Jer. xxxi. 31-34; Ezek. xxxvi. 25-27), and
+then declared that the heavenly truth which God now would reveal to men is
+that all can have the needed new life as freely as the plague-stricken
+Israelites found relief when Moses lifted up the brazen serpent. This
+conversation serves to introduce the evangelist's interpretation of Jesus
+as the only begotten Son of God sent in love to redeem the world (John
+iii. 16-21).
+
+120. John's record suggests that Jesus left Jerusalem shortly after the
+conversation with Nicodemus. His work there was not without success, for
+Nicodemus seems to have been henceforth his loyal advocate (compare John
+vii. 50-52; xix. 39); and it may be that at the time of this sojourn he
+won the hearts of his friends in Bethany, for the first picture the
+gospels give of this household seems to presuppose a somewhat intimate
+relation of Jesus to the family (Luke x. 38-42). It would be idle to
+speculate whether it was at this time or later that he became acquainted
+with Joseph of Arimathea, or the friends who during the last week of his
+life showed him hospitality (Mark xi. 2-6; xiv. 12-16).
+
+121. For a time after his withdrawal from Jerusalem he lingered in Judea,
+carrying on a simple ministry of preparation like that of John the
+Baptist. In this way the summer and early autumn seem to have passed,
+Jesus growing more popular as a prophet than John himself had been. The
+fact that Jesus' disciples administered baptism in connection with his
+work roused the jealousy of some of John's followers, and attracted again
+the attention of Jerusalem to the new activity of the bold disturber of
+the temple market. John's disciples complained to him of Jesus' rivalry,
+and received his self-effacing confession, "He must increase, I must
+decrease." The Pharisees, on the other hand, made Jesus feel that further
+work in Judea was for the time unwise, and he withdrew into Galilee for
+retirement, since "a prophet has no honor in his own country" (John iv.
+1-3, 44). Baffled in his first effort to win his people, this journey back
+from the region of the holy city must have been one of no little sadness
+for Jesus. Some urgency for haste led him by the direct road through
+despised Samaria. A seemingly chance conversation with a woman at Jacob's
+well, where he was resting at noonday, gave him an opportunity for
+ministry which was more ingenuously received than any which he had been
+able to render in Judea; and to this woman he declared himself even more
+plainly than to Nicodemus, and preached to her that spiritual idea of
+worship which he had sought to enforce by cleansing Jerusalem's temple.
+Samaria was so isolated from all Jewish interest that Jesus felt no need
+for reserve in this "strange" land. The few days spent there must have
+been peculiarly welcome to his heart, fresh from rejection in Judea.
+
+122. One reason why he wished to hasten from Judea seems to have been his
+knowledge of the hostile movement which was making against John the
+Baptist. Either before or soon after Jesus started for Galilee Herod had
+arrested John, ostensibly as a measure of public safety owing to John's
+undue popularity (Jos. Ant. xviii. 5. 2). Herod may have been encouraged
+to take this step by the hostility of the Pharisees to the plain-spoken
+prophet of the desert (see John iv. 1-3). The fourth gospel leaves its
+readers to infer that the imprisonment took place somewhere about this
+time (compare iii. 24 and v. 35), while the other gospels unite in giving
+this arrest as the occasion for Jesus' withdrawal into Galilee.
+
+123. Arrived in Galilee, Jesus seems to have returned to his home at
+Nazareth, while his disciples went back to their customary occupations,
+until he summoned them again to join him in a new ministry (see sect.
+125). John assigns to this time the cure of a nobleman's son. The father
+sought out Jesus at Cana, having left his son sick at Capernaum. At first
+Jesus apparently repelled his approach, even as he had dealt with seekers
+after marvels at Jerusalem; but on hearing the father's cry of need and
+trust, he at once spoke the word of healing. This event is in so many ways
+a duplicate of the cure of a centurion's servant recorded in Matthew and
+Luke, that to many it seems but another version of the same incident.
+Considering the variations in the story reported by Matthew and Luke, it
+is clearly not possible to prove that John tells of a different case. Yet
+the simple fact of similarity of some details in two events should not
+exclude the possibility of their still being quite distinct. The reception
+which Jesus gave the two requests for help is very different, and the case
+reported in John is in keeping with the attitude of Jesus before he began
+his new ministry in Galilee. On his arrival in Galilee he wished to avoid
+a mere wonder faith begotten of the enthusiasm he excited in Jerusalem,
+yet this wish yielded at once when a genuine need sought relief at his
+hands.
+
+124. The apparent result of this first activity in Judea was
+disappointment and failure. He had won no considerable following in the
+capital. He had definitely excited the jealousy and opposition of the
+leading men of his nation. Even such popular enthusiasm as had followed
+his mighty works was of a sort that Jesus could not encourage. The
+situation in Judea had at length become so nearly untenable that he
+decided to withdraw into seclusion in Galilee, where, as a prophet, he
+could be "without honor." He had gone to Jerusalem eager to begin there,
+where God should have had readiest service, the ministry of the kingdom of
+God. Challenge, cold criticism, and superficial faith were the results. A
+new beginning must be made on other lines in other places. Meanwhile Jesus
+retired to his home and his followers to theirs.
+
+   Outline of Events in the Galilean Ministry (Chapters III. And IV.)
+
+
+   The imprisonment of John and the withdrawal of Jesus into
+   Galilee--Matt. iv. 12-17; Mark i. 14, 15; Luke iv. 14, 15.
+
+   Removal from Nazareth to Capernaum--Matt. iv. 13-16; Luke iv. 31.
+
+   The call of Simon and Andrew, James and John--Matt. iv. 18-22; Mark i.
+   16-20; Luke v. 1-11.
+
+   First work in Capernaum--Matt. viii. 14-17; Mark i. 21-34; Luke iv.
+   31-41.
+
+   First circuit of Galilee--Matt. iv. 23; viii. 2-4; Mark i. 35-45; Luke
+   iv. 42-44; v. 12-16.
+
+   Cure of a paralytic in Capernaum--Matt. ix. 2-8; Mark ii. 1-12; Luke v.
+   17-26.
+
+   The call of Matthew--Matt. ix. 9-13; Mark ii. 13-17; Luke v. 27-32.
+
+   ? The question about fasting--Matt ix. 14-17; Mark ii. 18-22; Luke v.
+   33-39 (see sects. 47; A 54).
+
+   ? Sabbath cure at Jerusalem at the unnamed feast--John v. 1-47 (see
+   sect. A 53).
+
+   ? The Sabbath controversy in the Galilean grain fields--Matt. xii. 1-8;
+   Mark ii. 23-28; Luke vi. 1-5 (see sects. 47; A 54).
+
+   ? Another Sabbath controversy: cure of a withered hand--Matt. xii.
+   9-14; Mark iii. 1-6; Luke vi. 6-11 (see sects. 47; A 54).
+
+   Jesus followed by multitudes from all parts--Matt. iv. 23-25; xii.
+   15-21; Mark iii. 7-12; Luke vi. 17-19.
+
+   The choosing of the twelve--Matt. x. 2-4; Mark iii. 13-19; Luke vi.
+   12-19.
+
+   The sermon on the mount--Matt. v. 1 to viii. 1; Luke vi. 20 to vii. 1
+   (see sect. A 55).
+
+   The cure of a centurion's servant--Matt. viii. 5-13; Luke vii. 1-10;
+   John iv. 46-54.
+
+   The restoration of the widow's son at Nain--Luke vii. 11-17.
+
+   The message from John in prison--Matt. xi. 2-19; Luke vii. 18-35.
+
+   The anointing of Jesus by a sinful woman--Luke vii. 36-50.
+
+   The companions of Jesus on his second circuit of Galilee--Luke viii.
+   1-3.
+
+   Cure of a demoniac in Capernaum and blasphemy by the Pharisees--Matt.
+   xii. 22-45; Mark iii. 19^a-30; Luke xi. 14-36.
+
+   The true kindred of Jesus--Matt. xii. 46-50; Mark iii. 31-35; Luke
+   viii. 19-21.
+
+   The parables by the sea--Matt. xiii. 1-53; Mark iv. 1-34; Luke viii.
+   4-18 (see sect. A 56).
+
+   The tempest stilled--Matt. viii. 18, 23-27; Mark iv. 35-41; Luke viii.
+   22-25.
+
+   Cure of the Gadarene demoniac--Matt. viii. 28-34; Mark v. 1-20; Luke
+   viii. 26-39.
+
+   The restoration of the daughter of Jairus and cure of an invalid
+   woman--Matt. ix. 1, 18-26; Mark v. 21-43; Luke viii. 40-56.
+
+   Cure of blind and dumb--Matt. ix. 27-34.
+
+   Rejection at Nazareth--Matt. xiii. 54-58; Mark vi. 1-6^a; Luke iv.
+   16-30 (see sect. A 52).
+
+   Third circuit of Galilee--Matt. ix. 35; Mark vi. 6^b.
+
+   The mission of the twelve--Matt. ix. 36 to xi. 1; Mark vi. 7-13; Luke
+   ix. 1-6 (see sect. A 57).
+
+   The death of John the Baptist--Matt. xiv. 1-12; Mark vi. 14-29; Luke
+   ix. 7-9.
+
+   Withdrawal of Jesus across the sea and feeding of the five
+   thousand--Matt. xiv. 13-23; Mark vi. 30-46; Luke ix. 10-17; John vi.
+   1-15.
+
+   Return to Capernaum, Jesus walking on the water--Matt. xiv. 24-36; Mark
+   vi. 47-56; John vi. 16-21.
+
+   Teaching about the Bread of Life in the synagogue at Capernaum--John
+   vi. 22-71 (see sect. A 59).
+
+   Controversy concerning tradition: handwashing, etc.--Matt. xv. 1-20;
+   Mark vii. 1-23.
+
+   Withdrawal to regions of Tyre and Sidon: the Syrophœnician woman's
+   daughter--Matt. xv. 21-28; Mark vii. 24-30.
+
+   Return through Decapolis--Matt. xv. 29-31; Mark vii. 31-37.
+
+   ? The feeding of the four thousand--Matt. xv. 32-38; Mark viii. 1-9
+   (see sect. A 58).
+
+   Pharisaic challenge in Galilee, and warning against the leaven of the
+   Pharisees--Matt xv. 39 to xvi. 12; Mark viii. 10-21.
+
+   Cure of blind man near Bethsaida--Mark viii. 22-26.
+
+   Peter's confession of Jesus as Christ near Cæsarea Philippi--Matt. xvi.
+   13-20; Mark viii. 27-30; Luke ix. 18-21.
+
+   The new lesson, that the Christ must die--Matt. xvi. 21-28; Mark viii.
+   31 to ix. 1; Luke ix. 22-27.
+
+   The transfiguration--Matt. xvii. 1-13; Mark ix. 2-13; Luke ix. 28-36.
+
+   Cure of the epileptic boy--Matt. xvii. 14-20; Mark ix. 14-29; Luke ix.
+   37-43^a.
+
+   Second prediction of approaching death and resurrection--Matt. xvii.
+   22, 23; Mark ix. 30-32; Luke ix. 43^b-45.
+
+   Return to Capernaum: the temple tax--Matt. xvii. 24-27; Mark ix. 33^a.
+
+   Teachings concerning humility and forgiveness--Matt. xviii. 1-35; Mark
+   ix. 33-50; Luke ix. 46-50.
+
+   Visit of Jesus to Jerusalem at the feast of Tabernacles--John vii.
+   1-52; viii. 12-59 (see sect. A 60).
+
+   ? The woman taken in adultery--John vii. 53 to viii. 11 (see sect.
+   163).
+
+   The following probably belong to the Galilean ministry before the
+   confession at Cæsarea Philippi (see sect. 168):--
+
+   The disciples taught to pray--Matt. vi. 9-15; vii. 7-11; Luke xi. 1-13.
+
+   The cure of an infirm woman on the Sabbath--Luke xiii. 10-17.
+
+   Two parables: mustard-seed and leaven--Matt. xiii. 31-33; Luke xiii.
+   18-21 (see sect. A 56).
+
+   The parable of the rich fool--Luke xii. 13-21.
+
+   Cure on a Sabbath and teaching at a Pharisee's table--Luke xiv. 1-24.
+
+   Five parables--Luke xv. 1 to xvi. 31.
+
+   Certain disconnected teachings--Luke xvii. 1-4.
+
+
+
+
+III
+
+The Ministry In Galilee--its Aim And Method
+
+
+
+125. The work of Jesus in Galilee, which is the principal theme of the
+first three gospels, began with a removal from Nazareth to Capernaum, and
+the calling of four fishermen to be his constant followers. The ready
+obedience which Simon and Andrew and James and John gave to this call is
+an interesting evidence that they did not first come to know Jesus at the
+time of this summons. The narrative presupposes some such earlier
+association as is reported in John, followed by a temporary return to
+their old homes and occupations, while Jesus sought seclusion after his
+work in Judea. The first evangelist has most vividly indicated the
+development of the Galilean ministry, directing attention to two points of
+beginning,--the beginning of Jesus' preaching of the kingdom (Matt. iv.
+17) and the beginning of his predictions of his own sufferings and death
+(xvi. 21). Between these two beginnings lies the ministry of Jesus to the
+enthusiastic multitudes, the second of them marking his choice of a more
+restricted audience and a less popular message. Within the first of these
+periods two events mark epochs,--the mission of the twelve (Matt. ix. 36;
+x. I) to preach the coming kingdom of God and to multiply Jesus' ministry
+of healing, and the feeding of the five thousand when the popular
+enthusiasm reached its climax (John vi. 14, 15). These events fall not
+far apart, and mark two different phases of the same stage of development
+in his work. The first is emphasized by Matthew, the second by John; both
+help to a clearer understanding of the narrative which Mark has furnished
+to the other gospels for their story of the Galilean ministry. The table
+at the head of this chapter indicates in outline the probable succession
+of events in the Galilean period. The order adopted is that of Mark,
+supplemented by the other gospels. Luke's additions are inserted in his
+order where there is not some reason for believing that he himself
+disregarded the exact sequence of events. Thus the rejection at Nazareth
+is placed late, as in Mark. Much of the material in the long section
+peculiar to Luke is assigned in general to this Galilean period, since all
+knowledge of its precise location in time and place has been lost for us,
+as it not unlikely was for Luke. Although Matthew is the gospel giving the
+clearest general view of the Galilean work, it shows the greatest
+disarrangement of details, and aids but little in determining the sequence
+of events. The material from that gospel is assigned place in accordance
+with such hints as are discoverable in parallel or associated parts of
+Mark or Luke. Of John's contributions one--the feeding of the
+multitudes--is clearly located by its identity with a narrative found in
+all the other gospels. The visit to Jerusalem at the unnamed feast can be
+only tentatively placed.
+
+126. Viewing this gospel story as a whole, the parallel development of
+popular enthusiasm and official hostility at once attracts attention.
+Jesus' first cures in the synagogue at Capernaum roused the interest and
+wonder of the multitudes to such an extent that he felt constrained to
+withdraw to other towns. On his return to Capernaum he was so beset with
+crowds that the friends of the paralytic could get at him only by breaking
+up the roof. It was when Jesus found himself followed by multitudes from
+all parts of the land that he selected twelve of his disciples "that they
+might be with him and that he might send them forth to preach," and
+addressed to them in the hearing of the multitudes the exacting, although
+unspeakably winsome teaching of the sermon on the mount. This condition of
+things continued even after Herod had killed John the Baptist, for when
+Jesus, having heard of John's fate, sought retirement with his disciples
+across the sea of Galilee, he was robbed of his seclusion by throngs who
+flocked to him to be healed and to hear of the kingdom of God.
+
+127. The popular enthusiasm was not indifferent to the question who this
+new teacher might be. At first Jesus impressed the people by his
+authoritative teaching and cures. After the raising of the widow's son at
+Nain the popular feeling found a more definite declaration,--"a great
+prophet has risen up among us." The cure of a demoniac in Capernaum raised
+the further incredulous query, "Can this be the Son of David?" The notion
+that he might be the Messiah seems to have gained acceptance more and more
+as Jesus' popularity grew, for at the time of the feeding of the
+multitudes the enthusiasm burst into a flame of determination to force him
+to undertake the work for which he was so eminently fitted, but from which
+for some inexplicable reason he seemed to shrink (John vi. 15).
+
+128. Parallel with the growth of popular enthusiasm, and in part because
+of it, the religious leaders early assumed and consistently maintained an
+attitude of opposition. The gospels connect the critics of Jesus now and
+again with the Pharisees of the capital--the Galilean Pharisees being
+represented as more or less friendly. At the first appearance of Jesus in
+Capernaum even the Sabbath cure in the synagogue passed unchallenged; but
+on the return from his first excursion to other towns, Jesus found critics
+in his audience (Luke connects them directly with Jerusalem). From time to
+time such censors as these objected to the forgiveness by Jesus of the
+sins of the paralytic (Mark ii. 6, 7), criticised his social relations
+with outcasts like the publicans (Mark ii. 16), took offence at his
+carelessness of the Sabbath tradition in his instruction of his disciples
+(Mark ii. 24), and sought to turn the tide of rising popular enthusiasm by
+ascribing his power to cure to a league with the devil (Mark iii. 22).
+Baffled in one charge, they would turn to another, until, after the
+feeding of the multitudes, Jesus showed his complete disregard of all they
+held most dear, replying to a criticism of his disciples for carelessness
+of the ritual of hand-washing by an authoritative setting aside of the
+whole body of their traditions, as well as of the Levitical ceremonial of
+clean and unclean meats (Mark vii. 1-23).
+
+129. The wonder is, not that popular enthusiasm for Jesus was great, but
+that it was so hesitating in its judgment about him. The province which
+provided a following to Judas of Galilee a generation earlier than the
+public ministry of Jesus, and which under John of Gischala furnished the
+chief support to the revolt against Rome a generation later, could have
+been excited to uncontrollable passion by the simple idea that a leader
+was present who could be made to head a movement for Jewish liberty. But
+there was something about Jesus which made it impossible to think of him
+as such a Messiah. He was much more moved by sin lurking within than by
+wrong inflicted from without. He looked for God's kingdom, as did the
+Zealots, but he looked for it within the heart more than in outward
+circumstances. Even the dreamers among the people, who were as unready as
+Jesus for any uprising against Rome, and who waited for God to show his
+own hand in judgment, found in Jesus--come to seek and to save that which
+was lost--something so contradictory of their idea of the celestial judge
+that they could not easily think of him as a Messiah. Jesus was a puzzle
+to the people. They were sure that he was a prophet; but if at any time
+some were tempted to query, "Can this be the Son of David?" the
+incredulous folk expected ever a negative reply.
+
+130. This was as Jesus wished it to be. An unreasoning enthusiasm could
+only hinder his work. When his early cures in Capernaum stirred the ardent
+feelings of the multitudes, he took occasion to withdraw to other towns
+and allow popular feeling to cool. When later he found himself pressed
+upon by crowds from all quarters of the land, by the sermon on the mount
+he set them thinking on strange and highly spiritual things, far removed
+from the thoughts of Zealots and apocalyptic dreamers.
+
+131. The manifest contradiction of popular Messianic ideas which Jesus
+presented in his own person usually served to check undue ardor as long
+as he was present. But when some demoniac proclaimed the high station of
+Jesus, and thus seemed to the people to give supernatural testimony; or
+when some one in need sought him apart from the multitudes, Jesus
+frequently enjoined silence. These injunctions of silence are enigmas
+until they are viewed as a part of Jesus' effort to keep control of
+popular feeling. In his absence the people might dwell on his power and
+easily come to imagine him to be what he was not and could not be. Jesus
+was able by these means to restrain unthinking enthusiasm until the
+multitudes whom he fed on the east side of the sea determined to force him
+to do their will as a Messiah. Then he refused to follow where they
+called, and that happened which would doubtless have happened at an
+earlier time but for Jesus' caution,--the popular enthusiasm subsided, and
+his active work with the common people was at an end. But he had held off
+this crisis until there were a few who did not follow the popular
+defection, but rather clung to him from whom they had heard the words of
+eternal life (John vi. 68).
+
+132. Jesus' caution brings to light one aspect of his aim in the Galilean
+ministry,--he sought to win acceptance for the truth he proclaimed. His
+message as reported in the synoptic gospels was the near approach of the
+kingdom of God. Any such proclamation was sure of eager hearing. At first
+he seems to have been content to gather and interest the multitudes by
+this preaching and the works which accompanied it. But he early took
+occasion to state his ideas in the hearing of the multitudes, and in terms
+so simple, so concerned with every-day life, so exacting as respects
+conduct, and so lacking in the customary glowing picture of the future,
+that the people could not mistake such a teacher for a simple fulfiller of
+their ideas. In this early sermon in effect, and later with increasing
+plainness, he set forth his doctrine of a kingdom of heaven coming not
+with observation, present actually among a people who knew it not, like a
+seed growing secretly in the earth, or leaven quietly leavening a lump of
+meal. By word and deed, in sermon and by parable, he insisted on this
+simple and every-day conception of God's rule among men. With Pharisee,
+Zealot, and dreamer, he held that "the best is yet to be," yet all three
+classes found their most cherished ideals set at nought by the new
+champion of the soul's inner life in fellowship with the living God. In
+all his teaching there was a claim of authority and a manifest
+independence which indicate certainty on his part concerning his own
+mission. Yet so completely is the personal question retired for the time,
+that in his rebuke of the blasphemy of the Pharisees he took pains to
+declare that it was not because they had spoken against the Son of Man,
+that they were in danger, but because they had spoken against the Spirit
+of God, whose presence was manifest in his works. He wished, primarily, to
+win disciples to the kingdom of God.
+
+133. Yet Jesus was not indifferent in Galilee to what the people thought
+about himself. The question at Cæsarea Philippi shows more fully the aim
+of his ministry. During all the period of the preaching of the kingdom he
+never hesitated to assert himself whenever need for such self-assertion
+arose. This was evident in his dealing with his pharisaic critics. He
+rarely argued with them, and always assumed a tone of authority which was
+above challenge, asserting that the Son of Man had authority to forgive
+sins, was lord of the Sabbath, was greater than the temple or Jonah or
+Solomon. Moreover, in his positive teaching of the new truth he assumed
+such an authoritative tone that any who thought upon it could but remark
+the extraordinary claim involved in his simple "I say unto you." He wished
+also to win disciples to himself.
+
+134. The key to the ministry in Galilee is furnished in Jesus' answer to
+the message from John the Baptist. John in prison had heard of the works
+of his successor. Jesus did so much that promised a fulfilment of the
+Messianic hope, yet left so much undone, contradicting in so many ways the
+current idea of a Messiah by his studied avoidance of any demonstration,
+that the older prophet felt a momentary doubt of the correctness of his
+earlier conviction. It is in no way strange that he experienced a reaction
+from that exalted moment of insight when he pointed out Jesus as the Lamb
+of God, particularly after his restless activity had been caged within the
+walls of his prison. Jesus showed that he did not count it strange, by his
+treatment of John's quesestion and by his words about John after the
+messengers had gone. Yet in his reply he gently suggested that the
+question already had its answer if John would but look rightly for it. He
+simply referred to the things that were being done before the eyes of all,
+and asked John to form from them a conclusion concerning him who did them.
+One aid he offered to the imprisoned prophet,--a word from the Book of
+Isaiah (xxxv. 5f., lxi. 1f.),--and added a blessing for such as "should
+find nothing to stumble at in him." Here Jesus emphasized his works, and
+allowed his message to speak for itself; but he frankly indicated that he
+expected people to pass from wonder at his ministry to an opinion about
+himself. At Cæsarea Philippi he showed to his disciples that this opinion
+about himself was the significant thing in his eyes. Throughout the
+ministry in Galilee, therefore, this twofold aim appears. Jesus would
+first divert attention from himself to his message, in order that he might
+win disciples to the kingdom of God as he conceived it. Having so attached
+them to his idea of the kingdom, he desired to be recognized as that
+kingdom's prince, the Messiah promised by God for his people. He retired
+behind his message in order that men might be drawn to the truth which he
+held dear, knowing that thus they would find themselves led captive to
+himself in a willing devotion.
+
+135. This aim explains his retirement when popularity pressed, his
+exacting teaching about the spirituality of the kingdom of God, and his
+injunctions of silence. He wished to be known, to be thought about, to be
+accepted as God's anointed, but he would have this only by a genuine
+surrender to his leadership. His disciples must own him master and follow
+him, however much he might disappoint their misconceptions. This aim, too,
+explains his frank self-assertions and exalted personal claims in
+opposition to official criticism. He would not be false to his own sense
+of masterhood, nor allow people to think him bold when his critics were
+away, and cowardly in their presence. Therefore, when needful, he invited
+attention to himself as greater than the temple or as lord of the
+Sabbath. This kind of self-assertion, however, served his purpose as well
+as his customary self-retirement, for it forced people to face the
+contradiction which he offered to the accepted religious ideas of their
+leaders.
+
+136. The method which Jesus chose has already been repeatedly
+indicated,--teaching and preaching on the one hand, and works of
+helpfulness to men on the other. The character of the teaching of this
+period is shown in three discourses,--the Sermon on the Mount, the
+Discourse in Parables, and the Instructions to the Twelve. The sermon on
+the mount is given in different forms in Matthew and Luke, that in Matthew
+being evidently the more complete, even after deduction has been made of
+those parts which Luke has assigned with high probability to a later time.
+This address was spoken to the disciples of Jesus found among the
+multitudes who flocked to him from all quarters. It opened with words of
+congratulation for those who, characterized by qualities often despised,
+were yet heirs of God's kingdom. The thought then passed to the
+responsibility of such heirs of the kingdom for the help of a needy world.
+Next, since much in the words and works of Jesus hitherto might have
+suggested to men that he was indifferent to the older religion of his
+people, he carefully explained that he came, not to set aside the old, but
+to realize the spiritual idea for which it stood, by establishing a more
+exacting standard of righteousness. This more exacting righteousness Jesus
+illustrated by a series of restatements of the older law, and then by a
+group of criticisms of current religious practice. The sermon closed with
+warnings against complacent censoriousness in judging other men's
+failures, and a solemn declaration of the vital seriousness of "these
+sayings of mine." The righteousness required by this new law is not only
+more exacting but unspeakably worthier than the old, being more simply
+manifested in common life, and demanding more intimate filial fellowship
+with the living God.
+
+137. The teachings included in the sermon by the first gospel, but placed
+later by Luke, supplement the sermon by bidding God's child to lead a
+trustful life, knowing that the heavenly Father cares for him. That Luke
+has omitted much which from Matthew's account clearly belonged to the
+original sermon may be explained by the fact that Gentile readers did not
+share the interest which Jesus' hearers had, and which the readers of the
+first gospel had, in the relation of the new gospel to the older law.
+Hence the restatement of older commands and the criticism of current
+practice was omitted. Similar to the teachings which the first gospel has
+included in the sermon, are many which Luke has preserved in the section
+peculiar to himself. It is not unlikely that they belong also to the
+Galilean ministry. They urge the same sincere, reverent life in the sight
+of God, the same trust in the heavenly Father, the same certainty of his
+love and care; and they do not have that peculiar note of impending
+judgment which entered into the teachings of Jesus after the confession at
+Cæsarea Philippi.
+
+138. In the story of Mark, which is reproduced in the first and third
+gospels, the use of parable was first introduced in a way to attract the
+attention of the disciples, after pharisaic opposition to Jesus had become
+somewhat bitter and there was need of checking a too speedy culmination
+of opposition. He chose at that time a form of parable which was enigmatic
+to his disciples, and could but further puzzle hearers who had no sympathy
+with him and his message. Mark (iv. 12) states that this perplexity was in
+accordance with the purpose of Jesus. But it is equally clear that Jesus
+meant to teach the teachable as well as to perplex the critical by these
+illustrations, for in explaining the Sower he suggested that the disciples
+should have understood it without explanation (Mark iv. 13). Many of
+Jesus' parables, however, had no such enigmatic character, but were
+intended simply to help his hearers to understand him. He made use of this
+kind of teaching from first to last. The pictures of the wise and foolish
+builders with which the sermon on the mount concludes show that it was not
+the use of illustration which surprised the disciples in the parables
+associated with the Sower, but his use of such puzzling illustrations.
+Some of the parables of Luke's peculiar section may belong to the Galilean
+ministry, and even to the earlier stages of it. These have none of the
+enigmatic character; the parables of the last days of Jesus' life also
+seem to have been simple and clear to his hearers. The Oriental mind
+prefers the concrete to the abstract, and its teachers have ever made
+large use of illustration. Jesus stands unique, not in that he used
+parables, but in the simplicity and effective beauty of those which he
+used. These illustrations, whether Jesus intended them for the moment to
+enlighten or to confound, served always to set forth concretely some truth
+concerning the relation of men to God, or concerning his kingdom and their
+relation to it. The form of teaching was welcome to his hearers, and
+served as one of the attractions to draw men to him.
+
+139. The first gospel assigns another extended discourse to this Galilean
+period,--the Instructions to the Twelve. The mission of the twelve formed
+a new departure as Jesus saw the Galilean crisis approaching. He sought
+thereby to multiply his own work, and commissioned his disciples to heal
+and preach as he was doing. The restriction of their field to Israel
+(Matt. x. 5, 6) simply applied to them the rule he adopted for himself
+during the Galilean period (Matt. xv. 24). Comparison with the accounts in
+Mark and Luke, as well as the character of the instructions found in
+Matthew, show that here the first evangelist has followed his habit of
+gathering together teachings on the same general theme from different
+periods in Jesus' life. Much in the tenth chapter of Matthew indicates
+clearly that the ministry of Jesus had already passed the period of
+popularity, and that his disciples could now look for little but scorn and
+persecution. This was the situation at the end of Jesus' public life, and
+parallel sayings are found in the record of the last week in Jerusalem.
+
+140. When the teaching of the sermon and the parables is compared with
+Jesus' self-assertion in his replies to pharisaic criticism and blasphemy,
+the difference is striking. Ordinarily he avoided calling attention to
+himself, wishing men to form their opinion of him after they had learned
+to know him as he was. Yet when one looks beneath the surface of his
+teaching, the tone of authority which astonished the multitudes is
+identical with the calm self-confidence which replied to pharisaic
+censure: "The Son of Man hath authority on the earth to forgive sins."
+
+141. Jesus drew the multitudes after him not only by his teachings, but
+also by his mighty works. He certainly was for his contemporaries a
+wonder-worker and healer of disease, and, in order to appreciate the
+impression which he made, the miracles recorded in the gospels must be
+allowed to reveal what they can of his character. The mighty works which
+enchained attention in Galilee were chiefly cures of disease, with
+occasional exhibitions of power over physical nature,--such as the
+stilling of the tempest and the feeding of the five thousand. The
+significant thing about them is their uniform beneficence of purpose and
+simplicity of method. Nothing of the spectacular attached itself to them.
+Jesus repeatedly refused to the critical Pharisees a sign from heaven.
+This was not because he disregarded the importance of signs for his
+generation,--witness his appeal to his works in the reply to John (Matt.
+xi. 4-6); but he felt that in his customary ministry to the needy
+multitudes he had furnished signs in abundance, for his deeds both gave
+evidence of heavenly power and revealed the character of the Father who
+had sent him.
+
+142. One of the commonest of the ailments cured by Jesus is described in
+the gospels as demoniac possession, the popular idea being that evil
+spirits were accustomed to take up their abode in men, speaking with their
+tongues and acting through their bodies, at the same time afflicting them
+with various physical diseases. Six specific cures of such possession are
+recorded in the story of the Galilean ministry, besides general references
+to the cure of many that were possessed. Of these specific cases the
+Gadarene demoniac shows symptoms of violent insanity; the boy cured near
+Cæsarea Philippi, those of epilepsy; in other cases the disease was more
+local, showing itself in deafness, or blindness, or both. In the cures
+recorded Jesus addressed the possessed with a command to the invading
+demon to depart. He was ordinarily greeted, either before or after such a
+command, with a loud outcry, often accompanied with a recognition of him
+as God's Holy One.
+
+143. The record of such maladies and their cure is not confined to the New
+Testament. The evil spirit which came upon King Saul is a similar case,
+and Josephus tells of Jewish exorcists who cured possessed persons by the
+use of incantations handed down from King Solomon. The early Christian
+fathers frequently argued the truth of Christianity from the way in which
+demons departed at the command of Christian exorcists, while in the middle
+ages and down to modern times belief in demoniac possession has been
+common, particularly among some of the more superstitious of the peasantry
+in Europe. Moreover, from missionaries in China and other eastern lands it
+is learned that diseases closely resembling the cases of possession
+recorded in the New Testament are frequently met with, and are often cured
+by native Christian ministers.
+
+144. The similarity of the symptoms of so-called possession to recognized
+mental and physical derangements such as insanity, epilepsy, and hysteria,
+suggests the conclusion that possession should be classed with other
+ailments due to ill adjustment of the relations of the mental and physical
+life. If this conclusion is valid, the idea of actual possession by evil
+spirits becomes only an ancient effort to interpret the mysterious
+symptoms in accordance with wide-spread primitive beliefs. This
+explanation would doubtless be generally adopted were it not that it seems
+to compromise either the integrity or the knowledge of Jesus. The gospels
+plainly represent him as treating the supposed demoniac influence as real,
+addressing in his cures not the invalid, but the invading demon. If he did
+this knowing that the whole view was a superstition, was he true to his
+mission to release mankind from its bondage to evil and sin? If he shared
+the superstition of his time, had he the complete knowledge necessary to
+make him the deliverer he claimed to be? These questions are serious and
+difficult, but they form a part of the general problem of the extent of
+Jesus' knowledge, and can be more intelligently discussed in connection
+with that whole problem (sects. 249-251). It is reasonable to demand,
+however, that any conclusion reached concerning the nature of possession
+in the time of Jesus must be considered valid for similar manifestations
+of disease in our own day.
+
+145. What astonished people in Jesus' cures was not so much that he healed
+the sick as that he did it with such evidence of personal authority. His
+cures and his teachings alike served to attract attention to himself and
+to invite question as to who he could be. Yet a far more powerful means to
+the end he had in view was the subtle, unobtrusive, personal influence
+which without their knowledge knit the hearts of a few to himself. In
+reality both his teaching and his cures were only means of
+self-disclosure. His permanent work during this Galilean period was the
+winning of personal friends. His chief agency in accomplishing his work
+was what Renan somewhat too romantically has called his "charm." It was
+that in him which drew to his side and kept with him the fishermen of
+Galilee and the publican of Capernaum, during months of constant
+disappointment of their preconceived religious ideas and Messianic hopes;
+it was that which won the confidence of the woman who was a sinner, and
+the constant devotion of Mary Magdalene and Susanna and the others who
+followed him "and ministered to him of their substance." The outstanding
+wonder of early Christianity is the complete transformation not only of
+life but of established religious ideas by the personal impress of Jesus
+on a Peter, a John, and a Paul. The secret of the new element of the
+Christian religion--salvation through personal attachment to Jesus
+Christ--is simply this personal power of the man of Nazareth. The
+multitudes followed because they saw wonderful works or heard wonderful
+words; many because they hoped at length to find in the new prophet the
+champion of their hopes in deliverance from Roman bondage. But these
+sooner or later fell away, disappointed in their desire to use the new
+leader for their own ends. It was only because from out the multitudes
+there were a few who could answer, "To whom shall we go? thou hast the
+words of eternal life," when Jesus asked, "Will ye also go away?" that the
+work in Galilee did not end in complete failure. These few had felt his
+personal power, and they became the nucleus of a new religion of love to a
+personal Saviour.
+
+146. The test of the personal attachment of the few came shortly after the
+execution of John the Baptist by Antipas. Word of this tragedy was
+brought to Jesus by John's disciples about the time that he and the twelve
+returned to Capernaum from their tour of preaching. At the suggestion of
+Jesus they withdrew to the eastern side of the lake in search of rest. It
+is not unlikely that the little company also wished to avoid for the time
+the territory of the tyrant who had just put John to death, for Jesus was
+not yet ready for the crisis of his own life. Such a desire for seclusion
+would be intensified by the continued impetuous enthusiasm of the
+multitudes who flocked about him again in Capernaum. In fact, so insistent
+was their interest in Jesus that they would not allow him the quiet he
+sought, but followed around the lake in great numbers when they learned
+that he had taken ship for the other side. He who came not to be
+ministered unto but to minister could not repel the crowds who came to
+him, and he at once "welcomed them, and spake to them of the kingdom of
+God, and them that had need of healing he healed" (Luke ix. 11). The day
+having passed in this ministry, he multiplied the small store of bread and
+fish brought by his disciples in order to feed the weary people. This work
+of power seemed to some among the multitudes to be the last thing needed
+to prove that Jesus was to be their promised deliverer, and they "were
+about to come and take him by force and make him king" (John vi. 15), when
+he withdrew from them and spent the night in prayer.
+
+147. This sudden determination on the part of the multitudes to force the
+hand of Jesus was probably due to the prevalence of an idea, found also in
+the later rabbinic writers, that the Messiah should feed his people as
+Moses had provided them manna in the desert. The rebuff which Jesus
+quietly gave them did not cool their ardor, until on the following day, in
+the synagogue in Capernaum, he plainly taught them that they had quite
+missed the significance of his miracle. They thought of loaves and
+material sustenance. He would have had them find in these a sign that he
+could also supply their spirits' need, and he insisted that this, and this
+alone, was his actual mission. From the first the popular enthusiasm had
+had to ignore many contradictions of its cherished notions. But his power
+and the indescribable force of his personality had served hitherto to hold
+them to a hope that he would soon discard the perplexing rôle which he had
+chosen for the time to assume, and take up avowedly the proper work of the
+Messiah. This last refusal to accept what seemed to them to be his evident
+duty caused a revulsion in the popular feeling, and "many of his disciples
+turned back and walked no more with him" (John vi. 66). The time of
+sifting had come. Jesus had known that such a rash determination to make
+him king was possible to the Galilean multitudes, and that whenever it
+should come it must be followed by a disillusionment. Now the open
+ministry had run its course. As the multitudes were turning back and
+walking no more with him, he turned to the twelve with the question, "Will
+ye also go away?" and found that with them his method had borne fruit.
+They clung to him in spite of disillusionment, for in him they had found
+what was better than their preconceptions.
+
+148. It is the fourth gospel that shows clearly the critical significance
+of this event. The others tell nothing of the sudden determination of the
+multitude, nor of the revulsion of feeling that followed Jesus' refusal to
+yield to their will. Yet these other gospels indicate in their narratives
+that from this time on Jesus avoided the scenes of his former labors, and
+show that when from time to time he returned to the neighborhood of
+Capernaum he was met by such a spirit of hostility that he withdrew again
+immediately to regions where he and his disciples could have time for
+quiet intercourse.
+
+149. The months of toil in Galilee show results hardly more significant
+than the grain of mustard seed or the little leaven. Popular enthusiasm
+had risen, increased, reached its climax, and waned. Official opposition
+had early been aroused, and had continued with a steadily deepened
+intensity. The wonderful teaching with authority, and the signs wrought on
+them that were sick, had been as seed sown by the wayside or in thorny or
+in stony ground, except for the little handful of hearers who had felt the
+personal power of Jesus and had surrendered to it, ready henceforth to
+follow where he should lead, whether or not it should be in a path of
+their choice. These, however, were the proof that those months had been a
+time of rewarded toil.
+
+
+
+
+IV
+
+The Ministry in Galilee--The New Lesson
+
+
+
+150. With the crisis in Capernaum the ministry in Galilee may be said in
+one sense to have come to an end. Yet Jesus did not immediately go up to
+Jerusalem. Once and again he was found in or near Capernaum, while the
+time between these visits was spent in regions to the north and northwest.
+In fact, the disciples were far from ready for the trial their loyalty was
+to meet before they had seen the end of the opposition to their Lord. The
+time intervening between the collapse of popularity and Jesus' final
+departure from Galilee may well be thought of, then, as a time of further
+discipline of the faith of his followers and of added instruction
+concerning the truth for which their Master stood. The length of this
+supplementary period in Galilee is not definitely known. It extended from
+the Passover to about the feast of Tabernacles (April to October, see John
+vi. 4 and vii. 2). The record of what Jesus did and said in this time is
+meagre, only enough being reported to show that it was a time of repeated
+withdrawals from Galilee and of private instruction for the disciples.
+
+151. The disciples were trained in faith by further exhibitions of the
+complete break between their Master and the leaders of the people. This
+break appeared most clearly, soon after the feeding of the multitudes, in
+his reply to a criticism of the disciples for disregard of pharisaic
+traditions concerning hand-washing (Mark vii. 1-23). The critics insisted
+on the sacredness of their traditions. Jesus in reply scored them for
+disregard for the plain demands of God's law, and with a word freed men
+from bondage to the whole ritual of ceremonial cleanness and uncleanness
+(Mark vii. 19), thus attacking Judaism in its citadel.
+
+152. It was immediately after this that he withdrew with his disciples to
+the regions of Tyre. On his return a little later to the west side of the
+sea of Galilee he was met by hostile Pharisees with a demand for a sign
+(Mark viii. 11-13), and after refusing to satisfy the unbelieving
+challenge,--signs in plenty having been before their eyes since the
+opening of his work among them,--he and his disciples withdrew again from
+Galilee towards Cæsarea Philippi. As they went on their way, Jesus
+distinctly warned them against the influence of their leaders, religious
+and political (Mark viii. 14f.). So far as our records tell us Jesus was
+but once again in Capernaum. Then he was met with the demand that he pay
+the temple tax (Matt. xvii. 24-27). This tax was usually collected just
+before the Passover. As this last visit to Capernaum was probably not far
+from the feast of Tabernacles, Jesus seems to have been in arrears. This
+may have been due to his absence from Capernaum at the time of the
+collection. The prompt answer of Peter may indicate that he knew that in
+other years Jesus had paid this tax, as it is altogether probable that he
+did. The question, however, implies official suspicion that Jesus was
+seeking to evade payment, and exhibits further the straining of the
+relations between him and the Jewish leaders. The conversation of Jesus
+with Peter served to show his clear consciousness of superiority, and was
+a further summons to the disciples to choose between him and his
+opponents.
+
+153. Within the limits of the Holy Land the faith of the disciples had
+been constantly tested by the increasing opposition between their master
+and their old leaders. When the little company withdrew to Gentile
+regions, however, Jesus had regard for their Jewish feeling. The time
+would come when he would send them forth to make disciples of all the
+nations. For the present he made it his business to nurture their faith in
+him, and when appealed to for help by one of these foreigners, he refused
+to "take the children's bread and cast it to the dogs" (Mark vii. 27).
+Jesus had assumed a different attitude to the Samaritans before the
+opening of his work in Galilee, and in general had shown ready sympathy
+for all in distress. In fact it seems as if he welcomed the Syrophœnician
+woman's great faith with a feeling of relief from a restriction that he
+had felt it wise to adopt for his work in Phœnicia. It appears from his
+later attitude in the Gentile regions of the Decapolis (Mark vii. 31-37;
+Matt. xv. 21-31) that, having once shown his regard for the limitations of
+his disciples' faith in the case of the Syrophœnician, he felt no longer
+obliged to check his natural readiness to help the needy who sought him
+out. Although in one instance, for reasons no longer known to us, Jesus
+charged a man whom he had cured to keep it secret (Mark vii. 32-37), in
+general his work in these heathen regions seems, after the visit to
+Phœnicia, to have been quite unrestrained, and to have produced the same
+enthusiasm that had earlier brought the multitudes to him in Galilee (Mark
+viii. 1f.).
+
+154. This continued activity of healing must have served greatly to
+strengthen the determination of the disciples to cling to Jesus, let the
+leaders say what they would. We can only conjecture what various teachings
+filled the days, and what personal fellowship the disciples had with him
+who spake as never man spake. There was need for advance in the faith of
+these loyal friends. Their enthusiastic declaration when the multitudes
+turned away could easily have been followed by reaction. Each new
+exhibition of the irrevocableness of the break between Jesus and the
+leaders was a severe test of their loyalty. These weeks of withdrawal were
+doubtless filled, therefore, with new proofs that Jesus had the words of
+eternal life.
+
+155. Before he put to his disciples the crucial question, he who knew what
+was in man (John ii. 25) was confident that they were ready for it. It was
+after the rebuff in Galilee, when the unbelieving Pharisees had again
+demanded a sign of his authority, and after he had definitely warned the
+disciples against the influence of their leaders, that Jesus led his
+little company far to the north towards the slopes of Hermon. There, near
+the recently built Cæsarea Philippi, Jesus plainly asked his disciples
+what the people thought of him (Mark viii. 27-30). We have seen how
+gradually sentiment in Galilee concerning the new teacher crystallized
+until, from thinking him a prophet, the people, first timidly, then
+boldly, concluded that such a teacher and worker of signs must be the
+promised king. We have seen also how the popular estimate changed when
+Jesus refused to be guided by the popular will. Now, after the lapse of a
+few weeks, in answer to his inquiry concerning the common opinion of him,
+he is told that the people look on him as a prophet, in whom the spirit of
+the men of old had been revived; but not a whisper remains of the former
+readiness to hail him as the Messiah. It was in the face of such a
+definite revulsion in the popular feeling, in the face, too, of the
+increasing hostility of all the great in the nation, that Peter answered
+for the twelve that they believed Jesus to be the Messiah, God's appointed
+Deliverer of his people (Matt. xvi. 16 ff.). In form this confession was
+no more than Nathanael had rendered on his first meeting with Jesus (John
+i. 49), and was practically the same as the report made by Andrew to Simon
+his brother, and by Philip to Nathanael (John i. 41, 45). In both idea and
+expression the reply to Jesus' question, "Will ye also go away?" (John vi.
+68, 69), was virtually equivalent to this later confession of Peter. Yet
+Jesus found in Peter's answer at Cæsarea Philippi something so significant
+and remarkable that he declared that the faith that could answer thus
+could spring only from a heavenly source (Matt. xvi. 17). The early
+confessions were in fact no more than expressions of more or less
+intelligent expectation that Jesus would fulfil the confessor's hopes. The
+confession at Capernaum followed one of Jesus' mightiest exhibitions of
+power, and was given before the disciples had had time to consider the
+extent of the defection from their Master. Here at Cæsarea Philippi,
+however, the word was spoken immediately after an acknowledgment that the
+people had no more thought of finding in Jesus their Messiah. It was
+spoken after the disciples had had repeated evidence of the determined
+hostility of the leaders to Jesus. All the disappointment he had given to
+their cherished ideas was emphasized by the isolation in which the little
+company now found itself. One after another their ideas of how a Messiah
+should act and what he should be had received contradiction in what Jesus
+was and did. Yet after the weeks of withdrawal from Galilee, Peter could
+only in effect assert anew what he had declared at Capernaum,--that Jesus
+had the words of eternal life. It was a faith chastened by perplexity, and
+taught at length to follow the Lord let him lead where he would. It was an
+actual surrender to his mastery over thought and life. Here at length
+Jesus had won what he had been seeking during all his work in Galilee,--a
+corner-stone on which to build up the new community of the kingdom of God.
+Peter was the first to confess openly to this simple surrender to the full
+mastery of Jesus. He was the first stone in the foundation of the new
+"building of God."
+
+156. In his commendation of Peter Jesus revealed the secret of his method
+in the work which, because of this confession, he could now proceed to do
+more rapidly. He cuts loose utterly from the method of the scribes. He,
+the new teacher, commits to them no body of teaching which they are to
+give to others as the key to eternal life. The salvation they are to
+preach is a salvation by personal attachment; that is, by faith. The rock
+on which he will build his church is personal attachment, faith that is
+ready to leave all and follow him. Peter, not the substance of his
+confession, was its corner-stone, but Peter, as the first clear confessor
+of a faith that is ready to leave all, a faith whose very nature it is to
+be contagious, and associate with itself others of "like precious faith."
+His faith was as yet meagre, as he showed at once; but it was genuine, the
+surrender of his heart to his Lord's guidance and control. This was the
+distinctive mark of the new religious life inaugurated by Jesus of
+Nazareth.
+
+157. If anything were needed to prove that the idea that he was the
+Messiah was no new thought to Jesus, it could be found in the new lesson
+which he at once began to teach his disciples. The confession of Peter
+indicated to him simply that the first stage in his work had been
+accomplished. He immediately began to prepare the disciples for the end
+which for some time past he had seen to be inevitable. He taught them more
+than that his death was inevitable; he declared that it was divinely
+necessary that he should be put to death as a result of the hostility of
+the Jews to him ("the Son of Man must suffer"). All the contradictions
+which he had offered to the Messianic ideas of his disciples paled into
+insignificance beside this one. When they saw how he failed to meet the
+hopes that were commonly held, they needed only to urge themselves to
+patience, expecting that in time he would cast off the strange mask and
+take to himself his power and reign. But it was too much for the late
+confessed and very genuine faith of Peter to hear that the Messiah must
+die. So unthinkable was the idea, that he assumed that Jesus had become
+unduly discouraged by the relentlessness of the opposition which had
+driven him first out of Judea and later out of Galilee. Accordingly Peter
+sought to turn his Master's mind to a brighter prospect, asserting that
+his forebodings could not be true. It is hard for us to conceive the chill
+of heart which must have followed the glow of his confession when he heard
+the stern rebuke of Jesus, who found in Peter's later words the voice of
+the Evil One, as before in his confession he had recognized the Spirit of
+God.
+
+158. The sternness of Jesus' rebuke escapes extravagance only in view of
+the fact that the words of Peter had greatly affected Jesus himself. At
+the outset of his public life he had faced the difficulty of doing the
+Messiah's work in his Father's way, and had withstood the temptation to
+accommodate himself to the ideas of his world, declaring allegiance to God
+alone (Matt. iv. 10). Yet once and again in the course of his ministry he
+showed that this allegiance cost him much. Luke reports a saying in which
+Jesus confessed that, in view of this prospect of death which Peter was
+opposing so eagerly, he was greatly "straitened" (xii. 50), and at the
+near approach of the end "his soul was exceeding sorrowful" (Mark xiv.
+34). It should never be forgotten that Jesus was a Jew, and heir to all
+the Messianic ideas of his people. In these, glory, not rejection and
+death, was to be the Messiah's portion. That he was always superior to
+current expectations is no sign that he did not feel their force. They
+quite mistake who find the bitterness of Jesus' "cup" simply in his
+physical shrinking from suffering. The temptation was ever with him to
+find some other way to the goal of his work than that which led through
+death. What Peter said hid a force greater than any word of the
+disciple's. It voiced the crucial temptation of Jesus' life. The answer
+addressed to Peter showed that his words had drawn the thought of Jesus
+away from the disciple to that earlier temptation which was never absent
+from him more than "for a season" (Luke iv. 13).
+
+159. Jesus was not content with a mere rebuke of his impulsive disciple.
+In his first announcement of his death as necessary he had also declared
+that it would not be a tragedy, but would be followed by a resurrection.
+This the disciples could not appreciate, as they found the idea of the
+Messiah's death unthinkable. Jesus, however, saw in it the general law,
+that life must ever win its goal by disregard of itself, and called his
+disciples also to walk in the path of self-sacrifice. In order that the
+new lesson might not quite overwhelm the yet feeble faith of these
+followers, Jesus assured them that after his death and resurrection he
+would come as Messianic Judge and fulfil the hopes which his prediction of
+death seemed to blot out utterly (Mark viii. 34 to ix. 1).
+
+160. That this new lesson was a difficult one for master as well as
+disciple seems to be shown by the experience which came a few days later
+to Jesus and his three closest friends. He had withdrawn with them to a
+"high mountain" for prayer (Luke ix. 28f.). While he prayed the light of
+heaven came into his face, and his disciples were granted a vision of him
+in celestial glory, conversing with Moses and Elijah, representatives of
+Old Testament law and prophecy. The theme of the discourse was that death
+which had so troubled the disciples, and which then and later weighed
+heavily on Jesus' own spirit (Luke ix. 31). At the conclusion of the
+vision came a divine injunction to hear him who now was superseding law
+and prophets. The effect of the transfiguration can only be inferred. It
+doubtless brought strengthening to Jesus for his difficult task (compare
+Heb. v. 7), and at least a silencing of remonstrance when he spoke again
+to his disciples of his approaching death. This he did while the little
+company was making its way back towards Capernaum (Mark ix. 30-32), and
+repeatedly later before the end came (Mark x. 32-34; Matt. xxvi. 1f.).
+
+161. On Jesus' return from the mountain, he was met by the despairing plea
+of a father and healed his epileptic son, out of whom the disciples were
+unable to cast the demon (Mark ix. 14-29; compare vi. 7, 13). It may have
+been the shock which the new lesson had given the disciples that accounted
+for the reproof of their lack of faith. The new evidence of Jesus' power,
+coupled with this reproof, seems to have restored their confidence in him.
+Perhaps, too, there was something contagious about the spirit of hope with
+which the three came from their vision of the Master's glory. For,
+although they were not free to tell what they had seen (Mark ix. 9), they
+could not have concealed the fact that their faith had received great
+encouragement. Whatever the cause, hope revived for the disciples, for on
+the way back to Capernaum a dispute arose among them concerning personal
+precedence in the kingdom which their Master should soon set up. In this
+rapid reaction from unbelief to faith the disciples seem to have forgotten
+the lesson of self-denial recently given them (Mark viii. 34, 35). In
+Peter's confession the corner-stone of the church was laid; but the
+superstructure was yet far out of sight. Although his own soul, taking its
+way down into the valley of shadows, might rightly have asked for sympathy
+and complained of its lack, Jesus simply set a little child in the midst
+of them, and taught them again the first lessons of faith,--gentle
+humility and trust. Thereby he rebuked the spirit of rivalry and asked of
+his disciples a generous, unselfish, and forgiving spirit (Matt, xviii.
+1-35).
+
+162. It was possibly at this time, certainly near the end of the Galilean
+ministry, that Jesus was approached by his own brethren, who urged him to
+try to win the capital. Their attitude was not one of indifference, though
+clearly not one of actual faith in his claim (John vii. 2-5). They seem to
+have felt that Jesus had not made adequate effort to secure a following in
+Jerusalem, and that he could not hope for success in his work if he
+continued to confine his attention to Galilee. Jesus knew conditions in
+Jerusalem far better than they did, and had no idea as yet of resuming a
+general ministry there. He therefore dismissed the suggestion, and left
+his brethren to go up to the feast disappointed in their desire that he
+make a demonstration at that time. Yet Jesus still yearned over Jerusalem.
+He knew in what organized opposition a general demonstration would result.
+There were some, however, in the capital who had real faith in him. His
+repeated efforts to win Jerusalem mean nothing if we do not recognize that
+he hoped against hope that many of the people might yet turn and let him
+lead them. With some such purpose, therefore, he went up a little later
+without ostentation, and quietly appeared in the temple teaching. The
+effect of this unannounced arrival was that the opposition was not ready
+for him. The multitude was compelled to form an opinion of him for itself,
+and he had opportunity to make his own impression for a time,
+independently of official suggestion as to what ought to be thought of
+him. This course resulted in a division of sentiment among the people, so
+much so that when the leaders, both secular and religious, sought to
+compass his arrest, the officers sent to take Jesus were themselves
+entranced by his teaching. In spite of the wish of the leaders Jesus
+continued to teach, and many of the people began to think of him with
+favor. When, however, he tried to lead them on to become "disciples
+indeed," they took offence, and showed that they were not ready yet to
+follow him. This effort to "gather the children of Jerusalem" resulted in
+new proof that they preferred his death to his message (John vii. 2 to
+viii. 59).
+
+163. Interesting evidence of the fact that "Jesus did many other signs
+which are not written" in our accepted gospels is found in the story of
+his dealing with an adulteress whom the Pharisees brought to him for
+judgment (John vii. 53 to viii. 11). This narrative had no secure place in
+any of the gospels in the earliest days, yet was so highly regarded that
+men would not let it go. Hence in the manuscripts which contain it, it is
+found in various places. Some give it in Luke after chapter xxi., some at
+the end of the Gospel of John, one placing it after John vii. 36. Many
+considerations combine to prove that it was no part of the Gospel of John,
+but as many show that it preserves a true incident in the ministry of
+Jesus. In scene it belongs to the temple, therefore in time to one of the
+Jerusalem visits. To which of those visits it should he assigned is not
+now discoverable. The ancient copyists who assigned it to this feast of
+Tabernacles, chose as well as later students can. If the incident belongs
+to this visit, it illustrates the patience and the keen insight of Jesus
+in his effort to win self-satisfied Jerusalem.
+
+164. John is silent concerning the doings of Jesus after the feast of
+Tabernacles. In x. 22 he notes that Jesus was at Jerusalem at the feast of
+Dedication, which followed two months later. It seems probable that after
+his hurried and private journey to the feast of Tabernacles (John vii. 10)
+he returned to Galilee and gathered to himself again the little company of
+his loyal followers, preparatory to that final journey to Jerusalem which
+should bring the end foreseen, unless, perchance, Israel should yet repent
+and turn unto the Lord. As the shadow deepened over his own life, and the
+persistency of the unbelief of his people appeared more and more clearly,
+the teachings of Jesus took on a new note of tragedy which was not
+characteristic of the earlier preaching in Galilee. Even when his topic
+was similar and his treatment of it not unlike some earlier discourse,
+there appeared in it here and there a warning of impending judgment. This
+is seen as early as the reply to the criticism of the disciples for
+disregard of traditions (Matt. xv. 13f.). Many discourses in the section
+peculiar to Luke show by the presence of this note of doom that they
+belong to this later time rather than to the Galilean period proper. (See
+the table prefixed to Chapter V.)
+
+165. Two years had nearly passed since Jesus withdrew from Judea to start
+his ministry anew in a different region and following a different method.
+The fruit of that ministry was small, but significant. His proclamation of
+the coming kingdom and his call to a deeper righteousness, coupled as they
+were with his works of heavenly power, had won at first an enthusiastic
+following. Realizing that an uncontrolled enthusiasm would thwart his
+purpose to introduce a kingdom of the spirit, Jesus had kept his Messianic
+claim in the background, seeking first to win disciples to the kingdom
+that he was proclaiming. Yet emphasize his message as he would, he could
+not conceal his personal significance. In fact he wished by winning
+disciples to his doctrine of the kingdom to attach followers to himself,
+the bearer of the words of eternal life. The great development of popular
+enthusiasm did not deceive him, nor did he hesitate, when the multitude
+would force him to do its will, to show clearly how far he was from being
+a fulfiller of their desires. By successive disappointments of the popular
+ideas he sifted his followers until a few were ready to follow him
+whithersoever he might lead. With these he allowed time for the fact of
+his unpopularity to appear, giving them opportunity to consider the
+relentless hostility of their national leaders to the teacher from
+Galilee. Then when the time was ripe he drew from the loyal few their
+declaration that they would follow him in spite of disappointments and
+unpopularity, their confession that he had come to be to them more than
+their cherished preconceptions, that he had won the mastery over their
+thought and life. He began then to prepare them for the end he had long
+foreseen, and at length, after giving them time for that perplexing
+mystery to find place in their hearts, he was ready to move on toward the
+crisis which he knew his public appearance in Jerusalem would precipitate.
+Before setting out on this journey his desire still to seek to win
+Jerusalem, if perchance it would repent, led him to visit the capital
+unannounced at the feast of Tabernacles. This taught him that, however
+ready some might be superficially to believe in him, he could as yet win
+in Jerusalem only hatred and plots against his life, and he returned to
+his faithful friends in Galilee.
+
+   Outline of Events in the Journey through Perea to Jerusalem
+
+
+   The final departure from Galilee--Matt. xix. 1, 2; viii. 19-22; Mark x.
+   1; Luke ix. 51-62.
+
+   The mission of the seventy--Matt. xi. 20-30; Luke x. 1-24.
+
+   The visit to the feast of Dedication--John ix. 1 to x. 39.
+
+   Possibly at this time: The parable of the Good Samaritan--Luke x.
+   25-37. The visit to Mary and Martha--Luke x. 38-42.
+
+   Return to Perea--John x. 40-42.
+
+   The visit to Bethany and the raising of Lazarus--John xi. 1-46.
+
+   The withdrawal to Ephraim--John xi. 47-54.
+
+   Events connected with the last journey to Jerusalem, which cannot be
+   more definitely located:
+
+   The question whether few are saved--Luke xiii. 22-30.
+
+   Reply to the warning against Herod, probably near the close--Luke xiii.
+   31-35.
+
+   The cure of ten lepers--Luke xvii. 11-19.
+
+   The question of the Pharisees concerning divorce--Matt. xix. 3-12; Mark
+   x. 2-12.
+
+   The blessing of little children--Matt. xix. 13-15; Mark x. 13-16; Luke
+   xviii. 15-17.
+
+   The question of the rich young ruler--Matt. xix. 16 to xx. 16; Mark x.
+   17-31; Luke xviii. 18-30.
+
+   The third prediction of death and resurrection--Matt xx. 17-19; Mark x.
+   32-34; Luke xviii. 31-34.
+
+   The ambitious request of the sons of Zebedee--Matt. xx. 20-28; Mark x.
+   35-45.
+
+   The last stage, Jericho to Jerusalem:
+
+   The blind men near Jericho--Matt. xx. 29-34; Mark x. 46-52; Luke xviii.
+   35-43.
+
+   The visit to Zacchæus--Luke xix. 1-10.
+
+   The parable of the pounds (minæ)--Luke xix. 11-28. Events and
+   discourses found in Luke ix. 51 to xviii. 14, which probably belong
+   after the confession of Peter, and very likely to some stage of the
+   journey to Jerusalem:
+
+   Woes against the Pharisees, uttered at a Pharisee's table--Luke xi.
+   37-54.
+
+   Warnings against the spirit of pharisaism--Luke xii. 1-59.
+
+   Comment on the slaughter of Galileans by Pilate--Luke xiii. 1-9.
+
+   Discourse on counting the cost of discipleship--Luke xiv. 25-35.
+
+   Discourse on the coming of the kingdom--Luke xvii. 20-37.
+
+   Parable of the Unjust Judge--Luke xviii. 1-8.
+
+   Parable of the Pharisee and the Publican--Luke xviii. 9-14.
+
+
+
+
+V
+
+The Journey through Perea to Jerusalem
+
+
+
+166. The fourth gospel says that after the visit to Jerusalem at the feast
+of Dedication Jesus withdrew beyond Jordan to the place where John at the
+first was baptizing (x. 40). Matthew and Mark also say that at the close
+of the ministry in Galilee Jesus departed and came into the borders of
+Judea and beyond Jordan, and that in this new region the multitudes again
+flocked to him, and he resumed his ministry of teaching (Matt. xix. 1f.;
+Mark x. 1). What he did and taught at this time is not shown at all by
+John, and only in scant fashion by the other two. They tell of a
+discussion with the Pharisees concerning divorce (Mark x. 2-12); of the
+welcome extended by Jesus to certain little children (Mark x. 13-16); of
+the disappointment of a rich young ruler, who wished to learn from Jesus
+the way of life, but loved better his great possessions (Mark x. 17-31);
+of a further manifestation of the unlovely spirit of rivalry among the
+disciples in the request of James and John for the best places in the
+kingdom (Mark x. 35-45),--a request following in the records directly
+after another prediction by Jesus of his death and resurrection (Mark x.
+32-34). Then, after a visit to Jericho (Luke xviii. 35 to xix. 28), these
+records come into coincidence with John in the account of the Messianic
+entry into Jerusalem just before the last Passover.
+
+167. The fourth gospel tells in addition of a considerable activity of
+Jesus in and near Jerusalem during this period. In making the journey
+beyond Jordan start from Jerusalem (x. 40), John shows that Jesus must
+have returned to the capital after his withdrawal from the feast of
+Tabernacles. When and how this took place is not indicated. Later, after
+his retirement from the feast of Dedication Jesus hastened at the summons
+of his friends from beyond Jordan to Bethany when Lazarus died (xi. 1-7).
+From Bethany he went not to the other side of Jordan again, but to Ephraim
+(xi. 54), a town on the border between Judea and Samaria, and from there
+he started towards Jerusalem when the Passover drew near. This record of
+John has, as Dr. Sanday has recently remarked (HastBD II. 630), so many
+marks of verisimilitude that it must be accepted as a true tradition. It
+demands thus that in our conception of the last journey from Galilee room
+be found for several excursions to Jerusalem or its neighborhood. One of
+these at least--to the feast of Dedication (x. 22)--represents another
+effort to "gather the children of Jerusalem." While not without success,
+for at least the blind man restored by Jesus gave him the full faith he
+sought (ix. 35-38), it showed with fuller clearness the determined
+hostility to Jesus of the influential class (x. 39).
+
+168. It has been customary to find in the long section peculiar to Luke
+(ix. 51 to xviii. 14) a fuller account of the Perean ministry, as it has
+been called. For it opens with a final departure from Galilee, and comes
+at its close into parallelism with the record of Matthew and Mark. Yet
+some parts of this section in Luke belong in the earlier Galilean
+ministry. The blasphemy of the Pharisees (xi. 14-36) is clearly identical
+with the incident recorded in Mark iii. 22-30, and Matt. xii. 22-45; while
+several incidents and discourses (see outline prefixed to Chapter III.)
+bear so plainly the marks of the ministry before the revulsion of popular
+favor, that it is easiest to think of them as actually belonging to the
+earlier time, but assigned by Luke to this peculiar section because he
+found no clear place offered for them in the record of Mark. Not a little,
+however, of what Luke records here manifestly belongs to the time when
+Jesus referred openly to his rejection by the Jewish people. The note of
+tragedy characteristic of later discourses appears in the replies of Jesus
+to certain would-be disciples (ix. 57-62), and in his warning that his
+followers count the cost of discipleship (xiv. 25-35). The woes spoken at
+a Pharisee's table (xi. 37-52), the warning to the disciples against
+pharisaism (xii. 1-12), and the encouragement of the "little flock" (xii.
+22-34), with many other paragraphs from this part of the gospel (see
+outline at the head of this chapter), evidently were spoken at the time
+of the approaching end. Some narratives reflect the neighborhood of
+Jerusalem, and naturally corroborate the indications in the fourth gospel
+that Jesus was repeatedly at the capital during this time. The parable of
+the good Samaritan, for instance, must have been spoken in Judea, else why
+choose the road from Jerusalem to Jericho for the illustration? The visit
+to Mary and Martha shows Jesus at Bethany, and the parable of the Pharisee
+and the Publican, naming the temple as the place of prayer, belongs
+naturally to Judea.
+
+169. The effort to find the definite progress of events in this part of
+Luke has not been successful. There are three hints of movement towards
+Jerusalem,--the introductory mention of the departure from Galilee (ix.
+51); a statement that Jesus went on his way through cities and villages,
+journeying on unto Jerusalem (xiii. 22); and again a reference to passing
+through the midst of Samaria and Galilee on the way to Jerusalem (xvii.
+11). The attempt to make the third of these belong actually to the last
+stages of the final journey seems artificial. Confessedly the expression
+"through the midst of Samaria and Galilee" is obscure. It is much easier
+to understand, however, if the journey so described is identified with the
+visit to Samaria with which the departure from Galilee opened. It seems
+probable that Luke found these records of events and teachings in Jesus'
+life, and was unable to learn exactly their connection in time and place,
+so placed them after the close of the Galilean story and before the
+account of the passion, much as later some copyist found the story of the
+adulteress (John vii. 53 to viii. 11), and, certain that it was a true
+incident, gave it a place in connection with the visit to the feast of
+Tabernacles (perhaps influenced by John viii. 15). It must always be
+remembered that the earliest apostolic writing--Matthew's Logia--probably
+consisted of just such disconnected records (see sects. 28, 42), and that,
+as Jülicher (Einleitung i. d. NT. 235) has said, the early church was not
+interested in _when_ Jesus said or did anything. Its interest was in
+_what_ he said and did.
+
+170. The time of the departure from Galilee for Jerusalem may be set with
+much probability not long before the feast of the Dedication in December;
+for at that feast Jesus was again in Jerusalem, and from it he returned to
+Perea (John x. 22, 40-42). He started southward through Samaria (Luke ix.
+51 ff.), and probably in connection with the early stages of the journey
+he sent out the seventy "into every city and place whither he himself was
+about to come" (Luke x. 1). It is not unlikely that, after the sending out
+of these heralds, he went with a few disciples to make one more effort to
+turn the heart of Jerusalem to himself (John ix., x.). It is impossible to
+determine whither the seventy were sent. The "towns and cities" whither
+Jesus was about to come may have included some from all portions of the
+land, not excepting Judea. The matter must be left in considerable
+obscurity. This, however, may be said, that the reasons offered for
+holding that the story of the sending out of the seventy is only a
+"doublet" of the mission of the twelve are not conclusive (see sect. A
+68). The connection in Luke of the woes against Capernaum, Bethsaida, and
+Chorazin with the instruction of the seventy is very natural, and marks
+this mission as belonging to the close of the Galilean period, while the
+mission of the twelve belongs to the height of Jesus' popularity.
+
+171. Our knowledge of Jesus' visit to the feast of Dedication is due to
+John's interest in the cure at about that time of one born blind (John
+ix., x.). The prejudice of the sanhedrists who excommunicated the man for
+his loyalty to Jesus led him in indignation to contrast their method of
+caring for God's "sheep" with his own love and sympathy and genuine
+ministry to their needs. He saw clearly that his course must end in death,
+unless a great change should come over his enemies; yet, as the Good
+Shepherd, he was ready to lay down his life for the sheep, rather than
+leave them to the heartlessness of leaders who cared only for themselves
+(x. 11-18). The critics of Jesus could not, or would not, understand his
+charge against them, and accused him of madness for his extraordinary
+claims. There were some, however, who could not credit the notion that
+Jesus had a devil (John x. 21). It is possible that it was at this time
+that the lawyer questioned him about the breadth of interpretation to be
+given to the word "neighbor" in the law of love, and was answered by the
+parable of the Good Samaritan (Luke x. 25-37). Possibly the parable of the
+Pharisee and the Publican (Luke xviii. 9-14) belongs also to this time. In
+general, however, the visit proved anew that Jerusalem was in no mood to
+accept Jesus (John x. 24-39). His enemies sought to draw from him a
+declaration of his claim to be the Messiah, and Jesus appealed to his
+works, asserting that only their incorrigible prejudice prevented their
+recognizing his claims. He added that his Father, with whom he was ever in
+perfect accord, had drawn some faithful followers to him, and thereupon,
+angered by his claim to close kinship with God, they appealed to the rough
+logic of violence (John x. 31-39; compare viii. 59).
+
+172. After this added attempt to win Jerusalem Jesus withdrew to the
+region beyond Jordan, where John had carried on his ministry to the eager
+multitudes. Here he anew attracted great attention, causing people to
+contrast his ministry with the less remarkable work of John, and to
+acknowledge that John's testimony to him was true (John x. 40-42).
+Possibly it was in this place that the seventy found Jesus when they
+returned to report the success of their mission (Luke x. 17-24), for the
+thanksgiving which Jesus rendered for the faith of the common people in
+contrast with the unbelief of the "wise and prudent" might well express
+his feeling after the fresh evidence he had at the feast of Dedication
+that Jerusalem would none of his mission. The invitation to all the heavy
+laden to take his yoke illustrates, though under another figure, his claim
+to be the Good Shepherd (Matt. xi. 28-30). We have no means of knowing how
+much more of what the gospels assign to the last journey to Jerusalem
+should be put in connection with this sojourn across the Jordan. The
+multitudes that came to him there may have included the Pharisees who
+questioned him about divorce (Mark x. 2-12), and the young ruler who loved
+his great possessions (Mark x. 17-31), as well as the parents who eagerly
+sought the Lord's blessing for their children (Mark x. 13-16). Some parts
+of Luke's narrative seem to belong still later in this journey, yet such a
+section as the reply of Jesus to the report of Pilate's slaughter of the
+Galileans (xiii. 1-9), or the parable of the Great Supper (xiv. 15-24), is
+suitable to any stage of it.
+
+173. This sojourn on the other side of Jordan was brought to a close by
+the summons to come to the aid of his friends in Bethany (John xi.). It is
+not strange that the disciples feared his return to Judea, nor that Jesus
+did not hesitate when he recognized the call of duty as well as of
+friendship. In no recorded miracle of Jesus is his power more signally set
+forth, yet here more clearly than anywhere else he is represented as
+dependent on his Father in his exercise of that power. The words of Jesus
+at the grave (John xi. 41, 42) show that he was confident of the
+resurrection of Lazarus, because he had prayed and was sure he was heard.
+It may be that his delay after hearing of the sickness of his friend (xi.
+6) was a time of waiting for answer, and that this explains his confidence
+of safety when the time came for him to expose himself again to the
+hostility of Judea. Jesus indicated not only that on this occasion he had
+help from above in doing his miracles, but that it was the rule in his
+life to seek such help and guidance (xi. 42). In fact, at a later time he
+ascribed all his works to the Father abiding in him (John xiv. 10; compare
+x. 25). The effect of the resurrection of Lazarus was such as to intensify
+the determination of the leaders in Jerusalem--both Pharisees and
+Sadducees--to get rid of Jesus as dangerous to the quiet of the nation
+(John xi. 47-54). In this it simply served to fix a determination already
+present (John vii. 25, 32; viii. 59; x. 31, 39). The miracle does not
+appear in John as the cause of the apprehension of Jesus, but rather as
+one influence leading to it. It was indeed the total contradiction between
+Jesus and all current and cherished ideas that led to his condemnation;
+the raising of Lazarus only showed that he was becoming dangerously
+popular, and made the priestly leaders feel the necessity of haste. The
+silence of the first three gospels concerning this event is truly
+perplexing, yet it is not any more difficult of explanation, as Beyschlag
+(LJ I. 495) has shown, than the silence of all four evangelists concerning
+the appearance of the risen Jesus to James, or to the five hundred
+brethren (I. Cor. xv. 6, 7). Room must be allowed in our conception of the
+life of Jesus for many things of which no record remains, all the more,
+therefore, for incidents to which but one of the gospels is witness.
+Moreover, after the collapse of popularity in Galilee, the great
+enthusiasm of the multitudes over Jesus when he entered Jerusalem (Luke
+xix. 37-40; Mark xi. 8-10) is most easily understood if he had made some
+such manifestation of power as the restoration of Lazarus.
+
+174. After the visit to Bethany Jesus withdrew to a little town named
+Ephraim, on the border between Judea and Samaria, and spent some time
+there in seclusion with his disciples (John xi. 54), doubtless
+strengthening his personal hold on them preparatory to the shock their
+faith was about to receive. Of the length of this sojourn nothing is told
+us, nor of the road by which Jesus left Ephraim for Jerusalem (John xii.
+1). The first three gospels show that he began his final approach to the
+Holy City at Jericho (Mark x. 46). It may be that he descended from
+Ephraim direct to Jericho some days before the Passover, rejoining there
+some of the people who had been impressed by his recent ministry in the
+region "where John at the first was baptizing." It is natural to suppose
+that it was on this journey to Jericho that he warned his disciples again
+of the fate which he saw before him in Jerusalem (Mark x. 32-34), and
+quite probably it was at this time that he rebuked the crude ambition of
+the sons of Zebedee by reminding them that his disciples must be more
+ambitious to serve than to rule, since even "the Son of Man came not to be
+ministered unto but to minister, and to give his life a ransom for many"
+(Mark x. 35-45). At Jericho he was at once crowded upon by enthusiastic
+multitudes. The feeling they had for him may perhaps be inferred from the
+cry of blind Bartimeus, "Thou son of David, have mercy on me" (Mark x.
+48). This enthusiasm received a shock when Jesus chose to be guest in
+Jericho of a chief of the publicans, a shock which Jesus probably intended
+to give, for much the same reason that led him afterwards on his way up to
+Jerusalem to teach his followers in the parable of the pounds that they
+must be ready for long delay in his actual assumption of his kingly right
+(Luke xix. 11-28). Finally, six days before the Passover, he and his
+disciples left Jericho and went up to Bethany preparatory to his final
+appearance in Jerusalem (John xii. 1).
+
+175. The interval between the final departure from Galilee and the public
+entry into Jerusalem was given to three different tasks: the renewed
+proclamation of the coming of the kingdom, further efforts to win
+acceptance in Jerusalem, if perchance she might learn to know the things
+that belonged to her peace; and continued training of the disciples,
+specially needed because of the ill-considered enthusiasm with which they
+were inclined to view the probable issue of this journey to Jerusalem. The
+first of these tasks was conducted as the earlier work in Galilee had
+been, both by teaching and healing, in which Jesus used his disciples even
+more extensively than before. It proved that here as in Galilee the common
+people were ready to hear him gladly, until he showed too radical a
+disappointment of their hopes. In this new ministry to the people Jesus
+spoke very frankly of the seriousness of the opposition which the leaders
+of the people were manifesting, and of the need that those who would be
+his disciples should count the cost of their allegiance (Luke xiii. 22-30;
+xiv. 25-35; xii. 1-59). He did not hesitate to administer the most
+scathing rebuke to the Pharisees for the superficiality and hypocrisy of
+their religious life and teaching (Luke xi. 37-54),--a rebuke which is
+emphasized by the parable in which, on another occasion, he taught God's
+preference for a contrite sinner over a complacent saint (Luke xviii.
+9-14). When reminded of Pilate's outrage upon certain Galilean
+worshippers, he used the calamity to warn his hearers that personal
+godliness was the only protection which could secure them against a more
+serious outbreak of the hostility of the Roman power (Luke xiii. 1-9); and
+it was probably in reply to such an appeal as accompanied this report of
+Pilate's cruelty that Jesus spoke the parable of the Unjust Judge (Luke
+xviii. 1-8), teaching that God's love may be trusted to be no less
+regardful of his people's cry than a selfish man's love of ease would be.
+
+176. The second of these tasks must not be held to be perfunctory, even
+though each new effort for Jerusalem proved that genuine acceptance of its
+saviour was increasingly improbable. As the denunciations of the older
+prophets ever left open a way of escape _if _ Israel would return and seek
+the Lord, so the anticipation of rejection and death which filled the
+heart of Jesus does not banish a like _if_ from his own thought of
+Jerusalem in his repeated efforts to "gather her children." The
+combination of the new popular enthusiasm and the fresh proofs of the
+hopelessness of winning Jerusalem made more important the third task,--the
+founding of the faith of the disciples on the rock of personal certainty,
+from which the rising floods of hatred and seeming ruin for the Master's
+cause could not sweep it. It was for them that much of his instruction of
+the multitudes was doubtless primarily intended; they needed above all
+others to count the cost of discipleship (Luke xiv. 25-35), and the
+warnings against the spirit of Pharisaism (Luke xii.) were addressed
+principally to them, even as it was to them that Jesus confessed the
+"straitening" of his own soul in view of the "fire which he had come to
+cast upon the earth" (Luke xii. 49-53),--a confession which had another
+expression when he found it needful to rebuke the personal ambition of the
+sons of Zebedee (Mark x. 35-45). As for Jesus himself, the popular
+enthusiasm had not deceived him, nor the obdurate unbelief of Jerusalem
+daunted him, nor his disciples' misconception of his kingdom disheartened
+him; he still steadfastly set his face to go to Jerusalem.
+
+   Outline of Events in the Last Week of Jesus' Life
+
+
+   _Saturday_ (?). The anointing in Bethany six days before the
+   Passover--Matt. xxvi. 6-13; Mark xiv. 3-9; John xi. 55 to xii. 11.
+
+   _Sunday_ (?). The Messianic entry--Matt. xxi. 1-11; Mark xi. 1-11; Luke
+   six. 29-44; John xii. 12-19.
+
+   _Monday_ (?). Visit to the temple: the cursing of the barren
+   fig-tree--Matt. xxi. 18-19, 12-17; Mark xi. 12-14, 15-18; Luke xix. 45,
+   47, 48.
+
+   Return to Bethany for the night--Matt. xxi. 17; Mark xi. 19; Luke xxi.
+   37, 38.
+
+   _Tuesday_ (?). Visit to the temple: the fig-tree found withered--Matt,
+   xxi 20-23; Mark xi. 20-27; Luke xx. 1.
+
+   Challenge of Jesus' authority--Matt. xxi. 23-27; Mark xi. 27-33; Luke
+   xx. 1-8.
+
+   Three parables against the religious leaders--Matt. xxi. 28 to xxii.
+   14; Mark xii. 1-12; Luke xx. 9-19.
+
+   The question about tribute--Matt. xxii. 15-22; Mark xii. 13-17; Luke
+   xx. 20-26.
+
+   The question of the Sadducees about the resurrection--Matt. xxii.
+   23-33; Mark xii. 18-27; Luke xx. 27-40.
+
+   The question of the Pharisees about the great commandment--Matt. xxii.
+   34-40; Mark xii. 28-34.
+
+   Jesus' counter-question about David's son and Lord--Matt. xxii. 41-46;
+   Mark xii. 35-37; Luke xx. 41-44.
+
+   Jesus' denunciation of the scribes and Pharisees--Matt, xxiii. 1-39;
+   Mark xii. 38-40; Luke xx. 45-47.
+
+   The widow's two mites--Mark xii. 41-44; Luke xxi. 1-4.
+
+   The visit of the Greeks--John xii. 20-36^a.
+
+   Final departure from the temple--John xii. 36^b (-50).
+
+   Discourse concerning the destruction of Jerusalem and the end of the
+   world--Matt. xxiv. 1 to xxvi. 2; Mark xiii. 1-37; Luke xxi. 5-38.
+
+   Plot of Judas to betray Jesus--Matt. xxvi. 3-5, 14-16; Mark xiv. 1, 2,
+   10, 11; Luke xxii. 1-6.
+
+   _Wednesday_. Retirement at Bethany. (?)
+
+   _Thursday_. The Last Supper--Matt. xxvi. 17-30; Mark xiv. 12-26; Luke
+   xxii. 7-30; John xiii. 1-30.
+
+   The farewell words of admonition and comfort--John xiii. 31 to xvi. 33.
+
+   The intercessory prayer--John xvii. 1-26.
+
+   _Friday_. The agony in Gethsemane--Matt. xxvi. 30, 36-46; Mark xiv. 26,
+   32-42; Luke xxii. 39-46; John xviii. 1.
+
+   The betrayal and arrest--Matt xxvi. 47-56; Mark xiv. 43-52; Luke xxii.
+   47-53; John xviii. 1-12.
+
+   Trial before the high-priests and sanhedrin--Matt. xxvi. 57 to xxvii.
+   10; Mark xiv. 53 to xv. 1^a; Luke xxii. 54-71; John xviii. 12-27.
+
+   Trial before Pilate--Matt, xxvii. 11-31; Mark xv. 1-20; Luke xxiii.
+   1-25; John xviii. 28 to xix. 16^a.
+
+   The crucifixion--Matt, xxvii. 32-56; Mark xv. 21-41; Luke xxiii. 26-49;
+   John xix. 16-37.
+
+   The burial--Matt, xxvii. 57-61; Mark xv. 42-47; Luke xxiii. 50-56; John
+   xix. 38-42.
+
+   _Saturday_. The Sabbath rest--Luke xxiii. 56^b.
+
+   The watch at the tomb--Matt, xxvii. 62-66.
+
+
+
+
+VI
+
+The Final Controversies in Jerusalem
+
+
+
+177. The early Christians were greatly interested in the teachings of
+Jesus and in his deeds, but they thought oftenest of the victory which by
+his resurrection he won out of seeming defeat. This is proved by the fact
+that of the first two gospels over one third, of Luke over one fifth, and
+of the fourth gospel nearly one half are devoted to the story of the
+passion and resurrection. This preponderance is not strange in view of the
+shock which the death of Jesus caused his disciples, and the new life
+which the resurrection brought to their hearts. The resurrection was the
+fundamental theme of apostolic preaching, the supreme evidence that Jesus
+was the Messiah. Hence the cross early became the object of exultant
+Christian joy and boasting; and in this the church entered actually into
+the Lord's own thought, for through the cross he looked for his exaltation
+and glory (Mark viii. 31; John xii. 23-36). From the time of the
+confession at Cæsarea Philippi, he had had his death avowedly in view, and
+had repeatedly checked the ambitious and unthinking enthusiasm of his
+disciples by reminding them of what he must receive at the hands of the
+leaders of the people. The few months preceding his final appearance in
+Jerusalem had been devoted to the journey to the cross. This explains the
+note of tragedy which appears in his teachings at this period. The people
+had shown that they would none of his ministry. In this they had written
+their national and religious death warrant, and as he approached Jerusalem
+for the final crisis he declared, though with almost breaking heart, "Your
+house is left unto you desolate" (Luke xiii. 31-35). Each new effort of
+Jesus to turn aside the impending judgment of his people by winning their
+acceptance of himself and his message resulted in a new certainty of his
+ultimate rejection, and thus in confirmation of the early recognized
+necessity, that, if he continued the work God had given him to do, he
+should suffer many things, and die at the hands of his own people.
+
+178. The last chapter in his public ministry began with his arrival at
+Bethany six days before the Passover. It is probable that the caravan with
+which Jesus was travelling reached Bethany not far from the sunset which
+marked the beginning of the Sabbath preceding the feast. Jesus had friends
+there who gladly gave him entertainment, and the Sabbath was doubtless
+spent quietly in this retreat. The holy day closed with the setting sun,
+and then his hosts were able to show him the special attention which they
+desired. The general cordiality of welcome expressed itself in a feast
+given in the house of one Simon, a leper who had probably experienced the
+power of Jesus to heal. He may have been a relative also of Lazarus, for
+Martha assisted in the entertainment, and Lazarus was one of the guests of
+honor (Mark xiv. 3; John xii. 2). During the feast, Mary, the sister of
+Lazarus, poured forth on the head and feet of Jesus a box of the rarest
+perfume. This act of costly adoration seemed extravagant to some,
+particularly to one of Jesus' disciples, who complained that the money
+could have been better spent. This criticism of one who had not counted
+cost in her service was rebuked by Jesus, who defended and commended Mary;
+for in the act he recognized her fear that he might not be long with her
+(Mark xiv. 8; John xii. 7). It is probable that this rebuke, with the
+clear reference to his approaching death, led Judas to decide to abandon
+the apparently waning cause of his Master, and bargain with the leaders in
+Jerusalem to betray him (Mark xiv. 3-11).
+
+179. The day following the supper at Bethany--that is, the first day of
+the week--witnessed the welcome of Jesus to Jerusalem by the jubilant
+multitudes. His mode of entering the city affords a marked contrast to
+his treatment of the determination to make him king after he had fed the
+multitudes in Galilee (John vi. 15). In some respects the circumstances
+were similar. A multitude of the visitors to the feast, hearing that Jesus
+was at Bethany on his way to Jerusalem, went out to meet him with a
+welcome that showed their enthusiastic confidence that at last he would
+assume Messianic power and redeem Israel (John xii. 12, 13). Jesus was now
+ready for a popular demonstration, for the rulers were unwilling longer to
+tolerate his work and his teaching. He had never hesitated to assert his
+superiority to official criticism, and at length the hour had come to
+proclaim the full significance of his independence. In fact it was for
+this that some months before he had set his face steadfastly to go to
+Jerusalem. When, therefore, the crowd from Jerusalem appeared, Jesus took
+the initiative in a genuine Messianic demonstration. He sent two of his
+disciples to a place near by to borrow an ass's colt, on which he might
+ride into the city, fulfilling Zechariah's prophecy of the "king that
+cometh meek, and riding upon an ass" (see Matt. xxi. 4, 5). At this, the
+enthusiasm of his followers, and of those who had come to meet him, became
+unbounded, and without rebuke from Jesus they proceeded towards Jerusalem
+crying, "Hosanna; Blessed _is_ he that cometh in the name of the Lord"
+(Mark xi. 9, 10). Notwithstanding the remonstrances of certain Pharisees
+among the multitude (Luke xix. 39), Jesus accepted the hosannas, for they
+served to emphasize the claim which he now wished, without reserve or
+ambiguity, to make in Jerusalem. The time for reserve had passed. The
+mass of the people with their leaders had shown clearly that for his
+truth, and himself as bearer of it, they had no liking; while the few had
+become attached to him sufficiently to warrant the supreme test of their
+faith. He could not continue longer his efforts to win the people, for
+both Galilee and Judea were closed to him. Even if he had been content,
+without contradicting popular ideas, to work wonders and proclaim promises
+of coming good, he could with difficulty have continued this work, for
+Herod had already been regarding him with suspicion (Luke xiii. 31). He
+had run his course and must measure strength with the hostile forces in
+Jerusalem. For the last encounter he assumed the aggressive, and entered
+the city as its promised deliverer, the Prince of Peace. The very method
+of his Messianic proclamation was a challenge of current Jewish ideas, for
+they were not looking for so meek and peaceful a leader as Zechariah had
+conceived; this entrance emphasized the old contradiction between Jesus
+and his people's expectations. He accepted the popular welcome with full
+knowledge of the transitoriness of the present enthusiasm. As he advanced
+he saw in thought the fate to which the city and people were blindly
+hurrying, and his day of popular triumph was a day of tears (Luke xix.
+41-44). The city was stirred when the prophet of Nazareth thus entered it;
+but he simply went into the temple, looked about with heavy heart, and, as
+it was late, returned to Bethany with the twelve for the night.
+
+180. On the following day Jesus furnished to his disciples a parable in
+action illustrating the fate awaiting the nation; for it is only as a
+parable that the curse of the barren fig-tree can be understood. The idea
+that Jesus showed resentment at disappointment of his hunger when he found
+no figs on the tree out of season is too petty for consideration. He was
+drawn to it by the early foliage, for it was not yet the season for either
+fruit or leaves. One is tempted to believe, as Dr. Bruce has suggested,
+that he had small expectation of finding fruit, and that even before he
+reached the tree with its early leaves he felt a likeness between it and
+the nation of hypocrites whose fate was so clear in his mind. The
+withering of the fig-tree set his disciples thinking; and Jesus showed
+that it was an object lesson, promising that the disciples, by the
+exercise of but a little faith, could do more, even remove
+mountains,--such mountains of difficulty as the opposition of the whole
+Jewish nation would offer to the success of their work in their Master's
+name.
+
+181. The curse upon the barren fig-tree was spoken as Jesus was going from
+Bethany to Jerusalem on the morning after his Messianic entry, that is, on
+Monday, and it was Tuesday when the disciples found it withered away (Mark
+xi. 12-14, 20-25). On Monday Jesus entered into the temple and taught and
+healed (Luke xix. 47; Matt. xxi. 14-16). It is at this point that Mark
+inserts the cleansing of the temple which John shows to belong rather to
+Jesus' first public visit to Jerusalem. The place which this incident
+holds in the first three gospels has already been explained by the fact
+that it furnished one cause for the official hostility to Jesus, and that
+Mark's story included no earlier visit to the holy city (sect. 116; see A
+39).
+
+182. Tuesday, the last day of public activity, exhibits Jesus in four
+different lights, according as he had to do with his critics, with the
+devout widow, with the inquiring Greeks, and with his own disciples. The
+opposition to him expressed itself, after the general challenge of his
+authority, in three questions put in succession by Pharisees and
+Herodians, by Sadducees, and by a scribe, more earnest than most, whom the
+Pharisees put forward after they had seen how Jesus silenced the
+Sadducees. Jesus met the opening challenge by a question about John's
+baptism (Mark xi. 29-33) which completely destroyed the complacency of his
+critics, putting them on the defensive. This was more than a clever
+stroke, they could not know what his authority was unless they had a quick
+sense for spiritual things. His question would have served to bring this
+to the surface if they had possessed it. Their reply showed them incapable
+of receiving a real answer to their question. It also gave him opportunity
+to say in three significant parables (Matt. xxi. 28 to xxii. 14) what
+their spiritual blindness signified for them and their nation, giving thus
+a turn to the interview not at all to their minds. As Jesus' rebuke was
+spoken in the hearing of the people, a determined effort was at once made
+to discredit him in the popular mind. The question (Mark xii. 13-17) with
+which the Pharisees and Herodians hoped to ensnare him was most subtle,
+for the popular feeling was as sensitive to the mark of subserviency which
+the payment of tribute kept ever before them as the Roman authorities were
+to the slightest suspicion of revolt against their sway. In none of his
+words had Jesus so clearly asserted the simple other-worldliness of his
+doctrine of the kingdom of God as in his answer to the question about
+tribute. For him loyalty to the actual earthly sovereign was quite
+compatible with loyalty to God, the lower obligation was in fact a summons
+to be scrupulous also to render to God his due,--a duty in which this
+nation was sadly delinquent. The reply gave no ground for an accusation
+before the governor; but the popular feeling against Rome was so strong
+that it is not unlikely that it contributed somewhat to the readiness of
+the multitude a few days later to prefer Barabbas to Jesus.
+
+183. A second assault was made by some Sadducees who put to him a crude
+question about the relations of a seven-times married woman in the
+resurrection (Mark xii. 18-27). If this question was asked with the
+expectation of making Jesus ridiculous in the sight of the people it was a
+marked failure, for his reply was so simple and straightforward that he
+won the admiration even of some of the Pharisees. The most significant
+feature of it was his argument from God's reference to himself as God of
+Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob; for in that he taught that the fact of
+fellowship with God implies that God's servants share with him a life that
+death cannot vanquish. The skill with which Jesus met these two questions
+interested some of his hearers and showed to his opponents that they must
+put forward their ablest champions to cope with him. The next test was
+more purely academic in character,--as to what class of commands is
+greatest in the law (Mark xii. 28-34). For the pharisaic scholars this was
+a favorite problem. For Jesus, however, the question contained no problem,
+since all the law is summed up in the two commandments of love. His
+contemporaries were not without power to see the truth of his
+generalization, and their champion in this last attack was moved with
+admiration for the fineness and sufficiency of Jesus' answer.
+
+184. All of the assaults served only to show freshly the clearness and
+profoundness of his thought; his critics were quite discomfited in their
+effort to entangle him. They had done with him, but he had still a word
+for them. The business of these scribes was the study of the scriptures.
+They furnished the people with authoritative statements of truth. One of
+the common-places of the current thought was that the Messiah should be
+David's son. Jesus did not deny the truth of this view, yet he showed them
+how partial their ideas were by quoting a word of scripture in which the
+Messiah is shown as David's Lord. If they had been open-minded they might
+have inferred from this that perhaps the man before them was not so
+impossible a Messiah as they thought. This last question closed the
+colloquy; there awaited yet, however, Jesus' calm, scathing arraignment of
+the hypocrisy of these religious leaders. There was no longer any need for
+prudence and every reason for a clear indication of the difference between
+himself and the scribes in motive, in teaching, and in character. The
+final conflict was on, and Jesus freely spoke his mind concerning their
+whole life of piety without godliness. Never have sharper words of
+reproach fallen from human lips than these which Jesus directed against
+the scribes and Pharisees; they are burdened with indignation for the
+misleading of the people, with rebuke for the misrepresentation of God's
+truth, and with scorn for their hollow pretence of righteousness. Through
+it all breathes a note of sorrow for the city whose house was now left to
+her desolate. The change of scene which introduces the widow offering her
+gift in the temple treasury heightens the significance of the
+controversies through which Jesus had just passed. In his comment on the
+worth of her two mites we hear again the preacher of the sermon on the
+mount, and are assured that it is indeed from him that the severe rebukes
+which have fallen on the scribes have come. There is again a reference to
+the insight of him who sees in secret, and who judges as he sees; while
+allusion is not lacking to the others whose larger gifts attracted a wider
+attention. The whole scene is like a commentary on Matt. vi. 2-4.
+
+185. Still a different side of Jesus' life appears when the Greeks seek
+him in the temple. They were probably proselytes from some of the Greek
+cities about the Mediterranean where the synagogue offered to the
+earnest-minded a welcome relief from the foolishness and corruption of
+what was left of religion in the heathen world. Having visited Jerusalem
+for the feast, they heard on every hand about the new teacher. They were
+not so bound to rabbinic traditions as the Jews themselves, they had been
+drawn by the finer features of Judaism,--its high morality and its noble
+idea of God. What they heard of Jesus might well attract them, and they
+sought out Philip, a disciple with a Greek name, to request an interview
+with his Master. The evangelist who has preserved the incident (John xii.
+20-36) evidently introduced it because of what it showed of Jesus' inner
+life; hence we have no report of the conversation between him and his
+visitors. The effect of their seeking him was marked, however, for it
+offered sharp contrast to the rejection which he already felt in his
+dealings with the people who but two days before had hailed him as
+Messiah. This foreign interest in him did not suggest a new avenue for
+Messianic work, it only brought before his mind the influence which was to
+be his in the world which these inquirers represented, and immediately
+with the thought of his glorification came that of the means thereto,--the
+cross whose shadow was already darkening his path. Excepting Gethsemane,
+no more solemn moment in Jesus' life is reported for us. A glimpse is
+given into the inner currents of his soul, and the storm which tossed them
+is seen. It is in marked contrast to the calmness of his controversy with
+the leaders, and to the gentleness of his commendation of the widow. The
+agitation passed almost at once, but it left Jesus in a mood which he had
+not shown before on that day; in it his own thoughts had their way, and
+the doctrine of the grain of wheat dying to appear in larger life, of the
+Son of Man lifted up to draw all men unto him, had utterance, greatly to
+the perplexity of his hearers. It seems to have been one of the few times
+when Jesus spoke for his own soul's relief.
+
+186. In all the earlier events of the day the disciples of Jesus appear
+but little. He is occupied with others, accepting the challenge of the
+leaders, and completing his testimony to the truth they refused to hear.
+The quieter hours of the later part of the day gave time for further words
+with his friends. The comment on the widow's gift was meant for them, and
+the uncovering of his own soul when the Greeks sought him was in their
+presence. After he had left the temple and the city he gave himself to
+them more exclusively. His disciples were perplexed by what they saw and
+felt, for the temper of the people toward their Master could not be
+mistaken. Yet they were sure of him. The leaders among them, therefore,
+asked him privately to tell them when the catastrophe should come, to
+which during the day he had made repeated reference. The conversation
+which followed is reported for us in the discourse on the destruction of
+Jerusalem and the end of the world (Mark xiii. and parallels), in which
+Jesus taught his disciples to expect trouble in their ministry, as he was
+meeting trouble in his; and to be ready for complete disappointment of
+their inherited hopes for the glory of their holy city. He also taught
+them to expect that his work would shortly be carried to perfection, and
+to live in expectancy of his coming to complete all that he was now
+seeming to leave undone. This lesson of patience and expectancy is
+enforced in a group of parables preserved for us in Matthew (chap. xxv.),
+closing with the remarkable picture of the end of all things when the
+Master should return in glory as judge of all to make final announcement
+of the simplicity of God's requirement of righteousness, as it had been
+exhibited in the life which by the despite of men was now drawing to its
+close.
+
+187. The bargain made by Judas to betray his Lord has always been
+difficult to understand. The man must have had fine possibilities or Jesus
+would not have chosen him for an apostle, nor would the little company
+have made him its treasurer (John xii. 6; xiii. 29). The fact that Jesus
+early discovered his character (John vi. 64) does not compel us to think
+that his selection as an apostle was not perfectly sincere; the man must
+have seemed to be still savable and worthy thus to be associated with the
+eleven others who were Jesus' nearest companions. It has often been
+noticed that he was probably the only Judean among the twelve, for
+Kerioth, his home, was a town in southern Judea. The effort has frequently
+been made to redeem his reputation by attributing his betrayal to some
+high motive--such as a desire to force his Master to use his Messianic
+power, and confound his opponents by escaping from their hands and setting
+up the hoped-for kingdom. But the remorse of Judas, in which De Quincey
+finds support for this theory of the betrayal, must be more simply and
+sadly understood. It is more likely that the traitor illustrates Jesus'
+words: "No man can serve two masters; for either he will hate the one and
+love the other; or else he will hold to the one and despise the other. Ye
+cannot serve God and mammon" (Matt. vi. 24). The beginning of his fall may
+have been his disappointment when Jesus showed clearly that he would not
+establish a kingdom conformed to the popular ideas. As the enthusiasm
+which drew him to Jesus cooled, personal greed, with something of
+resentment at the cause of his disappointment, seem to have taken
+possession of him, and they led him on until the stinging rebuke which
+Jesus administered to the criticism of Mary at Bethany prompted the man to
+seek a bargain with the authorities which should insure him at least some
+profit in the general wreck of his hopes. His remorse after he saw in its
+bald hideousness what he had done was psychologically inevitable. Although
+Jesus was aware of Judas' character from the beginning (John vi. 64), he
+that came to seek and to save that which was lost was no fatalist; and
+this knowledge was doubtless--like that which he had of the fate hanging
+over Jerusalem--subject to the possibility that repentance might change
+what was otherwise a certain destiny. As the event turned he could only
+say, "Good were it for that man if he had not been born" (Mark xiv. 21).
+
+188. With this the curtain falls on the public ministry of Jesus. The
+gospels suggest a day of quiet retirement following these controversies
+and warnings, with their fresh demonstration of the irreconcilable
+hostility of people of all classes to him and his work. After the
+seclusion of that day, he returned to give final proof of complete
+obedience to his Father's will.
+
+
+
+
+VII
+
+The Last Supper
+
+
+
+189. On Thursday Jesus and his disciples returned to Jerusalem for the
+last time. Knowing the temper of the leaders, and the danger of arrest at
+any time, Jesus was particularly eager to eat the Passover with his
+disciples (Luke xxii. 15), and he sent two of them--Luke names them as
+Peter and John--to prepare for the supper. In a way which would give no
+information to such a one as Judas, he directed them carefully how to find
+the house where a friend would provide them the upper room that was needed
+for an undisturbed meeting of the little band, and the two went on in
+advance to make ready. When the hour was come Jesus with the others went
+to the appointed place and sat down for the supper (Mark xiv. 17; Luke
+xxii. 14; Matt. xxvi. 20).
+
+190. The gospels all report the last evening which the little company
+spent together. There is a perplexing divergence, however, between John
+and the others concerning the relation of this supper to the feast of the
+Passover. In their introduction of the story, Mark and his companion
+gospels indicate that the supper which Jesus ate was the Passover meal
+itself. John, on the other hand, declares that it was "before the feast of
+the Passover" (xiii. 1) that Jesus took this meal with his disciples.
+John's account is consistent throughout, for he states that on the next
+day the desire of the Jews to "eat the Passover" forbade them to enter the
+house of the governor lest they should incur defilement (xviii. 28). The
+other gospels, moreover, hint in several ways that the day of Jesus' death
+could not have been the day after the Passover; that is, the first day of
+the feast of unleavened bread. Dr. Sanday has recently enumerated these
+afresh, remarking that "the Synoptists make the Sanhedrin say beforehand
+that they will not arrest Jesus 'on the feast day,' and then actually
+arrest him on that day; that not only the guards, but one of the disciples
+(Mark xiv. 47), carries arms, which on the feast day was not allowed; that
+the trial was also held on the feast day, which would be unlawful; that
+the feast day would not be called simply Preparation (see Mark xv. 42, and
+compare John xix. 31); that the phrase 'coming from the field' (Mark xv.
+21 [Greek]) means properly 'coming from work;' that Joseph of Arimathea is
+represented as buying a linen cloth (Mark xv. 46) and the women as
+preparing spices and ointments (Luke xxiii. 56), all of which would be
+contrary to law and custom" (HastBD ii. 634). In these particulars the
+first three gospels seem to confirm the representation of the fourth that
+the day of the last supper was earlier than the regular Jewish Passover.
+On the other hand, a strong argument, though one that has not commended
+itself to other specialists in Jewish archæology, has been put forth by
+Dr. Edersheim (LJM ii. 567f.) to prove that John also indicates that the
+last supper was eaten at the time of the regular Passover. In the present
+condition of our knowledge certainty is impossible. If John does differ
+from the others, his testimony has the greatest weight. While not
+conclusive, it has some significance that Paul identified Christ with the
+sacrifice of the passover (I. Cor. v. 7), a statement which may indicate
+that he held that Jesus died about the time of the killing of the paschal
+lamb. If John be taken to prove that the last supper occurred a day before
+the regular Passover, Jesus must have felt that the anticipation was
+necessary in order to avoid the publicity and consequent danger of a
+celebration at the same time with all the rest of the city.
+
+191. Whatever the conclusion concerning the date of the last supper, and
+consequently of the crucifixion, the last meal of Jesus with his disciples
+was for that little company the equivalent of the Passover supper. Luke
+states that the desire of Jesus had looked specially to eating this feast
+with his disciples (xxii. 15). The reason must be found in his certainty
+of the very near end, and in his wish to make the meal a preparation for
+the bitter experiences which were overhanging him and them.
+
+192. It is customary to connect as occasion and consequence the dispute
+concerning precedence which Luke reports (xxii. 24-30), and the rebuke
+which Jesus administered by washing the disciples' feet (John xiii. 1-20).
+The jealousies of the disciples may have arisen over the allotment of
+seats at the table, as Dr. Edersheim has most fully shown (LJM ii.
+492-503); such a controversy would be the natural sequel of earlier
+disputes concerning greatness, and particularly of the request of James
+and John for the best places in the coming kingdom (Mark x. 35-45), and
+would lead as naturally to the distress of heart with which Jesus declared
+that one of the disciples should betray him, and that another of them
+should deny him. The narrative in Mark favors the withdrawal of Judas
+before the new rite was appointed. This must seem to be the probability in
+the case, for the presence of Judas would be most incongruous at such a
+memorial service. John's mention of his departure before the announcement
+of Peter's approaching fall confirms this interpretation of Mark (Mark
+xiv. 18-21; John xiii. 21-30).
+
+193. The paschal memories furnished to Jesus an opportunity to establish
+for his disciples an institution which should symbolize the new covenant
+which he was soon to seal with his blood. Jesus regarded this new covenant
+as that which was promised by the prophets, especially Jeremiah (xxxi.
+31-34), and his thought, like that of the prophets, goes back to the story
+of the covenant established at Sinai (Ex. xxiv. 1-11). In this way he gave
+to his disciples a conception of his death, which later, if not
+immediately, would help them to regard it as a necessary part of his work
+as Messiah. They were now oppressed by the evident certainty that the near
+future would bring their Master to death; he accordingly gave them a
+sacred reminder of himself and of his death as an essential part of his
+self-giving "for them;" for whatever the conclusion concerning the
+disputed text of Luke (xxii. 19), the institutional character of the act
+and words of Jesus is clear. As Holtzmann remarks (NtTh i. 304): "The
+words 'this do in remembrance of me' were perhaps not spoken; all the more
+certainly do they of themselves express what lay in the situation and made
+itself felt with incontestable conclusiveness."
+
+194. Several hints in the records seem to connect the meal in various
+details with what is known of ancient custom in the celebration of the
+Passover. The hymn with which according to Mark and Matthew the supper
+closed is easily identified with the last part (Psalms cxv. to cxviii.) of
+the so called _Hallel_, which was sung at the close of the Passover meal.
+The mention of two cups in the familiar text of Luke (xxii. 17-20) agrees
+with the repeated cups of the Passover ritual; so also do the sop and the
+dipping of it with which Jesus indicated to John who the traitor was (John
+xiii. 23-26; Mark xiv. 20). If it could be proved that the customs
+recorded in the Talmud correctly represent the usage in Jesus' time it
+would be of extreme interest to seek to connect what is told us of the
+last supper with that Passover ritual as Dr. Edersheim has done (LJM ii.
+490-512). The antiquity of the rabbinic record is so uncertain, however,
+that it is only useful as showing what possibly may have been the case.
+All that can be asserted is that the rabbinic ritual probably originated
+long before it was recorded, and that as the last supper was a meal which
+Jesus and his disciples celebrated as a Passover, it is probable that some
+such ritual was more or less closely followed.
+
+195. Luke and John give the fullest reports of what was said at the table.
+All the gospels tell of Peter's declaration of superior loyalty and the
+prediction of his threefold denial; Luke, however, adds that in connection
+with it Jesus assured Peter of his restoration, and charged him to
+strengthen his brethren (Luke xxii. 31-34). John alone gives the long and
+full discourse of admonition and comfort, followed by Jesus' prayer for
+his disciples (xiii. 31 to xvii. 26). It is evident from the words of
+Jesus as he entered the garden of Gethsemane (Mark xiv. 33, 34), as from
+those which had escaped him when the Greeks sought him the last day in the
+temple (John xii. 27), that his own heart was greatly troubled during the
+supper by the apparent defeat which was now close at hand. His quietness
+and self-possession during the supper, particularly when tenderly
+reproving his disciples for petty ambition, or when solemnly dismissing
+the traitor, or warning Peter of his denials, must not blind us to the
+depth of the emotion which was stirring his own soul. It is only as we
+remember his trouble of heart that it is possible justly to value the
+ministry which in varied ways he rendered to his disciples that night. In
+the discourses reported by John he showed that he realized that the
+approaching separation would sorely try the faith of his followers, and he
+sought to strengthen them by showing his own calmness in view of it, and
+by promising them another who should abide with them spiritually as his
+representative, and continue for them the work which he had begun. He
+therefore urged them to maintain their devotion to him, still to seek and
+find the source of their life and secret of their strength in fellowship
+with him--present, though unseen among them. He sought to convince them
+that his departure was to be for their advantage, that fellowship with him
+spiritually would be far more real and efficacious than the intercourse
+they had already enjoyed. He whose own heart was "exceeding sorrowful even
+unto death" bade his disciples not to let their hearts be troubled nor
+afraid. How long the conversation continued, of when the company left the
+upper chamber, cannot be told. At some time before the arrival at
+Gethsemane Jesus turned to God in prayer for the disciples whom he was
+about to leave to the severe trial of their faith, asking for them that
+realization of eternal life which he had enjoyed and exemplified in his
+own intimate life with his Father. With this his ministry to them closed
+for the time, and, crossing the Kidron, he entered the garden of
+Gethsemane weighed down by the sorrow of his own soul.
+
+
+
+
+VIII
+
+The Shadow of Death
+
+
+
+196. Of the garden of Gethsemane it is only known that it was across the
+Kidron, on the slope of the Mount of Olives. Tradition has long pointed to
+an enclosure some fifty yards beyond the bridge that crosses the ravine on
+the road leading eastward from St. Stephen's gate. Most students feel that
+this is too near the city and the highway for the place of retreat chosen
+by Jesus. Archæologically and sentimentally the identification of places
+connected with the life of Jesus is of great interest. Practically,
+however, it is easy to over-emphasize the importance of such an
+identification. Granted the fact that in some olive grove on the
+mountain-side, where an oil-press gave a name to the place (Gethsemane),
+Jesus withdrew with his disciples on that last night, and all that is
+important is known. It is of far higher importance to see rightly the
+relation of what took place in that garden to the things which preceded
+and followed it in the life of Jesus. At that time Jesus saw pressed to
+his lips the "cup" from the bitterness of which his whole soul shrank. It
+was not an unlooked-for trial; some time earlier he had sought to cool the
+ardor of the ambition of James and John by telling them that they should
+drink of his cup, and declared that even the Son of Man came not to be
+ministered unto but to minister, and to give his life a ransom for many.
+The fourth gospel, whose representation omits the agony of Gethsemane and
+only reports its victory, tells how Jesus rebuked the violent impulse of
+Peter with the word, "The cup which my Father hath given me to drink shall
+I not drink it?" (John xviii. 11^b); and all the gospels exhibit the
+marvellous quietness of spirit and dignity of self-surrender which
+characterized Jesus throughout his trial and execution. In Gethsemane,
+however, we see the struggle in which that calmness and self-mastery were
+won.
+
+197. It is unbecoming to consider that scene with any vulgar curiosity to
+know what it was that made Jesus so draw back from the drinking of his
+"cup." It is not unfitting, however, to recognize that in his cry, "Abba,
+Father, all things are possible unto thee; remove this cup from me" (Mark
+xiv. 36), an intense longing of his own soul's life had expression. There
+was something in the fate which he saw before him from which his whole
+being shrank. But stronger than this was his fixed desire to do his
+Father's will. Here was supremely illustrated the truth that "he came down
+from heaven, not to do his own will, but the will of him that sent him"
+(John vi. 38). The fullest allowance for the shrinking of the most
+delicately constituted nature from pain and death completely fails to
+account for this dread of Jesus. He was no coward, drawing back from
+sufferings which for simple physical pain were over and again more than
+matched by many of the martyrs to truth who preceded and followed him. He
+himself declared to the sons of Zebedee that they should share a cup in
+kind like unto his, suffering for the kingdom of God, for the salvation
+of the world. Yet there is a difference evident between what others have
+had to bear and the cup from which Jesus shrank. The death which now stood
+before him in the path of obedience had in it a bitterness quite
+unexplained by the pain and disappointment it entailed. That excess of
+bitterness can probably never be understood by us. A hint of its nature
+may be found in the "shame of the cross" which the author of Hebrews (xii.
+2; xiii. 13) emphasizes, and in the "curse" of the cross which made it a
+stumbling block to Paul and his Jewish brethren (Gal. iii. 13; I. Cor. i.
+23). Jesus came from the garden ready to endure the cross in obedience to
+his Father's will; but it was a costly obedience, a complete emptying of
+himself (Phil. ii. 7, 8).
+
+198. The loneliness of Jesus in his struggle is emphasized in the gospels
+of Mark and Matthew. In search of sympathy he had confessed to the
+disciples his trouble of heart, and had taken his three intimates with him
+when he withdrew from the others for prayer, asking them to watch with
+him. They were too heavy of heart and weary of body to stand by in his
+bitter hour, and instead of being in readiness to warn him of the approach
+of the hostile band, he had to awake them to their danger. The fourth
+gospel reports that after the struggle Jesus bore marks of majesty which
+astonished and overawed his foes when he calmly told them that he was the
+one they were seeking. Their fear was overcome, however, when Judas gave
+the appointed sign by kissing his Master (Mark xiv. 45). The thought for
+the disciples' safety which John records (xviii. 8) is another proof that
+the fight had been won, and Jesus had fully resumed the self-emptying
+ministry appointed to him by his Father.
+
+199. The band that arrested Jesus was accompanied by a Roman cohort from
+the garrison of the city, but it was not needed, for the disciples offered
+no appreciable resistance; on the contrary, "they all forsook him and
+fled" (Mark xiv. 50). Having arrested Jesus, the band took him to Annas,
+the actual leader of Jewish affairs, though not at the time the official
+high-priest. He had held that office some time before, but had been
+deposed by the Roman governor of Syria after being in power for nine
+years. His influence continued, however, for although he was never
+reinstated, he seems to have been able to secure the appointment for
+members of his own family during a period of many years. Caiaphas, the
+legal high-priest, was his son-in-law. Annas, as the leader of
+aristocratic opinion in Jerusalem, had doubtless been foremost in the
+secret counsels which led to the decision to get rid of Jesus, hence the
+captive was, as a matter of course, taken first to his house. The trial by
+the Jewish authorities was irregular. There seems to have been an informal
+examination of Jesus and various witnesses, first before Annas, and then
+before Caiaphas and a group of members of the sanhedrin, the outcome of
+which was complete failure to secure evidence against Jesus from their
+false witnesses, and the formulation of a charge of blasphemy in
+consequence of his answer to the high-priest acknowledging himself to be
+the Messiah (Mark xiv. 61-64). The early hours before the day were given
+over to mockery and ill-usage of the captive Jesus. When morning was
+come, the sanhedrin was convened, and he was condemned to death on the
+charge of blasphemy (Mark xv. 1; Luke xxii. 66-71), and then was led in
+bonds to the Roman governor for execution, since the Romans had taken from
+the sanhedrin the authority to execute a death sentence (John xviii. 31).
+Before Pilate the Jews had to name an offence recognized by Roman law; his
+accusers therefore falsified his claim and made him out a political
+Messiah, hostile to Roman rule (Luke xxiii. 1, 2). Pilate soon saw that
+the charge was trumped up, and sought in every way, while keeping the
+good-will of the people, to escape the responsibility of giving sentence
+against Jesus. His first effort was a simple declaration that he found no
+fault in the prisoner (Luke xxiii. 4); then, having heard that he was a
+Galilean, he tried to transfer the case to Herod, who happened to be in
+the city at the time (Luke xxiii. 5-12); he then sought to compromise by
+agreeing to chastise Jesus and then release him (Luke xxiii. 13-16); next
+he offered the people their choice between the innocent Jesus and
+Barabbas, a convicted insurrectionist (Mark xv. 6-15; Luke xxiii. 16-24),
+and the people, instructed by the priests, chose Barabbas, caring nothing
+for a Messiah who would allow himself to be arrested without resistance;
+the fourth gospel tells of Pilate's still further effort, by appealing to
+the people's sympathy, to escape giving sentence, even after he had
+delivered Jesus to the soldiers for the preliminary scourging. Finding the
+Jews ready to urge, at length, a religious charge, Pilate's superstitious
+fear was roused (John xix. 7-12), and he sought again to release him, but
+was finally cowed by the threat of an accusation against him at Rome,
+and, mocking the people by sitting in judgment to condemn Jesus as their
+king, he gave sentence against the man whom he knew to be innocent (John
+xix. 12-16).
+
+200. Some of Jesus' disciples and friends were witnesses of the early
+stages of the informal trial, in particular, John (John xviii. 15) and
+Peter. It was during the progress of the early examination that Peter was
+drawn into his denials by the comments made by the bystanders on his
+connection with the accused. It has been suggested that the house of the
+high-priest where Jesus was tried was built, like other Oriental houses,
+about a court so that the room where Jesus was examined was open to view
+from the court. In this case it is easy to see how Jesus could overhear
+his disciple's strenuous denials of any acquaintance with him, and could
+turn and give him that look which sent him out to weep bitterly (Luke
+xxii. 61, 62). If it be further assumed that Annas and Caiaphas occupied
+different sides of the same high-priestly palace, the double examination
+reported by John would still be within hearing from the one court in which
+the faithless disciple was a fascinated witness of his Master's trial.
+
+201. Humanly speaking, it may be said that the fate of Jesus was sealed
+when the Sadducean leaders came to look on him seriously as a danger to
+the State (John xi. 47-50, note the mention of chief priests). The
+religious opposition was serious, and might have brought trouble, in some
+such way as it seems to have done to John the Baptist (see Matt. xvii.
+10-13; Luke xiii. 31, 32); but it is doubtful whether the governor would
+have given much attention to a charge not urged by the men of influence in
+Jerusalem. The notable thing in connection with the last days of Jesus'
+life is the joint opposition of Sadducean priests and Pharisaic scribes.
+That the populace easily changed their cry from "hosanna" to "crucify him"
+is not surprising. Their hosannas were due to a complete misconception of
+Jesus' aim and purpose; disappointed in him, they would be the earliest to
+cry out against him, especially when the choice lay between him and a
+genuine insurrectionist.
+
+202. Each fresh study of the trial of Jesus gives a fresh impression of
+his greatness. He who but a few hours before was pouring out his soul in
+prayer that his cup might pass, stands forth as the one calm and
+undisturbed actor among all those who took part in the tragic doings of
+that day. His judges and foes were all swayed by passion and self-interest
+and were ready to make travesty of justice, from the leaders of the
+sanhedrin who condemned him on one charge and accused him to the governor
+on another, to the governor himself, who appeared determined to release
+him if he could do it without risk of personal popularity, and who yet, in
+order to avoid accusation at Rome, gave sentence according to the people's
+will. The fickle populace crying "crucify him," the disciples who forsook
+him, the rock-apostle who denied even so much as knowledge of the man,
+show how all the currents of life about him were stirred and full of
+tumult. In all this, of which he was the occasion and centre, he stands
+the supreme example of dignity, self-mastery, and quietness. This is seen
+in his silence in the presence of Annas and Caiaphas, and later before
+Pilate; in his frank avowal of his Messianic claim in reply to the
+high-priest's challenge, and of his kingly rank in answer to the
+governor's question; and in the look of reproof which he turned upon
+Peter. Not that he was without feeling. There is strong sense of outrage
+in his words, "If I have spoken evil, bear witness of the evil, but if
+well, why smitest thou me?" It was not the quietness of stoic
+indifference, but of perfect self-devotion to the Father's will. He
+maintained it from the time of his arrest to the last cry of trust with
+which he committed his spirit to his Father.
+
+203. The scourging over, the mock homage of the soldiers done, he was led
+out beyond the city wall to be crucified. The exact place of the
+crucifixion can be determined as little as that of Gethsemane, though
+there is a tradition from the fourth century, and in addition there are
+many conjectures. Jesus was led, apparently, to the ordinary place of
+criminal execution, and with two others, probably insurrectionary robbers
+like those with whom Barabbas had been associated, he was crucified. Two
+episodes in the journey to the place of crucifixion are recorded,--the
+help which Simon of Cyrene was compelled to give to Jesus in carrying his
+cross (Mark xv. 21), and the word of Jesus to those who, following him,
+bewailed his fate (Luke xxiii. 27-31).
+
+204. Of the cruelty and torture of crucifixion much has been written and
+often. It would be difficult to exaggerate it. The death by the cross was
+a death by hunger and exhaustion in ordinary cases; it was thus torture
+prolonged for many hours. It is noticeable, however, that it is not the
+suffering but the disgrace and shame of the cross that occupied the
+thought of the apostolic days. Indeed, were physical suffering chiefly to
+be considered, it would have to be owned that the fact that Jesus died
+within a few hours released him from the most excruciating pains incident
+to this barbarous form of execution. The later ascetic thought loved, and
+still loves, to dwell on the physical torments of the Lord's death. They
+were severe enough to give us awe; but the biblical writers show a much
+healthier mind, and their thought does not invite comparison between the
+pains endured by the Master and those which some of his martyred followers
+bore with great fortitude. The disgrace of the cross was the uttermost;
+for the Romans it was the death of a slave, for the Jews it was patent
+proof of the curse of God (Deut. xxi. 23). The obedience of Jesus was
+unlimited when he submitted to death (Phil. ii. 8). It is on the shame of
+the cross, and on the sacrifice of himself for the life of the world when
+in obedience to his Father's will he "despised the shame," that the
+thought of the apostolic day laid emphasis. In this experience Jesus found
+himself in truth numbered with the transgressors; he was the object of
+scorn for all them that passed by, they mocked at him, at his works, and
+at his confident trust in God. In this last extremity the darkness of
+Gethsemane again swept over Jesus' soul, when he cried out "My God, my
+God," recalling the words of one of the saints of old in his hour of
+distress (Ps. xxii.). Yet, like him, Jesus kept hold on the certainty of
+deliverance; the darkness passed at length.
+
+205. The evangelists preserve several sayings of Jesus from the cross, the
+records of the different gospels being remarkably diverse. Mark and
+Matthew record the exclamation, "My God, my God _(Eloi, Eloi_), why hast
+thou forsaken me," which the bystander misconstrued as a call for Elijah,
+thinking this pseudo-Messiah was reproaching Elijah for failing to come to
+his help. The same gospels tell of the loud cry with which Jesus died.
+Luke omits the call _Eloi_, and gives in place of the last expiring cry
+the prayer of trust, "Father, into thy hands I commend my spirit" (xxiii.
+46). Earlier, however, this gospel tells of Jesus' word to the penitent
+robber, "To-day shalt thou be with me in Paradise" (xxiii. 43), and of the
+prayer for his foes, that is, for the Jewish people who blindly condemned
+him (xxiii. 34). The oldest manuscripts cause some doubt whether this last
+saying was originally a part of the Gospel of Luke. If it was not it would
+belong in the same class with the story of the sinful woman which we now
+find in John, both being authentic records of the life of Jesus, though
+from some other source than that in which we now find them. The fourth
+gospel gives quite an independent group of sayings. It interprets the
+dying cry as, "It is finished" (xix. 30), and preceding this it gives the
+cry, "I thirst" (xix. 28), which led to the offering of the vinegar of
+which the first two gospels speak. Earlier it tells of the committal of
+Mary to the care of the beloved disciple (xix. 26, 27). Of these seven
+sayings, "Eloi," "I thirst," "Father, into thy hand I commend my spirit,"
+and "It is finished" belong to the last hours of the life of the crucified
+one, after the darkness of which the first three gospels speak had
+overshadowed the land. Of the cause of that darkness they give no hint,
+for Luke's expression cannot mean an eclipse, since an eclipse at Passover
+time, that is, at full moon, is an impossibility. The conjecture that
+dense clouds hid the sun is common, and is as suitable as any other.
+Whatever the cause, the evangelists saw in it a token of nature's awe at
+the death of the Son of God. During the hours of the darkness the waves
+swept over his soul, as the cry "my God" shows to our reverent thought.
+But the last word of trust proves that the dying Jesus was not forsaken,
+and that Calvary, like Gethsemane, was a battle won. The earlier sayings
+all express Jesus' continued spirit of ministry, showing even in his
+bitter pain his accustomed thoughtfulness for others' need.
+
+206. It is futile to speculate on the cause of Jesus' early death. He
+certainly suffered a much shorter time than was ordinarily the case, as
+appears in the fact that at sunset it was necessary to break the legs of
+the robbers so as to hasten death, Jesus having already been some time
+dead. There is something attractive in the theory of Dr. Stroud (The
+Physical Cause of Christ's Death) that Jesus died of rupture of the heart.
+It may have been true, but the evidences on which he based his argument
+are insufficient for proof. To the Jews the death of their victim did not
+give all the satisfaction they desired. In the first place, Pilate
+insisted on mocking them by posting over the head of Jesus the placard,
+"The King of the Jews" (see John xix. 19-22); moreover, their haste had
+brought the crime into close proximity to the feast which they were eager
+to keep from defilement; so that they had still to beg of Pilate that he
+would hasten the death of the victims, that their bodies might not remain
+to desecrate the following Sabbath sanctity (John xix. 31-37); while for
+those who witnessed it the death of Jesus deepened the impression that a
+hideous crime had been committed in the slaughter of an innocent man (Mark
+xv. 39).
+
+207. Among the bystanders few of the disciples of Jesus were to be
+found--they were hiding in fear. Yet some faithful women, and two
+courageous councillors of Jerusalem, were bold enough to make their
+loyalty known. These two men, Joseph of Arimathea and Nicodemus, were
+members of the sanhedrin, but they had had no part in the condemnation of
+Jesus; and after knowing that he was dead, Joseph begged of Pilate the
+body, and he and Nicodemus took Jesus down from the cross and laid him in
+a tomb which Joseph owned near the place of crucifixion, rendering such
+tender ministries as were possible in the closing hours of the day. The
+women who had witnessed his end meanwhile were arranging also to anoint
+the body. They took notice where the two friends had laid him, and then
+went away to rest on the Sabbath day, according to the commandment.
+
+208. To the Jews it was a high day, the first Sabbath in the eight days of
+their holy feast (John xix. 31). They had eagerly guarded their conduct
+that no ceremonial defilement might prevent their sharing in the paschal
+feast. They believed that they had rid their nation of a dangerous
+disturber of its peace, and men whose conscience shrank not from making
+God's house a house of merchandise, who would punish one who ventured to
+cure a mortal disease if it chanced to cross their Sabbath traditions, who
+had condemned to death the holiest man and godliest teacher the world had
+ever seen because he did not square with their heartless formalism,--such
+men hardly had conscience enough to feel repentance or remorse for the
+cowardly injustice and crime with which of their own choice they had
+reddened their hands (Matt, xxvii. 25). They doubtless kept their feast
+with satisfaction. Not a few hearts, however, were heavy with grief and
+disappointed hope. They had believed that Jesus "was he that should redeem
+Israel" (Luke xxiv. 21). Stunned, they could not throw away the faith
+which he had kindled in their hearts. Yet he was dead, and only faintly,
+if at all, did they recall his prediction of suffering and his certainty
+of triumph through it all (John xx. 9). What remained for them was the
+last tender ministry to their dead Lord.
+
+   Outline of Events after the Resurrection
+
+
+   _The day of the resurrection--Sunday_. The visit of the women to the
+   tomb--Matt. xxviii. 1-8; Mark xvi. 1-8; Luke xxiv. 1-12; John xx. 1-10.
+
+   Jesus' first appearance; to Mary--Matt. xxviii. 9 10; [Mark xvi. 9-11];
+   John xx. 11-18.
+
+   The report of the watch--Matt. xxviii. 11-15.
+
+   The appearance to Simon Peter--I. Cor. xv. 5.
+
+   The walk to Emmaus--[Mark xvi 12,13]; Luke xxiv. 13-35.
+
+   The appearance to the ten in the evening--[Mark xvi. 14]; Luke xxiv.
+   36-43; John xx. 19-25; I. Cor. xv. 5.
+
+   _One week later--Sunday_. The appearance to the eleven, with
+   Thomas--John xx. 26-29.
+
+   _Later appearances_. To seven disciples by the sea of Galilee--John
+   xxi. 1-24.
+
+   To a company of disciples in. Galilee--Matt, xxviii. 16-20; [Mark xvi.
+   15-18]; I. Cor. xv. 6.
+
+   The appearance to James--I. Cor. xv. 7.
+
+   To the disciples in Jerusalem, followed by the ascension--Mark xvi. 19,
+   20; Luke xxiv. 44-53; Acts i. 1-12; I. Cor. xv. 7.
+
+
+
+IX
+
+The Resurrection
+
+
+
+209. Christianity as a historic religious movement starts from the
+resurrection of Jesus from the dead. This is very clear in the preaching
+and writings of Paul. The first distinctively Christian feature in his
+address at Athens is his statement that God had designated Jesus to be
+the judge of men by having "raised him from the dead" (Acts xvii. 31), and
+for him the resurrection was the demonstration of the divinity of Christ
+(Rom. i. 4), and the confirmation of the Christian hope (I. Cor. xv.).
+With him the prime qualification for an apostle was that he should have
+seen the risen Lord (I. Cor. ix. 1). The early preaching as recorded in
+Acts shows the same feature, for after repeated testimony to the fact that
+God had raised up Jesus, Peter summed up his address with the declaration,
+"Let all the house of Israel therefore know assuredly, that God hath made
+him both Lord and Christ, this Jesus whom ye crucified" (Acts ii. 36). In
+fact the buoyancy of hope and confidence of faith which gave to the
+despised followers of the Nazarene their strength resulted directly from
+the experiences of the days which followed the deep gloom that settled
+over the disciples when Jesus died.
+
+210. It can but seem strange to us that after Jesus had so often foretold
+his death and the resurrection which should follow it, his disciples were
+thrown into despair by the cross. Joseph of Arimathea and Nicodemus when
+they embalmed his body may not have known of these teachings which Jesus
+gave to the nearer circle of his followers, but it is difficult to believe
+that the women who prepared their spices to anoint his body (Mark xvi. 1)
+had heard nothing of these predictions, and it is certain that the
+apostles who received with incredulity the first news of the resurrection
+were the men whom Jesus had sought to prepare for this glorious victory.
+The disciples do not seem to have finished "questioning among themselves
+what the rising again from the dead should mean" (Mark ix. 10, compare
+Luke xviii. 34) until Jesus himself explained it by his return to them
+after his crucifixion. It was formerly common to conclude from the
+scepticism of the disciples that Jesus could not have told them, as he is
+reported to have done, that he would rise again the third day. It is now
+widely conceded, however, that if he foresaw and foretold his death, he
+surely coupled with it a promise of resurrection, otherwise he must have
+surrendered his own conviction that he was Messiah; for a Messiah taken
+and held captive by death was apparently as foreign to Jesus' thought as
+it was unthinkable for the men of his generation. The inability of the
+disciples to adjust their Messianic ideas to the death of their Master was
+not removed by the rebuke Jesus administered to Peter at Cæsarea Philippi;
+their objections were only silenced. It would seem that even when they saw
+his death to be inevitable, they were simply dumb with hope that in some
+way he would come off victor; the cross and the tomb crushed out that
+hope--at least from most of them. If one disciple, his closest friend,
+recalled and believed his words when he saw the empty tomb (John xx. 8),
+others were cast into still deeper sorrow by the report, and could only
+say, "But we hoped that it was he which should redeem Israel" (Luke xxiv.
+21).
+
+211. The light which banished the gloom from the hearts of Jesus'
+followers dawned suddenly. There was no time for gradual readjustment of
+ideas and the springing of hope from a faith which would not die. The
+uniform early tradition is that Jesus showed himself alive to his
+disciples "on the third day," that is, a little over thirty-six hours from
+the time of his death. Not only the gospels, but Paul, who wrote many
+years before our evangelists, testify to this (I. Cor. xv. 4), as does the
+very early observance of the first day of the week as "the Lord's day,"
+and the substitution of "the third day" for "after three days" in the
+gospels which made use of our Gospel of Mark (compare parallels with Mark
+viii. 81; ix. 31; x. 34, and see Holtzmann, NtTh I. 309). Of the events
+which occurred on that third day and after, our earliest account is that
+of Paul. He gives a simple catalogue of the appearances of the risen Lord,
+referring to them as well known, in fact as the familiar subject matter of
+his earliest teaching (I. Cor. xv. 4-8). He gives definite date to none of
+these appearances, indicating only their sequence. He tells of six
+different manifestations, beginning with an appearance to Cephas on the
+third day, then to the twelve, then to a large company of
+disciples,--above five hundred,--then to James, then to all the apostles.
+The sixth in the list is his own experience, which he puts in the same
+class with the appearances of the first Easter morning. Two of these
+instances are found only in Paul's account, the appearance to James and to
+the five hundred brethren, though this last may probably be the same as is
+referred to in the Gospel of Matthew (xxviii. 16-20).
+
+212. The gospel records are much fuller, but they differ from each other
+even more than they do from Paul. Mark is unhappily incomplete, for the
+last twelve verses in that gospel, as we have it, are lacking in the
+oldest manuscripts, and were probably written by a second-century
+Christian named Aristion, as a substitute for the proper end of the gospel
+which seems by some accident to have been lost. These twelve verses are
+clearly compiled from our other gospels. They have value as indicating the
+currency of the complete tradition in the early second century, but they
+contribute nothing to our knowledge of the resurrection. All, then, that
+Mark tells is that the women who came early on the first day of the week
+to anoint the body of Jesus found the tomb open and empty, and saw an
+angel who bade them tell the disciples that the Lord had risen. How the
+record originally continued no one knows, for Matthew and Luke use the
+same general testimony up to the point where Mark breaks off, and then go
+quite different ways. Of the two Matthew is closer to Mark than is Luke.
+The first gospel adds to the record of the second an account of an
+appearance of Jesus to the women as they went to report to the disciples,
+and then tells of the meeting of Jesus with the disciples on a mountain in
+Galilee, and his parting commission to them. It gives no account of the
+ascension. Luke agrees with Mark in general concerning the visit of the
+women to the tomb, the angelic vision, and the report to the disciples. He
+says nothing of an appearance of Jesus to the women on their flight from
+the tomb, but, if xxiv. 12 is genuine (see R.V. margin), he, like John,
+tells of Peter's visit to the sepulchre.
+
+213. Luke further reports the appearances of Jesus to two on their way to
+Emmaus, to Simon, and to the eleven in Jerusalem,--this last being blended
+consciously or unconsciously with the final meeting of Jesus with the
+disciples before his ascension. The genuine text of the gospel (xxiv. 50)
+says nothing of the ascension itself, but clearly implies it. In contrast
+with Matthew it is noticeable that Luke shows no knowledge of any
+appearance of Jesus to his disciples in Galilee. John is quite independent
+of Mark, as well as of Matthew and Luke. He mentions only Mary Magdalene
+in connection with the early visit to the tomb, though perhaps he implies
+the presence of others with her ("we" in xx. 2). He tells of a visit of
+Peter and John to the tomb, of an appearance of Jesus to Mary Magdalene,
+of an appearance to ten of the disciples in the evening, and a week later
+to the eleven, including Thomas. So far this gospel makes no reference to
+appearances in Galilee; but in the appendix (chapter xxi.) there is added
+a manifestation to seven disciples as they were fishing on the Sea of
+Galilee.
+
+214. Criticism which seeks to discredit the gospels, for instance most
+recently Réville in his "Jésus de Nazareth," discovers two separate and
+mutually exclusive lines of tradition,--one telling of appearances in
+Galilee, represented by Mark and the last chapter in John, the other
+telling of appearances in or near Jerusalem, and found in Luke and the
+twentieth chapter of John. It is said that the gospels have sought to
+blend the two cycles, as when Matthew tells of an appearance to the women
+in Jerusalem on their way from the tomb, and when the last chapter of John
+adds to the original gospel a Galilean appearance. Luke, however, who
+makes no reference at all to Galilean manifestations, is taken to prove
+that originally the one cycle knew nothing of the other. This theory
+falls, however, before the uniform tradition of appearances on the third
+day, which must have been in Jerusalem, and the very early testimony of
+Paul to an appearance to above five hundred brethren at once, which could
+not have been in Judea. It need not surprise us that there should have
+been two cycles of tradition, not however mutually exclusive, if Jesus did
+appear both in Jerusalem and in Galilee. The same kind of local interest
+which is supposed to explain the one-sidedness of the synoptic story of
+the public ministry would easily account for one line of tradition which
+reported Galilean appearances, and another which reported those in
+Jerusalem. Luke may have had access to information which furnished him
+only the Jerusalem story. John and Peter, however, must have known the
+wider facts. The very divergences and seeming contradictions of the
+gospels, troublesome as they are, indicate how completely certainty
+regarding the fact of the resurrection removed from the thought of the
+apostolic day nice carefulness concerning the testimony to individual
+manifestations of the risen Lord. Doubtless the first preaching rested, as
+in the case of Paul, on a simple "I have seen the Lord." When later the
+detailed testimony was wanted for written gospels, it had suffered the lot
+common to orally transmitted records, and divergences had sprung up which
+it is no longer possible for us to resolve. They do not, however,
+challenge the fact which lies behind all the varied testimony.
+
+215. A general view of the events of that third day and those which
+followed can be constructed from our gospels and Paul. Early on the first
+day of the week certain women, including Mary Magdalene, Mary the mother
+of James and Joses, Salome, Joanna, and others, came to anoint the body of
+Jesus. On their arrival they found that the stone had been rolled back
+from the tomb. Mary Magdalene saw that the grave was empty and ran to tell
+Peter and John. The others saw also a vision of angels which said that
+Jesus was alive and would see his disciples in Galilee, and ran to report
+this to the disciples. Meanwhile Mary Magdalene returned, following Peter
+and John who ran to see the tomb, and found it empty as she had said. She
+lingered after they left, and Jesus appeared to her, she mistaking him at
+first for the gardener. She then went to tell the disciples that she had
+seen the Lord. These events evidently occurred in the early morning. The
+next incident reported is that of the walk of two disciples, not of the
+twelve, to Emmaus, and the appearance of Jesus to them. At first they did
+not recognize him, not even when he taught them out of the scriptures the
+necessity that the Messiah should die. He was made known when at evening
+he sat down with them to a familiar meal. Either before or after this
+event he had shown himself to Peter. This is the first manifestation
+reported by Paul. If Luke xxiv. 12 is genuine (see R.V. margin), he also
+tells that when the two again reached Jerusalem the apostles received them
+with the news that Peter had seen the Lord. That same evening Jesus
+appeared suddenly among the disciples in their well-guarded upper room.
+His coming was such that he had to convince the disciples that he was not
+simply a disembodied spirit. Luke says that he did this by bidding them
+handle him, and by eating part of a fish before them. According to John,
+Thomas was not with the others at this first meeting with the disciples. A
+week later, presumably in Jerusalem, Jesus again manifested himself to the
+little company, Thomas being with them, and dispelled the doubt of that
+disciple who loved too deeply to indulge a hope which might only
+disappoint. He had but to see in order to believe, and make supreme
+confession of his faith. The next appearance was probably that to the
+seven disciples by the Sea of Galilee, when Peter, who denied thrice, was
+thrice tested concerning his love for his Lord. Then apparently followed
+the meeting on the mountain reported in Matthew, which was probably the
+same as the appearance to the five hundred brethren; then, probably still
+in Galilee, Jesus appeared to his brother James, who from that time on was
+a leader among the disciples. The next manifestation of which record is
+preserved was the final one in Jerusalem, after which Jesus led his
+disciples out as far as Bethany and was separated from them, henceforth to
+be thought of by them as seated at the right hand of God.
+
+216. This construction of the story as given in the New Testament does
+violence to the accounts in one particular. It holds that Matthew's report
+of the meeting of Jesus with the women on their way from the tomb on
+Easter morning is to be identified with his meeting with Mary Magdalene.
+This can be done only if it is supposed that in the transmission of the
+tradition the commission given the women by the angel (Mark xvi. 6f.)
+became blended with the message given to Mary by the Lord (John xx. 17),
+the result being virtually the same for the religious interest of the
+first Christians, while for the historic interest of our days it
+constitutes a discrepancy. The difficulty is less on this supposition than
+on any other. It is highly significant that the account of the most
+indubitable fact in the view of the early Christians is the most difficult
+portion of the gospels for the exact harmonist to deal with. This is not
+of serious moment for the historical student. It is rather a warning
+against theoretical ideas of inspiration.
+
+217. The universal acknowledgment that the early Christians firmly
+believed in the resurrection of their Lord has made the origin of that
+firm conviction a question of primary importance. The simple facts as set
+forth in the New Testament serve abundantly to account for the faith of
+the early church, but they not only involve a large recognition of the
+miraculous, they also contain perplexities for those who do not stumble at
+the supernatural; hence there have been many attempts to find other
+solutions of the problem. Some of the explanations offered may be
+dismissed with a word: for instance, those which, in one form or other,
+renew the old charge found in the first gospel, that the disciples stole
+the body of Jesus, and then declared that he had risen; and those which
+assume that the death of Jesus was apparent only, that he fainted on the
+cross, and then the chill of the night air and of the sepulchre served to
+revive him, so that in the morning he was able to leave the tomb and
+appear to his disciples as one risen from the dead. This apparent-death
+theory involves Jesus in an ugly deception, while the theory that the
+disciples or any group of them removed the body of Jesus and then gave
+currency to the notion that he had risen, builds the greatest ethical and
+religious movement known to history on a lie. A slightly different
+explanation which was very early suggested was that the Jews themselves,
+or perhaps the gardener, had the body removed, and that when Mary found
+the tomb empty she let her faith conclude that his absence must be due to
+his resurrection.
+
+218. This last explanation has in recent times been revived in connection
+with the so-called vision-hypothesis by Renan and Réville. Mary found the
+tomb empty, and being herself of a highly strung nervous nature--she had
+been cured by Jesus of seven devils--by thinking about the empty tomb she
+soon worked herself into an ecstasy in which her eyes seemed to behold
+what her heart desired to see. She communicated her vision to the others,
+and by a sort of nervous contagion, they, too, fell to seeing visions, and
+it is the report of these that we have in the gospels. The
+vision-hypothesis takes with some, Strauss for instance, a different form.
+These deny that the tomb was found empty at all, and regard this story as
+a contribution of the later legend-making spirit. They hold that the
+disciples fled from Jerusalem as soon as the death of Jesus was an assured
+fact, and not until after they found themselves amid the familiar scenes
+of Galilee, did their faith recover from the shock it had received in
+Jerusalem. In Galilee the experiences of their life with Jesus were lived
+over again, and the old confidence in him as Messiah revived. Thus
+thinking about the Lord, their hearts would say, "He cannot have died,"
+and after a while their faith rose to the conviction which declared, "He
+is not dead;" then they passed into an ecstatic mood and visions followed
+which are the germ out of which the gospel stories have grown.
+
+219. These different forms of the vision-hypothesis have been subjected to
+most searching criticism by Keim, who is all the more severe because his
+own thought has so much that is akin to them. There are two objections
+which refute the hypothesis. The first is that the uniform tradition
+which connects the resurrection and the first appearances with the "third
+day" after the crucifixion leaves far too short a time for the recovery of
+faith and the growth of ecstatic feeling which are requisite for these
+visions, even supposing that the disciples' faith had such recuperative
+powers. The second is that once such an ecstatic mood was acquired it
+would be according to experience in analogous cases for the visions to
+continue, if not to increase, as the thought of the risen Lord grew more
+clear and familiar; yet the tradition is uniform that the appearances of
+the risen Christ ceased after, at most, a few weeks. The only later one
+was that which led to the conversion of Paul; and though Paul was a man
+somewhat given to ecstatic experiences (see II. Cor. xii.), he carefully
+distinguishes in his own thought his seeing of the Lord and his heavenly
+visions. In a word, the disciples of Jesus never showed a more healthy,
+normal life than that which gave them strength to found a church of
+believers in the resurrection in the face of persecution and scorn.
+
+220. Keim seeks to avoid the difficulties which his own acute criticism
+disclosed in the ordinary vision-theory, by another which rejects the
+gospel stories as legendary, yet frankly acknowledges that the faith of
+the apostles in the resurrection was based on a miracle. Their certainty
+was so unshakable, so uniform, so abiding, that it can be accounted for
+only by acknowledging that they did actually see the Lord. This seeing,
+however, was not with the eyes of sense, but with the spiritual vision,
+which properly perceives what pertains to the spirit world into which the
+glorified Lord had withdrawn when he died. In his spiritual estate he
+manifested himself to his disciples, by a series of divinely caused and
+therefore essentially objective visions, in which he proved to them
+abundantly that he was alive, was victor over death, and had been exalted
+by God to his right hand. This theory is not in itself offensive to faith.
+It concedes that the belief of the disciples rested on actual disclosures
+of himself to them by the glorified Lord. The difficulty with the theory
+is that it relegates the empty tomb to the limbo of legend, though it is a
+feature of the tradition which is found in all the gospels and clearly
+implied in Paul (I. Cor. xv. 4; compare Rom. vi. 4); it also fails to show
+how this glorified Christ came to be thought of by the disciples as
+_risen_, rather than simply glorified in spirit. This criticism brings us
+back to the necessity of recognizing a resurrection which was in some real
+sense corporeal, difficult as that conception is for us. The gospels
+assert this with great simplicity and delicate reserve. They represent
+Jesus as returning to his disciples with a body which was superior to the
+limitations which hedge our lives about. It may be well described by
+Paul's words, "It is sown a natural body; it is raised a spiritual body."
+Yet the records indicate that when he willed Jesus could offer himself to
+the perception of other senses than sight and hearing--"handle me and see"
+is not an invitation that we expect from a spiritual presence. If,
+however, we have to confess an unsolved mystery here, and still more in
+the record of his eating in the presence of the disciples (Luke xxiv.
+41-43), it is permitted us to own that our knowledge of the possible
+conditions of the fully perfected life are not such as to warrant great
+dogmatism in criticising the account. The empty tomb, the objective
+presence of the risen Jesus, the renewed faith of his followers, and their
+new power are established data for our thought. With these, many of the
+details may be left in mystery, because we have not yet light sufficient
+to reveal to us all that we should like to know.
+
+221. The ascension of the risen Christ to his Father is the presupposition
+of all the New Testament teaching. The Acts, the Epistles, and the
+Apocalypse join in the representation that he is now at the right hand of
+God. In fact it may be said that such a view is involved in the doctrine
+of the resurrection, for the very idea of that victory was that death had
+no more dominion over him. It is a fact, however, that none of our gospels
+in their correct text (see Luke xxiv. 51, R.V. margin) tell of the
+ascension. Luke clearly implies it, and John says that Jesus told Mary to
+tell the disciples that he was about to ascend to his Father and their
+Father. In Luke's later book, however (Acts i. 1-11), he gives a full
+account of a last meeting of Jesus with the disciples, and of
+his ascension to heaven before their eyes. This withdrawal in the cloud
+must be understood as an acted parable; for, in reality, there is no
+reason for thinking that the clouds which hung over Olivet that day were
+any nearer God's presence than the ground on which the disciples stood.
+For them, however, such a disappearance would signify vividly the
+cessation of their earthly intercourse with their Lord, and his return to
+his home with the Father. The word of Jesus to Mary (John xx. 17) may
+fairly be interpreted to mean that Jesus had ascended to the Father on
+the day of the resurrection, and that each of his subsequent
+manifestations of himself were like that which later he granted to Paul
+near Damascus. In fact it is easier to view the matter in this way than to
+conceive of Jesus as sojourning in some hidden place for forty days after
+his resurrection. What the disciples witnessed ten days before Pentecost
+was a withdrawal similar to those which had separated him from them
+frequently during the recent weeks, only now set before their eyes in such
+a way as to tell them that these manifestations had reached an end; they
+must henceforth wait for the other representative of God and Christ, the
+Spirit, given to them at Pentecost.
+
+222. The faith with which the disciples waited for the promised spirit was
+a very different faith from that which Peter confessed for his fellows at
+Cæsarea Philippi. It had the same supreme attachment to a personal friend
+who had proved to be God's Anointed; the same readiness to let him lead
+whithersoever he would; the same firm expectation of a restitution of all
+things, in which God should set up his kingdom visibly, with Jesus as the
+King of men. Now, however, their trust was much fuller than before, and
+they looked for a still more glorious kingdom when their friend and Lord
+should come from heaven to assume his reign. They expected Christ to
+return soon in glory, yet his death and victory made them ready to endure
+any persecution for him, certain that, like the sufferings which he
+endured, it would lead to victory. These disciples had no idea that in
+preaching a religion of personal attachment to their Master, in filling
+all men's thoughts with his name, in building all hope on his return, and
+guiding all life by his teaching and spirit, they were cutting their
+moorings from the religion of their fathers. They remained loyal to the
+law, they were constant in the worship; but they had poured new wine into
+the bottles, and in time it proved the inadequacy of the old forms and
+revolutionized the world's religious life.
+
+
+
+
+
+Part III
+
+The Minister
+
+
+
+
+I
+
+The Friend of Men
+
+
+
+223. In nothing does the contrast between Jesus and John the Baptist
+appear more clearly than in their attitude towards common social life.
+John had his training and did his work apart from the homes of men. The
+wilderness was his chosen and fit scene of labor. From this solitude he
+sent forth his summons and warning to his people. They who sought him for
+fuller teaching went after him and found him where he was. They then
+returned to their homes and their work, leaving the prophet with his few
+disciples in their seclusion. With Jesus it was otherwise. His first act,
+after attaching to himself a few followers, was to go into Galilee to the
+town of Cana, and there with them to partake in the festivities of a
+wedding. While it is true that most of his teaching was by the wayside,
+among the hills, or by the sea, it is still a surprise to discover how
+often his ministry found its occasion as he was sitting at table in the
+house of some friend, real or feigned. The genuine friendships of Jesus as
+they appear in the gospels are among the most characteristic features of
+his life--witness the home at Bethany, the women who followed him even to
+the cross, and ministered to him of their substance, and the "beloved
+disciple." Jesus calls attention to this contrast between himself and
+John, reminding the people how some of the scornful pointed the finger at
+himself as "a gluttonous man and a wine-bibber, a friend of publicans and
+sinners." He received his training as a carpenter while John was in his
+wilderness solitude. Men who would probably have stood with admiration
+before John had he visited their synagogue, found Jesus too much one of
+themselves, and would none of him as a prophet (Mark vi. 2, 3).
+
+224. A like contrast sets Jesus apart from the scribes of his day. These
+were revered by the people, in part perhaps because they held the common
+folk in such contempt. Their attitude was frank--"this multitude which
+knoweth not the law is accursed" (John vii. 49). The popular enthusiasm
+for Jesus filled them with scorn, until it began to give them alarm. They
+were glad to be reverenced by the people, to interpret the law for them
+"binding heavy burdens and grievous to be borne;" but showed little
+genuine interest in them. Jesus, on the other hand, not only had the
+reverence of the multitudes, but welcomed them. First his words and his
+works drew them, then he himself enchained their hearts. Outcasts, rich
+and poor, crowded into his company, and found him not only a teacher, a
+prophet of righteousness rebuking their sins and calling to repentance,
+but a friend, who was not ashamed to be seen in their homes, to have them
+among his closest attendants, and to be known as their champion. It was
+when such as these were pressing upon him to hear him that Jesus replied
+to the criticism of the scribes in the three parables of recovered
+treasure which stand among the rarest gems of the Master's teaching (Luke
+xv.).
+
+225. One class only in the community failed of his sympathy,--the
+self-righteous hypocrites, who thought that godliness consisted in
+scrupulous regard for pious ceremonies, and that zeal was most laudable
+when directed to the removal of motes from their brothers' eyes. For these
+Jesus had words of rebuke and burning scorn. It has been common with some
+to emphasize his friendship for the poor as if he chose them for their
+poverty, and the unlettered for their ignorance. Yet Jesus had no faster
+friends than the women who followed from Galilee and ministered to him of
+their substance, and the two sanhedrists, Joseph whose new tomb received
+his body, and Nicodemus whose liberality provided the spices which
+embalmed him; for these, and not the Galilean fishermen, were faithful to
+the last at the cross and at the grave. In no home did Jesus find a fuller
+or more welcome friendship than in Bethany, where all that is told us of
+its conditions suggests the opposite of poverty. The rich young ruler, who
+showed his too great devotion to his possessions, would hardly have sought
+out Jesus with his question, if he was known as the champion of poverty as
+in itself essential to godliness. The demand made of him surprised him,
+and was suited to his special case. Jesus saw clearly the difficulties
+which wealth puts in the way of faith, but he recognized the power of God
+to overcome them, and when Zaccheus turned disciple, the demand for
+complete surrender of possessions was not repeated. On the contrary Jesus
+taught his disciples that even "the unrighteous mammon" should be used to
+win friends (Luke xvi. 9), so ministering unto some of "the least of these
+my brethren" (Matt. xxv. 40). The beatitude in Luke's report of the
+sermon on the mount (Luke vi. 20) was not for the poor as poor simply, but
+for those poor folk lightly esteemed who had spiritual sense enough to
+follow Jesus, while the well-to-do as a class were content with the
+"consolation" already in hand. Jesus' interest was in character, wherever
+it was manifest, whether in the repentance of a chief of the publicans, or
+in the widow woman's gift of "all her living;" whether it appeared in the
+hunger for truth shown by Nicodemus, a teacher of Israel, or in the woman
+that was a sinner who washed his feet with her tears. He was the great
+revealer of the worth of simple humanity, in man, woman, or child. Our
+world has never seen another who so surely penetrated all masks or
+disguising circumstances and found the man himself, and having found him
+loved him.
+
+226. This sympathy for simple manhood was manifested in a genuine interest
+in the common life of men in business, pleasure, or trouble. It is
+significant that the first exercise of his miraculous power should have
+been to relieve the embarrassment of his host at a wedding feast.
+Doubtless we are to understand that the miracle had a deeper purpose than
+simply supplying the needed wine (John ii. 11); but the significant thing
+is that Jesus should choose to manifest his glory in this way. It shows a
+genuine appreciation of social life quite impossible to an ascetic like
+the Baptist. The same appears in the way Jesus allowed his publican
+apostle to introduce him to his former associates, to the great scandal of
+the Pharisees; for a feast at which Jesus and a number of publicans were
+the chief guests accorded not with religion as they understood it. Jesus,
+however, seems to have found it a welcome opportunity to seek some of his
+lost sheep. The illustrations which he used in his teaching were often his
+best introduction to the common heart, for they were drawn from the
+occupations of the people who came to listen; while the aid Jesus gave to
+his disciples in their fishing showed not only his power, but also his
+respect for their work, a respect further proved when he called them to be
+fishers of men.
+
+227. Beyond this interest in life's joy and its occupations was that
+unfailing sympathy with its troubles which drew the multitudes to him. He
+was far more than a healer; he studied to rid the people of the idea that
+he was a mere miracle-monger. He healed them because he loved them, and he
+asked of those who sought his help that they too should feel the personal
+relation into which his power had brought them. This seems to be in part
+the significance of his uniform demand for faith. Doubtless Mary, out of
+whom he had cast seven devils, and Simon the leper, who seems to have
+experienced his power to heal, are only single instances of many who found
+in him far more than at first they sought. No further record remains of
+the paralytic who carried off his bed, but left the burden of his sins
+behind, nor of the woman who loved much because she had been forgiven
+much, nor of the Samaritan whose life he uncovered that he might be able
+to give her the living water. Some who had his help for body or heart may
+have gone away forgetful, after the fashion of men, but in the company of
+those who were bold to bear his name after his resurrection there must
+have been many who could not forget.
+
+228. Jesus' interest in common life was genuine, and he entered into it
+with his heart. The incident of the anointing of his feet as he sat a
+guest in a Pharisee's house shows that he was keenly sensitive to the
+treatment he received at the hands of men. He had nothing to say of the
+slights his host had shown him, until that host began mentally to
+criticise the woman who was ministering to him in her love and penitence.
+Then with quiet dignity Jesus mentioned the several omissions of courtesy
+which he had noticed since he came in, contrasting the woman's attention
+with Simon's neglect (Luke vii. 36-50). One of the saddest things about
+Gethsemane was Jesus' vain pleading with his disciples for sympathy in his
+awful hour. They were too much dazed with awe and fear to lend him their
+hearts' support. He recognized indeed that it was only a weakness of the
+flesh; yet he craved their friendship's help, and repeatedly asked them to
+watch with him, for his soul was exceeding sorrowful. In contrast with
+this disappointment stands the joy with which Jesus heard from Peter the
+confession which proved that the falling off of popular enthusiasm had not
+shaken the loyalty of his chosen companions,--"Blessed art thou, Simon
+Bar-Jonah: for flesh and blood have not revealed it unto thee, but my
+Father which is in heaven" (Matt. xvi. 17). There is the sorrow of
+loneliness as well as rebuke in his complaint, "O faithless generation,
+how long shall I be with you? how long shall I bear with you?" (Mark ix.
+19), and the lamentation over Jerusalem comes from a longing heart (Luke
+xiii. 34).
+
+229. The independence of human sympathy which Jesus often showed is all
+the more glorious for the evidence the gospels give of his longing for
+it. When he put the question to the twelve, "Would ye also go away?" (John
+vi. 67), there is no hint in his manner that their defection with the rest
+would turn him at all from faithfully fulfilling the task appointed to him
+by his Father. In fact only now and then did he allow his own hunger to
+appear. Ordinarily he showed himself as the friend longing to help, but
+not seeking ministry from others; he rather sought to win his disciples to
+unselfishness by showing as well as saying that he came not to be
+ministered unto but to minister. He washed the feet of his disciples to
+rebuke their petty jealousies, but we have no hint that he showed that he
+felt personal neglect. His own heart was full of "sorrow even unto death,"
+but his word was, "Let not your heart be troubled;" he asked in vain for
+the sympathy of his nearest friends in Gethsemane, yet when the band came
+to arrest him he pleaded, "Let these, the disciples, go their way."
+
+
+
+
+II
+
+The Teacher with Authority
+
+
+
+230. To his contemporaries Jesus was primarily a teacher. The name by
+which he is oftenest named in the gospels is Teacher,--translated Master
+in the English versions and the equivalent of Rabbi in the language used
+by Jesus (John i. 38). People thought of him as a rabbi approved of God by
+his power to work miracles (John iii. 2), but it was not the miracles that
+most impressed them. The popular comment was, "He taught them as one
+having authority, and not as the scribes" (Matt. vii. 29). Two leading
+characteristics of the scribes were their pride of learning, and their
+bondage to tradition. In fact the learning of which they were proud was
+knowledge of the body of tradition on whose sanctity they insisted; their
+teaching was scholastic and pedantic, an endless citing of precedents and
+discussion of trifles. To all this Jesus presented a refreshing contrast.
+In commending truth to the people, he was content with a simple "verily,"
+and in defining duty he rested on his unsupported "I say unto you," even
+when his dictum stood opposed to that which had been said to them of old
+time.
+
+231. In this freedom from the bondage of tradition Jesus was not alone.
+John the Baptist's message had been as simple and unsupported by appeal to
+the elders. Jesus and John both revived the method of the older prophets,
+and it is in large measure due to this that the people distinguished them
+clearly from their ordinary teachers, and held them both to be prophets.
+One thing involved in this authoritative method was a frank appeal to the
+conscience of men. So completely had the scribes substituted memory of
+tradition for appeal to the simple sense of right, that they were utterly
+dazed when Jesus undertook to settle questions of Sabbath observance and
+ceremonial cleanliness by asking his hearers to use their religious common
+sense, and consider whether a man is not much better than a sheep, or
+whether a man is not defiled rather by what comes out of his mouth than by
+what enters into it (Matt. xii. 12; Mark vii. 15). Jesus was for his
+generation the great discoverer of the conscience, and for all time the
+champion of its dignity against finespun theory and traditional practice.
+All his teaching has this quality in greater or less degree. It appears
+when by means of the parable of the Good Samaritan he makes the lawyer
+answer his own question (Luke x. 25-37), when he bids the multitude in
+Jerusalem "judge not according to the appearance, but judge righteous
+judgment" (John vii. 24), when he asks his inquisitors in the temple whose
+image and superscription the coin they used in common business bears (Mark
+xii. 16). His whole work in Galilee was proof of his confidence that in
+earnest souls the conscience would be his ally, and that he could impress
+himself on them far more indelibly than any sign from heaven could enforce
+his claim.
+
+232. Jesus was not only independent of the traditions of the scribes, he
+was also very free at times with the letter of the Old Testament. When by
+a word he "made all meats clean" (Mark vii. 19), he set himself against
+the permanent validity of the Levitical ritual. When the Pharisees pleaded
+Moses for their authority in the matter of divorce, Jesus referred them
+back of Moses to the original constitution of mankind (Matt. xix. 3-9).
+His general attitude to the Sabbath was not only opposed to the traditions
+of the scribes, it also disregarded the Old Testament conception of the
+Sabbath as an institution. Yet Jesus took pains to declare that he came
+not to set aside the old but to fulfil it (Matt. v. 17). The contrasts
+which he draws between things said to them of old and his new teachings
+(Matt. v. 21-48) look at first much like a doing away of the old. Jesus
+did not so conceive them. He rather thought of them as fresh statements of
+the idea which underlay the old; they fulfilled the old by realizing more
+fully that which it had set before an earlier generation. He was the most
+radical teacher the men of his day could conceive, but his work was
+clearing rubbish away from the roots of venerable truth that it might bear
+fruit, rather than rooting up the old to put something else in its place.
+
+233. The Old Testament was for Jesus a holy book. His mind was filled with
+its stories and its language. In the teachings which have been preserved
+for us he has made use of writings from all parts of the Jewish
+scriptures--Law, Prophets, and Psalms. The Old Testament furnished him the
+weapons for his own soul's struggle with temptation (Matt. iv. 4, 7, 10),
+it gave him arguments for use against his opponents (Mark xii. 24-27; ii.
+25-27), and it was for him an inexhaustible storehouse of illustration in
+his teaching. When inquirers sought the way of life he pointed them to the
+scriptures (Mark x. 19; see also John v. 39), and declared that the rising
+of one from the dead would not avail for the warning of those who were
+unmoved by Moses and the prophets (Luke xvi. 31). When Jesus' personal
+attitude to the Old Testament is considered it is noticeable that while
+his quotations and allusions cover a wide range, and show very general
+familiarity with the whole book, there appears a decided predominance of
+Deuteronomy, the last part of Isaiah, and the Psalms. It is not difficult
+to see that these books are closer in spirit to his own thought than much
+else in the old writings; his use of the scripture shows that some parts
+appealed to him more than others.
+
+234. Jesus as a teacher was popular and practical rather than systematic
+and theoretical. The freshness of his ideas is proof that he was not
+lacking in thorough and orderly thinking, for his complete departure from
+current conceptions of the kingdom of God indicates perfect mastery of
+ethical and theological truth. It is all the more remarkable, therefore,
+that so much of his profoundest teaching seems to have been almost
+accidental. The most formal discourse preserved to us is the sermon on the
+mount, in which human conduct is regulated by the thought of God as Father
+and Searcher of hearts. For the rest the great ideas of Jesus have
+utterance in response to specific conditions presented to him in his
+ministry. His most radical sayings concerning the Sabbath followed a
+criticism of his disciples for plucking ears of grain as they passed
+through the fields on the Sabbath day (Mark ii. 23-28); his authority to
+forgive sins was announced when a paralytic was brought to him for
+healing (Mark ii. 1-12); so far as the gospels indicate, we should have
+missed Jesus' clearest statement of the significance of his own death but
+for the ambitious request of James and John (Mark x. 35-45). Examples of
+the occasional character of his teaching might be greatly multiplied. He
+did not seek to be the founder of a school; important as his teachings
+were, they take a place in his work second to his personal influence on
+his followers. He desired to win disciples whose faith in him would
+withstand all shocks, rather than to train experts who would pass on his
+ideas to others. His disciples did become experts, for we owe to them the
+vivid presentation we have of the exalted and unique teaching of their
+Master; but they were thus skilful because they surrendered themselves to
+his personal mastery, and learned to know the springs of his own life and
+thought.
+
+235. Nothing in the teaching of Jesus is more remarkable than his
+confidence that men who believed in him would adequately represent him and
+his message to the world. The parable of the Leaven seems to have set
+forth his own method. We owe our gospels to no injunction given by him to
+write down what he said and did. He impressed himself on his followers,
+filled them with a love to himself which made them sensitive to his ideas
+as a photographic plate is to light, teaching them his truth in forms that
+did not at first show any effect on their thought, but were developed into
+strength and clearness by the experiences of the passing years. Christian
+ethics and theology are far more than an orderly presentation of the
+teaching of Jesus; in so far as they are purely Christian they are the
+systematic setting forth of truth involved, though not expressed, in what
+he said and did in his ministry among men. His ideas were radical and
+thoroughly revolutionary. His method, however, had in it all the patience
+of God's working in nature, and the hidden noiseless power of an evolution
+is its characteristic. Hence it was that he chose to teach some things
+exclusively in figure. So great and unfamiliar a truth as the gradual
+development of God's kingdom was unwelcome to the thought of his time. He
+made it, therefore, the theme of many of his parables; and although the
+disciples did not understand what he meant, the picture remained with
+them, and in after years they grew up to his idea.
+
+236. Jesus' use of illustration is one of the most marked features of his
+teaching. In one sense this simply proves him to be a genuine Oriental,
+for to contemplate and present abstract truths in concrete form is
+characteristic of the Semitic mind. In the case of Jesus, however, it
+proves more: the variety and homeliness of his illustrations show how
+completely conversant he was alike with common life and with spiritual
+truth. There is a freedom and ease about his use of figurative language
+which suggests, as nothing else could, his own clear certainty concerning
+the things of which he spoke. The fact, too, that his mind dealt so
+naturally with the highest thoughts has made his illustrations unique for
+profound truth and simple beauty. Nearly the whole range of figurative
+speech is represented in his recorded words, including forms like irony
+and hyperbole, often held to be unnatural to such serious speech as his.
+
+237. Another figure has become almost identified with the name of
+Jesus,--such abundant and incomparable use did he make of it. Parable
+was, however, no invention of his, for the rabbis of his own and later
+times, as well as the sages and prophets who went before them, made use of
+it. As distinguished from other forms of illustration, the parable is a
+picture true to actual human life, used to enforce a religious truth. The
+picture may be drawn in detail, as in the story of the Lost Son (Luke xv.
+11-32), or it may be the concisest narration possible, as in the parable
+of the Leaven (Matt. xiii. 33); but it always retains its character as a
+narrative true to human experience. It is this that gives parable the
+peculiar value it has for religious teaching, since it brings unfamiliar
+truth close home to every-day life. Like all the illustrations used by
+Jesus, the parable was ordinarily chosen as a means of making clear the
+spiritual truth which he was presenting. Illustration never finds place as
+mere ornament in his addresses. His parables, however, were sometimes used
+to baffle the unteachable and critical. Such was the case on the occasion
+in Jesus' life when attention is first called in the gospels to this mode
+of teaching (Mark iv. 1-34). The parable of the Sower would mean little to
+hearers who held the crude and material ideas of the kingdom which
+prevailed among Jesus' contemporaries. It was used as an invitation to
+consider a great truth, and for teachable disciples was full of suggestion
+and meaning; while for the critical curiosity of unfriendly hearers it was
+only a pointless story,--a means adopted by Jesus to save his pearls from
+being trampled under foot, and perhaps also to prevent too early a
+decision against him on the part of his opponents.
+
+238. In nothing is Jesus' ease in handling deepest truth more apparent
+than in his use of irony and hyperbole in his illustrations. In his
+reference to the Pharisees as "ninety and nine just persons which need no
+repentance" (Luke xv. 7), and in his question, "Many good works have I
+shewed you from the Father, for which of these works do you stone me?"
+(John x. 32), the irony is plain, but not any plainer than the rhetorical
+exaggeration of his accusation against the scribes, "You strain out a gnat
+and swallow a camel" (Matt, xxiii. 24), or his declaration that "it is
+easier for a camel to go through a needle's eye than for a rich man to
+enter into the kingdom of God" (Mark x. 25), or his charge, "If a man
+cometh unto me and hateth not his own father and mother ... he cannot be
+my disciple" (Luke xiv. 26). The force of these statements is in their
+hyperbole. Only to an interpretation which regards the letter above the
+spirit can they cause difficulty. In so far as they remove Jesus utterly
+from the pedantic carefulness for words which marked the scribes they are
+among the rare treasures of his teachings. The simple spirit will not busy
+itself about finding something that may be called a needle's eye through
+which a camel can pass by squeezing, nor will it seek a camel which could
+conceivably be swallowed, nor will it stumble at a seeming command to hate
+those for whom God's law, as emphasized indeed by Jesus (Mark vii. 6-13),
+demands peculiar love and honor. The childlike spirit which is heir of
+God's kingdom readily understands this warning against the snare of
+riches, this rebuke of the hypocritical life, and this demand for a love
+for the Master which shall take the first place in the heart.
+
+239. Jesus sometimes used object lessons as well as illustrations, and
+for the same purpose,--to make his thought transparently clear to his
+hearers. The demand for a childlike faith in order to enter the kingdom of
+God was enforced by the presence of a little child whom Jesus set in the
+midst of the circle to whom he was talking (Mark ix. 35-37). The unworthy
+ambitions of the disciples were rebuked by Jesus' taking himself the
+menial place and washing their feet (John xiii. 1-15).
+
+240. The simplicity and homeliness of Jesus' teaching are not more
+remarkable than the alertness of mind which he showed on all occasions.
+The comment of the fourth gospel, "he needed not that any one should bear
+witness concerning man, for he himself knew what was in man" (ii. 25),
+doubtless refers to his supernatural insight, but it also tells of his
+quick perception of what was involved in each situation in which he found
+himself. Whether it was Nicodemus coming to him by night, or the lawyer
+asking, "Who is my neighbor?" or a dissatisfied heir demanding that his
+brother divide the inheritance with him, or a group of Pharisees seeking
+to undermine his power by attributing his cures to the devil, or trying to
+entrap him by a question about tribute, Jesus was never caught unawares.
+His absorption in heavenly truth was not accompanied by any blindness to
+earthly facts. He knew what the men of his day were thinking about, what
+they hoped for, to what follies they gave their hearts, and what sins hid
+God from them. He was eminently a man of the people, thoroughly acquainted
+with all that interested his fellows, and in the most natural, human way.
+Whatever of the supernatural there was in his knowledge did not make it
+unnatural. As he was socially at ease with the best and most cultivated
+of his day, so he was intellectually the master of every situation. This
+appears nowhere more strikingly than in his dealing with his pharisaic
+critics. When they were shocked by his forgiveness of sins, or offended by
+his indifference to the Sabbath tradition, or goaded into blasphemy by his
+growing influence over the people, or troubled by his disciples' disregard
+of the traditional washings, or when later they conspired to entrap him in
+his speech,--from first to last he was so manifestly superior to his
+opponents that they withdrew discomfited, until at length they in madness
+killed, without reason, him against whom they could find no adequate
+charge. His lack of "learning" (John vii. 15) was simply his innocence of
+rabbinic training; he had no diploma from their schools. In keenness of
+argument, however, and invincibleness of reasoning, as well as in the
+clearness of his insight, he was ever their unapproachable superior. His
+reply to the charge of league with Beelzebub is as merciless an exposure
+of feeble malice as can be found in human literature. He was as worthy to
+be Master of his disciples' thinking as he was to be Lord of their hearts.
+
+241. In the teaching of Jesus two topics have the leading place,--the
+Kingdom of God, and Himself. His thought about himself calls for separate
+consideration, but it may be remarked here that as his ministry progressed
+he spoke with increasing frankness about his own claims. It became more
+and more apparent that he sought to be Lord rather than Teacher simply,
+and to impress men with himself rather than with his ideas. Yet his ideas
+were constantly urged on his disciples, and they were summed up in his
+conception of the kingdom of God, or the kingdom of heaven. This was the
+topic, directly or indirectly, of far the greater part of his teaching.
+The phrase was as familiar to his contemporaries as it is common in his
+words; but his understanding of it was radically different from theirs. He
+and they took it to mean the realization on earth of heavenly conditions
+(kingdom of heaven), or of God's actual sovereignty over the world
+(kingdom of God); but of the God whose will was thus to be realized they
+conceived quite differently. Strictly speaking there is nothing novel in
+the idea of God as Father which abounds in the teaching of Jesus. He never
+offers it as novel, but takes it for granted that his hearers are familiar
+with the name. It appears in some earlier writers both in and out of the
+Old Testament. Yet no one of them uses it as constantly, as naturally, and
+as confidently as did Jesus. With him it was the simple equivalent of his
+idea of God, and it was central for his personal religious life as well as
+for his teaching. "My Father" always lies back of references in his
+teaching to "your Father." This is the key to what is novel in Jesus' idea
+of the kingdom of God. His contemporaries thought of God as the covenant
+king of Israel who would in his own time make good his promises, rid his
+people of their foes, set them on high among the nations, establish his
+law in their hearts, and rule over them as their king. The whole
+conception, while in a real sense religious, was concerned more with the
+nation than with individuals, and looked rather for temporal blessings
+than for spiritual good. With Jesus the kingdom is the realization of
+God's fatherly sway over the hearts of his children. It begins when men
+come to own God as their Father, and seek to do his will for the love
+they bear him. It shows development towards its full manifestation when
+men as children of God look on each other as brothers, and govern conduct
+by love which will no more limit itself to friends than God shuts off his
+sunlight from sinners. From this love to God and men it will grow into a
+new order of things in which God's will shall be done as it is in heaven,
+even as from the little leaven the whole lump is leavened. Jesus did not
+set aside the idea of a judgment, but while his fellows commonly made it
+the inauguration, he made it the consummation of the kingdom; they thought
+of it as the day of confusion for apostates and Gentiles, he taught that
+it would be the day of condemnation of all unbrotherliness (Matt. xxv.
+31-46). This central idea--a new order of life in which men have come to
+love and obey God as their Father, and to love and live for men as their
+brothers--attaches to itself naturally all the various phases of the
+teaching of Jesus, including his emphasis on himself; for he made that
+emphasis in order that, as the Way, the Truth, and the Life, he might lead
+men unto the Father.
+
+
+
+
+III
+
+Jesus' Knowledge of Truth
+
+
+
+242. The note of authority in the teaching of Jesus is evidence of his own
+clear knowledge of the things of which he spoke. As if by swift intuition,
+his mind penetrated to the heart of things. In the scriptures he saw the
+underlying truth which should stand till heaven and earth shall pass
+(Matt. v. 18); in the ceremonies of his people's religion he saw so
+clearly the spiritual significance that he did not hesitate to sacrifice
+the passing form (Mark vii. 14-23); such a theological development as the
+pharisaic doctrine of the resurrection he unhesitatingly adopted because
+he saw that it was based on the ultimate significance of the soul's
+fellowship with God (Mark xiii. 24-27); he reduced religion and ethics to
+simplicity by summing up all commandments in one,--Thou shalt love (Matt.
+xxii. 37-40); and at the same time insisted as no other prophet had done
+on the finality of conduct and the necessity of obedience (Matt. vii.
+21-27). His penetration to the heart of an idea was nowhere more clear
+than in his doctrine of the kingdom of God as realized in the filial soul,
+and as involving a judgment which should take cognizance only of
+brotherliness of conduct. It would not be difficult to show that all these
+different aspects of his teaching grew naturally out of his knowledge of
+God as his Father and the Father of all men; they were the fruit,
+therefore, of personal certainty of ultimate and all-dominating truth.
+
+243. If the knowledge of Jesus had been shown only in matters of spiritual
+truth, it would still have marked him as one apart from ordinary men.
+There were other directions, however, in which he surpassed the common
+mind. The fourth gospel declares that "he knew what was in man" (ii. 25),
+and all the evangelists give evidence of such knowledge. Not only the
+designation of Judas as the traitor, and of Peter as the one who should
+deny him, before their weakness and sin had shown themselves, but also
+Jesus' quick reading of the heart of the paralytic who was brought to him
+for healing, and of the woman who washed his feet with her tears (Mark ii.
+5; Luke vii. 47), and his knowledge of the character of Simon and
+Nathanael (John i. 42, 47,) as well as his sure perception of the intent
+of the various questioners whom he met, indicate that he had powers of
+insight unshared by his fellow men.
+
+244. Furthermore, the gospels state explicitly that Jesus predicted his
+own death from a time at least six months before the end (Matt. xvi. 21),
+and they indicate that the idea was not new to him when he first
+communicated it to his disciples (Matt. xvi. 23; Mark ii. 20). He viewed
+his approaching death, moreover, as a necessity (Mark viii. 31-33), yet he
+was no fatalist concerning it. He could still in Gethsemane plead with his
+Father, to whom all things are possible, to open to him some other way of
+accomplishing his work (Mark xiv. 36). The old Testament picture of the
+suffering and dying servant of Jehovah (Isa. liii.) was doubtless
+familiar to Jesus. Although it was not interpreted Messianically by the
+scribes, Jesus probably applied it to himself when thinking of his death;
+yet the predictions of the prophets always provided for a non-fulfilment
+in case Israel should turn unto the Lord in truth (see Ezek. xxxiii.
+10-20). Moreover, the contradiction which Jesus felt between his ideas and
+those cherished by the leaders of his people, whether priests or scribes,
+was so radical that his death might well seem inevitable; yet it was
+possible that his people might repent, and Jerusalem consent to accept him
+as God's anointed. Neither prophecy, nor the actual conditions of his
+life, therefore, would give Jesus any fatalistic certainty of his coming
+death. In Gethsemane his heart pleaded against it, while his will bowed
+still to God in perfect loyalty. It is not for us to explain his
+prediction of death by appealing to the connection which the apostolic
+thought established between the death of Christ and the salvation of men,
+for we are not competent to say that God could not have effected
+redemption in some other way if the repentance of the Jews had, humanly
+speaking, removed from Jesus the necessity of death. All that can be said
+is that he knew the prophetic picture, knew also the hardness of heart
+which had taken possession of the Jews, and knew that he must not swerve
+from his course of obedience to what he saw to be God's will for him.
+Since that obedience brought him into fatal opposition to human prejudice
+and passion, he saw that he must die, and that such a death was one of the
+steps in his establishment of God's kingdom among men. So he went on his
+way ready "not to be ministered unto but to minister, and to give his
+life a ransom for many" (Mark x. 45).
+
+245. With his prediction of his death the gospels usually associate a
+prophecy of his speedy resurrection. As has been already remarked (sect.
+210), it is being generally recognized that if Jesus believed that he was
+the Messiah, he must have associated with the thought of death that of
+victory over death, which for all Jewish minds meant a resurrection from
+the dead. Jesus certainly taught that his death was part of his Messianic
+work, it could not therefore be his end. The prediction of the
+resurrection is the necessary corollary of his expectation of death; and
+it may reverently be believed that his knowledge of it was intimately
+involved with his certainty that it was as Messiah that he was to die.
+
+246. From the time when he began to tell his disciples that he must die,
+Jesus began also to teach that his earthly ministry was not to finish his
+work, but that he should return in glory from heaven to realize fully all
+that was involved in the idea of God's kingdom. His predictions resemble
+in form the representations found in the Book of Daniel and the Book of
+Enoch; and the understanding of them is involved in difficulties like
+those which beset such apocalyptic writings. In general, apocalypses were
+written in times of great distress for God's people, and represented the
+deliverance which should usher in God's kingdom as near at hand. One
+feature of them is a complete lack of perspective in the picture of the
+future. It may be that this fact will in part account for one great
+perplexity in the apocalyptic sayings of Jesus. In the chief of these
+(Mark xiii. and parallels), predictions of the destruction of Jerusalem
+are so mingled with promises of his own second coming and the end of all
+things that many have sought to resolve the difficulty by separating the
+discourse into two different ones,--one a short Jewish apocalypse
+predicting the destruction of Jerusalem and the coming of the Son of Man
+within the life of that generation; the other, Jesus' own prediction of
+the end of all things, concerning which he warns his disciples that they
+be not deceived, but watch diligently and patiently for God's full
+salvation. The difficulties of this discourse as it stands are so great
+that any solution which accounts for all the facts must be welcomed. So
+far as this analysis seeks to remove from the account of Jesus' own words
+the references to a fulfilment of the predictions within the life of that
+generation, it is confronted by other sayings of Jesus (Mark ix. 1) and by
+the problem of the uniform belief of the apostolic age that he would
+speedily return. That belief must have had some ground. What more natural
+than that words of Jesus, rightly or wrongly understood, led to the common
+Christian expectation? Some such analysis may yet establish itself as the
+true solution of the difficulties; it may be, however, that in adopting
+the apocalyptic form of discourse, Jesus also adopted its lack of
+perspective, and spoke coincidently of future events in the progress of
+the kingdom, which, in their complete realization at least, were widely
+separated in time. In such a case it would not be strange if the disciples
+looked for the fulfilment of all of the predictions within the limit
+assigned for the accomplishment of some of them.
+
+247. Whatever the explanation of these difficulties, the gospels clearly
+represent Jesus as predicting his own return in glory to establish his
+kingdom,--a crowning evidence of his claim to supernatural knowledge. It
+is all the more significant, therefore, that it is in connection with his
+prediction of his future coming that he made the most definite declaration
+of his own ignorance: "Of that day or that hour knoweth no one, not even
+the angels in heaven, neither the Son, but the Father" (Mark xiii. 32).
+This confession of the limitation of his knowledge is conclusive. Yet it
+is not isolated. With his undoubted power to read "what was in man," he
+was not independent of ordinary ways of learning facts. When the woman was
+healed who touched the hem of his garment, Jesus knew that his power had
+been exercised, but he discovered the object of his healing by asking,
+"Who touched me?" and calling the woman out from the crowd to acknowledge
+her blessing (Mark v. 30-34); when the centurion urged Jesus to heal his
+boy without taking the trouble to come to his house, Jesus "marvelled" at
+his faith (Matt. viii. 10); when he came to Bethany, assured of his
+Father's answer to his prayer for the raising of Lazarus, he asked as
+simply as any other one in the company, "Where have ye laid him?" (John
+xi. 34). It should not be forgotten that his knowledge of approaching
+death, resurrection, and return in glory did not prevent the earnest
+pleading in Gethsemane, and it may be that his reply to the ambition of
+James and John, it "is not mine to give" (Mark x. 40), is a confession of
+ignorance as well as subordination to his Father.
+
+248. The supernatural knowledge of Jesus, so far as its exercise is
+apparent in the gospels, was concerned with the truths intimately related
+to his religious teaching or his Messianic work. There is no evidence
+that it occupied itself at all with facts of nature or of history
+discovered by others at a later day. When he says of God that "he maketh
+his sun to rise on the evil and the good" (Matt. v. 45), there is no
+evidence that he thought of the earth and its relation to the sun
+differently from his contemporaries; it is probable that his thought
+anticipated Galileo's discovery no more than do his words. Much the same
+may be said with reference to the purely literary or historical questions
+of Old Testament criticism, now so much discussed. If it is proved by just
+interpretation of all the facts that the Pentateuch is only in an ideal
+sense to be attributed to Moses, and that many of the psalms inscribed
+with his name cannot have been written by David, the propriety of Jesus'
+references to what "Moses said" (Mark vii. 10), and the validity of his
+argument for the relative unimportance of the Davidic descent of the
+Messiah, will not suffer. Had Jesus had in mind the ultimate facts
+concerning the literary structure of the Pentateuch, he could not have
+hoped to hold the attention of his hearers upon the religious teaching he
+was seeking to enforce, unless he referred to the early books of the Old
+Testament as written by Moses. Jesus did repeatedly go back of Moses to
+more primitive origins (Mark x. 5, 6; John vii. 22); yet there is no
+likelihood that the literary question was ever present in his thinking.
+This phase of his intellectual life, like that which concerned his
+knowledge of the natural universe, was in all probability one of the
+points in which he was made like unto his brethren, sharing, as matter of
+course, their views on questions that were indifferent for the spiritual
+mission he came to fulfil. If this was the case, his argument from the one
+hundred and tenth Psalm (Mark xii. 35-37) would simply give evidence that
+he accepted the views of his time concerning the Psalm, and proceeded to
+use it to correct other views of his time concerning what was of most
+importance in the doctrine of the Messiah. The last of these was of vital
+importance for his teaching; the first was for this teaching quite as
+indifferent a matter as the relations of the earth and the sun in the
+solar system.
+
+249. A more perplexing difficulty arises from his handling of the cases of
+so-called demoniac possession. He certainly treated these invalids as if
+they were actually under the control of demons: he rebuked, banished, gave
+commands to the demons, and in this way wrought his cures upon the
+possessed. It has already been remarked that the symptoms shown in the
+cases cured by Jesus can be duplicated from cases of hysteria, epilepsy,
+or insanity, which have come under modern medical examination. Three
+questions then arise concerning his treatment of the possessed. 1. Did he
+unquestioningly share the interpretation which his contemporaries put upon
+the symptoms, and simply bring relief by his miraculous power? 2. Did he
+know that those whom he healed were not afflicted by evil spirits, and
+accommodate himself in his cures to their notions? 3. Does he prove by his
+treatment that the unfortunates actually were being tormented by
+diabolical agencies, which he banished by his word? The last of these
+possibilities should not be held to be impossible until much more is known
+than we now know about the mysterious phenomena of abnormal psychical
+states. If this is the explanation of the maladies for Jesus' day,
+however, it should be accepted also as the explanation of similar abnormal
+symptoms when they appear in our modern life, for the old hypothesis of a
+special activity of evil spirits at the time of the incarnation is
+inadequate to account for the fact that in some quarters similar maladies
+have been similarly explained from the earliest times until the present
+day. If, however, he knew his people to be in error in ascribing these
+afflictions to diabolical influence, he need have felt no call to correct
+it. If the disease had been the direct effect of such a delusion, Jesus
+would have encouraged the error by accommodating himself to the popular
+notion. The idea of possession, however, was only an attempt to explain
+very real distress. Jesus desired to cure, not to inform his patients. The
+notion in no way interfered with his turning the thought of those he
+healed towards God, the centre of help and of health. He is not open,
+therefore, to the charge of having failed to free men from the thraldom of
+superstition if he accommodated himself to their belief concerning
+demoniac possession. His cure, and his infusion of true thoughts of God
+into the heart, furnished an antidote to superstition more efficacious
+than any amount of discussion of the truth or falseness of the current
+explanation of the disease. On the other hand, if we are not ready to
+conclude that the action of Jesus has demonstrated the validity of the
+ancient explanation, we may acknowledge that it would do no violence to
+his power, or dignity, or integrity, if it should be held that he did not
+concern himself with an inquiry into the cause of the disease which
+presented itself to him for help, but adopted unquestioningly the
+explanation held by all his contemporaries, even as he used their
+language, dress, manner of life, and in one particular, at least, their
+representation of the life after death (Luke xvi. 22--Abraham's bosom).
+His own confession of ignorance of a large item of religious knowledge
+(Mark xiii. 32) leaves open the possibility that in so minor a matter as
+the explanation of a common disease he simply shared the ideas of his
+time. In this case, when one so afflicted came under his treatment, he
+applied his supernatural power, even as in cases of leprosy or fever, and
+cured the trouble, needing no scientific knowledge of its cause. If
+accommodation or ignorance led Jesus to treat these sick folk as
+possessed, it does not challenge his integrity nor his trustworthiness in
+all the matters which belong properly to his own peculiar work.
+
+250. There is one incident in the gospels which favors the conclusion that
+Jesus definitely adopted the current idea,--the permission granted by him
+to the demons to go from the Gadarene into the herd of swine, and the
+consequent drowning of the herd (Mark v. 11-13). On any theory this
+incident is full of difficulty. Bernhard Weiss (LXt II. 226 ff.) holds
+that Jesus accommodated himself to current views, and that the man, having
+received for the possessing demons permission to go into the swine, was at
+once seized by a final paroxysm, and rushed among the swine, stampeding
+them so that they ran down the hillside into the sea.
+
+251. In recent years the view has been somewhat widely advocated that his
+power over demoniacs was to Jesus himself one of the chief proofs of his
+Messiahship. His words are quoted: "If I, by the Spirit of God, cast out
+demons, then is the kingdom of God come upon you" (Matt. xii. 28); and "I
+beheld Satan falling as lightning from heaven" (Luke x. 18). The first of
+these is in the midst of an _ad hominem_ reply of Jesus to the charge that
+he owed his power to a league with the devil (Matt. xii. 28); and the
+second was his remark when the seventy reported with joy that the demons
+were subject unto them (Luke x. 18). The gospels, however, trace his
+certainty of his Messiahship to quite other causes, primarily to his
+knowledge of himself as God's child, then to the Voice which, coming at
+the baptism, summoned him as God's beloved Son to do the work of the
+Messiah. Throughout his ministry Jesus exhibits a certainty of his mission
+quite independent of external evidences,--"Even if I bear witness of
+myself, my witness is true; for I know whence I came and whither I go"
+(John viii. 14).
+
+
+
+
+IV
+
+Jesus' Conception of Himself
+
+
+
+252. When Jesus called forth the confession of Peter at Cæsarea Philippi
+he brought into prominence the question which during the earlier stages of
+the Galilean ministry he had studiously kept in the background. This is no
+indication, however, that he was late in reaching a conclusion for himself
+concerning his relation to the kingdom which he was preaching. From the
+time of his baptism and temptation every manifestation of the inner facts
+of his life shows unhesitating confidence in the reality of his call and
+in his understanding of his mission. This is the case whether the fourth
+gospel or the first three be appealed to for evidence. It is generally
+felt that the Gospel of John presents its sharpest contrast to the
+synoptic gospels in respect of the development of Jesus' self-disclosures.
+A careful consideration of the first three gospels, however, shows that
+the difference is not in Jesus' thought about himself.
+
+253. The first thing which impressed the people during the ministry in
+Galilee was Jesus' assumption of authority, whether in teaching or in
+action (Mark i. 27; Matt. vii. 28, 29). His method of teaching
+distinguished him sharply from the scribes, who were constantly appealing
+to the opinion of the elders to establish the validity of their
+conclusions. Jesus taught with a simple "I say unto you." In this,
+however, he differed not only from the scribes, but also from the
+prophets, to whom in many ways he bore so strong a likeness. They
+proclaimed their messages with the sanction of a "Thus saith the Lord;" he
+did not hesitate to oppose the letter of scripture as well as the
+tradition of the elders with his unsupported word (Matt. v. 38, 39; Mark
+vii. 1-23). His teaching revealed his unhesitating certainty concerning
+spiritual truth, and although he reverenced deeply the Jewish scriptures,
+and knew that his work was the fulfilment of their promises, he used them
+always as one whose superiority to God's earlier messengers was as
+complete as his reverence for them. He was confident that what they
+suggested of truth he was able to declare clearly; he used them as a
+master does his tools.
+
+254. More striking than Jesus' independence in his teaching is the
+calmness of his self-assertion when he was opposed by pharisaic criticism
+and hostility. He preferred to teach the truth of the kingdom, working his
+cures in such a way that men should think about God's goodness rather than
+their healer's significance. Yet coincidently with this method of his
+choice he did not hesitate to reply to pharisaic opposition with
+unqualified self-assertion and exalted personal claim. Even if the
+conflicts which Mark has gathered together at the opening of his gospel
+(ii. 1 to iii. 6) did not all occur as early as he has placed them, the
+nucleus of the group belongs to the early time. Since the people greatly
+reverenced his critics, he felt it unnecessary to guard against arousing
+undue enthusiasm by this frank avowal of his claims. He consequently
+asserted his authority to forgive sins, his special mission to the sick in
+soul whom the scribes shunned as defiling, his right to modify the
+conception of Sabbath observance; even as, later, he warned his critics of
+their fearful danger if they ascribed his good deeds to diabolical power
+(Mark iii. 28-30), and as, after the collapse of popularity, he rebuked
+them for making void the word of God by their tradition (Mark vii. 13).
+His attitude to the scribes in Galilee from the beginning discloses as
+definite Messianic claims as any ascribed by the fourth gospel to this
+early period.
+
+255. These facts of the independence of Jesus in his teaching and his
+self-assertion in response to criticism confirm the impression that his
+answer to John the Baptist (Matt. xi. 2-6) gives the key to his method in
+Galilee. In John's inquiry the question of Jesus' personal relation to the
+kingdom was definitely asked. The answer, "Blessed is he whosoever shall
+find none occasion of stumbling in me," showed plainly that Jesus was in
+no doubt in the matter, although for the time he still preferred to let
+his ministry be the means of leading men to form their conclusions
+concerning him. What he brought into prominence at Cæsarea Philippi,
+therefore, was that which had been the familiar subject of his own
+thinking from the time of his baptism.
+
+256. In the ministry subsequent to the confession of Peter the
+self-disclosures of Jesus became more frequent and clear. His predictions
+of his approaching death were at the time the greatest difficulty to his
+disciples; when considered in their significance for his own life,
+however, they prove that his conviction of his Messiahship was as
+independent of current and inherited ideas as was his teaching concerning
+the kingdom. When he came to see that death was the inevitable issue of
+his work, he at once discovered in it a divine necessity; it does not seem
+to have shaken in the least his certainty that he was the Messiah.
+Associated with this conception of his death is the conviction which
+appears in all the later teachings, that in rejecting him his people were
+pronouncing their own doom. Because she would not accept him as her
+deliverer, Jerusalem's "house was left unto her desolate" (Luke xiii. 35).
+His sense of his supreme significance appears most clearly in some of the
+later parables, such as The Marriage of the King's Son (Matt. xxii. 1-14)
+and The Wicked Husbandmen (Matt. xxi. 33-44), which definitely connect the
+condemnation of the chosen people with their rejection of God's Son. Two
+other sayings in the first three gospels express the personal claim of
+Jesus in the most exalted form,--his declaration on the return of the
+seventy: "All things have been delivered unto me of my Father, and no man
+knoweth who the Son is save the Father, and who the Father is save the
+Son, and he to whomsoever the Son willeth to reveal him" (Luke x. 22;
+Matt. xi. 27); and his confession of the limits of his own knowledge: "But
+of that day and hour knoweth no one, not even the angels in heaven,
+neither the Son, but the Father" (Mark xiii. 32). The confession of
+ignorance, by the position given to the Son in the climax which denied
+that any save the Father had a knowledge of the time of the end, is quite
+as extraordinary as the claim to sole qualification to reveal the Father.
+
+257. The similarity of these last two sayings to the discourses in the
+fourth gospel has often been remarked; the likeness is particularly close
+between them and the claims of Jesus recorded in the fifth chapter of
+John. It is interesting to note that in the incident which introduces the
+discourse in that chapter Jesus shows that he preferred, after healing the
+man at the pool, to avoid the attention of the multitudes, precisely as in
+Galilee he sought to check too great popular excitement by withdrawing
+from Capernaum after his first ministry there (Mark i. 35-39), and
+enjoining silence on the leper who had been healed by him (Mark ii. 44).
+When, however, he found himself opposed by the criticism of the Pharisees
+he spoke with unhesitating self-assertion and exalted personal claim, even
+as he did in like situations in Galilee. During his earlier ministry in
+Judea he had not shown this reserve. The cleansing of the temple, although
+it was no more than any prophet sure of his divine commission would have
+done, was a bold challenge to the people to consider who he was who
+ventured thus to criticise the priestly administration of God's house. In
+his subsequent dealings with Nicodemus and the Samaritan woman Jesus
+manifested a like readiness to draw attention to himself. From the time of
+the feeding of the multitudes all four of the gospels represent him as
+asserting his claims, with this difference, however, that in John it is
+the rule rather than the exception to find sayings similar to the two in
+which the self-assertion in the other gospels reaches its highest
+expression. Although the method of Jesus varied at different times and in
+different localities, yet it is evident that he stood before the people
+from the first with the consciousness that he had the right to claim
+their allegiance as no one of the prophets who preceded him would have
+been bold to do.
+
+258. During the course of his ministry Jesus used of himself, or suffered
+others to use with reference to him, many of the titles by which his
+people were accustomed to refer to the Messiah. Thus he was named "the
+Messiah" (Mark viii. 29; xiv. 61; John iv. 26); "the King of the Jews"
+(Mark xv. 2; John i. 49; xviii. 33, 36, 37); "the Son of David" (Mark x.
+47, 48; Matt. xv. 22; xxi. 9, 15); "the Holy One of God" (John vi. 69;
+compare Mark i. 24); "the Prophet" (John vi. 14; vii. 40). It is evident
+that none of these titles was common; they represent, rather, the bold
+venture of more or less intelligent faith on the part of men who were
+impressed by him. There are two names, however, that are more significant
+of Jesus' thought about himself,--"the Son of God" and "the Son of Man."
+
+259. The latter of these titles is unique in the use Jesus made of it.
+Excepting Stephen's speech (Acts vii. 56), it is found in the New
+Testament only in the sayings of Jesus, and its precise significance is
+still a subject of learned debate. The expression is found in the Old
+Testament as a poetical equivalent for Man, usually with emphasis on human
+frailty (Ps. viii. 4; Num. xxiii. 19; Isa. li. 12), though sometimes it
+signifies special dignity (Ps. lxxx. 17). Ezekiel was regularly addressed
+in his visions as Son of Man (Ezek. ii. 1 and often; see also Dan. viii.
+17), probably in contrast with the divine majesty.
+
+260. In one of Daniel's visions (vii. 1-14) the world-kingdoms which had
+oppressed God's people and were to be destroyed were symbolized by beasts
+that came up out of the sea,--a winged lion, a bear, a four-headed winged
+leopard, and a terrible ten-horned beast; in contrast with these the
+kingdom of the saints of the Most High was represented by "one like unto a
+son of man," who came with the clouds of heaven (vii. 13, 14). Here the
+language is obviously poetic, and is used to suggest the unapproachable
+superiority of the kingdom of heaven to the kingdoms of the world. The
+expression "one like unto a son of man" is equivalent, therefore, to "one
+resembling mankind." The vision in Daniel had great influence over the
+author of the so-called Similitudes of Enoch (Book of Enoch, chapters
+xxxvii. to lxxi.). He, however, personified the "one like unto a son of
+man," and gave the title "the Son of Man" to the heavenly man who will
+come at the end of all things, seated on God's throne, to judge the world.
+This author used also the titles "the Elect One" and "the Righteous One"
+(or "the Holy One of God"), but "the Son of Man" is the prevalent name for
+the Messiah in these Similitudes.
+
+261. The facts thus stated do not account for Jesus' use of the
+expression. Many of his sayings undoubtedly suggest a development of the
+Daniel vision resembling that in the Similitudes. This does not prove that
+Jesus or his disciples had read these writings, though it does suggest the
+possibility that they knew them. It is probable, however, that the
+apocalypses gave formulated expression to thoughts that were more widely
+current than those writings ever came to be. The likeness between the
+language of Jesus and that found in the Similitudes may therefore prove no
+more than that the Daniel vision was more or less commonly interpreted of
+a personal Messiah in Jesus' day.
+
+262. Much of the use of the title by Jesus, however, is completely foreign
+to the ideas suggested by Enoch and Daniel. Besides apocalyptic sayings
+like those in Enoch (Mark viii. 38 and often), the name occurs in
+predictions of his sufferings and death (Mark viii. 31 and often), and in
+claims to extraordinary if not essentially divine authority (Mark ii. 10,
+28 and parallels); it is also used sometimes simply as an emphatic "I"
+(Matt. xi. 19 and often). Whatever relation Jesus bore to the Enoch
+writings, therefore, the name "the Son of Man" as he used it was his own
+creation.
+
+263. Students of Aramaic have in recent years asserted that it was not
+customary in the dialect which Jesus spoke to make distinction between
+"the son of man" and "man," since the expression commonly used for "man"
+would be literally translated "son of man." It is asserted, moreover, that
+if our gospels be read substituting "man" for "the Son of Man" wherever it
+appears, it will be found that many supposed Messianic claims become
+general statements of Jesus' conception of the high prerogatives of man,
+while in other places the name stands simply as an emphatic substitute for
+the personal pronoun. Thus, for instance, Jesus is found to assert that
+authority on earth to forgive sins belongs to man (Mark ii. 10), and,
+toward the end of his course, to have taught simply that he himself must
+meet with suffering (Mark viii. 31), and will come on the clouds to judge
+the world (Mark viii. 38). The proportion of cases in which the general
+reference is possible is, however, very small; and even if the
+equivalence of "man" and "son of man" should be established, most of the
+statements of Jesus in which our gospels use the latter expression exhibit
+a conception of himself which challenges attention, transcending that
+which would be tolerated in any other man. The debate concerning the usage
+in the language spoken by Jesus is not yet closed, however, and Dr. Gustaf
+Dalman (WJ I. 191-197) has recently argued that the equivalence of the two
+expressions holds only in poetic passages, precisely as it does in Hebrew,
+and that our gospels represent correctly a distinction observed by Jesus
+when they report him, for instance, as saying in one sentence, "the
+Sabbath was made for man" (Mark ii. 27), and in the next, "the Son of Man
+is lord even of the Sabbath." The antecedent probability is so great that
+the dialect of Jesus' time would be capable of expressing a distinction
+found in the Hebrew of the Old Testament and in the Syriac of the
+second-century version of the New Testament, that Dalman's opinion carries
+much weight.
+
+264. Many of those who look for a distinct significance in the title "the
+Son of Man," find in it a claim by Jesus to be the ideal or typical man,
+in whom humanity has found its highest expression. It thus stands sharply
+in contrast with "the Son of God," which is held to express his claim to
+divinity. So understood, the titles represent truth early recognized by
+the church in its thought about its Lord. Yet it must be acknowledged that
+the conception "the ideal man" is too Hellenic to have been at home in the
+thought of those to whom Jesus addressed his teaching. If the phrase
+suggested anything more to his hearers than the human frailty or the
+human dignity of him who bore it, it probably had a Messianic meaning like
+that found in the Similitudes of Enoch. A hint of this understanding of
+the name appears in the perplexed question reported in John (xii. 34): "We
+have heard out of the law that the Messiah abideth forever; and how sayest
+thou, The Son of Man must be lifted up? who is this Son of Man?" Here the
+difficulty arose because the people identified the Son of Man with the
+Messiah, yet could not conceive how such a Messiah could die. In fact, if
+the conception of the Son of Man which is found in Enoch had obtained any
+general currency among the people, either from that book or independently
+of it, it was so foreign to the earthly condition and manner of life of
+the Galilean prophet, that it would not have occurred to his hearers to
+treat his use of the title as a Messianic claim until after that claim had
+been published in some other and more definite form. Their Son of Man was
+to come with the clouds of heaven, seated on God's throne, to execute
+judgment on all sinners and apostates; the Nazarene fulfilled none of
+these conditions. The name, as used by Jesus, was probably always an
+enigma to the people, at least until he openly declared its Messianic
+significance in his reply to the high-priest's question at his trial (Mark
+xiv. 62), and gave the council the ground it desired for a charge of
+blasphemy against him.
+
+265. What did this title signify to Jesus? His use of it alone can furnish
+answer, and in this the variety is so great that it causes perplexity.
+"The Son of Man came eating and drinking" is his description of his own
+life in contrast with John the Baptist (Matt. xi. 18, 19). "The Son of
+Man hath not where to lay his head" was his reply to one over-zealous
+follower (Matt. viii. 20). Unseemly rivalry among his disciples was
+rebuked by the reminder that "even the Son of Man came not to be
+ministered unto but to minister" (Mark x. 42-45). When it became needful
+to prepare the disciples for his approaching death he taught them that
+"the Son of Man must suffer many things ... and be killed, and after three
+days rise again" (Mark viii. 31). On the other hand, the paralytic's cure
+was made to demonstrate that "the Son of Man hath authority upon the earth
+to forgive sins" (Mark ii. 10). Similarly it is the Son of Man who after
+his exaltation shall come "in the glory of his Father with the holy
+angels" (Mark viii. 38). In these typical cases the title expresses Jesus'
+consciousness of heavenly authority as well as self-sacrificing ministry,
+of coming exaltation as well as present lowliness; and the suffering and
+death which were the common lot of other sons of men were appointed for
+this Son of Man by a divine necessity. The name is, therefore, more than a
+substitute for the personal pronoun; it expresses Jesus' consciousness of
+a mission that set him apart from the rest of men.
+
+266. We do not know how Jesus came to adopt this title. Its association
+with the predictions of his coming glory shows that he knew that in him
+the Daniel vision was to have fulfilment. The predictions of suffering and
+death, however, are completely foreign to that apocalyptic conception,
+being akin rather, as Professor Charles has suggested, to the prophecies
+of the suffering servant in the Book of Isaiah (Book of Enoch, p.
+314-317). Moreover, it may not be fanciful to find in his claims to
+heavenly authority a hint of the thought of the eighth Psalm, "Thou madest
+him to have dominion over the works of thy hands; thou hast put all things
+under his feet" (see Dalman WJ I. 218). Although the name expresses a
+consciousness of dignity, vicarious ministry, and authority, similar to
+thoughts found in Daniel, Isaiah, and the Psalms, it was not deduced from
+these scriptures by any synthesis of diverse ideas. It rather indicates
+that Jesus in his own nature realized a synthesis which no amount of study
+of scripture would ever have suggested. He drew his conception of himself
+from his own self-knowledge, not from his Messianic meditations. On his
+lips, then, "the Son of Man" indicates that he knew himself to be the Man
+whom God had chosen to be Lord over all (compare Dalman as above). The
+lowly estate which contradicted the Daniel vision prevented Jesus' hearers
+from recognizing in the title a Messianic claim; for him, however, it was
+the expression of the very heart of his Messianic consciousness.
+
+267. If Jesus gave expression to his official consciousness when he used
+the name "the Son of Man," the title "the Son of God" may be said to
+express his more personal thought about himself. It is necessary to
+distinguish between the meaning of this title to the contemporaries of
+Jesus and his own conception of it. In the popular thought "the Son of
+God" was the designation of that man whom God would at length raise up and
+crown with dignity and power for the deliverance of his people. This
+meaning followed from the Messianic interpretation of the second Psalm, in
+which the theocratic king is called God's son (Ps. ii. 7). In another
+psalm, which Jesus himself quotes (John x. 34), magistrates and judges are
+called "sons of the Most High" (lxxxii. 6). Another Old Testament use
+casts light on this,--the designation of Israel as God's son, his
+firstborn (Ex. iv. 22; Hos. i. 10), with which may be compared a
+remarkable expression in the so-called Psalms of Solomon (xviii. 4), "Thy
+chastisement was upon us [that is, Israel] as upon a son, firstborn, only
+begotten." In all these passages that which constitutes a man the son of
+God is God's choice of him for a special work, while Israel collectively
+bears the title to suggest God's fatherly love for the people he had taken
+for his own. The Messianic title, therefore, described not a metaphysical,
+but an official or ethical, relation to God. It is certainly in this sense
+that the high-priest asked Jesus "Art thou the Messiah the son of the
+Blessed?" (Mark xiv. 61), and that the crowd about the cross flung their
+taunts at him (Matt, xxvii. 43), and the demoniacs proclaimed their
+knowledge of him (Mark iii. 11; v. 7). The name must be interpreted in
+this sense also in the confession of Nathanael (John i. 49); moreover, it
+was not the coupling of the names "Messiah" and "son of the living God" in
+Peter's confession that gave it its great significance for Jesus. In all
+of these cases there is no evidence that there has been any advance over
+the theocratic significance which made the title "the Son of God" fitting
+for the man chosen by God for the fulfilment of his promises.
+
+268. The case is different with the name by which Jesus was called at his
+baptism (Mark i. 11). The difference here, however, arises not from
+anything in the name as used on this occasion, but from that in Jesus
+which acknowledged and accepted the title. With Jesus the consciousness
+that God was his Father preceded the knowledge that as "his Son" he was to
+undertake the work of the Messiah. The force of the call at the baptism is
+found in the response which his own soul gave to the word "Thou art my
+Son." The nature of that response is seen in his habitual reference to God
+as in a peculiar sense _his_ Father. The name "Father" for God was used by
+him in all his teaching, and there is no evidence that he or any of his
+hearers regarded it as a novelty. Psalm ciii. 13 and Isaiah lxiii. 16
+indicate that the conception was natural to Jewish thinking. The unique
+feature in Jesus' usage is his careful distinction between the general
+references to "your Father" and his constant personal allusions to "my
+Father." Witness the reply to his mother in the temple (Luke ii. 49); his
+word to Peter, "Flesh and blood hath not revealed it unto thee, but my
+Father which is in heaven" (Matt. xvi. 17), his solemn warning, "Not every
+one that saith unto me Lord, Lord, shall enter into the kingdom of heaven,
+but he that doeth the will of my Father which is in heaven" (Matt. vii.
+21), and the promise, "Every one who shall confess me before men ... him
+will I also confess before my Father" (Matt. x. 32). In the fourth gospel
+the same intimate reference is common: so, for example, the temple is "my
+Father's house" (ii. 16), the Sabbath cure is defended because "my Father
+worketh even until now" (v. 17), the cures are done "in My Father's name"
+(x. 25), "I am the vine, and my Father is the husbandman" (xv. 1). This
+mode of expression discloses a consciousness of unique filial relation to
+God which is independent of, even as it was antecedent to, the
+consciousness of official relation.
+
+269. The full name "the Son of God" was seldom applied by Jesus to
+himself, the only recorded instances being found in the fourth gospel (v.
+25; ix. 35?; x. 36; xi. 4). He frequently acquiesced in the use of the
+title by others in addressing him (for example, John i. 49; Matt. xvi. 16;
+xxvi. 63f.; Mark xiv. 61f.; Luke xxii. 70); but for himself he preferred
+the simpler phrase "the Son." This mode of expression occurs often in
+John, and is found also in the two passages, already noticed, in which the
+other gospels give clearest expression to the extraordinary self-assertion
+of Jesus (Matt. xi. 27; Luke x. 22; and Mark xiii. 32). In the first of
+them his claim to be the only one who can adequately reveal God is founded
+on the consciousness that the relation between himself and God is so
+intimate that God alone adequately knows him, whom men were so ready to
+set at nought, and he alone knows God. This relation, in which he and God
+stand together in contrast with all other men, is expressed by the
+unqualified names, "the Father" and "the Son." In the second passage Jesus
+confessed the limitation of his knowledge, but again in such a way as to
+set himself and God in contrast not only with men, but also with "the
+angels in heaven." Such assertions as these indicate that he who, knowing
+his full humanity, chose the title "the Son of Man" to express his
+consciousness that he had been appointed by God to be the Messiah, was yet
+aware in his inner heart that his relation to God was even closer than
+that in which he stood to men.
+
+270. There is no word in John which goes beyond the two self-declarations
+of Jesus which crown the record of the other evangelists, yet in the
+fourth gospel the same claim to unique relation to God is more frequently
+and frankly avowed. The most unqualified assertion of intimacy--"I and the
+Father are one" (x. 30)--states what is clearly implied throughout the
+gospel (so xiv. 6-11; xvi. 25; and particularly xvii. 21, "that they may
+be one, even as we are one"). It has often been said, and truly, that this
+claim to unity with the Father, taken by itself, signifies no more than
+perfect spiritual and ethical harmony with God. Yet when the words are
+considered in their connection, and more particularly when the two supreme
+self-declarations in the synoptic gospels are associated with them, they
+express a sense of relation to God so utterly unique, so strongly
+contrasting the Father and the Son with all others, that we cannot
+conceive of any other man, even the saintliest, taking like words upon his
+lips.
+
+271. These titles in which Jesus gave expression to his official and his
+personal consciousness present clearly the problem which he offers to
+human thought. Jesus stands before us in the gospels as a man aware of
+completest kinship with his brethren, yet conscious at the same time of
+standing nearer to God than he does to men.
+
+272. It is highly significant that the gospel which records most fully the
+claim of Jesus to be more closely related to God than he was to men, most
+fully records also his definite acknowledgment of dependence on his
+Father, and of that Father's supremacy over him and all others. "The Son
+can do nothing of himself" (John v. 19), "I speak not from myself" (xiv.
+10), "my Father is greater than all" (x. 29), "the Father is greater than
+I" (xiv. 28),--these confessions join with the common reference to God as
+"him that sent me" (v. 30 and often) in giving voice to his own spirit of
+reverence. It appears as clearly in his habitual submission to his
+Father's will,--"My meat is to do the will of him that sent me, and to
+accomplish his work" (John iv. 34); "I am come down from heaven, not to do
+mine own will, but the will of him that sent me" (John vi. 38). This
+submission reached its fulness in the prayer of Gethsemane, recorded in
+the earlier gospels,--"Father, all things are possible unto thee; remove
+this cup from me: howbeit not what I will, but what thou wilt" (Mark xiv.
+36). Jesus was a man of prayer; not only in Gethsemane, but also
+throughout his ministry he habitually sought his Father in that communion
+in which the soul of man finds its light and strength for life's duty.
+When he was baptized (Luke iii. 21), after the first flush of success in
+Capernaum (Mark i. 35), before choosing the twelve (Luke vi. 12), before
+the question at Cæsarea Philippi (Luke ix. 18), at the transfiguration
+(Luke ix. 29), on the cross (Luke xxiii. 46),--at all the crises of his
+life he turned to God in prayer. Moreover, prayer was his habit, for it
+was after a night of prayer which has no connection with any crisis
+reported for us (Luke xi. 1), that he taught his disciples the Lord's
+prayer in response to their requests. The prayer beside the grave of
+Lazarus (John xi. 41, 42) suggests that his miracles were often, if not
+always (compare Mark ix. 29), preceded by definite prayer to God. His
+habit of prayer was the natural expression of his trust in God. From the
+resistance to the temptations in the wilderness to the last cry, "Father,
+into thy hands I commend my spirit," his life is an example of childlike
+faith in God.
+
+273. Yet throughout his life of obedience and trust Jesus never gave one
+indication that he felt the need of penitence when he came before God. He
+perceived as no one else has ever done the searching inwardness of God's
+law, and demanded of men that they tolerate no lower ambition than to be
+like God, yet he never breathed a sigh of conscious failure, or gave sign
+that he blushed when the eternal light shone into his own soul. He was
+baptized, but without confession of sin. He challenged his enemies to
+convict him of sin (John viii. 46). Such a challenge might have rested on
+a man's certainty that his critics did not know his inner life; but
+hypocrisy has no place in the character of Jesus. The reply to the rich
+young ruler, "Why callest thou me good?" (Mark x. 18), even if it was a
+confession that freedom from past sin was still far less than that
+absolute goodness that God alone possesses, simply sets in stronger light
+his silence concerning personal failure, and his omission in all his
+praying to seek forgiveness. It is probable, however, that that reply
+deals not with the "good" as the "ethically perfect," but as the
+"supremely beneficent," so that Jesus simply reminded the seeker after
+life that God alone is the one to be approached as the Gracious and
+Merciful One by sinful men (see Dalman WJ I. 277). Thus the reply becomes
+a fresh expression of the reverence of Jesus, and still further emphasizes
+his failure to confess his sinfulness.
+
+274. In all this thought about himself Jesus stands before us as a man,
+conscious of his close kinship with his fellows. Like them he hungered and
+thirsted and grew weary, like them he longed for friendship and for
+sympathy, like them he trusted God and prayed to God and learned still to
+trust when his request was denied. He stands before us also as a man
+conscious of being anointed by God for the great work which all the
+prophets had foretold, and of being fully equipped with authority and
+power and the promise of unapproachable dignity. Of deep religious spirit
+and great reverence for the scriptures of his people, he yet used these
+scriptures as a master does his tools, to serve his work rather than to
+instruct him in it. He drew his knowledge from within and from above, and
+proclaimed his own fulfilment of the scriptures when he filled them with
+new meaning. A man always devout, always at prayer, he is never seen, like
+Isaiah, prostrate before the Most High, crying, "I am undone" (Isa. vi.
+5). In his moments of greatest seriousness and most manifest communion
+with heaven he looked to God as his nearest of kin, and felt himself a
+stranger on the earth fulfilling his Father's will. He felt heaven to be
+his home not simply by God's gracious promise, but by the right of
+previous possession. His kinship with men was a condescension, his natural
+fellowship was with God.
+
+275. The miracles with which the gospels have filled the record of Jesus'
+life have caused perplexity to many, and they belong with other mysterious
+things recorded for us in the story of the past or occurring under the
+incredulous observation of our scientific generation. They all pale,
+however, before the unaccountable exception presented to universal human
+experience by this Man of Nazareth. It confronts us when we think of the
+unschooled Jew who, in his thought of God, rose not only above all of his
+generation, but higher than all who had gone before him, or have come
+after, one who built on the foundation of the past a superstructure of
+religion new, and simple, and clearly heavenly. It confronts us when we
+think of this Man who believed that it was given to him to establish the
+kingdom that should fill the whole earth, and who had the boldness and the
+faith to ignore the opposition of all the world's wisdom and of all its
+enthroned power, and to fulfil his task as the woman does who hides her
+leaven in the meal, content to wait for years, or millenniums, until his
+truth shall conquer in the realization of God's will on earth even as it
+is done in heaven. It confronts us when we consider that the Man who has
+shown his brethren what obedience means, who has taught them to pray, who
+has been for all these centuries the Way, the Truth, the Life, by whom
+they come to God, habitually claimed without shadow of abashment or
+slightest hint of conscious presumption, a nature, a relation to God, a
+freedom from sin, that other men according to the measure of their
+godliness would shun as blasphemy. If the personal claim was true, and not
+the blind pretence of vanity, the Jesus of the gospels is the exception to
+the uniform fact of human nature, but he is no longer unaccountable; and
+if his claim was true, his knowledge of the absolute religion, and his
+choice of the irresistible propaganda, are no less extraordinary, but they
+are not unaccountable. Paul, whose life was transformed and his thinking
+revolutionized by his meeting with the risen Jesus, thought on these
+things and believed that "the name which, is above every name" was his by
+right of nature as well as by the reward of obedience (Phil. ii. 5-11).
+John, who leaned on Jesus' breast during his earthly life, and who
+meditated on the meaning of that life through a ministry of many decades,
+came to believe that he whom he had seen with his eyes, heard with his
+ears, handled with his hands, was, indeed, "the Word made flesh" (John i.
+14), through whom the very God revealed his love to men. Through all the
+perplexities of doubt, amidst all the obscurings of irrelevant
+speculations, the hearts of men to-day turn to this Jesus of Nazareth as
+their supreme revelation of God, and find in him "the Master of their
+thinking and the Lord of their lives."
+
+"Lord, to whom shall we go? Thou hast the words of eternal life. And we
+have believed and know that thou art the Holy One of God."
+
+
+
+
+Appendix
+
+Books of Reference on the Life of Jesus
+
+
+
+1. A concise account of the voluminous literature on this subject maybe
+found at the close of the article JESUS CHRIST by Zockler in
+_Schaff-Herzog, Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge_. Of the earlier of
+the modern works it is well to mention David Friedrich Strauss, _Das Leben
+Jesu_ (2 vols. 1835), in which he sought to reduce all the gospel miracles
+to myths. August Neander, _Das Leben Jesu Christi_, 1837, wrote in
+opposition to the attitude taken by Strauss. Both of these works have been
+translated into English. Ernst Renan, _Vie de Jésus_ (1863, 16th ed.
+1879), translated, _The Life of Jesus_ (1863), is a charming, though often
+superficial and patronizing, presentation of the subject. For vivid word
+pictures of scenes in the life of Jesus his book is unsurpassed. Renan's
+inability to appreciate the more serious aspects of the work of Christ
+appears constantly, while his effort to discover romance in the life of
+Jesus is offensive. More important than any of these is Theodor Keim,
+_Geschichte Jesu von Nazara_ (1867-72, 3 vols.), translated, _The History
+of Jesus of Nazara_ (1876-81, 6 vols.). The author rejects the fourth
+gospel and holds that Matthew is the most primitive of the synoptic
+gospels; he does not reject the supernatural as such, but reduces it as
+much as possible by recognizing a legendary element in the gospels. When
+the work is read with these peculiarities in mind, it is one of the most
+stimulating and spiritually illuminating treatments of the subject.
+
+2. Critically more trustworthy, and exegetically very valuable, is
+Bernhard Weiss, _Das Leben Jesu_ (3d ed. 1889, 2 vols.), translated from
+the first ed., _The Life of Christ_ (1883, 3 vols.). It is more helpful
+for correct understanding of details than for a complete view of the Life
+of Jesus. Rivalling Weiss in many ways, yet neither so exact nor so
+trustworthy, though more interesting, is Willibald Beyschlag, _Das Leben
+Jesu_ (3d ed. 1893, 2 vols.). The most important discussion in English is
+Alfred Edersheim, _The Life and Times of Jesus the Messiah_ (1883 and
+later editions, 2 vols.). This is valuable for its illustration of
+conditions in Palestine in the time of Jesus by quotations from the
+rabbinic literature. The material used is enormous, but is not always
+treated with due criticism, and the book should be read with the fact in
+mind that most of the rabbinic writings date from several centuries after
+Christ. Schürer (see below) should be used wherever possible as a
+counter-balance. Dr. Edersheim follows the gospel story in detail; his
+book is, therefore, a commentary as well as a biography.
+
+3. Albert Réville, _Jesus de Nazareth_ (1897, 2 vols.), aims to bring the
+work of Renan up to date, and to supply some of the lacks which are felt
+in the earlier treatise. The book is pretentious and learned. In some
+parts, as in the treatment of the youth of Jesus, and of the sermon on the
+mount, it is helpfully suggestive. The Jesus whom the author admires,
+however, is the Jesus of Galilee. The journey to Jerusalem was a sad
+mistake, and the assumption of the Messianic rôle a fall from the high
+ideal maintained in the teaching in Galilee. In criticism M. Réville
+accepts the two document synoptic theory, and assigns the fourth gospel to
+about 140 A.D. He rejects the supernatural, explaining many of the
+miracles as legendary embellishments of actual events.
+
+4. The most important treatment of the subject is the article JESUS CHRIST
+by William Sanday in the _Hastings Bible Dictionary_ (1899). It is of the
+highest value, discussing the subject topically with great clearness and
+with a rare combination of learning and common sense. S. T. Andrews, _The
+Life of Our Lord_ (2d ed. 1892), is a thorough and very useful study of
+the gospels, considering minutely all questions of chronology, harmony,
+and geography. It presents the different views with fairness, and offers
+conservative conclusions. G. H. Gilbert, _The Student's Life of Jesus_
+(1896), is complete in plan and careful in treatment, while being very
+concise. Dr. Gilbert faces the problems of the subject frankly, and his
+treatment is scholarly and reverent. James Stalker, _The Life of Jesus
+Christ_ (1880), is a short work whose value lies in the good conception
+which it gives of the ministry of Jesus viewed as a whole. In simplicity,
+insight, and clearness the book is a classic, though now somewhat out of
+date. _Studies in the Life of Christ_, by A.M. Fairbairn (1882), is of
+great value for the topics considered. The title indicates that the
+treatment is fragmentary. The long treatises of Farrar (1875, 2 vols.) and
+Geikie (1877, 2 vols.) are useful as commentaries on the words and works
+of Jesus. Farrar often interprets most helpfully the essence of an
+incident, and Geikie furnishes a mass of illustrative material from
+rabbinic sources, though with less criticism than even Edersheim has used.
+Neither of these works, however, deals with the fundamental problems of
+the composition of the gospels, nor are they satisfactory on other
+perplexing questions, for example, the miraculous birth.
+
+5. The most important accessory for the study of the life of Jesus is Emil
+Schürer, _Geschichte des Jüdischen Volkes im Zeitalter Jesu Christi_ (2d
+ed. 1886, 1890, 2 vols. A 3d ed. of 2d part in 2 vols., 1898), translated,
+_A History of the Jewish People in the Time of Jesus Christ_ (1885-6, 5
+vols.). The political history of the Jews from 175 B.C. to 135 A.D., and
+the intellectual and religious life of the times in which Jesus lived,
+with the Jewish literature of Palestine and the dispersion, are all
+treated with thoroughness and masterful learning. W. Baldensperger, _Das
+Selbstbewusstsein Jesu im Lichte der messianischen Hoffnungen seiner
+Zeit_ (2d ed. 1892), furnishes in the first part a survey of the Messianic
+hopes of the Jews which is in many respects the most satisfactory account
+that is accessible. The second part discusses the problem of Jesus'
+conception of himself in a reverent and learned way. George Adam Smith,
+_The Historical Geography of the Holy Land_ (1894), is indispensable for
+the study of the physical features of the land as they bear on its
+history, and on the work of Jesus. The maps are the best that have yet
+appeared.
+
+6. Discussions of the Teaching of Jesus in works on Biblical Theology have
+much that is important for the study of Jesus' life. The most significant
+is H. H. Wendt, _Die Lehre Jesu_ (1886, 2 vols.). The second volume has
+been translated _The Teaching of Jesus_ (1892, 2 vols.); the first volume
+of the original work is an elaborate discussion of the sources, and has
+not been done into English. Reference may be made especially to H. J.
+Holtzmann, _Lehrbuch der Neutestamentlichen Theologie_ (1897, 2 vols.),
+and also to G. H. Gilbert, _The Revelation of Jesus_ (1899). Gustaf
+Dalman, _Die Worte Jesu_ (1898), of which the first volume only has
+appeared, is a study of the meaning of the most significant expressions
+used in the gospel records of the teaching of Jesus, made with the aid of
+thorough knowledge of Aramaic usage and of the language of post-canonical
+Jewish literature.
+
+7. A good synopsis or Harmony of the gospels is most useful. The best
+_Harmony is_ that of Stevens and Burton (1894), which exhibits the
+divergencies of the parallel accounts in the gospels as faithfully as the
+agreements. A good synopsis of the Greek text of the first three gospels
+is Huck, _Synapse_ (1892). Robinson's _Greek Harmony of the Gospels_,
+edited by M. B. Biddle, using Tischendorf's text, has also valuable notes
+discussing questions of harmony.
+
+
+
+
+Abbreviations
+
+
+
+AndLOL        Andrews, The Life of Our Lord, 2d ed., 1892.
+BaldSJ        Baldensperger, Das Selbstbewusstsein Jesu, 2d ed., 1892.
+BeysLJ        Beyschlag, Das Leben Jesu, 3d ed., 2 vols., 1893.
+BovonNTTh     Bovon, Théologie du Nouveau Testament, 1892.
+DalmanWJ      Dalman, Die Worte Jesu, I., 1898.
+EdersLJM      Edersheim, The Life and Times of Jesus the Messiah, 2 vols.,
+              1883.
+FairbSLX      Fairbairn, Studies in the Life of Christ, 1882.
+GilbertLJ     Gilbert, The Student's Life of Jesus, 1896.
+GilbertRJ     Gilbert, The Revelation of Jesus, 1899.
+HoltzNtTh     Holtzmann, Neutestamentliche Theologie, 2 vols., 1897.
+KeimJN        Keim, The History of Jesus of Nazara, 6 vols., 1876-81.
+RévilleJN     Réville, Jésus de Nazareth, 2 vols., 1897.
+SandayHastBD  Sanday, the article JESUS CHRIST in the Hastings Bible
+              Dictionary, 1899.
+SchürerJPTX   Schürer, The History of the Jewish People in the Time of
+              Jesus Christ, 1885-86. Division I. vols. i. and ii.; Division
+              II. vols. i., ii., and iii.
+SmithHGHL     Smith, Historical Geography of the Holy Land, 1894.
+SB            Stevens and Burton, Harmony of the Gospels, 1894.
+WeissLX       Weiss, The Life of Christ, 3 vols., 1883.
+WendtLJ       Wendt, Die Lehre Jesu, 2 vols., 1886.
+WendtTJ       Wendt, The Teaching of Jesus, 2 vols., 1892.
+EnBib         Encyclopedia Biblica, 1899.
+HastBD        Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible, 1898.
+SBD^2         Smith's Dictionary of the Bible, revision of the first volume
+              of the original English edition, 1893.
+
+
+
+
+References
+
+
+
+Part I.--Preparatory
+
+
+I
+
+The Historical Situation
+
+8. Read SandayHastBD II. 604-609. On the Land, its physical
+characteristics, its political divisions, its climate, its roads, and its
+varying civilization, SmithHGHL is unsurpassed. Its identifications of
+disputed localities are cautions. Robinson, _Biblical Researches in
+Palestine_, and Thomson, _The Land and the Book_, give fuller detail
+concerning particular localities, but no such general view as Smith.
+
+9. On Political conditions, SchürerJPTX I. i. and ii. is the fullest and
+most trustworthy treatise. More concise essays are Oscar Holtzmann, _Nt.
+Zeitgeschichte_ (1895), 57-118; S. Mathews, _History of NT Times in
+Palestine_ (1899), 1-158; Riggs, _Maccabean and Roman Periods of Jewish
+History_ (1900), especially §§ 206-234, 257-267, 276-282. On the Religious
+Life and Parties in Palestine, SchürerJPTX II. i. and ii.; O. Holtzmann,
+_NtZeitg_, 136-177; Mathews, _NT Times_, see index; Riggs, _Mac. and Rom.
+Periods_, §§ 235-256; Muirhead, _The Times of Christ_ (1898), 69-150. In
+addition Wellhausen, _Die Pharisdäer und die Sadducäer_ (1874); on the
+_Essenes_, Conybeare in HastBD I. 767-772, also Lightfoot, _Colossians_,
+80-98, 347-419; Wellhausen, _Isr. u. jüd. Geschichte_^3 (1897), 258-262;
+on the Samaritans, A. Cowley, in _Expos_. V. i. 161-174; Jew. Quar. Rev.
+VIII. (1896) 562-575.
+
+10. On the Messianic hope, SchürerJPTX II. ii. 126-187; BaldSJ 3-122;
+Muirhead, _Times of Xt._, 112-150; Briggs, _Messiah of the Gospels_
+(1894), 1-40; WendtTJ I. 33-84; Mathews, _NT Times_, 159-169; Riggs, _Mac.
+and Rom. Periods_, §§ 251-256.
+
+11. On the language of Palestine see Arnold Meyer, _Jesu Muttersprache_
+(1896); DalmanWJ I. 1-57; SchürerJPTX II. i. 8-10, 47-51; Neubauer,
+_Studia Biblica_, I. 39-74.
+
+12. On Jewish literature dating near the times of Jesus see SchürerJPTX
+II. iii.; BaldSJ. 3-122; EdersLJM I. 31-39; Deane, _Pseudepigrapha_
+(1891); Thomson, _Books which influenced our Lord_, etc. (1891); and
+special editions, such as Alexandre, _Sibylline Oracles_ (1869); Deane,
+_The Wisdom of Solomon_ (1881); Charles, _The Book of Enoch_ (1893), _The
+Apocalypse of Baruch_ (1896), _The Assumption of Moses_ (1897), and _The
+Book of Jubilees_ (1895); Charles and Morfill, _The Secrets of Enoch_
+(1896); Ryle and James, _The Psalms of the Pharisees_ [Psalms of Solomon]
+(1891); Bensly and James, _Fourth Esdras_ (1895); Charles, EnBib I.
+213-250; HastBD I. 109f.; Porter, HastBD I. 110-123; James, EnBib I.
+249-261.
+
+
+II
+
+The Sources
+
+13. On the sources outside the gospels see Anthony, _Introduction to the
+Life of Jesus_, 19-108; KeimJN I. 12-59; BeysLJ I. 59-72; GilbertLJ 74-78;
+Knowling, _Witness of the Epistles_; Stevens, _Pauline Theol_. 204-208;
+Sabatier, _Apostle Paul_, 76-85. On Josephus as a source see also
+SchürerJPTX I. ii. 143-149; RévilleJN I. 272-280. On the individual
+gospels see Burton, _The Purpose and Plan of the Four Gospels_ (Univ.
+Chic. Press, 1900); Bruce, _With Open Face_, 1-61; Weiss, _Introduction to
+N.T._, II. 239-386; Jülicher, _Einleitung i. d. NT_, 189-207. On Matthew,
+Burton Bib. Wld. I. 1898, 37-44, 91-101; on Mark, Swete, _Comm. on Mark_,
+ix-lxxxix; on Luke, Plummer, _Comm. on Luke_, xi-lxx; Mathews, Bib. Wld.
+1895, I. 336-342, 448-455; on John, Burton, Bib. Wld. 1899, I. 16-41,
+102-105; Westcott, _Comm. on John_, v-lxxvii; Rhees in Abbott's _The Bible
+as Literature_, 281-297. On the synoptic question see Sanday SBD^2,
+1217-1243, and Expositor, Feb.-June, 1891; Woods, _Studia Biblica_, II.
+59-104; Salmon, _Introduction_^7, 99-151, 570-581; Stanton in HastBD II.
+234-243; Jülicher, _Einl._ 207-227. A. Wright, _Composition of the Four
+Gospels_ (1890) and _Some NT Problems_ (1898), defends the oral tradition
+theory in a modified form. On possible dislocations in John see Spitta,
+_Urchristentum_, I. 157-204; Bacon, Jour. Bib. Lit. 1894, 64-76; Burton,
+Bib. Wld. 1899, I. 27-35. For the history of opinion see specially H. J.
+Holtzmann, _Einl._^3 340-375. On the Johannine question see Sanday,
+Expositor, Nov. 1891-May 1892; Schürer, Cont. Rev. Sept. 1891; Watkins
+SBD^2 1739-1764; Burton, Bib. Wld. 1899, I. 16-41; Reynolds in HastBD II.
+694-722; Zahn, _Einl._ II. 445-564 (defends Johannine authorship);
+Jülicher, _Einl._ 238-250 (rejects Johannine authorship). For the history
+of opinion see Watkins, _Bampton Lecture_ for 1890; Holtzmann, _Einl._^3
+433-438. P. Ewald, _Hauptproblem der evang. Frage_, argues the
+authenticity of the fourth gospel from the one-sidedness of the synoptic
+story. See also Jour. Bib. Lit. 1898, I. 87-102.
+
+14. Réville proposes to reconstruct Jos. Ant. xviii. 3. 3 thus: "'At that
+time appeared Jesus, a wise man, who did astonishing things. That is why a
+good number of Jews and also of Greeks attached themselves to him.' Then
+follows some phrase probably signifying that these adherents had committed
+the error of proclaiming him Christ, and then 'denounced by the leading
+men of the nation, this Jesus was condemned by Pilate to die on the cross.
+But those who had loved him before persevered in their sentiment, and
+still to-day there exists a class of people who take from him their name
+Christians.'"
+
+15. On the testimony of Papias (Euseb. _Ch. Hist_. iii. 39. 4) see
+Lightfoot, Cont. Rev. 1875, II. 379 ff., and McGiffert's notes in his
+_Eusebius_, 170 ff.
+
+16. For a collection of probably genuine Agrapha see Ropes, _Die Spruche
+Jesu_, 154-161, and Amer. Jour. Theol. 1897, 758-776; Resch, _Agrapha_,
+gives a much longer list. He is criticised by Ropes. On lost and
+uncanonical gospels see Salmon, _Intr._^7 173-190, 580-591; Kruger, _Early
+Christian Literature_, 50-57. For the recently discovered Gospel of Peter
+see Swete, _The Gospel of Peter_; and on the so-called _Sayings of Jesus_
+found in Egypt in 1896 see Harnack, _Expositor_, V. vi. 321-340, 401-416,
+and essay by Sanday and Lock. _Apocryphal Gospels_ are most conveniently
+found in _Ante-nicene Fathers_, VIII. 361-476.
+
+
+III
+
+The Harmony of the Gospels
+
+17. The Diatessaron of Tatian is translated with notes by Hill, _The
+Earliest Life of Christ_. See also _Ante-nic. Fathers_, IX. 35-138.
+
+18. For the extreme position concerning Doublets see Holtzmann,
+_Hand-commentar zum NT_ I. passim. E. Haupt, Studien u. Kritiken, 1884,
+25, remarks that Jesus must often have repeated his teaching in
+essentially the same form.
+
+
+IV
+
+Chronology
+
+19. For data and discussion of the various problems see Wieseler,
+_Chronological Synopsis_; Lewin, _Fasti Sacra; _ KeimJN II. 379-402;
+AndLOL 1-52; SchürerJPTX I. ii. 30-32, 105-143; O. Holtzmann, _NtZeitg_,
+118-124, 125-127, 131-132; Turner HastBD I. 403-415; Ramsay, _Was Christ
+born at Bethlehem_; and von Soden in EnBib. I. 799-812. For patristic
+opinion concerning the length of Jesus' ministry, see HastBD I. 410. For
+the argument for a one-year ministry, see KeimJN II. 398; O. Holtzmann,
+_NtZeitg_, 131f. For two years, see Wieseler, _Chron. Synop_. 204-220;
+WeissLX I. 389-392; Turner, in HastBD. For three years, see AndLOL
+189-198; note by Robertson in Broadus, _Harmony of the Gospels_, 241-244.
+Compare RévilleJN II. 227-231; Zahn, _Einl._ II. 516f.
+
+
+V
+
+The Early Years
+
+20. On the problem of the Virgin birth see GilbertLJ 79-89; WeissLX I.
+211-233; Swete, _Apos. Creed_, 42-55; Bruce, _Apologetics_, 407-413;
+Ropes, Andover Rev. 1893, 695-712; FairbSLX 30-45; Godet, _Comm. on Luke_,
+Rem. on chaps. I. and II.; BovonNTTh I. 198-217. These maintain
+historicity. The other side: BeysLJ I. 148-174; Meyer, _Comm. on Matt_.,
+Rem. on 1.18; Keim JN II. 38-101; Réville, New World, 1892, 695-723, and
+JN I. 361-408; HoltzmannNtTh I. 409-415. On the early years of
+Jesus see EdersLJM I. 217-254; WeissLX I. 275-293; Hughes, _Manliness of
+Xt_, 35-60; WendtTJ I. 90-96; Stapfer, _Jesus Christ before his Ministry;
+_ FairbSLX 46-63; BeysLJ II. 44-65; RévilleJN I. 409-438.
+
+21. For some of the early legends concerning the birth and childhood of
+Jesus, see the so-called _Protevangelium of James_, the _Gospel of
+Pseudo-Matthew_, and the _Gospel of Thomas_, Ante-nic. Fathers, VIII.
+361-383, 395-398. For Jewish calumnies see Laible, _J. X. im Thalmud_,
+9-39.
+
+22. On the two genealogies see AndLOL 62-68; WeissLX I. 211-221; Godet on
+Luke, iii. 23-38. These refer Luke's genealogy to Marv. Hervey SBD^2
+1145-1148, Plummer on Luke, iii. 23, EdersLJM I. 149, GilbertLJ 81f.,
+with the early fathers (see Plummer), refer both to Joseph. For the view
+that they are unauthentic see Holtzmann, _Hand-comm._ I. 39-41; Bacon in
+HastBD II. 137-141.
+
+23. On the "brethren" of Jesus see Mayor, HastBD I. 320-326;
+AndrewsLOL 111-123. These make the brethren sons of Joseph and
+Mary. Lightfoot, _Galatians_^10, 252-291, regards them as sons of Joseph
+by a former marriage.
+
+
+VI
+
+John the Baptist
+
+24. On the character and work of John the Baptist see KeimJN II. 201-266
+and references in the index under John the Baptist. Keim's is much the
+most satisfactory treatment; it is, moreover, Keim at his best. See also
+Ewald, _Hist, of Israel_, VI. 160-200; WeissLX I. 307-316; FairbSLX 64-79;
+W. A. Stevens, Homil. Rev. 1891, II. 163 ff.; Bebb in HastBD II. 677-680;
+Wellhausen _Isr. u. judische Geschichte_, 342f.; Feather, _Last of the
+Prophets_. Reynolds, _John the Baptist_, obscures its excellencies by a
+vast amount of irrelevant discussion.
+
+25. On the existence of a separate company of disciples of John see Mk.
+ii. 18, Mt. ix. 14, Lk. v. 33; Mk. vi. 29, Mt. xiv. 12; Mt. xi. 2f., Lk.
+vii. 18f.; Lk. xi. 1; Jn. i. 35f.; iii. 25; Ac. xix. 1-3. Consult
+Lightfoot, _Colossians_, 400 ff.; Baldensperger, _Der Prolog des vierten
+Evangeliums_, 93-152.
+
+
+VII
+
+The Messianic Call
+
+26. On the baptism of Jesus see WendtTJ I. 96-101; EdersLJM I. 278-287;
+BaldSJ 219-229. WeissLX I. 316-336 says that the baptism meant for Jesus,
+already conscious of his Messiahship, "the close of his former life and
+the opening of one perfectly new" (322); KeimJN II. 290-299 makes it an
+act of consecration, but eliminates the Voice and Dove; BeysLJ I. 215-231
+thinks that Jesus, conscious of no sin, yet not aware of his Messiahship,
+sought the baptism carrying "the sins and guilt of his people on his
+heart, as if they were his own" (229). Against Beyschlag see E. Haupt in
+Studien u. Kritiken, 1887, 381. Baldensperger shows clearly that the
+Messianic call was a revelation to Jesus, not a conclusion from a course
+of reasoning.
+
+27. On the temptation see WendtTJ I. 101-105; WeissLX I. 337-354; EdersLJM
+I. 299-307; FairbairnSLX 80-98; BaldSJ 230-236; BeysLJ I.
+231-237; KeimJN II. 317-329. All these see in temptation the necessary
+result of the Messianic call at the baptism.
+
+28. The locality of the baptism of Jesus cannot be determined. Tradition
+has fixed on one of the fords of the Jordan near Jericho, see SmithHGHL
+496, note 1. On the probable location of Bethany (Bethabarah) (Jn. i. 28)
+see discussion in AndLOL 146-151; EnBib 548; and especially Smith's note
+as above.
+
+29. On the anointing of Jesus with the Holy Spirit see WeissLX I. 323-336;
+BeysLJ I. 230f. For the influence of the Spirit in the later life of Jesus
+see Mk. i. 12; Mt. iv. 1; Lk. iv. 1; iv. 14, 18, 21; Mk. iii. 29, 30; Mt.
+xii. 28; Jn. iii. 34; compare Ac. i. 2; x. 38. Clearly these refer not to
+the ethical and religious indwelling of the Divine Spirit (comp. Rom. i.
+4), but to the special equipment for official duty. This is the OT sense,
+see Ex. xxxi. 2-5; Jud. iii. 10; I. Sam. xi. 6; Isa. xi. 1f.; xlii. 1;
+lxi. 1; and consult Schultz, _Old Test. Theol._ II. 202f. Jesus seems to
+have needed a like divine equipment, notwithstanding his divine nature.
+See GilbertLJ 121f.
+
+30. How this Messianic anointing is to be related to the doctrine of
+Jesus' essential divine nature cannot be determined with certainty. It
+must not be forgotten, however, that it is a _datum_ for Christology, and
+that it cannot be explained away. It indicates one of the particulars in
+which Jesus was made like unto his brethren. What was involved when the
+Son of God "emptied himself and was made in the likeness of men" (Phil.
+ii. 7) we can only vaguely conceive. Two views of early heretical sects
+seem rightly to have been rejected. The Docetic view, held by some
+Gnostics of the 2d cent., dates the incarnation from the baptism, but
+distinguishes Christ from the human Jesus, who only served as a vehicle
+for the manifestation of the Son of God; the Christ descended on Jesus at
+the baptism, ascending again to heaven from the cross, compare Mt. iii. 16
+and xxvii. 50 in the Greek; see Schaff _Hist. of Xn Church_^2, II. 455f.
+The recently discovered Gospel of Peter presents this view, Gosp. Pet. §
+5. The Nestorian view represents that the baptism was, in a sense, Jesus'
+"birth from above" (Jn. iii. 3, 5); thus the incarnation was first
+complete at the baptism though the Logos had been associated with Jesus
+from the beginning. See Schaff, _Hist, of Xn Church_^2, III. 717 ff.;
+Conybeare, _History of Xmas_, Amer. Jour. Theol. 1899, 1-21.
+
+31. The traditional locality of the temptation is a mountain near Jericho
+called _Quarantana_, see AndLOL 155; the tradition seems to date no
+further back than the crusades. It is, however, probable that the
+"wilderness" (Mt. iv. 1, Mk. i. 12, Lk. iv. 1) is the same wilderness
+mentioned in connection with John's earlier life and work (Mt. iii. 1, Mk.
+i. 4), the region W and NW of the Dead Sea, see SmithHGHL 317. Others
+(Stanley, _Sinai and Palestine_, 308; EdersLJM I. 300, 339 notes) hold
+that the temptation took place in the desert regions SE of the sea of
+Galilee; this is possibly correct, though the record in the gospels
+suggests the wilderness of Judea. On the source of the temptation story
+see WeissLX I. 339 ff.; BeysLJ I. 234; Bacon, Bib. Wld. 1900, I. 18-25.
+
+
+VIII
+
+The First Disciples
+
+32. SandayHastBD II. 612f.; GilbertLJ 144-157; WeissLX I. 355-387; AndLOL
+155-165; EdersLJM I. 336-363; BeysLJ II. 129-148 (assigns here a
+considerable part of the synoptic account of work in Capernaum).
+
+33. _The early confessions_. On the genuineness of the Baptist's testimony
+to "the Lamb of God" see M. Dods in _Expos. Gk. Test_. I .695f.; Westcott,
+_Comm. on John_, 20; EdersLJM 1. 342 ff.; WeissLX 1. 362f. (thinks the
+evangelist added "who taketh away the sin of the world"); Holtzmann,
+_Hand-comm._ IV. 38f. holds that the evangelist has put in the mouth of
+the Baptist a conception which was first current after the death of Jesus.
+On the confessions of Nathanael and the others, see Jour. Bib. Lit. 1898,
+21-30.
+
+34. _Cana_ is probably the modern Khirbet Kana, eight miles N of Nazareth.
+A rival site is Kefr Kenna, three and one-half miles NE from Nazareth. See
+EnBib and HastBD, also AndLOL 162-164.
+
+35. _The miracles of Jesus_ are challenged by modern thought. It is
+customary in reading other documents than the N.T. instantly to relegate
+the miraculous to the domain of legend. Miracles, however, are integral
+parts of the story of Jesus' life, and those who attempt to write that
+life eliminating the supernatural are constrained to recognize that he had
+marvellous power as an exorcist and healer of some forms of nervous
+disease. So E. A. Abbott, _The Spirit on the Waters_, 169-201. Our
+knowledge of nature does not warrant a dogmatic definition of the limits
+of the possible; see James, _The Will to Believe_, vii.-xiii., 299-327.
+The question is confessedly one of adequate evidence. The evidence for the
+supreme miracle--the transcendent character of Jesus--is clear, see Part
+III. chap. iv.; and the miraculous element in the story of his life must
+be considered in view of this supreme miracle. In association with him his
+miracles gain in credibility. In estimating the evidence for them their
+dignity and worthiness is important. What the devout imagination would do
+in embellishing the story of Jesus is exhibited in the apocryphal gospels;
+the miracles of the canonical gospels are of an entirely different type,
+which commends them as authentic. By definition a miracle is an event not
+explicable in terms of ordinary human experience. It is therefore futile
+to attempt to picture the miracles of Jesus in their occurrence, for the
+imagination has no material except that furnished by ordinary experience.
+For our day the miracles are of importance chiefly for the exhibition they
+give of the character of Jesus; they can be studied with this in view
+without regard to the curious question how they happened. Read
+SandayHastBD II. 624-628; and see Fisher, _Grounds of Christian and
+Theistic Belief, _ chaps, iv.--vi., _Supernatural Origin of
+Christianity_^3, chap, xi.; Bruce, _Miraculous Element in the Gospels;
+Apologetics_, 409 ff.; Illingworth, _Divine Immanence_; Rainy, Orr, and
+Dods, _The Supernatural in Christianity_.
+
+
+
+Part II.--The Ministry
+
+
+I
+
+General Survey
+
+36. SandayHastBD II. 609f.; GilbertLJ 136-143; AndLOL 125-137; BeysLJ I.
+256-295.
+
+
+II
+
+The Early Ministry in Judea
+
+37. SandayHastBD II. 612^b-613^b; WeissLX II. 3-53; EdersLJM I. 364-429;
+BeysLJ II. 147-168; GilbertLJ 158-179.
+
+38. On _the chronological significance of John iv_. 35 see AndLOL 183;
+WeissLX II. 40; Wieseler, _Synop_. 212 ff, who find indication that the
+journey was in December. EdersLJM I. 419f.; Turner in HastBD I. 408, find
+indication of early summer. Some treat iv. 35 as a proverb with no
+chronological significance; so Alford, _Comm. on John_.
+
+39. Geographical notes. _Aenon_ near Salim has not been identified. Most
+favor a site in Samaria, seven miles from a place named Salim, which lay
+four miles E of Shechem, see Conder, _Tent Work in Palestine_, II. 57, 58;
+Stevens, Jour. Bib. Lit. 1883, 128-141. But can John have been baptizing
+in Samaria? WeissLX II. 28 says "it is perfectly impossible that he [John]
+can have taken up his station in Samaria." Other suggestions are: some
+place in the Jordan valley (but then why remark on the abundance of water,
+Jn. iii. 23?); near Jerusalem; and in the south of Judea. See AndLOL
+173-175. _Sychar_ is the modern 'Askar, about a mile and three-quarters
+from Nablus (Shechem), and half a mile N of Jacob's well. See SmithHGHL
+367-375.
+
+40. General questions. _Was the temple twice cleansed?_ (see sect. 116).
+Probably not. The two reports (Jn. ii. 13-22; Mk. xi. 15-18 ¶s) are
+similar in respect of Jesus' indignation, its cause, its expression, its
+result, and a consequent challenge of his authority. They differ in the
+time of the event (John assigns to first Passover, synoptics to the last)
+and in a possibly greater sternness in the synoptic account. These
+differences are no greater than appear in other records of identical
+events (compare Mt. viii. 5-13 with Lk. vii. 2-10), while the repetition
+of such an act would probably have been met by serious opposition. If the
+temple was cleansed but once, John indicates the true time. At the
+beginning of the ministry it was a demand that the people follow the new
+leader in the purification of God's house and the establishment of a truer
+worship. At the end it could have had only a vindictive significance,
+since the people had already signified to the clear insight of Jesus that
+they would not accept his leadership. For two distinct cleansings see the
+discussion in AndLOL 169f., 437; EdersLJM I. 373; Plummer on Luke xix.
+45f. For one cleansing at the end see KeimJN V. 113-131. For one cleansing
+at the beginning see WeissLX II. 6 ff.; BeysLJ II. 149 ff.; GilbertLJ 159
+ff.
+
+41. _The journey to Galilee_. Do John (iv. 1-4, 43-45) and Mark (i. 14 =
+Mt. iv. 12; Lk. iv. 14) report the same journey? Both are journeys from
+the south introducing work in Galilee; yet the reasons given for the
+journey are different (compare Jn. iv. 1-3 with Mk. i. 14). If the
+Pharisees had a hand in John's "delivering up" (Mk. i. 14; comp. Jos. Ant.
+xviii. 5. 2), the same hostile movement may have impelled Jesus to leave
+Judea. He may not have heard of John's imprisonment until after his
+departure, or some time before he opened his new ministry in Galilee. See
+GilbertLJ 173f. AndLOL 176-182 argues against the identification.
+
+42. _The nobleman's son_ (Jn. iv. 46-54). Is this a doublet of Mt. viii.
+5-13; Lk. vii. 2-10? John differs from synoptics in the time, the place,
+the disease, the suppliant, his plea, and Jesus' attitude. Matthew and
+Mark differ from each other concerning the bearers of the centurion's
+messages to Jesus. John's account is similar to synoptic superficially,
+but is probably not a doublet. Compare Syro-Phœnician's daughter (Mk. vii.
+29f.). See GilbertLJ 202; Meyer on John iv. 51-54; Plummer on Luke vii.
+10. WeissLX II. 45-51 identifies. Read SandayHastBD II. 613.
+
+
+
+III and IV
+
+The Ministry in Galilee
+
+43. Read SandayHastBD II. 613-630; GilbertLJ 180-283. Consult WeissLX II.
+44 to III. 153; EdersLJM I. 472 to II. 125; BeysLJ II. 140-147,168-294.
+See AndLOL 209-363 for discussion of details, and KeimJN III. 10 to IV.
+346 for an illuminating, though not unprejudiced, topical treatment.
+
+44. Geographical notes. _Capernaum_. The site is not clearly identified,
+two ruins on the NW of Sea of Galilee are rival claimants,--Tell Hum and
+Khan Minyeh. Tell Hum is advocated by Thomson, _Land and Book, Central
+Pal. and Phœnicia_ (1882), 416-420; Khan Minyeh, by SmithHGHL 456, EnBib
+I. 696 ff. Latter is probably correct. See AndLOL 224-237.
+
+_Bethsaida_. The full name is Bethsaida Julias, located at entrance of
+Jordan into the Sea of Galilee. SmithEnBib I. 565f., SmithHGHL
+457f., shows that there is no need of the hypothesis of a second Bethsaida
+to meet the statement in Mk. vi. 45, or that in Jn. i. 44. See also AndLOL
+230-236. Ewing HastBD I. 282f. renews the argument for two Bethsaidas.
+
+_Chorazin_ was probably the modern Kerazeh, about one mile N of Tell Hum,
+and back from the lake. See SmithEnBib I. 751; SmithHGHL 456;
+AndLOL 237f.
+
+45. _The mountain of the sermon on the mount_ (Mt. v. 1; Lk. vi. 12)
+probably refers to the Galilean highlands as distinct from the shore of
+the lake. More definite location is not possible. See AndLOL 268f.;
+EdersLJM I. 524. The traditional site, the Horns of Hattin, is a hill
+lying about seven miles SW from Khan Minyeh, which has near the top a
+level place (Lk. vi. 17) flanked by two low peaks or "horns."
+
+46. _The country of the Gerasenes, Gadarenes, or Gergesenes_. Gadarenes is
+the best attested reading in Mt. viii. 28, Gerasenes in Mk. v. 1 and Lk.
+viii. 26; Gergesenes has only secondary attestation. Gadara is identified
+with Um Keis on the Yarmuk, some six miles SE of the Sea of Galilee. This
+cannot have been the site of the miracle, though it is possible that
+Gadara may have controlled the country round about, including the shores
+of the sea. Gerasa is the name of a city in the highlands of Gilead,
+twenty miles E of Jordan, and thirty-five SE of the Sea of Galilee, and
+it clearly cannot have been the scene of the miracle. Near the E shore of
+the sea Thomson discovered the ruins of a village which now bears the name
+Khersa. The formation of the land in the neighborhood closely suits the
+narrative of the gospels. This is now accepted as the true identification.
+See Thomson _Land and Book, Central Palestine_, 353-355; SBD^2 1097-1100;
+HastBD II. 159f.; AndLOL 296-300. The name "Gadarenes" may indicate that
+Gadara had jurisdiction over the region of Khersa; the names "Gerasenes"
+and "Gergesenes" may be derived directly and independently from Khersa, or
+may be corruptions due to the obscurity of Khersa.
+
+47. _The feeding of the five thousand_ took place on the E of the sea, in
+a desert region, abundant in grass, and mountainous, and located in the
+neighborhood of a place named Bethsaida. Near the ruins of Bethsaida
+Julias is a plain called now Butaiha, "a smooth, grassy place near the sea
+and the mountains," which meets the requirements of the narrative. See
+AndLOL 322f.
+
+48. _The return of Jesus from the regions of Tyre "through Sidon"_ (Mk.
+vii. 31) avoided Galilee, crossing N of Galilee to the territory of Philip
+and "_the Decapolis_." This latter name applies to a group of free Greek
+cities, situated for the most part E of the Jordan. Most of the cities of
+the group were farther S than the Sea of Galilee; some, however, were E
+and NE of that sea, hence Jesus' approach from Cæsarea Philippi or
+Damascus could be described as "through Decapolis." See SmithHGHL 593-608;
+En Bib I. 1051 ff.; SchürerJPTX II. i. 94-121.
+
+49. Of _Magadan_ (Mt. xv. 39) or _Dalmanutha_ (Mk. viii. 10) all that is
+known is that they must have been on the W coast of the Sea of Galilee.
+They have never been identified, though there are many conjectures. See
+SBD^2, HastBD, and En Bib.
+
+50. _Cæsarea Philippi_ was situated at the easternmost and most important
+of the sources of the Jordan, it is called Panias by Jos. Ant. xv. 10.3,
+now Banias. Probably a sanctuary of the god Pan. Here Herod the Great
+built a temple which he dedicated to Cæsar; Philip the Tetrarch enlarged
+the town and called it Cæsarea Philippi. See SBD^2; HastBD; EnBib.
+
+51. _The mountain of the transfiguration_. The traditional site, since the
+fourth century, is Tabor in Galilee. Most recent opinion has favored one
+of the shoulders of Hermon, owing to the supposed connection of the event
+with the sojourn near Cæsarea Philippi. WeissLX III. 98 points out that
+there is no evidence that Jesus lingered for "six days" (Mk. ix. 2) near
+that town, and that therefore the effort to locate the transfiguration is
+futile. GilbertLJ 274 thinks that Mk. ix. 30 is decisive in favor of a
+place outside Galilee; he therefore holds to the common view that Hermon
+is the true locality. See AndLOL 357f.
+
+52. General questions. _Was Jesus twice rejected at Nazareth?_ (comp. Lk.
+iv. 16-30 with Mk. vi. 1-6^a; Mt. xiii. 54-58). Here are two accounts that
+read like independent traditions of the same event; they agree concerning
+the place, the teaching in the synagogue on the Sabbath, the astonishment
+of the Nazarenes, their scornful question, and Jesus' rejoinder. Luke
+makes no reference to the disciples (Mk. vi. 1) nor to the working of
+miracles (Mk. vi. 5); Matthew and Mark, on the other hand, say nothing of
+an attempt at violence. These differences are no more serious, however,
+than appear in the two accounts of the appeal of the centurion to Jesus
+(Mt. viii. 5-8; Lk. vii. 3-7). Moreover, Lk. iv. 23 indicates a time after
+the ministry in Capernaum had won renown, which agrees with the place
+given the rejection in Mark. The general statement (Lk. iv. 14f.) suggests
+that the visit to Nazareth is given at the beginning as an instance of
+"preaching in their synagogues." The three accounts probably refer to one
+event reported independently. For identification see WeissLX III. 34;
+Plummer on Luke iv. 30; GilbertLJ 254f. For two rejections see Godet's
+supplementary note on Lk. iv. 16-30; Meyer on Mt. xiii. 53-58; EdersLJM I.
+457, note 1; Wieseler, _Synopsis_, 278. BeysLJ I. 270 identifies but
+prefers Luke's date.
+
+53. _Were there two miraculous draughts of fish?_ Lk. v. 1-11 is sometimes
+identified with Jn. xxi. 3-13. So WendtLJ I. 211f., WeissLX II. 57f., and
+Meyer on Luke v. 1-11. Against the identification see Alford, Godet, and
+Plummer on the passage in Luke. The two are alike in scene, the night of
+bootless toil, the great catch at Jesus' word. They differ in personnel,
+antecedent relations of the fishermen with Jesus, the effect of the
+miracle on Peter, and the subsequent teaching of Jesus, as well as in
+time. These differences make identification difficult.
+
+54. _Where in the synoptic story should the journey to the feast in
+Jerusalem_ (Jn. v.) _be placed?_ There is nothing in John's narrative to
+identify the feast, although it is his custom to name the festivals to
+which he refers (Passover, ii. 13, 23; vi. 4; xi. 55; xii. 1; Tabernacles,
+vii. 2; Dedication, x. 22). Even if John wrote "the feast," rather than "a
+feast" (the MSS. vary, A B D and seven other uncials omit the article), it
+would be impossible to decide between Passover and Tabernacles. The
+omission of the article suggests either that the feast was of minor
+importance, or that its identification was of no significance for the
+understanding of the following discourse. Since a year and four months
+probably elapsed between the journey into Galilee (Jn. iv. 35) and the
+next Passover mentioned in John (vi. 4), v. 1 may refer to any one of the
+feasts of the Jewish year. The commonest interpretation prefers Purim, a
+festival of a secular and somewhat hilarious type, which occurred on the
+14th and 15th of Adar, a month before the Passover. It is difficult to
+believe that this feast would have called Jesus to Jerusalem. See WeissLX
+II. 391; GilbertLJ 137-139, 142, 234-235. Against this interpretation see
+EdersLJM II. 765. Edersheim advocates the feast of Wood Gathering on the
+15th of Ab--about our August. On this day all the people were permitted to
+offer wood for the use of the altar in the temple, while during the rest
+of the year the privilege was reserved for special families. See LJM II
+765f.; Westcott, _Comm. on John_, add. note on v. 1, argues for the feast
+of Trumpets, or the new moon of the month Tisri,--about our
+September,--which was celebrated as the beginning of the civil year.
+Others have suggested Pentecost, fifty days after the Passover; the day of
+Atonement--but this was a fast, not a feast; and Tabernacles. The majority
+of those who do not favor Purim prefer the Passover, notwithstanding the
+difficulty of thinking that John would refer to this feast simply as "a
+feast of the Jews." Read AndLOL 193-198, remembering that the question
+must be considered independently of the question of the length of Jesus'
+ministry. The impossibility of determining the feast renders the
+adjustment of this visit to the synoptic story very uncertain. It may be
+that there was some connection between the Sabbath controversy in Galilee
+(Mk. ii. 23-28) and the criticism Jesus aroused in Jerusalem (Jn. v.). If
+so, one of the spring feasts, Passover or Pentecost, would best suit the
+circumstances; but this arrangement is quite uncertain.
+
+55. _Do the five conflicts of Mk. ii. 1 to iii. 6 belong at the early
+place in the ministry of Jesus to which that gospel assigns them_? It is
+commonly held that they do not, and the argument for a two-year ministry
+rests on this assumption (see SandayHastBD II. 613). Holtzmann,
+_Hand-commentar_ I. 9f., remarks that at least for the cure of the
+paralytic and for the call and feast of Levi (Mk. ii. 1, 13, 15) the
+evangelist was confident that he was following the actual order of events;
+note the call of the fifth disciple, Mk. ii. 13, between the call of the
+four, Mk. i. 16-20, and that of the twelve, iii. 16-19. The question about
+fasting may owe its place (Mk. ii. 18-22) to association with the
+criticism of Jesus for eating with publicans (Mk. ii. 16). In like manner
+the second Sabbath conflict (Mk. iii. 1-6) may be attached to the first
+(ii. 23-28) as a result of the identity of subject, for it is noteworthy
+that Mark records only these two Sabbath conflicts; moreover, the plot of
+Herodians and Pharisees to kill Jesus strongly suggests a later time for
+the actual occurrence of this criticism. The first Sabbath question,
+however, may belong early, as Mark has placed it. Weiss, Markusevangelium,
+76, LX II. 232 ff., places these conflicts late. Edersheim, LJM II. 51
+ff., discusses the Sabbath controversies after the feeding of the
+multitudes. RévilleJN II. 229 places the first of them early.
+
+56. _The sermon on the mount._ Luke (vi. 12-19 = Mk. iii.
+13-19^a indicates the place in the Galilean ministry; Matthew
+has therefore anticipated in assigning it to the beginning. The identity
+of the two sermons (Mt. v. 1 to vii. 27; Lk. vi. 20-49) is shown by the
+fact that each begins with beatitudes, each closes with the parables of
+the wise and foolish builders, each is followed by the cure of a
+centurian's servant in Capernaum (Mt. viii. 5-13; Lk. vii. 1-10), and the
+teachings which are found in each account are given in the same order.
+Matthew is much fuller than Luke, many teachings given in the sermon in
+Matthew being found in later contexts in Luke. Much of the sermon in
+Matthew, however, evidently belonged to the original discourse, and was
+omitted by Luke, perhaps because of less interest to Gentile than to
+Jewish Christians. The following sections are found elsewhere in Luke, and
+were probably associated with the sermon by the first evangelist: Mt. v.
+25, 26; Lk. xii. 58, 59; Mt. vi. 9-13; Lk. xi. 2-4; Mt. vi. 19-34; Lk.
+xii. 21-34; xi. 34-36; xvi. 13; Mt. vii. 7-11; Lk. xi. 9-13; Mt. vii. 13,
+14; Lk. xiii. 24. The first evangelist's habit of grouping may explain
+also the presence in his sermon of teachings which he himself has
+duplicated later, thus: Mt. v. 29, 30 = xviii. 8,9; v. 32 = xix. 9, comp.
+Mk. x. 11, ix. 43-47, Lk. xvi. 18; Mt. vi. 14, 15 = Mk. xi. 25. Matthew
+vii. 22, 23 has the character of the teachings which follow the confession
+at Cæsarea Phillipi, and is quite unlike the other early teachings. It may
+belong to the later time, for it was natural for the early Christians to
+associate together teachings which the Lord uttered on widely separated
+occasions. The sermon as originally given may be analyzed as follows: The
+privileges of the heirs of the kingdom of God, Mt. v. 3-13; Lk. vi. 20-26;
+their responsibilities, Mt. v. 13-16; the relation of the new to the old,
+Mt. v. 17-19; the text of the discourse, Mt. v. 20; the new conception of
+morality, Mt. v. 21-48; Lk. vi. 27-36; the new practice of religion, Mt.
+vi. 1-8, 16-18; warning against a censorious spirit, Mt. vii. 16-20; Lk.
+vi. 43-46; the wise and foolish builders, Mt. vii. 24-27; Lk. vi. 47-49.
+
+57. _The discourse in parables._ Matthew gives seven parables at this
+point (xiii.), Mark (iv. 1-34) has three, one of them is not given in
+Matthew, Luke (viii. 4-18) gives in this connection but one,--the Sower.
+Many think that the Tares of Matthew (xiii. 24-30, 36-43) is a doublet of
+Mark's Seed growing secretly (iv. 26-29); so Weiss LX II. 209 note,
+against which view see WendtLJ I. 178 f., and Bruce, _Parabolic Teaching
+of Xt_, 119. Matthew has probably made here a group of parables, as in
+chapters v. to vii. he has made a group of other teachings. The
+interpretation of the Tares, and of the Draw-net (xiii. 40-43, 49, 50),
+may indicate that these parables were spoken after Jesus began to teach
+plainly concerning the end of the world (Mk. viii. 31 to ix. 1), Luke
+gives the Mustard Seed and Leaven in another connection (xiii. 18-21), and
+it may be that Matthew has taken them out of their true context to
+associate them with the other parables of his group; yet in popular
+teaching it must be recognized that illustrations are most likely to be
+repeated in different situations. On the parables see Goebel, _The
+Parables of Jesus_ (1890), Bruce, _The Parabolic Teaching of Christ_, 3d
+ed. (1886), Jülicher, _Die Gleichnissreden Jesu_ (2 vols. 1899), and the
+commentaries on the gospels.
+
+58. _The instructions to the twelve_. Mt. ix. 36 to xi. 1. x. 1, 5-14
+corresponds in general with Mk. vi. 7-11; Lk. ix. 1-5. The similarity is
+closer, however, between x. 7-15 and Lk. x. 3-12--the instructions to the
+seventy (see sect. A 68). The rest of Mt. x. (16-42) is paralleled by
+teachings found in the closing discourses in the synoptic gospels, and in
+teachings preserved in the section peculiar to Luke (ix. 51 to xviii. 14.
+See SB sects. 88-92, footnotes). It is probable that here the first
+evangelist has made a group of instructions to disciples gathered from all
+parts of the Lord's teachings; such a collection was of great practical
+value in the early time of persecution.
+
+59. _Did Jesus twice feed the multitudes_? All the gospels record the
+feeding of the five thousand (Mt. xiv. 13-23; Mk. vi. 30-46; Lk. ix.
+10-17; Jn. vi. 1-15), Matthew (xv. 32-38) and Mark (viii. 1-9) give also
+the feeding of the four thousand. The similarities are so great that the
+two accounts would be regarded as doublets if they occurred in different
+gospels. The difficulty with such an identification is chiefly the
+reference which in both Matthew (xvi. 9, 10) and Mark (viii. 19, 20) Jesus
+is said to have made to the two feedings. The evangelists clearly
+distinguished the two. In view of this fact the differences between the
+accounts become important. These concern the occasion of the two miracles,
+the number fed, the nationality of the multitudes (compare Jn. vi. 31 and
+Mk. vii. 31), the number of loaves and of baskets of broken pieces (the
+name for basket is different in the two cases, and is preserved
+consistently in Mk. viii. 19, 20; Mt. xvi. 9, 10). See GilbertLJ 259-262,
+Gould, and Swete, on Mk. viii. 1-9; Meyer, Alford, on Mt. xv. 32-38.
+WeissLX II. 376f., BeysLJ I. 279f., WendtLJ I. 42, Holtzmann _Hand-comm._
+I. 186 ff., identify the accounts. See also SandayHastBD II. 629.
+
+60. _Did Peter twice confess faith in Jesus as Messiah_? Synoptics give
+his confession at Cæesarea Philippi (Mk. viii. 27-30; Mt. xvi. 13-20; Lk.
+ix. 18-21). John, however, gives a confession earlier at Capernaum (vi.
+66-71). WeissLX III. 53 identifies the two, placing that in John at
+Cæsarea Philippi, since there is no evidence that all of the long
+discourse of Jn. vi. was spoken in Capernaum the day after the feeding of
+the five thousand. This may be correct, yet the marked recognition which
+Jesus gave to the confession at Cæsarea Philippi does not demand that he
+first at that time received a confession of his disciples' faith. The
+confession in Jn. vi. 68, 69 declared that the twelve were not shaken in
+their faith by the recent defection of many disciples. At Cæsarea Philippi
+the confession was made after the revulsion of popular feeling had been
+made fully evident, and after the twelve had had time for reaction of
+enthusiasm consequent upon the growing coldness of the multitudes and
+active opposition of the leaders. The confession of Cæsarea Philippi holds
+its unique significance, whether or not Jn. vi. 68 is identified with it.
+
+61. _The journey to Tabernacles_ (Jn. vii.). Where in the synoptic story
+should it be placed? Lk. ix. 51 ff. records the final departure from
+Galilee. The journey of Jn. vii. is the last journey from Galilee given in
+John. Yet the two are very different. In John, Jesus went in haste,
+unpremeditatedly, in secret, and unaccompanied, and confronted the people
+with himself unexpectedly during the feast. In Luke (Mk. x. 1 and Mt. xix.
+1 are so general that they give no aid) he advanced deliberately, with
+careful plans, announcing his coming in advance, accompanied by many
+disciples, with whom he went from place to place, arriving in Jerusalem
+long after he had set out. The two journeys cannot be identified. John
+seems to keep Jesus in the south after the Tabernacles, but his account
+does not forbid a return to Galilee between Tabernacles and Dedication (x.
+22). After the hurried visit to Tabernacles, Jesus probably went back to
+Galilee, and gathered his disciples again for the final journey towards
+his cross--for the visit to Jerusalem had given fresh evidence of the kind
+of treatment he must expect in the capital (Jn. vii. 32, 45-52; viii. 59).
+See AndLOL 369-379. Andrews suggests that the feast occurred before the
+withdrawal to Cæsarea Philippi (376); this is possible, but it seems more
+natural to place it during the sojourn in Capernaum after the return from
+the north (Mk. ix. 33-50). See SB, sects. 82-85.
+
+62. On the phenomena and interpretation of _Demoniac Possession_ see J. L.
+Nevius, _Demon Possession and allied Themes_; Conybeare, Jew. Quar. Rev.
+VIII. (1896) 576-608, IX. (1896-7) 59-114, 444-470, 581-603; J. Weiss in
+_Reälencyklopädie_,^3 Hauck-Herzog, IV. 408-419; Binet, _Alterations of
+Personality_, 325-356; James, _Psychology, _ I. 373-400; and the articles
+on DEMONS in EnBib and HastBD.
+
+
+The Journey through Perea to Jerusalem
+
+63. Read SandayHastBD II. 630-632; see GilbertLJ 298-310: WeissLX III.
+157-223; KeimJN V, 1-64; BeysLJ I. 287-294. II. 333-419; AndLOL 365-420;
+EdersLJM II. 126-360.
+
+64. This journey began sometime between Tabernacles and Dedication
+(October and December) of the last year of Jesus' life, and continued
+until the arrival in Bethany six days before the last Passover.
+
+65. Geographical notes. _Perea_--a part of the domain of Antipas--was the
+Jewish territory E of the Jordan. Its northern limit seems to have been
+marked by Pella (Jos. Wars, iii 3. 3) or Gadara (Wars, iv. 7. 3), and its
+E boundary was marked by Philadelphia (Ant. xx. 1. 1); it extended S to
+the domain of Aretas, king of Arabia. The population was mixed, though
+predominatingly Jewish. Cities of the Decapolis, however, lay within the
+limits of Perea, and introduced Greek life and ideas to the people. On the
+highlands back from the Jordan it was a fertile and well populated land.
+See SmithHGHL 539f.; SchürerJPTX II. i. 2-4.
+
+66. On _Bethany and Jericho_ see BDs and, for the latter, SmithHGHL 266
+ff.
+
+67. _Ephraim_, (John xi. 54) is generally identified with the Ephron of
+II. Chron. xiii. 19 (Jos. Wars, iv. 9. 9). Robinson located it at et
+Taiyibeh, 4 m. NE of Bethel, and 14 from Jerusalem. See HastBD l. 728;
+SBD^2 975.
+
+68. General questions. _The mission of the seventy_. Luke records two
+missions, that of the twelve (ix. 1-6), and that of the seventy (x. 1-24).
+Many regard these as doublets, similar to the two feedings in Mark. So
+WeissLX II. 307 ff., BeysLJ I. 275, WendtLJ I. 84f. In favor of this
+conclusion emphasis is given to the fact that in Jewish thought seventy
+symbolized the nations of the world as twelve symbolized Israel. It is
+suggested that in his search for full records Luke came upon an account of
+the mission of disciples which had already been modified in the interests
+of Gentile Christianity, and failing to recognize its identity with the
+account of the mission furnished by Mark, he added it in his peculiar
+section. The similarity of the instructions given follows from the nature
+of the case. A second sending out of disciples is suitable in view of the
+entrance into a region hitherto unvisited. As Dr. Sanday has remarked, the
+sayings connected by Luke with this mission bear witness to the
+authenticity of the account. There is therefore no need to identify the
+two missions. See particularly SandayHastBD II. 614, also GilbertLJ
+226-230, Plummer's _Comm. on Luke_, 269 ff. Luke probably gives the
+correct place for the thanksgiving, self-declaration, and invitation of
+Jesus, in which the synoptists approach most nearly to the thought of John
+(Lk. x. 21, 22; Mt. xi. 25-30). The return of the seventy (Lk. x. 17-20)
+followed the woes addressed to the unbelieving cities (Lk. x. 13-16; Mt.
+xi. 20-24).
+
+69. _The destination of the seventy_. It is customary to think of them as
+sent to the various cities of Perea (see AndLOL 381-383). Were it not for
+the words "whither he himself was about to come" (Lk. x. I), it would be
+natural to conclude that they were sent E to Gerasa and Philadelphia, and
+S to the regions of the Dead Sea. If John's account is accepted, Jesus
+spent not a little time of the interval between his departure from Galilee
+and his final arrival in Bethany in and near Jerusalem. It may be that
+after the withdrawal from the Dedication he went far into the Perean
+districts. But John x. 40 is against it. The question must be left
+unanswered. The messengers may have visited places in all parts of
+Palestine.
+
+
+VI
+
+The Controversies of the Last Week
+
+70. See GilbertLJ 311-335; WeissLX III. 224-270; AndLOL 421-450; KeimJN V.
+65-275; BeysLJ II. 422-434; EdersLJM II. 363-478; SandayHastBD II 632f.
+
+71. _The supper at Bethany_. John is definite, "six days before the
+passover" (xii. I). Synoptists place it after the day of controversy, on
+the Wednesday preceding the Passover (Mk. xiv. I, 3-9; Mt. xxvi. 2, 6-13).
+John is probably correct. The rebuke of Judas (Jn. xii. 4-8) was probably
+associated in the thought of the disciples with his later treachery;
+consequently the synoptists report the plot of Judas and this supper in
+close connection.
+
+72. _The Messianic entry into Jerusalem_ is regarded by Réville as a
+surrender by Jesus of his lofty Messianic ideal in response to the
+temptation to seek a popular following. Keim with finer insight says,
+"Even if it had certainly been his wish to bring the kingdom of heaven
+near in Jerusalem quietly and gradually, and with a healthy mental
+progress, as in Galilee, yet ... in the face of the irritability of his
+opponents, in the face of the powerful means at their disposal of crushing
+him ... there remained but one chance,--reckless publicity, the conquest
+of the partially prepared nation by means, not of force, but of idea....
+He came staking his life upon the venture, but also believing that God
+must finish his work through life or death" (JN V. 100f.).
+
+73. _The question about the resurrection_ was probably a familiar
+Sadducean problem with which they made merry at the expense of the
+scribes. On the resurrection in Jewish thought see Charles, _Eschatology,
+Hebrew, Jewish, and Christian_, by index. For the scepticism of the
+Sadducees see also Ac. xxiii. 8; Jos. Wars, ii, 8. 14.
+
+74. On the "_great commandment_" see EdersLJM II. 403 ff.
+
+75. The eschatological discourse presents serious exegetical difficulties.
+Many cut the knot by assuming that Mk. xiii. and ∥s contain a little
+Jewish apocalypse written shortly before the destruction of Jerusalem,
+which has been blended with genuine predictions of Jesus concerning his
+second coming. See Charles, _Eschatology_, 323-. 329; WendtLJ I. 9-21;
+HoltzmannNtTH I. 325 ff.; and Bruce's criticism in _Expos. Gk. Test_. I.
+287f., also Sanday's note in HastBD II. 635f.
+
+76. On _the relation of proselytes_ to Judaism see SchürerJPTX II. ii.
+291-327. The synagogue in heathen lands drew to itself by its monotheism
+and its pure ethics the finest spirits of paganism. But few of them,
+however, submitted to circumcision, and became thus proselytes. Most of
+them constituted the class of "them that fear God" to whom Paul constantly
+appealed in his apostolic mission. The Greeks of Jn. xii. 20 ff. were
+probably circumcised proselytes.
+
+77. On _Judas_ see Plummer in HastBD II. 796 ff.; EdersLJM II. 471-478;
+WeissLX III. 285-289; AndLOL by index. De Quincey's essay on _Judas
+Iscariot_ is an elaborate defence.
+
+
+VII
+
+The Last Supper
+
+78. GilbertLJ 335-354; WeissLX III. 273-318; EdersLJM II. 479-532; AndLOL
+450-497; KeimJN V. 275-343; BeysLJ II. 434-448; SandayHastBD II. 633-638.
+
+79. _The day of the last supper_. John seems clearly to place it on the
+day before the Passover--13 Nisan. See xiii. I, 29; xviii. 28; xix. 14,
+31, 42. Synoptists as clearly declare that the supper was prepared on the
+"first day of unleavened bread, when they sacrificed the Passover" (Mk.
+xiv. 12; see also Lk. xxii. 15); this is confirmed by the similarity
+between the Passover ritual as tradition has preserved it, and the course
+of events at the supper. Unless interpretation can remove the
+contradiction, John must have the preference. WeissLX III. 273-282, BeysLJ
+II. 390-399, accept John and correct the synoptists by him; thus the
+supper anticipated the Passover. Some hold that John can be interpreted
+harmoniously with synoptists, and be shown to indicate that the supper was
+on the 14th Nisan. So EdersLJM II. 508, 566f., 612f.; AndLOL 452-481;
+GilbertLJ 335-339. Others believe that a true interpretation of synoptists
+shows that in calling the last supper a Passover they correctly represent
+the character, but misapprehend the time, of the meal. For this argument
+see Muirhead, _Times of Xt_, 163-169, and read SandayHastBD II. 633-636
+and his references. The debate is still on, but the advantage seems to be
+with those who assign the supper to the 13th and the crucifixion to the
+14th Nisan.
+
+80. _Did Jesus institute a memorial sacrament_? Read SandayHastBD II.
+636-638, and Thayer, in Jour. Bib. Lit. 1899, 110-131; see also
+McGiffert, _Apostolic Age_, 68 ff. note; HoltzmannNtTh I. 296-304.
+
+81. _The Passover ritual_. The order according to the rabbis was the
+following: the first cup of wine and water was taken by the leader, who
+gave thanks over it, and then it was shared by all (compare Lk. xxii. 17);
+then the head of the company washed his hands--Dr. Edersheim connects with
+this the washing of the disciples' feet, which changed the ceremony from
+an act of distinction into one of humble service; after this the dishes
+were brought on the table, then the leader dipped some of the bitter herbs
+into salt water or vinegar, spoke a blessing, and partook of them, then
+handed them to each of the company; then one of the loaves of unleavened
+bread was broken; after this a second cup was filled, and before it was
+drunk the significance of the Passover was explained by the leader in
+reply to a question by the youngest of the company, after which the first
+part of the Hallel (Ps. cxiii., cxiv.) was sung, and then the cup was
+drunk; then followed the supper itself beginning with "the sop,"--a piece
+of the paschal lamb, a piece of unleavened bread, and bitter herbs,
+wrapped together and dipped in the vinegar,--which was passed around the
+company (compare the sop which Jesus gave to Judas); after the supper came
+a third cup, known as "the cup of blessing" (see I. Cor. x. 16); then
+followed grace after meat; then a fourth cup, in connection with which the
+remainder of the Hallel was sung (Ps. cxv. to cxviii.), followed by
+certain other songs and prayers. See EdersLJM II. 496-512; AndLOL 488-494.
+
+82. _The washing of the disciples' feet_. John (xiii. 1-11) says this
+occurred "during supper" (v. 2), and before the designation of the
+traitor. Luke (xxii. 23-30) tells of a dispute about greatness among the
+disciples. This dispute may have arisen over the assignment of places at
+table (compare Lk. xiv. 7 ff.; Mk. x. 33-45); if so, the reason for the
+lesson in humility is apparent. See AndLOL 482-484; EdersLJM II. 492-503.
+
+83. _Did Jesus twice predict Peter's denials_? Mark (xiv. 26-31) and
+Matthew (xxvi. 30-35) place the prediction after the departure for
+Gethsemane; Luke (xxii. 31-34) and John (xiii. 36-38), during the supper.
+AndLOL 494 ff. thinks Peter was warned twice, EdersLJM. II. 535-537 holds
+to one warning on the way to Gethsemane. Antecedent probability favors
+this view.
+
+84. _Where in John should the institution of the sacrament be placed_?
+Probably after the departure of Judas (Mark xiv. 21f.; Matt. xxvi. 26),
+thus not before xiii. 30. The most likely place is between, verses 32 and
+33. There is no break at this point, and it remains a mystery why John's
+account of the passion omitted this central feature of early Christian
+belief and practice. The omission argues for rather than against apostolic
+authorship, as a forger would not have ventured to disregard the leading
+service of the church in an account of the life of its Lord. See Westcott,
+_Comm. on John_, 188.
+
+85. On the possible _disarrangement of the last discourses_ (xiii. 31 to
+xvi. 33) in our text of John see Spitta, _Urchristentum_, I. 168-193;
+Bacon, Jour. Bib. Lit. 1894, 64-76; Burton, Bib. Wld. 1899 I. 32.
+
+
+VIII
+
+The Shadow of the Cross
+
+86. See GilbertLJ 354-384; AndLOL 497-588; WeissLX III. 319-381; BeysLJ I.
+390-432, II. 448-473; EdersLJM II. 533-620; KeimJN VI. 1-274; SandayHastBD
+II. 632f.
+
+87. On the location of _Gethsemane and Golgotha_ see AndLOL 499f.,
+575-588; and HastBD II. 164, 226f.
+
+88. On the progress of _Jesus' trial by the Jewish authorities, _ see
+AndLOL 505-516; GilbertLJ 359-363. The _legality of the trial_ has been
+carefully discussed by A. T. Innes, _The Trial of Jesus Christ_.
+
+89. On the form and sequence of _Peter's denials_, see Westcott, _Comm.
+on John_, 263-266; AndLOL 516-521.
+
+90. The _Words from the Cross_. Matthew (xxvii. 46) and Mark (xv. 34)
+report one; Luke (xxiii. 34?, 43, 46) adds three, omitting the one found
+in Matthew and Mark; John adds three more (xix. 26f., 28, 30). Luke xxiii.
+34 is bracketed by Westcott and Hort because omitted by a very important
+group of MSS. ([Hebrew: aleph]^aBD*) and some early versions. The saying
+is almost certainly authentic, though it may have been added to Luke by
+some early copyist. See Westcott and Hort, _N.T. in Greek_, II. Appendix,
+68; and Plummer, _Comm. on Luke_, 544f.
+
+
+IX
+
+The Resurrection and Ascension
+
+91. Read SandayHastBD II. 638-643; see KeimJK VI. 274-383, for a still
+valid criticism of the position of RévilleJN II. 428-478; see also WeissLX
+III. 382-409; BeysLJ I. 433-481, II. 474-493; BovonNTTh I. 350-375;
+GilbertLJ 385-405; Loofs, _Die Auferstehungsberichte und ihr Wert_;
+EdersLJM II. 621-652; AndLOL 589-639.
+
+92. The last twelve verses of Mark (xvi. 9-20) are omitted by the oldest
+MSS ([Hebrew: aleph]B) and by the recently discovered Sinaitic Syriac, as
+well as by other versions and fathers. An Armenian MS. has been found
+ascribing the section to one Ariston, or Aristion, a second century elder,
+and this explanation of the origin of the verses is widely accepted. The
+gospel cannot have ended with the words "for they were afraid," but no
+satisfactory explanation of the condition of its text has been found. For
+a recent hypothesis see Rohrbach, _Der Schluss des Markusevangeliums_; on
+Aristion as the author, see Conybeare in Expos. IV. viii. (1893) 241, IV.
+x. 219, V. ii. 401; see also SandayHastBD II. 638f., Bruce, _Expos. Gk.
+Test_. I. 454f. For discussion of textual evidence see Westcott and Hort,
+_NT in Greek_, II. Appendix, 28-51, and Burgon, _The last twelve verses
+of St. Mark_ (a passionate defence).
+
+Luke xxiv. 51 is omitted by [Hebrew: aleph]*D and several old Latin MSS.
+See Plummer and Bruce on the passage.
+
+93. "_After three days_." This formula, which appears often in Mark, is
+altered in parallels in Matthew and Luke to "on the third day" (see
+Concordance). Jesus died on Friday, lay in the tomb over Saturday, and
+rose very early Sunday morning. Thus he spent a part of Friday, and a part
+of Sunday, and all of Saturday in the grave. According to Jewish reckoning
+this was counted three days.
+
+94. _Emmaus_. A village about 60 furlongs from Jerusalem. Cannot have been
+the Emmaus in the Shephelah, 20 m. from Jerusalem. May have been el
+Kubeibeh, 63 furlongs distant on the road from Jerusalem to Lydda. See
+AndLOL 617-619; but also HastBD I. 700.
+
+
+
+
+Part III.--The Minister
+
+
+I
+
+The Friend of Men
+
+95. Head Mathews, _The Social Teachings of Jesus, _ especially 132-174;
+see also Robinson, _The Saviour in the Newer Light_, 343 ff.
+
+
+II
+
+The Teacher with Authority
+
+96. See WendtTJ I. 106-151; Stevens, _Theol. of the N.T._ 1-16; Beyschlag,
+_N.T. Theology, I_. 31-34. In particular on the Parables see references in
+sect. A 56. On the content of Jesus' teaching see WendtTJ 2 vols.;
+Dalman, _Die Worte Jesu; Stevens, Theol. of the N.T._ 17-244; Beyschlag,
+_N.T. Theol_. I. 27-299; Mathews, _Social Teaching of Jesus_; Gilbert,
+_The Revelation of Jesus_; Bruce, _The Kingdom of God_.
+
+
+III
+
+Jesus' Knowledge of Truth
+
+97. Adamson, _The Mind in Christ_; GilbertRJ 169f., 240-242; Schwartzkopf,
+_The Prophecies of Jesus Christ_.
+
+
+IV
+
+Jesus' Conception of Himself
+
+98. BaldSJ 125-282; Stalker, _Christology of Jesus_, HoltzmannNtTh I.
+234-304; WendtTJ II. 122-183; GilbertRJ 167-228; Stevens, _Theol. of the
+N.T._ 41-64, 199-212. On the title "Son of Man" see particularly DalmanWJ
+I. 191-219; Charles, _Eschatology_, 214f. note; against, A. Meyer, _Jesu
+Muttersprache_, 91-101, and others. See also HoltzmannNtTh I.
+246-264. On the name "Son of God," see Dalman WJ I. 219-237; Holtzmann
+NtTh I. 265-278; Stalker, _Christology_, 86-123; Gilbert, as above. On the
+personal religion of Jesus see Burton, Bib. Wld. 1899, II. 394-403. For
+the total impression of the character of Jesus, read Bushnell, _The
+Character of Jesus_.
+
+
+
+
+Indexes
+
+
+
+
+Index of Names and Subjects
+
+
+
+[References are to pages.]
+
+
+Ænon, site of, 288.
+"After three days," 307.
+Agrapha, 36, 149, 281.
+Andrew, of Bethsaida, 92, 94, 118.
+Angels, doctrine of, 10.
+Annas, 191, 193, 194.
+Antipas, 4, 192.
+Apocalypse, 17f., 122, 124, 241.
+Apocryphal gospels, 37, 281, 282.
+Archelaus, 4, 5.
+Aristion, author of Mark xvi. 9-20, 204f., 306f.
+Assumption of Moses, 75
+
+Baptism of John, see _John the Baptist_.
+Baptism of Jesus, 83-86, 283f.
+Barabbas, 174, 192.
+Bethany beyond Jordan, 92, 284.
+Bethany, supper at, 169, 301.
+Bethsaida, site of, 290.
+Books of reference, 273-277.
+Brethren of Jesus, 63f., 283.
+
+Cæsarea Philippi;, 4, 291.
+  confession at, see _Peter_.
+Caiaphas, 191, 193, 194.
+Cana of Galilee, 95, 222, 286.
+Cananeans or Zealots, party of, 11, 74.
+Capernaum, site of, 290.
+Census under Quirinius, 11, 52-55.
+Chorazin, site of, 290.
+
+Dalmanutha, 291.
+Dalmanutha, Books of, 17f., 241, 254f.
+Decapolis, the, 140, 291.
+Dedication, feast of, 150, 154.
+Demoniac possession, 131-133, 245-248, 299.
+Devout, the, 13, 17.
+Diatessaron of Tatian, 38, 47, 281.
+Doublets, 44, 281.
+Draughts of fish, miraculous, 293.
+
+Emmaus, site of, 307.
+Enoch, Book of, 241, 256-258.
+Ephraim, site of, 300.
+Essenes, manner of living, 11-12;
+  their hope of Messiah, 16;
+  their settlement, 73;
+  relation to John the Baptist, 73, 77.
+
+Five thousand, the feeding of, 135f., 291.
+
+Gadarenes, country of, 247, 290f.
+Genealogies of Jesus, 282.
+Gethsemane, 177, 186, 188f., 265, 305.
+Golgotha, 305.
+
+Herod the Great, 3;
+  began to rebuild temple, 49;
+  census during his reign, 54.
+Herod Antipas, 4, 192.
+Herodians, 14, 173.
+
+James, brother of John, 92, 94, 118.
+Jesus, language of, 19, 62, 279;
+  date of birth, 52-56;
+  the miraculous conception, 58-61;
+  growth, physical, intellectual, moral, and spiritual, 61-66;
+  his brothers and sisters, 64;
+  visit to Jerusalem in his twelfth year, 66-68;
+  life in Nazareth, 68f.;
+  his baptism, 83-86;
+  his temptation, 86-91;
+  his first disciples, 92-95;
+  at Cana, 95;
+  his social friendliness, 96, 219f.;
+  the cleansing of the temple, 108-110;
+  talk with Nicodemus, 111;
+  the woman of Samaria, 112;
+  cure of nobleman's son, 113;
+  in retirement in Galilee, 113f.;
+  call of four disciples, 118;
+  popular enthusiasm and pharisaic opposition, 119-121;
+  his withdrawals and injunctions of silence, 122 ff.;
+  blasphemy of the Pharisees, 124;
+  the reply to John's message, 125;
+  his twofold aim in Galilee, 126;
+  his method, 127;
+  the sermon on the mount, 127f.;
+  the parables, 128f., 231f., 296f.;
+  instruction of the twelve, 130, 297;
+  his mighty works, 131f.;
+  his personal influence, 133;
+  the feeding of the five thousand, 135f.;
+  the revulsion in popular feeling, 136;
+  the controversy about hand washing, 139;
+  the withdrawal to the north, 138;
+  the demand for a sign, 139;
+  disciples warned against the Pharisees, 139;
+  the question at Cæsarea Philippi, 141f.;
+  commendation of Peter, 143;
+  announcement of approaching death, 144;
+  rebuke of Peter, 145;
+  the transfiguration, 146f.;
+  the epileptic boy, 147;
+  rebuke of worldly ambition, 147f.;
+  Jesus and his brethren, 148;
+  at the feast of Tabernacles, 148;
+  return to Galilee, 150;
+  final departure from Galilee, 154;
+  the mission of the seventy, 158;
+  visit to the feast of Dedication, 159;
+  in Perea, 160;
+  the summons to Bethany, 161f.;
+  official determination to get rid of him, 161;
+  at Ephraim, 162;
+  question about divorce, 154;
+  blessing little children, 154;
+  the rich young ruler, 154;
+  request of Salome, 163;
+  Bartimeus, 163;
+  Zacchæus, 163;
+  anointing at Bethany, 169;
+  the Messianic entry, 170f.;
+  the barren fig-tree, 172;
+  the questions of the leaders, 173f.;
+  counter question, 175;
+  denunciation of scribes, 175;
+  the widow's mites, 176;
+  visit of the Greeks. 176f.;
+  the eschatological discourse, 178;
+  bargain of Judas, 169, 178f.;
+  the last supper, 181-184;
+  dispute and foot washing, 184;
+  withdrawal of Judas, 184;
+  prediction of Peter's denials, 185;
+  discourse and prayer, 185-187;
+  Gethsemane, 188-190;
+  betrayal and arrest, 190f.;
+  trial by Jews, 191f.;
+  trial by Pilate, 192-194;
+  crucifixion, 195-198;
+  burial of Jesus, 199;
+  the resurrection, 201-210;
+  the ascension, 214f.;
+  Jesus' attitude to common life, 219-223;
+  his hunger for sympathy, 223;
+  Jesus as a teacher, 226f.;
+  his attitude to Old Testament, 227-229;
+  his confidence in men, 230f.;
+  his use of illustration, 231-233;
+  his alertness of mind, 234;
+  his leading ideas, 235 ff.;
+  his supernatural knowledge, 239-244;
+  his confession of ignorance, 243;
+  his kinship with men, 244f.;
+  treatment of demoniac possession, 245-248;
+  his certainty of his Messianic call, 249-254;
+  his adoption of Messianic titles, 254-264;
+  his consciousness of dependence on God, 264-266;
+  the problem of Jesus, 267-269.
+John, Gospel of, 32-36, 40f., 181, 280, 305.
+John the Baptist, 70-81;
+  notice by Josephus, 71f., 279f.;
+  his idea of the kingdom of God, 73;
+  his relation to current thought, 73-76;
+  his baptism, 77f., 83;
+  baptism of Jesus, 82-84;
+  the embassy from the priests, 92;
+  testimony--"the Lamb of God," 93, 286;
+  baptizing at Ænon, 112;
+  his self-effacing witness to Jesus, 79, 112;
+  hostility of the Pharisees, 113, 289;
+  arrest by Antipas, 71f., 113;
+  his message to Jesus, 125;
+  death in prison, 134f.; his significance, 79-81, 226;
+  the disciples of John, 112, 283;
+  literature about John, 283.
+John, son of Zebedee, 36, 92, 94, 118, 193,269.
+John of Gischals, 121.
+Joseph of Arimathea, 182, 199.
+Josephus, 22;
+  notice of John the Baptist, 71, 279f.
+Judas of Galilee, 11, 121.
+Judas the betrayer, 169, 181, 302;
+  the bargain, 178;
+  his selection as an apostle, 179;
+  his criticism of Mary at Bethany, 179;
+  his kiss, 190;
+  his remorse, 179.
+Judea, province of, 6f.
+
+Kingdom of God, 68, 86, 90, 173, 190, 231, 232, 235 ff., 238, 241.
+
+Language used by Jesus, 19, 62, 279.
+Last supper, the, 181-187, 303-305.
+Lawyers, see _Scribes_.
+Length of Jesus' ministry, 45-49.
+Literature of the Jews, 18f., 279.
+"Logia," ascribed to Matthew, 32, 42, 158.
+Luke, Gospel of, 26f., 31f., 280.
+
+Mark, Gospel of, 25f., 27, 29, 32, 40, 42, 280, 294f.;
+  last twelve verses of, 204f., 306f.
+Mary Magdalene, 134, 208.
+Mary, the mother of Jesus, 59;
+  had other children, 60, 63f., 283.
+Matthew, Gospel of, 23 ff., 27, 30f., 32, 280.
+Messianic entry into Jerusalem, 170, 301f.
+Messianic hope, the, 16-18, 87, 175, 279.
+Miracles of Jesus, 96, 267, 286f.
+Miraculous birth, the, 57-61, 232.
+Mission of the twelve, 130, 297.
+Mission of the seventy, 158, 300f.
+
+Nathanael, of Cana, 92, 94, 286.
+Nazareth, the view from, 65f.
+  rejection at, 292.
+Nicodemus, 111, 199.
+
+Papias, 22, 29, 34, 47, 102, 281.
+Parables of Jesus, 128f., 231f., 296f.
+Passover, the, 181, 187, 304.
+Paul, 21, 36, 201, 206, 268.
+Pentateuch, Jesus' references to, 244.
+Perea, 104, 153f., 158, 299f.
+Peter, 29, 34, 92, 94, 118, 185, 193, 305, 306;
+  confession of, 136, 142 ff., 297f.
+Pharisees, the, 8-10;
+  attitude to John the Baptist, 82, 113, 289;
+  their blasphemy, 124, 156;
+  question about divorce, 154;
+  about tribute, 173;
+  about the great commandment, 174, 302.
+Philip of Bethsaida, 92, 94, 176.
+Philip the tetrarch, 4.
+Pliny the younger, 21.
+Pontius Pilate, 5, 192, 195.
+Priests, the, 7f., 107;
+  and the temple market, 108.
+Proselytes, 78, 176, 302.
+Psalms, Jesus' use of the, 244.
+Psalms of Solomon, 18, 261.
+Publicans, 6, 72, 222.
+
+Quirinius, census under, 52-55.
+
+Religion of Jesus, 264 ff., 308.
+Resurrection, pharisaic doctrine of, 10, 241;
+  Sadducean rejection of 10, 174.
+
+Sadducees, the, 8, 16, 82;
+  the question about the resurrection, 174, 303;
+  attitude towards Jesus, 193.
+Samaria, 6f.
+  Jesus' journey through, 112.
+Samaritans, how regarded, 14.
+Sanhedrin, the great, at Jerusalem, 7, 13, 192.
+Scribes, their business, 9;
+  power in the sanhedrin, 13;
+  their influence over the religious life, 14;
+  their hope of a Messiah, 16;
+  their washings, 78;
+  chief of them at Jerusalem, 107;
+  their pride of learning and their bondage to tradition, 228.
+Sermon on the mount, 127, 290, 295f.
+Signs, essential marks of the Messiah, 95, 131.
+Soldiers in Palestine, 6, 72, 191.
+Son of Man, the, 124f., 130f., 254-260, 308.
+Son of God, the, 260-264, 308.
+Star of the wise men, 56.
+Suetonius, 21.
+Sychar, site of, 288.
+Synagogue, the, 14.
+Synoptic gospels, 28.
+Synoptic problem, 27-32, 279f.
+
+Tabernacles, feast of, 148, 150, 298f.
+Tacitus, 3, 21, 54.
+Tatian, 23, 38, 47, 281.
+Taxes, Roman, in Judea, 6.
+Temple at Jerusalem, 107;
+  market in 107;
+  cleansing of, 107, 288f.
+Temptation of Jesus, 86-91, 145, 284;
+  locality of, 285;
+  source of the record, 90, 285.
+Tertullian, 45, 53.
+Thomas, 208.
+Tiberius, 1, 21, 50.
+Traditions of the elders, 9, 15f., 68, 74, 139.
+Transfiguration, the, 146f., 292.
+Trial of Jesus, the, 191-195, 305.
+
+Words from the cross, 196 ff., 306.
+
+Zealots, the, 11, 74, 122, 124.
+
+
+
+
+Index of Scripture References
+
+
+
+Ex.
+
+iv. 22                 261
+xix. 10                 78
+xxiv. 1-11             183
+
+
+
+Lev.
+
+xii. 8                  61
+xxiii. 5-11             47
+
+
+
+Num.
+
+xxiii. 19              254
+
+
+
+Deut.
+
+vi. 4-9                 62
+viii. 3                 88
+xviii. 15               92
+xxi. 23                196
+
+
+
+I. Sam.
+
+ii. 26                  61
+
+
+
+I. Kings.
+
+xvii. 1                 72
+
+
+
+II. Kings.
+
+i. 8
+xvii. 24-41             14
+
+
+
+Ps.
+
+ii. 7                  261
+viii. 4                254
+xxii.                  196
+lxxx. 17               254
+lxxxii. 6              261
+ciii. 13               262
+cxiii., cxiv.          304
+cxv. to cxviii.        185, 304
+
+
+
+Isa.
+
+i. 16                   76
+vi. 5                  267
+xi. 2                   85
+xxxv. 5f.              126
+xlii. 1                 85
+li. 2                  254
+liii.                   96, 239
+liii. 7                 93
+lviii.                  76
+lxi. 1f.                45, 85, 126
+lxiii. 16              262
+
+
+
+Jer.
+
+xxxi. 31-34            111, 183
+
+
+
+Ezek.
+
+ii. 1                  254
+xxxiii. 10-20          240
+xxxvi. 25-27           111
+
+
+Dan.
+
+vi. 10                 107
+vii. 1-14              254
+vii. 13f.              255
+viii. 17               254
+
+
+Hos.
+
+i. 10                  261
+
+
+Joel.
+
+ii. 1-14                76
+
+
+Micah.
+
+vi. 8                   76
+
+
+Matt.
+
+i. 1 to iv. 17          23
+ii. 1, 2                52
+iii. 7                  74
+iii. 9                  78
+iii. 10-12              82
+iii. 11                 77
+iii. 14                 82
+iii. 15                 83
+iii. 16                285
+iv. 4, 7, 10           228
+iv. 7                   89
+iv. 8                   90
+iv. 10                  90, 145
+iv. 12                 101, 102, 106, 289
+iv. 12-17               24, 39, 115
+iv. 12 to xviii. 35    102
+iv. 13                 106
+iv. 13-16              115
+iv. 17                 118
+iv. 18-22              106, 115
+iv. 18 to xvi. 20       24
+iv. 23                 115
+iv. 23-25              115
+v. 1                   290
+v. 3-12                296
+v. 13-16               296
+v. 17                   83, 228
+v. 17-19               296
+v. 18                  238
+v. 20                  296
+v. 21-48               228, 296
+v. 25f.                295
+v. 29f.                295
+v. 32                  295
+v. 38, 39              250
+v. 45                  244
+vi. 1-6                 84
+vi. 1-18                64, 296
+vi. 2-4                176
+vi. 9-15                 4, 117, 295
+vi. 19-34              103, 295
+vi. 24                 179
+vi. 25-34               42
+vii. 1-6               296
+vii. 7-11              117, 295
+vii. 13f.              295
+vii. 15-21             296
+vii. 21                262
+vii. 21-27             238
+vii. 22f.              295
+vii. 24-27             296
+vii. 28, 29            226, 249
+viii. 2-4              115
+viii. 5                  7
+viii. 5, 8              43
+viii. 5-13              41, 115, 288, 289
+viii. 10               243
+viii. 10-12             24
+viii. 14-17            115
+viii. 18, 23-27        116
+viii. 19-22            153
+viii. 20               259
+viii. 28-34            116
+ix. 1, 18-26           116
+ix. 2-8                115
+ix. 9-13               115
+ix. 14-17              115
+ix. 27-34              116
+ix. 35                 116
+ix. 36 to xi. 1        116, 118, 297
+x. 1, 5-15             297
+x. 5f.                 130
+x. 7-15                297
+x. 16-42               297
+x. 32                  262
+xi. 2-6                251
+xi. 2-19                41, 116
+xi. 4-6                131
+xi. 11                  80
+xi. 18f.               259
+xi. 19                  96, 220, 256
+xi. 20-24              301
+xi. 20-30              153
+xi. 25-30              300
+xi. 27                 252, 263
+xi. 28-30              160
+xii. 1-8               115
+xii. 9-14              115
+xii. 12                227
+xii. 15-21             115
+xii. 22-45             116, 156
+xii. 28                 85, 248
+xii. 46-50             116
+xii. 50                145
+xiii. 1-53             116, 296
+xiii. 24-30            296
+xiii. 31-33             44, 17
+xiii. 40-43, 49, 50    296
+xiii. 54-58            116, 292
+xiii. 55                61, 63
+xiv. 1-12              116
+xiv. 1 to xxviii. 20    28
+xiv. 13-23              39, 116, 297
+xiv. 19                 46
+xiv. 21-36             116
+xv. 1                   43
+xv. 1-20               116
+xv. 13f.               150
+xv. 21-28              116
+xv. 21-31              140
+xv. 22                 254
+xv. 24                 130
+xv. 29-31              117
+xv. 32-38              117, 297
+xv. 39                 291
+xv. 39 to xvi. 12       17
+xvi. 9f.               297
+xvi. 13-20              94, 117, 298
+xvi. 16                263
+xvi. 16ff.             142
+xvi. 17                142, 224, 262
+xvi. 21                118, 239
+xvi. 21-28             117
+xvi. 21 to xxviii. 20   24
+xvi. 23                239
+xvii. 1-13             117
+xvii. 10-13            193
+xvii. 14-20            117
+xvi. 22-23             117
+xvii. 24-27            117, 139
+xviii. 1-35            117, 148
+xviii. 4               220
+xviii. 12-14            44
+xix. 1f.                39, 153, 154, 298
+xix. 1 to xx. 34       104
+xix. 3-9               228
+xix. 3-12              153
+xix. 13-15             153
+xix. 16 to xx. 16      153
+xx. 17-19              153
+xx. 20-28              153
+xx. 29-34              153
+xxi. 1-11              166
+xxi. 1 to xxvii. 66    104
+xxi. 1 to xxviii. 20    39
+xxi. 4f.               170
+xxi. 9-15              254
+xxi. 14-16             172
+xxi. 17                166
+xxi. 18-19, 12-17      166
+xxi. 20-23             166
+xxi. 23-27             166
+xxi. 28 to xxii. 14    166, 173
+xxi. 33-46              25, 252
+xxii. 1-14             252
+xxii. 15-22            166
+xxii. 23-33            166
+xxii. 34-46            166, 238
+xxii. 41-46            166
+xxiii. 1-39            166
+xxiii. 2                13
+xxiii. 24              233
+xxiii. 37-39            34, 106
+xxiv. 1 to xxvi. 2     167
+xxiv. 6-13             166
+xxv.                   178
+xxv. 37-46             237
+xxv. 40                221
+xxvi. 1f.              147
+xxvi. 2, 6-13          301
+xxvi. 3-5, 14-16       167
+xxvi. 11-13            167
+xxvi. 20               181
+xxvi. 25               200
+xxvi. 26               305
+xxvi. 30, 36-46        167
+xxvi. 30-35            305
+xxvi. 47-56            167
+xxvi. 57 to xxvii. 10  167
+xxvi. 63f.             263
+xxvii. 11-31           167
+xxvii. 32-56           167
+xxvii. 43              261
+xxvii. 46              197, 306
+xxvii. 50              285
+xxvii. 57               34
+xxvii. 57-61           167
+xxvii. 62-66           167
+xxviii. 1-8            201
+xxviii. 9, 10          201
+xxviii. 11-15          201
+xxviii. 16-20          201, 204
+xxviii. 18-20           25
+
+
+Mark.
+
+i. 1-13                 26
+i. 3                    79
+i. 4                    77
+i. 7f.                  93
+i. 10                   84
+i. 11                   68, 84, 261
+i. 14                  101, 102, 106, 289
+i. 14f.                 39, 115
+i. 14 to ix. 50         26, 102
+i. 16-20               115
+i. 21-34               115
+i. 24                  254
+i. 27                  249
+i. 35                  265
+i. 35-39               253
+i. 35-45               115
+ii. 1-12                47, 115, 230, 294
+ii. 1-17                48
+ii. 1 to iii. 6         47, 48, 250, 204f.
+ii. 5                  239
+ii. 6f.                121
+ii. 10                  28, 256, 259
+ii. 10, 28 and ∥s      256
+ii. 12                  25
+ii. 13-17               47, 115, 294
+ii. 15-17               96
+ii. 16                  47, 121
+ii. 18-22               26, 47, 115
+ii. 20                 239
+ii. 23                  47
+ii. 23-28              115, 229, 294f.
+ii. 25-27              228
+ii. 27                 257
+ii. 44                 253
+iii. 1-6                26, 115, 295
+iii. 7-12              115
+iii. 11                261
+iii. 13-19             115, 295
+iii. 17, 41             25
+iii. 19-30              40, 42, 116
+iii. 21, 31-35          59, 97
+iii. 22                 34, 121
+iii. 22-30             156
+iii. 28-30             251
+iii. 31-35              59, 97, 116
+iv. 1-34               116, 232, 296
+iv. 3                   64
+iv. 12                 129
+iv. 13                 129
+iv. 26-29              296
+iv. 35-41              116
+v. 1                   290
+v. 1-20                116
+v. 7                   261
+v. 11-13               139
+v. 21-43               116
+v. 30-34               243
+v. 41                   20
+vi. 1-6                 43, 116, 292
+vi. 2f.                220
+vi. 6b                 116
+vi. 7-11               297
+vi. 7-13               116, 147
+vi. 14-29              116
+vi. 15                 290
+vi. 30-34               47
+vi. 30-46               39, 40, 116, 297
+vi. 39                  46
+vi. 47-56              116
+vii. 1                  34
+vii. 1-23, 48           48, 116, 121, 139, 250
+vii. 6-13              233
+vii. 8-13               10
+vii. 10                244
+vii. 13                251
+vii. 14-23             238
+vii. 15                227
+vii. 19                130, 228
+vii. 24-30             116
+vii. 27                140
+vii. 29f.              289
+vii. 31                291
+vii. 31-37             117, 297
+vii. 34                 20
+vii. 37                 25
+viii. 1f.              141
+viii. 1-9              117, 297
+viii. 10               291
+viii. 10-21            117
+viii. 11                96
+vii. 11-13             139
+viii. 14f.             139
+viii. 19f.             297
+viii. 22-26            117
+viii. 27-30            117, 141, 298
+viii. 29               254
+viii. 31               168 ,20, 256, 259
+viii. 31-33             87, 239
+viii. 31-ix. 1         117, 296
+viii. 32f.              93
+viii. 34f.             147
+viii. 34 to ix. 1      146
+viii. 38               256, 259
+ix. 1                  242
+ix. 2                  292
+ix. 2-13               117
+ix. 6                   28
+ix. 9                  147
+ix. 10                 203
+ix. 14-29              117, 147
+ix. 19                 224
+ix. 29                 265
+ix. 30-32              117, 147
+ix. 31                 204
+ix. 33-50              117, 299
+ix. 35-37              234
+ix. 43-47              295
+x. 1                     9, 104, 153, 154, 298
+x. 1 to xvi. 8          26
+x. 2-12                153, 154, 298
+x. 5f.                 244
+x. 11                  153, 154, 160
+x. 13-16               104
+x. 17-31               153, 155, 160
+x. 18                  226
+x. 19                  229
+x. 25                  233
+x. 32-34               147, 153, 155, 162
+x. 35-45               153, 155, 163, 165, 184, 230, 304
+x. 40                  243
+x. 42-45               259
+x. 45                  241
+x. 46                  162
+x. 46-52               153
+x. 47f.                254
+x. 48                  163
+xi. 1-11               166
+xi. 1 to xv. 47        104
+xi. 1 to xvi. 8 [20]    39
+xi. 2f.                 34
+xi. 2-5                112
+xi. 8-10               162
+xi. 9f.                170
+xi. 12-14, 15-18       166
+xi. 12-14, 20-25       172
+xi. 14-36               42
+xi. 15-19               43, 288
+xi. 17                 108
+xi. 19                 166
+xi. 20-27              166
+xi. 25                 295
+xi. 27-33              166
+xi. 29-33              173
+xii. 1-12              166
+xii. 13-17             166, 173
+xii. 16                227
+xii. 18-27             166, 174
+xii. 24-27             228
+xii. 27                186
+xii. 28-34             166, 174
+xii. 35-37             166, 245
+xii. 38-40             166
+xii. 41-44             166
+xiii. and ∥s           178, 241, 302
+xiii. 1-37             167
+xiii. 24-27            238
+xiii. 32               243, 247, 252, 263
+xiv. 1f., 10f.         167
+xiv. 3                 169
+xiv. 3-9               166, 301
+xiv. 3-11              169
+xiv. 8                 169
+xiv. 12                303
+xiv. 12-16             112
+xiv. 12-26             167
+xiv. 14                 34
+xiv. 17                181
+xiv. 18-21             184
+xiv. 20                185
+xiv. 21                180
+xiv. 26, 32-42         167
+xiv. 26-31             305
+xiv. 33f.              186
+xiv. 34                145
+xiv. 36                 20, 189, 239, 265
+xiv. 43-52             167
+xiv. 45                190
+xiv. 50                182
+xiv. 53 to xv. 1       190
+xiv. 61                167
+xiv. 61f.              254, 261
+xiv. 61-64             263
+xiv. 62                191
+xiv. 66-72              85, 258
+xv. 1                  192
+xv. 1-20               167
+xv. 2                  254
+xv. 6-15               192
+xv. 21                 182, 195
+xv. 21-41              167
+xv. 22                 305
+xv. 34                  20, 197, 306
+xv. 42                 182
+xv. 42-47              167
+xv. 43                  34
+xv. 46                 182
+xvi. 1                 202
+xvi. 1-8               201
+xvi. 6f.               209
+xvi. [9-20]            204f., 306
+xvi. [9-11]            201
+xvi. [12f.]            201
+xvi. [14]              201
+xvi. [15-18]           201
+xvi. [19f.]             201
+
+
+
+Luke.
+
+
+i. 1-4                  26, 42
+i. 3                    41
+i. 5                    52
+i. 36                   82
+i. 46-55                60
+i. 68-79                68-79
+i. 80                   61
+ii. 1f.                 52
+ii. 8                   56
+ii. 19-51               59
+ii. 24                  61
+ii. 40-52               61
+ii. 41                  62, 107
+ii. 48                  97
+ii. 49                  67, 262
+ii. 52                  63, 69
+iii. 1f.                45, 49, 52
+iii. 13f.               74
+iii. 15                 94
+iii. 21                 64, 82, 85, 265
+iii. 23                 52
+iv. 5                   90
+iv. 13                  87, 146
+iv. 14                 101, 102, 289
+iv. 14, 15              39, 115, 292
+iv. 14 to ix. 50        26, 102
+iv. 16                  62
+iv. 16-19               63
+iv. 16-30               43, 116, 292
+iv. 23                 292
+iv. 31                 106, 115
+iv. 31-41              115
+iv. 42-44              115
+v. 1-11                115, 293
+v. 4-11                 43
+v. 12-16               115
+v. 17                   34
+v. 17-26               115
+v. 24                   28
+v. 27-32               115
+v. 33-39               115
+vi. 1-5                115
+vi. 6-11               115
+vi. 12                  84, 265, 290
+vi. 12-19              115, 295
+vi. 17                 290
+vi. 20                 222
+vi. 20 to vii. 1       115, 295
+vi. 20-26              296
+vi. 27-42              296
+vi. 43-46              296
+vi. 47-49              296
+vii. 1-10               41, 115, 288, 289
+vii. 2-5                 7
+vii. 7                  43
+vii. 11-17              42, 116
+vii. 18-35              41, 116
+vii. 36-50              42, 116, 224
+vii. 47                239
+viii. 1-3              116
+viii. 4-18             116, 296
+viii. 19-21            116
+viii. 22-25            116
+viii. 26               290
+viii. 26-39            116
+viii. 40-56            116
+ix. 1-6                116, 297, 300
+ix. 7-9                116
+ix. 10-17               39, 116, 297
+ix. 11                 135
+ix. 18                 265
+ix. 18-21              117, 298
+ix. 22-27              117
+ix. 28f.                84, 146
+ix. 28-36              117
+ix. 29                 265
+ix. 31                 146
+ix. 37-42              117
+ix. 43-45              117
+ix. 46-50              117
+ix. 51                  39, 157
+ix. 51f.               158, 298
+ix. 51-62              153
+ix. 51 to xviii.        40, 42, 104, 154, 156
+ix. 51 to xix. 27       26
+ix. 57-62              156
+x. 1                   158, 301
+x. 3-12                297
+x. 1-24                153, 300
+x. 13-16               301
+x. 17-20               301
+x. 17-24               160
+x. 18                  248
+x. 22                  252, 263, 300
+x. 25-37                34, 153, 159, 227
+x. 28-37               159
+x. 38-42                34, 111, 153
+xi. 1                   42, 265
+xi. 1-4                 42, 295
+xi. 1-13               117
+xi. 9-13               295
+xi. 14-36               40, 116, 156
+xi. 34-36              295
+xi. 37-52              156
+xi. 37-54              154, 164
+xii. 1-12              156
+xii. 1-59              154, 164, 165
+xii. 13-21             117
+xii. 22-31              42
+xii. 22-34             103, 516, 295
+xii. 49-53             165
+xii. 58f.              295
+xiii. 1-9              154, 161, 164
+xiii. 10-17            117
+xiii. 18-21             44, 117, 296
+xiii. 22               157
+xiii. 22-30            153, 164
+xiii. 24               295
+xiii. 31f.             171, 193
+xiii. 31-35            153, 168
+xiii. 32                 5
+xiii. 34f.              34, 106, 224
+xiii. 35               252
+xiv. 1-24              117
+xiv. 7ff.              304
+xiv. 15-24             161
+xiv. 25-35             154, 156, 164, 165
+xiv. 26                233
+xv.  1f.                96
+xv. 1 to xvi. 31       117
+xv. 4-7                 44
+xv. 7                  233
+xv. 11-32              232
+xvi. 13                295
+xvi. 22                247
+xvi. 31                229
+xvii. 1-4              117
+xvii. 11               157
+xvii. 11-19            153
+xvii. 20-37            154
+xviii. 1-8             154, 164
+xviii. 9-14            154, 159
+xviii. 15-17           153
+xviii. 15 to xix. 28   104
+xviii. 18-30           153
+xviii.  31-34          153
+xviii.  34             203
+xviii.  35-43          153
+xviii. 35 to xix. 28   155, 164
+xix. 1-10              154
+xix. 11-28             154, 163
+xix. 28 to xxiv. 53     27
+xix. 29-44             166
+xix. 29 to xxiii. 56   104
+xix. 29 to xxiii. 53    39
+xix. 37-40             162
+xix. 39                170
+xix. 41-44             170
+xix. 45f.              289
+xix. 45-47f.           166
+xix. 47                172
+xx. 1                  166
+xx. 1-8                166
+xx. 9-19               166
+xx. 20-26              166
+xx. 27-40              166
+xx. 41-44              166
+xx. 45-47              166
+xxi. 1-4               166
+xxi. 5-38              167
+xxii. 37-38            166
+xxii. 1-6              167
+xxii. 7-30             167
+xxii. 14               181
+xxii. 15               181, 183, 303
+xxii. 17               304
+xxii. 17-20            185
+xxii. 19               184
+xxii. 23-30            304
+xxii. 28                87
+xxii. 31-34            185, 305
+xxii. 39-46            167
+xxii. 47-53            167
+xxii. 54-71            167
+xxii. 61f.             193
+xxii. 66-71            192
+xxii. 70               263
+xxiii. 1f.             192
+xxiii. 1-25            167
+xxiii. 4               192
+xxiii. 5-12            192
+xxiii. 13-16           192
+xxiii. 16-24           192
+xxiii. 26-49           167
+xxiii. 27-31           195
+xxiii. 34              197, 306, 307
+xxiii. 43              197, 306
+xxiii. 46               64, 197, 265, 306
+xxiii. 50-56           167
+xxiii. 56              182
+xxiv. 1-12             201
+xxiv. 12               205
+xxiv. 13-35            201
+xxiv. 21               200, 203
+xxiv. 36-43            201
+xxiv. 41-43            213
+xxiv. 44-53            201
+xxiv. 50               205
+xxiv. 51               214, 307
+
+
+
+John.
+
+
+i. 14                   58, 269
+1. 19 to iv. 42         40, 101
+i. 25                   78
+i. 26f.                 93
+i. 28                   92, 284
+i. 29                   93
+i. 29-36                80
+i. 30-34                93
+i. 31                   82
+i. 32-34                84
+i. 35f.                 93
+i. 38                   20, 226
+i. 40f., 43-45          92
+i. 41-45               142
+i. 42-47               239
+i. 44                  290
+i. 49                   94, 142, 254, 261, 263
+i. 51                   95
+ii. 3-5                 97
+ii. 11                 222
+ii. 12                  97
+ii. 13                  46
+ii. 13-22               43, 106, 288
+ii. 16                 262
+ii. 20                  49
+ii. 22                  96
+ii. 23 to iii. 15      106
+ii. 25                  68, 141, 234, 239
+iii. 2                 226
+iii. 16-21,30-36        32
+iii. 22-30             106
+iii. 24                 46, 101
+iii. 23                288
+iii. 24,35             113
+iii. 30                 80
+iii. 34                 85, 86
+iv. 1-3                113
+iv. 1-3, 44            112
+iv. 1-4                289
+iv. 1-42               106
+iv. 1-45               102
+iv. 21-24              109
+iv. 25                  14
+iv. 26                 254
+iv. 30                  95
+iv. 34                 265
+iv. 35                 107, 288, 293
+iv. 42                  40
+iv. 43-45               39, 106, 286
+iv. 46-54              102, 106, 115, 289
+v. 1                    40, 48, 293
+v. 1-9                  32
+v. 1-47                102, 115
+v. 17                  262
+v. 19                  264
+v. 25                  263
+v. 30                  265
+v. 39                  229
+vi. 1-15                39, 116
+vi. 1-71               102
+vi. 4                   46, 138, 293
+vi. 14                  25
+vi. 14f.               119
+vi. 15                  89, 120, 135, 170
+vi. 16-21              116
+vi. 22-71              116
+vi. 30-32               87
+vi. 38                 189, 265
+vi. 64                 178, 180
+vi. 66                 136
+vi. 67                 225
+vi. 67-71              298
+vi. 68                  81, 123
+vi. 68f.               142
+vi. 69                 254
+vii. 1-10               39, 298
+vii. 1-52              117
+vii. 1 to viii. 59     103, 149
+vii. 2                 138
+vii. 2-5               148
+vii. 5                  64
+vii. 10                150
+vii. 15                235
+vii. 22                244
+vii. 23                 32
+vii. 24                227
+vii. 25,32             160
+vii. 31                 95
+vii. 32                299
+vii. 36                149
+vii. 40                254
+vii. 45-52             299
+vii. 49                 13, 220
+vii. 50-52             111
+vii. 53 to viii. 11     37, 117, 149, 157
+viii. 12-59            117
+viii. 14               248
+viii. 15               157
+viii. 46                83, 266
+viii. 59               160, 299
+ix. 1 to x. 39         153
+ix. 1 to xi. 57        104
+ix. 10                 158, 159
+ix. 35                 263
+ix. 35-38              156
+x. 11-18               159
+x. 18                   89
+x. 21                  159
+x. 22                  150, 155, 298
+x. 22, 40-42            58
+x. 24-39               159
+x. 25                  161, 262
+x. 29                  265
+x. 30                  264
+x. 31-39               160
+x. 32                  233
+x. 34                  261
+x. 36                  263
+x. 39                  156
+x. 40                  154, 155, 301
+x. 40-42               153, 160
+xi. 1-7                155
+xi. 1-46               153, 161
+xi. 4                  263
+xi. 6                  161
+xi. 34                 243, 258
+xi. 41f.               161, 265
+xi. 47-50              193
+xi. 47-54              153, 161
+xi. 54                 155, 162, 300
+xi. 55 to xii. 11      166
+xi. 55 to xix. 42      104
+xii. 1                  46, 102, 163, 301
+xii. 1 to xxi. 25       39
+xii. 2                 169
+xii. 4-8               301
+xii. 6                 178
+xii. 7                 169
+xii. 12f.              170
+xii. 12-19             166
+xii. 20-36             166, 176, 302
+xii. 23-36             168
+xii. 36^b(-50)         166
+xii. 37-43              32
+xiii. 1                181, 303
+xiii. 1-15             234, 304
+xiii. 1-30             167
+xiii. 21-30            184
+xiii. 23-26            185
+xiii. 29               178, 303
+xiii. 31 to xvi. 33     32, 167, 305
+xiii. 32f.             305
+xiii. 36-38            305
+xiv. 6-11              264
+xiv. 10                161, 265
+xiv. 28                265
+xiv. 30f.               32
+xv.                     32, 167, 305
+xv. 1                  262
+xvi.                    32, 167, 305
+xvi. 25                264
+xvii. 1-26             167
+xvii. 21               264
+xviii. 1               167
+xviii. 1-12            167
+xviii. 8               190
+xviii. 11^b            189
+xviii. 12-27           167
+xviii. 15              193
+xviii. 28              182, 303
+xviii. 28 to xix. 16   167
+xviii. 31              192
+xviii. 33, 36f.        254
+xix. 7-12              192
+xix. 12-16             193
+xix. 14                606
+xix. 16-37             167
+xix. 19-22             198
+xix. 25                 97
+xix. 26                 97
+xix. 26f.              197, 306
+xix. 28                197, 306
+xix. 30                197, 306
+xix. 31                182, 199, 303
+xix. 31-37             198
+xix. 38                 34
+xix. 38-42             167
+xix. 39                111
+xix. 42                303
+xx. 1-10               201
+xx. 2                  206
+xx. 5-8                 43
+xx. 8                  203
+xx. 9                  200
+xx. 9f., 24f.           93, 94
+xx. 14-18              201
+xx. 17                 209, 214
+xx 19-25               201
+xx. 21                  23
+xx. 26-29              201
+xx. 30                  49
+xx. 30f.               32, 107
+xxi.                   206
+xxi. 2                  92
+xxi. 1-24              201
+xxi. 3-14              293
+xxi. 25                 39
+
+
+
+Acts.
+
+
+i. 1-11                214
+i. 1-12                201
+i. 14                   97
+ii. 36                 202
+v. 36                   89
+v. 37                   53
+vii. 56                254
+xvii. 31               202
+xix. 1-7                80
+xx. 35                  36
+xxi. 38                 89
+xxiii. 8               302
+
+
+
+Rom.
+
+
+i. 3                    21
+i. 4                   202
+v. 19                   21
+ix. 5                   21
+xv. 3                   21
+
+
+
+I. Cor.
+
+
+i. 23                  190
+v. 7                   183
+ix. 1                  202
+x. 16                  304
+xv.                    202
+xv. 3-8                 21, 105, 204
+xv. 4                  204, 213
+xv. 5                  201
+xv. 6                  201
+xv. 6f.                162
+xv. 7                  201
+
+
+
+II. Cor.
+
+
+v. 21                   83
+viii. 9                 21
+x. l                    21
+xii.                   212
+
+
+
+Gal.
+
+
+iii. 13                190
+
+
+
+Phil.
+
+
+ii. 5-11                21, 269
+ii. 7f.                190, 285
+ii. 8                  196
+
+
+
+II. Tim.
+
+
+iii. 15                 63
+
+
+
+Heb.
+
+
+ii. 17                  61
+ii. 17f.                64
+ii. 18                  87
+iv. 15                  61, 63, 67
+v. 7                   147
+v. 7-9                  87
+vii. 26                 57
+xii. 2                 190
+xii. 13                190
+
+
+
+I. Pet.
+
+
+ii. 22                  83
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's The Life of Jesus of Nazareth, by Rush Rhees
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Life of Jesus of Nazareth, by Rush Rhees
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Life of Jesus of Nazareth
+
+Author: Rush Rhees
+
+Release Date: August 20, 2004 [EBook #13228]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE LIFE OF JESUS OF NAZARETH ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Distributed Proofreaders
+
+
+
+
+[Transcriber's note: Superscripted letters and numbers have been marked
+with a preceding caret (^).]
+
+
+
+
+The Life of Jesus of Nazareth
+
+_A Study_
+
+By
+
+Rush Rhees
+
+1902
+
+
+
+
+_Copyright, 1900,_
+By Charles Scribner's Sons
+
+
+
+
+To
+
+C. W. McC.
+
+In Recognition of Wise Counsel, Generous Help and Loving Appreciation
+
+
+
+
+"_I would preach ... the need to the world of the faith
+in a Christ, the claim that Jesus is the Christ, and the demand
+for an intelligent faith, which indeed shall transcend but shall
+not despise knowledge, or neglect to have a knowledge to
+transcend._"--John Patterson Coyle
+
+
+
+
+Preface
+
+
+
+The aim of this book is to help thoughtful readers of the gospels to
+discern more clearly the features of him whom those writings inimitably
+portray. It is avowedly a study rather than a story, and as a companion to
+the reading of the gospels it seeks to answer some of the questions which
+are raised by a sympathetic consideration of those narratives. These
+answers are offered in an unargumentative way, even where the questions
+are still in debate among scholars. This method has been adopted because
+technical discussion would be of interest to but few of those whom the
+book hopes to serve. On some of the questions a non-committal attitude is
+taken in the belief that for the understanding of the life of Jesus it is
+of little importance which way the decision finally goes. Less attention
+has been given to questions of geography and archæology than to those
+which have a more vital biographical significance.
+
+A word concerning the point of view adopted. The church has inherited a
+rich treasure of doctrine concerning its Lord, the result of patient study
+and, frequently, of heated controversy. It is customary to approach the
+gospels with this interpretation of Christ as a premise, and such a study
+has some unquestionable advantages. With the apostles and evangelists,
+however, the recognition of the divine nature of Jesus was a conclusion
+from their acquaintance with him. The Man of Nazareth was for them
+primarily a man, and they so regarded him until he showed them that he was
+more. Their knowledge of him progressed in the natural way from the human
+to the divine. The gospels, particularly the first three, are marvels of
+simplicity and objectivity. Their authors clearly regarded Jesus as the
+Man from heaven; yet in their thinking they were dominated by the
+influence of a personal Lord rather than by the force of an accepted
+doctrine. It is with no lack of reverence for the importance and truth of
+the divinity of Christ that this book essays to bring the Man Jesus before
+the mind in the reading of the gospels. The incarnation means that God
+chose to reveal the divine through a human life, rather than through a
+series of propositions which formulate truth (Heb. i. 1-4). The most
+perennially refreshing influence for Christian life and thought is
+personal discipleship to that Revealer who is able to-day as of old to
+exhibit in his humanity those qualities which compel the recognition of
+God manifest in the flesh.
+
+An Appendix is added to furnish references to the wide literature of the
+subject for the aid of those who wish to study it more extensively and
+technically; also to discuss some questions of detail which could not be
+considered in the text. This appendix will indicate the extent of my
+indebtedness to others. I would acknowledge special obligation to
+Professor Ernest D. Burton, of the University of Chicago, for generous
+help and permission to use material found in his "Notes on the Life of
+Jesus;" to Professor Shailer Mathews, also of Chicago, for very valuable
+criticisms; to my colleague, Professor Charles Rufus Brown, for most
+serviceable assistance; and to the editors of this series for helpful
+suggestions and criticism during the making of the book. An unmeasured
+debt is due to another who has sat at my side during the writing of these
+pages, and has given constant inspiration, most discerning criticism, and
+practical aid.
+
+The Newton Theological Institution, April, 1900.
+
+
+
+
+Contents
+
+
+
+Part I
+
+Preparatory
+
+
+
+I
+
+The Historical Situation
+
+Sections 1-19. Pages 1-20
+
+   Section 1. The Roman estimate of Judea. 2, 3. Herod the Great and his
+   sons. 4. Roman procurators in Palestine. 5. Taxes. 6. The army. 7.
+   Administration of justice. 8. The Sadducees. 9,10. The Pharisees. 11.
+   The Zealots. 12. The Essenes. 13. The Devout. 14. Herodians and
+   Samaritans. 15. The synagogue. 16. Life under the law. 17. The
+   Messianic hope. 18. Contemporary literature. 19. Language of Palestine.
+
+
+II
+
+Sources of Our Knowledge of Jesus
+
+Sections 20-35. Pages 21-37
+
+   Section 20. The testimony of Paul. 21. Secular history. 22. The written
+   gospels. 23. Characteristics of the first gospel. 24. Of the second.
+   25. Of the third. 26-30. The synoptic problem. 31-32. The Johannine
+   problem. 34. The two narrative sources. 35. Agrapha and Apocrypha.
+
+
+III
+
+The Harmony of the Gospels
+
+Sections 36-44. Pages 38-14
+
+   Section 36. The value of four gospels. 37. Tatian's Diatessaron. 38.
+   Agreement of the gospels concerning the chief events. 39. The principal
+   problems. 40. Relation of Mark and John. 41, 42. Matthew and Luke. 43.
+   Doublets. 44. The degree of certainty attainable.
+
+
+IV
+
+The Chronology
+
+Sections 45-57. Pages 45-56
+
+   Sections 45-48. The length of Jesus' public ministry. 49. Date of the
+   first Passover. 50. Date of the crucifixion. 51-56. Date of the
+   nativity. 57. Summary.
+
+
+V
+
+The Early Years of Jesus
+
+Sections 58-71. Pages 57-69
+
+   Section 58. Apocryphal stories. 59. Silence of the New Testament
+   outside the gospels. 60-62. The miraculous birth. 63. The childhood of
+   Jesus. 64. Home. 65. Religion, Education. 66. Growth. 67. Religious
+   development. 68. The view from Nazareth. 69 The first visit to
+   Jerusalem. 70-71. The carpenter of Nazareth.
+
+
+VI
+
+John the Baptist
+
+Sections 72-84. Pages 70-81
+
+   Section 72. The gospel picture. 73. Notice by Josephus. 74.
+   Characteristics of the prophet 75-78. John's relation to the Essenes;
+   the Pharisees; the Zealots; the Apocalyptists. 79. John and the
+   Prophets. 80-82. Origin of his baptism. 83. His greatness. 84. His
+   limitations and self-effacement.
+
+
+VII
+
+The Messianic Call
+
+Sections 85-96. Pages 82-91
+
+   Sections 85, 86. John and Jesus. 87. The baptism of Jesus. 88, 89. The
+   Messianic call. 90. The gift of the Spirit. 91-94. The temptation. 95.
+   Source of the narrative. 96. The issue.
+
+
+VIII
+
+The First Disciples
+
+Sections 97-105. Pages 92-97
+
+   Section 97. John at Bethany beyond Jordan. 98. The deputation from the
+   priests. 99. John's first testimony. 100. The first disciples. 101. The
+   early Messianic confessions. 102. The visit to Cana. 103. The miracles
+   as disclosures of the character of Jesus. 104. Jesus and his mother.
+   105. Removal to Capernaum.
+
+
+
+Part II
+
+The Ministry
+
+
+I
+
+General Survey of the Ministry
+
+Sections 106-112. Pages 101-105
+
+   Section 106. The early Judean ministry. 107. Withdrawal to Galilee; a
+   new beginning. 108. The ministry in Galilee a unit. 109. Best studied
+   topically. 110. The last journey to Jerusalem. 111. The last week. 112.
+   The resurrection and ascension.
+
+
+II
+
+The Early Judean Ministry
+
+Sections 113-124. Pages 106-114
+
+   Outline of events in the Early Judean ministry. Section 113. The
+   opening ministry at Jerusalem. 114. The record incomplete. 115. The
+   cleansing of the temple. 116. Relation to synoptic account. 117. Jesus'
+   reply to the challenge of his authority. 118. The reserve of Jesus.
+   119. Discourse with Nicodemus. 120. Measure of success in Jerusalem.
+   121. The Baptist's last testimony. 122. The arrest of John. 123. The
+   second sign at Cana. 124. Summary.
+
+
+III
+
+The Ministry in Galilee--Its Aim and Method
+
+Sections 125-149. Pages 115-137
+
+   Outline of events in the Galilean ministry. Section 125. General view.
+   126, 127. Development of popular enthusiasm. 128. Pharisaic opposition.
+   129, 130. Jesus and the Messianic hope. 131. Injunctions of silence.
+   132-135. Jesus' twofold aim in Galilee. 136, 137. Character of the
+   teaching of this period: the sermon on the mount. 138. The parables.
+   139. The instructions for the mission of the twelve. 140. Jesus' tone
+   of authority. 141. His mighty works. 142-144. Demoniac possession. 145.
+   Jesus' personal influence. 146. The feeding of the five thousand. 147,
+   148. Revulsion of popular feeling. 149. Results of the work in Galilee.
+
+
+IV
+
+The Ministry in Galilee--The New Lesson
+
+Sections 150-165. Pages 138-152
+
+   Section 150. The changed ministry. 151. The question of tradition. 152.
+   Further pharisaic opposition. 153. Jesus in Phoenicia. 154. Confirmation
+   of the disciples' faith. 155. The question at Cæsarea Philippi. 156.
+   The corner-stone of the Church. 157-159. The new lesson. 160. The
+   transfiguration. 161. Cure of the epileptic boy. 162. The feast of
+   Tabernacles. 163. Story of Jesus and the adulteress. 164. The new note
+   in Jesus' teaching. 165. Summary of the Galilean ministry.
+
+
+V
+
+The Journey through Perea to Jerusalem
+
+Sections 166-176. Pages 153-165
+
+   Outline of events. Section 166. The Perean ministry. 167. Account in
+   John. 168, 169. Account in Luke. 170. The mission of the seventy. 171.
+   The feast of Dedication. 172. Withdrawal beyond Jordan. 173. The
+   raising of Lazarus. 174. Ephraim and Jericho. 175,176. Summary.
+
+
+VI
+
+The Final Controversies in Jerusalem
+
+Sections 177-188. Pages 166-180
+
+   Outline of events in the last week of Jesus' life. Section 177. The
+   cross in apostolic preaching. 178. The anointing in Bethany. 179. The
+   Messianic entry. 180. The barren fig-tree. 181. The Monday of Passion
+   week. 182-186. The controversies of Tuesday. 187. Judas. 188.
+   Wednesday, the day of seclusion.
+
+
+VII
+
+The Last Supper
+
+Sections 189-195. Pages 181-187
+
+   Section 189. Preparations. 190,191. Date of the supper. 192. The lesson
+   of humility. 193. The new covenant. 194. The supper and the Passover.
+   195. Farewell words of admonition and comfort; the intercessory prayer.
+
+
+VIII
+
+The Shadow of Death
+
+Sections 196-208. Pages 188-200
+
+   Sections 196, 197. Gethsemane. 198. The betrayal. 199. The trial. 200.
+   Peter's denials. 201. The rejection of Jesus. 202. The greatness of
+   Jesus. 203, 204. The crucifixion. 205. The words from the cross. 206.
+   The death of Jesus. 207. The burial. 208. The Sabbath rest.
+
+
+IX
+
+The Resurrection
+
+Sections 209-222. Pages 201-216
+
+   Section 209. The primary Christian fact. 210. The incredulity of the
+   disciples. 211-216. The appearances of the risen Lord. 217-220. Efforts
+   to explain the belief in the resurrection. 221. The ascension. 222. The
+   new faith of the disciples.
+
+
+
+Part III
+
+The Minister
+
+
+I
+
+The Friend of Men
+
+Sections 223-229. Pages 219-225
+
+   Section 223. The contrast between Jesus' attitude and John's towards
+   common social life. 224. Contrast with the scribes. 225, 226. His
+   interest in simple manhood. 227. Regard for human need. 228, 229.
+   Sensitiveness to human sympathy.
+
+
+II
+
+The Teacher with Authority
+
+Sections 230-241. Pages 226-237
+
+   Section 230. Contrast between Jesus and the scribes. 231. His appeal to
+   the conscience. His attitude to the Old Testament. 234. His teaching
+   occasional. 235. The patience of his method. 236. His use of
+   illustration. 237. Parable. 238. Irony and hyperbole. 239. Object
+   lessons. 240. Jesus' intellectual superiority. 241. His chief theme,
+   the kingdom of God.
+
+
+III
+
+Jesus' Knowledge of Truth
+
+Sections 242-251. Pages 238-248
+
+   Sections 242, 243. Jesus' supernatural knowledge. 244. His predictions
+   of his death. 245. Of his resurrection. 246. His apocalyptic
+   predictions. 247, 248. Limitation of his knowledge. 249, 250. Jesus and
+   demoniac possession. 251. His certainty of his own mission.
+
+
+IV
+
+Jesus' Conception of Himself
+
+Sections 252-275. Pages 249-269.
+
+   Section 252. Jesus' confidence in his calling. 253. His independence in
+   teaching. 254. His self-assertions in response to pharisaic criticism.
+   255. His desire to beget faith in himself. 256,257. His extraordinary
+   personal claim. 258. His acceptance of Messianic titles. 259-266. The
+   Son of Man. 267-269. The Son of God. 270, 271. His consciousness of
+   oneness with God. 272. His confession of dependence; his habit of
+   prayer. 273. No confession of sin. 274, 275. The Word made flesh.
+
+
+Appendix
+
+Index of Names and Subjects
+
+Index of Biblical References
+
+Map of Palestine
+
+
+
+
+Part I
+
+
+Preparatory
+
+
+
+
+I
+
+The Historical Situation
+
+
+
+1. When Tacitus, the Roman historian, records the attempt of Nero to
+charge the Christians with the burning of Rome, he has patience for no
+more than the cursory remark that the sect originated with a Jew who had
+been put to death in Judea during the reign of Tiberius. This province was
+small and despised, and Tacitus could account for the influence of the
+sect which sprang thence only by the fact that all that was infamous and
+abominable flowed into Rome. The Roman's scornful judgment failed to grasp
+the nature and power of the movement whose unpopularity invited Nero's
+lying accusation, yet it emphasizes the significance of him who did "not
+strive, nor cry, nor cause his voice to be heard in the street," whose
+influence, nevertheless, was working as leaven throughout the empire.
+
+2. Palestine was not under immediate Roman rule when Jesus was born. Herod
+the Great was drawing near the close of the long reign during which, owing
+to his skill in securing Roman favor, he had tyrannized over his unwilling
+people. His claim was that of an adventurer who had power to succeed, even
+as his method had been that of a suspicious tyrant, who murdered right and
+left, lest one of the many with better right than he should rise to
+dispute with him his throne. When Herod died, his kingdom was divided
+into three parts, and Rome asserted a fuller sovereignty, allowing none of
+his sons to take his royal title. Herod's successors ruled with a measure
+of independence, however, and followed many of their father's ways, though
+none of them had his ability. The best of them was Philip, who had the
+territory farthest from Jerusalem, and least related to Jewish life. He
+ruled over Iturea and Trachonitis, the country to the north and east of
+the Sea of Galilee, having his capital at Cæsarea Philippi, a city built
+and named by him on the site of an older town near the sources of the
+Jordan. He also rebuilt the city of Bethsaida, at the point where the
+Jordan flows into the Sea of Galilee, calling it Julias, after the
+daughter of Augustus. Philip enters the story of the life of Jesus only as
+the ruler of these towns and the intervening region, and as husband of
+Salome, the daughter of Herodias. Living far from Jerusalem and the Jewish
+people, he abandoned even the show of Judaism which characterized his
+father, and lived as a frank heathen in his heathen capital.
+
+3. The other two who inherited Herod's dominion were brothers, Archelaus
+and Antipas, sons of Malthace, one of Herod's many wives. Archelaus had
+been designated king by Herod, with Judea, Samaria, and Idumea as his
+kingdom; but the emperor allowed him only the territory, with the title
+ethnarch. Antipas was named a tetrarch by Herod, and his territory was
+Galilee and the land east of the Jordan to the southward of the Sea of
+Galilee, called Perea. Antipas was the Herod under whose sway Jesus lived
+in Galilee, and who executed John the Baptist. He was a man of passionate
+temper, with the pride and love of luxury of his father. Having Jews to
+govern, he held, as his father had done, to a show of Judaism, though at
+heart he was as much of a pagan as Philip. He, too, loved building, and
+Tiberias on the Sea of Galilee was built by him for his capital. His
+unscrupulous tyranny and his gross disregard of common righteousness
+appear in his relations with John the Baptist and with Herodias, his
+paramour. Jesus described him well as "that fox" (Luke xiii. 32), for he
+was sly, and worked often by indirection. While his father had energy and
+ability which command a sort of admiration, Antipas was not only bad but
+weak.
+
+4. Both Philip and Antipas reigned until after the death of Jesus, Philip
+dying in A.D. 34, and Antipas being deposed several years later, probably
+in 39. Archelaus had a much shorter rule, for he was deposed in A.D. 6,
+having been accused by the Jews of unbearable barbarity and tyranny,--a
+charge in which Antipas and Philip joined. The territory of Archelaus was
+then made an imperial province of the second grade, ruled by a procurator
+appointed from among the Roman knights. In provinces under an imperial
+legate (propraetor) the procurator was an officer for the administration
+of the revenues; in provinces of the rank of Judea he was, however, the
+representative of the emperor in all the prerogatives of government,
+having command of the army, and being the final resort in legal procedure,
+as well as supervising the collection of the customs and taxes. Very
+little is known of the procurators appointed after the deposition of
+Archelaus, until Tiberius sent Pontius Pilate in A.D. 26. He held office
+until he was deposed in 36. Josephus gives several examples of his wanton
+disregard of Jewish prejudice, and of his extreme cruelty. His conduct at
+the trial of Jesus was remarkably gentle and judicial in comparison with
+other acts recorded of his government; yet the fear of trial at Rome,
+which finally induced him to give Jesus over to be crucified, was
+thoroughly characteristic; in fact, his downfall resulted from a complaint
+lodged against him by certain Samaritans whom he had cruelly punished for
+a Messianic uprising.
+
+5. There were two sorts of Roman taxes in Judea: direct, which were
+collected by salaried officials; and customs, which were farmed out to the
+highest bidder. The direct taxes consisted of a land tax and a poll tax,
+in the collection of which the procurator made use of the local Jewish
+courts; the customs consisted of various duties assessed on exports, and
+they were gathered by representatives of men who had bought the right to
+collect these dues. The chiefs as well as their underlings are called
+publicans in our New Testament, although the name strictly applies only to
+the chiefs. These tax-gatherers, small and great, were everywhere despised
+and execrated, because, in addition to their subserviency to a hated
+government, they had a reputation, usually deserved, for all sorts of
+extortion. Because of this evil repute they were commonly drawn from the
+unscrupulous among the people, so that the frequent coupling of publicans
+and sinners in the gospels probably rested on fact as much as on
+prejudice.
+
+6. In Samaria and Judea soldiers were under the command of the procurator;
+they took orders from the tetrarch, in Galilee and Perea. The garrison of
+Jerusalem consisted of one Roman cohort--from five to six hundred
+men--which was reinforced at the time of the principal feasts. These and
+the other forces at the disposal of the procurator were probably recruited
+from the country itself, largely from among the Samaritans. The centurion
+of Capernaum (Matt. viii. 5; Luke vii. 2-5) was an officer in the army of
+Antipas, who, however, doubtless organized his army on the Roman pattern,
+with officers who had had their training with the imperial forces.
+
+7. The administration of justice in Samaria and Judea was theoretically in
+the hands of the procurator; practically, however, it was left with the
+Jewish courts, either the local councils or the great sanhedrin at
+Jerusalem. This last body consisted of seventy-one "elders." Its president
+was the high-priest, and its members were drawn in large degree from the
+most prominent representatives of the priestly aristocracy. The scribes,
+however, had a controlling influence because of the reverence in which the
+multitude held them. The sanhedrin of Jerusalem had jurisdiction only
+within the province of Judea, where it tried all kinds of offences; its
+judgment was final, except in capital cases, when it had to yield to the
+procurator, who alone could sentence to death. It had great influence also
+in Galilee, and among Jews everywhere, but this was due to the regard all
+Jews had for the holy city. It was, in fact, a sort of Jewish senate,
+which took cognizance of everything that seemed to affect the Jewish
+interests. In Galilee and Perea, Antipas held in his hands the judicial as
+well as the military and financial administration.
+
+8. To the majority of the priests religion had become chiefly a form.
+They represented the worldly party among the Jews. Since the days of the
+priest-princes who ruled in Jerusalem after the return from the exile,
+they had constituted the Jewish aristocracy, and held most of the wealth
+of the people. It was to their interest to maintain the ritual and the
+traditional customs, and they were proud of their Jewish heritage; of
+genuine interest in religion, however, they had little. This secular
+priestly party was called the Sadducees, probably from Zadok, the
+high-priest in Solomon's time. What theology the Sadducees had was for the
+most part reactionary and negative. They were opposed to the more earnest
+spirit and new thought of the scribes, and naturally produced some
+champions who argued for their theological position; but the mass of them
+cared for other things.
+
+9. The leaders of the popular thought, on the other hand, were chiefly
+noted for their religious zeal and theological acumen. They represented
+the outgrowth of that spirit which in the Maccabean time had risked all to
+defend the sanctity of the temple and the right of God's people to worship
+him according to his law. They were known as Pharisees, because, as the
+name ("separated") indicates, they insisted on the separation of the
+people of God from all the defilements and snares of the heathen life
+round about them. The Pharisees constituted a fraternity devoted to the
+scrupulous observance of law and tradition in all the concerns of daily
+life. They were specialists in religion, and were the ideal
+representatives of Judaism. Their distinguishing characteristic was
+reverence for the law; their religion was the religion of a book. By
+punctilious obedience of the law man might hope to gain a record of merit
+which should stand to his credit and secure his reward when God should
+finally judge the world. Because life furnished many situations not dealt
+with in the written law, there was need of its authoritative
+interpretation, in order that ignorance might not cause a man to
+transgress. These interpretations constituted an oral law which
+practically superseded the written code, and they were handed down from
+generation to generation as "the traditions of the fathers." The existence
+of this oral law made necessary a company of scribes and lawyers whose
+business it was to know the traditions and transmit them to their pupils.
+These scribes were the teachers of Israel, the leaders of the Pharisees,
+and the most highly revered class in the community. Pharisaism at its
+beginning was intensely earnest, but in the time of Jesus the earnest
+spirit had died out in zealous formalism. This was the inevitable result
+of their virtual substitution of the written law for the living God. Their
+excessive reverence had banished God from practical relation to the daily
+life. They held that he had declared his will once for all in the law. His
+name was scrupulously revered, his worship was cultivated with minutest
+care, his judgment was anticipated with dread; but he himself, like an
+Oriental monarch, was kept far from common life in an isolation suitable
+to his awful holiness. By a natural consequence conscience gave place to
+scrupulous regard for tradition in the religion of the scribes. The chief
+question with them was not, Is this right? but, What say the elders? The
+soul's sensitiveness of response to God's will and God's truth was lost in
+a maze of traditions which awoke no spontaneous Amen in the moral nature,
+consequently there was frequent substitution of reputation for character.
+The Pharisees could make void the command, Honor thy father, by an
+ingenious application of the principle of dedication of property to God
+(Mark vii. 8-13), and thus under the guise of scrupulous regard for law
+discovered ways for legal disregard of law. Their theory of religion gave
+abundant room for a piety which made broad its phylacteries and lengthened
+its prayers, while neglecting judgment, mercy, and the love of God.
+
+10. Yet the earnest and true development in Jewish thinking was found
+among the Pharisees. The early hope of Israel was almost exclusively
+national. In the later books of the Old Testament, in connection with an
+enlarged sense of the importance of the individual, the doctrine of a
+personal resurrection to share the blessings of the Messiah's kingdom
+began to appear. It had its clear development and definite adoption as
+part of the faith of Judaism, however, under the influence of the
+Pharisees. Along with this increased emphasis on the worth of the
+individual came a large development of the doctrine of angels and spirits.
+Towards both of these doctrines the Sadducees took a reactionary position.
+Politically the Pharisees were theocratic in theory, but opportunists in
+practice, accommodating themselves to the existing state of things so long
+as the _de facto_ government did not interfere with the religious life of
+the people. They looked for a kingdom in which God should be evidently the
+king of his people; but they believed that his sovereignty was to be
+realized through the law, hence their sole interest was in the obedience
+of God's people to that law as interpreted by the traditions.
+
+11. The theocratic spirit was more aggressive in a party which originated
+in the later years of Herod the Great, and found a reckless leader in
+Judas of Galilee, who started a revolt when the governor of Syria
+undertook to make a census of the Jews after the deposition of Archelaus.
+This party bore the name Cananeans or Zealots. They regarded with
+passionate resentment the subjection of God's people to a foreign power,
+and waited eagerly for an opportune time to take the sword and set up the
+kingdom of God; it was with them that the final war against Rome began.
+They were found in largest numbers in Galilee, where the scholasticism of
+the scribes was not so dominating an influence as in Judea. Dr. Edersheim
+has called them the nationalist party. In matters belonging strictly to
+the religious life they followed the Pharisees, only holding a more
+material conception of the hope of Israel.
+
+12. Another development in Jewish religious life carried separatist
+doctrines to the extreme. Its representatives were called Essenes, though
+what the significance of the name was is no longer clear. Although they
+were allied with the Pharisees in doctrine, they show in some particulars
+the influence of Hellenistic Judaism. This is suggested not only by the
+attention which Philo and Josephus give to them, but also by certain of
+their views, which were very like the doctrines of the Pythagoreans. They
+carried the pharisaic demand for separateness to the extreme of
+asceticism. While they were found in nearly every town in Palestine, some
+of them even practising marriage, the largest group of them lived a
+celibate, monastic life near the shores of the Dead Sea. This community
+was recruited by the initiation of converts, who only after a novitiate of
+three years were admitted to full membership in the order. They were
+characterized by an extreme scrupulousness concerning ceremonial purity,
+their meals were regarded as sacrifices, and were prepared by members of
+the order, who were looked upon as priests, nor were any allowed to
+partake of the food until they had first bathed themselves. Their regular
+garments were all white, and were regarded as vestments for use at the
+sacrificial meals,--other clothing being assumed as they went out to their
+work. They were industrious agriculturists, their life was communistic,
+and they were renowned for their uprightness. They revered Moses as highly
+as did the scribes; yet they were opposed to animal sacrifices, and,
+although they sent gifts to the temple, were apparently excluded from its
+worship. Their kinship with the Pythagoreans appears in that they
+addressed an invocation to the sun at its rising, and conducted all their
+natural functions with scrupulous modesty, "that they might not offend the
+brightness of God" (Jos. Wars, ii. 8, 9). Their rejection of bloody
+sacrifices, and their view that the soul is imprisoned in the body and at
+death is freed for a better life, besides many features of their life that
+are genuinely Jewish, such as their regard for ceremonial purity, also
+show similarity to the Pythagoreans. It has always been a matter of
+perplexity that these ascetics find no mention in the New Testament. They
+seem to have lived a life too much apart, and to have had little sympathy
+with the ideals of Jesus, or even of John the Baptist.
+
+13. The common people followed the lead of the Pharisees, though afar
+off. They accepted the teaching concerning tradition, as well as that
+concerning the resurrection, conforming their lives to the prescriptions
+of the scribes more or less strictly, according as they were more or loss
+ruled by religious considerations. It was in consequence of their hold on
+the people that the scribes in the sanhedrin were able often to dictate a
+policy to the Sadducean majority. Jesus voiced the popular opinion when he
+said that "the scribes sit in Moses' seat" (Matt, xxiii. 2). Their leaders
+despised "this multitude which knoweth not the law" (John vii. 49), yet
+delighted to legislate for them, binding heavy burdens and grievous to be
+borne. Many of the people were doubtless too intent on work and gain to be
+very regardful of the _minutiæ_ of conduct as ordained by the scribes;
+many more were too simple-minded to follow the theories of the rabbis
+concerning the aloofness of God from the life of men. These last
+reverenced the scribes, followed their directions, in the main, for the
+conduct of life, yet lived in fellowship with God as their fathers had,
+trusting in his faithfulness, and hoping in his mercy. They are
+represented in the New Testament by such as Simeon and Anna, Zachariah and
+Elizabeth, Joseph and Mary, and the majority of those who heard and heeded
+John's call to repentance. They were Israel's remnant of pure and
+undefiled religion, and constituted what there was of good soil among the
+people for the reception of the seed sown by John's successor. They had no
+name, for they did not constitute a party; for convenience they may be
+called the Devout.
+
+14. Two other classes among the people are mentioned in the gospels,--the
+Herodians and the Samaritans. The Herodians do not appear outside the New
+Testament, and seem to have been hardly more than a group of men in whom
+the secular spirit was dominant, who thought it best for their interests
+and for the people's to champion the claims of the Herodian family. They
+were probably more akin to the Pharisees than to the Sadducees, for the
+latter were hostile to the Herodian claims, from the first; yet in spirit
+they seem more like to the worldly aristocracy than to the pious scribes.
+The Samaritans lived in the land, a people despising and despised. Their
+territory separated Galilee from Judea, and they were a constant source of
+irritation to the Jews. The hatred was inherited from the days of Ezra,
+when the zealous Jews refused to allow any intercourse with the
+inhabitants of Samaria. These Samaritans were spurned as of impure blood
+and mixed religion (II. Kings xvii. 24-41). The severe attitude adopted
+towards them by Ezra and Nehemiah led to the building of a temple on Mount
+Gerizim, and the establishment of a worship which sought to rival that of
+Jerusalem in all particulars. Very little is known of the tenets of the
+Samaritans in the time of Jesus beyond their belief that Gerizim was the
+place which, according to the law, God chose for his temple, and that a
+Messiah should come to settle all questions of dispute (John iv. 25).
+
+15. Although the religious life of the Jews centred ideally in the temple,
+it found its practical expression in the synagogue. This in itself is
+evidence of the relative influence of priests and scribes. There was no
+confessed rivalry. The Pharisee was most insistent on the sanctity of the
+temple and the importance of its ritual. Yet with the growing sense of the
+religious significance of the individual as distinct from the nation,
+there arose of necessity a practical need for a system of worship possible
+for the great majority of the people, who could at best visit Jerusalem
+but once or twice a year. The synagogue seems to have been a development
+of the exile, when there was no temple and no sacrifice. It was the
+characteristic institution of Judaism as a religion of the law, furnishing
+in every place opportunity for prayer and study. The elders of each
+community seem ordinarily to have been in control of its synagogue, and to
+have had authority to exclude from its fellowship persons who had come
+under the ban. In addition to these officials there was a ruler of the
+synagogue, who had the direction of all that concerned the worship; a
+_chazzan_, or minister, who had the care of the sacred books, administered
+discipline, and instructed the children in reading the scripture; and two
+or more receivers of alms. The Sabbath services consisted of prayers, and
+reading of the scriptures--both law and prophets,--and an address or
+sermon. It was in the sermon that the people learned to know the
+"traditions of the elders," whether as applications of the law to the
+daily life, or as legendary embellishments of Hebrew history and prophecy.
+The preacher might be any one whom the ruler of the synagague recognized
+as worthy to address the congregation.
+
+16. The religious life which centred in the synagogue found daily
+expression in the observance of the law and the traditions. In the measure
+of its control by the scribes it was concerned chiefly with the Sabbath,
+with the various ablutions needful to the maintenance of ceremonial
+purity, with the distinctions between clean and unclean food, with the
+times and ways of fasting, and with the wearing of fringes and
+phylacteries. These lifeless ceremonies seem to our day wearisome and
+petty in the extreme. It is probable, however, that the growth of the
+various traditions had been so gradual that, as has been aptly said, the
+whole usage seemed no more unreasonable to the Jews than the etiquette of
+polite society does to its devotees. The evil was not so much in the
+minuteness of the regulations as in the external and superficial notion of
+religion which they induced.
+
+17. Optimism was the mood of Israel's prophets from the earliest times.
+Every generation looked for the dawning of a day which should banish all
+ill and realize the dreams inspired by the covenant in which God had
+chosen Israel for his own. In proportion as the rabbinic formalism held
+control of the hearts of the people, the Messianic hope lost its warmth
+and vigor. Yet the scribes did not abandon the prophetic optimism; they
+held to the letter of the hope, but as its fulfilment was for them
+dependent on perfect obedience to the law, oral and written, their
+interest was diverted to the traditions, and their strength was given to
+legal disputations. Of the rest of the people, the Sadducees naturally
+gave little thought to the promise of future deliverance, they were too
+absorbed with regard for present concerns. Nor is there any evidence that
+the Essenes, with all their reputed knowledge of the future, cherished the
+hope of a Messiah. The other elements among the people who owned the
+general leadership of the scribes looked eagerly for the coming time when
+God should bring to pass what he had promised through the prophets. While
+some expected God himself to come in judgment, and gave no thought to an
+Anointed one who should represent the Most High to the people, the
+majority looked for a Son of David to sit upon his father's throne. Even
+so, however, there were wide differences in the nature of the hope which
+was set on the coming of this Son of David. The Zealots were looking for a
+victory, which should set Israel on high over all his foes. To the rest of
+the people, however, the method of the consummation was not so clear, and
+they were ready to leave God to work out his purpose in his own way,
+longing meanwhile for the fulfilment of his promise. One class in
+particular gave themselves to visionary representations of the promised
+redemption. They differed from the Zealots in that they saw with unwelcome
+clearness the futility of physical attack upon their enemies; but their
+faith was strong, and at the moment when outward conditions seemed most
+disheartening they looked for a revelation of God's power from heaven,
+destroying all sinners in his wrath, and delivering and comforting his
+people, giving them their lot in a veritable Canaan situated in a renewed
+earth. Such visions are recorded in the Book of Daniel and the Revelation
+of John. They are found in many other apocalypses not included in our
+Bible, and indicate how persistently the minds of the people turned
+towards the promises spoken by the prophets, and meditated on their
+fulfilment. The Devout were midway between the Zealots and the
+Apocalyptists. The songs of Zachariah and Mary and the thanksgiving of
+Simeon express their faith. They hoped for a kingdom as tangible as the
+Zealots sought, yet they preferred to _wait_ for the consolation of
+Israel. They believed that God was still in his heaven, that he was not
+disregardful of his people, and that in his own time he would raise up
+unto them their king. They looked for a Son of David, yet his reign was to
+be as remarkable for its purification of his own people as for its
+victories over their foes. These victories indeed were to be largely
+spiritual, for their Messiah was to conquer in the strength of the Spirit
+of God and "by the word of his mouth." Such as these were ready for a
+ministry like John's, and not unready for the new ideal which Jesus was
+about to offer them, though their highest spiritualization of the
+Messianic hope was but a shadow of the reality which Jesus asked them to
+accept.
+
+18. This last conception of the Messiah is found in a group of psalms
+written in the first century before Christ, during the early days of the
+Roman interference in Judea. These Psalms of Solomon, as they are called,
+are pharisaic in point of view, yet they are not rabbinic in their ideas.
+Their feeling is too deep, and their reliance on God too immediate; they
+fitly follow the psalms of the Old Testament, though afar off. Of another
+type of contemporary literature, Apocalypse, at least two representatives
+besides the Book of Daniel have come down to us from the time of Jesus or
+earlier,--the so-called Book of Enoch, and the fragment known as the
+Assumption of Moses. These writings have peculiar interest, because they
+are probably the source of quotations found in the Epistle of Jude;
+moreover, some sayings of Jesus reported in the gospels, and in particular
+his chosen title, The Son of Man, are strikingly similar to expressions
+found in Enoch. Can Jesus have read these books? The psalms of the Devout
+were the kind of literature to pass rapidly from heart to heart, until all
+who sympathized with their hope and faith had heard or seen them. The case
+was different with the apocalypses. They are more elaborate and
+enigmatical, and may have been only slightly known. Yet, as Jesus was
+familiar with the canonical Book of Daniel, although it was not read in
+the synagogue service in his time, it is possible that he may also have
+read or heard other books which had not won recognition as canonical. If,
+however, he knew nothing of them, the similarity between the apocalypses
+and some of Jesus' ideas and expressions becomes all the more significant;
+for it shows that these writings gave utterance to thoughts and feelings
+shared by men who never read them, which were, therefore, no isolated
+fancies, but characteristic of the religion of many of the people. With
+these ideas Jesus was familiar; whether he ever read the books must remain
+a question.
+
+19. This literature exists for us only in translations made in the days of
+the early church. Most of these books were originally written in Hebrew,
+the language of the Old Testament, or in Aramaic, the language of
+Palestine in the time of Jesus. Traces of this language as spoken by Jesus
+have been preserved in the gospels,--the name _Rabbi; Abba_, translated
+Father; _Talitha cumi_, addressed to the daughter of Jairus; _Ephphatha_,
+to the deaf man of Bethsaida; and the cry from the cross, _Eloi, Eloi,
+lama sabachthani_ (John i. 38; Mark xiv. 36; v. 41; vii. 34; xv. 34). It
+is altogether probable that in his common dealings with men and in his
+teachings Jesus used this language. Greek was the language of the
+government and of trade, and in a measure the Jews were a bilingual
+people. Jesus may thus have had some knowledge of Greek, but it is
+unlikely that he ever used it to any extent either in Galilee, or Judea,
+or in the regions of Tyre and Sidon.
+
+
+
+
+II
+
+Sources of Our Knowledge Of Jesus
+
+
+
+20. The earliest existing record of events in the life of Jesus is given
+to us in the epistles of Paul. His account of the appearances of the Lord
+after his death and resurrection (I. Cor. xv. 3-8) was written within
+thirty years of these events. The date of the testimony, however, is much
+earlier, since Paul refers to the experience which transformed his own
+life, and so carries us back to within a few years of the crucifixion.
+Other facts from Jesus' life may be gathered from Paul, as his descent
+from Abraham and David (Rom. i. 3; ix. 5); his life of obedience (Rom. v.
+19; xv. 3; Phil. ii. 5-11); his poverty (II. Cor. viii. 9); his meekness
+and gentleness (II. Cor. x. 1); other New Testament writings outside of
+our gospels add somewhat to this restricted but very clear testimony.
+
+21. Secular history knows little of the obscure Galilean. The testimony of
+Tacitus is that the Christians "derived their name and origin from one
+Christ, who in the reign of Tiberius had suffered death by the sentence of
+the procurator, Pontius Pilate" (Annals, xv. 44). Suetonius makes an
+obscure and seemingly ill-informed allusion to Christ in the reason he
+assigns for the edict of Claudius expelling the Jews from Rome (Vit.
+Claud. 25). The younger Pliny in the second century had learned that the
+numerous Christian community in Bithynia was accustomed to honor Christ
+as God; but he shows no knowledge of the life of Jesus beyond what must be
+inferred concerning one who caused men "to bind themselves with an oath
+not to enter into any wickedness, or commit thefts, robberies, or
+adulteries, or falsify their word, or repudiate trusts committed to them"
+(Epistles X. 96). This secular ignorance is not surprising; but the
+silence of Josephus is. He mentions Jesus in but one clearly genuine
+passage, when telling of the martyrdom of James, the "brother of Jesus,
+who is called the Christ" (Ant. xx. 9. 1). Of John the Baptist, however,
+he has a very appreciative notice (Ant, xviii. 5. 2), and it cannot be
+that he was ignorant of Jesus. His appreciation of John suggests that he
+could not have mentioned Jesus more fully without some approval of his
+life and teaching. This would be a condemnation of his own people, whom he
+desired to commend to Gentile regard; and he seems to have taken the
+cowardly course of silence concerning a matter more noteworthy, even for
+that generation, than much else of which he writes very fully.
+
+22. The reason for the lack of written Christian records of Jesus' life
+from the earliest time seems to be, not that the apostles had a small
+sense of the importance of his earthly ministry, but that the early
+generation preferred what at a later time was called the "living voice"
+(Papias in Euseb. Ch. Hist. iii. 39). The impression made by Jesus was
+supremely personal; he wrote nothing, did not command his disciples to
+write anything, preferring to influence men's minds by personal power,
+appointing them, in turn, to represent him to men as he had represented
+the Father to them (John xx. 21). But the time came when the first
+witnesses were passing away, and they were not many who could say, "I saw
+him." Our gospels are the result of the natural desire to preserve the
+apostolic testimony for a generation that could no longer hear the
+apostolic voice; and they are precisely what such a sense of need would
+produce,--vivid pictures of Jesus, agreeing in general features, differing
+more or less in details, reflecting individual feeling for the Master, and
+written not simply to inform men but to convince them of that Master's
+claims. One evidence of the reality of the gospel pictures is the fact
+that we so seldom feel the individual characteristics of each gospel. This
+is especially true of the first three, which, to the vividness of their
+picture, add a remarkable similarity of detail. Tatian, in the second
+century, felt it necessary to make a continuous narrative for the use of
+the church by interweaving the four gospels into one, and he has had many
+successors down to our day; but the fact that unity of impression has
+practically resulted from the four pictures without recourse to such an
+interweaving, invites consideration of the characteristics of these
+remarkable documents.
+
+23. The first gospel impresses the careful reader with three things: (1) A
+clear sense of the development of Jesus' ministry. The author introduces
+his narrative by an account of the birth of Jesus, of the ministry of John
+the Baptist, and of Jesus' baptism and temptation and withdrawal into
+Galilee (i. 1 to iv. 17). He then depicts the public ministry by grouping
+together, first, teachings of Jesus concerning the law of the kingdom of
+heaven, then a series of great miracles confirming the new doctrine, then
+the expansion of the ministry and deepening hostility of the Pharisees,
+leading to the teaching by parables, and the final withdrawal from Galilee
+to the north. This ministry resulted in the chilling of popular enthusiasm
+which had been strong at the beginning, but in the winning of a few hearts
+to Jesus' own ideals of the kingdom of God (iv. 18 to xvi. 20). From this
+point the evangelist leads us to Jerusalem, where rejection culminates,
+the sterner teachings of Jesus are massed, and his victory in seeming
+defeat is exhibited (xvi. 21 to xxviii. 20). (2) The evangelist's interest
+is not satisfied by this clear, strong, picture; he wishes to convince men
+that Jesus is Israel's Messiah, hence, throughout, he indicates the
+fulfilment of prophecy. The things in which he sees the fulfilment are
+striking, for, with but one or two exceptions, they are features of the
+life of Jesus objectionable to Jewish feeling. This fact, taken in
+connection with the emphasis which the gospel gives to the death of Jesus
+at the hands of the Jews, and to the resurrection as God's seal of
+approval of him whom his people rejected, forms a forcible argument to
+prove the Messiahship of Jesus, not simply in spite of his rejection by
+the Jews, but by appeal to that rejection as leading to God's signal
+vindication of the crucified one. (3) This evangelist, while proving that
+Jesus is the Messiah promised to Israel, recognizes clearly the freedom of
+the new faith from the exclusiveness of Jewish feeling. The choice of
+Galilee for the Messianic ministry (iv. 12-17), the comment of Jesus on
+the faith of the centurion (viii. 10-12), the rebuke of Israel in the
+parable of the Wicked Husbandmen (xxi. 33-46), and especially the last
+commission of the risen Lord (xxviii. 18-20), show that this gospel sought
+to convince men of Jewish feeling not only that Jesus is Messiah, but also
+that as Messiah he came to bring salvation to all the world.
+
+24. The second gospel is much simpler in construction than the first,
+while presenting essentially the same picture of the ministry as is found
+in Matthew. To its simplicity it adds a vividness of narration which
+commends Mark's account as probably representing most nearly the actual
+course of the life of Jesus. While it reports fewer incidents and
+teachings than either of the others, a comparison with Matthew and Luke
+shows a preference in Mark for Jesus' deeds, though addresses are not
+wanting; and, while shorter as a whole, for matters which he reports
+Mark's record is most rich in detail, most dramatic in presentation, and
+actually longer than the parallel accounts in the other gospels. The whole
+narrative is animated in style (note the oft-repeated "immediately") and
+full of graphic traits. The story of Jesus seems to be reproduced from a
+memory which retains fresh personal impressions of events as they
+occurred. Hence the frequent comments on the effect of Jesus' ministry,
+such as "We never saw it on this fashion" (ii. 12), or "He hath done all
+things well" (vii. 37), and the introduction into the narrative of Aramaic
+words,--_Boanerges_ (iii. 17), _Talitha, cumi_ (v. 41), and the like,
+which immediately have to be translated. The gospel discloses no
+artificial plan, the chief word of transition is "and." While some of the
+incidents recorded, such as the second Sabbath controversy (iii. 1-6) and
+the question about fasting (ii. 18-22), may owe their place to association
+in memory with an event of like character, the book impresses us as a
+collection of annals fresh from the living memory, which present the
+actual Jesus teaching and healing, and going on his way to the cross and
+resurrection. After the briefest possible reference to the ministry of
+John the Baptist and the baptism and temptation of Jesus (i. 1-13), this
+gospel proceeds to set forth the ministry in Galilee (i. 14 to ix. 50).
+The narrative then follows Jesus to Jerusalem, by way of Perea, and closes
+with his victory through death and resurrection (x. 1 to xvi. 8).
+
+25. The third gospel is more nearly a biography than any of its
+companions. It opens with a preface stating that after a study of many
+earlier attempts to record the life of Jesus the author has undertaken to
+present as complete an account as possible of that life from the
+beginning. The book is addressed to one Theophilus, doubtless a Greek
+Christian, and its chief aim is practical,--to confirm conviction
+concerning matters of faith (i. 1-4). The author's interest in the
+completeness of his account appears in the fact that it begins with
+incidents antecedent to the birth of John the Baptist and Jesus. Moreover,
+to his desire for completeness we owe much of the story of Jesus,
+otherwise unrecorded for us. Like the first two gospels, Luke represents
+the ministry of Jesus as inaugurated in Galilee, and carried on there
+until the approach of the tragedy at Jerusalem (iv. 14 to ix. 50). It is
+in connection with the journey to Jerusalem (ix. 51 to xix. 27) that he
+inserts most of that which is peculiar to his gospel. His account of the
+rejection at Jerusalem, the crucifixion, and resurrection, follows in the
+main the same lines as Matthew and Mark; but he gained his knowledge of
+many particulars from different sources (xix. 28 to xxiv. 53). It is
+characteristic of Luke to name Jesus "Lord" more often than either of his
+predecessors. With this exalted conception is coupled a noticeable
+emphasis on Jesus' ministry of compassion; here more than in any other
+gospel he is pictured as the friend of sinners. Moreover, we owe chiefly
+to Luke our knowledge of him as a man of prayer and as subject to repeated
+temptation. An artificial exaltation of Christ, such as is often
+attributed to the later apostolic thought, would tend to reduce, not
+multiply, such evidences of human dependence on God. This fact increases
+our confidence in the accuracy of Luke's picture. The gospel is very full
+of comfort to those under the pressure of poverty, and of rebuke to
+unbelieving wealth, though the parable of the Unjust Steward and story of
+Zacchæus show that it does not exalt poverty for its own sake. If our
+first gospel pictures Jesus as the fulfilment of God's promises to his
+people, and Mark, as the man of power at work before our very eyes,
+astonishing the multitude while winning the few, Luke sets before us the
+Lord ministering with divine compassion to men subject to like temptations
+with himself, though, unlike them, he knew no sin.
+
+26. The first three gospels, differing as they do in point of view and
+aim, present essentially one picture of the ministry of Jesus; for they
+agree concerning the locality and progress of his Messianic work, and the
+form and contents of his teaching, showing, in fact, verbal identity in
+many parts of their narrative. For this reason they are commonly known as
+the Synoptic Gospels. Yet these gospels exhibit differences as remarkable
+as their likenesses. They differ perplexingly in the order in which they
+arrange some of the events in Jesus' life. Which of them should be given
+preference in constructing a harmonious picture of his ministry? They
+often agree to the letter in their report of deeds or words of Jesus, yet
+from beginning to end remarkable verbal differences stand side by side
+with remarkable verbal identities. Some of the identities of language
+suggest irresistibly that the evangelists have used, at least in part, the
+same previously existing written record. One of the clearest evidences of
+this is found in the introduction, at the same place in the parallel
+accounts, of the parenthesis "then saith he to the sick of the palsy"
+which interrupts the words of Jesus in the cure of the paralytic (Mark ii.
+10; Matt. ix. 6; Luke v. 24). When the three gospels are carefully
+compared it appears that Mark contains very little that is not found in
+Matthew and Luke, and that, with one or two exceptions, Luke presents in
+Mark's order the matter that he has in common with the second gospel. The
+same is also true of the relation between the latter part of the Gospel of
+Matthew (Matt. xiv. 1 to the end) and the parallel portion of Mark; while
+the comparison of Matthew's arrangement of his earlier half with Mark
+suggests that the order in the first gospel has been determined by other
+than chronological considerations. In a sense, therefore, we may say that
+the Gospel of Mark reveals the chronological framework on which all three
+of these gospels are constructed. Comparison discloses further the
+interesting fact that the matter which Matthew and Luke have in common,
+after subtracting their parallels to Mark, consists almost entirely of
+teachings and addresses. Each gospel, however, has some matter peculiar to
+itself.
+
+27. In considering the problem presented by these facts, it is well to
+remember that no one of these gospels contains within itself any statement
+concerning the identity of its author. We are indebted to tradition for
+the names by which we know them, and no one of them makes any claim to
+apostolic origin. The earliest reference in Christian literature which may
+be applied to our gospels comes from Papias, a Christian of Asia Minor in
+the second century. He reports that an earlier teacher had said, "Mark,
+having become the interpreter of Peter, wrote down accurately, though not,
+indeed, in order, whatsoever he remembered of the things said or done by
+Christ, for he neither heard the Lord nor followed him, but afterward, as
+I said, he followed Peter, who adapted his teachings to the needs of his
+hearers, but with no intention of giving a connected account of the Lord's
+discourses. So that Mark committed no error when he thus wrote some things
+as he remembered them, for he was careful of one thing, not to omit any of
+the things which he had heard and not to state any of them falsely....
+Matthew wrote the oracles [of the Lord] in the Hebrew language [Aramaic],
+and every one interpreted them as he was able" (Euseb. Ch. Hist. iii. 39).
+The result of many years' study by scholars of all shades of opinion is
+the very general conclusion that the writing which Papias attributed to
+Mark was essentially what we have in our second gospel.
+
+28. It is almost as universally acknowledged that the work ascribed by the
+second century elder to the apostle Matthew cannot be our first gospel;
+for its language has not the characteristics which other translations from
+Hebrew or Aramaic lead us to expect, while the completeness of its
+narrative exceeds what is suggested by the words of Papias. If, however,
+the matter which Matthew and Luke have in such rich measure in addition to
+Mark's narrative be considered, the likeness between this and the writing
+attributed by Papias to the apostle Matthew is noteworthy. The conclusion
+is now very general, that that apostolic writing is in large measure
+preserved in the discourses in our first and third gospels. The relation
+of our gospels to the two books mentioned by Papias may be conceived,
+then, somewhat as follows: The earliest gospel writing of which we know
+anything was a collection of the teachings of Jesus made by the apostle
+Matthew, in which he collected with simple narrative introductions, those
+sayings of the Lord which from the beginning had passed from mouth to
+mouth in the circle of the disciples. At a later time Mark wrote down the
+account of the ministry of Jesus which Peter had been accustomed to relate
+in his apostolic preaching. The work of the apostle Matthew, while much
+richer in the sayings of Jesus, lacked the completeness that characterizes
+a narrative; hence it occurred to some early disciple to blend together
+these two primitive gospel records, adding such other items of knowledge
+as came to his hand from oral tradition or written memoranda. As his aim
+was practical rather than historical, he added such editorial comments as
+would make of the new gospel an argument for the Messiahship of Jesus, as
+we have seen. Since the most precious element in this new gospel was the
+apostolic record of the teachings of the Lord, the name of Matthew and not
+of his literary successor, was given to the book.
+
+29. The third gospel is ascribed, by a probably trustworthy tradition, to
+Luke, the companion of Paul. The author himself says that he made use of
+such earlier records as were accessible, among which the chief seem to
+have been the writings of Mark and the apostle Matthew. To Luke's
+industry, however, we owe our knowledge of many incidents and teachings
+from the life of Jesus which were not contained in these two records, and
+with which we could ill afford to part. Some of these he doubtless found
+in written form, and some he gathered from oral testimony. His close
+agreement with Mark in the arrangement of his narrative suggests that he
+found no clear evidence of a ministry of wider extent in time and place.
+He therefore used Mark as his narrative framework, and of the rich
+materials which he had gathered made a gospel, the completest of any
+written up to his time.
+
+30. Such in the main is the conclusion of modern study of our first three
+gospels; it explains the general identity of their picture of Jesus and of
+their report of his teaching; it leaves room for those individual
+characteristics which give them so much of their charm; and it traces the
+materials of the gospels far back of the writings as we have them,
+bringing us nearer to the events which they describe. The dates of these
+documents can be only approximately known. It is probable that the
+"logia" collected by the apostle Matthew were written not later than 60 to
+65 A.D., while the Gospel of Mark dates from before the fall of Jerusalem
+in 70. Our first gospel must have been made between 70 and 100, and the
+Gospel of Luke may be dated about the year 80,--all within sixty or
+seventy years after the death of Jesus.
+
+31. The fourth gospel gives us a picture of Jesus in striking contrast to
+that of the other three. These present chiefly the works of the Master and
+his teachings concerning the kingdom of God and human conduct, leaving the
+truth concerning the teacher himself to be inferred. John opens the heart
+of Jesus and makes him disclose his thought about himself in a remarkable
+series of teachings of which he is the prime topic. This gospel is
+avowedly an argument (xx. 30, 31); its selection of material is
+confessedly partial; its aim is to confirm the faith of Christians in the
+heavenly nature and saving power of their Lord; and its method is that of
+appeal to testimony, to signs, and to his own self-disclosures. The
+opening verses of the gospel have a somewhat abstract theological
+character; the body of the book, however, consists of a succession of
+incidents and teachings which follow each other in unstudied fashion like
+a collection of annals. This impression is not compromised by the
+recognition, at some points, of accidental displacements, like that which
+has placed xiv. 30, 31 before xv. and xvi., or that which has left a long
+gap between vii. 23 and the incident of v. 1-9, to which it refers. The
+theme of the gospel is the self-disclosure of Jesus. This seems to have
+determined the evangelist's choice of material, and, as the gospel is an
+argument, he does not hesitate to mingle his own comments with his report
+of Jesus' words, for example (iii. 16-21, 30-36; xii. 37-43). The book is
+characterized by a vividness of detail which indicates a clear memory of
+personal experience. While it is evident that the author has the most
+exalted conception of the nature of his Lord, this seems to have been the
+result of loving meditation on a friend who had early won the mastery over
+his heart and life, and who through long years of contemplation had forced
+upon his disciple's mind the conviction of his transcendent nature. The
+book discloses a profoundly objective attitude; the Christ whom John
+portrays is not the creature of his speculations, but the Master who has
+entered into his experience as a living influence and has compelled
+recognition of his significance. The Son of God is for John the human
+Jesus who, though named at the outset the Word--the Logos,--is the Word
+who was made flesh, that men through him might become the sons of God.
+
+32. The contrast which the Gospel of John presents to the other three
+concerns not only the teaching of Jesus, but the scene of his ministry and
+its historic development as well. Whatever may be the final judgment
+concerning the fourth gospel, it is manifestly constructed as a simple
+collection of incidents following each other in what was meant to appear a
+chronological sequence. It has been seen that the biographical framework
+of the first three gospels is principally Mark's report of Peter's
+narrative. Now it is a fact that in portions of Matthew and Luke, derived
+elsewhere than from Mark, there are various allusions most easily
+understood if it be assumed that Jesus visited Jerusalem before his
+appearance there at the end of his ministry. Such, for instance, are the
+parable of the Good Samaritan (Luke x. 25-37), the story of the visit to
+Mary and Martha (Luke x. 38-42), and the lamentation of Jesus over
+Jerusalem (Luke xiii. 34, 35; Matt, xxiii. 37-39). All three gospels,
+moreover, agree in attributing to emissaries from Jerusalem much of the
+hostility manifested against Jesus in his Galilean ministry (Luke v. 17;
+Mark iii. 22; Matt. xv. 1; Mark vii. 1), and presuppose such an
+acquaintance of Jesus with households in and near Jerusalem as is not easy
+to explain if he never visited Judea before his passion (Mark xi. 2, 3;
+xiv. 14; xv. 43 and parallels; compare especially Matt, xxvii. 57; John
+xix. 38). These all suggest that the narrative of Mark does not tell the
+whole story, a conclusion quite in accordance with the account of his work
+given by Papias. It has been assumed that Peter was a Galilean, a man of
+family living in Capernaum. It is not impossible that on some of the
+earlier visits of Jesus to Jerusalem he did not accompany his Master, and
+in reporting the things which he knew he naturally confined himself to his
+own experiences. If this can explain the predominance of Galilean
+incidents in the ministry as depicted in Mark, it will explain the
+predominance of Galilee in the first three gospels, and the contradiction
+between John and the three is reduced to a divergence between two accounts
+of Jesus' ministry written from two different points of view.
+
+33. The question of the trustworthiness of the fourth gospel is greatly
+simplified by the consideration of the one-sidedness of Mark's
+representation. It is further relieved by the fact that a ministry by
+Jesus in Jerusalem must have been one of constant self-assertion, for
+Jerusalem represented at its highest those aspects of thought and practice
+which were fundamentally opposed to all that Jesus did and taught.
+Whenever in Galilee, in the ministry pictured by the first three gospels,
+Jesus came in contact with the spirit and feeling characteristic of
+Jerusalem, we find him meeting it by unqualified assertion of his own
+independence and exalted claim to authority, altogether similar to that
+emphasis of his own significance and importance which is the chief
+characteristic of his teachings in the fourth gospel. If it be remembered
+that that gospel was avowedly an argument written to commend to others the
+reverent conclusion concerning the Lord reached by a disciple whose
+thought had dwelt for long years on the marvel of that life, and if we
+recognize that for such an argument the author would select the instances
+and teachings most telling for his own purpose, and would do this as
+naturally as the magnet draws to itself iron filings which are mingled
+with a pile of sand, the exclusively personal character of the teachings
+of Jesus in this gospel need cause little perplexity. Nor need it seem
+surprising that the words of Jesus as reported in John share the
+peculiarities of style which mark the work of the evangelist in the
+prologue to the gospel and in his epistles. His purpose was not primarily
+biographical but argumentative, and he has set forth the picture of his
+Lord as it rose before his own heart, his memory of events being
+interwoven with contemplation on the significance of that life with which
+his had been so blessedly associated. In a gospel written avowedly to
+produce in others a conviction like his own, the evangelist would not have
+been sensible of any obligation to draw sharp lines between his
+recollection of his Lord's words and his own contemplations upon them and
+upon their significance for his life. If these considerations be kept in
+mind we may accept the uniform tradition of antiquity, confirmed by the
+plain intimation of the gospel itself, that it is essentially the work of
+John, the son of Zebedee, written near the close of his life in Ephesus,
+in the last decade of the first century.
+
+34. We have in our gospel records, therefore, two authorities for the
+general course of the ministry of Jesus,--Mark and John. Even if the
+fourth gospel should be proved not to be the work of John, its picture of
+the ministry of Jesus must be recognized as coming from some apostolic
+source. A forger would hardly have invited the rejection of his work by
+inventing a narrative which seems to contradict at so many points the
+tradition of the other gospels. The first and third gospels furnish us
+from various sources rich additions to Mark's narrative, and it is to
+these two with the fourth that we turn chiefly for the teachings of Jesus.
+Each gospel should be read, therefore, remembering its incompleteness,
+remembering also the particular purpose and individual enthusiasm for
+Jesus which produced it.
+
+35. A word may be due to two other claimants to recognition as original
+records from the life of Jesus. One class is represented by that word of
+the Lord which Paul quoted to the Ephesian elders at Miletus (Acts xx.
+35). Scattered here and there in writings of the apostolic and succeeding
+ages are other sayings attributed to Jesus which cannot be found in our
+gospels. A few of these so-called Agrapha seem worthy of him, and are
+recognized as probably genuine. The most important of them is the story of
+the woman taken in adultery (John vii. 53 to viii. 11), which, though not
+a part of the gospel of John, doubtless gives a true incident from Jesus'
+life. They represent the "many other" things which John and the other
+gospels have omitted, but their small number proves that our gospels have
+preserved for us practically all that was known of Jesus after the first
+witnesses fell asleep. It is certainly surprising that so little exists to
+supplement the story of the gospels, for they are manifestly fragmentary,
+and leave much of Jesus' public life without any record. The other class
+of claimants is of a quite different character,--the so-called Apocryphal
+Gospels. These consist chiefly of legends connected with the birth and
+early years of Jesus, and with his death and resurrection. They are for
+the most part crude tales that have entirely mistaken the real character
+of him whom they seek to exalt, and need only to be read to be rejected.
+
+
+
+
+III
+
+The Harmony of the Gospels
+
+
+
+36. The church early appreciated the value and the difficulty of having
+four different pictures of the life and teachings of the Lord. Irenæus at
+the close of the second century felt it to be as essential that there
+should be four gospels as that there should be "four zones of the world,
+four principal winds, and four faces of the cherubim" (Against Heresies
+III. ii. 8).
+
+37. Before Irenæus, however, another had sought to obviate the difficulty
+of having four records which seem at some points to disagree, by making a
+combination of the gospels, to which he gave the title "Diatessaron."
+Tatian, the author of this work, was converted from paganism about 152
+A.D., and prepared his unified gospel, probably for the use of the Syrian
+churches, sometime after 172. His work is one of the treasures of the
+early Christian literature recovered for us within the last
+quarter-century. It seems to have won great popularity in the Syrian
+churches, having practically displaced the canonical gospels for nearly
+three centuries, when, owing to its supposed heretical tendency, it was
+suppressed by the determined effort of the church authorities. It is a
+continuous record of Jesus' ministry, beginning with the first six verses
+of the Gospel of John, passing then to the early chapters of Luke. It
+closes with an account of the resurrection interwoven from all four
+gospels, concluding with John xxi. 25. The arrangement follows generally
+the order of Matthew, additional matter from the other gospels being
+inserted at places which approved themselves to Tatian's judgment. Some
+portions--in particular the genealogies of Jesus--were omitted altogether,
+in accordance with views held by the compiler.
+
+38. From Tatian's time to the present there have been repeated attempts to
+construct a harmonious representation of events and teachings in the
+ministry of Jesus, generally by setting the parallel accounts side by
+side, following such a succession of events as seemed most probable. Our
+evangelists cared little, if they thought at all, about the requirements
+of strict biography, and they have left us records not easy to arrange on
+any one chronological scheme. Concerning the chief events, however, the
+gospels agree. All four report, for instance, the beginning of the work in
+Galilee (Matt. iv. 12, 17; Mark i. 14, 15; Luke iv. 14, 15; John iv.
+43-45); the feeding of the five thousand when Jesus' popularity in Galilee
+passed its climax (Matt. xiv. 13-23; Mark vi. 30-46; Luke ix. 10-17; John
+vi. 1-15); the departure from Galilee for the final visit to Jerusalem
+(Matt. xix. 1, 2; Mark x. 1; Luke ix. 51; John vii. 1-10); and the week of
+suffering and victory at the end (Matt. xxi. 1 to xxviii. 20; Mark xi. 1
+to xvi. 8 [20]; Luke xix. 29 to xxiv. 53; John xii. 1 to xxi. 25).
+
+39. These facts are enough to give us a clear and unified impression of
+the course of Jesus' ministry. When, however, we seek to fill in the
+details given in the different gospels, difficulties at once arise. Thus,
+first, what shall be done with the long section which John introduces (i.
+19 to iv. 42) before Jesus' withdrawal into Galilee? The other gospels
+make that withdrawal the beginning of his public work. A second difficulty
+arises from the unnamed feast of John v. 1. By one or another scholar this
+feast has been identified with almost every Jewish festival known to us.
+Another problem is furnished by the long section in Luke which is so
+nearly peculiar to his gospel (ix. 51 to xviii. 14). If the section had no
+parallels in the other gospels we might easily conclude that it all
+belongs to a time subsequent to the final departure for Jerusalem; but it
+contains at least one incident from the earlier ministry in Galilee (Luke
+xi. 14-36; compare Mark iii. 19-30), and many teachings of Jesus given by
+Matthew in an earlier connection appear here in Luke. Furthermore, the
+section has to be adjusted to that portion of the Gospel of John which
+deals with the same period and yet reports none of the same details.
+
+40. If Mark has furnished the narrative framework adopted in the main by
+the first and third gospels, the problem of the order of events in Jesus'
+life becomes a question of the chronological value of Mark, and of the
+estimate to be placed on the narrative of John. If the fourth gospel is
+held to be of apostolic origin and trustworthy, the task of the harmonist
+is chiefly that of combining these two records of Mark and John. The
+testimony of the Baptist, with which the fourth gospel opens, must have
+been given some time after he had baptized Jesus, and the ministry which
+preceded Jesus' return to Galilee (i. 19 to iv. 42) belongs to a period
+ignored by the other gospels. The first three gospels contain indications
+that Jesus must have visited Judea before the close of his life. They give
+no hint, however, of the time or circumstances of such earlier Judean
+labor. In giving the emphasis they do to the work in Galilee, they present
+a one-sided picture. When, therefore, we find in John a narrative of work
+in Judea, confirmed by hints in the other gospels, we may justly assume
+that the arrangement which fills out the ministry of Jesus by inserting at
+the proper places in Mark's record the events found in John is essentially
+true.
+
+41. The consideration of the one-sidedness of Mark's narrative simplifies
+the problem of harmony, but it does not solve all of the perplexities.
+Matthew and Luke have much matter, some of it narrative, which Mark has
+not, and for which he suggests no place. Where shall we put, for instance,
+the cure of the centurion's servant (Matt. viii. 5-13; Luke vii. 1-10), or
+John the Baptist's last message (Matt. xi. 2-19; Luke vii. 18-35)? It
+would simplify matters if we could take Luke's statement that he had
+"traced the course of all things accurately from the first" (Luke i. 3),
+as indicating that he had arrived at exact certainty concerning the order
+of events of Jesus' life. It is probable, however, that his statement was
+simply a claim that he had carefully gathered material for a record of the
+whole life of Jesus, from the annunciation of his birth to his ascension.
+While we may believe that some trustworthy tradition led him to give the
+place he has to many of the incidents which he adds to Mark's story, it
+seems impossible to follow him in all respects; for instance, in severing
+the account of the blasphemy of the Pharisees (xi. 14-36) from the place
+which it holds in Mark (iii. 19-30).
+
+42. Still more uncertainty exists concerning the historic connection of
+teachings of Jesus to which Matthew and Luke give different settings; for
+example, the Lord's Prayer (Matt. vi. 9-15; Luke xi. 1-4), and the
+exhortations against anxiety (Matt. vi. 25-34; Luke xii. 22-31). We have
+seen that much of the teaching common to these gospels is probably derived
+from the collection of the "oracles" of the Lord made by the apostle
+Matthew. Everything that we can infer concerning such a collection of
+oracles indicates that, while some of the teachings may have been
+connected with particular historic situations (compare Luke xi. 1), many
+would altogether lack such introductory words. A later example of what
+such a collection may have been has come to light recently in the
+so-called "Sayings of Jesus," discovered in Egypt and published in 1897.
+In these the occasion for the teaching has been quite lost; the sole
+interest centres in the fact that Jesus is supposed to have said the
+things recorded. If Matthew's book contained such "logia" or "oracles," it
+is probable that the original connection in which most of them were spoken
+was a matter of no concern to the apostle, and consequently has been lost
+This in no way compromises the genuineness of these sayings of Jesus. The
+treatment of Luke ix. 51 to xviii. 14 is much simplified by this
+consideration. To Luke's industry (i. 1-4) we owe the preservation of some
+events and very many teachings which no other evangelist has recorded.
+Some of this new material (for instance, vii. 11-17, 36-50) he has
+assigned a place in the midst of Mark's narrative. Most of it, however,
+he has gathered together in what seems to be a sort of appendix, which he
+has inserted between the close of the ministry in Galilee and the final
+arrival in Judea. For many of the teachings it is now impossible to assign
+a time or place. That this is so will cause no surprise or difficulty if
+we remember that in the earliest days the report of what Jesus said and
+did circulated in the form of oral tradition only. It was the knowledge
+that first-hand witnesses were passing away that led to the writing of the
+gospels. During the period of oral tradition many teachings of the Lord
+were doubtless kept clearly and accurately in memory after the historic
+situations which led to their first utterance were quite forgotten.
+
+43. This fact helps to explain another perplexity in our gospel
+narratives. A comparison of the two accounts of the cure of the
+centurion's servant reveals differences of detail most perplexing, if we
+ask for minute agreement in records of the same events. When we see that
+of two accounts evidently reporting the same incident, one can say that
+the centurion himself sought Jesus and asked the cure of his servant
+(Matt. viii. 5, 8), while the other makes him declare himself unworthy to
+come in person to the Lord (Luke vii. 7), the question arises whether
+other accounts, similar in the main but differing in detail, should not be
+identified as independent records of one event. Were there two cleansings
+of the temple (John ii. 13-22; Mark xi. 15-19), two miraculous draughts of
+fishes (Luke v. 4-11; John xxi. 5-8), two rejections at Nazareth (Mark vi.
+1-6; Luke iv. 16-30), two parables of the Leaven, of the Mustard Seed
+(Matt. xiii. 31-33; Luke xiii. 18-21), and of the Lost Sheep (Matt, xviii.
+12-14; Luke xv. 4-7)? Such similar records are often called doublets, and
+the question of identity or distinctness can be answered only after a
+special study of each case. It is important to notice that a given
+teaching, particularly if it took the form of an illustration, would
+naturally be used by Jesus on many different occasions. When, on the other
+hand, we find two accounts of specific doings of Jesus similar in detail
+it is needful to recognize that definite historic situations do not so
+often repeat themselves as do occasions for similar or identical
+teachings.
+
+44. All these considerations show that while the general order of events
+in the life of Jesus may be determined with a good degree of probability,
+we must be content to remain uncertain concerning the place to be given to
+many incidents and to more teachings. Such uncertainty is of small
+concern, since our unharmonized gospels have not failed during all these
+centuries to produce one fair picture, to the total impression of which
+each teaching and deed make definite contribution quite independently of
+our ability to give to each its particular place in relation to the whole.
+The degree of certainty attainable justifies, however, a continued
+interest in the old study of harmony, because of the more comprehensive
+idea it gives of the ministry depicted in the partial narratives of our
+several gospels.
+
+
+
+
+IV
+
+The Chronology
+
+
+
+45. The length of the public ministry of Jesus was one of the earliest
+questions which arose in the study of the four gospels. In the second and
+third centuries it was not uncommon to find the answer in the passage from
+Isaiah (lxi. 1, 2), which Jesus declared was fulfilled in himself. "The
+acceptable year of the Lord" was taken to indicate that the ministry
+covered little more than a year. The fact that the first three gospels
+mention but one Passover (that at the end), and but one journey to
+Jerusalem, seems at first to be favorable to this conclusion, and to make
+peculiarly significant the care taken by Luke to give the exact date for
+the opening of Jesus' ministry (iii. 1, 2). In fact, the second century
+Gnostics, relying apparently on Luke, assigned both the ministry and death
+of Jesus to the fifteenth year of Tiberius Cæsar,--an interpretation which
+may have given rise to the widely spread, early tradition, found, for
+example, in Tertullian (Ante-nicene Fathers, in. 160), which placed the
+death of Jesus in A.D. 29, during the consulship of L. Rubellius Geminus
+and C. Fufius Geminus.
+
+46. The theory that the ministry of Jesus extended over but little more
+than one year is beset, however, by difficulties that seem insuperable.
+The first is presented by the three Passovers distinctly mentioned in the
+Gospel of John (ii. 13; vi. 4; xii. 1). The last of these is plainly
+identical with the one named in the other gospels. The second gives the
+time of year for the feeding of the five thousand, and agrees with the
+mention of "the green grass" in the account of Mark and Matthew (Mark vi.
+39; Matt. xiv. 19). John's first Passover falls in a section which demands
+a place before Mark i. 14 (compare John iii. 24). Hence it must be shown
+that this first Passover is chronologically out of order in the Gospel of
+John, or the one year ministry advocated by the second century Gnostics,
+by Clement of Alexandria, by Origen, and of late years by Keim and others,
+is seen to be impossible. The fact that at this Passover Jesus cleansed
+the temple, and that the other gospels assign such a cleansing to the
+close of the ministry, suggests the possibility that John has set it at
+the opening of his narrative for reasons connected with his argument. This
+interpretation falls, however, before the perfect simplicity of structure
+of John's narrative. The transitions from incident to incident in this
+gospel are those of simple succession, and indicate, on the writer's part,
+no suspicion that he was contradicting notions concerning the ministry of
+Jesus familiar to his contemporaries. Whatever the conclusion reached
+concerning the authorship of the gospel, the fact that it gained currency
+very early as apostolic would seem to prove that its conception of the
+length of Jesus' ministry was not opposed to the recognized apostolic
+testimony. It is safe to conclude, therefore, that time must be allowed in
+Jesus' ministry for at least three Passover seasons.
+
+47. With this conclusion most modern discussions of the question rest, and
+it is possible that it may finally win common consent. The order of
+Mark's narrative, however, challenges it. This gospel records near the
+beginning (ii. 23) a controversy with the Pharisees occasioned by the fact
+that Jesus' disciples plucked and ate the ripening grain as they passed on
+a Sabbath day through the fields. As Mark places much later (vi. 30-34)
+the feeding of the five thousand, which occurred at a Passover, that is
+the beginning of the harvest (Lev. xxiii. 5-11), his order suggests the
+necessity of including two harvest seasons in the ministry in Galilee, and
+consequently four Passovers in the public life of Jesus. Two
+considerations are urged against this conclusion. (1) Papias in his
+reference to the Gospel of Mark criticises the order of the gospel; (2)
+Mark ii. 1 to iii. 6 contains a group of five conflicts with the critics
+of Jesus, which represents a massing of opposition that seems unlikely at
+the outset of his Galilean work. The remark of Papias must remain obscure
+until his standard of comparison is known. Some suggest that he knew
+John's order and preferred it, others that he agreed with that adopted by
+Tatian in his Diatessaron. Mark is in accord with neither of these. No
+one, however, knows what order Papias preferred. The early conflict group
+does appear like a collection drawn from different parts of the ministry.
+Yet the nucleus of the group--the cure of the paralytic (ii. 1-12) and the
+call of Levi (ii. 13-17)--is clearly in its right place in Mark (see
+Holtzmann, Hand-commentar, I. 10). The question about fasting (ii. 18-22)
+may have been asked much later, and its present place may be due to
+association in tradition with the criticism of Jesus' fellowship with
+publicans (ii. 16). In like manner the cure of the withered hand (iii.
+1-6) may have become artificially grouped with the incident of the
+cornfields. It is possible, also, that both Sabbath controversies owe
+their early place in the gospel to traditional association with the early
+conflicts (ii. 1-17). If so, the plucking of the grain actually occurred
+some weeks after the feeding of the five thousand, and probably after the
+controversy about tradition (vii. 1-23), with which, according to Mark,
+Jesus' activity in Galilee practically closed. It is not clear, however,
+what principle of association drew forward to the early group the Sabbath
+conflict, and left in its place the controversy about tradition. It is
+thus possible that the incident of the cornfields belongs also to the
+early nucleus of the group; and in this case the longer ministry,
+including four Passovers, must be accepted. The decision of the question
+is not of vital importance, but it affects the determination of the
+sequence of events in Jesus' life. Whatever the explanation of the remark
+of Papias, the more the gospels are studied the more does Mark's order of
+events commend itself in general as representing the probable fact. Many
+students have inferred the three year ministry from the Gospel of John
+alone, identifying the unnamed feast in John v. 1 with a Passover. But
+John's allusion to that feast is so indefinite that the length of Jesus'
+ministry must be determined quite independently of it.
+
+48. So long a ministry as three years presents some difficulties, for all
+that is told us in the four gospels would cover but a small fraction of
+this time. John's statement (xx. 30) that he omitted many things from
+Jesus' life in making his book is evidently true of all the evangelists,
+and long gaps, such as are evident in the fourth gospel, must be assumed
+in the other three. Recalling the character of the gospels as pictures of
+Jesus rather than narratives of his life, we may easily acknowledge the
+incompleteness of our record of the three years of ministry, and wonder
+the more at the vividness of impression produced with such economy of
+material. This meagreness of material is not decisive for the shorter
+rather than the longer ministry, for it is evident that to effect such a
+change in conviction and feeling as Jesus wrought in the minds of the
+ardent Galileans who were his disciples, required time. Three years are
+better suited to effect this change than two.
+
+49. Closely related to the question of the length of Jesus' ministry is
+another: Can definite dates be given for the chief events in his life? For
+the year of the opening of his public activity the gospels furnish two
+independent testimonies: the remark of the Jews on the occasion of Jesus'
+first visit to Jerusalem, "Forty and six years was this temple in
+building" (John ii. 20), and Luke's careful dating of the appearance of
+John the Baptist, "in the fifteenth year of Tiberius Cæsar" (iii. 1, 2).
+John ii. 20 leads to the conclusion that the first Passover fell in the
+spring of A.D. 26 or 27, since we learn from Josephus (Ant. xv. 11. 1)
+that Herod began to rebuild the temple in the eighteenth year of his
+reign, which closed in the spring of B.C. 19. Luke iii. 1 gives a date
+contradictory to the one just found, if the fifteenth year of Tiberius is
+to be counted from the death of his predecessor, for Augustus died August
+19, A.D. 14. Reckoned from this time the opening of John's work falls in
+the year A.D. 28, and the first Passover of Jesus' ministry could not be
+earlier than the spring of 29. This is at least two years later than is
+indicated by the statement in John. The remark in John is, however, so
+incidental and so lacking in significance for his argument that its
+definiteness can be explained only as due to a clear historic
+reminiscence; but it does not follow that Luke has erred in the date given
+by him. Although Augustus did not die until A.D. 14, there is evidence
+that Tiberius was associated with him in authority over the army and the
+provinces not later than January, A.D. 12. One who lived and wrote in the
+reign of Titus may possibly have applied to the reign of Tiberius a mode
+of reckoning customary in the case of Titus, as Professor Ramsay has shown
+(Was Christ born at Bethlehem, 202). If this is the fact, Luke reckoned
+from the co-regency of Tiberius; hence the fifteenth year would be A.D. 25
+or 26, according as the co-regency began before or after the first of
+January, A.D. 12. This would place the first Passover of Jesus' ministry
+in the spring of 26 or 27, in agreement with the hint found in John.
+
+50. If the public ministry of Jesus began with the spring of 26 or 27, the
+close of three years of activity would, come at the Passover of 29 or 30.
+The former of these dates agrees with the early Christian tradition
+already mentioned. But before accepting that traditional date another
+matter must be considered. Jesus was crucified on the Friday at the
+opening of the feast of the Passover. Whether it was the day of the
+sacrifice of the Passover (14 Nisan) or the day following (15 Nisan), is
+not essential for the present question. As the Jewish month began with the
+first appearance of the new moon, it is evident that, in the year of
+Jesus' death, the month of Nisan must have begun on a day that would make
+the 14th or the 15th fall on Friday. Now it can be shown that in the year
+30 the 14th of Nisan was Thursday (April 6) or Friday (April 7), for at
+best only approximate certainty is attainable. The tradition which assigns
+the passion to 29, generally names March 25 as the day of the month. This
+date is impossible, because it does not coincide with the full moon of
+that month. The choice of March 25 by a late tradition may be explained by
+the fact that it was commonly regarded as the date of the spring equinox,
+the turning of the year towards its renewing. Mr. Turner has shown
+(HastBD. I. 415) that another date found in an early document cannot be so
+explained. Epiphanius was familiar with copies of the Acts of Pilate,
+which gave March 18 as the date of the crucifixion; and it is remarkable
+that this date coincides with the full moon, and also falls on Friday.
+Such a combination gives unusual weight to the tradition, particularly as
+there is no ready way to account for its rise, as in the case of March 25.
+From this supplementary tradition the year 29 gains in probability as the
+year of the passion. Without attempting to arrive at a final
+conclusion,--a task which must be left for chronological specialists,--it
+is safe to assume that Jesus died at the Passover of A.D. 29 or 30.
+
+51. Concluding that Jesus' active ministry fell within the years A.D. 26
+to 30, is it possible to determine the date of his birth? Four hints are
+furnished by the gospels: he was born before the death of Herod (Matt. ii.
+1; Luke i. 5); he was about thirty years of age at his baptism (Luke iii.
+23); he was born during a census conducted in Judea in accordance with
+the decree of Augustus at a time when Quirinius was in authority in Syria
+(Luke ii. 1, 2); after his birth wise men from the East were led to visit
+him by observing "his star" (Matt. ii. 1, 2). From these facts it follows
+that the birth of Jesus cannot be placed later than B.C. 4, since Herod
+died about the first of April in that year (Jos. Ant. xvii. 6. 4; 8. 1,
+4). The awkwardness of having to find a date _Before Christ_ for the birth
+of Jesus is due to the miscalculation of the monk, Dionysius the Little,
+who in the sixth century introduced our modern reckoning from "the year of
+our Lord."
+
+52. But is it impossible to determine the time of Jesus' birth more
+exactly? Luke (ii. 1, 2) offers what seems to be more definite
+information, but his reference to the decree of Augustus and the enrolment
+under Quirinius are among the most seriously challenged statements in the
+gospels. It has been said (1) that history knows of no edict of Augustus
+ordering a general enrolment of "the world;" (2) that a Roman census could
+not have been taken in Palestine before the death of Herod; (3) that if
+such an enrolment had been taken it would have been unnecessary for Joseph
+and Mary to journey from Nazareth to Bethlehem; (4) that the census taken
+when Quirinius was governor of Syria is definitely assigned by Josephus to
+the year after the deposition of Archelaus, A.D. 6 (Ant. xviii. 1. 1; see
+also Acts v. 37); (5) that if Luke's reference to this census as the
+"first" be appealed to, it must be replied that Quirinius was not governor
+of Syria at any time during the lifetime of Herod. This array of
+difficulties is impressive, and has persuaded many conservative students
+to concede that in his reference to the census Luke has fallen into error.
+Some recent discoveries in Egypt, however, have furnished new information
+concerning the imperial administration of that province. Inferring that a
+policy adopted in Egypt may have prevailed also in Syria, Professor Ramsay
+has recently put forth a strong argument for Luke's accuracy in respect of
+this census (Was Christ born at Bethlehem, 95-248). That argument may be
+condensed as follows: We have evidence of a system of Roman enrolments in
+Egypt taken every fourteen years, and already traced back to the time of
+Augustus, the earliest document so far recovered belonging, apparently, to
+the census of A.D. 20. It is at least possible that this system of
+Egyptian enrolments may have been part of an imperial policy, of which all
+other trace is lost excepting the statement of Luke. It is significant
+that the date of the census referred to by Josephus (A.D. 6) fits exactly
+the fourteen-year cycle which obtained in Egypt. If the census of A.D. 6
+was preceded by an earlier one its date would be B.C. 8; that is, it would
+be actually taken in B.C. 7, in order to secure the full acts for B.C. 8.
+
+53. The statement of Tertullian (Against Marcion, iv. 19) that a census
+had been taken in Judea under Augustus by Sentius Saturninus, who was
+governor of Syria about 9 to 7 B.C., certainly comes from some source
+independent of the gospels, and tends to confirm Luke's account of a
+census before the death of Herod. That a Roman census might have been
+taken in Palestine during Herod's life is seen from the fact that in A.D.
+36 Vitellius, the governor of Syria, had to send Roman forces into
+Cilicia Trachæa to assist Archelaus, the king of that country, to quell a
+revolt caused by native resistance to a census taken after the Roman
+fashion (Tacitus, Ann. vi. 41). Herod would almost certainly resent as a
+mark of subjection the order to enrol his people; and the fact that he was
+in disfavor with Augustus during the governorship of Saturninus (Josephus,
+Ant. xvi. 9. 1-3), suggests to Professor Ramsay that he may have sought to
+avoid obedience to the imperial will in the matter of the census. If after
+some delay Herod was forced to obey, the enrolment may have been taken in
+the year 7-6. Since it is probable that the Romans would allow Herod to
+give the census as distinctly Jewish a character as possible, it is easy
+to credit the order that all Jews should be registered, so far as
+possible, in their ancestral homes. Hence the journey of Joseph to
+Bethlehem; and if Mary wished to have her child also registered as from
+David's line, her removal with Joseph to Bethlehem is explained. Such a
+delay in the taking of the census would have postponed it until after the
+recall of Saturninus. The statement of Tertullian may therefore indicate
+simply that he knew that a census was taken in Syria by Saturninus.
+
+54. The successor of Saturninus was Varus, who held the governorship until
+after the death of Herod. How then does Luke refer to the enrolment as
+taken when Quirinius was in authority? It has for a long time been known
+that this man was in Syria before he was there as legate of the emperor in
+A.D. 6. There seems to be evidence that Quirinius was in the East about
+the year B.C. 6, putting down a rebellion on the borders of Cilicia, a
+district joined with Syria into one province under the early empire.
+Varus was at this time governor, but Quirinius might easily have been
+looked upon as representing for the time the power of the Roman arms. If
+Herod was forced to yield to the imperial wish by the presence in Syria of
+this renowned captain, the statement of Luke is confirmed, and the census
+at which Jesus was born was taken, according to a Jewish fashion, during
+the life of Herod, but under compulsion of Rome exacted by Quirinius,
+while he was in command of the Roman forces in the province of
+Syria-Cilicia. This gives as a probable date for the birth of Jesus B.C.
+6, which accords well with the hints previously considered, inasmuch as it
+is earlier than the death of Herod, and, if born in B.C. 6, Jesus would
+have been thirty-two at his baptism in A.D. 26.
+
+55. The account given in Matthew of "the star" which drew the wise men to
+Judea gives no sure help in determining the date of the birth of Jesus,
+but it is at least suggestive that in the spring and autumn of B.C. 7
+there occurred a remarkable conjunction of the planets Jupiter and Saturn.
+This was first noticed by Kepler in consequence of a similar conjunction
+observed by him in A.D. 1603. Men much influenced by astrology must have
+been impressed by such a celestial phenomenon, but that it furnishes an
+explanation of the star of the wise men is not clear. If it does, it
+confirms the date otherwise probable for the nativity, that is, not far
+from B.C. 6.
+
+56. Can we go further and determine the time of year or the month and day
+of the nativity? It should be borne in mind that our Christmas festival
+was not observed earlier than the fourth century, and that the evidence
+is well-nigh conclusive that December 25th was finally selected for the
+Nativity in order to hallow a much earlier and widely spread pagan
+festival coincident with the winter solstice. If anything exists to
+suggest the time of year it is Luke's mention of "shepherds in the field
+keeping watch by night over their flock" (ii. 8). This seems to indicate
+that it must have been the summer season. In winter the flocks would be
+folded, not pastured, by night.
+
+57. It therefore seems probable that Jesus was born in the summer of B.C.
+6; that he was baptized in A.D. 26; that the first Passover of his
+ministry was in the spring of 26 or 27; and that he was crucified in the
+spring of 29 or 30.
+
+
+
+
+V
+
+The Early Years of Jesus
+
+Matt. i. 1 to ii. 23; Luke i. 5 to ii. 52; iii. 23-38
+
+
+
+58. It is surprising that within a century of the life of the apostles,
+Christian imagination could have so completely mistaken the real greatness
+of Jesus as to let its thirst for wonder fill his early years with scenes
+in which his conduct is as unlovely as it is shocking. That he who in
+manhood was "holy, harmless, undefiled, separate from sinners" (Heb. vii.
+26), could in youth, in a fit of ill-temper, strike a companion with death
+and then meet remonstrance by cursing his accusers with blindness (Gospel
+of Thomas, 4, 5); that he could mock his teachers and spitefully resent
+their control (Pseudo-Matthew, 30, 31); that it could be thought worthy of
+him to exhibit his superiority to common human conditions by carrying
+water in his mantle when his pitcher had been broken (same, 33), or by
+making clay birds in play on the Sabbath and causing them to fly when he
+was rebuked for naughtiness (same, 27);--these and many like legends
+exhibit incredible blindness to the real glory of the Lord. Yet such
+things abound in the early attempts of the pious imagination to write the
+story of the youth of Jesus, and the account of the nativity and its
+antecedents fares as ill, being pitifully trivial where it is not
+revolting.
+
+59. How completely foreign all this is to the apostolic thought and
+feeling is clear when we notice that excepting the first two chapters of
+Matthew and Luke the New Testament tells us nothing whatever of the years
+which preceded John the Baptist's ministry in the wilderness. The gospels
+are books of testimony to what men had seen and heard (John i. 14); and
+the epistles are practical interpretations of the same in its bearing on
+religious life and hope. The apostles found no difficulty in recognizing
+the divinity and sinlessness of their Lord without inquiring how he came
+into the world or how he spent his early years; it was what he showed
+himself to be, not how he came to be, that formed their conception of him.
+Yet the early chapters of Matthew and Luke should not be classed with the
+later legends. Notwithstanding the attempts of Keim to associate the
+narratives of the infancy in the canonical and apocryphal gospels, a great
+gulf separates them: on the one side there is a reverent and beautiful
+reserve, on the other indelicate, unlovely, and trivial audacity.
+
+60. The gospel narratives have, however, perplexities of their own, for
+the two accounts agree only in the main features,--the miraculous birth in
+Bethlehem in the days of Herod, Mary being the mother and Joseph the
+foster-father, and Nazareth the subsequent residence. In further details
+they are quite different, and at first sight seem contradictory. Moreover,
+while Matthew sheds a halo of glory over the birth of Jesus, Luke draws a
+picture of humble circumstances and obscurity. These differences, taken
+with the silence of the rest of the New Testament concerning a miraculous
+birth, constitute a real difficulty. To many it seems strange that the
+disciples and the brethren of Jesus did not refer to these things if they
+knew them to be true. But it must not be overlooked that any familiar
+reference to the circumstances of the birth of Jesus which are narrated in
+the gospels would have invited from the Jews simply a challenge of the
+honor of his home. Moreover, as the knowledge of these wonders did not
+keep Mary from misunderstanding her son (Luke ii. 19, 51; compare Mark in.
+21, 31-35), the publication of them could hardly have helped greatly the
+belief of others. The fact that Mary was so perplexed by the course of
+Jesus in his ministry makes it probable that even until quite late in her
+life she "kept these things and pondered them in her heart."
+
+61. No parts of the New Testament are challenged so widely and so
+confidently as these narratives of the infancy. But if they are not to be
+credited with essential truth it is necessary to show what ideas cherished
+in the apostolic church could have led to their invention. That John and
+Paul maintain the divinity of their Lord, yet give no hint that this
+involved a miraculous birth, shows that these stories are no necessary
+outgrowth of that doctrine. The early Christians whether Jewish or Gentile
+would not naturally choose to give pictorial form to their belief in their
+Lord's divinity by the story of an incarnation. The heathen myths
+concerning sons of the gods were in all their associations revolting to
+Christian feeling, and, while the Jewish mind was ready to see divine
+influence at work in the birth of great men in Israel (as Isaac, and
+Samson, and Samuel), the whole tendency of later Judaism was hostile to
+any such idea as actual incarnation. Some would explain the story of the
+miraculous birth as a conclusion drawn by the Christian consciousness
+from the doctrine of the sinlessness of Jesus. Yet neither Paul nor John,
+who are both clear concerning the doctrine, give any idea that a
+miraculous birth was essential for a sinless being. Some appeal to the
+eagerness of the early Christians to exalt the virginity of Mary, This is
+certainly the animus of many apocryphal legends. But the feeling is as
+foreign to Jewish sentiment and New Testament teaching as it is
+contradictory to the evidence in the gospels that Mary had other children
+born after Jesus.
+
+62. Moreover, the songs of Mary (Luke i. 46-55) and Zachariah (Luke i.
+68--79) bear in themselves the evidence of origin before the doctrine of
+the cross had transformed the Christian idea of the Messiah. That
+transformed idea abounds in the Epistles and the Acts, and it is difficult
+to conceive how these songs (if they were later inventions) could have
+been left free of any trace of specifically Christian ideas. A Jewish
+Christian would almost certainly have made them more Christian than they
+are; a Gentile Christian could not have made them so strongly and
+naturally Jewish as they are; while a non-Christian Jew would never have
+invented them. Taken with the evidence in Ignatius (Ad Eph. xviii., xix.)
+of the very early currency of the belief in a miraculous birth, they
+confirm the impression that it is easier to accept the evidence offered
+for the miracle than to account for the origin of the stories as legends.
+The idea of a miraculous birth is very foreign to modern thought; it
+becomes credible only as the transcendent nature of Jesus is recognized on
+other grounds. It may not be said that the incarnation required a
+miraculous conception, yet it may be acknowledged that a miraculous
+conception is a most suitable method for a divine incarnation.
+
+63. These gospel stories are chiefly significant for us in that they show
+that he in whom his disciples came to recognize a divine nature began his
+earthly life in the utter helplessness and dependence of infancy, and grew
+through boyhood and youth to manhood with such naturalness that his
+neighbors, dull concerning the things of the spirit, could not credit his
+exalted claims. He is shown as one in all points like unto his brethren
+(Heb. ii. 17). Two statements in Luke (ii. 40, 52) describe the growth of
+the divine child as simply as that of his forerunner (Luke i. 80), or that
+of the prophet of old (I. Sam. ii. 26). The clear impression of these
+statements is that Jesus had a normal growth from infancy to manhood,
+while the whole course of the later life as set before us in the gospels
+confirms the scripture doctrine that his normal growth was free from sin
+(Heb. iv. 15).
+
+64. The knowledge of the probable conditions of his childhood is as
+satisfying as the apocryphal stories are revolting. The lofty Jewish
+conception of home and its relations is worthy of Jesus. The circumstances
+of the home in Nazareth were humble (Matt. xiii. 55; Luke ii. 24; compare
+Lev. xii. 8). Probably the house was not unlike those seen to-day, of but
+one room, or at most two or three,--the tools of trade mingling with the
+meagre furnishings for home-life. We should not think it a home of penury;
+doubtless the circumstances of Joseph were like those of his neighbors. In
+one respect this home was rich. The wife and mother had an exalted place
+in the Jewish life, notwithstanding the trivial opinions of some
+supercilious rabbis; and what the gospel tells of the chivalry of Joseph
+renders it certain that love reigned in his home, making it fit for the
+growth of the holy child.
+
+65. Religion held sway in all the phases of Jewish life. With some it was
+a religion of ceremony,--of prayers and fastings, tithes and boastful
+alms, fringes and phylacteries. But Joseph and Mary belonged to the
+simpler folk, who, while they reverenced the scribes as teachers, knew not
+enough of their subtlety to have substituted barren rites for sincere love
+for the God of their fathers and childlike trust in his mercy. Jesus knew
+not only home life at its fairest, but religion at its best. A father's
+most sacred duty was the teaching of his child in the religion of his
+people (Deut. vi. 4-9), and then, as ever since, the son learned at his
+mother's side to know and love her God, to pray to him, and to know the
+scriptures. No story more thrilling and full of interest, no prospect more
+rich and full of glowing hope, could be found to satisfy the child's
+spirit of wonder than the story of Israel's past and God's promises for
+the future. Religious culture was not confined to the home, however. The
+temple at Jerusalem was the ideal centre of religious life for this
+Nazareth household (Luke ii. 41) as for all the people, yet practically
+worship and instruction were cultivated chiefly by the synagogue (Luke iv.
+16); there God was present in his Holy Word. Week after week the boy Jesus
+heard the scripture in its original Hebrew form, followed by translation
+into Aramaic, and received instruction from it for daily conduct. The
+synagogue probably influenced the boy's intellectual life even more
+directly. In the time of Jesus schools had been established in all the
+important towns, and were apparently under the control of the synagogue.
+To such a school he may have been sent from about six years of age to be
+taught the scriptures (compare II. Tim. iii. 15), together with the
+reading (Luke iv. 16-19), and perhaps the writing, of the Hebrew language.
+Of his school experience we know nothing beyond the fact that he grew in
+"wisdom and in stature and in favor with God and man" (Luke ii. 52),--a
+sufficient contradiction of the repulsive legends of the apocryphal
+gospels.
+
+66. The physical growth incident to Jesus' development from boyhood to
+manhood is a familiar thought. The intellectual unfolding which belongs to
+this development is readily recognized. Not so commonly acknowledged, but
+none the less clearly essential to the gospel picture, is the gradual
+unfolding of the child's moral life under circumstances and stimulus
+similar to those with which other children meet (Heb. iv. 15). The man
+Jesus was known as the carpenter (Matt. xiii. 55). The learning of such a
+trade would contribute much to the boy's mastery of his own powers. Far
+more discipline would come from his fellowship with brothers and sisters
+who did not understand his ways nor appreciate the deepest realities of
+his life. Without robbing boyhood days of their naturalness and reality,
+we may be sure that long before Jesus knew how and why he differed from
+his fellows he felt more or less clearly that they were not like him. The
+resulting sense of isolation was a school for self-mastery, lest isolation
+foster any such pride or unloveliness as that with which later legend
+dared to stain the picture of the Lord's youth. Four brothers of Jesus
+are named by Mark (vi. 3),--James, and Joses, and Judas, and Simon,--the
+gospel adds also that he had sisters living at a later time in Nazareth.
+They were all subject with him to the same home influences, and apparently
+were not unresponsive to them. The similarity of thought and feeling
+between the sermon on the mount and the Epistle of James is not readily
+explained by the influence of master over disciple, since the days of
+James's discipleship began after the resurrection of Jesus. In any case
+there is no reason to think that the companions of Jesus' home were
+uncommonly irritating or in any way irreligious, only Jesus was not
+altogether like them (John vii. 5), and the fact of difference was a moral
+discipline, which among other things led to that moral growth by which
+innocence passed into positive goodness. If the home was such a school of
+discipline, its neighbors, less earnest and less favored with spiritual
+training, furnished more abundant occasion for self-mastery and growth.
+The very fact that in his later years Jesus was no desert preacher, like
+John, but social, and socially sought for, indicates that he did not win
+his manhood's perfection in solitude, but in fellowship with common life
+and in victory over the trials and temptations incident to it (Heb. ii.
+17, 18).
+
+67. Yet he must have been familiar with the life which is in secret (Matt.
+vi. 1-18). He who in his later years was a man of much prayer, who began
+(Luke iii. 21) and closed (Luke xxiii. 46) his public life with prayer, as
+a boy was certainly familiar not only with the prayers of home and
+synagogue, but also with quiet, personal resort to the presence of God. It
+would be unjust to think of any abnormal religious precocity. Jesus was
+the best example the world has seen of perfect spiritual health, but we
+must believe that he came early to know God and to live much with him.
+
+68. It is instructive in connection with this inwardness of Jesus' life to
+recall the rich familiarity with the whole world of nature which appears
+in his parables and other teachings. The prospect which met his eye if he
+sought escape from the distractions of home and village life, has been
+described by Renan: "The view from the town is limited; but if we ascend a
+little to the plateau swept by a perpetual breeze, which stands above the
+highest houses, the landscape is magnificent. On the west stretch the fine
+outlines of Carmel, terminating in an abrupt spur which seems to run down
+sheer to the sea. Next, one sees the double summit which towers above
+Megiddo; the mountains of the country of Shechem, with their holy places
+of the patriarchal period; the hills of Gilboa, the small picturesque
+group to which is attached the graceful or terrible recollections of
+Shunem and of Endor; and Tabor, with its beautiful rounded form, which
+antiquity compared to a bosom. Through a gap between the mountains of
+Shunem and Tabor are visible the valley of the Jordan and the high plains
+of Perea, which form a continuous line from the eastern side. On the
+north, the mountains of Safed, stretching towards the sea, conceal St.
+Jean d'Acre, but leave the Gulf of Khaifa in sight. Such was the horizon,
+of Jesus. This enchanted circle, cradle of the kingdom of God, was for
+years his world. Indeed, during his whole life he went but little beyond
+the familiar bounds of his childhood. For yonder, northwards, one can
+almost see, on the flank of Hermon, Cæsarea-Philippi, his farthest point
+of advance into the Gentile world; and to the south the less smiling
+aspect of these Samaritan hills foreshadows the dreariness of Judea
+beyond, parched as by a burning wind of desolation and death." In the
+midst of such scenes we are to understand that, with the physical growth,
+and opening of mind, and moral discipline which filled the early years of
+Jesus, there came also the gradual spiritual unfolding in which the boy
+rose step by step to the fuller knowledge of God and himself.
+
+69. That unfolding is pictured in an early stage in the story given us
+from the youth of Jesus. It was customary for a Jewish boy not long after
+passing his twelfth year to come under full adult obligation to the law.
+The visit to Jerusalem was probably in preparation for such assumption of
+obligation by Jesus. All his earlier training had filled his mind with the
+sacredness of the Holy City and the glory of the temple. It is easy to
+feel with what joy he would first look upon Zion from the shoulder of the
+Mount of Olives, as he came over it on his journey from Galilee; to
+conceive how the temple and the ritual would fill him with awe in his
+readiness not to criticise, but to idealize everything he saw, and to
+think only of the significance given by it all to the scripture; to
+imagine how eagerly he would talk in the temple court with the learned men
+of his people about the law and the promises with which in home and school
+his youth had been made familiar. Nor is it difficult to appreciate his
+surprise, when Joseph and Mary, only after long searching for him, at last
+found him in the temple, for he felt that it was the most natural place
+in which he could be found. In his wondering question to Mary, "Did not
+you know that I must be in my Father's house?" (Luke ii. 49), there is a
+premonition of his later consciousness of peculiarly intimate relation to
+God. The question was, however, a sincere inquiry. It was no precocious
+rebuke of Mary's anxiety. The knowledge of himself as Son of God was only
+dawning within him, and was not yet full and clear. This is shown by his
+immediate obedience and his subjection to his parents in Nazareth through
+many years. It is safe, in the interpretation of the acts and words of
+Jesus, to banish utterly as inconceivable anything that savors of the
+theatrical. We must believe that he was always true to himself, and that
+the subjection which he rendered to Joseph and Mary sprang from a real
+sense of childhood's dependence, and was not a show of obedience for any
+edifying end however high.
+
+70. That question "Did not you know?" is the only hint we possess of
+Jesus' inner life before John's call to repentance rang through the land.
+Meanwhile the carpenter's son became himself the carpenter. Joseph seems
+to have died before the opening of Jesus' ministry. For Jesus as the
+eldest son, this death made those years far other than a time of spiritual
+retreat; responsibility for the home and the pressing duties of trade must
+have filled most of the hours of his days. This is a welcome thought to
+our healthiest sentiment, and true also to the earliest Christian feeling
+(Heb. iv. 15). John the Baptist had his training in the wilderness, but
+Jesus came from familiar intercourse with men, was welcomed in their
+homes (John ii. 2), knew their life in its homely ongoing, and was the
+friend of all sorts and conditions of men. After that visit to Jerusalem,
+a few more years may have been spent in school, for, whether from school
+instruction, or synagogue preaching, or simple daily experience, the young
+man came to know the traditions of the elders and also to know that
+observance of them is a mockery of the righteousness which God requires.
+Yet he seems to have felt so fully in harmony with God as to be conscious
+of nothing new in the fresh and vital conceptions of righteousness which
+he found in the law and prophets. We may be certain that much of his
+thought was given to Israel's hope of redemption, and that with the
+prophets of old and the singer much nearer his own day (Ps. of Sol. xvii.
+23), he longed that God, according to his promise, would raise up unto his
+people, their King, the Son of David.
+
+71. He must also have read often from that other book open before him as
+he walked upon the hills of Nazareth. The beauty of the grass and of the
+lilies was surely not a new discovery to him after he began to preach the
+coming kingdom, nor is it likely that he waited until after his baptism to
+form his habit of spending the night in prayer upon the mountain. We may
+be equally sure that he did not first learn to love men and women and long
+for their good after he received the call, "Thou art my beloved son" (Mark
+i. 11). He who in later life read hearts clearly (John ii. 25) doubtless
+gained that skill, as well as the knowledge of human sin and need, early
+in his intercourse with his friends and neighbors in Nazareth; while a
+clear conviction that God's kingdom consists in his sovereignty over
+loyal hearts must have filled much of his thought about the promised good
+which God would bring to Israel in due time. Thus we may think that in
+quietness and homely industry, in secret life with God and open love for
+men, in study of history and prophecy, in longing for the actual sway of
+God in human life, Jesus lived his life, did his work, and grew in "wisdom
+and in stature and in favor with God and man" (Luke ii. 52).
+
+
+
+
+VI
+
+John The Baptist
+
+Matt. iii. 1-17; iv. 12; xiv. 1-12; Mark i. 1-14; vi. 14-29; Luke i. 5-25,
+57-80; iii. 1-22; ix. 7-9; John i. 19-37; iii. 22-30.
+
+
+
+72. The first reappearance of Jesus in the gospel story, after the temple
+scene in his twelfth year, is on the banks of the Jordan seeking baptism
+from the new prophet. One of the silent evidences of the greatness of
+Jesus is the fact that so great a character as John the Baptist stands in
+our thought simply as accessory to his life. For that the prophet of the
+wilderness was great has been the opinion of all who have been willing to
+seek him in his retirement. One reason for the common neglect of John is
+doubtless the meagreness of information about him. But though details are
+few, the picture of him is drawn in clearest lines: a rugged son of the
+wilderness scorning the gentler things of life, threatening his people
+with coming wrath and calling to repentance while yet there was time; a
+preacher of practical righteousness heeded by publicans and harlots but
+scorned by the elders of his people; a bold and fearless spirit, yet
+subdued in the presence of another who did not strive, nor cry, nor cause
+his voice to be heard in the streets. When the people thought to find in
+John the promised Messiah, with unparalleled self-effacement he pointed
+them to his rival and rejoiced in that rival's growing success. Side by
+side they worked for a time; then the picture fails, but for a hint of a
+royal audience, with a fearless rebuke of royal disgrace and sin; a prison
+life, with its pathetic shaking of confidence in the early certainties; a
+long and forced inaction, and the question put by a wavering faith, with
+its patient and affectionate reply; then a lewd orgy, a king's oath, a
+girl's demands, a martyr's release, the disciples' lamentation and their
+report to that other who, though seeming a rival, was known to appreciate
+best the greatness of this prophet. Such is the picture in the gospels.
+
+73. John, unlike his greater successor, has a highly appreciative notice
+from Josephus: "Now some of the Jews thought that the destruction of
+Herod's army came from God, and that very justly, as a punishment for what
+he did against John, who was called the Baptist. For Herod had had him put
+to death though he was a good man, and commanded the Jews to exercise
+virtue, both as to justice towards one another, and piety towards God, and
+so to come to baptism; for baptism would be acceptable to God, if they
+made use of it not in order to expiate some sin, but for the purification
+of the body, provided that the soul was thoroughly purified beforehand by
+righteousness. Now, as many flocked to him, for they were greatly moved by
+hearing his words, Herod, fearing that the great influence, John had over
+the people might lead to some rebellion (for the people seemed likely to
+do anything he should advise), thought it far best, by putting him to
+death, to prevent any mischief he might cause, and not bring himself into
+difficulties by sparing a man who might make him repent of his leniency
+when it should be too late. Accordingly he was sent a prisoner, in
+consequence of Herod's suspicious temper, to Machaerus, the fortress
+before mentioned, and was there put to death. So the Jews had the opinion
+that the destruction of this army [by Aretas] was sent as a punishment
+upon Herod and was the mark of God's displeasure at him" (Ant. xviii. 5.
+2). This section is commonly accepted as trustworthy. Superficially
+different from the gospel record and assigning quite another cause for
+John's imprisonment and death, it correctly describes his character and
+his influence with the people, and leaves abundant room for a more
+intimately personal motive on the part of Antipas for the imprisonment of
+John. If the jealousy of Herodias was the actual reason for John's arrest,
+it is highly probable that another cause would be named to the world, and
+a likelier one than that given by Josephus could not be found.
+
+74. The first problem that offers itself in the study of this man is the
+man himself. Whence did he come? Everything about him is surprising. He
+appears as a dweller in the desert, an ascetic, holding aloof from common
+life and content with the scanty fare the wilderness could offer; yet he
+was keenly appreciative of his people's needs, and he knew their
+sins,--the particular ones that beset Pharisees, publicans, soldiers. If a
+recluse in habit, he was far from such in thought; he was therefore no
+seeker for his own soul's peace in his desert life. His dress was
+strikingly suggestive of the old prophet of judgment on national
+infidelity (I. Kings xvii. 1; II. Kings i, 8), the Elijah whom John would
+not claim to be. His message was commanding, with its double word "Repent"
+and "The kingdom is near." His idea of the kingdom was definite, though
+not at all developed; it signified to him God's dominion, inaugurated by a
+divine judgment which should mean good for the penitent and utter
+destruction for the ungodly; hence the prophet's call to repentance. His
+ministry was one of grace, but the time was drawing near when the Greater
+One would appear to complete by a swift judgment the work which his
+forerunner was beginning. That Greater One would hew down the fruitless
+tree, winnow the wheat from the chaff on the threshing floor, baptize the
+penitent with divine power, and the wicked with the fire of judgment,
+since his was to be a ministry of judgment, not of grace.
+
+75. Whence, then, came this strange prophet? Near the desert region where
+he spent his youth and where he first proclaimed his message of repentance
+and judgment was the chief settlement of that strange company of Jews
+known as Essenes. It has long been customary to think that during his
+early years John was associated with these fellow-dwellers in the desert,
+if he did not actually join the order. He certainly may have learned from
+them many things. Their sympathy with his ascetic life and with his
+thorough moral earnestness would make them attractive to him, but he was
+far too original a man to get from them more than some suggestions to be
+worked out in his own fashion. The simplicity of his teaching of
+repentance and the disregard of ceremonial in his preaching separate him
+from these monks. John may have known his desert companions, may have
+appreciated some things in their discipline, but he remained independent
+of their guidance.
+
+76. The leaders of religious life and thought in his day were
+unquestionably the Pharisees. The controlling idea with them, and
+consequently with the people, was the sanctity of God's law. They were
+conscious of the sinfulness of the people, and their demand for repentance
+was constant. It is a rabbinic commonplace that the delay of the Messiah's
+coming is due to lack of repentance in Israel. But near as this conception
+is to John's, we need but to recall his words to the Pharisees (Matt. iii.
+7) to realize how clearly he saw through the hollowness of their religious
+pretence. With the quibbles of the scribes concerning small and great
+commandments, Sabbaths and hand-washings, John shows no affinity. He may
+have learned some things from these "sitters in Moses' seat," but he was
+not of them.
+
+77. John's message announced the near approach of the kingdom of God. It
+is probable that many of those who sought his baptism were ardent
+nationalists,--eager to take a hand in realizing that consummation.
+Josephus indicates that it was Herod's fear lest John should lead these
+Zealots to revolt that furnished the ostensible cause of his death. But
+similar as were the interests of John and these nationalists, the distance
+between them was great. The prophet's replies to the publicans and to the
+soldiers, which contain not a word of rebuke for the hated callings (Luke
+iii. 13, 14), show how fundamentally he differed from the Zealots.
+
+78. But there was another branch of the Pharisees than that which quibbled
+over Sabbath laws, traditions, and tithes, or that which itched to grasp
+the sword; they were men who saw visions and dreamed dreams like those of
+Daniel and the Revelation, and in their visions saw God bringing
+deliverance to his people by swift and sudden judgment. There are some
+marked likenesses between this type of thought and that of John,--the
+impending judgment, the word of warning, the coming blessing, were all in
+John; but one need only compare John's words with such an apocalypse as
+the Assumption of Moses, probably written in Palestine during John's life
+in the desert, to discover that the two messages do not move in the same
+circle of thought at all; there is something practical, something severely
+heart-searching, something at home in every-day life, about John's
+announcement of the coming kingdom that is quite absent from the visions
+of his contemporaries. John had not, like some of these seers, a coddling
+sympathy for people steeped in sin. He traced their troubles to their own
+doors, and would not let ceremonies pass in place of "fruits meet for
+repentance." He came from the desert with rebuke and warning on his lips;
+with no word against the hated Romans, but many against hypocritical
+claimants to the privileges of Abraham; no apology for his message nor
+artificial device of dream or ancient name to secure a hearing, but the
+old-fashioned prophetic method of declaration of truth "whether men will
+hear or whether they will forbear." "All was sharp and cutting, imperious
+earnestness about final questions, unsparing overthrow of all fictitious
+shams in individual as in national life. There are no theories of the law,
+no new good works, no belief in the old, but simply and solely a prophetic
+clutch at men's consciences, a mighty accusation, a crushing summons to
+contrite repentance and speedy sanctification" (KeimJN. II. 228). We look
+in vain for a parallel in any of John's contemporaries, except in that one
+before whom he bowed, saying, "I have need to be baptized of thee."
+
+79. John had, however, predecessors whose work he revived. In Isaiah's
+words, "Wash you, make you clean" (Isa. i 16), one recognizes the type
+which reappeared in John. The great prophetic conception of the Day of the
+Lord--the day of wrath and salvation (Joel ii. 1-14)--is revived in John,
+free from all the fantastic accompaniments which his contemporaries loved.
+The invitations to repentance and new fidelity which abound in Isaiah,
+Ezekiel, Hosea, and Joel; the summons to simple righteousness, which rang
+from the lips of Micah (vi. 8), and of the great prophet of the exile
+(Isa. lviii.), these tell us where John went to school and how well he
+learned his lesson. It is hard for us to realize how great a novelty such
+simplicity was in John's day, or how much originality it required to
+attain to this discipleship of the prophets. From the time when the
+curtain rises on the later history of Israel in the days of the Maccabean
+struggle to the coming of that "voice crying in the wilderness," Israel
+had listened in vain for a prophet who could speak God's will with
+authority. The last thing that people expected when John came was such a
+simple message. He was not the creature of his time, but a revival of the
+older type; yet, as in the days of Elijah God had kept him seven thousand
+in Israel that had not bowed the knee to Baal, so, in the later time, not
+all were bereft of living faith. These devout souls furnished the soil
+which could produce a life like John's, gifted and chosen by God to
+restore and advance the older and more genuine religion.
+
+80. If John was thus a revival of the older prophetic order, a second
+question arises: Whence came his baptism, and what did it signify? The
+gospels describe it as a "baptism of repentance for the remission of sins"
+(Mark i. 4). John's declaration that his greater successor should baptize
+with the Holy Spirit and fire (Matt. iii. 11) shows that he viewed his
+baptism as a symbol, rather than as a means, of remission of sin. But it
+was more than a sign of repentance, it was a confession of loyalty to the
+kingdom which John's successor was to establish. It had thus a twofold
+significance: (_a_) confession of and turning from the old life of sin,
+and (_b_) consecration to the coming kingdom. Whence, then, came this
+ordinance? Not from the Essenes, for, unlike John's baptism, the bath
+required by these Jewish ascetics was an oft-repeated act. Further, John's
+rite had a far deeper religious significance than the Essene washings.
+These performed their ablutions to secure ritual cleanness as exemplary
+disciples of the Mosaic ideal. The searching of heart which preceded
+John's baptism, and the radical change of life it demanded, seem foreign
+to Essenism. The baptism of John, considered as a ceremony of consecration
+for the coming kingdom, was parallel rather to the initiatory oaths of the
+Essene brotherhood than to their ablutions. Their custom may have served
+to suggest to John a different application of the familiar sacred use of
+the bath; indeed John could hardly have been uninfluenced by the usage of
+his contemporaries; yet in this, as in his thought, he was not a product
+of their school.
+
+81. John's baptism was equally independent of the pharisaic influence. The
+scribes made much of "divers washings," but not with any such significance
+as would furnish to John his baptism of repentance and of radical change
+of life. That he was not following a pharisaic leading appears in the
+question put to him by the Pharisees, "Why, then, baptizest thou?" (John
+i. 25). They saw something unique in the ceremony as he conducted it.
+
+82. Many have held that he derived his baptism from the method of
+admitting proselytes into the Jewish fellowship. It is clear, at least,
+that the later ritual prescribed a ceremonial bath as well as circumcision
+and sacrifice for all who came into Judaism from the Gentiles, and it is
+difficult to conceive of a time when a ceremonial bath would not seem
+indispensable, since Jews regarded all Gentile life as defiling. While
+such an origin for John's baptism would give peculiar force to his rebuke
+of Jewish confidence in the merits of Abraham (Matt. iii. 9), it is more
+likely, as Keim has shown (JN. II. 243 and note), that in this as in his
+other thought John learned of his predecessors rather than his
+contemporaries. Before the giving of the older covenant from Sinai, it is
+said that Moses was required "to sanctify the people and bid them wash
+their garments" (Ex. xix. 10). John was proclaiming the establishment of a
+new covenant, as the prophets had promised. That the people should prepare
+for this by a similar bath of sanctification seems most natural. John
+appeared with a revival of the older and simpler religious ideas of
+Israel's past, deriving his rite as well as his thought from the springs
+of his people's religious life.
+
+83. This revival of the prophetic past had nothing scholastic or
+antiquarian about it. John was a disciple, not an imitator, of the great
+men of Israel; his message was not learned from Isaiah or any other,
+though he was educated by studying them. What he declared, he declared as
+truth immediately seen by his own soul, the essence of his power being a
+revival, not in letter but in spirit, of the old, direct cry, "Thus saith
+the Lord." Inasmuch as John's day was otherwise hopelessly in bondage to
+tradition and the study of the letter, by so much is his greatness
+enhanced in bringing again God's direct message to the human conscience.
+John's greatness was that of a pioneer. The Friend of publicans and
+sinners also spoke a simple speech to human hearts; he built on and
+advanced from the old prophets, but it was John who was appointed to
+prepare the people for the new life, "to make ready the way of the Lord"
+(Mark i. 3). The clearness of his perception of truth is not the least of
+his claims to greatness. His knowledge of the simplicity of God's
+requirements in contrast with the hopeless maze of pharisaic traditions,
+and his insight into the characters with whom he had to deal, whether the
+sinless Jesus or the hypocritical Pharisees, show a man marvellously
+gifted by God who made good use of his gift. This greatness appears in
+superlative degree in the self-effacement of him who possessed these
+powers. Greatness always knows itself more or less fully. It was not
+self-ignorance that led John to claim to be but a voice, nor was it mock
+humility. The confession of his unworthiness in comparison with the
+mightier one who should follow is unmistakably sincere, as is the
+completed joy of this friend of the bridegroom rejoicing greatly because
+of the bridegroom's voice, even when the bridegroom's presence meant the
+recedence of the friend into ever deepening obscurity (John iii. 30).
+
+84. But John had marked limitations. He knew well the righteousness of
+God; he knew, and, in effect, proclaimed God's readiness to forgive them
+that would turn from their wicked ways; he knew the simplicity as well as
+the exceeding breadth of the divine commandment; but beyond one flash of
+insight (John i. 29-36), which did not avail to remould his thought, he
+did not know the yearning love of God which seeks to save. It is not
+strange that he did not. Some of the prophets had more knowledge of it
+than he, his own favorite Isaiah knew more of it than he, but it was not
+the thought of John's day. The wonder is that the Baptist so far freed
+himself from current thought; yet he did not belong to the new order. He
+thundered as from Sinai. The simplest child that has learned from the
+heart its "Our Father" has reached a higher knowledge and entered a higher
+privilege (Matt. xi. 11). John's self-effacement, wonderful as it was,
+fell short of discipleship to his greater successor; in fact, at a much
+later time there was still a circle of disciples of the Baptist who kept
+themselves separate from the church (Acts xix. 1-7). He was doubtless too
+strenuous a man readily to become a follower. He could yield his place
+with unapproachable grace, but he remained the prophet of the wilderness
+still. He seemed to belong consciously to the old order, and, by the very
+circumstances ordained of God who sent him, he could not be of those who,
+sitting at Jesus' feet, learned to surrender to him their preconceptions
+and hopes, and in heart, if not in word, to say, "To whom shall we go,
+thou hast the words of eternal life?" (John vi. 68).
+
+
+
+
+VII
+
+The Messianic Call
+
+Matt. iii. 13 TO iv. 11; Mark i. 9-13; Luke iii. 21, 22; iv. 1-13; John i.
+30-34
+
+
+
+85. In the circle about John all classes of the people were represented:
+Pharisees and Sadducees, jealous of innovation and apprehensive of popular
+excitement; publicans and soldiers, interested in the new preacher or
+touched in conscience; outcasts who came in penitence, and devout souls in
+consecration. The wonder of the new message was carried throughout the
+land and brought great multitudes to the Jordan. Jesus in Nazareth heard
+it, and recognized in John a revival of the long-silent prophetic voice.
+The summons appealed to his loyalty to God's truth, and after the
+multitudes had been baptized (Luke iii. 21) he too sought the prophet of
+the wilderness.
+
+86. The connection which Luke mentions (i. 36) between the families of
+Jesus and John had not led to any intimacy between the two young men. John
+certainly did not know of his kinsman's mission (John i. 31), nor was his
+conception of the Messiah such that he would look for its fulfilment in
+one like Jesus (Matt. iii. 10-12). One thing, however, was clear as soon
+as they met,--John recognized in Jesus one holier than himself (Matt. iii.
+14). With a prophet's spiritual insight he read the character of Jesus
+at a glance, and although that character did not prove him to be the
+Messiah, it prepared John for the revelation which was soon to follow.
+
+87. The reply of Jesus to the unwillingness of John to give him baptism
+(Matt. iii. 15) was an expression of firm purpose to do God's will; the
+absence of any confession of sin is therefore all the more noticeable. In
+all generations the holiest men have been those most conscious of
+imperfection, and in John's message and baptism confession and repentance
+were primary demands; yet Jesus felt no need for repentance, and asked for
+baptism with no word of confession. But for the fact that the total
+impression of his life begat in his disciples the conviction that "he did
+no sin" (I. Pet. ii. 22; compare John viii. 46; II. Cor. v. 21), this
+silence of Jesus would offend the religious sense. Jesus, however, had no
+air of self-sufficiency, he came to make surrender and "to fulfil
+all-righteousness" (Matt. iii. 15). It was the positive aspect of John's
+baptism that drew him to the Jordan. John was preaching the coming of
+God's kingdom. The place held by the doctrine of that kingdom in the later
+teaching of Jesus makes it all but certain that his thought had been
+filled with it for many years. In his reading of the prophets Jesus
+undoubtedly emphasized the spiritual phases of their promises, but it is
+not likely that he had done much criticising of the ideas held by his
+contemporaries before he came to John. As already remarked he seems to
+have been quicker to discover his affinity with the older truth than to be
+conscious of the novelty of his own ways of apprehending it (Matt. v. 17).
+When, then, Jesus heard John's call for consecration to the approaching
+kingdom he recognized the voice of duty, and he sought the baptism that he
+might do all that he could to "make ready the way of the Lord."
+
+88. This act of consecration on Jesus' part was one of personal obedience.
+There were no crowds present (Luke iii. 21), and his thoughts were full of
+prayer. It was an experience which concerned his innermost life with God,
+and it called him to communion with heaven like that in which he sought
+for wisdom before choosing his apostles (Luke vi. 12), and for strength in
+view of his approaching death (Luke ix. 28, 29). His outward declaration
+of loyalty to the coming kingdom was thus not an act of righteousness "to
+be seen of men," but one of personal devotion to him who is and who sees
+in secret (Matt. vi. 1, 6). As the transfiguration followed the prayer on
+Hermon, so this initial consecration was answered from heaven. A part of
+the answer was evident to John, for he saw a visible token of the gift of
+the divine Spirit which was granted to Jesus for the conduct of the work
+he had to do, and he recognized in Jesus the greater successor for whom he
+was simply making preparation (Mark i. 10; John i. 32-34). To Jesus there
+came also with the gift of the Spirit a definite word from heaven, "Thou
+art my beloved Son, in thee I am well pleased" (Mark i. 11). The language
+in Mark and Luke, and the silence of the Baptist concerning the voice from
+heaven (John i. 32-34), indicate that the word came to Jesus alone, and
+was his summons to undertake the work of setting up that kingdom to which
+he had just pledged his loyalty. The expression "My beloved Son" had clear
+Messianic significance for Jesus' contemporaries (comp. Mark xiv. 62),
+and the message can have signified for him nothing less than a Messianic
+call. It implied more than that child-relation to God which was the
+fundamental fact in his religious life from the beginning: it had an
+official meaning.
+
+89. For Jesus the sense of being God's child was normally human, and in
+his ministry he invited all men to a similar consciousness of sonship. Yet
+his early years must have brought to him a realization that he was
+different from his fellows. That in him which made a confession at the
+baptism unnatural and which led to John's word, "I have need to be
+baptized by thee," was ready to echo assent when God said, "Thou art my
+Son." He accepted the call and the new office and mission which it
+implied, and he must have recognized that it was for this moment that all
+the past of his life had been making preparation.
+
+90. The gift of the Spirit to Jesus, which furnished to John the proof
+that the Greater One had appeared, was not an arbitrary sign. The old
+prophetic thought (Isa. xi. 2; xlii. 1; lxi. 1) as well as a later popular
+expectation (Ps. of Sol. xvii. 42) provided for such an anointing of the
+Messiah; and in the actual conduct of his life Jesus was constantly under
+the leading of this Spirit (see Matt. xii. 28 and John iii. 34). The
+temptation which followed the baptism, and in which he faced the
+difficulties in his new task, was the first result of the Spirit's
+control. Its later influence is not so clearly marked in the gospels, but
+they imply that as the older servants of God were guided and strengthened
+by him, so his Son also was aided,--with this difference, however, that he
+possessed completely the heavenly gift (John iii. 34). Jesus' uniform
+confession of dependence on God confirms this teaching of the gift of the
+divine Spirit; and his uniform consciousness of complete power and
+authority confirms the testimony that he had the Spirit "without measure."
+
+91. The temptation to which the Spirit "drove" Jesus after his baptism
+gives proof that the call to assume the Messianic office came to him
+unexpectedly; for the three temptations with which his long struggle ended
+were echoes of the voice which he had heard at the Jordan, and subtle
+insinuations of doubt of its meaning. Some withdrawal to contemplate the
+significance of his appointment to a Messianic work was a mental and
+spiritual necessity. As has often been said, if the gospels had not
+recorded the temptation, we should have had to assume one. Jesus being the
+man he was, could not have thought that his call was a summons to an
+entire change in his ideals and his thoughts about God and duty. Yet he
+must have been conscious of the wide differences between his conceptions
+of God's kingdom and the popular expectation. Those differences, by the
+measure of the definiteness of the popular thought and the ardor of the
+popular hope, were the proof of the difficulty of his task. The call meant
+that the Messiah could be such as he was; it meant that the kingdom could
+be and must be a dominion of God primarily in the hearts of men and
+consequently in their world; it meant that his work must be religious
+rather than political, and gracious rather than judicial. These essentials
+of the work which he could do contradicted at nearly every point the
+expectations of his people. How could he succeed in the face of such
+opposition? His long meditation during forty days doubtless showed him the
+difficulty of his task in all its baldness, yet it did not shake his
+certainty that the call had come to him from God, nor his faith that what
+God had called him to do he could accomplish.
+
+92. The gospels show no hesitation in calling the experience of these days
+a temptation, nor had the Christian feeling of the first century any
+difficulty in thinking of its Lord as actually suffering temptation (Heb.
+ii. 18; iv. 15). A temptation to be real cannot be hypothetical; evil must
+actually present itself as attractive to the tempted soul. A suggestion of
+evil that takes no hold concretely of the heart is no temptation, nor is
+the resistance of it any victory. The sinlessness of him who sought
+baptism with no confession on his lips nor sense of penitence in his heart
+offers no barrier to his experience of genuine temptation, unless we think
+him incapable of sin, and therefore not "like unto his brethren." Not only
+do the gospels repeatedly refer to his temptations (Luke iv. 13; Mark
+viii. 31-33; Luke xxii. 28; compare Heb. v. 7-9), but they also depict
+clearly the reality of these initial testings. The account as given in
+Matthew and Luke represents the experience with which the forty days'
+struggle culminated. The absorption of Jesus' mind had been so complete
+that he had neglected the needs of his body, and when he turned to think
+of earthly things he was pressed by hunger. A popular notion at a later
+time, and probably also in Jesus' day, was that the Messiah would be able
+to feed his people as Moses had given them manna in the wilderness (John
+vi. 30-32; see EdersLJM. I. 176). He had just been endowed with the
+divine Spirit for the work before him; it was therefore no fantastic idea
+when the suggestion came that he should use his power to supply his own
+needs in the desert. Nor was the temptation without attractiveness; his
+own physical nature urged its need, and Jesus was no ascetic who found
+discomfort a way of holiness. The evil in the suggestion was that it asked
+him to use his newly given powers for the supply of his own needs, as if
+doubting that God would care for him as for any other of his children.
+There was more than distrust of God suggested; the temptation came with a
+hint of another doubt,--"_If_ thou art God's Son." A miracle would prove
+to himself his appointment and his power. The suggested doubt of his call
+he passed unnoticed; distrust of God he repudiated instantly, falling back
+on his faith in the God he had served these many years (Deut. viii. 3).
+His victory is remarkable because his spirit conquered unhesitatingly
+after a long ecstasy which would naturally have induced a reaction and a
+surrender for the moment to the demand of lower needs.
+
+93. This firmness of trust opened the way for another evil suggestion. In
+the work before him as God's Anointed many difficulties were on either
+side and across his path. He knew his people, their prejudices, and their
+hardness of heart; and he knew how far he was from their ideal of a
+Messiah. He knew also the watchful jealousy of Rome. Others before him,
+like Judas of Galilee, had tried the Messianic rôle and had failed. He,
+however, was confident of his divine call: should he not, therefore, press
+forward with his work, heedless of all danger and regardless of the
+dictates of prudence,--as heedless as if, trusting God's promised care,
+he should cast himself down from a pinnacle of the temple to the rocks in
+Kidron below? A fanatic would have yielded to such a temptation. Many
+another than Jesus did so,--Theudas (Acts v. 36), the Egyptian (Acts xxi.
+38); and Bar Cochba (Dio Cassius, lxix. 12-14; Euseb. Ch. Hist. iv. 6).
+Jesus, however, showed his perfect mental health, repudiating the
+temptation by declaring that while man may trust God's care, he must not
+presumptuously put it to the test (Matt. iv. 7). The after life of Jesus
+was a clear commentary on this reply. He constantly sought to avoid
+situations which would compromise his mission or cut short his work (see
+John vi. 15), and when at the end he suffered the death prepared for him
+by his people's hatred, it was because his hour had come and he could say,
+"I lay down my life of myself" (John x. 18). His marvellous control of
+enthusiasm and his self-mastery in all circumstances separate Jesus from
+all ecstatics and fanatics. Yet presumption must have seemed the easier
+course, and could readily wear the mask of trust. He was tempted, yet
+without sin.
+
+94. As the refusal to doubt led to the temptation to presume, so the
+determination to be prudent opened the way for a third assault upon his
+perfect loyalty to God. The world he was to seek to save was swayed by
+passions; his own people were longing for a Messiah, but they must have
+their kind of a Messiah. If he would acknowledge this actual supremacy of
+evil and self-will in the world, the opposition of passion and prejudice
+might be avoided. If he would own the evil inevitable for the time, and
+accommodate his work to it, he might then be free to lead men to higher
+and more spiritual views of God's kingdom. His knowledge of his people's
+grossness of heart and materialism of hope made a real temptation of the
+suggestion that he should not openly oppose but should accommodate himself
+to them. Jesus did not underestimate the opposition of "the kingdoms of
+the world," but he truly estimated God's intolerance of any rivalry (Matt.
+iv. 10), and he was true to God and to his own soul. Again, in this as in
+the preceding temptations, Jesus conquered the evil suggestions by
+appropriating to himself truth spoken by God's servants to Israel. Tempted
+in all points like his brethren, he resisted as any one of them could have
+resisted, and won a victory possible, ideally considered, to any other of
+the children of men.
+
+95. It is not idle curiosity which inquires whence the evangelists got
+this story of the temptation of Jesus. Even if the whole transaction took
+place on the plane of outer sensuous life, and Jesus was bodily carried to
+Jerusalem and to the mountain-top, there is no probability that any
+witnesses were at hand who could tell the tale. But the fact that in any
+case the vision of the kingdoms of the world in a moment of time (Luke iv.
+5) could have been spiritual only, since no mountain, however high (Matt.
+iv. 8), could give, physically, that wide sweep of view, suggests that the
+whole account tells in pictorial language an intensely real, inner
+experience of Jesus. This in no respect reduces the truthfulness of the
+narratives. Temptation never becomes temptation till it passes to that
+inner scene of action and debate. Since Jesus shows in all his teaching a
+natural use of parabolic language to set forth spiritual truth, the
+inference is almost inevitable that the gospels have in like manner
+adopted the language of vivid picture as alone adequate to depict the
+essential reality of his inner struggle. In any case the narrative could
+have come from no other source than himself. How he came to tell it we do
+not know. On one of the days of private converse with his disciples after
+the confession at Cæsarea Philippi he may have given them this account of
+his own experience, in order to help his loyal Galileans to understand
+more fully his work and the way of it, and to prepare them for that
+disappointment of their expectations which they were so slow to
+acknowledge as possible.
+
+96. From this struggle in the wilderness Jesus came forth with the clear
+conviction that he was God's Anointed, and in all his after life no
+hesitation appeared. The kingdom which he undertook to establish was that
+dominion of simple righteousness which he had learned to know and love in
+the years of quiet life in Nazareth. He set out to do his work fearlessly,
+but prudently, seeking to win men in his Father's way to acknowledge that
+Father's sovereignty. There is no evidence that, beyond such firm
+conviction and purpose, he had any fixed plan for the work he was to do,
+nor that he saw clearly as yet how his earthly career would end. The third
+temptation, however, shows that he was not unprepared for seeming defeat.
+The struggle had been long and serious,--for the three temptations of the
+end are doubtless typical of the whole of the forty days,--and the victory
+was great and final. With the light of victory as well as the marks of
+warfare on his face, he took his way back towards Galilee.
+
+
+
+
+VIII
+
+The First Disciples
+
+John i. 19 TO ii. 12
+
+
+
+97. After the withdrawal of Jesus into the wilderness, John the Baptist
+continued his ministry of preaching and baptizing, moving northward up the
+Jordan valley to Bethany, on the eastern side of the river, near one of
+the fords below the Sea of Galilee (John i. 28). Here Galilee, doubtless,
+contributed more to his audience than Judea. It is certain that some from
+the borders of the lake were at this time among his constant attendants:
+Andrew and Simon of Bethsaida, John the son of Zebedee, and perhaps his
+brother James, probably also Philip of Bethsaida and Nathanael of Cana
+(John i. 40, 41, 43-45; compare xxi. 2).
+
+98. The leaders in Jerusalem, becoming apprehensive whither this work
+would lead, sent an embassy to question John. They chose for this mission
+priests and Levites of pharisaic leaning as most influential among the
+people. The impression John and his message were making on the popular
+mind is seen in the questions put to him, "Art thou the Messiah?"
+"Elijah?" "The prophet?" (see Deut. xviii. 15), and in the challenge,
+"Why, then, baptizest thou?" when John disclaimed the right to any of
+these names. John's reply is the echo of his earlier proclamation of the
+one mightier than he who should baptize with the Spirit (Mark i. 7, 8),
+only now he added that this one was present among them (John i. 26, 27).
+
+99. This interview occurred several weeks after Jesus' baptism, for upon
+the next day John saw Jesus (John i. 29), now returned from the
+temptation, and pointed him out to a group of disciples. Something in
+Jesus' face or in his bearing, as he came from his temptation, must have
+impressed John even more than at their first meeting; for he was led to
+think of a prophetic word for the most part ignored by the Messianic
+thought of his day, "He was brought as a lamb to the slaughter" (Isa.
+liii. 7). As he looked on Jesus the mysterious oracle was illuminated for
+him, and he cried, "Behold the lamb of God which taketh away the sin of
+the world." Once again on the next day the same thought rushed to his lips
+when, with two disciples, he saw Jesus passing by (John i. 35, 36). Then
+as Jesus left John's neighborhood and took up again the round of ordinary
+life, John seems to have reverted to his more ordinary Messianic thought,
+his momentary insight into highest truth standing as a thing apart in his
+life. Such a moment's insight, caused by extraordinary circumstances, no
+more requires that John should retain the high thought constantly than
+does Peter's confession of Christ at Cæsarea Philippi exclude his later
+rebuke of his Lord (Mark viii. 32, 33), or his denials (Mark xiv. 66-72).
+
+100. The disciples who heard these testimonies from John understood them
+to be Messianic (John i. 30-34), though their later consternation, when
+the cross seemed to shatter their hopes (John xx. 9, 10, 24, 25), shows
+that they did not comprehend their deeper meaning. Two of these disciples
+at once attached themselves to Jesus, and one of them, Andrew of
+Bethsaida, was so impressed by the new master that, having sought out his
+brother Simon, he declared that they had found the Messiah. The other of
+these earliest followers was John the son of Zebedee, and it is possible
+that he also found his brother and introduced James from the very first
+into the circle of the disciples. Jesus was about to take his departure
+for Galilee, and on the next day, as he was leaving, added Philip of
+Bethsaida to the little company of followers. Philip, impressed as Andrew
+had been, brought Nathanael of Cana to Jesus. The undefined something
+about Jesus which drew noble hearts irresistibly to himself, and his
+marvellous knowledge of this new comer, produced the same effect in
+Nathanael, as was seen earlier in Andrew and Philip, and he acknowledged
+the new master as "Son of God, King of Israel" (John i. 49).
+
+101. These early confessions in the fourth gospel present a difficulty in
+view of Jesus' warm approval of Peter's acknowledgment of him at Cæsarea
+Philippi (Matt. xvi. 13-20). Jesus saw in that confession a distinct
+advance in the disciples' thought and faith. Yet the religious feeling
+which early questioned whether the Baptist even were not the Messiah (Luke
+iii. 15) would almost certainly have concluded that John's greater
+successor must be God's anointed. The very fact that men's thoughts about
+the Messiah were varied and complex made them ready for some modifications
+of their preconceptions. One with such subtle personal power as Jesus had
+exercised was almost sure to be hailed by some with enthusiasm as the
+looked-for representative of God. In fact, it is probable that at any
+time in the early days of his ministry Jesus could have been proclaimed
+Messiah, provided he had accepted the people's terms. Such a confession
+would have been merely the outcome of enthusiasm. The people, even the
+disciples, did not know Jesus. They all had high hopes and somewhat fixed
+ideas about the Messiah, nearly every one of which was destined to rude
+shock. How little they knew him Jesus realized (John i. 51), and his
+self-mastery is manifest in his attitude to this early enthusiasm. He was
+no visionary; he had a great work to do and a long lesson to teach, and he
+was patient enough to teach it little by little. He did not rebuke the
+ill-informed faith of a Nathanael, but sought gradually to supplant the
+old thought of the Messiah and of the kingdom by new truth, and to bind
+men's affections to himself for his own sake and the truth's sake, not
+simply for the idea which he impersonated to them.
+
+102. The visit to Cana seems to have found a place in the fourth gospel,
+because there the new disciples discovered in their master miraculous
+powers which were to them a sign that he was in truth God's anointed. It
+is probable that at the time of this miracle the disciples thought only of
+the power and the marvel, yet the sharp contrast between John's ascetic
+habit and Jesus' use of his divine resources to relieve embarrassment at a
+wedding feast must have impressed every man among them. Their minds,
+however, were as yet too full of Messianic hopes to leave much room for
+reflection. They were content to have a sign, for in the view of Jesus'
+contemporaries signs were essential marks of the Messiah (John vi. 30;
+vii. 31; Mark viii. 11). They did their reflecting later (John ii. 22).
+
+103. Miracles are as great a stumbling-block to modern thought as they
+were a help to the contemporaries of Jesus. The study of Jesus' life
+cannot ignore this fact, nor make little of it. It is fair to insist,
+however, that the question is one of evidence, not of metaphysical
+possibility. Men are wisely slow to-day to claim that they can tell what
+are the limits of the possible. If the question is one of evidence, it is
+in an important sense true that the evidence for miracle in the life of
+Jesus is appreciable only when that life is viewed in its completeness.
+The miracles attributed to Jesus may be studied, however, for the
+disclosure which they give of his character, and of his relation to common
+human need. So it is with this first sign at Cana. Jesus had just heard
+the call to be Messiah, and in his lonely struggle in the wilderness had
+given a loyal answer to that call, and had set out to do his Father's
+business in his Father's way. He who by the Jordan still carried the marks
+of struggle, so that the Baptist saw in him the suffering Saviour of
+Isaiah liii., now returned to the ordinary daily life in Galilee, and as a
+guest at a wedding feast he commenced that ministry of simple human
+friendliness (Matt. xi. 19; compare Mark ii. 15-17; Luke xv. 1, 2), which
+set him in sharp contrast alike with John's asceticism and with the
+ritualism and pedantry of the Pharisees.
+
+104. His human friendliness is all the more worthy of note, inasmuch as on
+his return to Cana Jesus did not take up again the old relations of life
+as they existed before his baptism. This is clear from his reply to his
+mother when she reported the scarcity of wine (John ii. 3-5). While it is
+true that the title by which Jesus addressed Mary was neither
+disrespectful nor unkind (John xix. 26), the reply itself was a warning
+that now he was no longer hers in the old sense. A new mission had been
+given him, which henceforth would determine all his conduct, and in that
+mission she could not now share. Here is one of the many indications
+(compare Mark iii. 21, 31-35; Luke ii. 48) that Mary did not understand
+her son nor his work until much later (John xix. 25; Acts i. 14). That
+with such a clear sense of his new and serious mission Jesus' first
+official act was one of kindly relief for social embarrassment is most
+significant. He chose to show his divine authority to his new disciples in
+a way that brought joy to a festal company. Little as the disciples were
+likely to appreciate it at the time, it was beautifully indicative of the
+simplicity and everyday lovableness of Jesus' idea of the earnest service
+of God.
+
+105. With the disciples thus strengthened in faith, and the mother not
+separated from him though unable to know his deepest thoughts, and the
+brethren who could not yet nor later understand their kinsman and his
+work, Jesus went down to Capernaum (John ii. 12), which proved thenceforth
+to be the centre of his greatest work and teaching. There for a time, how
+long cannot be known, he continued in quiet fellowship with his new
+friends, until the approach of the Passover drew him to Jerusalem to make
+formal opening of his Messianic work in that centre of his people's
+religious life.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Part II
+
+The Ministry
+
+
+
+
+I
+
+General Survey of the Ministry
+
+
+
+106. The attempt to arrange an orderly account of the way in which Jesus
+set about the work to which he was called at his baptism is met at the
+outset by a problem. The vivid and familiar words of Mark (i. 14),
+seconded by the representation in both Matthew (iv. 12) and Luke (iv. 14),
+indicate the imprisonment of John as the occasion, and Galilee as the
+scene of the inauguration of Jesus' public ministry. The fourth gospel, on
+the other hand, tells of a work of Jesus and his disciples in Judea prior
+to the imprisonment of John (in. 24), and makes this work follow at some
+interval after the inauguration of the Messianic ministry in Jerusalem.
+The minuteness of detail of time and place in the early chapters of John
+(i. 19 to iv. 43), together with the vividness of their narrative, give
+them strong claim to credence. They thus record a ministry earlier than
+that narrated in the other gospels, proving that the actual inauguration
+of Jesus' work occurred in Jerusalem at a Passover season previous to the
+imprisonment of John. This is known as the Early Judean Ministry.
+
+107. The fact that Peter was wont to tell the story of Jesus' life in such
+a way as to lead Mark to set the opening of the ministry after the close
+of John's activity, indicates that that beginning of work in Galilee
+seemed to the disciples to be in a way the actual inauguration of Jesus'
+constructive and successful work. Peter cannot have been ignorant of the
+labors in Judea, though he may not himself have accompanied Jesus to the
+Passover. A new stage in the life of Jesus began, therefore, with his
+withdrawal to Galilee.
+
+108. The story of the Galilean ministry is given chiefly by the first
+three gospels, John contributing but two incidents to the period covered
+by that ministry,--a second miracle at Cana (iv. 46-54), and a visit to
+Judea (v. 1-47),--and relating more fully the story of the feeding of the
+multitudes (vi. 1-71). The journey from Judea through Samaria (John iv.
+1-45) should be identified with the removal to Galilee which stands at the
+beginning of Mark's record (i. 14; Matt. iv. 12; Luke iv. 14). Mark's
+account of the Galilean activity of Jesus (i. 14 to ix. 50) is one of such
+simple and steady progress that the whole period must be considered as a
+unit.
+
+109. In the use which Matthew (iv. 12 to xviii. 35) and Luke (iv. 14 to
+ix. 50) make of Mark's record this unity is emphasized. Their treatment of
+the matter which they add, however, makes it best to study the period
+topically rather than attempt to follow closely a chronological sequence.
+As it is probable that the early writing ascribed by Papias to the apostle
+Matthew failed to preserve in many cases any record of the time and place
+of the teachings of Jesus, so is it certain that the first and third
+evangelists have distributed quite differently the material which they
+seem to have derived from that apostolic document. Mention need only be
+made of the exhortation against anxiety which Matthew places in the
+sermon on the mount (vi. 19-34), and which Luke has given after the close
+of the Galilean activity (xii. 22-34). It is possible to form some
+judgment of the general relations of such discourses from the character of
+their contents, but in the absence of positive statement by the
+evangelists it is hopeless to seek to give them a more definite historical
+setting. A topical study can consider them as contributions to the period
+to which they belong, while a chronological study would be lost in
+uncertain conjectures. A topical study may, however, disclose the fact
+that sequence of time was identical with development of method. This is,
+in general, the case with the Galilean ministry. The new lesson which
+Jesus began to teach after the confession at Cæsarea Philippi marked the
+supreme turning point in his whole public activity. Before that crisis the
+work of Jesus was a constructive preparation for the question which called
+forth Peter's confession. Subsequently his work was that of making ready
+for the end, which from that time on he foretold. As has been stated, the
+Galilean ministry is the story of the first three gospels, except for two
+incidents and a discourse added by John. The visit to the feast of
+Tabernacles (John vii. 1 to viii. 59) stands on the border between the
+work in Galilee and that which followed. It was one of Jesus' many
+attempts to win Jerusalem, and is evidence that the author of the fourth
+gospel--either because of special interest in the capital, or because of
+superior knowledge of the work of his Master in Judea--gave emphasis to a
+side of the life of Jesus which the other gospels have neglected.
+
+110. With the close of the constructive ministry in Galilee, the account
+of Mark (x. 1; compare Matt xix. 1; Luke ix. 51) turns towards Jerusalem
+and the cross. The journey was not direct, but traversed Perea, the domain
+of Antipas beyond Jordan, and was accompanied by continued ministry of
+teaching and healing (Mark x. 1-52; Matt. xix. 1 to xx. 34). It is at this
+point that Luke has inserted the long section peculiar to his gospel (ix.
+51 to xviii. 14), becoming again parallel with Mark as Jesus drew near to
+Jerusalem (xviii. 15 to xix. 28; compare Mark x. 13-52). Much of that
+which Luke adds gives evidence that in all probability it should be placed
+before the change in method at Cæsarea Philippi, while much of it
+undoubtedly belongs to the last months of Jesus' life. Since the last
+journey to Jerusalem is reported with considerable fulness, it is natural
+in a study of Jesus' life to treat that journey by itself. At this point
+John contributes important additions to the record (ix. 1 to xi. 57)
+showing that the journey was not continuous, but was interrupted by
+several more or less hurried visits to the capital, renewed efforts of
+Jesus to win the city.
+
+111. With the final arrival in Jerusalem the four gospels come together in
+a record of the last days and the crucifixion (Mark xi. 1 to xv. 47; Matt,
+xxi 1 to xxvii. 66; Luke xix. 29 to xxiii. 56; John xi. 55 to xix. 42).
+The evangelists, in their accounts of the last week, seem to have had
+access to completer and more varied information than for any other part of
+the ministry. This causes some difficulties in constructing an ordered
+conception of the events, yet it greatly adds to the fulness of our
+knowledge. It is easier, therefore, to consider the period in three
+parts,--the final controversies in Jerusalem, the Last Supper, and the
+betrayal, trial, and crucifixion.
+
+112. In a sense the resurrection and ascension form the conclusion of the
+final visit to Jerusalem, and should be treated with the last week. In a
+larger sense, however, they form the culmination of the whole ministry,
+and therefore constitute a final stage in the study of Jesus' life. At
+this point the record of the gospels is supplemented by the first chapter
+of the Acts and by Paul's concise report of the appearances of the risen
+Christ (I. Cor. xv. 3-8). The various accounts exhibit perplexing
+independence of each other. In total impression, however, they agree, and
+show that the tragedy, by which the enemies of Jesus thought to end his
+career, was turned into signal triumph.
+
+   Outline of Events in the Early Judean Ministry
+
+
+   The first Passover of the public ministry: Cleansing of the
+   temple--John ii. 13-22.
+
+   Early results in Jerusalem: Discourse with Nicodemus--John ii. 23 to
+   iii. 15.
+
+   Withdrawal into rural parts of Judea to preach and baptize--John in.
+   22-30; iv. 1, 2.
+
+   Imprisonment of John the Baptist--Matt. iv. 12; Mark i. 14.
+
+   Withdrawal from Judea through Samaria--John iv. 1-42.
+
+   Unlooked-for welcome in Galilee--John iv. 43-45.
+
+   ? Second sign at Cana: Cure of the Nobleman's son--John iv. 46-54 (see
+   sect. A 41).
+
+   [Retirement at Nazareth, the disciples resuming their accustomed
+   calling. Inferred from Matt. iv. 13; Luke iv. 31; Matt. iv. 18-22 and
+   ||s.]
+
+   Events marked ? should possibly be given a different place; ||s stands
+   for "parallel accounts;" for sections marked A--as A 41--see Appendix.
+
+
+
+
+II
+
+The Early Ministry in Judea
+
+
+
+113. We owe to the fourth gospel our knowledge of the fact that Jesus
+began his general ministry in Jerusalem. The silence of the other records
+concerning this beginning cannot discredit the testimony of John. For
+these other records themselves indicate in various ways that Jesus had
+repeatedly sought to win Jerusalem before his final visit at the end of
+his life (compare Luke xiii. 34; Matt. xxiii. 37). Moreover, the fourth
+gospel is confirmed by the probability, rising almost to necessity, that
+such a mission as Jesus conceived his to be must seek first to win the
+leaders of his people. The temple at Jerusalem was the centre of worship,
+drawing all Jews sooner or later to itself--even as Jesus in early youth
+was accustomed to go thither at the time of feasts (Luke ii. 41).
+Worshippers of God throughout the world prayed with their faces towards
+Jerusalem (Dan. vi. 10). Moreover, at Jerusalem the chief of the scribes,
+as well as the chief of the priests, were to be found. Compared with
+Jerusalem all other places were provincial and of small influence. A
+Messiah, who had not from the outset given up hope of winning the capital,
+cannot have long delayed his effort to find a following there.
+
+114. Arriving at Jerusalem at the Passover season, in the early spring,
+Jesus remained in Judea until the following December (John iv. 35).
+Evidently the record which John gives of these months is most fragmentary,
+and from his own statement (xx. 30, 31) it seems highly probable that it
+is one sided, emphasizing those events and teachings in which Jesus
+disclosed more or less clearly his claim to be the Messiah. Doubtless the
+full record would show a much closer similarity between this early work in
+Judea and that later conducted in Galilee than a comparison of John with
+the other gospels would suggest; yet it is evident that Jesus opened his
+ministry in Jerusalem with an unrestrained frankness that is not found
+later in Galilee.
+
+115. It is a mistake to think of the cleansing of the temple as a distinct
+Messianic manifesto. The market in the temple was a licensed affront to
+spiritual religion. It found its excuse for being in the requirement that
+worshippers offer to the priests for sacrifice animals levitically clean
+and acceptable, and that gifts for the temple treasury be made in no coin
+other than the sacred "shekel of the sanctuary." The chief priests
+appreciated the convenience which worshippers coming from a distance would
+find if they could obtain all the means of worship within the temple
+enclosure itself. The hierarchy or its representatives seem also to have
+appreciated the opportunity to charge good prices for the accommodation so
+afforded. The result was the intrusion of the spirit of the market-place,
+with all its disputes and haggling, into the place set apart for worship.
+In fact, the only part of the temple open to Gentiles who might wish to
+worship Israel's God was filled with distraction, unseemly strife, and
+extortion (compare Mark xi. 17). Such despite done the sanctity of God's
+house must have outraged the pious sense of many a devout Israelite. There
+is no doubt of what an Isaiah or a Micah would have said and done in such
+a situation. This is exactly what Jesus did. His act was the assumption of
+a full prophetic authority. In itself considered it was nothing more. In
+his expulsion of the traders he had the conscience of the people for his
+ally. There is no need to think of any use of miraculous power. His moral
+earnestness, coupled with the underlying consciousness on the part of the
+traders themselves that they had no business in God's house, readily
+explains the confusion and departure of the intruders. Even those who
+challenged Jesus' conduct did not venture to defend the presence of the
+market in the temple. They only demanded that Jesus show his warrant for
+disturbing a condition of things authorized by the priests.
+
+116. The temple cleansing is recorded in the other gospels at the end of
+Jesus' ministry, just before the hostility of the Jews culminated in his
+condemnation and death. Inasmuch as these gospels give no account of a
+ministry by Jesus in Jerusalem before the last week of his life, it is
+easy to see how this event came to be associated by them with the only
+Jerusalem sojourn which they record. The definite place given to the event
+in John, together with the seeming necessity that Jesus should condemn
+such authorized affront to the very idea of worship, mark this cleansing
+as the inaugural act of Jesus' ministry of spiritual religion, rather than
+as a final stern rebuke closing his effort to win his people. Against the
+conclusion commonly held that Jesus cleansed the temple both at the
+opening and at the close of his course is the extreme improbability that
+the traders would have been caught twice in the same way. The event fits
+in closely with the story of the last week, because it actually led to the
+beginning of opposition in Jerusalem to the prophet from Galilee. At the
+first the opposition was doubtless of a scornful sort. Later it grew in
+bitterness when it saw how Jesus was able to arouse a popular enthusiasm
+that seemed to threaten the stability of existing conditions.
+
+117. The reply of Jesus to the challenge of his authority for his
+high-handed act shows that he offered it to the people as an invitation;
+he would lead them to a higher idea and practice of worship (compare John
+iv. 21-24). When they demanded the warrant for his act, he saw that they
+were not ready to follow him, and could not appreciate the only warrant he
+needed for his course. He cleansed the temple because they were destroying
+it as a place where men could worship God in spirit. In reply to the
+challenge, he who later taught the Samaritan woman that the worship of God
+is not dependent on any place however sacred, answered that they might
+finish their work and destroy the temple as a house of God, yet he would
+speedily re-establish a true means of approach to the Most High for the
+souls of men. He clothed his reply in a figurative dress, as he was often
+wont to do in his teaching,--"Destroy this temple, and in three days I
+will raise it up." To his unsympathetic hearers it must have been
+completely enigmatic. Even the disciples did not catch its meaning until
+after the resurrection had taught them that in their Master a new chapter
+in God's dealing with men had begun.
+
+118. The unreadiness of the Jewish leaders to receive the only kind of
+message he had to offer produced in Jesus a decided reserve. He did not
+lack a certain kind of success in Jerusalem. His cures of the sick won him
+many followers who seemed ready to believe almost anything of him. But the
+attitude taken by the leaders made it evident that Jesus must make
+disciples who should understand in some measure at least his idea of God's
+kingdom, and, understanding, must be ready to be loyal to it through good
+report and evil. For the position taken by the leaders of the people had
+an ominous significance. It could mean but one thing for
+Jesus,--unrelenting conflict. If they could not be won, they who would so
+legalize the desecration of God's house would not hesitate at any extreme
+in opposing his messenger. This possibility confronted Jesus at the very
+outset; therefore he held the popular enthusiasm in check, knowing that
+as yet it had little of that kind of faith which could endure seeming
+defeat.
+
+119. One of those who were drawn to him, however, gave Jesus opportunity
+to lay aside his reserve and speak clearly of the truth lie came to
+publish. He was a member of the Jewish sanhedrin, a rabbi apparently held
+in high regard in Jerusalem. While his associates were dismissing the
+claims of Jesus with a wave of the hand, Nicodemus sought out the new
+teacher by night, and showed his desire to learn what Jesus held to be
+truth concerning God's kingdom. Jesus first reminded the teacher of Israel
+of the old doctrine of the prophets, that Israel must find a new heart
+before God's kingdom can come (Jer. xxxi. 31-34; Ezek. xxxvi. 25-27), and
+then declared that the heavenly truth which God now would reveal to men is
+that all can have the needed new life as freely as the plague-stricken
+Israelites found relief when Moses lifted up the brazen serpent. This
+conversation serves to introduce the evangelist's interpretation of Jesus
+as the only begotten Son of God sent in love to redeem the world (John
+iii. 16-21).
+
+120. John's record suggests that Jesus left Jerusalem shortly after the
+conversation with Nicodemus. His work there was not without success, for
+Nicodemus seems to have been henceforth his loyal advocate (compare John
+vii. 50-52; xix. 39); and it may be that at the time of this sojourn he
+won the hearts of his friends in Bethany, for the first picture the
+gospels give of this household seems to presuppose a somewhat intimate
+relation of Jesus to the family (Luke x. 38-42). It would be idle to
+speculate whether it was at this time or later that he became acquainted
+with Joseph of Arimathea, or the friends who during the last week of his
+life showed him hospitality (Mark xi. 2-6; xiv. 12-16).
+
+121. For a time after his withdrawal from Jerusalem he lingered in Judea,
+carrying on a simple ministry of preparation like that of John the
+Baptist. In this way the summer and early autumn seem to have passed,
+Jesus growing more popular as a prophet than John himself had been. The
+fact that Jesus' disciples administered baptism in connection with his
+work roused the jealousy of some of John's followers, and attracted again
+the attention of Jerusalem to the new activity of the bold disturber of
+the temple market. John's disciples complained to him of Jesus' rivalry,
+and received his self-effacing confession, "He must increase, I must
+decrease." The Pharisees, on the other hand, made Jesus feel that further
+work in Judea was for the time unwise, and he withdrew into Galilee for
+retirement, since "a prophet has no honor in his own country" (John iv.
+1-3, 44). Baffled in his first effort to win his people, this journey back
+from the region of the holy city must have been one of no little sadness
+for Jesus. Some urgency for haste led him by the direct road through
+despised Samaria. A seemingly chance conversation with a woman at Jacob's
+well, where he was resting at noonday, gave him an opportunity for
+ministry which was more ingenuously received than any which he had been
+able to render in Judea; and to this woman he declared himself even more
+plainly than to Nicodemus, and preached to her that spiritual idea of
+worship which he had sought to enforce by cleansing Jerusalem's temple.
+Samaria was so isolated from all Jewish interest that Jesus felt no need
+for reserve in this "strange" land. The few days spent there must have
+been peculiarly welcome to his heart, fresh from rejection in Judea.
+
+122. One reason why he wished to hasten from Judea seems to have been his
+knowledge of the hostile movement which was making against John the
+Baptist. Either before or soon after Jesus started for Galilee Herod had
+arrested John, ostensibly as a measure of public safety owing to John's
+undue popularity (Jos. Ant. xviii. 5. 2). Herod may have been encouraged
+to take this step by the hostility of the Pharisees to the plain-spoken
+prophet of the desert (see John iv. 1-3). The fourth gospel leaves its
+readers to infer that the imprisonment took place somewhere about this
+time (compare iii. 24 and v. 35), while the other gospels unite in giving
+this arrest as the occasion for Jesus' withdrawal into Galilee.
+
+123. Arrived in Galilee, Jesus seems to have returned to his home at
+Nazareth, while his disciples went back to their customary occupations,
+until he summoned them again to join him in a new ministry (see sect.
+125). John assigns to this time the cure of a nobleman's son. The father
+sought out Jesus at Cana, having left his son sick at Capernaum. At first
+Jesus apparently repelled his approach, even as he had dealt with seekers
+after marvels at Jerusalem; but on hearing the father's cry of need and
+trust, he at once spoke the word of healing. This event is in so many ways
+a duplicate of the cure of a centurion's servant recorded in Matthew and
+Luke, that to many it seems but another version of the same incident.
+Considering the variations in the story reported by Matthew and Luke, it
+is clearly not possible to prove that John tells of a different case. Yet
+the simple fact of similarity of some details in two events should not
+exclude the possibility of their still being quite distinct. The reception
+which Jesus gave the two requests for help is very different, and the case
+reported in John is in keeping with the attitude of Jesus before he began
+his new ministry in Galilee. On his arrival in Galilee he wished to avoid
+a mere wonder faith begotten of the enthusiasm he excited in Jerusalem,
+yet this wish yielded at once when a genuine need sought relief at his
+hands.
+
+124. The apparent result of this first activity in Judea was
+disappointment and failure. He had won no considerable following in the
+capital. He had definitely excited the jealousy and opposition of the
+leading men of his nation. Even such popular enthusiasm as had followed
+his mighty works was of a sort that Jesus could not encourage. The
+situation in Judea had at length become so nearly untenable that he
+decided to withdraw into seclusion in Galilee, where, as a prophet, he
+could be "without honor." He had gone to Jerusalem eager to begin there,
+where God should have had readiest service, the ministry of the kingdom of
+God. Challenge, cold criticism, and superficial faith were the results. A
+new beginning must be made on other lines in other places. Meanwhile Jesus
+retired to his home and his followers to theirs.
+
+   Outline of Events in the Galilean Ministry (Chapters III. And IV.)
+
+
+   The imprisonment of John and the withdrawal of Jesus into
+   Galilee--Matt. iv. 12-17; Mark i. 14, 15; Luke iv. 14, 15.
+
+   Removal from Nazareth to Capernaum--Matt. iv. 13-16; Luke iv. 31.
+
+   The call of Simon and Andrew, James and John--Matt. iv. 18-22; Mark i.
+   16-20; Luke v. 1-11.
+
+   First work in Capernaum--Matt. viii. 14-17; Mark i. 21-34; Luke iv.
+   31-41.
+
+   First circuit of Galilee--Matt. iv. 23; viii. 2-4; Mark i. 35-45; Luke
+   iv. 42-44; v. 12-16.
+
+   Cure of a paralytic in Capernaum--Matt. ix. 2-8; Mark ii. 1-12; Luke v.
+   17-26.
+
+   The call of Matthew--Matt. ix. 9-13; Mark ii. 13-17; Luke v. 27-32.
+
+   ? The question about fasting--Matt ix. 14-17; Mark ii. 18-22; Luke v.
+   33-39 (see sects. 47; A 54).
+
+   ? Sabbath cure at Jerusalem at the unnamed feast--John v. 1-47 (see
+   sect. A 53).
+
+   ? The Sabbath controversy in the Galilean grain fields--Matt. xii. 1-8;
+   Mark ii. 23-28; Luke vi. 1-5 (see sects. 47; A 54).
+
+   ? Another Sabbath controversy: cure of a withered hand--Matt. xii.
+   9-14; Mark iii. 1-6; Luke vi. 6-11 (see sects. 47; A 54).
+
+   Jesus followed by multitudes from all parts--Matt. iv. 23-25; xii.
+   15-21; Mark iii. 7-12; Luke vi. 17-19.
+
+   The choosing of the twelve--Matt. x. 2-4; Mark iii. 13-19; Luke vi.
+   12-19.
+
+   The sermon on the mount--Matt. v. 1 to viii. 1; Luke vi. 20 to vii. 1
+   (see sect. A 55).
+
+   The cure of a centurion's servant--Matt. viii. 5-13; Luke vii. 1-10;
+   John iv. 46-54.
+
+   The restoration of the widow's son at Nain--Luke vii. 11-17.
+
+   The message from John in prison--Matt. xi. 2-19; Luke vii. 18-35.
+
+   The anointing of Jesus by a sinful woman--Luke vii. 36-50.
+
+   The companions of Jesus on his second circuit of Galilee--Luke viii.
+   1-3.
+
+   Cure of a demoniac in Capernaum and blasphemy by the Pharisees--Matt.
+   xii. 22-45; Mark iii. 19^a-30; Luke xi. 14-36.
+
+   The true kindred of Jesus--Matt. xii. 46-50; Mark iii. 31-35; Luke
+   viii. 19-21.
+
+   The parables by the sea--Matt. xiii. 1-53; Mark iv. 1-34; Luke viii.
+   4-18 (see sect. A 56).
+
+   The tempest stilled--Matt. viii. 18, 23-27; Mark iv. 35-41; Luke viii.
+   22-25.
+
+   Cure of the Gadarene demoniac--Matt. viii. 28-34; Mark v. 1-20; Luke
+   viii. 26-39.
+
+   The restoration of the daughter of Jairus and cure of an invalid
+   woman--Matt. ix. 1, 18-26; Mark v. 21-43; Luke viii. 40-56.
+
+   Cure of blind and dumb--Matt. ix. 27-34.
+
+   Rejection at Nazareth--Matt. xiii. 54-58; Mark vi. 1-6^a; Luke iv.
+   16-30 (see sect. A 52).
+
+   Third circuit of Galilee--Matt. ix. 35; Mark vi. 6^b.
+
+   The mission of the twelve--Matt. ix. 36 to xi. 1; Mark vi. 7-13; Luke
+   ix. 1-6 (see sect. A 57).
+
+   The death of John the Baptist--Matt. xiv. 1-12; Mark vi. 14-29; Luke
+   ix. 7-9.
+
+   Withdrawal of Jesus across the sea and feeding of the five
+   thousand--Matt. xiv. 13-23; Mark vi. 30-46; Luke ix. 10-17; John vi.
+   1-15.
+
+   Return to Capernaum, Jesus walking on the water--Matt. xiv. 24-36; Mark
+   vi. 47-56; John vi. 16-21.
+
+   Teaching about the Bread of Life in the synagogue at Capernaum--John
+   vi. 22-71 (see sect. A 59).
+
+   Controversy concerning tradition: handwashing, etc.--Matt. xv. 1-20;
+   Mark vii. 1-23.
+
+   Withdrawal to regions of Tyre and Sidon: the Syrophoenician woman's
+   daughter--Matt. xv. 21-28; Mark vii. 24-30.
+
+   Return through Decapolis--Matt. xv. 29-31; Mark vii. 31-37.
+
+   ? The feeding of the four thousand--Matt. xv. 32-38; Mark viii. 1-9
+   (see sect. A 58).
+
+   Pharisaic challenge in Galilee, and warning against the leaven of the
+   Pharisees--Matt xv. 39 to xvi. 12; Mark viii. 10-21.
+
+   Cure of blind man near Bethsaida--Mark viii. 22-26.
+
+   Peter's confession of Jesus as Christ near Cæsarea Philippi--Matt. xvi.
+   13-20; Mark viii. 27-30; Luke ix. 18-21.
+
+   The new lesson, that the Christ must die--Matt. xvi. 21-28; Mark viii.
+   31 to ix. 1; Luke ix. 22-27.
+
+   The transfiguration--Matt. xvii. 1-13; Mark ix. 2-13; Luke ix. 28-36.
+
+   Cure of the epileptic boy--Matt. xvii. 14-20; Mark ix. 14-29; Luke ix.
+   37-43^a.
+
+   Second prediction of approaching death and resurrection--Matt. xvii.
+   22, 23; Mark ix. 30-32; Luke ix. 43^b-45.
+
+   Return to Capernaum: the temple tax--Matt. xvii. 24-27; Mark ix. 33^a.
+
+   Teachings concerning humility and forgiveness--Matt. xviii. 1-35; Mark
+   ix. 33-50; Luke ix. 46-50.
+
+   Visit of Jesus to Jerusalem at the feast of Tabernacles--John vii.
+   1-52; viii. 12-59 (see sect. A 60).
+
+   ? The woman taken in adultery--John vii. 53 to viii. 11 (see sect.
+   163).
+
+   The following probably belong to the Galilean ministry before the
+   confession at Cæsarea Philippi (see sect. 168):--
+
+   The disciples taught to pray--Matt. vi. 9-15; vii. 7-11; Luke xi. 1-13.
+
+   The cure of an infirm woman on the Sabbath--Luke xiii. 10-17.
+
+   Two parables: mustard-seed and leaven--Matt. xiii. 31-33; Luke xiii.
+   18-21 (see sect. A 56).
+
+   The parable of the rich fool--Luke xii. 13-21.
+
+   Cure on a Sabbath and teaching at a Pharisee's table--Luke xiv. 1-24.
+
+   Five parables--Luke xv. 1 to xvi. 31.
+
+   Certain disconnected teachings--Luke xvii. 1-4.
+
+
+
+
+III
+
+The Ministry In Galilee--its Aim And Method
+
+
+
+125. The work of Jesus in Galilee, which is the principal theme of the
+first three gospels, began with a removal from Nazareth to Capernaum, and
+the calling of four fishermen to be his constant followers. The ready
+obedience which Simon and Andrew and James and John gave to this call is
+an interesting evidence that they did not first come to know Jesus at the
+time of this summons. The narrative presupposes some such earlier
+association as is reported in John, followed by a temporary return to
+their old homes and occupations, while Jesus sought seclusion after his
+work in Judea. The first evangelist has most vividly indicated the
+development of the Galilean ministry, directing attention to two points of
+beginning,--the beginning of Jesus' preaching of the kingdom (Matt. iv.
+17) and the beginning of his predictions of his own sufferings and death
+(xvi. 21). Between these two beginnings lies the ministry of Jesus to the
+enthusiastic multitudes, the second of them marking his choice of a more
+restricted audience and a less popular message. Within the first of these
+periods two events mark epochs,--the mission of the twelve (Matt. ix. 36;
+x. I) to preach the coming kingdom of God and to multiply Jesus' ministry
+of healing, and the feeding of the five thousand when the popular
+enthusiasm reached its climax (John vi. 14, 15). These events fall not
+far apart, and mark two different phases of the same stage of development
+in his work. The first is emphasized by Matthew, the second by John; both
+help to a clearer understanding of the narrative which Mark has furnished
+to the other gospels for their story of the Galilean ministry. The table
+at the head of this chapter indicates in outline the probable succession
+of events in the Galilean period. The order adopted is that of Mark,
+supplemented by the other gospels. Luke's additions are inserted in his
+order where there is not some reason for believing that he himself
+disregarded the exact sequence of events. Thus the rejection at Nazareth
+is placed late, as in Mark. Much of the material in the long section
+peculiar to Luke is assigned in general to this Galilean period, since all
+knowledge of its precise location in time and place has been lost for us,
+as it not unlikely was for Luke. Although Matthew is the gospel giving the
+clearest general view of the Galilean work, it shows the greatest
+disarrangement of details, and aids but little in determining the sequence
+of events. The material from that gospel is assigned place in accordance
+with such hints as are discoverable in parallel or associated parts of
+Mark or Luke. Of John's contributions one--the feeding of the
+multitudes--is clearly located by its identity with a narrative found in
+all the other gospels. The visit to Jerusalem at the unnamed feast can be
+only tentatively placed.
+
+126. Viewing this gospel story as a whole, the parallel development of
+popular enthusiasm and official hostility at once attracts attention.
+Jesus' first cures in the synagogue at Capernaum roused the interest and
+wonder of the multitudes to such an extent that he felt constrained to
+withdraw to other towns. On his return to Capernaum he was so beset with
+crowds that the friends of the paralytic could get at him only by breaking
+up the roof. It was when Jesus found himself followed by multitudes from
+all parts of the land that he selected twelve of his disciples "that they
+might be with him and that he might send them forth to preach," and
+addressed to them in the hearing of the multitudes the exacting, although
+unspeakably winsome teaching of the sermon on the mount. This condition of
+things continued even after Herod had killed John the Baptist, for when
+Jesus, having heard of John's fate, sought retirement with his disciples
+across the sea of Galilee, he was robbed of his seclusion by throngs who
+flocked to him to be healed and to hear of the kingdom of God.
+
+127. The popular enthusiasm was not indifferent to the question who this
+new teacher might be. At first Jesus impressed the people by his
+authoritative teaching and cures. After the raising of the widow's son at
+Nain the popular feeling found a more definite declaration,--"a great
+prophet has risen up among us." The cure of a demoniac in Capernaum raised
+the further incredulous query, "Can this be the Son of David?" The notion
+that he might be the Messiah seems to have gained acceptance more and more
+as Jesus' popularity grew, for at the time of the feeding of the
+multitudes the enthusiasm burst into a flame of determination to force him
+to undertake the work for which he was so eminently fitted, but from which
+for some inexplicable reason he seemed to shrink (John vi. 15).
+
+128. Parallel with the growth of popular enthusiasm, and in part because
+of it, the religious leaders early assumed and consistently maintained an
+attitude of opposition. The gospels connect the critics of Jesus now and
+again with the Pharisees of the capital--the Galilean Pharisees being
+represented as more or less friendly. At the first appearance of Jesus in
+Capernaum even the Sabbath cure in the synagogue passed unchallenged; but
+on the return from his first excursion to other towns, Jesus found critics
+in his audience (Luke connects them directly with Jerusalem). From time to
+time such censors as these objected to the forgiveness by Jesus of the
+sins of the paralytic (Mark ii. 6, 7), criticised his social relations
+with outcasts like the publicans (Mark ii. 16), took offence at his
+carelessness of the Sabbath tradition in his instruction of his disciples
+(Mark ii. 24), and sought to turn the tide of rising popular enthusiasm by
+ascribing his power to cure to a league with the devil (Mark iii. 22).
+Baffled in one charge, they would turn to another, until, after the
+feeding of the multitudes, Jesus showed his complete disregard of all they
+held most dear, replying to a criticism of his disciples for carelessness
+of the ritual of hand-washing by an authoritative setting aside of the
+whole body of their traditions, as well as of the Levitical ceremonial of
+clean and unclean meats (Mark vii. 1-23).
+
+129. The wonder is, not that popular enthusiasm for Jesus was great, but
+that it was so hesitating in its judgment about him. The province which
+provided a following to Judas of Galilee a generation earlier than the
+public ministry of Jesus, and which under John of Gischala furnished the
+chief support to the revolt against Rome a generation later, could have
+been excited to uncontrollable passion by the simple idea that a leader
+was present who could be made to head a movement for Jewish liberty. But
+there was something about Jesus which made it impossible to think of him
+as such a Messiah. He was much more moved by sin lurking within than by
+wrong inflicted from without. He looked for God's kingdom, as did the
+Zealots, but he looked for it within the heart more than in outward
+circumstances. Even the dreamers among the people, who were as unready as
+Jesus for any uprising against Rome, and who waited for God to show his
+own hand in judgment, found in Jesus--come to seek and to save that which
+was lost--something so contradictory of their idea of the celestial judge
+that they could not easily think of him as a Messiah. Jesus was a puzzle
+to the people. They were sure that he was a prophet; but if at any time
+some were tempted to query, "Can this be the Son of David?" the
+incredulous folk expected ever a negative reply.
+
+130. This was as Jesus wished it to be. An unreasoning enthusiasm could
+only hinder his work. When his early cures in Capernaum stirred the ardent
+feelings of the multitudes, he took occasion to withdraw to other towns
+and allow popular feeling to cool. When later he found himself pressed
+upon by crowds from all quarters of the land, by the sermon on the mount
+he set them thinking on strange and highly spiritual things, far removed
+from the thoughts of Zealots and apocalyptic dreamers.
+
+131. The manifest contradiction of popular Messianic ideas which Jesus
+presented in his own person usually served to check undue ardor as long
+as he was present. But when some demoniac proclaimed the high station of
+Jesus, and thus seemed to the people to give supernatural testimony; or
+when some one in need sought him apart from the multitudes, Jesus
+frequently enjoined silence. These injunctions of silence are enigmas
+until they are viewed as a part of Jesus' effort to keep control of
+popular feeling. In his absence the people might dwell on his power and
+easily come to imagine him to be what he was not and could not be. Jesus
+was able by these means to restrain unthinking enthusiasm until the
+multitudes whom he fed on the east side of the sea determined to force him
+to do their will as a Messiah. Then he refused to follow where they
+called, and that happened which would doubtless have happened at an
+earlier time but for Jesus' caution,--the popular enthusiasm subsided, and
+his active work with the common people was at an end. But he had held off
+this crisis until there were a few who did not follow the popular
+defection, but rather clung to him from whom they had heard the words of
+eternal life (John vi. 68).
+
+132. Jesus' caution brings to light one aspect of his aim in the Galilean
+ministry,--he sought to win acceptance for the truth he proclaimed. His
+message as reported in the synoptic gospels was the near approach of the
+kingdom of God. Any such proclamation was sure of eager hearing. At first
+he seems to have been content to gather and interest the multitudes by
+this preaching and the works which accompanied it. But he early took
+occasion to state his ideas in the hearing of the multitudes, and in terms
+so simple, so concerned with every-day life, so exacting as respects
+conduct, and so lacking in the customary glowing picture of the future,
+that the people could not mistake such a teacher for a simple fulfiller of
+their ideas. In this early sermon in effect, and later with increasing
+plainness, he set forth his doctrine of a kingdom of heaven coming not
+with observation, present actually among a people who knew it not, like a
+seed growing secretly in the earth, or leaven quietly leavening a lump of
+meal. By word and deed, in sermon and by parable, he insisted on this
+simple and every-day conception of God's rule among men. With Pharisee,
+Zealot, and dreamer, he held that "the best is yet to be," yet all three
+classes found their most cherished ideals set at nought by the new
+champion of the soul's inner life in fellowship with the living God. In
+all his teaching there was a claim of authority and a manifest
+independence which indicate certainty on his part concerning his own
+mission. Yet so completely is the personal question retired for the time,
+that in his rebuke of the blasphemy of the Pharisees he took pains to
+declare that it was not because they had spoken against the Son of Man,
+that they were in danger, but because they had spoken against the Spirit
+of God, whose presence was manifest in his works. He wished, primarily, to
+win disciples to the kingdom of God.
+
+133. Yet Jesus was not indifferent in Galilee to what the people thought
+about himself. The question at Cæsarea Philippi shows more fully the aim
+of his ministry. During all the period of the preaching of the kingdom he
+never hesitated to assert himself whenever need for such self-assertion
+arose. This was evident in his dealing with his pharisaic critics. He
+rarely argued with them, and always assumed a tone of authority which was
+above challenge, asserting that the Son of Man had authority to forgive
+sins, was lord of the Sabbath, was greater than the temple or Jonah or
+Solomon. Moreover, in his positive teaching of the new truth he assumed
+such an authoritative tone that any who thought upon it could but remark
+the extraordinary claim involved in his simple "I say unto you." He wished
+also to win disciples to himself.
+
+134. The key to the ministry in Galilee is furnished in Jesus' answer to
+the message from John the Baptist. John in prison had heard of the works
+of his successor. Jesus did so much that promised a fulfilment of the
+Messianic hope, yet left so much undone, contradicting in so many ways the
+current idea of a Messiah by his studied avoidance of any demonstration,
+that the older prophet felt a momentary doubt of the correctness of his
+earlier conviction. It is in no way strange that he experienced a reaction
+from that exalted moment of insight when he pointed out Jesus as the Lamb
+of God, particularly after his restless activity had been caged within the
+walls of his prison. Jesus showed that he did not count it strange, by his
+treatment of John's quesestion and by his words about John after the
+messengers had gone. Yet in his reply he gently suggested that the
+question already had its answer if John would but look rightly for it. He
+simply referred to the things that were being done before the eyes of all,
+and asked John to form from them a conclusion concerning him who did them.
+One aid he offered to the imprisoned prophet,--a word from the Book of
+Isaiah (xxxv. 5f., lxi. 1f.),--and added a blessing for such as "should
+find nothing to stumble at in him." Here Jesus emphasized his works, and
+allowed his message to speak for itself; but he frankly indicated that he
+expected people to pass from wonder at his ministry to an opinion about
+himself. At Cæsarea Philippi he showed to his disciples that this opinion
+about himself was the significant thing in his eyes. Throughout the
+ministry in Galilee, therefore, this twofold aim appears. Jesus would
+first divert attention from himself to his message, in order that he might
+win disciples to the kingdom of God as he conceived it. Having so attached
+them to his idea of the kingdom, he desired to be recognized as that
+kingdom's prince, the Messiah promised by God for his people. He retired
+behind his message in order that men might be drawn to the truth which he
+held dear, knowing that thus they would find themselves led captive to
+himself in a willing devotion.
+
+135. This aim explains his retirement when popularity pressed, his
+exacting teaching about the spirituality of the kingdom of God, and his
+injunctions of silence. He wished to be known, to be thought about, to be
+accepted as God's anointed, but he would have this only by a genuine
+surrender to his leadership. His disciples must own him master and follow
+him, however much he might disappoint their misconceptions. This aim, too,
+explains his frank self-assertions and exalted personal claims in
+opposition to official criticism. He would not be false to his own sense
+of masterhood, nor allow people to think him bold when his critics were
+away, and cowardly in their presence. Therefore, when needful, he invited
+attention to himself as greater than the temple or as lord of the
+Sabbath. This kind of self-assertion, however, served his purpose as well
+as his customary self-retirement, for it forced people to face the
+contradiction which he offered to the accepted religious ideas of their
+leaders.
+
+136. The method which Jesus chose has already been repeatedly
+indicated,--teaching and preaching on the one hand, and works of
+helpfulness to men on the other. The character of the teaching of this
+period is shown in three discourses,--the Sermon on the Mount, the
+Discourse in Parables, and the Instructions to the Twelve. The sermon on
+the mount is given in different forms in Matthew and Luke, that in Matthew
+being evidently the more complete, even after deduction has been made of
+those parts which Luke has assigned with high probability to a later time.
+This address was spoken to the disciples of Jesus found among the
+multitudes who flocked to him from all quarters. It opened with words of
+congratulation for those who, characterized by qualities often despised,
+were yet heirs of God's kingdom. The thought then passed to the
+responsibility of such heirs of the kingdom for the help of a needy world.
+Next, since much in the words and works of Jesus hitherto might have
+suggested to men that he was indifferent to the older religion of his
+people, he carefully explained that he came, not to set aside the old, but
+to realize the spiritual idea for which it stood, by establishing a more
+exacting standard of righteousness. This more exacting righteousness Jesus
+illustrated by a series of restatements of the older law, and then by a
+group of criticisms of current religious practice. The sermon closed with
+warnings against complacent censoriousness in judging other men's
+failures, and a solemn declaration of the vital seriousness of "these
+sayings of mine." The righteousness required by this new law is not only
+more exacting but unspeakably worthier than the old, being more simply
+manifested in common life, and demanding more intimate filial fellowship
+with the living God.
+
+137. The teachings included in the sermon by the first gospel, but placed
+later by Luke, supplement the sermon by bidding God's child to lead a
+trustful life, knowing that the heavenly Father cares for him. That Luke
+has omitted much which from Matthew's account clearly belonged to the
+original sermon may be explained by the fact that Gentile readers did not
+share the interest which Jesus' hearers had, and which the readers of the
+first gospel had, in the relation of the new gospel to the older law.
+Hence the restatement of older commands and the criticism of current
+practice was omitted. Similar to the teachings which the first gospel has
+included in the sermon, are many which Luke has preserved in the section
+peculiar to himself. It is not unlikely that they belong also to the
+Galilean ministry. They urge the same sincere, reverent life in the sight
+of God, the same trust in the heavenly Father, the same certainty of his
+love and care; and they do not have that peculiar note of impending
+judgment which entered into the teachings of Jesus after the confession at
+Cæsarea Philippi.
+
+138. In the story of Mark, which is reproduced in the first and third
+gospels, the use of parable was first introduced in a way to attract the
+attention of the disciples, after pharisaic opposition to Jesus had become
+somewhat bitter and there was need of checking a too speedy culmination
+of opposition. He chose at that time a form of parable which was enigmatic
+to his disciples, and could but further puzzle hearers who had no sympathy
+with him and his message. Mark (iv. 12) states that this perplexity was in
+accordance with the purpose of Jesus. But it is equally clear that Jesus
+meant to teach the teachable as well as to perplex the critical by these
+illustrations, for in explaining the Sower he suggested that the disciples
+should have understood it without explanation (Mark iv. 13). Many of
+Jesus' parables, however, had no such enigmatic character, but were
+intended simply to help his hearers to understand him. He made use of this
+kind of teaching from first to last. The pictures of the wise and foolish
+builders with which the sermon on the mount concludes show that it was not
+the use of illustration which surprised the disciples in the parables
+associated with the Sower, but his use of such puzzling illustrations.
+Some of the parables of Luke's peculiar section may belong to the Galilean
+ministry, and even to the earlier stages of it. These have none of the
+enigmatic character; the parables of the last days of Jesus' life also
+seem to have been simple and clear to his hearers. The Oriental mind
+prefers the concrete to the abstract, and its teachers have ever made
+large use of illustration. Jesus stands unique, not in that he used
+parables, but in the simplicity and effective beauty of those which he
+used. These illustrations, whether Jesus intended them for the moment to
+enlighten or to confound, served always to set forth concretely some truth
+concerning the relation of men to God, or concerning his kingdom and their
+relation to it. The form of teaching was welcome to his hearers, and
+served as one of the attractions to draw men to him.
+
+139. The first gospel assigns another extended discourse to this Galilean
+period,--the Instructions to the Twelve. The mission of the twelve formed
+a new departure as Jesus saw the Galilean crisis approaching. He sought
+thereby to multiply his own work, and commissioned his disciples to heal
+and preach as he was doing. The restriction of their field to Israel
+(Matt. x. 5, 6) simply applied to them the rule he adopted for himself
+during the Galilean period (Matt. xv. 24). Comparison with the accounts in
+Mark and Luke, as well as the character of the instructions found in
+Matthew, show that here the first evangelist has followed his habit of
+gathering together teachings on the same general theme from different
+periods in Jesus' life. Much in the tenth chapter of Matthew indicates
+clearly that the ministry of Jesus had already passed the period of
+popularity, and that his disciples could now look for little but scorn and
+persecution. This was the situation at the end of Jesus' public life, and
+parallel sayings are found in the record of the last week in Jerusalem.
+
+140. When the teaching of the sermon and the parables is compared with
+Jesus' self-assertion in his replies to pharisaic criticism and blasphemy,
+the difference is striking. Ordinarily he avoided calling attention to
+himself, wishing men to form their opinion of him after they had learned
+to know him as he was. Yet when one looks beneath the surface of his
+teaching, the tone of authority which astonished the multitudes is
+identical with the calm self-confidence which replied to pharisaic
+censure: "The Son of Man hath authority on the earth to forgive sins."
+
+141. Jesus drew the multitudes after him not only by his teachings, but
+also by his mighty works. He certainly was for his contemporaries a
+wonder-worker and healer of disease, and, in order to appreciate the
+impression which he made, the miracles recorded in the gospels must be
+allowed to reveal what they can of his character. The mighty works which
+enchained attention in Galilee were chiefly cures of disease, with
+occasional exhibitions of power over physical nature,--such as the
+stilling of the tempest and the feeding of the five thousand. The
+significant thing about them is their uniform beneficence of purpose and
+simplicity of method. Nothing of the spectacular attached itself to them.
+Jesus repeatedly refused to the critical Pharisees a sign from heaven.
+This was not because he disregarded the importance of signs for his
+generation,--witness his appeal to his works in the reply to John (Matt.
+xi. 4-6); but he felt that in his customary ministry to the needy
+multitudes he had furnished signs in abundance, for his deeds both gave
+evidence of heavenly power and revealed the character of the Father who
+had sent him.
+
+142. One of the commonest of the ailments cured by Jesus is described in
+the gospels as demoniac possession, the popular idea being that evil
+spirits were accustomed to take up their abode in men, speaking with their
+tongues and acting through their bodies, at the same time afflicting them
+with various physical diseases. Six specific cures of such possession are
+recorded in the story of the Galilean ministry, besides general references
+to the cure of many that were possessed. Of these specific cases the
+Gadarene demoniac shows symptoms of violent insanity; the boy cured near
+Cæsarea Philippi, those of epilepsy; in other cases the disease was more
+local, showing itself in deafness, or blindness, or both. In the cures
+recorded Jesus addressed the possessed with a command to the invading
+demon to depart. He was ordinarily greeted, either before or after such a
+command, with a loud outcry, often accompanied with a recognition of him
+as God's Holy One.
+
+143. The record of such maladies and their cure is not confined to the New
+Testament. The evil spirit which came upon King Saul is a similar case,
+and Josephus tells of Jewish exorcists who cured possessed persons by the
+use of incantations handed down from King Solomon. The early Christian
+fathers frequently argued the truth of Christianity from the way in which
+demons departed at the command of Christian exorcists, while in the middle
+ages and down to modern times belief in demoniac possession has been
+common, particularly among some of the more superstitious of the peasantry
+in Europe. Moreover, from missionaries in China and other eastern lands it
+is learned that diseases closely resembling the cases of possession
+recorded in the New Testament are frequently met with, and are often cured
+by native Christian ministers.
+
+144. The similarity of the symptoms of so-called possession to recognized
+mental and physical derangements such as insanity, epilepsy, and hysteria,
+suggests the conclusion that possession should be classed with other
+ailments due to ill adjustment of the relations of the mental and physical
+life. If this conclusion is valid, the idea of actual possession by evil
+spirits becomes only an ancient effort to interpret the mysterious
+symptoms in accordance with wide-spread primitive beliefs. This
+explanation would doubtless be generally adopted were it not that it seems
+to compromise either the integrity or the knowledge of Jesus. The gospels
+plainly represent him as treating the supposed demoniac influence as real,
+addressing in his cures not the invalid, but the invading demon. If he did
+this knowing that the whole view was a superstition, was he true to his
+mission to release mankind from its bondage to evil and sin? If he shared
+the superstition of his time, had he the complete knowledge necessary to
+make him the deliverer he claimed to be? These questions are serious and
+difficult, but they form a part of the general problem of the extent of
+Jesus' knowledge, and can be more intelligently discussed in connection
+with that whole problem (sects. 249-251). It is reasonable to demand,
+however, that any conclusion reached concerning the nature of possession
+in the time of Jesus must be considered valid for similar manifestations
+of disease in our own day.
+
+145. What astonished people in Jesus' cures was not so much that he healed
+the sick as that he did it with such evidence of personal authority. His
+cures and his teachings alike served to attract attention to himself and
+to invite question as to who he could be. Yet a far more powerful means to
+the end he had in view was the subtle, unobtrusive, personal influence
+which without their knowledge knit the hearts of a few to himself. In
+reality both his teaching and his cures were only means of
+self-disclosure. His permanent work during this Galilean period was the
+winning of personal friends. His chief agency in accomplishing his work
+was what Renan somewhat too romantically has called his "charm." It was
+that in him which drew to his side and kept with him the fishermen of
+Galilee and the publican of Capernaum, during months of constant
+disappointment of their preconceived religious ideas and Messianic hopes;
+it was that which won the confidence of the woman who was a sinner, and
+the constant devotion of Mary Magdalene and Susanna and the others who
+followed him "and ministered to him of their substance." The outstanding
+wonder of early Christianity is the complete transformation not only of
+life but of established religious ideas by the personal impress of Jesus
+on a Peter, a John, and a Paul. The secret of the new element of the
+Christian religion--salvation through personal attachment to Jesus
+Christ--is simply this personal power of the man of Nazareth. The
+multitudes followed because they saw wonderful works or heard wonderful
+words; many because they hoped at length to find in the new prophet the
+champion of their hopes in deliverance from Roman bondage. But these
+sooner or later fell away, disappointed in their desire to use the new
+leader for their own ends. It was only because from out the multitudes
+there were a few who could answer, "To whom shall we go? thou hast the
+words of eternal life," when Jesus asked, "Will ye also go away?" that the
+work in Galilee did not end in complete failure. These few had felt his
+personal power, and they became the nucleus of a new religion of love to a
+personal Saviour.
+
+146. The test of the personal attachment of the few came shortly after the
+execution of John the Baptist by Antipas. Word of this tragedy was
+brought to Jesus by John's disciples about the time that he and the twelve
+returned to Capernaum from their tour of preaching. At the suggestion of
+Jesus they withdrew to the eastern side of the lake in search of rest. It
+is not unlikely that the little company also wished to avoid for the time
+the territory of the tyrant who had just put John to death, for Jesus was
+not yet ready for the crisis of his own life. Such a desire for seclusion
+would be intensified by the continued impetuous enthusiasm of the
+multitudes who flocked about him again in Capernaum. In fact, so insistent
+was their interest in Jesus that they would not allow him the quiet he
+sought, but followed around the lake in great numbers when they learned
+that he had taken ship for the other side. He who came not to be
+ministered unto but to minister could not repel the crowds who came to
+him, and he at once "welcomed them, and spake to them of the kingdom of
+God, and them that had need of healing he healed" (Luke ix. 11). The day
+having passed in this ministry, he multiplied the small store of bread and
+fish brought by his disciples in order to feed the weary people. This work
+of power seemed to some among the multitudes to be the last thing needed
+to prove that Jesus was to be their promised deliverer, and they "were
+about to come and take him by force and make him king" (John vi. 15), when
+he withdrew from them and spent the night in prayer.
+
+147. This sudden determination on the part of the multitudes to force the
+hand of Jesus was probably due to the prevalence of an idea, found also in
+the later rabbinic writers, that the Messiah should feed his people as
+Moses had provided them manna in the desert. The rebuff which Jesus
+quietly gave them did not cool their ardor, until on the following day, in
+the synagogue in Capernaum, he plainly taught them that they had quite
+missed the significance of his miracle. They thought of loaves and
+material sustenance. He would have had them find in these a sign that he
+could also supply their spirits' need, and he insisted that this, and this
+alone, was his actual mission. From the first the popular enthusiasm had
+had to ignore many contradictions of its cherished notions. But his power
+and the indescribable force of his personality had served hitherto to hold
+them to a hope that he would soon discard the perplexing rôle which he had
+chosen for the time to assume, and take up avowedly the proper work of the
+Messiah. This last refusal to accept what seemed to them to be his evident
+duty caused a revulsion in the popular feeling, and "many of his disciples
+turned back and walked no more with him" (John vi. 66). The time of
+sifting had come. Jesus had known that such a rash determination to make
+him king was possible to the Galilean multitudes, and that whenever it
+should come it must be followed by a disillusionment. Now the open
+ministry had run its course. As the multitudes were turning back and
+walking no more with him, he turned to the twelve with the question, "Will
+ye also go away?" and found that with them his method had borne fruit.
+They clung to him in spite of disillusionment, for in him they had found
+what was better than their preconceptions.
+
+148. It is the fourth gospel that shows clearly the critical significance
+of this event. The others tell nothing of the sudden determination of the
+multitude, nor of the revulsion of feeling that followed Jesus' refusal to
+yield to their will. Yet these other gospels indicate in their narratives
+that from this time on Jesus avoided the scenes of his former labors, and
+show that when from time to time he returned to the neighborhood of
+Capernaum he was met by such a spirit of hostility that he withdrew again
+immediately to regions where he and his disciples could have time for
+quiet intercourse.
+
+149. The months of toil in Galilee show results hardly more significant
+than the grain of mustard seed or the little leaven. Popular enthusiasm
+had risen, increased, reached its climax, and waned. Official opposition
+had early been aroused, and had continued with a steadily deepened
+intensity. The wonderful teaching with authority, and the signs wrought on
+them that were sick, had been as seed sown by the wayside or in thorny or
+in stony ground, except for the little handful of hearers who had felt the
+personal power of Jesus and had surrendered to it, ready henceforth to
+follow where he should lead, whether or not it should be in a path of
+their choice. These, however, were the proof that those months had been a
+time of rewarded toil.
+
+
+
+
+IV
+
+The Ministry in Galilee--The New Lesson
+
+
+
+150. With the crisis in Capernaum the ministry in Galilee may be said in
+one sense to have come to an end. Yet Jesus did not immediately go up to
+Jerusalem. Once and again he was found in or near Capernaum, while the
+time between these visits was spent in regions to the north and northwest.
+In fact, the disciples were far from ready for the trial their loyalty was
+to meet before they had seen the end of the opposition to their Lord. The
+time intervening between the collapse of popularity and Jesus' final
+departure from Galilee may well be thought of, then, as a time of further
+discipline of the faith of his followers and of added instruction
+concerning the truth for which their Master stood. The length of this
+supplementary period in Galilee is not definitely known. It extended from
+the Passover to about the feast of Tabernacles (April to October, see John
+vi. 4 and vii. 2). The record of what Jesus did and said in this time is
+meagre, only enough being reported to show that it was a time of repeated
+withdrawals from Galilee and of private instruction for the disciples.
+
+151. The disciples were trained in faith by further exhibitions of the
+complete break between their Master and the leaders of the people. This
+break appeared most clearly, soon after the feeding of the multitudes, in
+his reply to a criticism of the disciples for disregard of pharisaic
+traditions concerning hand-washing (Mark vii. 1-23). The critics insisted
+on the sacredness of their traditions. Jesus in reply scored them for
+disregard for the plain demands of God's law, and with a word freed men
+from bondage to the whole ritual of ceremonial cleanness and uncleanness
+(Mark vii. 19), thus attacking Judaism in its citadel.
+
+152. It was immediately after this that he withdrew with his disciples to
+the regions of Tyre. On his return a little later to the west side of the
+sea of Galilee he was met by hostile Pharisees with a demand for a sign
+(Mark viii. 11-13), and after refusing to satisfy the unbelieving
+challenge,--signs in plenty having been before their eyes since the
+opening of his work among them,--he and his disciples withdrew again from
+Galilee towards Cæsarea Philippi. As they went on their way, Jesus
+distinctly warned them against the influence of their leaders, religious
+and political (Mark viii. 14f.). So far as our records tell us Jesus was
+but once again in Capernaum. Then he was met with the demand that he pay
+the temple tax (Matt. xvii. 24-27). This tax was usually collected just
+before the Passover. As this last visit to Capernaum was probably not far
+from the feast of Tabernacles, Jesus seems to have been in arrears. This
+may have been due to his absence from Capernaum at the time of the
+collection. The prompt answer of Peter may indicate that he knew that in
+other years Jesus had paid this tax, as it is altogether probable that he
+did. The question, however, implies official suspicion that Jesus was
+seeking to evade payment, and exhibits further the straining of the
+relations between him and the Jewish leaders. The conversation of Jesus
+with Peter served to show his clear consciousness of superiority, and was
+a further summons to the disciples to choose between him and his
+opponents.
+
+153. Within the limits of the Holy Land the faith of the disciples had
+been constantly tested by the increasing opposition between their master
+and their old leaders. When the little company withdrew to Gentile
+regions, however, Jesus had regard for their Jewish feeling. The time
+would come when he would send them forth to make disciples of all the
+nations. For the present he made it his business to nurture their faith in
+him, and when appealed to for help by one of these foreigners, he refused
+to "take the children's bread and cast it to the dogs" (Mark vii. 27).
+Jesus had assumed a different attitude to the Samaritans before the
+opening of his work in Galilee, and in general had shown ready sympathy
+for all in distress. In fact it seems as if he welcomed the Syrophoenician
+woman's great faith with a feeling of relief from a restriction that he
+had felt it wise to adopt for his work in Phoenicia. It appears from his
+later attitude in the Gentile regions of the Decapolis (Mark vii. 31-37;
+Matt. xv. 21-31) that, having once shown his regard for the limitations of
+his disciples' faith in the case of the Syrophoenician, he felt no longer
+obliged to check his natural readiness to help the needy who sought him
+out. Although in one instance, for reasons no longer known to us, Jesus
+charged a man whom he had cured to keep it secret (Mark vii. 32-37), in
+general his work in these heathen regions seems, after the visit to
+Phoenicia, to have been quite unrestrained, and to have produced the same
+enthusiasm that had earlier brought the multitudes to him in Galilee (Mark
+viii. 1f.).
+
+154. This continued activity of healing must have served greatly to
+strengthen the determination of the disciples to cling to Jesus, let the
+leaders say what they would. We can only conjecture what various teachings
+filled the days, and what personal fellowship the disciples had with him
+who spake as never man spake. There was need for advance in the faith of
+these loyal friends. Their enthusiastic declaration when the multitudes
+turned away could easily have been followed by reaction. Each new
+exhibition of the irrevocableness of the break between Jesus and the
+leaders was a severe test of their loyalty. These weeks of withdrawal were
+doubtless filled, therefore, with new proofs that Jesus had the words of
+eternal life.
+
+155. Before he put to his disciples the crucial question, he who knew what
+was in man (John ii. 25) was confident that they were ready for it. It was
+after the rebuff in Galilee, when the unbelieving Pharisees had again
+demanded a sign of his authority, and after he had definitely warned the
+disciples against the influence of their leaders, that Jesus led his
+little company far to the north towards the slopes of Hermon. There, near
+the recently built Cæsarea Philippi, Jesus plainly asked his disciples
+what the people thought of him (Mark viii. 27-30). We have seen how
+gradually sentiment in Galilee concerning the new teacher crystallized
+until, from thinking him a prophet, the people, first timidly, then
+boldly, concluded that such a teacher and worker of signs must be the
+promised king. We have seen also how the popular estimate changed when
+Jesus refused to be guided by the popular will. Now, after the lapse of a
+few weeks, in answer to his inquiry concerning the common opinion of him,
+he is told that the people look on him as a prophet, in whom the spirit of
+the men of old had been revived; but not a whisper remains of the former
+readiness to hail him as the Messiah. It was in the face of such a
+definite revulsion in the popular feeling, in the face, too, of the
+increasing hostility of all the great in the nation, that Peter answered
+for the twelve that they believed Jesus to be the Messiah, God's appointed
+Deliverer of his people (Matt. xvi. 16 ff.). In form this confession was
+no more than Nathanael had rendered on his first meeting with Jesus (John
+i. 49), and was practically the same as the report made by Andrew to Simon
+his brother, and by Philip to Nathanael (John i. 41, 45). In both idea and
+expression the reply to Jesus' question, "Will ye also go away?" (John vi.
+68, 69), was virtually equivalent to this later confession of Peter. Yet
+Jesus found in Peter's answer at Cæsarea Philippi something so significant
+and remarkable that he declared that the faith that could answer thus
+could spring only from a heavenly source (Matt. xvi. 17). The early
+confessions were in fact no more than expressions of more or less
+intelligent expectation that Jesus would fulfil the confessor's hopes. The
+confession at Capernaum followed one of Jesus' mightiest exhibitions of
+power, and was given before the disciples had had time to consider the
+extent of the defection from their Master. Here at Cæsarea Philippi,
+however, the word was spoken immediately after an acknowledgment that the
+people had no more thought of finding in Jesus their Messiah. It was
+spoken after the disciples had had repeated evidence of the determined
+hostility of the leaders to Jesus. All the disappointment he had given to
+their cherished ideas was emphasized by the isolation in which the little
+company now found itself. One after another their ideas of how a Messiah
+should act and what he should be had received contradiction in what Jesus
+was and did. Yet after the weeks of withdrawal from Galilee, Peter could
+only in effect assert anew what he had declared at Capernaum,--that Jesus
+had the words of eternal life. It was a faith chastened by perplexity, and
+taught at length to follow the Lord let him lead where he would. It was an
+actual surrender to his mastery over thought and life. Here at length
+Jesus had won what he had been seeking during all his work in Galilee,--a
+corner-stone on which to build up the new community of the kingdom of God.
+Peter was the first to confess openly to this simple surrender to the full
+mastery of Jesus. He was the first stone in the foundation of the new
+"building of God."
+
+156. In his commendation of Peter Jesus revealed the secret of his method
+in the work which, because of this confession, he could now proceed to do
+more rapidly. He cuts loose utterly from the method of the scribes. He,
+the new teacher, commits to them no body of teaching which they are to
+give to others as the key to eternal life. The salvation they are to
+preach is a salvation by personal attachment; that is, by faith. The rock
+on which he will build his church is personal attachment, faith that is
+ready to leave all and follow him. Peter, not the substance of his
+confession, was its corner-stone, but Peter, as the first clear confessor
+of a faith that is ready to leave all, a faith whose very nature it is to
+be contagious, and associate with itself others of "like precious faith."
+His faith was as yet meagre, as he showed at once; but it was genuine, the
+surrender of his heart to his Lord's guidance and control. This was the
+distinctive mark of the new religious life inaugurated by Jesus of
+Nazareth.
+
+157. If anything were needed to prove that the idea that he was the
+Messiah was no new thought to Jesus, it could be found in the new lesson
+which he at once began to teach his disciples. The confession of Peter
+indicated to him simply that the first stage in his work had been
+accomplished. He immediately began to prepare the disciples for the end
+which for some time past he had seen to be inevitable. He taught them more
+than that his death was inevitable; he declared that it was divinely
+necessary that he should be put to death as a result of the hostility of
+the Jews to him ("the Son of Man must suffer"). All the contradictions
+which he had offered to the Messianic ideas of his disciples paled into
+insignificance beside this one. When they saw how he failed to meet the
+hopes that were commonly held, they needed only to urge themselves to
+patience, expecting that in time he would cast off the strange mask and
+take to himself his power and reign. But it was too much for the late
+confessed and very genuine faith of Peter to hear that the Messiah must
+die. So unthinkable was the idea, that he assumed that Jesus had become
+unduly discouraged by the relentlessness of the opposition which had
+driven him first out of Judea and later out of Galilee. Accordingly Peter
+sought to turn his Master's mind to a brighter prospect, asserting that
+his forebodings could not be true. It is hard for us to conceive the chill
+of heart which must have followed the glow of his confession when he heard
+the stern rebuke of Jesus, who found in Peter's later words the voice of
+the Evil One, as before in his confession he had recognized the Spirit of
+God.
+
+158. The sternness of Jesus' rebuke escapes extravagance only in view of
+the fact that the words of Peter had greatly affected Jesus himself. At
+the outset of his public life he had faced the difficulty of doing the
+Messiah's work in his Father's way, and had withstood the temptation to
+accommodate himself to the ideas of his world, declaring allegiance to God
+alone (Matt. iv. 10). Yet once and again in the course of his ministry he
+showed that this allegiance cost him much. Luke reports a saying in which
+Jesus confessed that, in view of this prospect of death which Peter was
+opposing so eagerly, he was greatly "straitened" (xii. 50), and at the
+near approach of the end "his soul was exceeding sorrowful" (Mark xiv.
+34). It should never be forgotten that Jesus was a Jew, and heir to all
+the Messianic ideas of his people. In these, glory, not rejection and
+death, was to be the Messiah's portion. That he was always superior to
+current expectations is no sign that he did not feel their force. They
+quite mistake who find the bitterness of Jesus' "cup" simply in his
+physical shrinking from suffering. The temptation was ever with him to
+find some other way to the goal of his work than that which led through
+death. What Peter said hid a force greater than any word of the
+disciple's. It voiced the crucial temptation of Jesus' life. The answer
+addressed to Peter showed that his words had drawn the thought of Jesus
+away from the disciple to that earlier temptation which was never absent
+from him more than "for a season" (Luke iv. 13).
+
+159. Jesus was not content with a mere rebuke of his impulsive disciple.
+In his first announcement of his death as necessary he had also declared
+that it would not be a tragedy, but would be followed by a resurrection.
+This the disciples could not appreciate, as they found the idea of the
+Messiah's death unthinkable. Jesus, however, saw in it the general law,
+that life must ever win its goal by disregard of itself, and called his
+disciples also to walk in the path of self-sacrifice. In order that the
+new lesson might not quite overwhelm the yet feeble faith of these
+followers, Jesus assured them that after his death and resurrection he
+would come as Messianic Judge and fulfil the hopes which his prediction of
+death seemed to blot out utterly (Mark viii. 34 to ix. 1).
+
+160. That this new lesson was a difficult one for master as well as
+disciple seems to be shown by the experience which came a few days later
+to Jesus and his three closest friends. He had withdrawn with them to a
+"high mountain" for prayer (Luke ix. 28f.). While he prayed the light of
+heaven came into his face, and his disciples were granted a vision of him
+in celestial glory, conversing with Moses and Elijah, representatives of
+Old Testament law and prophecy. The theme of the discourse was that death
+which had so troubled the disciples, and which then and later weighed
+heavily on Jesus' own spirit (Luke ix. 31). At the conclusion of the
+vision came a divine injunction to hear him who now was superseding law
+and prophets. The effect of the transfiguration can only be inferred. It
+doubtless brought strengthening to Jesus for his difficult task (compare
+Heb. v. 7), and at least a silencing of remonstrance when he spoke again
+to his disciples of his approaching death. This he did while the little
+company was making its way back towards Capernaum (Mark ix. 30-32), and
+repeatedly later before the end came (Mark x. 32-34; Matt. xxvi. 1f.).
+
+161. On Jesus' return from the mountain, he was met by the despairing plea
+of a father and healed his epileptic son, out of whom the disciples were
+unable to cast the demon (Mark ix. 14-29; compare vi. 7, 13). It may have
+been the shock which the new lesson had given the disciples that accounted
+for the reproof of their lack of faith. The new evidence of Jesus' power,
+coupled with this reproof, seems to have restored their confidence in him.
+Perhaps, too, there was something contagious about the spirit of hope with
+which the three came from their vision of the Master's glory. For,
+although they were not free to tell what they had seen (Mark ix. 9), they
+could not have concealed the fact that their faith had received great
+encouragement. Whatever the cause, hope revived for the disciples, for on
+the way back to Capernaum a dispute arose among them concerning personal
+precedence in the kingdom which their Master should soon set up. In this
+rapid reaction from unbelief to faith the disciples seem to have forgotten
+the lesson of self-denial recently given them (Mark viii. 34, 35). In
+Peter's confession the corner-stone of the church was laid; but the
+superstructure was yet far out of sight. Although his own soul, taking its
+way down into the valley of shadows, might rightly have asked for sympathy
+and complained of its lack, Jesus simply set a little child in the midst
+of them, and taught them again the first lessons of faith,--gentle
+humility and trust. Thereby he rebuked the spirit of rivalry and asked of
+his disciples a generous, unselfish, and forgiving spirit (Matt, xviii.
+1-35).
+
+162. It was possibly at this time, certainly near the end of the Galilean
+ministry, that Jesus was approached by his own brethren, who urged him to
+try to win the capital. Their attitude was not one of indifference, though
+clearly not one of actual faith in his claim (John vii. 2-5). They seem to
+have felt that Jesus had not made adequate effort to secure a following in
+Jerusalem, and that he could not hope for success in his work if he
+continued to confine his attention to Galilee. Jesus knew conditions in
+Jerusalem far better than they did, and had no idea as yet of resuming a
+general ministry there. He therefore dismissed the suggestion, and left
+his brethren to go up to the feast disappointed in their desire that he
+make a demonstration at that time. Yet Jesus still yearned over Jerusalem.
+He knew in what organized opposition a general demonstration would result.
+There were some, however, in the capital who had real faith in him. His
+repeated efforts to win Jerusalem mean nothing if we do not recognize that
+he hoped against hope that many of the people might yet turn and let him
+lead them. With some such purpose, therefore, he went up a little later
+without ostentation, and quietly appeared in the temple teaching. The
+effect of this unannounced arrival was that the opposition was not ready
+for him. The multitude was compelled to form an opinion of him for itself,
+and he had opportunity to make his own impression for a time,
+independently of official suggestion as to what ought to be thought of
+him. This course resulted in a division of sentiment among the people, so
+much so that when the leaders, both secular and religious, sought to
+compass his arrest, the officers sent to take Jesus were themselves
+entranced by his teaching. In spite of the wish of the leaders Jesus
+continued to teach, and many of the people began to think of him with
+favor. When, however, he tried to lead them on to become "disciples
+indeed," they took offence, and showed that they were not ready yet to
+follow him. This effort to "gather the children of Jerusalem" resulted in
+new proof that they preferred his death to his message (John vii. 2 to
+viii. 59).
+
+163. Interesting evidence of the fact that "Jesus did many other signs
+which are not written" in our accepted gospels is found in the story of
+his dealing with an adulteress whom the Pharisees brought to him for
+judgment (John vii. 53 to viii. 11). This narrative had no secure place in
+any of the gospels in the earliest days, yet was so highly regarded that
+men would not let it go. Hence in the manuscripts which contain it, it is
+found in various places. Some give it in Luke after chapter xxi., some at
+the end of the Gospel of John, one placing it after John vii. 36. Many
+considerations combine to prove that it was no part of the Gospel of John,
+but as many show that it preserves a true incident in the ministry of
+Jesus. In scene it belongs to the temple, therefore in time to one of the
+Jerusalem visits. To which of those visits it should he assigned is not
+now discoverable. The ancient copyists who assigned it to this feast of
+Tabernacles, chose as well as later students can. If the incident belongs
+to this visit, it illustrates the patience and the keen insight of Jesus
+in his effort to win self-satisfied Jerusalem.
+
+164. John is silent concerning the doings of Jesus after the feast of
+Tabernacles. In x. 22 he notes that Jesus was at Jerusalem at the feast of
+Dedication, which followed two months later. It seems probable that after
+his hurried and private journey to the feast of Tabernacles (John vii. 10)
+he returned to Galilee and gathered to himself again the little company of
+his loyal followers, preparatory to that final journey to Jerusalem which
+should bring the end foreseen, unless, perchance, Israel should yet repent
+and turn unto the Lord. As the shadow deepened over his own life, and the
+persistency of the unbelief of his people appeared more and more clearly,
+the teachings of Jesus took on a new note of tragedy which was not
+characteristic of the earlier preaching in Galilee. Even when his topic
+was similar and his treatment of it not unlike some earlier discourse,
+there appeared in it here and there a warning of impending judgment. This
+is seen as early as the reply to the criticism of the disciples for
+disregard of traditions (Matt. xv. 13f.). Many discourses in the section
+peculiar to Luke show by the presence of this note of doom that they
+belong to this later time rather than to the Galilean period proper. (See
+the table prefixed to Chapter V.)
+
+165. Two years had nearly passed since Jesus withdrew from Judea to start
+his ministry anew in a different region and following a different method.
+The fruit of that ministry was small, but significant. His proclamation of
+the coming kingdom and his call to a deeper righteousness, coupled as they
+were with his works of heavenly power, had won at first an enthusiastic
+following. Realizing that an uncontrolled enthusiasm would thwart his
+purpose to introduce a kingdom of the spirit, Jesus had kept his Messianic
+claim in the background, seeking first to win disciples to the kingdom
+that he was proclaiming. Yet emphasize his message as he would, he could
+not conceal his personal significance. In fact he wished by winning
+disciples to his doctrine of the kingdom to attach followers to himself,
+the bearer of the words of eternal life. The great development of popular
+enthusiasm did not deceive him, nor did he hesitate, when the multitude
+would force him to do its will, to show clearly how far he was from being
+a fulfiller of their desires. By successive disappointments of the popular
+ideas he sifted his followers until a few were ready to follow him
+whithersoever he might lead. With these he allowed time for the fact of
+his unpopularity to appear, giving them opportunity to consider the
+relentless hostility of their national leaders to the teacher from
+Galilee. Then when the time was ripe he drew from the loyal few their
+declaration that they would follow him in spite of disappointments and
+unpopularity, their confession that he had come to be to them more than
+their cherished preconceptions, that he had won the mastery over their
+thought and life. He began then to prepare them for the end he had long
+foreseen, and at length, after giving them time for that perplexing
+mystery to find place in their hearts, he was ready to move on toward the
+crisis which he knew his public appearance in Jerusalem would precipitate.
+Before setting out on this journey his desire still to seek to win
+Jerusalem, if perchance it would repent, led him to visit the capital
+unannounced at the feast of Tabernacles. This taught him that, however
+ready some might be superficially to believe in him, he could as yet win
+in Jerusalem only hatred and plots against his life, and he returned to
+his faithful friends in Galilee.
+
+   Outline of Events in the Journey through Perea to Jerusalem
+
+
+   The final departure from Galilee--Matt. xix. 1, 2; viii. 19-22; Mark x.
+   1; Luke ix. 51-62.
+
+   The mission of the seventy--Matt. xi. 20-30; Luke x. 1-24.
+
+   The visit to the feast of Dedication--John ix. 1 to x. 39.
+
+   Possibly at this time: The parable of the Good Samaritan--Luke x.
+   25-37. The visit to Mary and Martha--Luke x. 38-42.
+
+   Return to Perea--John x. 40-42.
+
+   The visit to Bethany and the raising of Lazarus--John xi. 1-46.
+
+   The withdrawal to Ephraim--John xi. 47-54.
+
+   Events connected with the last journey to Jerusalem, which cannot be
+   more definitely located:
+
+   The question whether few are saved--Luke xiii. 22-30.
+
+   Reply to the warning against Herod, probably near the close--Luke xiii.
+   31-35.
+
+   The cure of ten lepers--Luke xvii. 11-19.
+
+   The question of the Pharisees concerning divorce--Matt. xix. 3-12; Mark
+   x. 2-12.
+
+   The blessing of little children--Matt. xix. 13-15; Mark x. 13-16; Luke
+   xviii. 15-17.
+
+   The question of the rich young ruler--Matt. xix. 16 to xx. 16; Mark x.
+   17-31; Luke xviii. 18-30.
+
+   The third prediction of death and resurrection--Matt xx. 17-19; Mark x.
+   32-34; Luke xviii. 31-34.
+
+   The ambitious request of the sons of Zebedee--Matt. xx. 20-28; Mark x.
+   35-45.
+
+   The last stage, Jericho to Jerusalem:
+
+   The blind men near Jericho--Matt. xx. 29-34; Mark x. 46-52; Luke xviii.
+   35-43.
+
+   The visit to Zacchæus--Luke xix. 1-10.
+
+   The parable of the pounds (minæ)--Luke xix. 11-28. Events and
+   discourses found in Luke ix. 51 to xviii. 14, which probably belong
+   after the confession of Peter, and very likely to some stage of the
+   journey to Jerusalem:
+
+   Woes against the Pharisees, uttered at a Pharisee's table--Luke xi.
+   37-54.
+
+   Warnings against the spirit of pharisaism--Luke xii. 1-59.
+
+   Comment on the slaughter of Galileans by Pilate--Luke xiii. 1-9.
+
+   Discourse on counting the cost of discipleship--Luke xiv. 25-35.
+
+   Discourse on the coming of the kingdom--Luke xvii. 20-37.
+
+   Parable of the Unjust Judge--Luke xviii. 1-8.
+
+   Parable of the Pharisee and the Publican--Luke xviii. 9-14.
+
+
+
+
+V
+
+The Journey through Perea to Jerusalem
+
+
+
+166. The fourth gospel says that after the visit to Jerusalem at the feast
+of Dedication Jesus withdrew beyond Jordan to the place where John at the
+first was baptizing (x. 40). Matthew and Mark also say that at the close
+of the ministry in Galilee Jesus departed and came into the borders of
+Judea and beyond Jordan, and that in this new region the multitudes again
+flocked to him, and he resumed his ministry of teaching (Matt. xix. 1f.;
+Mark x. 1). What he did and taught at this time is not shown at all by
+John, and only in scant fashion by the other two. They tell of a
+discussion with the Pharisees concerning divorce (Mark x. 2-12); of the
+welcome extended by Jesus to certain little children (Mark x. 13-16); of
+the disappointment of a rich young ruler, who wished to learn from Jesus
+the way of life, but loved better his great possessions (Mark x. 17-31);
+of a further manifestation of the unlovely spirit of rivalry among the
+disciples in the request of James and John for the best places in the
+kingdom (Mark x. 35-45),--a request following in the records directly
+after another prediction by Jesus of his death and resurrection (Mark x.
+32-34). Then, after a visit to Jericho (Luke xviii. 35 to xix. 28), these
+records come into coincidence with John in the account of the Messianic
+entry into Jerusalem just before the last Passover.
+
+167. The fourth gospel tells in addition of a considerable activity of
+Jesus in and near Jerusalem during this period. In making the journey
+beyond Jordan start from Jerusalem (x. 40), John shows that Jesus must
+have returned to the capital after his withdrawal from the feast of
+Tabernacles. When and how this took place is not indicated. Later, after
+his retirement from the feast of Dedication Jesus hastened at the summons
+of his friends from beyond Jordan to Bethany when Lazarus died (xi. 1-7).
+From Bethany he went not to the other side of Jordan again, but to Ephraim
+(xi. 54), a town on the border between Judea and Samaria, and from there
+he started towards Jerusalem when the Passover drew near. This record of
+John has, as Dr. Sanday has recently remarked (HastBD II. 630), so many
+marks of verisimilitude that it must be accepted as a true tradition. It
+demands thus that in our conception of the last journey from Galilee room
+be found for several excursions to Jerusalem or its neighborhood. One of
+these at least--to the feast of Dedication (x. 22)--represents another
+effort to "gather the children of Jerusalem." While not without success,
+for at least the blind man restored by Jesus gave him the full faith he
+sought (ix. 35-38), it showed with fuller clearness the determined
+hostility to Jesus of the influential class (x. 39).
+
+168. It has been customary to find in the long section peculiar to Luke
+(ix. 51 to xviii. 14) a fuller account of the Perean ministry, as it has
+been called. For it opens with a final departure from Galilee, and comes
+at its close into parallelism with the record of Matthew and Mark. Yet
+some parts of this section in Luke belong in the earlier Galilean
+ministry. The blasphemy of the Pharisees (xi. 14-36) is clearly identical
+with the incident recorded in Mark iii. 22-30, and Matt. xii. 22-45; while
+several incidents and discourses (see outline prefixed to Chapter III.)
+bear so plainly the marks of the ministry before the revulsion of popular
+favor, that it is easiest to think of them as actually belonging to the
+earlier time, but assigned by Luke to this peculiar section because he
+found no clear place offered for them in the record of Mark. Not a little,
+however, of what Luke records here manifestly belongs to the time when
+Jesus referred openly to his rejection by the Jewish people. The note of
+tragedy characteristic of later discourses appears in the replies of Jesus
+to certain would-be disciples (ix. 57-62), and in his warning that his
+followers count the cost of discipleship (xiv. 25-35). The woes spoken at
+a Pharisee's table (xi. 37-52), the warning to the disciples against
+pharisaism (xii. 1-12), and the encouragement of the "little flock" (xii.
+22-34), with many other paragraphs from this part of the gospel (see
+outline at the head of this chapter), evidently were spoken at the time
+of the approaching end. Some narratives reflect the neighborhood of
+Jerusalem, and naturally corroborate the indications in the fourth gospel
+that Jesus was repeatedly at the capital during this time. The parable of
+the good Samaritan, for instance, must have been spoken in Judea, else why
+choose the road from Jerusalem to Jericho for the illustration? The visit
+to Mary and Martha shows Jesus at Bethany, and the parable of the Pharisee
+and the Publican, naming the temple as the place of prayer, belongs
+naturally to Judea.
+
+169. The effort to find the definite progress of events in this part of
+Luke has not been successful. There are three hints of movement towards
+Jerusalem,--the introductory mention of the departure from Galilee (ix.
+51); a statement that Jesus went on his way through cities and villages,
+journeying on unto Jerusalem (xiii. 22); and again a reference to passing
+through the midst of Samaria and Galilee on the way to Jerusalem (xvii.
+11). The attempt to make the third of these belong actually to the last
+stages of the final journey seems artificial. Confessedly the expression
+"through the midst of Samaria and Galilee" is obscure. It is much easier
+to understand, however, if the journey so described is identified with the
+visit to Samaria with which the departure from Galilee opened. It seems
+probable that Luke found these records of events and teachings in Jesus'
+life, and was unable to learn exactly their connection in time and place,
+so placed them after the close of the Galilean story and before the
+account of the passion, much as later some copyist found the story of the
+adulteress (John vii. 53 to viii. 11), and, certain that it was a true
+incident, gave it a place in connection with the visit to the feast of
+Tabernacles (perhaps influenced by John viii. 15). It must always be
+remembered that the earliest apostolic writing--Matthew's Logia--probably
+consisted of just such disconnected records (see sects. 28, 42), and that,
+as Jülicher (Einleitung i. d. NT. 235) has said, the early church was not
+interested in _when_ Jesus said or did anything. Its interest was in
+_what_ he said and did.
+
+170. The time of the departure from Galilee for Jerusalem may be set with
+much probability not long before the feast of the Dedication in December;
+for at that feast Jesus was again in Jerusalem, and from it he returned to
+Perea (John x. 22, 40-42). He started southward through Samaria (Luke ix.
+51 ff.), and probably in connection with the early stages of the journey
+he sent out the seventy "into every city and place whither he himself was
+about to come" (Luke x. 1). It is not unlikely that, after the sending out
+of these heralds, he went with a few disciples to make one more effort to
+turn the heart of Jerusalem to himself (John ix., x.). It is impossible to
+determine whither the seventy were sent. The "towns and cities" whither
+Jesus was about to come may have included some from all portions of the
+land, not excepting Judea. The matter must be left in considerable
+obscurity. This, however, may be said, that the reasons offered for
+holding that the story of the sending out of the seventy is only a
+"doublet" of the mission of the twelve are not conclusive (see sect. A
+68). The connection in Luke of the woes against Capernaum, Bethsaida, and
+Chorazin with the instruction of the seventy is very natural, and marks
+this mission as belonging to the close of the Galilean period, while the
+mission of the twelve belongs to the height of Jesus' popularity.
+
+171. Our knowledge of Jesus' visit to the feast of Dedication is due to
+John's interest in the cure at about that time of one born blind (John
+ix., x.). The prejudice of the sanhedrists who excommunicated the man for
+his loyalty to Jesus led him in indignation to contrast their method of
+caring for God's "sheep" with his own love and sympathy and genuine
+ministry to their needs. He saw clearly that his course must end in death,
+unless a great change should come over his enemies; yet, as the Good
+Shepherd, he was ready to lay down his life for the sheep, rather than
+leave them to the heartlessness of leaders who cared only for themselves
+(x. 11-18). The critics of Jesus could not, or would not, understand his
+charge against them, and accused him of madness for his extraordinary
+claims. There were some, however, who could not credit the notion that
+Jesus had a devil (John x. 21). It is possible that it was at this time
+that the lawyer questioned him about the breadth of interpretation to be
+given to the word "neighbor" in the law of love, and was answered by the
+parable of the Good Samaritan (Luke x. 25-37). Possibly the parable of the
+Pharisee and the Publican (Luke xviii. 9-14) belongs also to this time. In
+general, however, the visit proved anew that Jerusalem was in no mood to
+accept Jesus (John x. 24-39). His enemies sought to draw from him a
+declaration of his claim to be the Messiah, and Jesus appealed to his
+works, asserting that only their incorrigible prejudice prevented their
+recognizing his claims. He added that his Father, with whom he was ever in
+perfect accord, had drawn some faithful followers to him, and thereupon,
+angered by his claim to close kinship with God, they appealed to the rough
+logic of violence (John x. 31-39; compare viii. 59).
+
+172. After this added attempt to win Jerusalem Jesus withdrew to the
+region beyond Jordan, where John had carried on his ministry to the eager
+multitudes. Here he anew attracted great attention, causing people to
+contrast his ministry with the less remarkable work of John, and to
+acknowledge that John's testimony to him was true (John x. 40-42).
+Possibly it was in this place that the seventy found Jesus when they
+returned to report the success of their mission (Luke x. 17-24), for the
+thanksgiving which Jesus rendered for the faith of the common people in
+contrast with the unbelief of the "wise and prudent" might well express
+his feeling after the fresh evidence he had at the feast of Dedication
+that Jerusalem would none of his mission. The invitation to all the heavy
+laden to take his yoke illustrates, though under another figure, his claim
+to be the Good Shepherd (Matt. xi. 28-30). We have no means of knowing how
+much more of what the gospels assign to the last journey to Jerusalem
+should be put in connection with this sojourn across the Jordan. The
+multitudes that came to him there may have included the Pharisees who
+questioned him about divorce (Mark x. 2-12), and the young ruler who loved
+his great possessions (Mark x. 17-31), as well as the parents who eagerly
+sought the Lord's blessing for their children (Mark x. 13-16). Some parts
+of Luke's narrative seem to belong still later in this journey, yet such a
+section as the reply of Jesus to the report of Pilate's slaughter of the
+Galileans (xiii. 1-9), or the parable of the Great Supper (xiv. 15-24), is
+suitable to any stage of it.
+
+173. This sojourn on the other side of Jordan was brought to a close by
+the summons to come to the aid of his friends in Bethany (John xi.). It is
+not strange that the disciples feared his return to Judea, nor that Jesus
+did not hesitate when he recognized the call of duty as well as of
+friendship. In no recorded miracle of Jesus is his power more signally set
+forth, yet here more clearly than anywhere else he is represented as
+dependent on his Father in his exercise of that power. The words of Jesus
+at the grave (John xi. 41, 42) show that he was confident of the
+resurrection of Lazarus, because he had prayed and was sure he was heard.
+It may be that his delay after hearing of the sickness of his friend (xi.
+6) was a time of waiting for answer, and that this explains his confidence
+of safety when the time came for him to expose himself again to the
+hostility of Judea. Jesus indicated not only that on this occasion he had
+help from above in doing his miracles, but that it was the rule in his
+life to seek such help and guidance (xi. 42). In fact, at a later time he
+ascribed all his works to the Father abiding in him (John xiv. 10; compare
+x. 25). The effect of the resurrection of Lazarus was such as to intensify
+the determination of the leaders in Jerusalem--both Pharisees and
+Sadducees--to get rid of Jesus as dangerous to the quiet of the nation
+(John xi. 47-54). In this it simply served to fix a determination already
+present (John vii. 25, 32; viii. 59; x. 31, 39). The miracle does not
+appear in John as the cause of the apprehension of Jesus, but rather as
+one influence leading to it. It was indeed the total contradiction between
+Jesus and all current and cherished ideas that led to his condemnation;
+the raising of Lazarus only showed that he was becoming dangerously
+popular, and made the priestly leaders feel the necessity of haste. The
+silence of the first three gospels concerning this event is truly
+perplexing, yet it is not any more difficult of explanation, as Beyschlag
+(LJ I. 495) has shown, than the silence of all four evangelists concerning
+the appearance of the risen Jesus to James, or to the five hundred
+brethren (I. Cor. xv. 6, 7). Room must be allowed in our conception of the
+life of Jesus for many things of which no record remains, all the more,
+therefore, for incidents to which but one of the gospels is witness.
+Moreover, after the collapse of popularity in Galilee, the great
+enthusiasm of the multitudes over Jesus when he entered Jerusalem (Luke
+xix. 37-40; Mark xi. 8-10) is most easily understood if he had made some
+such manifestation of power as the restoration of Lazarus.
+
+174. After the visit to Bethany Jesus withdrew to a little town named
+Ephraim, on the border between Judea and Samaria, and spent some time
+there in seclusion with his disciples (John xi. 54), doubtless
+strengthening his personal hold on them preparatory to the shock their
+faith was about to receive. Of the length of this sojourn nothing is told
+us, nor of the road by which Jesus left Ephraim for Jerusalem (John xii.
+1). The first three gospels show that he began his final approach to the
+Holy City at Jericho (Mark x. 46). It may be that he descended from
+Ephraim direct to Jericho some days before the Passover, rejoining there
+some of the people who had been impressed by his recent ministry in the
+region "where John at the first was baptizing." It is natural to suppose
+that it was on this journey to Jericho that he warned his disciples again
+of the fate which he saw before him in Jerusalem (Mark x. 32-34), and
+quite probably it was at this time that he rebuked the crude ambition of
+the sons of Zebedee by reminding them that his disciples must be more
+ambitious to serve than to rule, since even "the Son of Man came not to be
+ministered unto but to minister, and to give his life a ransom for many"
+(Mark x. 35-45). At Jericho he was at once crowded upon by enthusiastic
+multitudes. The feeling they had for him may perhaps be inferred from the
+cry of blind Bartimeus, "Thou son of David, have mercy on me" (Mark x.
+48). This enthusiasm received a shock when Jesus chose to be guest in
+Jericho of a chief of the publicans, a shock which Jesus probably intended
+to give, for much the same reason that led him afterwards on his way up to
+Jerusalem to teach his followers in the parable of the pounds that they
+must be ready for long delay in his actual assumption of his kingly right
+(Luke xix. 11-28). Finally, six days before the Passover, he and his
+disciples left Jericho and went up to Bethany preparatory to his final
+appearance in Jerusalem (John xii. 1).
+
+175. The interval between the final departure from Galilee and the public
+entry into Jerusalem was given to three different tasks: the renewed
+proclamation of the coming of the kingdom, further efforts to win
+acceptance in Jerusalem, if perchance she might learn to know the things
+that belonged to her peace; and continued training of the disciples,
+specially needed because of the ill-considered enthusiasm with which they
+were inclined to view the probable issue of this journey to Jerusalem. The
+first of these tasks was conducted as the earlier work in Galilee had
+been, both by teaching and healing, in which Jesus used his disciples even
+more extensively than before. It proved that here as in Galilee the common
+people were ready to hear him gladly, until he showed too radical a
+disappointment of their hopes. In this new ministry to the people Jesus
+spoke very frankly of the seriousness of the opposition which the leaders
+of the people were manifesting, and of the need that those who would be
+his disciples should count the cost of their allegiance (Luke xiii. 22-30;
+xiv. 25-35; xii. 1-59). He did not hesitate to administer the most
+scathing rebuke to the Pharisees for the superficiality and hypocrisy of
+their religious life and teaching (Luke xi. 37-54),--a rebuke which is
+emphasized by the parable in which, on another occasion, he taught God's
+preference for a contrite sinner over a complacent saint (Luke xviii.
+9-14). When reminded of Pilate's outrage upon certain Galilean
+worshippers, he used the calamity to warn his hearers that personal
+godliness was the only protection which could secure them against a more
+serious outbreak of the hostility of the Roman power (Luke xiii. 1-9); and
+it was probably in reply to such an appeal as accompanied this report of
+Pilate's cruelty that Jesus spoke the parable of the Unjust Judge (Luke
+xviii. 1-8), teaching that God's love may be trusted to be no less
+regardful of his people's cry than a selfish man's love of ease would be.
+
+176. The second of these tasks must not be held to be perfunctory, even
+though each new effort for Jerusalem proved that genuine acceptance of its
+saviour was increasingly improbable. As the denunciations of the older
+prophets ever left open a way of escape _if _ Israel would return and seek
+the Lord, so the anticipation of rejection and death which filled the
+heart of Jesus does not banish a like _if_ from his own thought of
+Jerusalem in his repeated efforts to "gather her children." The
+combination of the new popular enthusiasm and the fresh proofs of the
+hopelessness of winning Jerusalem made more important the third task,--the
+founding of the faith of the disciples on the rock of personal certainty,
+from which the rising floods of hatred and seeming ruin for the Master's
+cause could not sweep it. It was for them that much of his instruction of
+the multitudes was doubtless primarily intended; they needed above all
+others to count the cost of discipleship (Luke xiv. 25-35), and the
+warnings against the spirit of Pharisaism (Luke xii.) were addressed
+principally to them, even as it was to them that Jesus confessed the
+"straitening" of his own soul in view of the "fire which he had come to
+cast upon the earth" (Luke xii. 49-53),--a confession which had another
+expression when he found it needful to rebuke the personal ambition of the
+sons of Zebedee (Mark x. 35-45). As for Jesus himself, the popular
+enthusiasm had not deceived him, nor the obdurate unbelief of Jerusalem
+daunted him, nor his disciples' misconception of his kingdom disheartened
+him; he still steadfastly set his face to go to Jerusalem.
+
+   Outline of Events in the Last Week of Jesus' Life
+
+
+   _Saturday_ (?). The anointing in Bethany six days before the
+   Passover--Matt. xxvi. 6-13; Mark xiv. 3-9; John xi. 55 to xii. 11.
+
+   _Sunday_ (?). The Messianic entry--Matt. xxi. 1-11; Mark xi. 1-11; Luke
+   six. 29-44; John xii. 12-19.
+
+   _Monday_ (?). Visit to the temple: the cursing of the barren
+   fig-tree--Matt. xxi. 18-19, 12-17; Mark xi. 12-14, 15-18; Luke xix. 45,
+   47, 48.
+
+   Return to Bethany for the night--Matt. xxi. 17; Mark xi. 19; Luke xxi.
+   37, 38.
+
+   _Tuesday_ (?). Visit to the temple: the fig-tree found withered--Matt,
+   xxi 20-23; Mark xi. 20-27; Luke xx. 1.
+
+   Challenge of Jesus' authority--Matt. xxi. 23-27; Mark xi. 27-33; Luke
+   xx. 1-8.
+
+   Three parables against the religious leaders--Matt. xxi. 28 to xxii.
+   14; Mark xii. 1-12; Luke xx. 9-19.
+
+   The question about tribute--Matt. xxii. 15-22; Mark xii. 13-17; Luke
+   xx. 20-26.
+
+   The question of the Sadducees about the resurrection--Matt. xxii.
+   23-33; Mark xii. 18-27; Luke xx. 27-40.
+
+   The question of the Pharisees about the great commandment--Matt. xxii.
+   34-40; Mark xii. 28-34.
+
+   Jesus' counter-question about David's son and Lord--Matt. xxii. 41-46;
+   Mark xii. 35-37; Luke xx. 41-44.
+
+   Jesus' denunciation of the scribes and Pharisees--Matt, xxiii. 1-39;
+   Mark xii. 38-40; Luke xx. 45-47.
+
+   The widow's two mites--Mark xii. 41-44; Luke xxi. 1-4.
+
+   The visit of the Greeks--John xii. 20-36^a.
+
+   Final departure from the temple--John xii. 36^b (-50).
+
+   Discourse concerning the destruction of Jerusalem and the end of the
+   world--Matt. xxiv. 1 to xxvi. 2; Mark xiii. 1-37; Luke xxi. 5-38.
+
+   Plot of Judas to betray Jesus--Matt. xxvi. 3-5, 14-16; Mark xiv. 1, 2,
+   10, 11; Luke xxii. 1-6.
+
+   _Wednesday_. Retirement at Bethany. (?)
+
+   _Thursday_. The Last Supper--Matt. xxvi. 17-30; Mark xiv. 12-26; Luke
+   xxii. 7-30; John xiii. 1-30.
+
+   The farewell words of admonition and comfort--John xiii. 31 to xvi. 33.
+
+   The intercessory prayer--John xvii. 1-26.
+
+   _Friday_. The agony in Gethsemane--Matt. xxvi. 30, 36-46; Mark xiv. 26,
+   32-42; Luke xxii. 39-46; John xviii. 1.
+
+   The betrayal and arrest--Matt xxvi. 47-56; Mark xiv. 43-52; Luke xxii.
+   47-53; John xviii. 1-12.
+
+   Trial before the high-priests and sanhedrin--Matt. xxvi. 57 to xxvii.
+   10; Mark xiv. 53 to xv. 1^a; Luke xxii. 54-71; John xviii. 12-27.
+
+   Trial before Pilate--Matt, xxvii. 11-31; Mark xv. 1-20; Luke xxiii.
+   1-25; John xviii. 28 to xix. 16^a.
+
+   The crucifixion--Matt, xxvii. 32-56; Mark xv. 21-41; Luke xxiii. 26-49;
+   John xix. 16-37.
+
+   The burial--Matt, xxvii. 57-61; Mark xv. 42-47; Luke xxiii. 50-56; John
+   xix. 38-42.
+
+   _Saturday_. The Sabbath rest--Luke xxiii. 56^b.
+
+   The watch at the tomb--Matt, xxvii. 62-66.
+
+
+
+
+VI
+
+The Final Controversies in Jerusalem
+
+
+
+177. The early Christians were greatly interested in the teachings of
+Jesus and in his deeds, but they thought oftenest of the victory which by
+his resurrection he won out of seeming defeat. This is proved by the fact
+that of the first two gospels over one third, of Luke over one fifth, and
+of the fourth gospel nearly one half are devoted to the story of the
+passion and resurrection. This preponderance is not strange in view of the
+shock which the death of Jesus caused his disciples, and the new life
+which the resurrection brought to their hearts. The resurrection was the
+fundamental theme of apostolic preaching, the supreme evidence that Jesus
+was the Messiah. Hence the cross early became the object of exultant
+Christian joy and boasting; and in this the church entered actually into
+the Lord's own thought, for through the cross he looked for his exaltation
+and glory (Mark viii. 31; John xii. 23-36). From the time of the
+confession at Cæsarea Philippi, he had had his death avowedly in view, and
+had repeatedly checked the ambitious and unthinking enthusiasm of his
+disciples by reminding them of what he must receive at the hands of the
+leaders of the people. The few months preceding his final appearance in
+Jerusalem had been devoted to the journey to the cross. This explains the
+note of tragedy which appears in his teachings at this period. The people
+had shown that they would none of his ministry. In this they had written
+their national and religious death warrant, and as he approached Jerusalem
+for the final crisis he declared, though with almost breaking heart, "Your
+house is left unto you desolate" (Luke xiii. 31-35). Each new effort of
+Jesus to turn aside the impending judgment of his people by winning their
+acceptance of himself and his message resulted in a new certainty of his
+ultimate rejection, and thus in confirmation of the early recognized
+necessity, that, if he continued the work God had given him to do, he
+should suffer many things, and die at the hands of his own people.
+
+178. The last chapter in his public ministry began with his arrival at
+Bethany six days before the Passover. It is probable that the caravan with
+which Jesus was travelling reached Bethany not far from the sunset which
+marked the beginning of the Sabbath preceding the feast. Jesus had friends
+there who gladly gave him entertainment, and the Sabbath was doubtless
+spent quietly in this retreat. The holy day closed with the setting sun,
+and then his hosts were able to show him the special attention which they
+desired. The general cordiality of welcome expressed itself in a feast
+given in the house of one Simon, a leper who had probably experienced the
+power of Jesus to heal. He may have been a relative also of Lazarus, for
+Martha assisted in the entertainment, and Lazarus was one of the guests of
+honor (Mark xiv. 3; John xii. 2). During the feast, Mary, the sister of
+Lazarus, poured forth on the head and feet of Jesus a box of the rarest
+perfume. This act of costly adoration seemed extravagant to some,
+particularly to one of Jesus' disciples, who complained that the money
+could have been better spent. This criticism of one who had not counted
+cost in her service was rebuked by Jesus, who defended and commended Mary;
+for in the act he recognized her fear that he might not be long with her
+(Mark xiv. 8; John xii. 7). It is probable that this rebuke, with the
+clear reference to his approaching death, led Judas to decide to abandon
+the apparently waning cause of his Master, and bargain with the leaders in
+Jerusalem to betray him (Mark xiv. 3-11).
+
+179. The day following the supper at Bethany--that is, the first day of
+the week--witnessed the welcome of Jesus to Jerusalem by the jubilant
+multitudes. His mode of entering the city affords a marked contrast to
+his treatment of the determination to make him king after he had fed the
+multitudes in Galilee (John vi. 15). In some respects the circumstances
+were similar. A multitude of the visitors to the feast, hearing that Jesus
+was at Bethany on his way to Jerusalem, went out to meet him with a
+welcome that showed their enthusiastic confidence that at last he would
+assume Messianic power and redeem Israel (John xii. 12, 13). Jesus was now
+ready for a popular demonstration, for the rulers were unwilling longer to
+tolerate his work and his teaching. He had never hesitated to assert his
+superiority to official criticism, and at length the hour had come to
+proclaim the full significance of his independence. In fact it was for
+this that some months before he had set his face steadfastly to go to
+Jerusalem. When, therefore, the crowd from Jerusalem appeared, Jesus took
+the initiative in a genuine Messianic demonstration. He sent two of his
+disciples to a place near by to borrow an ass's colt, on which he might
+ride into the city, fulfilling Zechariah's prophecy of the "king that
+cometh meek, and riding upon an ass" (see Matt. xxi. 4, 5). At this, the
+enthusiasm of his followers, and of those who had come to meet him, became
+unbounded, and without rebuke from Jesus they proceeded towards Jerusalem
+crying, "Hosanna; Blessed _is_ he that cometh in the name of the Lord"
+(Mark xi. 9, 10). Notwithstanding the remonstrances of certain Pharisees
+among the multitude (Luke xix. 39), Jesus accepted the hosannas, for they
+served to emphasize the claim which he now wished, without reserve or
+ambiguity, to make in Jerusalem. The time for reserve had passed. The
+mass of the people with their leaders had shown clearly that for his
+truth, and himself as bearer of it, they had no liking; while the few had
+become attached to him sufficiently to warrant the supreme test of their
+faith. He could not continue longer his efforts to win the people, for
+both Galilee and Judea were closed to him. Even if he had been content,
+without contradicting popular ideas, to work wonders and proclaim promises
+of coming good, he could with difficulty have continued this work, for
+Herod had already been regarding him with suspicion (Luke xiii. 31). He
+had run his course and must measure strength with the hostile forces in
+Jerusalem. For the last encounter he assumed the aggressive, and entered
+the city as its promised deliverer, the Prince of Peace. The very method
+of his Messianic proclamation was a challenge of current Jewish ideas, for
+they were not looking for so meek and peaceful a leader as Zechariah had
+conceived; this entrance emphasized the old contradiction between Jesus
+and his people's expectations. He accepted the popular welcome with full
+knowledge of the transitoriness of the present enthusiasm. As he advanced
+he saw in thought the fate to which the city and people were blindly
+hurrying, and his day of popular triumph was a day of tears (Luke xix.
+41-44). The city was stirred when the prophet of Nazareth thus entered it;
+but he simply went into the temple, looked about with heavy heart, and, as
+it was late, returned to Bethany with the twelve for the night.
+
+180. On the following day Jesus furnished to his disciples a parable in
+action illustrating the fate awaiting the nation; for it is only as a
+parable that the curse of the barren fig-tree can be understood. The idea
+that Jesus showed resentment at disappointment of his hunger when he found
+no figs on the tree out of season is too petty for consideration. He was
+drawn to it by the early foliage, for it was not yet the season for either
+fruit or leaves. One is tempted to believe, as Dr. Bruce has suggested,
+that he had small expectation of finding fruit, and that even before he
+reached the tree with its early leaves he felt a likeness between it and
+the nation of hypocrites whose fate was so clear in his mind. The
+withering of the fig-tree set his disciples thinking; and Jesus showed
+that it was an object lesson, promising that the disciples, by the
+exercise of but a little faith, could do more, even remove
+mountains,--such mountains of difficulty as the opposition of the whole
+Jewish nation would offer to the success of their work in their Master's
+name.
+
+181. The curse upon the barren fig-tree was spoken as Jesus was going from
+Bethany to Jerusalem on the morning after his Messianic entry, that is, on
+Monday, and it was Tuesday when the disciples found it withered away (Mark
+xi. 12-14, 20-25). On Monday Jesus entered into the temple and taught and
+healed (Luke xix. 47; Matt. xxi. 14-16). It is at this point that Mark
+inserts the cleansing of the temple which John shows to belong rather to
+Jesus' first public visit to Jerusalem. The place which this incident
+holds in the first three gospels has already been explained by the fact
+that it furnished one cause for the official hostility to Jesus, and that
+Mark's story included no earlier visit to the holy city (sect. 116; see A
+39).
+
+182. Tuesday, the last day of public activity, exhibits Jesus in four
+different lights, according as he had to do with his critics, with the
+devout widow, with the inquiring Greeks, and with his own disciples. The
+opposition to him expressed itself, after the general challenge of his
+authority, in three questions put in succession by Pharisees and
+Herodians, by Sadducees, and by a scribe, more earnest than most, whom the
+Pharisees put forward after they had seen how Jesus silenced the
+Sadducees. Jesus met the opening challenge by a question about John's
+baptism (Mark xi. 29-33) which completely destroyed the complacency of his
+critics, putting them on the defensive. This was more than a clever
+stroke, they could not know what his authority was unless they had a quick
+sense for spiritual things. His question would have served to bring this
+to the surface if they had possessed it. Their reply showed them incapable
+of receiving a real answer to their question. It also gave him opportunity
+to say in three significant parables (Matt. xxi. 28 to xxii. 14) what
+their spiritual blindness signified for them and their nation, giving thus
+a turn to the interview not at all to their minds. As Jesus' rebuke was
+spoken in the hearing of the people, a determined effort was at once made
+to discredit him in the popular mind. The question (Mark xii. 13-17) with
+which the Pharisees and Herodians hoped to ensnare him was most subtle,
+for the popular feeling was as sensitive to the mark of subserviency which
+the payment of tribute kept ever before them as the Roman authorities were
+to the slightest suspicion of revolt against their sway. In none of his
+words had Jesus so clearly asserted the simple other-worldliness of his
+doctrine of the kingdom of God as in his answer to the question about
+tribute. For him loyalty to the actual earthly sovereign was quite
+compatible with loyalty to God, the lower obligation was in fact a summons
+to be scrupulous also to render to God his due,--a duty in which this
+nation was sadly delinquent. The reply gave no ground for an accusation
+before the governor; but the popular feeling against Rome was so strong
+that it is not unlikely that it contributed somewhat to the readiness of
+the multitude a few days later to prefer Barabbas to Jesus.
+
+183. A second assault was made by some Sadducees who put to him a crude
+question about the relations of a seven-times married woman in the
+resurrection (Mark xii. 18-27). If this question was asked with the
+expectation of making Jesus ridiculous in the sight of the people it was a
+marked failure, for his reply was so simple and straightforward that he
+won the admiration even of some of the Pharisees. The most significant
+feature of it was his argument from God's reference to himself as God of
+Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob; for in that he taught that the fact of
+fellowship with God implies that God's servants share with him a life that
+death cannot vanquish. The skill with which Jesus met these two questions
+interested some of his hearers and showed to his opponents that they must
+put forward their ablest champions to cope with him. The next test was
+more purely academic in character,--as to what class of commands is
+greatest in the law (Mark xii. 28-34). For the pharisaic scholars this was
+a favorite problem. For Jesus, however, the question contained no problem,
+since all the law is summed up in the two commandments of love. His
+contemporaries were not without power to see the truth of his
+generalization, and their champion in this last attack was moved with
+admiration for the fineness and sufficiency of Jesus' answer.
+
+184. All of the assaults served only to show freshly the clearness and
+profoundness of his thought; his critics were quite discomfited in their
+effort to entangle him. They had done with him, but he had still a word
+for them. The business of these scribes was the study of the scriptures.
+They furnished the people with authoritative statements of truth. One of
+the common-places of the current thought was that the Messiah should be
+David's son. Jesus did not deny the truth of this view, yet he showed them
+how partial their ideas were by quoting a word of scripture in which the
+Messiah is shown as David's Lord. If they had been open-minded they might
+have inferred from this that perhaps the man before them was not so
+impossible a Messiah as they thought. This last question closed the
+colloquy; there awaited yet, however, Jesus' calm, scathing arraignment of
+the hypocrisy of these religious leaders. There was no longer any need for
+prudence and every reason for a clear indication of the difference between
+himself and the scribes in motive, in teaching, and in character. The
+final conflict was on, and Jesus freely spoke his mind concerning their
+whole life of piety without godliness. Never have sharper words of
+reproach fallen from human lips than these which Jesus directed against
+the scribes and Pharisees; they are burdened with indignation for the
+misleading of the people, with rebuke for the misrepresentation of God's
+truth, and with scorn for their hollow pretence of righteousness. Through
+it all breathes a note of sorrow for the city whose house was now left to
+her desolate. The change of scene which introduces the widow offering her
+gift in the temple treasury heightens the significance of the
+controversies through which Jesus had just passed. In his comment on the
+worth of her two mites we hear again the preacher of the sermon on the
+mount, and are assured that it is indeed from him that the severe rebukes
+which have fallen on the scribes have come. There is again a reference to
+the insight of him who sees in secret, and who judges as he sees; while
+allusion is not lacking to the others whose larger gifts attracted a wider
+attention. The whole scene is like a commentary on Matt. vi. 2-4.
+
+185. Still a different side of Jesus' life appears when the Greeks seek
+him in the temple. They were probably proselytes from some of the Greek
+cities about the Mediterranean where the synagogue offered to the
+earnest-minded a welcome relief from the foolishness and corruption of
+what was left of religion in the heathen world. Having visited Jerusalem
+for the feast, they heard on every hand about the new teacher. They were
+not so bound to rabbinic traditions as the Jews themselves, they had been
+drawn by the finer features of Judaism,--its high morality and its noble
+idea of God. What they heard of Jesus might well attract them, and they
+sought out Philip, a disciple with a Greek name, to request an interview
+with his Master. The evangelist who has preserved the incident (John xii.
+20-36) evidently introduced it because of what it showed of Jesus' inner
+life; hence we have no report of the conversation between him and his
+visitors. The effect of their seeking him was marked, however, for it
+offered sharp contrast to the rejection which he already felt in his
+dealings with the people who but two days before had hailed him as
+Messiah. This foreign interest in him did not suggest a new avenue for
+Messianic work, it only brought before his mind the influence which was to
+be his in the world which these inquirers represented, and immediately
+with the thought of his glorification came that of the means thereto,--the
+cross whose shadow was already darkening his path. Excepting Gethsemane,
+no more solemn moment in Jesus' life is reported for us. A glimpse is
+given into the inner currents of his soul, and the storm which tossed them
+is seen. It is in marked contrast to the calmness of his controversy with
+the leaders, and to the gentleness of his commendation of the widow. The
+agitation passed almost at once, but it left Jesus in a mood which he had
+not shown before on that day; in it his own thoughts had their way, and
+the doctrine of the grain of wheat dying to appear in larger life, of the
+Son of Man lifted up to draw all men unto him, had utterance, greatly to
+the perplexity of his hearers. It seems to have been one of the few times
+when Jesus spoke for his own soul's relief.
+
+186. In all the earlier events of the day the disciples of Jesus appear
+but little. He is occupied with others, accepting the challenge of the
+leaders, and completing his testimony to the truth they refused to hear.
+The quieter hours of the later part of the day gave time for further words
+with his friends. The comment on the widow's gift was meant for them, and
+the uncovering of his own soul when the Greeks sought him was in their
+presence. After he had left the temple and the city he gave himself to
+them more exclusively. His disciples were perplexed by what they saw and
+felt, for the temper of the people toward their Master could not be
+mistaken. Yet they were sure of him. The leaders among them, therefore,
+asked him privately to tell them when the catastrophe should come, to
+which during the day he had made repeated reference. The conversation
+which followed is reported for us in the discourse on the destruction of
+Jerusalem and the end of the world (Mark xiii. and parallels), in which
+Jesus taught his disciples to expect trouble in their ministry, as he was
+meeting trouble in his; and to be ready for complete disappointment of
+their inherited hopes for the glory of their holy city. He also taught
+them to expect that his work would shortly be carried to perfection, and
+to live in expectancy of his coming to complete all that he was now
+seeming to leave undone. This lesson of patience and expectancy is
+enforced in a group of parables preserved for us in Matthew (chap. xxv.),
+closing with the remarkable picture of the end of all things when the
+Master should return in glory as judge of all to make final announcement
+of the simplicity of God's requirement of righteousness, as it had been
+exhibited in the life which by the despite of men was now drawing to its
+close.
+
+187. The bargain made by Judas to betray his Lord has always been
+difficult to understand. The man must have had fine possibilities or Jesus
+would not have chosen him for an apostle, nor would the little company
+have made him its treasurer (John xii. 6; xiii. 29). The fact that Jesus
+early discovered his character (John vi. 64) does not compel us to think
+that his selection as an apostle was not perfectly sincere; the man must
+have seemed to be still savable and worthy thus to be associated with the
+eleven others who were Jesus' nearest companions. It has often been
+noticed that he was probably the only Judean among the twelve, for
+Kerioth, his home, was a town in southern Judea. The effort has frequently
+been made to redeem his reputation by attributing his betrayal to some
+high motive--such as a desire to force his Master to use his Messianic
+power, and confound his opponents by escaping from their hands and setting
+up the hoped-for kingdom. But the remorse of Judas, in which De Quincey
+finds support for this theory of the betrayal, must be more simply and
+sadly understood. It is more likely that the traitor illustrates Jesus'
+words: "No man can serve two masters; for either he will hate the one and
+love the other; or else he will hold to the one and despise the other. Ye
+cannot serve God and mammon" (Matt. vi. 24). The beginning of his fall may
+have been his disappointment when Jesus showed clearly that he would not
+establish a kingdom conformed to the popular ideas. As the enthusiasm
+which drew him to Jesus cooled, personal greed, with something of
+resentment at the cause of his disappointment, seem to have taken
+possession of him, and they led him on until the stinging rebuke which
+Jesus administered to the criticism of Mary at Bethany prompted the man to
+seek a bargain with the authorities which should insure him at least some
+profit in the general wreck of his hopes. His remorse after he saw in its
+bald hideousness what he had done was psychologically inevitable. Although
+Jesus was aware of Judas' character from the beginning (John vi. 64), he
+that came to seek and to save that which was lost was no fatalist; and
+this knowledge was doubtless--like that which he had of the fate hanging
+over Jerusalem--subject to the possibility that repentance might change
+what was otherwise a certain destiny. As the event turned he could only
+say, "Good were it for that man if he had not been born" (Mark xiv. 21).
+
+188. With this the curtain falls on the public ministry of Jesus. The
+gospels suggest a day of quiet retirement following these controversies
+and warnings, with their fresh demonstration of the irreconcilable
+hostility of people of all classes to him and his work. After the
+seclusion of that day, he returned to give final proof of complete
+obedience to his Father's will.
+
+
+
+
+VII
+
+The Last Supper
+
+
+
+189. On Thursday Jesus and his disciples returned to Jerusalem for the
+last time. Knowing the temper of the leaders, and the danger of arrest at
+any time, Jesus was particularly eager to eat the Passover with his
+disciples (Luke xxii. 15), and he sent two of them--Luke names them as
+Peter and John--to prepare for the supper. In a way which would give no
+information to such a one as Judas, he directed them carefully how to find
+the house where a friend would provide them the upper room that was needed
+for an undisturbed meeting of the little band, and the two went on in
+advance to make ready. When the hour was come Jesus with the others went
+to the appointed place and sat down for the supper (Mark xiv. 17; Luke
+xxii. 14; Matt. xxvi. 20).
+
+190. The gospels all report the last evening which the little company
+spent together. There is a perplexing divergence, however, between John
+and the others concerning the relation of this supper to the feast of the
+Passover. In their introduction of the story, Mark and his companion
+gospels indicate that the supper which Jesus ate was the Passover meal
+itself. John, on the other hand, declares that it was "before the feast of
+the Passover" (xiii. 1) that Jesus took this meal with his disciples.
+John's account is consistent throughout, for he states that on the next
+day the desire of the Jews to "eat the Passover" forbade them to enter the
+house of the governor lest they should incur defilement (xviii. 28). The
+other gospels, moreover, hint in several ways that the day of Jesus' death
+could not have been the day after the Passover; that is, the first day of
+the feast of unleavened bread. Dr. Sanday has recently enumerated these
+afresh, remarking that "the Synoptists make the Sanhedrin say beforehand
+that they will not arrest Jesus 'on the feast day,' and then actually
+arrest him on that day; that not only the guards, but one of the disciples
+(Mark xiv. 47), carries arms, which on the feast day was not allowed; that
+the trial was also held on the feast day, which would be unlawful; that
+the feast day would not be called simply Preparation (see Mark xv. 42, and
+compare John xix. 31); that the phrase 'coming from the field' (Mark xv.
+21 [Greek]) means properly 'coming from work;' that Joseph of Arimathea is
+represented as buying a linen cloth (Mark xv. 46) and the women as
+preparing spices and ointments (Luke xxiii. 56), all of which would be
+contrary to law and custom" (HastBD ii. 634). In these particulars the
+first three gospels seem to confirm the representation of the fourth that
+the day of the last supper was earlier than the regular Jewish Passover.
+On the other hand, a strong argument, though one that has not commended
+itself to other specialists in Jewish archæology, has been put forth by
+Dr. Edersheim (LJM ii. 567f.) to prove that John also indicates that the
+last supper was eaten at the time of the regular Passover. In the present
+condition of our knowledge certainty is impossible. If John does differ
+from the others, his testimony has the greatest weight. While not
+conclusive, it has some significance that Paul identified Christ with the
+sacrifice of the passover (I. Cor. v. 7), a statement which may indicate
+that he held that Jesus died about the time of the killing of the paschal
+lamb. If John be taken to prove that the last supper occurred a day before
+the regular Passover, Jesus must have felt that the anticipation was
+necessary in order to avoid the publicity and consequent danger of a
+celebration at the same time with all the rest of the city.
+
+191. Whatever the conclusion concerning the date of the last supper, and
+consequently of the crucifixion, the last meal of Jesus with his disciples
+was for that little company the equivalent of the Passover supper. Luke
+states that the desire of Jesus had looked specially to eating this feast
+with his disciples (xxii. 15). The reason must be found in his certainty
+of the very near end, and in his wish to make the meal a preparation for
+the bitter experiences which were overhanging him and them.
+
+192. It is customary to connect as occasion and consequence the dispute
+concerning precedence which Luke reports (xxii. 24-30), and the rebuke
+which Jesus administered by washing the disciples' feet (John xiii. 1-20).
+The jealousies of the disciples may have arisen over the allotment of
+seats at the table, as Dr. Edersheim has most fully shown (LJM ii.
+492-503); such a controversy would be the natural sequel of earlier
+disputes concerning greatness, and particularly of the request of James
+and John for the best places in the coming kingdom (Mark x. 35-45), and
+would lead as naturally to the distress of heart with which Jesus declared
+that one of the disciples should betray him, and that another of them
+should deny him. The narrative in Mark favors the withdrawal of Judas
+before the new rite was appointed. This must seem to be the probability in
+the case, for the presence of Judas would be most incongruous at such a
+memorial service. John's mention of his departure before the announcement
+of Peter's approaching fall confirms this interpretation of Mark (Mark
+xiv. 18-21; John xiii. 21-30).
+
+193. The paschal memories furnished to Jesus an opportunity to establish
+for his disciples an institution which should symbolize the new covenant
+which he was soon to seal with his blood. Jesus regarded this new covenant
+as that which was promised by the prophets, especially Jeremiah (xxxi.
+31-34), and his thought, like that of the prophets, goes back to the story
+of the covenant established at Sinai (Ex. xxiv. 1-11). In this way he gave
+to his disciples a conception of his death, which later, if not
+immediately, would help them to regard it as a necessary part of his work
+as Messiah. They were now oppressed by the evident certainty that the near
+future would bring their Master to death; he accordingly gave them a
+sacred reminder of himself and of his death as an essential part of his
+self-giving "for them;" for whatever the conclusion concerning the
+disputed text of Luke (xxii. 19), the institutional character of the act
+and words of Jesus is clear. As Holtzmann remarks (NtTh i. 304): "The
+words 'this do in remembrance of me' were perhaps not spoken; all the more
+certainly do they of themselves express what lay in the situation and made
+itself felt with incontestable conclusiveness."
+
+194. Several hints in the records seem to connect the meal in various
+details with what is known of ancient custom in the celebration of the
+Passover. The hymn with which according to Mark and Matthew the supper
+closed is easily identified with the last part (Psalms cxv. to cxviii.) of
+the so called _Hallel_, which was sung at the close of the Passover meal.
+The mention of two cups in the familiar text of Luke (xxii. 17-20) agrees
+with the repeated cups of the Passover ritual; so also do the sop and the
+dipping of it with which Jesus indicated to John who the traitor was (John
+xiii. 23-26; Mark xiv. 20). If it could be proved that the customs
+recorded in the Talmud correctly represent the usage in Jesus' time it
+would be of extreme interest to seek to connect what is told us of the
+last supper with that Passover ritual as Dr. Edersheim has done (LJM ii.
+490-512). The antiquity of the rabbinic record is so uncertain, however,
+that it is only useful as showing what possibly may have been the case.
+All that can be asserted is that the rabbinic ritual probably originated
+long before it was recorded, and that as the last supper was a meal which
+Jesus and his disciples celebrated as a Passover, it is probable that some
+such ritual was more or less closely followed.
+
+195. Luke and John give the fullest reports of what was said at the table.
+All the gospels tell of Peter's declaration of superior loyalty and the
+prediction of his threefold denial; Luke, however, adds that in connection
+with it Jesus assured Peter of his restoration, and charged him to
+strengthen his brethren (Luke xxii. 31-34). John alone gives the long and
+full discourse of admonition and comfort, followed by Jesus' prayer for
+his disciples (xiii. 31 to xvii. 26). It is evident from the words of
+Jesus as he entered the garden of Gethsemane (Mark xiv. 33, 34), as from
+those which had escaped him when the Greeks sought him the last day in the
+temple (John xii. 27), that his own heart was greatly troubled during the
+supper by the apparent defeat which was now close at hand. His quietness
+and self-possession during the supper, particularly when tenderly
+reproving his disciples for petty ambition, or when solemnly dismissing
+the traitor, or warning Peter of his denials, must not blind us to the
+depth of the emotion which was stirring his own soul. It is only as we
+remember his trouble of heart that it is possible justly to value the
+ministry which in varied ways he rendered to his disciples that night. In
+the discourses reported by John he showed that he realized that the
+approaching separation would sorely try the faith of his followers, and he
+sought to strengthen them by showing his own calmness in view of it, and
+by promising them another who should abide with them spiritually as his
+representative, and continue for them the work which he had begun. He
+therefore urged them to maintain their devotion to him, still to seek and
+find the source of their life and secret of their strength in fellowship
+with him--present, though unseen among them. He sought to convince them
+that his departure was to be for their advantage, that fellowship with him
+spiritually would be far more real and efficacious than the intercourse
+they had already enjoyed. He whose own heart was "exceeding sorrowful even
+unto death" bade his disciples not to let their hearts be troubled nor
+afraid. How long the conversation continued, of when the company left the
+upper chamber, cannot be told. At some time before the arrival at
+Gethsemane Jesus turned to God in prayer for the disciples whom he was
+about to leave to the severe trial of their faith, asking for them that
+realization of eternal life which he had enjoyed and exemplified in his
+own intimate life with his Father. With this his ministry to them closed
+for the time, and, crossing the Kidron, he entered the garden of
+Gethsemane weighed down by the sorrow of his own soul.
+
+
+
+
+VIII
+
+The Shadow of Death
+
+
+
+196. Of the garden of Gethsemane it is only known that it was across the
+Kidron, on the slope of the Mount of Olives. Tradition has long pointed to
+an enclosure some fifty yards beyond the bridge that crosses the ravine on
+the road leading eastward from St. Stephen's gate. Most students feel that
+this is too near the city and the highway for the place of retreat chosen
+by Jesus. Archæologically and sentimentally the identification of places
+connected with the life of Jesus is of great interest. Practically,
+however, it is easy to over-emphasize the importance of such an
+identification. Granted the fact that in some olive grove on the
+mountain-side, where an oil-press gave a name to the place (Gethsemane),
+Jesus withdrew with his disciples on that last night, and all that is
+important is known. It is of far higher importance to see rightly the
+relation of what took place in that garden to the things which preceded
+and followed it in the life of Jesus. At that time Jesus saw pressed to
+his lips the "cup" from the bitterness of which his whole soul shrank. It
+was not an unlooked-for trial; some time earlier he had sought to cool the
+ardor of the ambition of James and John by telling them that they should
+drink of his cup, and declared that even the Son of Man came not to be
+ministered unto but to minister, and to give his life a ransom for many.
+The fourth gospel, whose representation omits the agony of Gethsemane and
+only reports its victory, tells how Jesus rebuked the violent impulse of
+Peter with the word, "The cup which my Father hath given me to drink shall
+I not drink it?" (John xviii. 11^b); and all the gospels exhibit the
+marvellous quietness of spirit and dignity of self-surrender which
+characterized Jesus throughout his trial and execution. In Gethsemane,
+however, we see the struggle in which that calmness and self-mastery were
+won.
+
+197. It is unbecoming to consider that scene with any vulgar curiosity to
+know what it was that made Jesus so draw back from the drinking of his
+"cup." It is not unfitting, however, to recognize that in his cry, "Abba,
+Father, all things are possible unto thee; remove this cup from me" (Mark
+xiv. 36), an intense longing of his own soul's life had expression. There
+was something in the fate which he saw before him from which his whole
+being shrank. But stronger than this was his fixed desire to do his
+Father's will. Here was supremely illustrated the truth that "he came down
+from heaven, not to do his own will, but the will of him that sent him"
+(John vi. 38). The fullest allowance for the shrinking of the most
+delicately constituted nature from pain and death completely fails to
+account for this dread of Jesus. He was no coward, drawing back from
+sufferings which for simple physical pain were over and again more than
+matched by many of the martyrs to truth who preceded and followed him. He
+himself declared to the sons of Zebedee that they should share a cup in
+kind like unto his, suffering for the kingdom of God, for the salvation
+of the world. Yet there is a difference evident between what others have
+had to bear and the cup from which Jesus shrank. The death which now stood
+before him in the path of obedience had in it a bitterness quite
+unexplained by the pain and disappointment it entailed. That excess of
+bitterness can probably never be understood by us. A hint of its nature
+may be found in the "shame of the cross" which the author of Hebrews (xii.
+2; xiii. 13) emphasizes, and in the "curse" of the cross which made it a
+stumbling block to Paul and his Jewish brethren (Gal. iii. 13; I. Cor. i.
+23). Jesus came from the garden ready to endure the cross in obedience to
+his Father's will; but it was a costly obedience, a complete emptying of
+himself (Phil. ii. 7, 8).
+
+198. The loneliness of Jesus in his struggle is emphasized in the gospels
+of Mark and Matthew. In search of sympathy he had confessed to the
+disciples his trouble of heart, and had taken his three intimates with him
+when he withdrew from the others for prayer, asking them to watch with
+him. They were too heavy of heart and weary of body to stand by in his
+bitter hour, and instead of being in readiness to warn him of the approach
+of the hostile band, he had to awake them to their danger. The fourth
+gospel reports that after the struggle Jesus bore marks of majesty which
+astonished and overawed his foes when he calmly told them that he was the
+one they were seeking. Their fear was overcome, however, when Judas gave
+the appointed sign by kissing his Master (Mark xiv. 45). The thought for
+the disciples' safety which John records (xviii. 8) is another proof that
+the fight had been won, and Jesus had fully resumed the self-emptying
+ministry appointed to him by his Father.
+
+199. The band that arrested Jesus was accompanied by a Roman cohort from
+the garrison of the city, but it was not needed, for the disciples offered
+no appreciable resistance; on the contrary, "they all forsook him and
+fled" (Mark xiv. 50). Having arrested Jesus, the band took him to Annas,
+the actual leader of Jewish affairs, though not at the time the official
+high-priest. He had held that office some time before, but had been
+deposed by the Roman governor of Syria after being in power for nine
+years. His influence continued, however, for although he was never
+reinstated, he seems to have been able to secure the appointment for
+members of his own family during a period of many years. Caiaphas, the
+legal high-priest, was his son-in-law. Annas, as the leader of
+aristocratic opinion in Jerusalem, had doubtless been foremost in the
+secret counsels which led to the decision to get rid of Jesus, hence the
+captive was, as a matter of course, taken first to his house. The trial by
+the Jewish authorities was irregular. There seems to have been an informal
+examination of Jesus and various witnesses, first before Annas, and then
+before Caiaphas and a group of members of the sanhedrin, the outcome of
+which was complete failure to secure evidence against Jesus from their
+false witnesses, and the formulation of a charge of blasphemy in
+consequence of his answer to the high-priest acknowledging himself to be
+the Messiah (Mark xiv. 61-64). The early hours before the day were given
+over to mockery and ill-usage of the captive Jesus. When morning was
+come, the sanhedrin was convened, and he was condemned to death on the
+charge of blasphemy (Mark xv. 1; Luke xxii. 66-71), and then was led in
+bonds to the Roman governor for execution, since the Romans had taken from
+the sanhedrin the authority to execute a death sentence (John xviii. 31).
+Before Pilate the Jews had to name an offence recognized by Roman law; his
+accusers therefore falsified his claim and made him out a political
+Messiah, hostile to Roman rule (Luke xxiii. 1, 2). Pilate soon saw that
+the charge was trumped up, and sought in every way, while keeping the
+good-will of the people, to escape the responsibility of giving sentence
+against Jesus. His first effort was a simple declaration that he found no
+fault in the prisoner (Luke xxiii. 4); then, having heard that he was a
+Galilean, he tried to transfer the case to Herod, who happened to be in
+the city at the time (Luke xxiii. 5-12); he then sought to compromise by
+agreeing to chastise Jesus and then release him (Luke xxiii. 13-16); next
+he offered the people their choice between the innocent Jesus and
+Barabbas, a convicted insurrectionist (Mark xv. 6-15; Luke xxiii. 16-24),
+and the people, instructed by the priests, chose Barabbas, caring nothing
+for a Messiah who would allow himself to be arrested without resistance;
+the fourth gospel tells of Pilate's still further effort, by appealing to
+the people's sympathy, to escape giving sentence, even after he had
+delivered Jesus to the soldiers for the preliminary scourging. Finding the
+Jews ready to urge, at length, a religious charge, Pilate's superstitious
+fear was roused (John xix. 7-12), and he sought again to release him, but
+was finally cowed by the threat of an accusation against him at Rome,
+and, mocking the people by sitting in judgment to condemn Jesus as their
+king, he gave sentence against the man whom he knew to be innocent (John
+xix. 12-16).
+
+200. Some of Jesus' disciples and friends were witnesses of the early
+stages of the informal trial, in particular, John (John xviii. 15) and
+Peter. It was during the progress of the early examination that Peter was
+drawn into his denials by the comments made by the bystanders on his
+connection with the accused. It has been suggested that the house of the
+high-priest where Jesus was tried was built, like other Oriental houses,
+about a court so that the room where Jesus was examined was open to view
+from the court. In this case it is easy to see how Jesus could overhear
+his disciple's strenuous denials of any acquaintance with him, and could
+turn and give him that look which sent him out to weep bitterly (Luke
+xxii. 61, 62). If it be further assumed that Annas and Caiaphas occupied
+different sides of the same high-priestly palace, the double examination
+reported by John would still be within hearing from the one court in which
+the faithless disciple was a fascinated witness of his Master's trial.
+
+201. Humanly speaking, it may be said that the fate of Jesus was sealed
+when the Sadducean leaders came to look on him seriously as a danger to
+the State (John xi. 47-50, note the mention of chief priests). The
+religious opposition was serious, and might have brought trouble, in some
+such way as it seems to have done to John the Baptist (see Matt. xvii.
+10-13; Luke xiii. 31, 32); but it is doubtful whether the governor would
+have given much attention to a charge not urged by the men of influence in
+Jerusalem. The notable thing in connection with the last days of Jesus'
+life is the joint opposition of Sadducean priests and Pharisaic scribes.
+That the populace easily changed their cry from "hosanna" to "crucify him"
+is not surprising. Their hosannas were due to a complete misconception of
+Jesus' aim and purpose; disappointed in him, they would be the earliest to
+cry out against him, especially when the choice lay between him and a
+genuine insurrectionist.
+
+202. Each fresh study of the trial of Jesus gives a fresh impression of
+his greatness. He who but a few hours before was pouring out his soul in
+prayer that his cup might pass, stands forth as the one calm and
+undisturbed actor among all those who took part in the tragic doings of
+that day. His judges and foes were all swayed by passion and self-interest
+and were ready to make travesty of justice, from the leaders of the
+sanhedrin who condemned him on one charge and accused him to the governor
+on another, to the governor himself, who appeared determined to release
+him if he could do it without risk of personal popularity, and who yet, in
+order to avoid accusation at Rome, gave sentence according to the people's
+will. The fickle populace crying "crucify him," the disciples who forsook
+him, the rock-apostle who denied even so much as knowledge of the man,
+show how all the currents of life about him were stirred and full of
+tumult. In all this, of which he was the occasion and centre, he stands
+the supreme example of dignity, self-mastery, and quietness. This is seen
+in his silence in the presence of Annas and Caiaphas, and later before
+Pilate; in his frank avowal of his Messianic claim in reply to the
+high-priest's challenge, and of his kingly rank in answer to the
+governor's question; and in the look of reproof which he turned upon
+Peter. Not that he was without feeling. There is strong sense of outrage
+in his words, "If I have spoken evil, bear witness of the evil, but if
+well, why smitest thou me?" It was not the quietness of stoic
+indifference, but of perfect self-devotion to the Father's will. He
+maintained it from the time of his arrest to the last cry of trust with
+which he committed his spirit to his Father.
+
+203. The scourging over, the mock homage of the soldiers done, he was led
+out beyond the city wall to be crucified. The exact place of the
+crucifixion can be determined as little as that of Gethsemane, though
+there is a tradition from the fourth century, and in addition there are
+many conjectures. Jesus was led, apparently, to the ordinary place of
+criminal execution, and with two others, probably insurrectionary robbers
+like those with whom Barabbas had been associated, he was crucified. Two
+episodes in the journey to the place of crucifixion are recorded,--the
+help which Simon of Cyrene was compelled to give to Jesus in carrying his
+cross (Mark xv. 21), and the word of Jesus to those who, following him,
+bewailed his fate (Luke xxiii. 27-31).
+
+204. Of the cruelty and torture of crucifixion much has been written and
+often. It would be difficult to exaggerate it. The death by the cross was
+a death by hunger and exhaustion in ordinary cases; it was thus torture
+prolonged for many hours. It is noticeable, however, that it is not the
+suffering but the disgrace and shame of the cross that occupied the
+thought of the apostolic days. Indeed, were physical suffering chiefly to
+be considered, it would have to be owned that the fact that Jesus died
+within a few hours released him from the most excruciating pains incident
+to this barbarous form of execution. The later ascetic thought loved, and
+still loves, to dwell on the physical torments of the Lord's death. They
+were severe enough to give us awe; but the biblical writers show a much
+healthier mind, and their thought does not invite comparison between the
+pains endured by the Master and those which some of his martyred followers
+bore with great fortitude. The disgrace of the cross was the uttermost;
+for the Romans it was the death of a slave, for the Jews it was patent
+proof of the curse of God (Deut. xxi. 23). The obedience of Jesus was
+unlimited when he submitted to death (Phil. ii. 8). It is on the shame of
+the cross, and on the sacrifice of himself for the life of the world when
+in obedience to his Father's will he "despised the shame," that the
+thought of the apostolic day laid emphasis. In this experience Jesus found
+himself in truth numbered with the transgressors; he was the object of
+scorn for all them that passed by, they mocked at him, at his works, and
+at his confident trust in God. In this last extremity the darkness of
+Gethsemane again swept over Jesus' soul, when he cried out "My God, my
+God," recalling the words of one of the saints of old in his hour of
+distress (Ps. xxii.). Yet, like him, Jesus kept hold on the certainty of
+deliverance; the darkness passed at length.
+
+205. The evangelists preserve several sayings of Jesus from the cross, the
+records of the different gospels being remarkably diverse. Mark and
+Matthew record the exclamation, "My God, my God _(Eloi, Eloi_), why hast
+thou forsaken me," which the bystander misconstrued as a call for Elijah,
+thinking this pseudo-Messiah was reproaching Elijah for failing to come to
+his help. The same gospels tell of the loud cry with which Jesus died.
+Luke omits the call _Eloi_, and gives in place of the last expiring cry
+the prayer of trust, "Father, into thy hands I commend my spirit" (xxiii.
+46). Earlier, however, this gospel tells of Jesus' word to the penitent
+robber, "To-day shalt thou be with me in Paradise" (xxiii. 43), and of the
+prayer for his foes, that is, for the Jewish people who blindly condemned
+him (xxiii. 34). The oldest manuscripts cause some doubt whether this last
+saying was originally a part of the Gospel of Luke. If it was not it would
+belong in the same class with the story of the sinful woman which we now
+find in John, both being authentic records of the life of Jesus, though
+from some other source than that in which we now find them. The fourth
+gospel gives quite an independent group of sayings. It interprets the
+dying cry as, "It is finished" (xix. 30), and preceding this it gives the
+cry, "I thirst" (xix. 28), which led to the offering of the vinegar of
+which the first two gospels speak. Earlier it tells of the committal of
+Mary to the care of the beloved disciple (xix. 26, 27). Of these seven
+sayings, "Eloi," "I thirst," "Father, into thy hand I commend my spirit,"
+and "It is finished" belong to the last hours of the life of the crucified
+one, after the darkness of which the first three gospels speak had
+overshadowed the land. Of the cause of that darkness they give no hint,
+for Luke's expression cannot mean an eclipse, since an eclipse at Passover
+time, that is, at full moon, is an impossibility. The conjecture that
+dense clouds hid the sun is common, and is as suitable as any other.
+Whatever the cause, the evangelists saw in it a token of nature's awe at
+the death of the Son of God. During the hours of the darkness the waves
+swept over his soul, as the cry "my God" shows to our reverent thought.
+But the last word of trust proves that the dying Jesus was not forsaken,
+and that Calvary, like Gethsemane, was a battle won. The earlier sayings
+all express Jesus' continued spirit of ministry, showing even in his
+bitter pain his accustomed thoughtfulness for others' need.
+
+206. It is futile to speculate on the cause of Jesus' early death. He
+certainly suffered a much shorter time than was ordinarily the case, as
+appears in the fact that at sunset it was necessary to break the legs of
+the robbers so as to hasten death, Jesus having already been some time
+dead. There is something attractive in the theory of Dr. Stroud (The
+Physical Cause of Christ's Death) that Jesus died of rupture of the heart.
+It may have been true, but the evidences on which he based his argument
+are insufficient for proof. To the Jews the death of their victim did not
+give all the satisfaction they desired. In the first place, Pilate
+insisted on mocking them by posting over the head of Jesus the placard,
+"The King of the Jews" (see John xix. 19-22); moreover, their haste had
+brought the crime into close proximity to the feast which they were eager
+to keep from defilement; so that they had still to beg of Pilate that he
+would hasten the death of the victims, that their bodies might not remain
+to desecrate the following Sabbath sanctity (John xix. 31-37); while for
+those who witnessed it the death of Jesus deepened the impression that a
+hideous crime had been committed in the slaughter of an innocent man (Mark
+xv. 39).
+
+207. Among the bystanders few of the disciples of Jesus were to be
+found--they were hiding in fear. Yet some faithful women, and two
+courageous councillors of Jerusalem, were bold enough to make their
+loyalty known. These two men, Joseph of Arimathea and Nicodemus, were
+members of the sanhedrin, but they had had no part in the condemnation of
+Jesus; and after knowing that he was dead, Joseph begged of Pilate the
+body, and he and Nicodemus took Jesus down from the cross and laid him in
+a tomb which Joseph owned near the place of crucifixion, rendering such
+tender ministries as were possible in the closing hours of the day. The
+women who had witnessed his end meanwhile were arranging also to anoint
+the body. They took notice where the two friends had laid him, and then
+went away to rest on the Sabbath day, according to the commandment.
+
+208. To the Jews it was a high day, the first Sabbath in the eight days of
+their holy feast (John xix. 31). They had eagerly guarded their conduct
+that no ceremonial defilement might prevent their sharing in the paschal
+feast. They believed that they had rid their nation of a dangerous
+disturber of its peace, and men whose conscience shrank not from making
+God's house a house of merchandise, who would punish one who ventured to
+cure a mortal disease if it chanced to cross their Sabbath traditions, who
+had condemned to death the holiest man and godliest teacher the world had
+ever seen because he did not square with their heartless formalism,--such
+men hardly had conscience enough to feel repentance or remorse for the
+cowardly injustice and crime with which of their own choice they had
+reddened their hands (Matt, xxvii. 25). They doubtless kept their feast
+with satisfaction. Not a few hearts, however, were heavy with grief and
+disappointed hope. They had believed that Jesus "was he that should redeem
+Israel" (Luke xxiv. 21). Stunned, they could not throw away the faith
+which he had kindled in their hearts. Yet he was dead, and only faintly,
+if at all, did they recall his prediction of suffering and his certainty
+of triumph through it all (John xx. 9). What remained for them was the
+last tender ministry to their dead Lord.
+
+   Outline of Events after the Resurrection
+
+
+   _The day of the resurrection--Sunday_. The visit of the women to the
+   tomb--Matt. xxviii. 1-8; Mark xvi. 1-8; Luke xxiv. 1-12; John xx. 1-10.
+
+   Jesus' first appearance; to Mary--Matt. xxviii. 9 10; [Mark xvi. 9-11];
+   John xx. 11-18.
+
+   The report of the watch--Matt. xxviii. 11-15.
+
+   The appearance to Simon Peter--I. Cor. xv. 5.
+
+   The walk to Emmaus--[Mark xvi 12,13]; Luke xxiv. 13-35.
+
+   The appearance to the ten in the evening--[Mark xvi. 14]; Luke xxiv.
+   36-43; John xx. 19-25; I. Cor. xv. 5.
+
+   _One week later--Sunday_. The appearance to the eleven, with
+   Thomas--John xx. 26-29.
+
+   _Later appearances_. To seven disciples by the sea of Galilee--John
+   xxi. 1-24.
+
+   To a company of disciples in. Galilee--Matt, xxviii. 16-20; [Mark xvi.
+   15-18]; I. Cor. xv. 6.
+
+   The appearance to James--I. Cor. xv. 7.
+
+   To the disciples in Jerusalem, followed by the ascension--Mark xvi. 19,
+   20; Luke xxiv. 44-53; Acts i. 1-12; I. Cor. xv. 7.
+
+
+
+IX
+
+The Resurrection
+
+
+
+209. Christianity as a historic religious movement starts from the
+resurrection of Jesus from the dead. This is very clear in the preaching
+and writings of Paul. The first distinctively Christian feature in his
+address at Athens is his statement that God had designated Jesus to be
+the judge of men by having "raised him from the dead" (Acts xvii. 31), and
+for him the resurrection was the demonstration of the divinity of Christ
+(Rom. i. 4), and the confirmation of the Christian hope (I. Cor. xv.).
+With him the prime qualification for an apostle was that he should have
+seen the risen Lord (I. Cor. ix. 1). The early preaching as recorded in
+Acts shows the same feature, for after repeated testimony to the fact that
+God had raised up Jesus, Peter summed up his address with the declaration,
+"Let all the house of Israel therefore know assuredly, that God hath made
+him both Lord and Christ, this Jesus whom ye crucified" (Acts ii. 36). In
+fact the buoyancy of hope and confidence of faith which gave to the
+despised followers of the Nazarene their strength resulted directly from
+the experiences of the days which followed the deep gloom that settled
+over the disciples when Jesus died.
+
+210. It can but seem strange to us that after Jesus had so often foretold
+his death and the resurrection which should follow it, his disciples were
+thrown into despair by the cross. Joseph of Arimathea and Nicodemus when
+they embalmed his body may not have known of these teachings which Jesus
+gave to the nearer circle of his followers, but it is difficult to believe
+that the women who prepared their spices to anoint his body (Mark xvi. 1)
+had heard nothing of these predictions, and it is certain that the
+apostles who received with incredulity the first news of the resurrection
+were the men whom Jesus had sought to prepare for this glorious victory.
+The disciples do not seem to have finished "questioning among themselves
+what the rising again from the dead should mean" (Mark ix. 10, compare
+Luke xviii. 34) until Jesus himself explained it by his return to them
+after his crucifixion. It was formerly common to conclude from the
+scepticism of the disciples that Jesus could not have told them, as he is
+reported to have done, that he would rise again the third day. It is now
+widely conceded, however, that if he foresaw and foretold his death, he
+surely coupled with it a promise of resurrection, otherwise he must have
+surrendered his own conviction that he was Messiah; for a Messiah taken
+and held captive by death was apparently as foreign to Jesus' thought as
+it was unthinkable for the men of his generation. The inability of the
+disciples to adjust their Messianic ideas to the death of their Master was
+not removed by the rebuke Jesus administered to Peter at Cæsarea Philippi;
+their objections were only silenced. It would seem that even when they saw
+his death to be inevitable, they were simply dumb with hope that in some
+way he would come off victor; the cross and the tomb crushed out that
+hope--at least from most of them. If one disciple, his closest friend,
+recalled and believed his words when he saw the empty tomb (John xx. 8),
+others were cast into still deeper sorrow by the report, and could only
+say, "But we hoped that it was he which should redeem Israel" (Luke xxiv.
+21).
+
+211. The light which banished the gloom from the hearts of Jesus'
+followers dawned suddenly. There was no time for gradual readjustment of
+ideas and the springing of hope from a faith which would not die. The
+uniform early tradition is that Jesus showed himself alive to his
+disciples "on the third day," that is, a little over thirty-six hours from
+the time of his death. Not only the gospels, but Paul, who wrote many
+years before our evangelists, testify to this (I. Cor. xv. 4), as does the
+very early observance of the first day of the week as "the Lord's day,"
+and the substitution of "the third day" for "after three days" in the
+gospels which made use of our Gospel of Mark (compare parallels with Mark
+viii. 81; ix. 31; x. 34, and see Holtzmann, NtTh I. 309). Of the events
+which occurred on that third day and after, our earliest account is that
+of Paul. He gives a simple catalogue of the appearances of the risen Lord,
+referring to them as well known, in fact as the familiar subject matter of
+his earliest teaching (I. Cor. xv. 4-8). He gives definite date to none of
+these appearances, indicating only their sequence. He tells of six
+different manifestations, beginning with an appearance to Cephas on the
+third day, then to the twelve, then to a large company of
+disciples,--above five hundred,--then to James, then to all the apostles.
+The sixth in the list is his own experience, which he puts in the same
+class with the appearances of the first Easter morning. Two of these
+instances are found only in Paul's account, the appearance to James and to
+the five hundred brethren, though this last may probably be the same as is
+referred to in the Gospel of Matthew (xxviii. 16-20).
+
+212. The gospel records are much fuller, but they differ from each other
+even more than they do from Paul. Mark is unhappily incomplete, for the
+last twelve verses in that gospel, as we have it, are lacking in the
+oldest manuscripts, and were probably written by a second-century
+Christian named Aristion, as a substitute for the proper end of the gospel
+which seems by some accident to have been lost. These twelve verses are
+clearly compiled from our other gospels. They have value as indicating the
+currency of the complete tradition in the early second century, but they
+contribute nothing to our knowledge of the resurrection. All, then, that
+Mark tells is that the women who came early on the first day of the week
+to anoint the body of Jesus found the tomb open and empty, and saw an
+angel who bade them tell the disciples that the Lord had risen. How the
+record originally continued no one knows, for Matthew and Luke use the
+same general testimony up to the point where Mark breaks off, and then go
+quite different ways. Of the two Matthew is closer to Mark than is Luke.
+The first gospel adds to the record of the second an account of an
+appearance of Jesus to the women as they went to report to the disciples,
+and then tells of the meeting of Jesus with the disciples on a mountain in
+Galilee, and his parting commission to them. It gives no account of the
+ascension. Luke agrees with Mark in general concerning the visit of the
+women to the tomb, the angelic vision, and the report to the disciples. He
+says nothing of an appearance of Jesus to the women on their flight from
+the tomb, but, if xxiv. 12 is genuine (see R.V. margin), he, like John,
+tells of Peter's visit to the sepulchre.
+
+213. Luke further reports the appearances of Jesus to two on their way to
+Emmaus, to Simon, and to the eleven in Jerusalem,--this last being blended
+consciously or unconsciously with the final meeting of Jesus with the
+disciples before his ascension. The genuine text of the gospel (xxiv. 50)
+says nothing of the ascension itself, but clearly implies it. In contrast
+with Matthew it is noticeable that Luke shows no knowledge of any
+appearance of Jesus to his disciples in Galilee. John is quite independent
+of Mark, as well as of Matthew and Luke. He mentions only Mary Magdalene
+in connection with the early visit to the tomb, though perhaps he implies
+the presence of others with her ("we" in xx. 2). He tells of a visit of
+Peter and John to the tomb, of an appearance of Jesus to Mary Magdalene,
+of an appearance to ten of the disciples in the evening, and a week later
+to the eleven, including Thomas. So far this gospel makes no reference to
+appearances in Galilee; but in the appendix (chapter xxi.) there is added
+a manifestation to seven disciples as they were fishing on the Sea of
+Galilee.
+
+214. Criticism which seeks to discredit the gospels, for instance most
+recently Réville in his "Jésus de Nazareth," discovers two separate and
+mutually exclusive lines of tradition,--one telling of appearances in
+Galilee, represented by Mark and the last chapter in John, the other
+telling of appearances in or near Jerusalem, and found in Luke and the
+twentieth chapter of John. It is said that the gospels have sought to
+blend the two cycles, as when Matthew tells of an appearance to the women
+in Jerusalem on their way from the tomb, and when the last chapter of John
+adds to the original gospel a Galilean appearance. Luke, however, who
+makes no reference at all to Galilean manifestations, is taken to prove
+that originally the one cycle knew nothing of the other. This theory
+falls, however, before the uniform tradition of appearances on the third
+day, which must have been in Jerusalem, and the very early testimony of
+Paul to an appearance to above five hundred brethren at once, which could
+not have been in Judea. It need not surprise us that there should have
+been two cycles of tradition, not however mutually exclusive, if Jesus did
+appear both in Jerusalem and in Galilee. The same kind of local interest
+which is supposed to explain the one-sidedness of the synoptic story of
+the public ministry would easily account for one line of tradition which
+reported Galilean appearances, and another which reported those in
+Jerusalem. Luke may have had access to information which furnished him
+only the Jerusalem story. John and Peter, however, must have known the
+wider facts. The very divergences and seeming contradictions of the
+gospels, troublesome as they are, indicate how completely certainty
+regarding the fact of the resurrection removed from the thought of the
+apostolic day nice carefulness concerning the testimony to individual
+manifestations of the risen Lord. Doubtless the first preaching rested, as
+in the case of Paul, on a simple "I have seen the Lord." When later the
+detailed testimony was wanted for written gospels, it had suffered the lot
+common to orally transmitted records, and divergences had sprung up which
+it is no longer possible for us to resolve. They do not, however,
+challenge the fact which lies behind all the varied testimony.
+
+215. A general view of the events of that third day and those which
+followed can be constructed from our gospels and Paul. Early on the first
+day of the week certain women, including Mary Magdalene, Mary the mother
+of James and Joses, Salome, Joanna, and others, came to anoint the body of
+Jesus. On their arrival they found that the stone had been rolled back
+from the tomb. Mary Magdalene saw that the grave was empty and ran to tell
+Peter and John. The others saw also a vision of angels which said that
+Jesus was alive and would see his disciples in Galilee, and ran to report
+this to the disciples. Meanwhile Mary Magdalene returned, following Peter
+and John who ran to see the tomb, and found it empty as she had said. She
+lingered after they left, and Jesus appeared to her, she mistaking him at
+first for the gardener. She then went to tell the disciples that she had
+seen the Lord. These events evidently occurred in the early morning. The
+next incident reported is that of the walk of two disciples, not of the
+twelve, to Emmaus, and the appearance of Jesus to them. At first they did
+not recognize him, not even when he taught them out of the scriptures the
+necessity that the Messiah should die. He was made known when at evening
+he sat down with them to a familiar meal. Either before or after this
+event he had shown himself to Peter. This is the first manifestation
+reported by Paul. If Luke xxiv. 12 is genuine (see R.V. margin), he also
+tells that when the two again reached Jerusalem the apostles received them
+with the news that Peter had seen the Lord. That same evening Jesus
+appeared suddenly among the disciples in their well-guarded upper room.
+His coming was such that he had to convince the disciples that he was not
+simply a disembodied spirit. Luke says that he did this by bidding them
+handle him, and by eating part of a fish before them. According to John,
+Thomas was not with the others at this first meeting with the disciples. A
+week later, presumably in Jerusalem, Jesus again manifested himself to the
+little company, Thomas being with them, and dispelled the doubt of that
+disciple who loved too deeply to indulge a hope which might only
+disappoint. He had but to see in order to believe, and make supreme
+confession of his faith. The next appearance was probably that to the
+seven disciples by the Sea of Galilee, when Peter, who denied thrice, was
+thrice tested concerning his love for his Lord. Then apparently followed
+the meeting on the mountain reported in Matthew, which was probably the
+same as the appearance to the five hundred brethren; then, probably still
+in Galilee, Jesus appeared to his brother James, who from that time on was
+a leader among the disciples. The next manifestation of which record is
+preserved was the final one in Jerusalem, after which Jesus led his
+disciples out as far as Bethany and was separated from them, henceforth to
+be thought of by them as seated at the right hand of God.
+
+216. This construction of the story as given in the New Testament does
+violence to the accounts in one particular. It holds that Matthew's report
+of the meeting of Jesus with the women on their way from the tomb on
+Easter morning is to be identified with his meeting with Mary Magdalene.
+This can be done only if it is supposed that in the transmission of the
+tradition the commission given the women by the angel (Mark xvi. 6f.)
+became blended with the message given to Mary by the Lord (John xx. 17),
+the result being virtually the same for the religious interest of the
+first Christians, while for the historic interest of our days it
+constitutes a discrepancy. The difficulty is less on this supposition than
+on any other. It is highly significant that the account of the most
+indubitable fact in the view of the early Christians is the most difficult
+portion of the gospels for the exact harmonist to deal with. This is not
+of serious moment for the historical student. It is rather a warning
+against theoretical ideas of inspiration.
+
+217. The universal acknowledgment that the early Christians firmly
+believed in the resurrection of their Lord has made the origin of that
+firm conviction a question of primary importance. The simple facts as set
+forth in the New Testament serve abundantly to account for the faith of
+the early church, but they not only involve a large recognition of the
+miraculous, they also contain perplexities for those who do not stumble at
+the supernatural; hence there have been many attempts to find other
+solutions of the problem. Some of the explanations offered may be
+dismissed with a word: for instance, those which, in one form or other,
+renew the old charge found in the first gospel, that the disciples stole
+the body of Jesus, and then declared that he had risen; and those which
+assume that the death of Jesus was apparent only, that he fainted on the
+cross, and then the chill of the night air and of the sepulchre served to
+revive him, so that in the morning he was able to leave the tomb and
+appear to his disciples as one risen from the dead. This apparent-death
+theory involves Jesus in an ugly deception, while the theory that the
+disciples or any group of them removed the body of Jesus and then gave
+currency to the notion that he had risen, builds the greatest ethical and
+religious movement known to history on a lie. A slightly different
+explanation which was very early suggested was that the Jews themselves,
+or perhaps the gardener, had the body removed, and that when Mary found
+the tomb empty she let her faith conclude that his absence must be due to
+his resurrection.
+
+218. This last explanation has in recent times been revived in connection
+with the so-called vision-hypothesis by Renan and Réville. Mary found the
+tomb empty, and being herself of a highly strung nervous nature--she had
+been cured by Jesus of seven devils--by thinking about the empty tomb she
+soon worked herself into an ecstasy in which her eyes seemed to behold
+what her heart desired to see. She communicated her vision to the others,
+and by a sort of nervous contagion, they, too, fell to seeing visions, and
+it is the report of these that we have in the gospels. The
+vision-hypothesis takes with some, Strauss for instance, a different form.
+These deny that the tomb was found empty at all, and regard this story as
+a contribution of the later legend-making spirit. They hold that the
+disciples fled from Jerusalem as soon as the death of Jesus was an assured
+fact, and not until after they found themselves amid the familiar scenes
+of Galilee, did their faith recover from the shock it had received in
+Jerusalem. In Galilee the experiences of their life with Jesus were lived
+over again, and the old confidence in him as Messiah revived. Thus
+thinking about the Lord, their hearts would say, "He cannot have died,"
+and after a while their faith rose to the conviction which declared, "He
+is not dead;" then they passed into an ecstatic mood and visions followed
+which are the germ out of which the gospel stories have grown.
+
+219. These different forms of the vision-hypothesis have been subjected to
+most searching criticism by Keim, who is all the more severe because his
+own thought has so much that is akin to them. There are two objections
+which refute the hypothesis. The first is that the uniform tradition
+which connects the resurrection and the first appearances with the "third
+day" after the crucifixion leaves far too short a time for the recovery of
+faith and the growth of ecstatic feeling which are requisite for these
+visions, even supposing that the disciples' faith had such recuperative
+powers. The second is that once such an ecstatic mood was acquired it
+would be according to experience in analogous cases for the visions to
+continue, if not to increase, as the thought of the risen Lord grew more
+clear and familiar; yet the tradition is uniform that the appearances of
+the risen Christ ceased after, at most, a few weeks. The only later one
+was that which led to the conversion of Paul; and though Paul was a man
+somewhat given to ecstatic experiences (see II. Cor. xii.), he carefully
+distinguishes in his own thought his seeing of the Lord and his heavenly
+visions. In a word, the disciples of Jesus never showed a more healthy,
+normal life than that which gave them strength to found a church of
+believers in the resurrection in the face of persecution and scorn.
+
+220. Keim seeks to avoid the difficulties which his own acute criticism
+disclosed in the ordinary vision-theory, by another which rejects the
+gospel stories as legendary, yet frankly acknowledges that the faith of
+the apostles in the resurrection was based on a miracle. Their certainty
+was so unshakable, so uniform, so abiding, that it can be accounted for
+only by acknowledging that they did actually see the Lord. This seeing,
+however, was not with the eyes of sense, but with the spiritual vision,
+which properly perceives what pertains to the spirit world into which the
+glorified Lord had withdrawn when he died. In his spiritual estate he
+manifested himself to his disciples, by a series of divinely caused and
+therefore essentially objective visions, in which he proved to them
+abundantly that he was alive, was victor over death, and had been exalted
+by God to his right hand. This theory is not in itself offensive to faith.
+It concedes that the belief of the disciples rested on actual disclosures
+of himself to them by the glorified Lord. The difficulty with the theory
+is that it relegates the empty tomb to the limbo of legend, though it is a
+feature of the tradition which is found in all the gospels and clearly
+implied in Paul (I. Cor. xv. 4; compare Rom. vi. 4); it also fails to show
+how this glorified Christ came to be thought of by the disciples as
+_risen_, rather than simply glorified in spirit. This criticism brings us
+back to the necessity of recognizing a resurrection which was in some real
+sense corporeal, difficult as that conception is for us. The gospels
+assert this with great simplicity and delicate reserve. They represent
+Jesus as returning to his disciples with a body which was superior to the
+limitations which hedge our lives about. It may be well described by
+Paul's words, "It is sown a natural body; it is raised a spiritual body."
+Yet the records indicate that when he willed Jesus could offer himself to
+the perception of other senses than sight and hearing--"handle me and see"
+is not an invitation that we expect from a spiritual presence. If,
+however, we have to confess an unsolved mystery here, and still more in
+the record of his eating in the presence of the disciples (Luke xxiv.
+41-43), it is permitted us to own that our knowledge of the possible
+conditions of the fully perfected life are not such as to warrant great
+dogmatism in criticising the account. The empty tomb, the objective
+presence of the risen Jesus, the renewed faith of his followers, and their
+new power are established data for our thought. With these, many of the
+details may be left in mystery, because we have not yet light sufficient
+to reveal to us all that we should like to know.
+
+221. The ascension of the risen Christ to his Father is the presupposition
+of all the New Testament teaching. The Acts, the Epistles, and the
+Apocalypse join in the representation that he is now at the right hand of
+God. In fact it may be said that such a view is involved in the doctrine
+of the resurrection, for the very idea of that victory was that death had
+no more dominion over him. It is a fact, however, that none of our gospels
+in their correct text (see Luke xxiv. 51, R.V. margin) tell of the
+ascension. Luke clearly implies it, and John says that Jesus told Mary to
+tell the disciples that he was about to ascend to his Father and their
+Father. In Luke's later book, however (Acts i. 1-11), he gives a full
+account of a last meeting of Jesus with the disciples, and of
+his ascension to heaven before their eyes. This withdrawal in the cloud
+must be understood as an acted parable; for, in reality, there is no
+reason for thinking that the clouds which hung over Olivet that day were
+any nearer God's presence than the ground on which the disciples stood.
+For them, however, such a disappearance would signify vividly the
+cessation of their earthly intercourse with their Lord, and his return to
+his home with the Father. The word of Jesus to Mary (John xx. 17) may
+fairly be interpreted to mean that Jesus had ascended to the Father on
+the day of the resurrection, and that each of his subsequent
+manifestations of himself were like that which later he granted to Paul
+near Damascus. In fact it is easier to view the matter in this way than to
+conceive of Jesus as sojourning in some hidden place for forty days after
+his resurrection. What the disciples witnessed ten days before Pentecost
+was a withdrawal similar to those which had separated him from them
+frequently during the recent weeks, only now set before their eyes in such
+a way as to tell them that these manifestations had reached an end; they
+must henceforth wait for the other representative of God and Christ, the
+Spirit, given to them at Pentecost.
+
+222. The faith with which the disciples waited for the promised spirit was
+a very different faith from that which Peter confessed for his fellows at
+Cæsarea Philippi. It had the same supreme attachment to a personal friend
+who had proved to be God's Anointed; the same readiness to let him lead
+whithersoever he would; the same firm expectation of a restitution of all
+things, in which God should set up his kingdom visibly, with Jesus as the
+King of men. Now, however, their trust was much fuller than before, and
+they looked for a still more glorious kingdom when their friend and Lord
+should come from heaven to assume his reign. They expected Christ to
+return soon in glory, yet his death and victory made them ready to endure
+any persecution for him, certain that, like the sufferings which he
+endured, it would lead to victory. These disciples had no idea that in
+preaching a religion of personal attachment to their Master, in filling
+all men's thoughts with his name, in building all hope on his return, and
+guiding all life by his teaching and spirit, they were cutting their
+moorings from the religion of their fathers. They remained loyal to the
+law, they were constant in the worship; but they had poured new wine into
+the bottles, and in time it proved the inadequacy of the old forms and
+revolutionized the world's religious life.
+
+
+
+
+
+Part III
+
+The Minister
+
+
+
+
+I
+
+The Friend of Men
+
+
+
+223. In nothing does the contrast between Jesus and John the Baptist
+appear more clearly than in their attitude towards common social life.
+John had his training and did his work apart from the homes of men. The
+wilderness was his chosen and fit scene of labor. From this solitude he
+sent forth his summons and warning to his people. They who sought him for
+fuller teaching went after him and found him where he was. They then
+returned to their homes and their work, leaving the prophet with his few
+disciples in their seclusion. With Jesus it was otherwise. His first act,
+after attaching to himself a few followers, was to go into Galilee to the
+town of Cana, and there with them to partake in the festivities of a
+wedding. While it is true that most of his teaching was by the wayside,
+among the hills, or by the sea, it is still a surprise to discover how
+often his ministry found its occasion as he was sitting at table in the
+house of some friend, real or feigned. The genuine friendships of Jesus as
+they appear in the gospels are among the most characteristic features of
+his life--witness the home at Bethany, the women who followed him even to
+the cross, and ministered to him of their substance, and the "beloved
+disciple." Jesus calls attention to this contrast between himself and
+John, reminding the people how some of the scornful pointed the finger at
+himself as "a gluttonous man and a wine-bibber, a friend of publicans and
+sinners." He received his training as a carpenter while John was in his
+wilderness solitude. Men who would probably have stood with admiration
+before John had he visited their synagogue, found Jesus too much one of
+themselves, and would none of him as a prophet (Mark vi. 2, 3).
+
+224. A like contrast sets Jesus apart from the scribes of his day. These
+were revered by the people, in part perhaps because they held the common
+folk in such contempt. Their attitude was frank--"this multitude which
+knoweth not the law is accursed" (John vii. 49). The popular enthusiasm
+for Jesus filled them with scorn, until it began to give them alarm. They
+were glad to be reverenced by the people, to interpret the law for them
+"binding heavy burdens and grievous to be borne;" but showed little
+genuine interest in them. Jesus, on the other hand, not only had the
+reverence of the multitudes, but welcomed them. First his words and his
+works drew them, then he himself enchained their hearts. Outcasts, rich
+and poor, crowded into his company, and found him not only a teacher, a
+prophet of righteousness rebuking their sins and calling to repentance,
+but a friend, who was not ashamed to be seen in their homes, to have them
+among his closest attendants, and to be known as their champion. It was
+when such as these were pressing upon him to hear him that Jesus replied
+to the criticism of the scribes in the three parables of recovered
+treasure which stand among the rarest gems of the Master's teaching (Luke
+xv.).
+
+225. One class only in the community failed of his sympathy,--the
+self-righteous hypocrites, who thought that godliness consisted in
+scrupulous regard for pious ceremonies, and that zeal was most laudable
+when directed to the removal of motes from their brothers' eyes. For these
+Jesus had words of rebuke and burning scorn. It has been common with some
+to emphasize his friendship for the poor as if he chose them for their
+poverty, and the unlettered for their ignorance. Yet Jesus had no faster
+friends than the women who followed from Galilee and ministered to him of
+their substance, and the two sanhedrists, Joseph whose new tomb received
+his body, and Nicodemus whose liberality provided the spices which
+embalmed him; for these, and not the Galilean fishermen, were faithful to
+the last at the cross and at the grave. In no home did Jesus find a fuller
+or more welcome friendship than in Bethany, where all that is told us of
+its conditions suggests the opposite of poverty. The rich young ruler, who
+showed his too great devotion to his possessions, would hardly have sought
+out Jesus with his question, if he was known as the champion of poverty as
+in itself essential to godliness. The demand made of him surprised him,
+and was suited to his special case. Jesus saw clearly the difficulties
+which wealth puts in the way of faith, but he recognized the power of God
+to overcome them, and when Zaccheus turned disciple, the demand for
+complete surrender of possessions was not repeated. On the contrary Jesus
+taught his disciples that even "the unrighteous mammon" should be used to
+win friends (Luke xvi. 9), so ministering unto some of "the least of these
+my brethren" (Matt. xxv. 40). The beatitude in Luke's report of the
+sermon on the mount (Luke vi. 20) was not for the poor as poor simply, but
+for those poor folk lightly esteemed who had spiritual sense enough to
+follow Jesus, while the well-to-do as a class were content with the
+"consolation" already in hand. Jesus' interest was in character, wherever
+it was manifest, whether in the repentance of a chief of the publicans, or
+in the widow woman's gift of "all her living;" whether it appeared in the
+hunger for truth shown by Nicodemus, a teacher of Israel, or in the woman
+that was a sinner who washed his feet with her tears. He was the great
+revealer of the worth of simple humanity, in man, woman, or child. Our
+world has never seen another who so surely penetrated all masks or
+disguising circumstances and found the man himself, and having found him
+loved him.
+
+226. This sympathy for simple manhood was manifested in a genuine interest
+in the common life of men in business, pleasure, or trouble. It is
+significant that the first exercise of his miraculous power should have
+been to relieve the embarrassment of his host at a wedding feast.
+Doubtless we are to understand that the miracle had a deeper purpose than
+simply supplying the needed wine (John ii. 11); but the significant thing
+is that Jesus should choose to manifest his glory in this way. It shows a
+genuine appreciation of social life quite impossible to an ascetic like
+the Baptist. The same appears in the way Jesus allowed his publican
+apostle to introduce him to his former associates, to the great scandal of
+the Pharisees; for a feast at which Jesus and a number of publicans were
+the chief guests accorded not with religion as they understood it. Jesus,
+however, seems to have found it a welcome opportunity to seek some of his
+lost sheep. The illustrations which he used in his teaching were often his
+best introduction to the common heart, for they were drawn from the
+occupations of the people who came to listen; while the aid Jesus gave to
+his disciples in their fishing showed not only his power, but also his
+respect for their work, a respect further proved when he called them to be
+fishers of men.
+
+227. Beyond this interest in life's joy and its occupations was that
+unfailing sympathy with its troubles which drew the multitudes to him. He
+was far more than a healer; he studied to rid the people of the idea that
+he was a mere miracle-monger. He healed them because he loved them, and he
+asked of those who sought his help that they too should feel the personal
+relation into which his power had brought them. This seems to be in part
+the significance of his uniform demand for faith. Doubtless Mary, out of
+whom he had cast seven devils, and Simon the leper, who seems to have
+experienced his power to heal, are only single instances of many who found
+in him far more than at first they sought. No further record remains of
+the paralytic who carried off his bed, but left the burden of his sins
+behind, nor of the woman who loved much because she had been forgiven
+much, nor of the Samaritan whose life he uncovered that he might be able
+to give her the living water. Some who had his help for body or heart may
+have gone away forgetful, after the fashion of men, but in the company of
+those who were bold to bear his name after his resurrection there must
+have been many who could not forget.
+
+228. Jesus' interest in common life was genuine, and he entered into it
+with his heart. The incident of the anointing of his feet as he sat a
+guest in a Pharisee's house shows that he was keenly sensitive to the
+treatment he received at the hands of men. He had nothing to say of the
+slights his host had shown him, until that host began mentally to
+criticise the woman who was ministering to him in her love and penitence.
+Then with quiet dignity Jesus mentioned the several omissions of courtesy
+which he had noticed since he came in, contrasting the woman's attention
+with Simon's neglect (Luke vii. 36-50). One of the saddest things about
+Gethsemane was Jesus' vain pleading with his disciples for sympathy in his
+awful hour. They were too much dazed with awe and fear to lend him their
+hearts' support. He recognized indeed that it was only a weakness of the
+flesh; yet he craved their friendship's help, and repeatedly asked them to
+watch with him, for his soul was exceeding sorrowful. In contrast with
+this disappointment stands the joy with which Jesus heard from Peter the
+confession which proved that the falling off of popular enthusiasm had not
+shaken the loyalty of his chosen companions,--"Blessed art thou, Simon
+Bar-Jonah: for flesh and blood have not revealed it unto thee, but my
+Father which is in heaven" (Matt. xvi. 17). There is the sorrow of
+loneliness as well as rebuke in his complaint, "O faithless generation,
+how long shall I be with you? how long shall I bear with you?" (Mark ix.
+19), and the lamentation over Jerusalem comes from a longing heart (Luke
+xiii. 34).
+
+229. The independence of human sympathy which Jesus often showed is all
+the more glorious for the evidence the gospels give of his longing for
+it. When he put the question to the twelve, "Would ye also go away?" (John
+vi. 67), there is no hint in his manner that their defection with the rest
+would turn him at all from faithfully fulfilling the task appointed to him
+by his Father. In fact only now and then did he allow his own hunger to
+appear. Ordinarily he showed himself as the friend longing to help, but
+not seeking ministry from others; he rather sought to win his disciples to
+unselfishness by showing as well as saying that he came not to be
+ministered unto but to minister. He washed the feet of his disciples to
+rebuke their petty jealousies, but we have no hint that he showed that he
+felt personal neglect. His own heart was full of "sorrow even unto death,"
+but his word was, "Let not your heart be troubled;" he asked in vain for
+the sympathy of his nearest friends in Gethsemane, yet when the band came
+to arrest him he pleaded, "Let these, the disciples, go their way."
+
+
+
+
+II
+
+The Teacher with Authority
+
+
+
+230. To his contemporaries Jesus was primarily a teacher. The name by
+which he is oftenest named in the gospels is Teacher,--translated Master
+in the English versions and the equivalent of Rabbi in the language used
+by Jesus (John i. 38). People thought of him as a rabbi approved of God by
+his power to work miracles (John iii. 2), but it was not the miracles that
+most impressed them. The popular comment was, "He taught them as one
+having authority, and not as the scribes" (Matt. vii. 29). Two leading
+characteristics of the scribes were their pride of learning, and their
+bondage to tradition. In fact the learning of which they were proud was
+knowledge of the body of tradition on whose sanctity they insisted; their
+teaching was scholastic and pedantic, an endless citing of precedents and
+discussion of trifles. To all this Jesus presented a refreshing contrast.
+In commending truth to the people, he was content with a simple "verily,"
+and in defining duty he rested on his unsupported "I say unto you," even
+when his dictum stood opposed to that which had been said to them of old
+time.
+
+231. In this freedom from the bondage of tradition Jesus was not alone.
+John the Baptist's message had been as simple and unsupported by appeal to
+the elders. Jesus and John both revived the method of the older prophets,
+and it is in large measure due to this that the people distinguished them
+clearly from their ordinary teachers, and held them both to be prophets.
+One thing involved in this authoritative method was a frank appeal to the
+conscience of men. So completely had the scribes substituted memory of
+tradition for appeal to the simple sense of right, that they were utterly
+dazed when Jesus undertook to settle questions of Sabbath observance and
+ceremonial cleanliness by asking his hearers to use their religious common
+sense, and consider whether a man is not much better than a sheep, or
+whether a man is not defiled rather by what comes out of his mouth than by
+what enters into it (Matt. xii. 12; Mark vii. 15). Jesus was for his
+generation the great discoverer of the conscience, and for all time the
+champion of its dignity against finespun theory and traditional practice.
+All his teaching has this quality in greater or less degree. It appears
+when by means of the parable of the Good Samaritan he makes the lawyer
+answer his own question (Luke x. 25-37), when he bids the multitude in
+Jerusalem "judge not according to the appearance, but judge righteous
+judgment" (John vii. 24), when he asks his inquisitors in the temple whose
+image and superscription the coin they used in common business bears (Mark
+xii. 16). His whole work in Galilee was proof of his confidence that in
+earnest souls the conscience would be his ally, and that he could impress
+himself on them far more indelibly than any sign from heaven could enforce
+his claim.
+
+232. Jesus was not only independent of the traditions of the scribes, he
+was also very free at times with the letter of the Old Testament. When by
+a word he "made all meats clean" (Mark vii. 19), he set himself against
+the permanent validity of the Levitical ritual. When the Pharisees pleaded
+Moses for their authority in the matter of divorce, Jesus referred them
+back of Moses to the original constitution of mankind (Matt. xix. 3-9).
+His general attitude to the Sabbath was not only opposed to the traditions
+of the scribes, it also disregarded the Old Testament conception of the
+Sabbath as an institution. Yet Jesus took pains to declare that he came
+not to set aside the old but to fulfil it (Matt. v. 17). The contrasts
+which he draws between things said to them of old and his new teachings
+(Matt. v. 21-48) look at first much like a doing away of the old. Jesus
+did not so conceive them. He rather thought of them as fresh statements of
+the idea which underlay the old; they fulfilled the old by realizing more
+fully that which it had set before an earlier generation. He was the most
+radical teacher the men of his day could conceive, but his work was
+clearing rubbish away from the roots of venerable truth that it might bear
+fruit, rather than rooting up the old to put something else in its place.
+
+233. The Old Testament was for Jesus a holy book. His mind was filled with
+its stories and its language. In the teachings which have been preserved
+for us he has made use of writings from all parts of the Jewish
+scriptures--Law, Prophets, and Psalms. The Old Testament furnished him the
+weapons for his own soul's struggle with temptation (Matt. iv. 4, 7, 10),
+it gave him arguments for use against his opponents (Mark xii. 24-27; ii.
+25-27), and it was for him an inexhaustible storehouse of illustration in
+his teaching. When inquirers sought the way of life he pointed them to the
+scriptures (Mark x. 19; see also John v. 39), and declared that the rising
+of one from the dead would not avail for the warning of those who were
+unmoved by Moses and the prophets (Luke xvi. 31). When Jesus' personal
+attitude to the Old Testament is considered it is noticeable that while
+his quotations and allusions cover a wide range, and show very general
+familiarity with the whole book, there appears a decided predominance of
+Deuteronomy, the last part of Isaiah, and the Psalms. It is not difficult
+to see that these books are closer in spirit to his own thought than much
+else in the old writings; his use of the scripture shows that some parts
+appealed to him more than others.
+
+234. Jesus as a teacher was popular and practical rather than systematic
+and theoretical. The freshness of his ideas is proof that he was not
+lacking in thorough and orderly thinking, for his complete departure from
+current conceptions of the kingdom of God indicates perfect mastery of
+ethical and theological truth. It is all the more remarkable, therefore,
+that so much of his profoundest teaching seems to have been almost
+accidental. The most formal discourse preserved to us is the sermon on the
+mount, in which human conduct is regulated by the thought of God as Father
+and Searcher of hearts. For the rest the great ideas of Jesus have
+utterance in response to specific conditions presented to him in his
+ministry. His most radical sayings concerning the Sabbath followed a
+criticism of his disciples for plucking ears of grain as they passed
+through the fields on the Sabbath day (Mark ii. 23-28); his authority to
+forgive sins was announced when a paralytic was brought to him for
+healing (Mark ii. 1-12); so far as the gospels indicate, we should have
+missed Jesus' clearest statement of the significance of his own death but
+for the ambitious request of James and John (Mark x. 35-45). Examples of
+the occasional character of his teaching might be greatly multiplied. He
+did not seek to be the founder of a school; important as his teachings
+were, they take a place in his work second to his personal influence on
+his followers. He desired to win disciples whose faith in him would
+withstand all shocks, rather than to train experts who would pass on his
+ideas to others. His disciples did become experts, for we owe to them the
+vivid presentation we have of the exalted and unique teaching of their
+Master; but they were thus skilful because they surrendered themselves to
+his personal mastery, and learned to know the springs of his own life and
+thought.
+
+235. Nothing in the teaching of Jesus is more remarkable than his
+confidence that men who believed in him would adequately represent him and
+his message to the world. The parable of the Leaven seems to have set
+forth his own method. We owe our gospels to no injunction given by him to
+write down what he said and did. He impressed himself on his followers,
+filled them with a love to himself which made them sensitive to his ideas
+as a photographic plate is to light, teaching them his truth in forms that
+did not at first show any effect on their thought, but were developed into
+strength and clearness by the experiences of the passing years. Christian
+ethics and theology are far more than an orderly presentation of the
+teaching of Jesus; in so far as they are purely Christian they are the
+systematic setting forth of truth involved, though not expressed, in what
+he said and did in his ministry among men. His ideas were radical and
+thoroughly revolutionary. His method, however, had in it all the patience
+of God's working in nature, and the hidden noiseless power of an evolution
+is its characteristic. Hence it was that he chose to teach some things
+exclusively in figure. So great and unfamiliar a truth as the gradual
+development of God's kingdom was unwelcome to the thought of his time. He
+made it, therefore, the theme of many of his parables; and although the
+disciples did not understand what he meant, the picture remained with
+them, and in after years they grew up to his idea.
+
+236. Jesus' use of illustration is one of the most marked features of his
+teaching. In one sense this simply proves him to be a genuine Oriental,
+for to contemplate and present abstract truths in concrete form is
+characteristic of the Semitic mind. In the case of Jesus, however, it
+proves more: the variety and homeliness of his illustrations show how
+completely conversant he was alike with common life and with spiritual
+truth. There is a freedom and ease about his use of figurative language
+which suggests, as nothing else could, his own clear certainty concerning
+the things of which he spoke. The fact, too, that his mind dealt so
+naturally with the highest thoughts has made his illustrations unique for
+profound truth and simple beauty. Nearly the whole range of figurative
+speech is represented in his recorded words, including forms like irony
+and hyperbole, often held to be unnatural to such serious speech as his.
+
+237. Another figure has become almost identified with the name of
+Jesus,--such abundant and incomparable use did he make of it. Parable
+was, however, no invention of his, for the rabbis of his own and later
+times, as well as the sages and prophets who went before them, made use of
+it. As distinguished from other forms of illustration, the parable is a
+picture true to actual human life, used to enforce a religious truth. The
+picture may be drawn in detail, as in the story of the Lost Son (Luke xv.
+11-32), or it may be the concisest narration possible, as in the parable
+of the Leaven (Matt. xiii. 33); but it always retains its character as a
+narrative true to human experience. It is this that gives parable the
+peculiar value it has for religious teaching, since it brings unfamiliar
+truth close home to every-day life. Like all the illustrations used by
+Jesus, the parable was ordinarily chosen as a means of making clear the
+spiritual truth which he was presenting. Illustration never finds place as
+mere ornament in his addresses. His parables, however, were sometimes used
+to baffle the unteachable and critical. Such was the case on the occasion
+in Jesus' life when attention is first called in the gospels to this mode
+of teaching (Mark iv. 1-34). The parable of the Sower would mean little to
+hearers who held the crude and material ideas of the kingdom which
+prevailed among Jesus' contemporaries. It was used as an invitation to
+consider a great truth, and for teachable disciples was full of suggestion
+and meaning; while for the critical curiosity of unfriendly hearers it was
+only a pointless story,--a means adopted by Jesus to save his pearls from
+being trampled under foot, and perhaps also to prevent too early a
+decision against him on the part of his opponents.
+
+238. In nothing is Jesus' ease in handling deepest truth more apparent
+than in his use of irony and hyperbole in his illustrations. In his
+reference to the Pharisees as "ninety and nine just persons which need no
+repentance" (Luke xv. 7), and in his question, "Many good works have I
+shewed you from the Father, for which of these works do you stone me?"
+(John x. 32), the irony is plain, but not any plainer than the rhetorical
+exaggeration of his accusation against the scribes, "You strain out a gnat
+and swallow a camel" (Matt, xxiii. 24), or his declaration that "it is
+easier for a camel to go through a needle's eye than for a rich man to
+enter into the kingdom of God" (Mark x. 25), or his charge, "If a man
+cometh unto me and hateth not his own father and mother ... he cannot be
+my disciple" (Luke xiv. 26). The force of these statements is in their
+hyperbole. Only to an interpretation which regards the letter above the
+spirit can they cause difficulty. In so far as they remove Jesus utterly
+from the pedantic carefulness for words which marked the scribes they are
+among the rare treasures of his teachings. The simple spirit will not busy
+itself about finding something that may be called a needle's eye through
+which a camel can pass by squeezing, nor will it seek a camel which could
+conceivably be swallowed, nor will it stumble at a seeming command to hate
+those for whom God's law, as emphasized indeed by Jesus (Mark vii. 6-13),
+demands peculiar love and honor. The childlike spirit which is heir of
+God's kingdom readily understands this warning against the snare of
+riches, this rebuke of the hypocritical life, and this demand for a love
+for the Master which shall take the first place in the heart.
+
+239. Jesus sometimes used object lessons as well as illustrations, and
+for the same purpose,--to make his thought transparently clear to his
+hearers. The demand for a childlike faith in order to enter the kingdom of
+God was enforced by the presence of a little child whom Jesus set in the
+midst of the circle to whom he was talking (Mark ix. 35-37). The unworthy
+ambitions of the disciples were rebuked by Jesus' taking himself the
+menial place and washing their feet (John xiii. 1-15).
+
+240. The simplicity and homeliness of Jesus' teaching are not more
+remarkable than the alertness of mind which he showed on all occasions.
+The comment of the fourth gospel, "he needed not that any one should bear
+witness concerning man, for he himself knew what was in man" (ii. 25),
+doubtless refers to his supernatural insight, but it also tells of his
+quick perception of what was involved in each situation in which he found
+himself. Whether it was Nicodemus coming to him by night, or the lawyer
+asking, "Who is my neighbor?" or a dissatisfied heir demanding that his
+brother divide the inheritance with him, or a group of Pharisees seeking
+to undermine his power by attributing his cures to the devil, or trying to
+entrap him by a question about tribute, Jesus was never caught unawares.
+His absorption in heavenly truth was not accompanied by any blindness to
+earthly facts. He knew what the men of his day were thinking about, what
+they hoped for, to what follies they gave their hearts, and what sins hid
+God from them. He was eminently a man of the people, thoroughly acquainted
+with all that interested his fellows, and in the most natural, human way.
+Whatever of the supernatural there was in his knowledge did not make it
+unnatural. As he was socially at ease with the best and most cultivated
+of his day, so he was intellectually the master of every situation. This
+appears nowhere more strikingly than in his dealing with his pharisaic
+critics. When they were shocked by his forgiveness of sins, or offended by
+his indifference to the Sabbath tradition, or goaded into blasphemy by his
+growing influence over the people, or troubled by his disciples' disregard
+of the traditional washings, or when later they conspired to entrap him in
+his speech,--from first to last he was so manifestly superior to his
+opponents that they withdrew discomfited, until at length they in madness
+killed, without reason, him against whom they could find no adequate
+charge. His lack of "learning" (John vii. 15) was simply his innocence of
+rabbinic training; he had no diploma from their schools. In keenness of
+argument, however, and invincibleness of reasoning, as well as in the
+clearness of his insight, he was ever their unapproachable superior. His
+reply to the charge of league with Beelzebub is as merciless an exposure
+of feeble malice as can be found in human literature. He was as worthy to
+be Master of his disciples' thinking as he was to be Lord of their hearts.
+
+241. In the teaching of Jesus two topics have the leading place,--the
+Kingdom of God, and Himself. His thought about himself calls for separate
+consideration, but it may be remarked here that as his ministry progressed
+he spoke with increasing frankness about his own claims. It became more
+and more apparent that he sought to be Lord rather than Teacher simply,
+and to impress men with himself rather than with his ideas. Yet his ideas
+were constantly urged on his disciples, and they were summed up in his
+conception of the kingdom of God, or the kingdom of heaven. This was the
+topic, directly or indirectly, of far the greater part of his teaching.
+The phrase was as familiar to his contemporaries as it is common in his
+words; but his understanding of it was radically different from theirs. He
+and they took it to mean the realization on earth of heavenly conditions
+(kingdom of heaven), or of God's actual sovereignty over the world
+(kingdom of God); but of the God whose will was thus to be realized they
+conceived quite differently. Strictly speaking there is nothing novel in
+the idea of God as Father which abounds in the teaching of Jesus. He never
+offers it as novel, but takes it for granted that his hearers are familiar
+with the name. It appears in some earlier writers both in and out of the
+Old Testament. Yet no one of them uses it as constantly, as naturally, and
+as confidently as did Jesus. With him it was the simple equivalent of his
+idea of God, and it was central for his personal religious life as well as
+for his teaching. "My Father" always lies back of references in his
+teaching to "your Father." This is the key to what is novel in Jesus' idea
+of the kingdom of God. His contemporaries thought of God as the covenant
+king of Israel who would in his own time make good his promises, rid his
+people of their foes, set them on high among the nations, establish his
+law in their hearts, and rule over them as their king. The whole
+conception, while in a real sense religious, was concerned more with the
+nation than with individuals, and looked rather for temporal blessings
+than for spiritual good. With Jesus the kingdom is the realization of
+God's fatherly sway over the hearts of his children. It begins when men
+come to own God as their Father, and seek to do his will for the love
+they bear him. It shows development towards its full manifestation when
+men as children of God look on each other as brothers, and govern conduct
+by love which will no more limit itself to friends than God shuts off his
+sunlight from sinners. From this love to God and men it will grow into a
+new order of things in which God's will shall be done as it is in heaven,
+even as from the little leaven the whole lump is leavened. Jesus did not
+set aside the idea of a judgment, but while his fellows commonly made it
+the inauguration, he made it the consummation of the kingdom; they thought
+of it as the day of confusion for apostates and Gentiles, he taught that
+it would be the day of condemnation of all unbrotherliness (Matt. xxv.
+31-46). This central idea--a new order of life in which men have come to
+love and obey God as their Father, and to love and live for men as their
+brothers--attaches to itself naturally all the various phases of the
+teaching of Jesus, including his emphasis on himself; for he made that
+emphasis in order that, as the Way, the Truth, and the Life, he might lead
+men unto the Father.
+
+
+
+
+III
+
+Jesus' Knowledge of Truth
+
+
+
+242. The note of authority in the teaching of Jesus is evidence of his own
+clear knowledge of the things of which he spoke. As if by swift intuition,
+his mind penetrated to the heart of things. In the scriptures he saw the
+underlying truth which should stand till heaven and earth shall pass
+(Matt. v. 18); in the ceremonies of his people's religion he saw so
+clearly the spiritual significance that he did not hesitate to sacrifice
+the passing form (Mark vii. 14-23); such a theological development as the
+pharisaic doctrine of the resurrection he unhesitatingly adopted because
+he saw that it was based on the ultimate significance of the soul's
+fellowship with God (Mark xiii. 24-27); he reduced religion and ethics to
+simplicity by summing up all commandments in one,--Thou shalt love (Matt.
+xxii. 37-40); and at the same time insisted as no other prophet had done
+on the finality of conduct and the necessity of obedience (Matt. vii.
+21-27). His penetration to the heart of an idea was nowhere more clear
+than in his doctrine of the kingdom of God as realized in the filial soul,
+and as involving a judgment which should take cognizance only of
+brotherliness of conduct. It would not be difficult to show that all these
+different aspects of his teaching grew naturally out of his knowledge of
+God as his Father and the Father of all men; they were the fruit,
+therefore, of personal certainty of ultimate and all-dominating truth.
+
+243. If the knowledge of Jesus had been shown only in matters of spiritual
+truth, it would still have marked him as one apart from ordinary men.
+There were other directions, however, in which he surpassed the common
+mind. The fourth gospel declares that "he knew what was in man" (ii. 25),
+and all the evangelists give evidence of such knowledge. Not only the
+designation of Judas as the traitor, and of Peter as the one who should
+deny him, before their weakness and sin had shown themselves, but also
+Jesus' quick reading of the heart of the paralytic who was brought to him
+for healing, and of the woman who washed his feet with her tears (Mark ii.
+5; Luke vii. 47), and his knowledge of the character of Simon and
+Nathanael (John i. 42, 47,) as well as his sure perception of the intent
+of the various questioners whom he met, indicate that he had powers of
+insight unshared by his fellow men.
+
+244. Furthermore, the gospels state explicitly that Jesus predicted his
+own death from a time at least six months before the end (Matt. xvi. 21),
+and they indicate that the idea was not new to him when he first
+communicated it to his disciples (Matt. xvi. 23; Mark ii. 20). He viewed
+his approaching death, moreover, as a necessity (Mark viii. 31-33), yet he
+was no fatalist concerning it. He could still in Gethsemane plead with his
+Father, to whom all things are possible, to open to him some other way of
+accomplishing his work (Mark xiv. 36). The old Testament picture of the
+suffering and dying servant of Jehovah (Isa. liii.) was doubtless
+familiar to Jesus. Although it was not interpreted Messianically by the
+scribes, Jesus probably applied it to himself when thinking of his death;
+yet the predictions of the prophets always provided for a non-fulfilment
+in case Israel should turn unto the Lord in truth (see Ezek. xxxiii.
+10-20). Moreover, the contradiction which Jesus felt between his ideas and
+those cherished by the leaders of his people, whether priests or scribes,
+was so radical that his death might well seem inevitable; yet it was
+possible that his people might repent, and Jerusalem consent to accept him
+as God's anointed. Neither prophecy, nor the actual conditions of his
+life, therefore, would give Jesus any fatalistic certainty of his coming
+death. In Gethsemane his heart pleaded against it, while his will bowed
+still to God in perfect loyalty. It is not for us to explain his
+prediction of death by appealing to the connection which the apostolic
+thought established between the death of Christ and the salvation of men,
+for we are not competent to say that God could not have effected
+redemption in some other way if the repentance of the Jews had, humanly
+speaking, removed from Jesus the necessity of death. All that can be said
+is that he knew the prophetic picture, knew also the hardness of heart
+which had taken possession of the Jews, and knew that he must not swerve
+from his course of obedience to what he saw to be God's will for him.
+Since that obedience brought him into fatal opposition to human prejudice
+and passion, he saw that he must die, and that such a death was one of the
+steps in his establishment of God's kingdom among men. So he went on his
+way ready "not to be ministered unto but to minister, and to give his
+life a ransom for many" (Mark x. 45).
+
+245. With his prediction of his death the gospels usually associate a
+prophecy of his speedy resurrection. As has been already remarked (sect.
+210), it is being generally recognized that if Jesus believed that he was
+the Messiah, he must have associated with the thought of death that of
+victory over death, which for all Jewish minds meant a resurrection from
+the dead. Jesus certainly taught that his death was part of his Messianic
+work, it could not therefore be his end. The prediction of the
+resurrection is the necessary corollary of his expectation of death; and
+it may reverently be believed that his knowledge of it was intimately
+involved with his certainty that it was as Messiah that he was to die.
+
+246. From the time when he began to tell his disciples that he must die,
+Jesus began also to teach that his earthly ministry was not to finish his
+work, but that he should return in glory from heaven to realize fully all
+that was involved in the idea of God's kingdom. His predictions resemble
+in form the representations found in the Book of Daniel and the Book of
+Enoch; and the understanding of them is involved in difficulties like
+those which beset such apocalyptic writings. In general, apocalypses were
+written in times of great distress for God's people, and represented the
+deliverance which should usher in God's kingdom as near at hand. One
+feature of them is a complete lack of perspective in the picture of the
+future. It may be that this fact will in part account for one great
+perplexity in the apocalyptic sayings of Jesus. In the chief of these
+(Mark xiii. and parallels), predictions of the destruction of Jerusalem
+are so mingled with promises of his own second coming and the end of all
+things that many have sought to resolve the difficulty by separating the
+discourse into two different ones,--one a short Jewish apocalypse
+predicting the destruction of Jerusalem and the coming of the Son of Man
+within the life of that generation; the other, Jesus' own prediction of
+the end of all things, concerning which he warns his disciples that they
+be not deceived, but watch diligently and patiently for God's full
+salvation. The difficulties of this discourse as it stands are so great
+that any solution which accounts for all the facts must be welcomed. So
+far as this analysis seeks to remove from the account of Jesus' own words
+the references to a fulfilment of the predictions within the life of that
+generation, it is confronted by other sayings of Jesus (Mark ix. 1) and by
+the problem of the uniform belief of the apostolic age that he would
+speedily return. That belief must have had some ground. What more natural
+than that words of Jesus, rightly or wrongly understood, led to the common
+Christian expectation? Some such analysis may yet establish itself as the
+true solution of the difficulties; it may be, however, that in adopting
+the apocalyptic form of discourse, Jesus also adopted its lack of
+perspective, and spoke coincidently of future events in the progress of
+the kingdom, which, in their complete realization at least, were widely
+separated in time. In such a case it would not be strange if the disciples
+looked for the fulfilment of all of the predictions within the limit
+assigned for the accomplishment of some of them.
+
+247. Whatever the explanation of these difficulties, the gospels clearly
+represent Jesus as predicting his own return in glory to establish his
+kingdom,--a crowning evidence of his claim to supernatural knowledge. It
+is all the more significant, therefore, that it is in connection with his
+prediction of his future coming that he made the most definite declaration
+of his own ignorance: "Of that day or that hour knoweth no one, not even
+the angels in heaven, neither the Son, but the Father" (Mark xiii. 32).
+This confession of the limitation of his knowledge is conclusive. Yet it
+is not isolated. With his undoubted power to read "what was in man," he
+was not independent of ordinary ways of learning facts. When the woman was
+healed who touched the hem of his garment, Jesus knew that his power had
+been exercised, but he discovered the object of his healing by asking,
+"Who touched me?" and calling the woman out from the crowd to acknowledge
+her blessing (Mark v. 30-34); when the centurion urged Jesus to heal his
+boy without taking the trouble to come to his house, Jesus "marvelled" at
+his faith (Matt. viii. 10); when he came to Bethany, assured of his
+Father's answer to his prayer for the raising of Lazarus, he asked as
+simply as any other one in the company, "Where have ye laid him?" (John
+xi. 34). It should not be forgotten that his knowledge of approaching
+death, resurrection, and return in glory did not prevent the earnest
+pleading in Gethsemane, and it may be that his reply to the ambition of
+James and John, it "is not mine to give" (Mark x. 40), is a confession of
+ignorance as well as subordination to his Father.
+
+248. The supernatural knowledge of Jesus, so far as its exercise is
+apparent in the gospels, was concerned with the truths intimately related
+to his religious teaching or his Messianic work. There is no evidence
+that it occupied itself at all with facts of nature or of history
+discovered by others at a later day. When he says of God that "he maketh
+his sun to rise on the evil and the good" (Matt. v. 45), there is no
+evidence that he thought of the earth and its relation to the sun
+differently from his contemporaries; it is probable that his thought
+anticipated Galileo's discovery no more than do his words. Much the same
+may be said with reference to the purely literary or historical questions
+of Old Testament criticism, now so much discussed. If it is proved by just
+interpretation of all the facts that the Pentateuch is only in an ideal
+sense to be attributed to Moses, and that many of the psalms inscribed
+with his name cannot have been written by David, the propriety of Jesus'
+references to what "Moses said" (Mark vii. 10), and the validity of his
+argument for the relative unimportance of the Davidic descent of the
+Messiah, will not suffer. Had Jesus had in mind the ultimate facts
+concerning the literary structure of the Pentateuch, he could not have
+hoped to hold the attention of his hearers upon the religious teaching he
+was seeking to enforce, unless he referred to the early books of the Old
+Testament as written by Moses. Jesus did repeatedly go back of Moses to
+more primitive origins (Mark x. 5, 6; John vii. 22); yet there is no
+likelihood that the literary question was ever present in his thinking.
+This phase of his intellectual life, like that which concerned his
+knowledge of the natural universe, was in all probability one of the
+points in which he was made like unto his brethren, sharing, as matter of
+course, their views on questions that were indifferent for the spiritual
+mission he came to fulfil. If this was the case, his argument from the one
+hundred and tenth Psalm (Mark xii. 35-37) would simply give evidence that
+he accepted the views of his time concerning the Psalm, and proceeded to
+use it to correct other views of his time concerning what was of most
+importance in the doctrine of the Messiah. The last of these was of vital
+importance for his teaching; the first was for this teaching quite as
+indifferent a matter as the relations of the earth and the sun in the
+solar system.
+
+249. A more perplexing difficulty arises from his handling of the cases of
+so-called demoniac possession. He certainly treated these invalids as if
+they were actually under the control of demons: he rebuked, banished, gave
+commands to the demons, and in this way wrought his cures upon the
+possessed. It has already been remarked that the symptoms shown in the
+cases cured by Jesus can be duplicated from cases of hysteria, epilepsy,
+or insanity, which have come under modern medical examination. Three
+questions then arise concerning his treatment of the possessed. 1. Did he
+unquestioningly share the interpretation which his contemporaries put upon
+the symptoms, and simply bring relief by his miraculous power? 2. Did he
+know that those whom he healed were not afflicted by evil spirits, and
+accommodate himself in his cures to their notions? 3. Does he prove by his
+treatment that the unfortunates actually were being tormented by
+diabolical agencies, which he banished by his word? The last of these
+possibilities should not be held to be impossible until much more is known
+than we now know about the mysterious phenomena of abnormal psychical
+states. If this is the explanation of the maladies for Jesus' day,
+however, it should be accepted also as the explanation of similar abnormal
+symptoms when they appear in our modern life, for the old hypothesis of a
+special activity of evil spirits at the time of the incarnation is
+inadequate to account for the fact that in some quarters similar maladies
+have been similarly explained from the earliest times until the present
+day. If, however, he knew his people to be in error in ascribing these
+afflictions to diabolical influence, he need have felt no call to correct
+it. If the disease had been the direct effect of such a delusion, Jesus
+would have encouraged the error by accommodating himself to the popular
+notion. The idea of possession, however, was only an attempt to explain
+very real distress. Jesus desired to cure, not to inform his patients. The
+notion in no way interfered with his turning the thought of those he
+healed towards God, the centre of help and of health. He is not open,
+therefore, to the charge of having failed to free men from the thraldom of
+superstition if he accommodated himself to their belief concerning
+demoniac possession. His cure, and his infusion of true thoughts of God
+into the heart, furnished an antidote to superstition more efficacious
+than any amount of discussion of the truth or falseness of the current
+explanation of the disease. On the other hand, if we are not ready to
+conclude that the action of Jesus has demonstrated the validity of the
+ancient explanation, we may acknowledge that it would do no violence to
+his power, or dignity, or integrity, if it should be held that he did not
+concern himself with an inquiry into the cause of the disease which
+presented itself to him for help, but adopted unquestioningly the
+explanation held by all his contemporaries, even as he used their
+language, dress, manner of life, and in one particular, at least, their
+representation of the life after death (Luke xvi. 22--Abraham's bosom).
+His own confession of ignorance of a large item of religious knowledge
+(Mark xiii. 32) leaves open the possibility that in so minor a matter as
+the explanation of a common disease he simply shared the ideas of his
+time. In this case, when one so afflicted came under his treatment, he
+applied his supernatural power, even as in cases of leprosy or fever, and
+cured the trouble, needing no scientific knowledge of its cause. If
+accommodation or ignorance led Jesus to treat these sick folk as
+possessed, it does not challenge his integrity nor his trustworthiness in
+all the matters which belong properly to his own peculiar work.
+
+250. There is one incident in the gospels which favors the conclusion that
+Jesus definitely adopted the current idea,--the permission granted by him
+to the demons to go from the Gadarene into the herd of swine, and the
+consequent drowning of the herd (Mark v. 11-13). On any theory this
+incident is full of difficulty. Bernhard Weiss (LXt II. 226 ff.) holds
+that Jesus accommodated himself to current views, and that the man, having
+received for the possessing demons permission to go into the swine, was at
+once seized by a final paroxysm, and rushed among the swine, stampeding
+them so that they ran down the hillside into the sea.
+
+251. In recent years the view has been somewhat widely advocated that his
+power over demoniacs was to Jesus himself one of the chief proofs of his
+Messiahship. His words are quoted: "If I, by the Spirit of God, cast out
+demons, then is the kingdom of God come upon you" (Matt. xii. 28); and "I
+beheld Satan falling as lightning from heaven" (Luke x. 18). The first of
+these is in the midst of an _ad hominem_ reply of Jesus to the charge that
+he owed his power to a league with the devil (Matt. xii. 28); and the
+second was his remark when the seventy reported with joy that the demons
+were subject unto them (Luke x. 18). The gospels, however, trace his
+certainty of his Messiahship to quite other causes, primarily to his
+knowledge of himself as God's child, then to the Voice which, coming at
+the baptism, summoned him as God's beloved Son to do the work of the
+Messiah. Throughout his ministry Jesus exhibits a certainty of his mission
+quite independent of external evidences,--"Even if I bear witness of
+myself, my witness is true; for I know whence I came and whither I go"
+(John viii. 14).
+
+
+
+
+IV
+
+Jesus' Conception of Himself
+
+
+
+252. When Jesus called forth the confession of Peter at Cæsarea Philippi
+he brought into prominence the question which during the earlier stages of
+the Galilean ministry he had studiously kept in the background. This is no
+indication, however, that he was late in reaching a conclusion for himself
+concerning his relation to the kingdom which he was preaching. From the
+time of his baptism and temptation every manifestation of the inner facts
+of his life shows unhesitating confidence in the reality of his call and
+in his understanding of his mission. This is the case whether the fourth
+gospel or the first three be appealed to for evidence. It is generally
+felt that the Gospel of John presents its sharpest contrast to the
+synoptic gospels in respect of the development of Jesus' self-disclosures.
+A careful consideration of the first three gospels, however, shows that
+the difference is not in Jesus' thought about himself.
+
+253. The first thing which impressed the people during the ministry in
+Galilee was Jesus' assumption of authority, whether in teaching or in
+action (Mark i. 27; Matt. vii. 28, 29). His method of teaching
+distinguished him sharply from the scribes, who were constantly appealing
+to the opinion of the elders to establish the validity of their
+conclusions. Jesus taught with a simple "I say unto you." In this,
+however, he differed not only from the scribes, but also from the
+prophets, to whom in many ways he bore so strong a likeness. They
+proclaimed their messages with the sanction of a "Thus saith the Lord;" he
+did not hesitate to oppose the letter of scripture as well as the
+tradition of the elders with his unsupported word (Matt. v. 38, 39; Mark
+vii. 1-23). His teaching revealed his unhesitating certainty concerning
+spiritual truth, and although he reverenced deeply the Jewish scriptures,
+and knew that his work was the fulfilment of their promises, he used them
+always as one whose superiority to God's earlier messengers was as
+complete as his reverence for them. He was confident that what they
+suggested of truth he was able to declare clearly; he used them as a
+master does his tools.
+
+254. More striking than Jesus' independence in his teaching is the
+calmness of his self-assertion when he was opposed by pharisaic criticism
+and hostility. He preferred to teach the truth of the kingdom, working his
+cures in such a way that men should think about God's goodness rather than
+their healer's significance. Yet coincidently with this method of his
+choice he did not hesitate to reply to pharisaic opposition with
+unqualified self-assertion and exalted personal claim. Even if the
+conflicts which Mark has gathered together at the opening of his gospel
+(ii. 1 to iii. 6) did not all occur as early as he has placed them, the
+nucleus of the group belongs to the early time. Since the people greatly
+reverenced his critics, he felt it unnecessary to guard against arousing
+undue enthusiasm by this frank avowal of his claims. He consequently
+asserted his authority to forgive sins, his special mission to the sick in
+soul whom the scribes shunned as defiling, his right to modify the
+conception of Sabbath observance; even as, later, he warned his critics of
+their fearful danger if they ascribed his good deeds to diabolical power
+(Mark iii. 28-30), and as, after the collapse of popularity, he rebuked
+them for making void the word of God by their tradition (Mark vii. 13).
+His attitude to the scribes in Galilee from the beginning discloses as
+definite Messianic claims as any ascribed by the fourth gospel to this
+early period.
+
+255. These facts of the independence of Jesus in his teaching and his
+self-assertion in response to criticism confirm the impression that his
+answer to John the Baptist (Matt. xi. 2-6) gives the key to his method in
+Galilee. In John's inquiry the question of Jesus' personal relation to the
+kingdom was definitely asked. The answer, "Blessed is he whosoever shall
+find none occasion of stumbling in me," showed plainly that Jesus was in
+no doubt in the matter, although for the time he still preferred to let
+his ministry be the means of leading men to form their conclusions
+concerning him. What he brought into prominence at Cæsarea Philippi,
+therefore, was that which had been the familiar subject of his own
+thinking from the time of his baptism.
+
+256. In the ministry subsequent to the confession of Peter the
+self-disclosures of Jesus became more frequent and clear. His predictions
+of his approaching death were at the time the greatest difficulty to his
+disciples; when considered in their significance for his own life,
+however, they prove that his conviction of his Messiahship was as
+independent of current and inherited ideas as was his teaching concerning
+the kingdom. When he came to see that death was the inevitable issue of
+his work, he at once discovered in it a divine necessity; it does not seem
+to have shaken in the least his certainty that he was the Messiah.
+Associated with this conception of his death is the conviction which
+appears in all the later teachings, that in rejecting him his people were
+pronouncing their own doom. Because she would not accept him as her
+deliverer, Jerusalem's "house was left unto her desolate" (Luke xiii. 35).
+His sense of his supreme significance appears most clearly in some of the
+later parables, such as The Marriage of the King's Son (Matt. xxii. 1-14)
+and The Wicked Husbandmen (Matt. xxi. 33-44), which definitely connect the
+condemnation of the chosen people with their rejection of God's Son. Two
+other sayings in the first three gospels express the personal claim of
+Jesus in the most exalted form,--his declaration on the return of the
+seventy: "All things have been delivered unto me of my Father, and no man
+knoweth who the Son is save the Father, and who the Father is save the
+Son, and he to whomsoever the Son willeth to reveal him" (Luke x. 22;
+Matt. xi. 27); and his confession of the limits of his own knowledge: "But
+of that day and hour knoweth no one, not even the angels in heaven,
+neither the Son, but the Father" (Mark xiii. 32). The confession of
+ignorance, by the position given to the Son in the climax which denied
+that any save the Father had a knowledge of the time of the end, is quite
+as extraordinary as the claim to sole qualification to reveal the Father.
+
+257. The similarity of these last two sayings to the discourses in the
+fourth gospel has often been remarked; the likeness is particularly close
+between them and the claims of Jesus recorded in the fifth chapter of
+John. It is interesting to note that in the incident which introduces the
+discourse in that chapter Jesus shows that he preferred, after healing the
+man at the pool, to avoid the attention of the multitudes, precisely as in
+Galilee he sought to check too great popular excitement by withdrawing
+from Capernaum after his first ministry there (Mark i. 35-39), and
+enjoining silence on the leper who had been healed by him (Mark ii. 44).
+When, however, he found himself opposed by the criticism of the Pharisees
+he spoke with unhesitating self-assertion and exalted personal claim, even
+as he did in like situations in Galilee. During his earlier ministry in
+Judea he had not shown this reserve. The cleansing of the temple, although
+it was no more than any prophet sure of his divine commission would have
+done, was a bold challenge to the people to consider who he was who
+ventured thus to criticise the priestly administration of God's house. In
+his subsequent dealings with Nicodemus and the Samaritan woman Jesus
+manifested a like readiness to draw attention to himself. From the time of
+the feeding of the multitudes all four of the gospels represent him as
+asserting his claims, with this difference, however, that in John it is
+the rule rather than the exception to find sayings similar to the two in
+which the self-assertion in the other gospels reaches its highest
+expression. Although the method of Jesus varied at different times and in
+different localities, yet it is evident that he stood before the people
+from the first with the consciousness that he had the right to claim
+their allegiance as no one of the prophets who preceded him would have
+been bold to do.
+
+258. During the course of his ministry Jesus used of himself, or suffered
+others to use with reference to him, many of the titles by which his
+people were accustomed to refer to the Messiah. Thus he was named "the
+Messiah" (Mark viii. 29; xiv. 61; John iv. 26); "the King of the Jews"
+(Mark xv. 2; John i. 49; xviii. 33, 36, 37); "the Son of David" (Mark x.
+47, 48; Matt. xv. 22; xxi. 9, 15); "the Holy One of God" (John vi. 69;
+compare Mark i. 24); "the Prophet" (John vi. 14; vii. 40). It is evident
+that none of these titles was common; they represent, rather, the bold
+venture of more or less intelligent faith on the part of men who were
+impressed by him. There are two names, however, that are more significant
+of Jesus' thought about himself,--"the Son of God" and "the Son of Man."
+
+259. The latter of these titles is unique in the use Jesus made of it.
+Excepting Stephen's speech (Acts vii. 56), it is found in the New
+Testament only in the sayings of Jesus, and its precise significance is
+still a subject of learned debate. The expression is found in the Old
+Testament as a poetical equivalent for Man, usually with emphasis on human
+frailty (Ps. viii. 4; Num. xxiii. 19; Isa. li. 12), though sometimes it
+signifies special dignity (Ps. lxxx. 17). Ezekiel was regularly addressed
+in his visions as Son of Man (Ezek. ii. 1 and often; see also Dan. viii.
+17), probably in contrast with the divine majesty.
+
+260. In one of Daniel's visions (vii. 1-14) the world-kingdoms which had
+oppressed God's people and were to be destroyed were symbolized by beasts
+that came up out of the sea,--a winged lion, a bear, a four-headed winged
+leopard, and a terrible ten-horned beast; in contrast with these the
+kingdom of the saints of the Most High was represented by "one like unto a
+son of man," who came with the clouds of heaven (vii. 13, 14). Here the
+language is obviously poetic, and is used to suggest the unapproachable
+superiority of the kingdom of heaven to the kingdoms of the world. The
+expression "one like unto a son of man" is equivalent, therefore, to "one
+resembling mankind." The vision in Daniel had great influence over the
+author of the so-called Similitudes of Enoch (Book of Enoch, chapters
+xxxvii. to lxxi.). He, however, personified the "one like unto a son of
+man," and gave the title "the Son of Man" to the heavenly man who will
+come at the end of all things, seated on God's throne, to judge the world.
+This author used also the titles "the Elect One" and "the Righteous One"
+(or "the Holy One of God"), but "the Son of Man" is the prevalent name for
+the Messiah in these Similitudes.
+
+261. The facts thus stated do not account for Jesus' use of the
+expression. Many of his sayings undoubtedly suggest a development of the
+Daniel vision resembling that in the Similitudes. This does not prove that
+Jesus or his disciples had read these writings, though it does suggest the
+possibility that they knew them. It is probable, however, that the
+apocalypses gave formulated expression to thoughts that were more widely
+current than those writings ever came to be. The likeness between the
+language of Jesus and that found in the Similitudes may therefore prove no
+more than that the Daniel vision was more or less commonly interpreted of
+a personal Messiah in Jesus' day.
+
+262. Much of the use of the title by Jesus, however, is completely foreign
+to the ideas suggested by Enoch and Daniel. Besides apocalyptic sayings
+like those in Enoch (Mark viii. 38 and often), the name occurs in
+predictions of his sufferings and death (Mark viii. 31 and often), and in
+claims to extraordinary if not essentially divine authority (Mark ii. 10,
+28 and parallels); it is also used sometimes simply as an emphatic "I"
+(Matt. xi. 19 and often). Whatever relation Jesus bore to the Enoch
+writings, therefore, the name "the Son of Man" as he used it was his own
+creation.
+
+263. Students of Aramaic have in recent years asserted that it was not
+customary in the dialect which Jesus spoke to make distinction between
+"the son of man" and "man," since the expression commonly used for "man"
+would be literally translated "son of man." It is asserted, moreover, that
+if our gospels be read substituting "man" for "the Son of Man" wherever it
+appears, it will be found that many supposed Messianic claims become
+general statements of Jesus' conception of the high prerogatives of man,
+while in other places the name stands simply as an emphatic substitute for
+the personal pronoun. Thus, for instance, Jesus is found to assert that
+authority on earth to forgive sins belongs to man (Mark ii. 10), and,
+toward the end of his course, to have taught simply that he himself must
+meet with suffering (Mark viii. 31), and will come on the clouds to judge
+the world (Mark viii. 38). The proportion of cases in which the general
+reference is possible is, however, very small; and even if the
+equivalence of "man" and "son of man" should be established, most of the
+statements of Jesus in which our gospels use the latter expression exhibit
+a conception of himself which challenges attention, transcending that
+which would be tolerated in any other man. The debate concerning the usage
+in the language spoken by Jesus is not yet closed, however, and Dr. Gustaf
+Dalman (WJ I. 191-197) has recently argued that the equivalence of the two
+expressions holds only in poetic passages, precisely as it does in Hebrew,
+and that our gospels represent correctly a distinction observed by Jesus
+when they report him, for instance, as saying in one sentence, "the
+Sabbath was made for man" (Mark ii. 27), and in the next, "the Son of Man
+is lord even of the Sabbath." The antecedent probability is so great that
+the dialect of Jesus' time would be capable of expressing a distinction
+found in the Hebrew of the Old Testament and in the Syriac of the
+second-century version of the New Testament, that Dalman's opinion carries
+much weight.
+
+264. Many of those who look for a distinct significance in the title "the
+Son of Man," find in it a claim by Jesus to be the ideal or typical man,
+in whom humanity has found its highest expression. It thus stands sharply
+in contrast with "the Son of God," which is held to express his claim to
+divinity. So understood, the titles represent truth early recognized by
+the church in its thought about its Lord. Yet it must be acknowledged that
+the conception "the ideal man" is too Hellenic to have been at home in the
+thought of those to whom Jesus addressed his teaching. If the phrase
+suggested anything more to his hearers than the human frailty or the
+human dignity of him who bore it, it probably had a Messianic meaning like
+that found in the Similitudes of Enoch. A hint of this understanding of
+the name appears in the perplexed question reported in John (xii. 34): "We
+have heard out of the law that the Messiah abideth forever; and how sayest
+thou, The Son of Man must be lifted up? who is this Son of Man?" Here the
+difficulty arose because the people identified the Son of Man with the
+Messiah, yet could not conceive how such a Messiah could die. In fact, if
+the conception of the Son of Man which is found in Enoch had obtained any
+general currency among the people, either from that book or independently
+of it, it was so foreign to the earthly condition and manner of life of
+the Galilean prophet, that it would not have occurred to his hearers to
+treat his use of the title as a Messianic claim until after that claim had
+been published in some other and more definite form. Their Son of Man was
+to come with the clouds of heaven, seated on God's throne, to execute
+judgment on all sinners and apostates; the Nazarene fulfilled none of
+these conditions. The name, as used by Jesus, was probably always an
+enigma to the people, at least until he openly declared its Messianic
+significance in his reply to the high-priest's question at his trial (Mark
+xiv. 62), and gave the council the ground it desired for a charge of
+blasphemy against him.
+
+265. What did this title signify to Jesus? His use of it alone can furnish
+answer, and in this the variety is so great that it causes perplexity.
+"The Son of Man came eating and drinking" is his description of his own
+life in contrast with John the Baptist (Matt. xi. 18, 19). "The Son of
+Man hath not where to lay his head" was his reply to one over-zealous
+follower (Matt. viii. 20). Unseemly rivalry among his disciples was
+rebuked by the reminder that "even the Son of Man came not to be
+ministered unto but to minister" (Mark x. 42-45). When it became needful
+to prepare the disciples for his approaching death he taught them that
+"the Son of Man must suffer many things ... and be killed, and after three
+days rise again" (Mark viii. 31). On the other hand, the paralytic's cure
+was made to demonstrate that "the Son of Man hath authority upon the earth
+to forgive sins" (Mark ii. 10). Similarly it is the Son of Man who after
+his exaltation shall come "in the glory of his Father with the holy
+angels" (Mark viii. 38). In these typical cases the title expresses Jesus'
+consciousness of heavenly authority as well as self-sacrificing ministry,
+of coming exaltation as well as present lowliness; and the suffering and
+death which were the common lot of other sons of men were appointed for
+this Son of Man by a divine necessity. The name is, therefore, more than a
+substitute for the personal pronoun; it expresses Jesus' consciousness of
+a mission that set him apart from the rest of men.
+
+266. We do not know how Jesus came to adopt this title. Its association
+with the predictions of his coming glory shows that he knew that in him
+the Daniel vision was to have fulfilment. The predictions of suffering and
+death, however, are completely foreign to that apocalyptic conception,
+being akin rather, as Professor Charles has suggested, to the prophecies
+of the suffering servant in the Book of Isaiah (Book of Enoch, p.
+314-317). Moreover, it may not be fanciful to find in his claims to
+heavenly authority a hint of the thought of the eighth Psalm, "Thou madest
+him to have dominion over the works of thy hands; thou hast put all things
+under his feet" (see Dalman WJ I. 218). Although the name expresses a
+consciousness of dignity, vicarious ministry, and authority, similar to
+thoughts found in Daniel, Isaiah, and the Psalms, it was not deduced from
+these scriptures by any synthesis of diverse ideas. It rather indicates
+that Jesus in his own nature realized a synthesis which no amount of study
+of scripture would ever have suggested. He drew his conception of himself
+from his own self-knowledge, not from his Messianic meditations. On his
+lips, then, "the Son of Man" indicates that he knew himself to be the Man
+whom God had chosen to be Lord over all (compare Dalman as above). The
+lowly estate which contradicted the Daniel vision prevented Jesus' hearers
+from recognizing in the title a Messianic claim; for him, however, it was
+the expression of the very heart of his Messianic consciousness.
+
+267. If Jesus gave expression to his official consciousness when he used
+the name "the Son of Man," the title "the Son of God" may be said to
+express his more personal thought about himself. It is necessary to
+distinguish between the meaning of this title to the contemporaries of
+Jesus and his own conception of it. In the popular thought "the Son of
+God" was the designation of that man whom God would at length raise up and
+crown with dignity and power for the deliverance of his people. This
+meaning followed from the Messianic interpretation of the second Psalm, in
+which the theocratic king is called God's son (Ps. ii. 7). In another
+psalm, which Jesus himself quotes (John x. 34), magistrates and judges are
+called "sons of the Most High" (lxxxii. 6). Another Old Testament use
+casts light on this,--the designation of Israel as God's son, his
+firstborn (Ex. iv. 22; Hos. i. 10), with which may be compared a
+remarkable expression in the so-called Psalms of Solomon (xviii. 4), "Thy
+chastisement was upon us [that is, Israel] as upon a son, firstborn, only
+begotten." In all these passages that which constitutes a man the son of
+God is God's choice of him for a special work, while Israel collectively
+bears the title to suggest God's fatherly love for the people he had taken
+for his own. The Messianic title, therefore, described not a metaphysical,
+but an official or ethical, relation to God. It is certainly in this sense
+that the high-priest asked Jesus "Art thou the Messiah the son of the
+Blessed?" (Mark xiv. 61), and that the crowd about the cross flung their
+taunts at him (Matt, xxvii. 43), and the demoniacs proclaimed their
+knowledge of him (Mark iii. 11; v. 7). The name must be interpreted in
+this sense also in the confession of Nathanael (John i. 49); moreover, it
+was not the coupling of the names "Messiah" and "son of the living God" in
+Peter's confession that gave it its great significance for Jesus. In all
+of these cases there is no evidence that there has been any advance over
+the theocratic significance which made the title "the Son of God" fitting
+for the man chosen by God for the fulfilment of his promises.
+
+268. The case is different with the name by which Jesus was called at his
+baptism (Mark i. 11). The difference here, however, arises not from
+anything in the name as used on this occasion, but from that in Jesus
+which acknowledged and accepted the title. With Jesus the consciousness
+that God was his Father preceded the knowledge that as "his Son" he was to
+undertake the work of the Messiah. The force of the call at the baptism is
+found in the response which his own soul gave to the word "Thou art my
+Son." The nature of that response is seen in his habitual reference to God
+as in a peculiar sense _his_ Father. The name "Father" for God was used by
+him in all his teaching, and there is no evidence that he or any of his
+hearers regarded it as a novelty. Psalm ciii. 13 and Isaiah lxiii. 16
+indicate that the conception was natural to Jewish thinking. The unique
+feature in Jesus' usage is his careful distinction between the general
+references to "your Father" and his constant personal allusions to "my
+Father." Witness the reply to his mother in the temple (Luke ii. 49); his
+word to Peter, "Flesh and blood hath not revealed it unto thee, but my
+Father which is in heaven" (Matt. xvi. 17), his solemn warning, "Not every
+one that saith unto me Lord, Lord, shall enter into the kingdom of heaven,
+but he that doeth the will of my Father which is in heaven" (Matt. vii.
+21), and the promise, "Every one who shall confess me before men ... him
+will I also confess before my Father" (Matt. x. 32). In the fourth gospel
+the same intimate reference is common: so, for example, the temple is "my
+Father's house" (ii. 16), the Sabbath cure is defended because "my Father
+worketh even until now" (v. 17), the cures are done "in My Father's name"
+(x. 25), "I am the vine, and my Father is the husbandman" (xv. 1). This
+mode of expression discloses a consciousness of unique filial relation to
+God which is independent of, even as it was antecedent to, the
+consciousness of official relation.
+
+269. The full name "the Son of God" was seldom applied by Jesus to
+himself, the only recorded instances being found in the fourth gospel (v.
+25; ix. 35?; x. 36; xi. 4). He frequently acquiesced in the use of the
+title by others in addressing him (for example, John i. 49; Matt. xvi. 16;
+xxvi. 63f.; Mark xiv. 61f.; Luke xxii. 70); but for himself he preferred
+the simpler phrase "the Son." This mode of expression occurs often in
+John, and is found also in the two passages, already noticed, in which the
+other gospels give clearest expression to the extraordinary self-assertion
+of Jesus (Matt. xi. 27; Luke x. 22; and Mark xiii. 32). In the first of
+them his claim to be the only one who can adequately reveal God is founded
+on the consciousness that the relation between himself and God is so
+intimate that God alone adequately knows him, whom men were so ready to
+set at nought, and he alone knows God. This relation, in which he and God
+stand together in contrast with all other men, is expressed by the
+unqualified names, "the Father" and "the Son." In the second passage Jesus
+confessed the limitation of his knowledge, but again in such a way as to
+set himself and God in contrast not only with men, but also with "the
+angels in heaven." Such assertions as these indicate that he who, knowing
+his full humanity, chose the title "the Son of Man" to express his
+consciousness that he had been appointed by God to be the Messiah, was yet
+aware in his inner heart that his relation to God was even closer than
+that in which he stood to men.
+
+270. There is no word in John which goes beyond the two self-declarations
+of Jesus which crown the record of the other evangelists, yet in the
+fourth gospel the same claim to unique relation to God is more frequently
+and frankly avowed. The most unqualified assertion of intimacy--"I and the
+Father are one" (x. 30)--states what is clearly implied throughout the
+gospel (so xiv. 6-11; xvi. 25; and particularly xvii. 21, "that they may
+be one, even as we are one"). It has often been said, and truly, that this
+claim to unity with the Father, taken by itself, signifies no more than
+perfect spiritual and ethical harmony with God. Yet when the words are
+considered in their connection, and more particularly when the two supreme
+self-declarations in the synoptic gospels are associated with them, they
+express a sense of relation to God so utterly unique, so strongly
+contrasting the Father and the Son with all others, that we cannot
+conceive of any other man, even the saintliest, taking like words upon his
+lips.
+
+271. These titles in which Jesus gave expression to his official and his
+personal consciousness present clearly the problem which he offers to
+human thought. Jesus stands before us in the gospels as a man aware of
+completest kinship with his brethren, yet conscious at the same time of
+standing nearer to God than he does to men.
+
+272. It is highly significant that the gospel which records most fully the
+claim of Jesus to be more closely related to God than he was to men, most
+fully records also his definite acknowledgment of dependence on his
+Father, and of that Father's supremacy over him and all others. "The Son
+can do nothing of himself" (John v. 19), "I speak not from myself" (xiv.
+10), "my Father is greater than all" (x. 29), "the Father is greater than
+I" (xiv. 28),--these confessions join with the common reference to God as
+"him that sent me" (v. 30 and often) in giving voice to his own spirit of
+reverence. It appears as clearly in his habitual submission to his
+Father's will,--"My meat is to do the will of him that sent me, and to
+accomplish his work" (John iv. 34); "I am come down from heaven, not to do
+mine own will, but the will of him that sent me" (John vi. 38). This
+submission reached its fulness in the prayer of Gethsemane, recorded in
+the earlier gospels,--"Father, all things are possible unto thee; remove
+this cup from me: howbeit not what I will, but what thou wilt" (Mark xiv.
+36). Jesus was a man of prayer; not only in Gethsemane, but also
+throughout his ministry he habitually sought his Father in that communion
+in which the soul of man finds its light and strength for life's duty.
+When he was baptized (Luke iii. 21), after the first flush of success in
+Capernaum (Mark i. 35), before choosing the twelve (Luke vi. 12), before
+the question at Cæsarea Philippi (Luke ix. 18), at the transfiguration
+(Luke ix. 29), on the cross (Luke xxiii. 46),--at all the crises of his
+life he turned to God in prayer. Moreover, prayer was his habit, for it
+was after a night of prayer which has no connection with any crisis
+reported for us (Luke xi. 1), that he taught his disciples the Lord's
+prayer in response to their requests. The prayer beside the grave of
+Lazarus (John xi. 41, 42) suggests that his miracles were often, if not
+always (compare Mark ix. 29), preceded by definite prayer to God. His
+habit of prayer was the natural expression of his trust in God. From the
+resistance to the temptations in the wilderness to the last cry, "Father,
+into thy hands I commend my spirit," his life is an example of childlike
+faith in God.
+
+273. Yet throughout his life of obedience and trust Jesus never gave one
+indication that he felt the need of penitence when he came before God. He
+perceived as no one else has ever done the searching inwardness of God's
+law, and demanded of men that they tolerate no lower ambition than to be
+like God, yet he never breathed a sigh of conscious failure, or gave sign
+that he blushed when the eternal light shone into his own soul. He was
+baptized, but without confession of sin. He challenged his enemies to
+convict him of sin (John viii. 46). Such a challenge might have rested on
+a man's certainty that his critics did not know his inner life; but
+hypocrisy has no place in the character of Jesus. The reply to the rich
+young ruler, "Why callest thou me good?" (Mark x. 18), even if it was a
+confession that freedom from past sin was still far less than that
+absolute goodness that God alone possesses, simply sets in stronger light
+his silence concerning personal failure, and his omission in all his
+praying to seek forgiveness. It is probable, however, that that reply
+deals not with the "good" as the "ethically perfect," but as the
+"supremely beneficent," so that Jesus simply reminded the seeker after
+life that God alone is the one to be approached as the Gracious and
+Merciful One by sinful men (see Dalman WJ I. 277). Thus the reply becomes
+a fresh expression of the reverence of Jesus, and still further emphasizes
+his failure to confess his sinfulness.
+
+274. In all this thought about himself Jesus stands before us as a man,
+conscious of his close kinship with his fellows. Like them he hungered and
+thirsted and grew weary, like them he longed for friendship and for
+sympathy, like them he trusted God and prayed to God and learned still to
+trust when his request was denied. He stands before us also as a man
+conscious of being anointed by God for the great work which all the
+prophets had foretold, and of being fully equipped with authority and
+power and the promise of unapproachable dignity. Of deep religious spirit
+and great reverence for the scriptures of his people, he yet used these
+scriptures as a master does his tools, to serve his work rather than to
+instruct him in it. He drew his knowledge from within and from above, and
+proclaimed his own fulfilment of the scriptures when he filled them with
+new meaning. A man always devout, always at prayer, he is never seen, like
+Isaiah, prostrate before the Most High, crying, "I am undone" (Isa. vi.
+5). In his moments of greatest seriousness and most manifest communion
+with heaven he looked to God as his nearest of kin, and felt himself a
+stranger on the earth fulfilling his Father's will. He felt heaven to be
+his home not simply by God's gracious promise, but by the right of
+previous possession. His kinship with men was a condescension, his natural
+fellowship was with God.
+
+275. The miracles with which the gospels have filled the record of Jesus'
+life have caused perplexity to many, and they belong with other mysterious
+things recorded for us in the story of the past or occurring under the
+incredulous observation of our scientific generation. They all pale,
+however, before the unaccountable exception presented to universal human
+experience by this Man of Nazareth. It confronts us when we think of the
+unschooled Jew who, in his thought of God, rose not only above all of his
+generation, but higher than all who had gone before him, or have come
+after, one who built on the foundation of the past a superstructure of
+religion new, and simple, and clearly heavenly. It confronts us when we
+think of this Man who believed that it was given to him to establish the
+kingdom that should fill the whole earth, and who had the boldness and the
+faith to ignore the opposition of all the world's wisdom and of all its
+enthroned power, and to fulfil his task as the woman does who hides her
+leaven in the meal, content to wait for years, or millenniums, until his
+truth shall conquer in the realization of God's will on earth even as it
+is done in heaven. It confronts us when we consider that the Man who has
+shown his brethren what obedience means, who has taught them to pray, who
+has been for all these centuries the Way, the Truth, the Life, by whom
+they come to God, habitually claimed without shadow of abashment or
+slightest hint of conscious presumption, a nature, a relation to God, a
+freedom from sin, that other men according to the measure of their
+godliness would shun as blasphemy. If the personal claim was true, and not
+the blind pretence of vanity, the Jesus of the gospels is the exception to
+the uniform fact of human nature, but he is no longer unaccountable; and
+if his claim was true, his knowledge of the absolute religion, and his
+choice of the irresistible propaganda, are no less extraordinary, but they
+are not unaccountable. Paul, whose life was transformed and his thinking
+revolutionized by his meeting with the risen Jesus, thought on these
+things and believed that "the name which, is above every name" was his by
+right of nature as well as by the reward of obedience (Phil. ii. 5-11).
+John, who leaned on Jesus' breast during his earthly life, and who
+meditated on the meaning of that life through a ministry of many decades,
+came to believe that he whom he had seen with his eyes, heard with his
+ears, handled with his hands, was, indeed, "the Word made flesh" (John i.
+14), through whom the very God revealed his love to men. Through all the
+perplexities of doubt, amidst all the obscurings of irrelevant
+speculations, the hearts of men to-day turn to this Jesus of Nazareth as
+their supreme revelation of God, and find in him "the Master of their
+thinking and the Lord of their lives."
+
+"Lord, to whom shall we go? Thou hast the words of eternal life. And we
+have believed and know that thou art the Holy One of God."
+
+
+
+
+Appendix
+
+Books of Reference on the Life of Jesus
+
+
+
+1. A concise account of the voluminous literature on this subject maybe
+found at the close of the article JESUS CHRIST by Zockler in
+_Schaff-Herzog, Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge_. Of the earlier of
+the modern works it is well to mention David Friedrich Strauss, _Das Leben
+Jesu_ (2 vols. 1835), in which he sought to reduce all the gospel miracles
+to myths. August Neander, _Das Leben Jesu Christi_, 1837, wrote in
+opposition to the attitude taken by Strauss. Both of these works have been
+translated into English. Ernst Renan, _Vie de Jésus_ (1863, 16th ed.
+1879), translated, _The Life of Jesus_ (1863), is a charming, though often
+superficial and patronizing, presentation of the subject. For vivid word
+pictures of scenes in the life of Jesus his book is unsurpassed. Renan's
+inability to appreciate the more serious aspects of the work of Christ
+appears constantly, while his effort to discover romance in the life of
+Jesus is offensive. More important than any of these is Theodor Keim,
+_Geschichte Jesu von Nazara_ (1867-72, 3 vols.), translated, _The History
+of Jesus of Nazara_ (1876-81, 6 vols.). The author rejects the fourth
+gospel and holds that Matthew is the most primitive of the synoptic
+gospels; he does not reject the supernatural as such, but reduces it as
+much as possible by recognizing a legendary element in the gospels. When
+the work is read with these peculiarities in mind, it is one of the most
+stimulating and spiritually illuminating treatments of the subject.
+
+2. Critically more trustworthy, and exegetically very valuable, is
+Bernhard Weiss, _Das Leben Jesu_ (3d ed. 1889, 2 vols.), translated from
+the first ed., _The Life of Christ_ (1883, 3 vols.). It is more helpful
+for correct understanding of details than for a complete view of the Life
+of Jesus. Rivalling Weiss in many ways, yet neither so exact nor so
+trustworthy, though more interesting, is Willibald Beyschlag, _Das Leben
+Jesu_ (3d ed. 1893, 2 vols.). The most important discussion in English is
+Alfred Edersheim, _The Life and Times of Jesus the Messiah_ (1883 and
+later editions, 2 vols.). This is valuable for its illustration of
+conditions in Palestine in the time of Jesus by quotations from the
+rabbinic literature. The material used is enormous, but is not always
+treated with due criticism, and the book should be read with the fact in
+mind that most of the rabbinic writings date from several centuries after
+Christ. Schürer (see below) should be used wherever possible as a
+counter-balance. Dr. Edersheim follows the gospel story in detail; his
+book is, therefore, a commentary as well as a biography.
+
+3. Albert Réville, _Jesus de Nazareth_ (1897, 2 vols.), aims to bring the
+work of Renan up to date, and to supply some of the lacks which are felt
+in the earlier treatise. The book is pretentious and learned. In some
+parts, as in the treatment of the youth of Jesus, and of the sermon on the
+mount, it is helpfully suggestive. The Jesus whom the author admires,
+however, is the Jesus of Galilee. The journey to Jerusalem was a sad
+mistake, and the assumption of the Messianic rôle a fall from the high
+ideal maintained in the teaching in Galilee. In criticism M. Réville
+accepts the two document synoptic theory, and assigns the fourth gospel to
+about 140 A.D. He rejects the supernatural, explaining many of the
+miracles as legendary embellishments of actual events.
+
+4. The most important treatment of the subject is the article JESUS CHRIST
+by William Sanday in the _Hastings Bible Dictionary_ (1899). It is of the
+highest value, discussing the subject topically with great clearness and
+with a rare combination of learning and common sense. S. T. Andrews, _The
+Life of Our Lord_ (2d ed. 1892), is a thorough and very useful study of
+the gospels, considering minutely all questions of chronology, harmony,
+and geography. It presents the different views with fairness, and offers
+conservative conclusions. G. H. Gilbert, _The Student's Life of Jesus_
+(1896), is complete in plan and careful in treatment, while being very
+concise. Dr. Gilbert faces the problems of the subject frankly, and his
+treatment is scholarly and reverent. James Stalker, _The Life of Jesus
+Christ_ (1880), is a short work whose value lies in the good conception
+which it gives of the ministry of Jesus viewed as a whole. In simplicity,
+insight, and clearness the book is a classic, though now somewhat out of
+date. _Studies in the Life of Christ_, by A.M. Fairbairn (1882), is of
+great value for the topics considered. The title indicates that the
+treatment is fragmentary. The long treatises of Farrar (1875, 2 vols.) and
+Geikie (1877, 2 vols.) are useful as commentaries on the words and works
+of Jesus. Farrar often interprets most helpfully the essence of an
+incident, and Geikie furnishes a mass of illustrative material from
+rabbinic sources, though with less criticism than even Edersheim has used.
+Neither of these works, however, deals with the fundamental problems of
+the composition of the gospels, nor are they satisfactory on other
+perplexing questions, for example, the miraculous birth.
+
+5. The most important accessory for the study of the life of Jesus is Emil
+Schürer, _Geschichte des Jüdischen Volkes im Zeitalter Jesu Christi_ (2d
+ed. 1886, 1890, 2 vols. A 3d ed. of 2d part in 2 vols., 1898), translated,
+_A History of the Jewish People in the Time of Jesus Christ_ (1885-6, 5
+vols.). The political history of the Jews from 175 B.C. to 135 A.D., and
+the intellectual and religious life of the times in which Jesus lived,
+with the Jewish literature of Palestine and the dispersion, are all
+treated with thoroughness and masterful learning. W. Baldensperger, _Das
+Selbstbewusstsein Jesu im Lichte der messianischen Hoffnungen seiner
+Zeit_ (2d ed. 1892), furnishes in the first part a survey of the Messianic
+hopes of the Jews which is in many respects the most satisfactory account
+that is accessible. The second part discusses the problem of Jesus'
+conception of himself in a reverent and learned way. George Adam Smith,
+_The Historical Geography of the Holy Land_ (1894), is indispensable for
+the study of the physical features of the land as they bear on its
+history, and on the work of Jesus. The maps are the best that have yet
+appeared.
+
+6. Discussions of the Teaching of Jesus in works on Biblical Theology have
+much that is important for the study of Jesus' life. The most significant
+is H. H. Wendt, _Die Lehre Jesu_ (1886, 2 vols.). The second volume has
+been translated _The Teaching of Jesus_ (1892, 2 vols.); the first volume
+of the original work is an elaborate discussion of the sources, and has
+not been done into English. Reference may be made especially to H. J.
+Holtzmann, _Lehrbuch der Neutestamentlichen Theologie_ (1897, 2 vols.),
+and also to G. H. Gilbert, _The Revelation of Jesus_ (1899). Gustaf
+Dalman, _Die Worte Jesu_ (1898), of which the first volume only has
+appeared, is a study of the meaning of the most significant expressions
+used in the gospel records of the teaching of Jesus, made with the aid of
+thorough knowledge of Aramaic usage and of the language of post-canonical
+Jewish literature.
+
+7. A good synopsis or Harmony of the gospels is most useful. The best
+_Harmony is_ that of Stevens and Burton (1894), which exhibits the
+divergencies of the parallel accounts in the gospels as faithfully as the
+agreements. A good synopsis of the Greek text of the first three gospels
+is Huck, _Synapse_ (1892). Robinson's _Greek Harmony of the Gospels_,
+edited by M. B. Biddle, using Tischendorf's text, has also valuable notes
+discussing questions of harmony.
+
+
+
+
+Abbreviations
+
+
+
+AndLOL        Andrews, The Life of Our Lord, 2d ed., 1892.
+BaldSJ        Baldensperger, Das Selbstbewusstsein Jesu, 2d ed., 1892.
+BeysLJ        Beyschlag, Das Leben Jesu, 3d ed., 2 vols., 1893.
+BovonNTTh     Bovon, Théologie du Nouveau Testament, 1892.
+DalmanWJ      Dalman, Die Worte Jesu, I., 1898.
+EdersLJM      Edersheim, The Life and Times of Jesus the Messiah, 2 vols.,
+              1883.
+FairbSLX      Fairbairn, Studies in the Life of Christ, 1882.
+GilbertLJ     Gilbert, The Student's Life of Jesus, 1896.
+GilbertRJ     Gilbert, The Revelation of Jesus, 1899.
+HoltzNtTh     Holtzmann, Neutestamentliche Theologie, 2 vols., 1897.
+KeimJN        Keim, The History of Jesus of Nazara, 6 vols., 1876-81.
+RévilleJN     Réville, Jésus de Nazareth, 2 vols., 1897.
+SandayHastBD  Sanday, the article JESUS CHRIST in the Hastings Bible
+              Dictionary, 1899.
+SchürerJPTX   Schürer, The History of the Jewish People in the Time of
+              Jesus Christ, 1885-86. Division I. vols. i. and ii.; Division
+              II. vols. i., ii., and iii.
+SmithHGHL     Smith, Historical Geography of the Holy Land, 1894.
+SB            Stevens and Burton, Harmony of the Gospels, 1894.
+WeissLX       Weiss, The Life of Christ, 3 vols., 1883.
+WendtLJ       Wendt, Die Lehre Jesu, 2 vols., 1886.
+WendtTJ       Wendt, The Teaching of Jesus, 2 vols., 1892.
+EnBib         Encyclopedia Biblica, 1899.
+HastBD        Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible, 1898.
+SBD^2         Smith's Dictionary of the Bible, revision of the first volume
+              of the original English edition, 1893.
+
+
+
+
+References
+
+
+
+Part I.--Preparatory
+
+
+I
+
+The Historical Situation
+
+8. Read SandayHastBD II. 604-609. On the Land, its physical
+characteristics, its political divisions, its climate, its roads, and its
+varying civilization, SmithHGHL is unsurpassed. Its identifications of
+disputed localities are cautions. Robinson, _Biblical Researches in
+Palestine_, and Thomson, _The Land and the Book_, give fuller detail
+concerning particular localities, but no such general view as Smith.
+
+9. On Political conditions, SchürerJPTX I. i. and ii. is the fullest and
+most trustworthy treatise. More concise essays are Oscar Holtzmann, _Nt.
+Zeitgeschichte_ (1895), 57-118; S. Mathews, _History of NT Times in
+Palestine_ (1899), 1-158; Riggs, _Maccabean and Roman Periods of Jewish
+History_ (1900), especially §§ 206-234, 257-267, 276-282. On the Religious
+Life and Parties in Palestine, SchürerJPTX II. i. and ii.; O. Holtzmann,
+_NtZeitg_, 136-177; Mathews, _NT Times_, see index; Riggs, _Mac. and Rom.
+Periods_, §§ 235-256; Muirhead, _The Times of Christ_ (1898), 69-150. In
+addition Wellhausen, _Die Pharisdäer und die Sadducäer_ (1874); on the
+_Essenes_, Conybeare in HastBD I. 767-772, also Lightfoot, _Colossians_,
+80-98, 347-419; Wellhausen, _Isr. u. jüd. Geschichte_^3 (1897), 258-262;
+on the Samaritans, A. Cowley, in _Expos_. V. i. 161-174; Jew. Quar. Rev.
+VIII. (1896) 562-575.
+
+10. On the Messianic hope, SchürerJPTX II. ii. 126-187; BaldSJ 3-122;
+Muirhead, _Times of Xt._, 112-150; Briggs, _Messiah of the Gospels_
+(1894), 1-40; WendtTJ I. 33-84; Mathews, _NT Times_, 159-169; Riggs, _Mac.
+and Rom. Periods_, §§ 251-256.
+
+11. On the language of Palestine see Arnold Meyer, _Jesu Muttersprache_
+(1896); DalmanWJ I. 1-57; SchürerJPTX II. i. 8-10, 47-51; Neubauer,
+_Studia Biblica_, I. 39-74.
+
+12. On Jewish literature dating near the times of Jesus see SchürerJPTX
+II. iii.; BaldSJ. 3-122; EdersLJM I. 31-39; Deane, _Pseudepigrapha_
+(1891); Thomson, _Books which influenced our Lord_, etc. (1891); and
+special editions, such as Alexandre, _Sibylline Oracles_ (1869); Deane,
+_The Wisdom of Solomon_ (1881); Charles, _The Book of Enoch_ (1893), _The
+Apocalypse of Baruch_ (1896), _The Assumption of Moses_ (1897), and _The
+Book of Jubilees_ (1895); Charles and Morfill, _The Secrets of Enoch_
+(1896); Ryle and James, _The Psalms of the Pharisees_ [Psalms of Solomon]
+(1891); Bensly and James, _Fourth Esdras_ (1895); Charles, EnBib I.
+213-250; HastBD I. 109f.; Porter, HastBD I. 110-123; James, EnBib I.
+249-261.
+
+
+II
+
+The Sources
+
+13. On the sources outside the gospels see Anthony, _Introduction to the
+Life of Jesus_, 19-108; KeimJN I. 12-59; BeysLJ I. 59-72; GilbertLJ 74-78;
+Knowling, _Witness of the Epistles_; Stevens, _Pauline Theol_. 204-208;
+Sabatier, _Apostle Paul_, 76-85. On Josephus as a source see also
+SchürerJPTX I. ii. 143-149; RévilleJN I. 272-280. On the individual
+gospels see Burton, _The Purpose and Plan of the Four Gospels_ (Univ.
+Chic. Press, 1900); Bruce, _With Open Face_, 1-61; Weiss, _Introduction to
+N.T._, II. 239-386; Jülicher, _Einleitung i. d. NT_, 189-207. On Matthew,
+Burton Bib. Wld. I. 1898, 37-44, 91-101; on Mark, Swete, _Comm. on Mark_,
+ix-lxxxix; on Luke, Plummer, _Comm. on Luke_, xi-lxx; Mathews, Bib. Wld.
+1895, I. 336-342, 448-455; on John, Burton, Bib. Wld. 1899, I. 16-41,
+102-105; Westcott, _Comm. on John_, v-lxxvii; Rhees in Abbott's _The Bible
+as Literature_, 281-297. On the synoptic question see Sanday SBD^2,
+1217-1243, and Expositor, Feb.-June, 1891; Woods, _Studia Biblica_, II.
+59-104; Salmon, _Introduction_^7, 99-151, 570-581; Stanton in HastBD II.
+234-243; Jülicher, _Einl._ 207-227. A. Wright, _Composition of the Four
+Gospels_ (1890) and _Some NT Problems_ (1898), defends the oral tradition
+theory in a modified form. On possible dislocations in John see Spitta,
+_Urchristentum_, I. 157-204; Bacon, Jour. Bib. Lit. 1894, 64-76; Burton,
+Bib. Wld. 1899, I. 27-35. For the history of opinion see specially H. J.
+Holtzmann, _Einl._^3 340-375. On the Johannine question see Sanday,
+Expositor, Nov. 1891-May 1892; Schürer, Cont. Rev. Sept. 1891; Watkins
+SBD^2 1739-1764; Burton, Bib. Wld. 1899, I. 16-41; Reynolds in HastBD II.
+694-722; Zahn, _Einl._ II. 445-564 (defends Johannine authorship);
+Jülicher, _Einl._ 238-250 (rejects Johannine authorship). For the history
+of opinion see Watkins, _Bampton Lecture_ for 1890; Holtzmann, _Einl._^3
+433-438. P. Ewald, _Hauptproblem der evang. Frage_, argues the
+authenticity of the fourth gospel from the one-sidedness of the synoptic
+story. See also Jour. Bib. Lit. 1898, I. 87-102.
+
+14. Réville proposes to reconstruct Jos. Ant. xviii. 3. 3 thus: "'At that
+time appeared Jesus, a wise man, who did astonishing things. That is why a
+good number of Jews and also of Greeks attached themselves to him.' Then
+follows some phrase probably signifying that these adherents had committed
+the error of proclaiming him Christ, and then 'denounced by the leading
+men of the nation, this Jesus was condemned by Pilate to die on the cross.
+But those who had loved him before persevered in their sentiment, and
+still to-day there exists a class of people who take from him their name
+Christians.'"
+
+15. On the testimony of Papias (Euseb. _Ch. Hist_. iii. 39. 4) see
+Lightfoot, Cont. Rev. 1875, II. 379 ff., and McGiffert's notes in his
+_Eusebius_, 170 ff.
+
+16. For a collection of probably genuine Agrapha see Ropes, _Die Spruche
+Jesu_, 154-161, and Amer. Jour. Theol. 1897, 758-776; Resch, _Agrapha_,
+gives a much longer list. He is criticised by Ropes. On lost and
+uncanonical gospels see Salmon, _Intr._^7 173-190, 580-591; Kruger, _Early
+Christian Literature_, 50-57. For the recently discovered Gospel of Peter
+see Swete, _The Gospel of Peter_; and on the so-called _Sayings of Jesus_
+found in Egypt in 1896 see Harnack, _Expositor_, V. vi. 321-340, 401-416,
+and essay by Sanday and Lock. _Apocryphal Gospels_ are most conveniently
+found in _Ante-nicene Fathers_, VIII. 361-476.
+
+
+III
+
+The Harmony of the Gospels
+
+17. The Diatessaron of Tatian is translated with notes by Hill, _The
+Earliest Life of Christ_. See also _Ante-nic. Fathers_, IX. 35-138.
+
+18. For the extreme position concerning Doublets see Holtzmann,
+_Hand-commentar zum NT_ I. passim. E. Haupt, Studien u. Kritiken, 1884,
+25, remarks that Jesus must often have repeated his teaching in
+essentially the same form.
+
+
+IV
+
+Chronology
+
+19. For data and discussion of the various problems see Wieseler,
+_Chronological Synopsis_; Lewin, _Fasti Sacra; _ KeimJN II. 379-402;
+AndLOL 1-52; SchürerJPTX I. ii. 30-32, 105-143; O. Holtzmann, _NtZeitg_,
+118-124, 125-127, 131-132; Turner HastBD I. 403-415; Ramsay, _Was Christ
+born at Bethlehem_; and von Soden in EnBib. I. 799-812. For patristic
+opinion concerning the length of Jesus' ministry, see HastBD I. 410. For
+the argument for a one-year ministry, see KeimJN II. 398; O. Holtzmann,
+_NtZeitg_, 131f. For two years, see Wieseler, _Chron. Synop_. 204-220;
+WeissLX I. 389-392; Turner, in HastBD. For three years, see AndLOL
+189-198; note by Robertson in Broadus, _Harmony of the Gospels_, 241-244.
+Compare RévilleJN II. 227-231; Zahn, _Einl._ II. 516f.
+
+
+V
+
+The Early Years
+
+20. On the problem of the Virgin birth see GilbertLJ 79-89; WeissLX I.
+211-233; Swete, _Apos. Creed_, 42-55; Bruce, _Apologetics_, 407-413;
+Ropes, Andover Rev. 1893, 695-712; FairbSLX 30-45; Godet, _Comm. on Luke_,
+Rem. on chaps. I. and II.; BovonNTTh I. 198-217. These maintain
+historicity. The other side: BeysLJ I. 148-174; Meyer, _Comm. on Matt_.,
+Rem. on 1.18; Keim JN II. 38-101; Réville, New World, 1892, 695-723, and
+JN I. 361-408; HoltzmannNtTh I. 409-415. On the early years of
+Jesus see EdersLJM I. 217-254; WeissLX I. 275-293; Hughes, _Manliness of
+Xt_, 35-60; WendtTJ I. 90-96; Stapfer, _Jesus Christ before his Ministry;
+_ FairbSLX 46-63; BeysLJ II. 44-65; RévilleJN I. 409-438.
+
+21. For some of the early legends concerning the birth and childhood of
+Jesus, see the so-called _Protevangelium of James_, the _Gospel of
+Pseudo-Matthew_, and the _Gospel of Thomas_, Ante-nic. Fathers, VIII.
+361-383, 395-398. For Jewish calumnies see Laible, _J. X. im Thalmud_,
+9-39.
+
+22. On the two genealogies see AndLOL 62-68; WeissLX I. 211-221; Godet on
+Luke, iii. 23-38. These refer Luke's genealogy to Marv. Hervey SBD^2
+1145-1148, Plummer on Luke, iii. 23, EdersLJM I. 149, GilbertLJ 81f.,
+with the early fathers (see Plummer), refer both to Joseph. For the view
+that they are unauthentic see Holtzmann, _Hand-comm._ I. 39-41; Bacon in
+HastBD II. 137-141.
+
+23. On the "brethren" of Jesus see Mayor, HastBD I. 320-326;
+AndrewsLOL 111-123. These make the brethren sons of Joseph and
+Mary. Lightfoot, _Galatians_^10, 252-291, regards them as sons of Joseph
+by a former marriage.
+
+
+VI
+
+John the Baptist
+
+24. On the character and work of John the Baptist see KeimJN II. 201-266
+and references in the index under John the Baptist. Keim's is much the
+most satisfactory treatment; it is, moreover, Keim at his best. See also
+Ewald, _Hist, of Israel_, VI. 160-200; WeissLX I. 307-316; FairbSLX 64-79;
+W. A. Stevens, Homil. Rev. 1891, II. 163 ff.; Bebb in HastBD II. 677-680;
+Wellhausen _Isr. u. judische Geschichte_, 342f.; Feather, _Last of the
+Prophets_. Reynolds, _John the Baptist_, obscures its excellencies by a
+vast amount of irrelevant discussion.
+
+25. On the existence of a separate company of disciples of John see Mk.
+ii. 18, Mt. ix. 14, Lk. v. 33; Mk. vi. 29, Mt. xiv. 12; Mt. xi. 2f., Lk.
+vii. 18f.; Lk. xi. 1; Jn. i. 35f.; iii. 25; Ac. xix. 1-3. Consult
+Lightfoot, _Colossians_, 400 ff.; Baldensperger, _Der Prolog des vierten
+Evangeliums_, 93-152.
+
+
+VII
+
+The Messianic Call
+
+26. On the baptism of Jesus see WendtTJ I. 96-101; EdersLJM I. 278-287;
+BaldSJ 219-229. WeissLX I. 316-336 says that the baptism meant for Jesus,
+already conscious of his Messiahship, "the close of his former life and
+the opening of one perfectly new" (322); KeimJN II. 290-299 makes it an
+act of consecration, but eliminates the Voice and Dove; BeysLJ I. 215-231
+thinks that Jesus, conscious of no sin, yet not aware of his Messiahship,
+sought the baptism carrying "the sins and guilt of his people on his
+heart, as if they were his own" (229). Against Beyschlag see E. Haupt in
+Studien u. Kritiken, 1887, 381. Baldensperger shows clearly that the
+Messianic call was a revelation to Jesus, not a conclusion from a course
+of reasoning.
+
+27. On the temptation see WendtTJ I. 101-105; WeissLX I. 337-354; EdersLJM
+I. 299-307; FairbairnSLX 80-98; BaldSJ 230-236; BeysLJ I.
+231-237; KeimJN II. 317-329. All these see in temptation the necessary
+result of the Messianic call at the baptism.
+
+28. The locality of the baptism of Jesus cannot be determined. Tradition
+has fixed on one of the fords of the Jordan near Jericho, see SmithHGHL
+496, note 1. On the probable location of Bethany (Bethabarah) (Jn. i. 28)
+see discussion in AndLOL 146-151; EnBib 548; and especially Smith's note
+as above.
+
+29. On the anointing of Jesus with the Holy Spirit see WeissLX I. 323-336;
+BeysLJ I. 230f. For the influence of the Spirit in the later life of Jesus
+see Mk. i. 12; Mt. iv. 1; Lk. iv. 1; iv. 14, 18, 21; Mk. iii. 29, 30; Mt.
+xii. 28; Jn. iii. 34; compare Ac. i. 2; x. 38. Clearly these refer not to
+the ethical and religious indwelling of the Divine Spirit (comp. Rom. i.
+4), but to the special equipment for official duty. This is the OT sense,
+see Ex. xxxi. 2-5; Jud. iii. 10; I. Sam. xi. 6; Isa. xi. 1f.; xlii. 1;
+lxi. 1; and consult Schultz, _Old Test. Theol._ II. 202f. Jesus seems to
+have needed a like divine equipment, notwithstanding his divine nature.
+See GilbertLJ 121f.
+
+30. How this Messianic anointing is to be related to the doctrine of
+Jesus' essential divine nature cannot be determined with certainty. It
+must not be forgotten, however, that it is a _datum_ for Christology, and
+that it cannot be explained away. It indicates one of the particulars in
+which Jesus was made like unto his brethren. What was involved when the
+Son of God "emptied himself and was made in the likeness of men" (Phil.
+ii. 7) we can only vaguely conceive. Two views of early heretical sects
+seem rightly to have been rejected. The Docetic view, held by some
+Gnostics of the 2d cent., dates the incarnation from the baptism, but
+distinguishes Christ from the human Jesus, who only served as a vehicle
+for the manifestation of the Son of God; the Christ descended on Jesus at
+the baptism, ascending again to heaven from the cross, compare Mt. iii. 16
+and xxvii. 50 in the Greek; see Schaff _Hist. of Xn Church_^2, II. 455f.
+The recently discovered Gospel of Peter presents this view, Gosp. Pet. §
+5. The Nestorian view represents that the baptism was, in a sense, Jesus'
+"birth from above" (Jn. iii. 3, 5); thus the incarnation was first
+complete at the baptism though the Logos had been associated with Jesus
+from the beginning. See Schaff, _Hist, of Xn Church_^2, III. 717 ff.;
+Conybeare, _History of Xmas_, Amer. Jour. Theol. 1899, 1-21.
+
+31. The traditional locality of the temptation is a mountain near Jericho
+called _Quarantana_, see AndLOL 155; the tradition seems to date no
+further back than the crusades. It is, however, probable that the
+"wilderness" (Mt. iv. 1, Mk. i. 12, Lk. iv. 1) is the same wilderness
+mentioned in connection with John's earlier life and work (Mt. iii. 1, Mk.
+i. 4), the region W and NW of the Dead Sea, see SmithHGHL 317. Others
+(Stanley, _Sinai and Palestine_, 308; EdersLJM I. 300, 339 notes) hold
+that the temptation took place in the desert regions SE of the sea of
+Galilee; this is possibly correct, though the record in the gospels
+suggests the wilderness of Judea. On the source of the temptation story
+see WeissLX I. 339 ff.; BeysLJ I. 234; Bacon, Bib. Wld. 1900, I. 18-25.
+
+
+VIII
+
+The First Disciples
+
+32. SandayHastBD II. 612f.; GilbertLJ 144-157; WeissLX I. 355-387; AndLOL
+155-165; EdersLJM I. 336-363; BeysLJ II. 129-148 (assigns here a
+considerable part of the synoptic account of work in Capernaum).
+
+33. _The early confessions_. On the genuineness of the Baptist's testimony
+to "the Lamb of God" see M. Dods in _Expos. Gk. Test_. I .695f.; Westcott,
+_Comm. on John_, 20; EdersLJM 1. 342 ff.; WeissLX 1. 362f. (thinks the
+evangelist added "who taketh away the sin of the world"); Holtzmann,
+_Hand-comm._ IV. 38f. holds that the evangelist has put in the mouth of
+the Baptist a conception which was first current after the death of Jesus.
+On the confessions of Nathanael and the others, see Jour. Bib. Lit. 1898,
+21-30.
+
+34. _Cana_ is probably the modern Khirbet Kana, eight miles N of Nazareth.
+A rival site is Kefr Kenna, three and one-half miles NE from Nazareth. See
+EnBib and HastBD, also AndLOL 162-164.
+
+35. _The miracles of Jesus_ are challenged by modern thought. It is
+customary in reading other documents than the N.T. instantly to relegate
+the miraculous to the domain of legend. Miracles, however, are integral
+parts of the story of Jesus' life, and those who attempt to write that
+life eliminating the supernatural are constrained to recognize that he had
+marvellous power as an exorcist and healer of some forms of nervous
+disease. So E. A. Abbott, _The Spirit on the Waters_, 169-201. Our
+knowledge of nature does not warrant a dogmatic definition of the limits
+of the possible; see James, _The Will to Believe_, vii.-xiii., 299-327.
+The question is confessedly one of adequate evidence. The evidence for the
+supreme miracle--the transcendent character of Jesus--is clear, see Part
+III. chap. iv.; and the miraculous element in the story of his life must
+be considered in view of this supreme miracle. In association with him his
+miracles gain in credibility. In estimating the evidence for them their
+dignity and worthiness is important. What the devout imagination would do
+in embellishing the story of Jesus is exhibited in the apocryphal gospels;
+the miracles of the canonical gospels are of an entirely different type,
+which commends them as authentic. By definition a miracle is an event not
+explicable in terms of ordinary human experience. It is therefore futile
+to attempt to picture the miracles of Jesus in their occurrence, for the
+imagination has no material except that furnished by ordinary experience.
+For our day the miracles are of importance chiefly for the exhibition they
+give of the character of Jesus; they can be studied with this in view
+without regard to the curious question how they happened. Read
+SandayHastBD II. 624-628; and see Fisher, _Grounds of Christian and
+Theistic Belief, _ chaps, iv.--vi., _Supernatural Origin of
+Christianity_^3, chap, xi.; Bruce, _Miraculous Element in the Gospels;
+Apologetics_, 409 ff.; Illingworth, _Divine Immanence_; Rainy, Orr, and
+Dods, _The Supernatural in Christianity_.
+
+
+
+Part II.--The Ministry
+
+
+I
+
+General Survey
+
+36. SandayHastBD II. 609f.; GilbertLJ 136-143; AndLOL 125-137; BeysLJ I.
+256-295.
+
+
+II
+
+The Early Ministry in Judea
+
+37. SandayHastBD II. 612^b-613^b; WeissLX II. 3-53; EdersLJM I. 364-429;
+BeysLJ II. 147-168; GilbertLJ 158-179.
+
+38. On _the chronological significance of John iv_. 35 see AndLOL 183;
+WeissLX II. 40; Wieseler, _Synop_. 212 ff, who find indication that the
+journey was in December. EdersLJM I. 419f.; Turner in HastBD I. 408, find
+indication of early summer. Some treat iv. 35 as a proverb with no
+chronological significance; so Alford, _Comm. on John_.
+
+39. Geographical notes. _Aenon_ near Salim has not been identified. Most
+favor a site in Samaria, seven miles from a place named Salim, which lay
+four miles E of Shechem, see Conder, _Tent Work in Palestine_, II. 57, 58;
+Stevens, Jour. Bib. Lit. 1883, 128-141. But can John have been baptizing
+in Samaria? WeissLX II. 28 says "it is perfectly impossible that he [John]
+can have taken up his station in Samaria." Other suggestions are: some
+place in the Jordan valley (but then why remark on the abundance of water,
+Jn. iii. 23?); near Jerusalem; and in the south of Judea. See AndLOL
+173-175. _Sychar_ is the modern 'Askar, about a mile and three-quarters
+from Nablus (Shechem), and half a mile N of Jacob's well. See SmithHGHL
+367-375.
+
+40. General questions. _Was the temple twice cleansed?_ (see sect. 116).
+Probably not. The two reports (Jn. ii. 13-22; Mk. xi. 15-18 ¶s) are
+similar in respect of Jesus' indignation, its cause, its expression, its
+result, and a consequent challenge of his authority. They differ in the
+time of the event (John assigns to first Passover, synoptics to the last)
+and in a possibly greater sternness in the synoptic account. These
+differences are no greater than appear in other records of identical
+events (compare Mt. viii. 5-13 with Lk. vii. 2-10), while the repetition
+of such an act would probably have been met by serious opposition. If the
+temple was cleansed but once, John indicates the true time. At the
+beginning of the ministry it was a demand that the people follow the new
+leader in the purification of God's house and the establishment of a truer
+worship. At the end it could have had only a vindictive significance,
+since the people had already signified to the clear insight of Jesus that
+they would not accept his leadership. For two distinct cleansings see the
+discussion in AndLOL 169f., 437; EdersLJM I. 373; Plummer on Luke xix.
+45f. For one cleansing at the end see KeimJN V. 113-131. For one cleansing
+at the beginning see WeissLX II. 6 ff.; BeysLJ II. 149 ff.; GilbertLJ 159
+ff.
+
+41. _The journey to Galilee_. Do John (iv. 1-4, 43-45) and Mark (i. 14 =
+Mt. iv. 12; Lk. iv. 14) report the same journey? Both are journeys from
+the south introducing work in Galilee; yet the reasons given for the
+journey are different (compare Jn. iv. 1-3 with Mk. i. 14). If the
+Pharisees had a hand in John's "delivering up" (Mk. i. 14; comp. Jos. Ant.
+xviii. 5. 2), the same hostile movement may have impelled Jesus to leave
+Judea. He may not have heard of John's imprisonment until after his
+departure, or some time before he opened his new ministry in Galilee. See
+GilbertLJ 173f. AndLOL 176-182 argues against the identification.
+
+42. _The nobleman's son_ (Jn. iv. 46-54). Is this a doublet of Mt. viii.
+5-13; Lk. vii. 2-10? John differs from synoptics in the time, the place,
+the disease, the suppliant, his plea, and Jesus' attitude. Matthew and
+Mark differ from each other concerning the bearers of the centurion's
+messages to Jesus. John's account is similar to synoptic superficially,
+but is probably not a doublet. Compare Syro-Phoenician's daughter (Mk. vii.
+29f.). See GilbertLJ 202; Meyer on John iv. 51-54; Plummer on Luke vii.
+10. WeissLX II. 45-51 identifies. Read SandayHastBD II. 613.
+
+
+
+III and IV
+
+The Ministry in Galilee
+
+43. Read SandayHastBD II. 613-630; GilbertLJ 180-283. Consult WeissLX II.
+44 to III. 153; EdersLJM I. 472 to II. 125; BeysLJ II. 140-147,168-294.
+See AndLOL 209-363 for discussion of details, and KeimJN III. 10 to IV.
+346 for an illuminating, though not unprejudiced, topical treatment.
+
+44. Geographical notes. _Capernaum_. The site is not clearly identified,
+two ruins on the NW of Sea of Galilee are rival claimants,--Tell Hum and
+Khan Minyeh. Tell Hum is advocated by Thomson, _Land and Book, Central
+Pal. and Phoenicia_ (1882), 416-420; Khan Minyeh, by SmithHGHL 456, EnBib
+I. 696 ff. Latter is probably correct. See AndLOL 224-237.
+
+_Bethsaida_. The full name is Bethsaida Julias, located at entrance of
+Jordan into the Sea of Galilee. SmithEnBib I. 565f., SmithHGHL
+457f., shows that there is no need of the hypothesis of a second Bethsaida
+to meet the statement in Mk. vi. 45, or that in Jn. i. 44. See also AndLOL
+230-236. Ewing HastBD I. 282f. renews the argument for two Bethsaidas.
+
+_Chorazin_ was probably the modern Kerazeh, about one mile N of Tell Hum,
+and back from the lake. See SmithEnBib I. 751; SmithHGHL 456;
+AndLOL 237f.
+
+45. _The mountain of the sermon on the mount_ (Mt. v. 1; Lk. vi. 12)
+probably refers to the Galilean highlands as distinct from the shore of
+the lake. More definite location is not possible. See AndLOL 268f.;
+EdersLJM I. 524. The traditional site, the Horns of Hattin, is a hill
+lying about seven miles SW from Khan Minyeh, which has near the top a
+level place (Lk. vi. 17) flanked by two low peaks or "horns."
+
+46. _The country of the Gerasenes, Gadarenes, or Gergesenes_. Gadarenes is
+the best attested reading in Mt. viii. 28, Gerasenes in Mk. v. 1 and Lk.
+viii. 26; Gergesenes has only secondary attestation. Gadara is identified
+with Um Keis on the Yarmuk, some six miles SE of the Sea of Galilee. This
+cannot have been the site of the miracle, though it is possible that
+Gadara may have controlled the country round about, including the shores
+of the sea. Gerasa is the name of a city in the highlands of Gilead,
+twenty miles E of Jordan, and thirty-five SE of the Sea of Galilee, and
+it clearly cannot have been the scene of the miracle. Near the E shore of
+the sea Thomson discovered the ruins of a village which now bears the name
+Khersa. The formation of the land in the neighborhood closely suits the
+narrative of the gospels. This is now accepted as the true identification.
+See Thomson _Land and Book, Central Palestine_, 353-355; SBD^2 1097-1100;
+HastBD II. 159f.; AndLOL 296-300. The name "Gadarenes" may indicate that
+Gadara had jurisdiction over the region of Khersa; the names "Gerasenes"
+and "Gergesenes" may be derived directly and independently from Khersa, or
+may be corruptions due to the obscurity of Khersa.
+
+47. _The feeding of the five thousand_ took place on the E of the sea, in
+a desert region, abundant in grass, and mountainous, and located in the
+neighborhood of a place named Bethsaida. Near the ruins of Bethsaida
+Julias is a plain called now Butaiha, "a smooth, grassy place near the sea
+and the mountains," which meets the requirements of the narrative. See
+AndLOL 322f.
+
+48. _The return of Jesus from the regions of Tyre "through Sidon"_ (Mk.
+vii. 31) avoided Galilee, crossing N of Galilee to the territory of Philip
+and "_the Decapolis_." This latter name applies to a group of free Greek
+cities, situated for the most part E of the Jordan. Most of the cities of
+the group were farther S than the Sea of Galilee; some, however, were E
+and NE of that sea, hence Jesus' approach from Cæsarea Philippi or
+Damascus could be described as "through Decapolis." See SmithHGHL 593-608;
+En Bib I. 1051 ff.; SchürerJPTX II. i. 94-121.
+
+49. Of _Magadan_ (Mt. xv. 39) or _Dalmanutha_ (Mk. viii. 10) all that is
+known is that they must have been on the W coast of the Sea of Galilee.
+They have never been identified, though there are many conjectures. See
+SBD^2, HastBD, and En Bib.
+
+50. _Cæsarea Philippi_ was situated at the easternmost and most important
+of the sources of the Jordan, it is called Panias by Jos. Ant. xv. 10.3,
+now Banias. Probably a sanctuary of the god Pan. Here Herod the Great
+built a temple which he dedicated to Cæsar; Philip the Tetrarch enlarged
+the town and called it Cæsarea Philippi. See SBD^2; HastBD; EnBib.
+
+51. _The mountain of the transfiguration_. The traditional site, since the
+fourth century, is Tabor in Galilee. Most recent opinion has favored one
+of the shoulders of Hermon, owing to the supposed connection of the event
+with the sojourn near Cæsarea Philippi. WeissLX III. 98 points out that
+there is no evidence that Jesus lingered for "six days" (Mk. ix. 2) near
+that town, and that therefore the effort to locate the transfiguration is
+futile. GilbertLJ 274 thinks that Mk. ix. 30 is decisive in favor of a
+place outside Galilee; he therefore holds to the common view that Hermon
+is the true locality. See AndLOL 357f.
+
+52. General questions. _Was Jesus twice rejected at Nazareth?_ (comp. Lk.
+iv. 16-30 with Mk. vi. 1-6^a; Mt. xiii. 54-58). Here are two accounts that
+read like independent traditions of the same event; they agree concerning
+the place, the teaching in the synagogue on the Sabbath, the astonishment
+of the Nazarenes, their scornful question, and Jesus' rejoinder. Luke
+makes no reference to the disciples (Mk. vi. 1) nor to the working of
+miracles (Mk. vi. 5); Matthew and Mark, on the other hand, say nothing of
+an attempt at violence. These differences are no more serious, however,
+than appear in the two accounts of the appeal of the centurion to Jesus
+(Mt. viii. 5-8; Lk. vii. 3-7). Moreover, Lk. iv. 23 indicates a time after
+the ministry in Capernaum had won renown, which agrees with the place
+given the rejection in Mark. The general statement (Lk. iv. 14f.) suggests
+that the visit to Nazareth is given at the beginning as an instance of
+"preaching in their synagogues." The three accounts probably refer to one
+event reported independently. For identification see WeissLX III. 34;
+Plummer on Luke iv. 30; GilbertLJ 254f. For two rejections see Godet's
+supplementary note on Lk. iv. 16-30; Meyer on Mt. xiii. 53-58; EdersLJM I.
+457, note 1; Wieseler, _Synopsis_, 278. BeysLJ I. 270 identifies but
+prefers Luke's date.
+
+53. _Were there two miraculous draughts of fish?_ Lk. v. 1-11 is sometimes
+identified with Jn. xxi. 3-13. So WendtLJ I. 211f., WeissLX II. 57f., and
+Meyer on Luke v. 1-11. Against the identification see Alford, Godet, and
+Plummer on the passage in Luke. The two are alike in scene, the night of
+bootless toil, the great catch at Jesus' word. They differ in personnel,
+antecedent relations of the fishermen with Jesus, the effect of the
+miracle on Peter, and the subsequent teaching of Jesus, as well as in
+time. These differences make identification difficult.
+
+54. _Where in the synoptic story should the journey to the feast in
+Jerusalem_ (Jn. v.) _be placed?_ There is nothing in John's narrative to
+identify the feast, although it is his custom to name the festivals to
+which he refers (Passover, ii. 13, 23; vi. 4; xi. 55; xii. 1; Tabernacles,
+vii. 2; Dedication, x. 22). Even if John wrote "the feast," rather than "a
+feast" (the MSS. vary, A B D and seven other uncials omit the article), it
+would be impossible to decide between Passover and Tabernacles. The
+omission of the article suggests either that the feast was of minor
+importance, or that its identification was of no significance for the
+understanding of the following discourse. Since a year and four months
+probably elapsed between the journey into Galilee (Jn. iv. 35) and the
+next Passover mentioned in John (vi. 4), v. 1 may refer to any one of the
+feasts of the Jewish year. The commonest interpretation prefers Purim, a
+festival of a secular and somewhat hilarious type, which occurred on the
+14th and 15th of Adar, a month before the Passover. It is difficult to
+believe that this feast would have called Jesus to Jerusalem. See WeissLX
+II. 391; GilbertLJ 137-139, 142, 234-235. Against this interpretation see
+EdersLJM II. 765. Edersheim advocates the feast of Wood Gathering on the
+15th of Ab--about our August. On this day all the people were permitted to
+offer wood for the use of the altar in the temple, while during the rest
+of the year the privilege was reserved for special families. See LJM II
+765f.; Westcott, _Comm. on John_, add. note on v. 1, argues for the feast
+of Trumpets, or the new moon of the month Tisri,--about our
+September,--which was celebrated as the beginning of the civil year.
+Others have suggested Pentecost, fifty days after the Passover; the day of
+Atonement--but this was a fast, not a feast; and Tabernacles. The majority
+of those who do not favor Purim prefer the Passover, notwithstanding the
+difficulty of thinking that John would refer to this feast simply as "a
+feast of the Jews." Read AndLOL 193-198, remembering that the question
+must be considered independently of the question of the length of Jesus'
+ministry. The impossibility of determining the feast renders the
+adjustment of this visit to the synoptic story very uncertain. It may be
+that there was some connection between the Sabbath controversy in Galilee
+(Mk. ii. 23-28) and the criticism Jesus aroused in Jerusalem (Jn. v.). If
+so, one of the spring feasts, Passover or Pentecost, would best suit the
+circumstances; but this arrangement is quite uncertain.
+
+55. _Do the five conflicts of Mk. ii. 1 to iii. 6 belong at the early
+place in the ministry of Jesus to which that gospel assigns them_? It is
+commonly held that they do not, and the argument for a two-year ministry
+rests on this assumption (see SandayHastBD II. 613). Holtzmann,
+_Hand-commentar_ I. 9f., remarks that at least for the cure of the
+paralytic and for the call and feast of Levi (Mk. ii. 1, 13, 15) the
+evangelist was confident that he was following the actual order of events;
+note the call of the fifth disciple, Mk. ii. 13, between the call of the
+four, Mk. i. 16-20, and that of the twelve, iii. 16-19. The question about
+fasting may owe its place (Mk. ii. 18-22) to association with the
+criticism of Jesus for eating with publicans (Mk. ii. 16). In like manner
+the second Sabbath conflict (Mk. iii. 1-6) may be attached to the first
+(ii. 23-28) as a result of the identity of subject, for it is noteworthy
+that Mark records only these two Sabbath conflicts; moreover, the plot of
+Herodians and Pharisees to kill Jesus strongly suggests a later time for
+the actual occurrence of this criticism. The first Sabbath question,
+however, may belong early, as Mark has placed it. Weiss, Markusevangelium,
+76, LX II. 232 ff., places these conflicts late. Edersheim, LJM II. 51
+ff., discusses the Sabbath controversies after the feeding of the
+multitudes. RévilleJN II. 229 places the first of them early.
+
+56. _The sermon on the mount._ Luke (vi. 12-19 = Mk. iii. 13-19^a
+indicates the place in the Galilean ministry; Matthew has therefore
+anticipated in assigning it to the beginning. The identity of the two
+sermons (Mt. v. 1 to vii. 27; Lk. vi. 20-49) is shown by the fact that
+each begins with beatitudes, each closes with the parables of the wise and
+foolish builders, each is followed by the cure of a centurian's servant in
+Capernaum (Mt. viii. 5-13; Lk. vii. 1-10), and the teachings which are
+found in each account are given in the same order. Matthew is much fuller
+than Luke, many teachings given in the sermon in Matthew being found in
+later contexts in Luke. Much of the sermon in Matthew, however, evidently
+belonged to the original discourse, and was omitted by Luke, perhaps
+because of less interest to Gentile than to Jewish Christians. The
+following sections are found elsewhere in Luke, and were probably
+associated with the sermon by the first evangelist: Mt. v. 25, 26; Lk.
+xii. 58, 59; Mt. vi. 9-13; Lk. xi. 2-4; Mt. vi. 19-34; Lk. xii. 21-34; xi.
+34-36; xvi. 13; Mt. vii. 7-11; Lk. xi. 9-13; Mt. vii. 13, 14; Lk. xiii.
+24. The first evangelist's habit of grouping may explain also the presence
+in his sermon of teachings which he himself has duplicated later, thus:
+Mt. v. 29, 30 = xviii. 8,9; v. 32 = xix. 9, comp. Mk. x. 11, ix. 43-47,
+Lk. xvi. 18; Mt. vi. 14, 15 = Mk. xi. 25. Matthew vii. 22, 23 has the
+character of the teachings which follow the confession at Cæsarea
+Phillipi, and is quite unlike the other early teachings. It may belong to
+the later time, for it was natural for the early Christians to associate
+together teachings which the Lord uttered on widely separated occasions.
+The sermon as originally given may be analyzed as follows: The privileges
+of the heirs of the kingdom of God, Mt. v. 3-13; Lk. vi. 20-26; their
+responsibilities, Mt. v. 13-16; the relation of the new to the old, Mt. v.
+17-19; the text of the discourse, Mt. v. 20; the new conception of
+morality, Mt. v. 21-48; Lk. vi. 27-36; the new practice of religion, Mt.
+vi. 1-8, 16-18; warning against a censorious spirit, Mt. vii. 16-20; Lk.
+vi. 43-46; the wise and foolish builders, Mt. vii. 24-27; Lk. vi. 47-49.
+
+57. _The discourse in parables._ Matthew gives seven parables at this
+point (xiii.), Mark (iv. 1-34) has three, one of them is not given in
+Matthew, Luke (viii. 4-18) gives in this connection but one,--the Sower.
+Many think that the Tares of Matthew (xiii. 24-30, 36-43) is a doublet of
+Mark's Seed growing secretly (iv. 26-29); so Weiss LX II. 209 note,
+against which view see WendtLJ I. 178 f., and Bruce, _Parabolic Teaching
+of Xt_, 119. Matthew has probably made here a group of parables, as in
+chapters v. to vii. he has made a group of other teachings. The
+interpretation of the Tares, and of the Draw-net (xiii. 40-43, 49, 50),
+may indicate that these parables were spoken after Jesus began to teach
+plainly concerning the end of the world (Mk. viii. 31 to ix. 1), Luke
+gives the Mustard Seed and Leaven in another connection (xiii. 18-21), and
+it may be that Matthew has taken them out of their true context to
+associate them with the other parables of his group; yet in popular
+teaching it must be recognized that illustrations are most likely to be
+repeated in different situations. On the parables see Goebel, _The
+Parables of Jesus_ (1890), Bruce, _The Parabolic Teaching of Christ_, 3d
+ed. (1886), Jülicher, _Die Gleichnissreden Jesu_ (2 vols. 1899), and
+the commentaries on the gospels.
+
+58. _The instructions to the twelve_. Mt. ix. 36 to xi. 1. x. 1, 5-14
+corresponds in general with Mk. vi. 7-11; Lk. ix. 1-5. The similarity is
+closer, however, between x. 7-15 and Lk. x. 3-12--the instructions to the
+seventy (see sect. A 68). The rest of Mt. x. (16-42) is paralleled by
+teachings found in the closing discourses in the synoptic gospels, and in
+teachings preserved in the section peculiar to Luke (ix. 51 to xviii. 14.
+See SB sects. 88-92, footnotes). It is probable that here the first
+evangelist has made a group of instructions to disciples gathered from all
+parts of the Lord's teachings; such a collection was of great practical
+value in the early time of persecution.
+
+59. _Did Jesus twice feed the multitudes_? All the gospels record the
+feeding of the five thousand (Mt. xiv. 13-23; Mk. vi. 30-46; Lk. ix.
+10-17; Jn. vi. 1-15), Matthew (xv. 32-38) and Mark (viii. 1-9) give also
+the feeding of the four thousand. The similarities are so great that the
+two accounts would be regarded as doublets if they occurred in different
+gospels. The difficulty with such an identification is chiefly the
+reference which in both Matthew (xvi. 9, 10) and Mark (viii. 19, 20) Jesus
+is said to have made to the two feedings. The evangelists clearly
+distinguished the two. In view of this fact the differences between the
+accounts become important. These concern the occasion of the two miracles,
+the number fed, the nationality of the multitudes (compare Jn. vi. 31 and
+Mk. vii. 31), the number of loaves and of baskets of broken pieces (the
+name for basket is different in the two cases, and is preserved
+consistently in Mk. viii. 19, 20; Mt. xvi. 9, 10). See GilbertLJ 259-262,
+Gould, and Swete, on Mk. viii. 1-9; Meyer, Alford, on Mt. xv. 32-38.
+WeissLX II. 376f., BeysLJ I. 279f., WendtLJ I. 42, Holtzmann _Hand-comm._
+I. 186 ff., identify the accounts. See also SandayHastBD II. 629.
+
+60. _Did Peter twice confess faith in Jesus as Messiah_? Synoptics give
+his confession at Cæesarea Philippi (Mk. viii. 27-30; Mt. xvi. 13-20; Lk.
+ix. 18-21). John, however, gives a confession earlier at Capernaum (vi.
+66-71). WeissLX III. 53 identifies the two, placing that in John at
+Cæsarea Philippi, since there is no evidence that all of the long
+discourse of Jn. vi. was spoken in Capernaum the day after the feeding of
+the five thousand. This may be correct, yet the marked recognition which
+Jesus gave to the confession at Cæsarea Philippi does not demand that he
+first at that time received a confession of his disciples' faith. The
+confession in Jn. vi. 68, 69 declared that the twelve were not shaken in
+their faith by the recent defection of many disciples. At Cæsarea Philippi
+the confession was made after the revulsion of popular feeling had been
+made fully evident, and after the twelve had had time for reaction of
+enthusiasm consequent upon the growing coldness of the multitudes and
+active opposition of the leaders. The confession of Cæsarea Philippi holds
+its unique significance, whether or not Jn. vi. 68 is identified with it.
+
+61. _The journey to Tabernacles_ (Jn. vii.). Where in the synoptic story
+should it be placed? Lk. ix. 51 ff. records the final departure from
+Galilee. The journey of Jn. vii. is the last journey from Galilee given in
+John. Yet the two are very different. In John, Jesus went in haste,
+unpremeditatedly, in secret, and unaccompanied, and confronted the people
+with himself unexpectedly during the feast. In Luke (Mk. x. 1 and Mt. xix.
+1 are so general that they give no aid) he advanced deliberately, with
+careful plans, announcing his coming in advance, accompanied by many
+disciples, with whom he went from place to place, arriving in Jerusalem
+long after he had set out. The two journeys cannot be identified. John
+seems to keep Jesus in the south after the Tabernacles, but his account
+does not forbid a return to Galilee between Tabernacles and Dedication (x.
+22). After the hurried visit to Tabernacles, Jesus probably went back to
+Galilee, and gathered his disciples again for the final journey towards
+his cross--for the visit to Jerusalem had given fresh evidence of the kind
+of treatment he must expect in the capital (Jn. vii. 32, 45-52; viii. 59).
+See AndLOL 369-379. Andrews suggests that the feast occurred before the
+withdrawal to Cæsarea Philippi (376); this is possible, but it seems more
+natural to place it during the sojourn in Capernaum after the return from
+the north (Mk. ix. 33-50). See SB, sects. 82-85.
+
+62. On the phenomena and interpretation of _Demoniac Possession_ see J. L.
+Nevius, _Demon Possession and allied Themes_; Conybeare, Jew. Quar. Rev.
+VIII. (1896) 576-608, IX. (1896-7) 59-114, 444-470, 581-603; J. Weiss in
+_Reälencyklopädie_,^3 Hauck-Herzog, IV. 408-419; Binet, _Alterations of
+Personality_, 325-356; James, _Psychology, _ I. 373-400; and the articles
+on DEMONS in EnBib and HastBD.
+
+
+The Journey through Perea to Jerusalem
+
+63. Read SandayHastBD II. 630-632; see GilbertLJ 298-310: WeissLX III.
+157-223; KeimJN V, 1-64; BeysLJ I. 287-294. II. 333-419; AndLOL 365-420;
+EdersLJM II. 126-360.
+
+64. This journey began sometime between Tabernacles and Dedication
+(October and December) of the last year of Jesus' life, and continued
+until the arrival in Bethany six days before the last Passover.
+
+65. Geographical notes. _Perea_--a part of the domain of Antipas--was the
+Jewish territory E of the Jordan. Its northern limit seems to have been
+marked by Pella (Jos. Wars, iii 3. 3) or Gadara (Wars, iv. 7. 3), and its
+E boundary was marked by Philadelphia (Ant. xx. 1. 1); it extended S to
+the domain of Aretas, king of Arabia. The population was mixed, though
+predominatingly Jewish. Cities of the Decapolis, however, lay within the
+limits of Perea, and introduced Greek life and ideas to the people. On the
+highlands back from the Jordan it was a fertile and well populated land.
+See SmithHGHL 539f.; SchürerJPTX II. i. 2-4.
+
+66. On _Bethany and Jericho_ see BDs and, for the latter, SmithHGHL 266
+ff.
+
+67. _Ephraim_, (John xi. 54) is generally identified with the Ephron of
+II. Chron. xiii. 19 (Jos. Wars, iv. 9. 9). Robinson located it at et
+Taiyibeh, 4 m. NE of Bethel, and 14 from Jerusalem. See HastBD l. 728;
+SBD^2 975.
+
+68. General questions. _The mission of the seventy_. Luke records two
+missions, that of the twelve (ix. 1-6), and that of the seventy (x. 1-24).
+Many regard these as doublets, similar to the two feedings in Mark. So
+WeissLX II. 307 ff., BeysLJ I. 275, WendtLJ I. 84f. In favor of this
+conclusion emphasis is given to the fact that in Jewish thought seventy
+symbolized the nations of the world as twelve symbolized Israel. It is
+suggested that in his search for full records Luke came upon an account of
+the mission of disciples which had already been modified in the interests
+of Gentile Christianity, and failing to recognize its identity with the
+account of the mission furnished by Mark, he added it in his peculiar
+section. The similarity of the instructions given follows from the nature
+of the case. A second sending out of disciples is suitable in view of the
+entrance into a region hitherto unvisited. As Dr. Sanday has remarked, the
+sayings connected by Luke with this mission bear witness to the
+authenticity of the account. There is therefore no need to identify the
+two missions. See particularly SandayHastBD II. 614, also GilbertLJ
+226-230, Plummer's _Comm. on Luke_, 269 ff. Luke probably gives the
+correct place for the thanksgiving, self-declaration, and invitation of
+Jesus, in which the synoptists approach most nearly to the thought of John
+(Lk. x. 21, 22; Mt. xi. 25-30). The return of the seventy (Lk. x. 17-20)
+followed the woes addressed to the unbelieving cities (Lk. x. 13-16; Mt.
+xi. 20-24).
+
+69. _The destination of the seventy_. It is customary to think of them as
+sent to the various cities of Perea (see AndLOL 381-383). Were it not for
+the words "whither he himself was about to come" (Lk. x. I), it would be
+natural to conclude that they were sent E to Gerasa and Philadelphia, and
+S to the regions of the Dead Sea. If John's account is accepted, Jesus
+spent not a little time of the interval between his departure from Galilee
+and his final arrival in Bethany in and near Jerusalem. It may be that
+after the withdrawal from the Dedication he went far into the Perean
+districts. But John x. 40 is against it. The question must be left
+unanswered. The messengers may have visited places in all parts of
+Palestine.
+
+
+VI
+
+The Controversies of the Last Week
+
+70. See GilbertLJ 311-335; WeissLX III. 224-270; AndLOL 421-450; KeimJN V.
+65-275; BeysLJ II. 422-434; EdersLJM II. 363-478; SandayHastBD II 632f.
+
+71. _The supper at Bethany_. John is definite, "six days before the
+passover" (xii. I). Synoptists place it after the day of controversy, on
+the Wednesday preceding the Passover (Mk. xiv. I, 3-9; Mt. xxvi. 2, 6-13).
+John is probably correct. The rebuke of Judas (Jn. xii. 4-8) was probably
+associated in the thought of the disciples with his later treachery;
+consequently the synoptists report the plot of Judas and this supper in
+close connection.
+
+72. _The Messianic entry into Jerusalem_ is regarded by Réville as a
+surrender by Jesus of his lofty Messianic ideal in response to the
+temptation to seek a popular following. Keim with finer insight says,
+"Even if it had certainly been his wish to bring the kingdom of heaven
+near in Jerusalem quietly and gradually, and with a healthy mental
+progress, as in Galilee, yet ... in the face of the irritability of his
+opponents, in the face of the powerful means at their disposal of crushing
+him ... there remained but one chance,--reckless publicity, the conquest
+of the partially prepared nation by means, not of force, but of idea....
+He came staking his life upon the venture, but also believing that God
+must finish his work through life or death" (JN V. 100f.).
+
+73. _The question about the resurrection_ was probably a familiar
+Sadducean problem with which they made merry at the expense of the
+scribes. On the resurrection in Jewish thought see Charles, _Eschatology,
+Hebrew, Jewish, and Christian_, by index. For the scepticism of the
+Sadducees see also Ac. xxiii. 8; Jos. Wars, ii, 8. 14.
+
+74. On the "_great commandment_" see EdersLJM II. 403 ff.
+
+75. The eschatological discourse presents serious exegetical difficulties.
+Many cut the knot by assuming that Mk. xiii. and ||s contain a little
+Jewish apocalypse written shortly before the destruction of Jerusalem,
+which has been blended with genuine predictions of Jesus concerning his
+second coming. See Charles, _Eschatology_, 323-. 329; WendtLJ I. 9-21;
+HoltzmannNtTH I. 325 ff.; and Bruce's criticism in _Expos. Gk. Test_. I.
+287f., also Sanday's note in HastBD II. 635f.
+
+76. On _the relation of proselytes_ to Judaism see SchürerJPTX II. ii.
+291-327. The synagogue in heathen lands drew to itself by its monotheism
+and its pure ethics the finest spirits of paganism. But few of them,
+however, submitted to circumcision, and became thus proselytes. Most of
+them constituted the class of "them that fear God" to whom Paul constantly
+appealed in his apostolic mission. The Greeks of Jn. xii. 20 ff. were
+probably circumcised proselytes.
+
+77. On _Judas_ see Plummer in HastBD II. 796 ff.; EdersLJM II. 471-478;
+WeissLX III. 285-289; AndLOL by index. De Quincey's essay on _Judas
+Iscariot_ is an elaborate defence.
+
+
+VII
+
+The Last Supper
+
+78. GilbertLJ 335-354; WeissLX III. 273-318; EdersLJM II. 479-532; AndLOL
+450-497; KeimJN V. 275-343; BeysLJ II. 434-448; SandayHastBD II. 633-638.
+
+79. _The day of the last supper_. John seems clearly to place it on the
+day before the Passover--13 Nisan. See xiii. I, 29; xviii. 28; xix. 14,
+31, 42. Synoptists as clearly declare that the supper was prepared on the
+"first day of unleavened bread, when they sacrificed the Passover" (Mk.
+xiv. 12; see also Lk. xxii. 15); this is confirmed by the similarity
+between the Passover ritual as tradition has preserved it, and the course
+of events at the supper. Unless interpretation can remove the
+contradiction, John must have the preference. WeissLX III. 273-282, BeysLJ
+II. 390-399, accept John and correct the synoptists by him; thus the
+supper anticipated the Passover. Some hold that John can be interpreted
+harmoniously with synoptists, and be shown to indicate that the supper was
+on the 14th Nisan. So EdersLJM II. 508, 566f., 612f.; AndLOL 452-481;
+GilbertLJ 335-339. Others believe that a true interpretation of synoptists
+shows that in calling the last supper a Passover they correctly represent
+the character, but misapprehend the time, of the meal. For this argument
+see Muirhead, _Times of Xt_, 163-169, and read SandayHastBD II. 633-636
+and his references. The debate is still on, but the advantage seems to be
+with those who assign the supper to the 13th and the crucifixion to the
+14th Nisan.
+
+80. _Did Jesus institute a memorial sacrament_? Read SandayHastBD II.
+636-638, and Thayer, in Jour. Bib. Lit. 1899, 110-131; see also
+McGiffert, _Apostolic Age_, 68 ff. note; HoltzmannNtTh I. 296-304.
+
+81. _The Passover ritual_. The order according to the rabbis was the
+following: the first cup of wine and water was taken by the leader, who
+gave thanks over it, and then it was shared by all (compare Lk. xxii. 17);
+then the head of the company washed his hands--Dr. Edersheim connects with
+this the washing of the disciples' feet, which changed the ceremony from
+an act of distinction into one of humble service; after this the dishes
+were brought on the table, then the leader dipped some of the bitter herbs
+into salt water or vinegar, spoke a blessing, and partook of them, then
+handed them to each of the company; then one of the loaves of unleavened
+bread was broken; after this a second cup was filled, and before it was
+drunk the significance of the Passover was explained by the leader in
+reply to a question by the youngest of the company, after which the first
+part of the Hallel (Ps. cxiii., cxiv.) was sung, and then the cup was
+drunk; then followed the supper itself beginning with "the sop,"--a piece
+of the paschal lamb, a piece of unleavened bread, and bitter herbs,
+wrapped together and dipped in the vinegar,--which was passed around the
+company (compare the sop which Jesus gave to Judas); after the supper came
+a third cup, known as "the cup of blessing" (see I. Cor. x. 16); then
+followed grace after meat; then a fourth cup, in connection with which the
+remainder of the Hallel was sung (Ps. cxv. to cxviii.), followed by
+certain other songs and prayers. See EdersLJM II. 496-512; AndLOL 488-494.
+
+82. _The washing of the disciples' feet_. John (xiii. 1-11) says this
+occurred "during supper" (v. 2), and before the designation of the
+traitor. Luke (xxii. 23-30) tells of a dispute about greatness among the
+disciples. This dispute may have arisen over the assignment of places at
+table (compare Lk. xiv. 7 ff.; Mk. x. 33-45); if so, the reason for the
+lesson in humility is apparent. See AndLOL 482-484; EdersLJM II. 492-503.
+
+83. _Did Jesus twice predict Peter's denials_? Mark (xiv. 26-31) and
+Matthew (xxvi. 30-35) place the prediction after the departure for
+Gethsemane; Luke (xxii. 31-34) and John (xiii. 36-38), during the supper.
+AndLOL 494 ff. thinks Peter was warned twice, EdersLJM. II. 535-537 holds
+to one warning on the way to Gethsemane. Antecedent probability favors
+this view.
+
+84. _Where in John should the institution of the sacrament be placed_?
+Probably after the departure of Judas (Mark xiv. 21f.; Matt. xxvi. 26),
+thus not before xiii. 30. The most likely place is between, verses 32 and
+33. There is no break at this point, and it remains a mystery why John's
+account of the passion omitted this central feature of early Christian
+belief and practice. The omission argues for rather than against apostolic
+authorship, as a forger would not have ventured to disregard the leading
+service of the church in an account of the life of its Lord. See Westcott,
+_Comm. on John_, 188.
+
+85. On the possible _disarrangement of the last discourses_ (xiii. 31 to
+xvi. 33) in our text of John see Spitta, _Urchristentum_, I. 168-193;
+Bacon, Jour. Bib. Lit. 1894, 64-76; Burton, Bib. Wld. 1899 I. 32.
+
+
+VIII
+
+The Shadow of the Cross
+
+86. See GilbertLJ 354-384; AndLOL 497-588; WeissLX III. 319-381; BeysLJ I.
+390-432, II. 448-473; EdersLJM II. 533-620; KeimJN VI. 1-274; SandayHastBD
+II. 632f.
+
+87. On the location of _Gethsemane and Golgotha_ see AndLOL 499f.,
+575-588; and HastBD II. 164, 226f.
+
+88. On the progress of _Jesus' trial by the Jewish authorities, _ see
+AndLOL 505-516; GilbertLJ 359-363. The _legality of the trial_ has been
+carefully discussed by A. T. Innes, _The Trial of Jesus Christ_.
+
+89. On the form and sequence of _Peter's denials_, see Westcott, _Comm.
+on John_, 263-266; AndLOL 516-521.
+
+90. The _Words from the Cross_. Matthew (xxvii. 46) and Mark (xv. 34)
+report one; Luke (xxiii. 34?, 43, 46) adds three, omitting the one found
+in Matthew and Mark; John adds three more (xix. 26f., 28, 30). Luke xxiii.
+34 is bracketed by Westcott and Hort because omitted by a very important
+group of MSS. ([Hebrew: aleph]^aBD*) and some early versions. The saying
+is almost certainly authentic, though it may have been added to Luke by
+some early copyist. See Westcott and Hort, _N.T. in Greek_, II. Appendix,
+68; and Plummer, _Comm. on Luke_, 544f.
+
+
+IX
+
+The Resurrection and Ascension
+
+91. Read SandayHastBD II. 638-643; see KeimJK VI. 274-383, for a still
+valid criticism of the position of RévilleJN II. 428-478; see also WeissLX
+III. 382-409; BeysLJ I. 433-481, II. 474-493; BovonNTTh I. 350-375;
+GilbertLJ 385-405; Loofs, _Die Auferstehungsberichte und ihr Wert_;
+EdersLJM II. 621-652; AndLOL 589-639.
+
+92. The last twelve verses of Mark (xvi. 9-20) are omitted by the oldest
+MSS ([Hebrew: aleph]B) and by the recently discovered Sinaitic Syriac, as
+well as by other versions and fathers. An Armenian MS. has been found
+ascribing the section to one Ariston, or Aristion, a second century elder,
+and this explanation of the origin of the verses is widely accepted. The
+gospel cannot have ended with the words "for they were afraid," but no
+satisfactory explanation of the condition of its text has been found. For
+a recent hypothesis see Rohrbach, _Der Schluss des Markusevangeliums_; on
+Aristion as the author, see Conybeare in Expos. IV. viii. (1893) 241, IV.
+x. 219, V. ii. 401; see also SandayHastBD II. 638f., Bruce, _Expos. Gk.
+Test_. I. 454f. For discussion of textual evidence see Westcott and Hort,
+_NT in Greek_, II. Appendix, 28-51, and Burgon, _The last twelve verses
+of St. Mark_ (a passionate defence).
+
+Luke xxiv. 51 is omitted by [Hebrew: aleph]*D and several old Latin MSS.
+See Plummer and Bruce on the passage.
+
+93. "_After three days_." This formula, which appears often in Mark, is
+altered in parallels in Matthew and Luke to "on the third day" (see
+Concordance). Jesus died on Friday, lay in the tomb over Saturday, and
+rose very early Sunday morning. Thus he spent a part of Friday, and a part
+of Sunday, and all of Saturday in the grave. According to Jewish reckoning
+this was counted three days.
+
+94. _Emmaus_. A village about 60 furlongs from Jerusalem. Cannot have been
+the Emmaus in the Shephelah, 20 m. from Jerusalem. May have been el
+Kubeibeh, 63 furlongs distant on the road from Jerusalem to Lydda. See
+AndLOL 617-619; but also HastBD I. 700.
+
+
+
+
+Part III.--The Minister
+
+
+I
+
+The Friend of Men
+
+95. Head Mathews, _The Social Teachings of Jesus, _ especially 132-174;
+see also Robinson, _The Saviour in the Newer Light_, 343 ff.
+
+
+II
+
+The Teacher with Authority
+
+96. See WendtTJ I. 106-151; Stevens, _Theol. of the N.T._ 1-16; Beyschlag,
+_N.T. Theology, I_. 31-34. In particular on the Parables see references in
+sect. A 56. On the content of Jesus' teaching see WendtTJ 2 vols.;
+Dalman, _Die Worte Jesu; Stevens, Theol. of the N.T._ 17-244; Beyschlag,
+_N.T. Theol_. I. 27-299; Mathews, _Social Teaching of Jesus_; Gilbert,
+_The Revelation of Jesus_; Bruce, _The Kingdom of God_.
+
+
+III
+
+Jesus' Knowledge of Truth
+
+97. Adamson, _The Mind in Christ_; GilbertRJ 169f., 240-242; Schwartzkopf,
+_The Prophecies of Jesus Christ_.
+
+
+IV
+
+Jesus' Conception of Himself
+
+98. BaldSJ 125-282; Stalker, _Christology of Jesus_, HoltzmannNtTh I.
+234-304; WendtTJ II. 122-183; GilbertRJ 167-228; Stevens, _Theol. of the
+N.T._ 41-64, 199-212. On the title "Son of Man" see particularly DalmanWJ
+I. 191-219; Charles, _Eschatology_, 214f. note; against, A. Meyer, _Jesu
+Muttersprache_, 91-101, and others. See also HoltzmannNtTh I.
+246-264. On the name "Son of God," see Dalman WJ I. 219-237; Holtzmann
+NtTh I. 265-278; Stalker, _Christology_, 86-123; Gilbert, as above. On the
+personal religion of Jesus see Burton, Bib. Wld. 1899, II. 394-403. For
+the total impression of the character of Jesus, read Bushnell, _The
+Character of Jesus_.
+
+
+
+
+Indexes
+
+
+
+
+Index of Names and Subjects
+
+
+
+[References are to pages.]
+
+
+Ænon, site of, 288.
+"After three days," 307.
+Agrapha, 36, 149, 281.
+Andrew, of Bethsaida, 92, 94, 118.
+Angels, doctrine of, 10.
+Annas, 191, 193, 194.
+Antipas, 4, 192.
+Apocalypse, 17f., 122, 124, 241.
+Apocryphal gospels, 37, 281, 282.
+Archelaus, 4, 5.
+Aristion, author of Mark xvi. 9-20, 204f., 306f.
+Assumption of Moses, 75
+
+Baptism of John, see _John the Baptist_.
+Baptism of Jesus, 83-86, 283f.
+Barabbas, 174, 192.
+Bethany beyond Jordan, 92, 284.
+Bethany, supper at, 169, 301.
+Bethsaida, site of, 290.
+Books of reference, 273-277.
+Brethren of Jesus, 63f., 283.
+
+Cæsarea Philippi;, 4, 291.
+  confession at, see _Peter_.
+Caiaphas, 191, 193, 194.
+Cana of Galilee, 95, 222, 286.
+Cananeans or Zealots, party of, 11, 74.
+Capernaum, site of, 290.
+Census under Quirinius, 11, 52-55.
+Chorazin, site of, 290.
+
+Dalmanutha, 291.
+Dalmanutha, Books of, 17f., 241, 254f.
+Decapolis, the, 140, 291.
+Dedication, feast of, 150, 154.
+Demoniac possession, 131-133, 245-248, 299.
+Devout, the, 13, 17.
+Diatessaron of Tatian, 38, 47, 281.
+Doublets, 44, 281.
+Draughts of fish, miraculous, 293.
+
+Emmaus, site of, 307.
+Enoch, Book of, 241, 256-258.
+Ephraim, site of, 300.
+Essenes, manner of living, 11-12;
+  their hope of Messiah, 16;
+  their settlement, 73;
+  relation to John the Baptist, 73, 77.
+
+Five thousand, the feeding of, 135f., 291.
+
+Gadarenes, country of, 247, 290f.
+Genealogies of Jesus, 282.
+Gethsemane, 177, 186, 188f., 265, 305.
+Golgotha, 305.
+
+Herod the Great, 3;
+  began to rebuild temple, 49;
+  census during his reign, 54.
+Herod Antipas, 4, 192.
+Herodians, 14, 173.
+
+James, brother of John, 92, 94, 118.
+Jesus, language of, 19, 62, 279;
+  date of birth, 52-56;
+  the miraculous conception, 58-61;
+  growth, physical, intellectual, moral, and spiritual, 61-66;
+  his brothers and sisters, 64;
+  visit to Jerusalem in his twelfth year, 66-68;
+  life in Nazareth, 68f.;
+  his baptism, 83-86;
+  his temptation, 86-91;
+  his first disciples, 92-95;
+  at Cana, 95;
+  his social friendliness, 96, 219f.;
+  the cleansing of the temple, 108-110;
+  talk with Nicodemus, 111;
+  the woman of Samaria, 112;
+  cure of nobleman's son, 113;
+  in retirement in Galilee, 113f.;
+  call of four disciples, 118;
+  popular enthusiasm and pharisaic opposition, 119-121;
+  his withdrawals and injunctions of silence, 122 ff.;
+  blasphemy of the Pharisees, 124;
+  the reply to John's message, 125;
+  his twofold aim in Galilee, 126;
+  his method, 127;
+  the sermon on the mount, 127f.;
+  the parables, 128f., 231f., 296f.;
+  instruction of the twelve, 130, 297;
+  his mighty works, 131f.;
+  his personal influence, 133;
+  the feeding of the five thousand, 135f.;
+  the revulsion in popular feeling, 136;
+  the controversy about hand washing, 139;
+  the withdrawal to the north, 138;
+  the demand for a sign, 139;
+  disciples warned against the Pharisees, 139;
+  the question at Cæsarea Philippi, 141f.;
+  commendation of Peter, 143;
+  announcement of approaching death, 144;
+  rebuke of Peter, 145;
+  the transfiguration, 146f.;
+  the epileptic boy, 147;
+  rebuke of worldly ambition, 147f.;
+  Jesus and his brethren, 148;
+  at the feast of Tabernacles, 148;
+  return to Galilee, 150;
+  final departure from Galilee, 154;
+  the mission of the seventy, 158;
+  visit to the feast of Dedication, 159;
+  in Perea, 160;
+  the summons to Bethany, 161f.;
+  official determination to get rid of him, 161;
+  at Ephraim, 162;
+  question about divorce, 154;
+  blessing little children, 154;
+  the rich young ruler, 154;
+  request of Salome, 163;
+  Bartimeus, 163;
+  Zacchæus, 163;
+  anointing at Bethany, 169;
+  the Messianic entry, 170f.;
+  the barren fig-tree, 172;
+  the questions of the leaders, 173f.;
+  counter question, 175;
+  denunciation of scribes, 175;
+  the widow's mites, 176;
+  visit of the Greeks. 176f.;
+  the eschatological discourse, 178;
+  bargain of Judas, 169, 178f.;
+  the last supper, 181-184;
+  dispute and foot washing, 184;
+  withdrawal of Judas, 184;
+  prediction of Peter's denials, 185;
+  discourse and prayer, 185-187;
+  Gethsemane, 188-190;
+  betrayal and arrest, 190f.;
+  trial by Jews, 191f.;
+  trial by Pilate, 192-194;
+  crucifixion, 195-198;
+  burial of Jesus, 199;
+  the resurrection, 201-210;
+  the ascension, 214f.;
+  Jesus' attitude to common life, 219-223;
+  his hunger for sympathy, 223;
+  Jesus as a teacher, 226f.;
+  his attitude to Old Testament, 227-229;
+  his confidence in men, 230f.;
+  his use of illustration, 231-233;
+  his alertness of mind, 234;
+  his leading ideas, 235 ff.;
+  his supernatural knowledge, 239-244;
+  his confession of ignorance, 243;
+  his kinship with men, 244f.;
+  treatment of demoniac possession, 245-248;
+  his certainty of his Messianic call, 249-254;
+  his adoption of Messianic titles, 254-264;
+  his consciousness of dependence on God, 264-266;
+  the problem of Jesus, 267-269.
+John, Gospel of, 32-36, 40f., 181, 280, 305.
+John the Baptist, 70-81;
+  notice by Josephus, 71f., 279f.;
+  his idea of the kingdom of God, 73;
+  his relation to current thought, 73-76;
+  his baptism, 77f., 83;
+  baptism of Jesus, 82-84;
+  the embassy from the priests, 92;
+  testimony--"the Lamb of God," 93, 286;
+  baptizing at Ænon, 112;
+  his self-effacing witness to Jesus, 79, 112;
+  hostility of the Pharisees, 113, 289;
+  arrest by Antipas, 71f., 113;
+  his message to Jesus, 125;
+  death in prison, 134f.; his significance, 79-81, 226;
+  the disciples of John, 112, 283;
+  literature about John, 283.
+John, son of Zebedee, 36, 92, 94, 118, 193,269.
+John of Gischals, 121.
+Joseph of Arimathea, 182, 199.
+Josephus, 22;
+  notice of John the Baptist, 71, 279f.
+Judas of Galilee, 11, 121.
+Judas the betrayer, 169, 181, 302;
+  the bargain, 178;
+  his selection as an apostle, 179;
+  his criticism of Mary at Bethany, 179;
+  his kiss, 190;
+  his remorse, 179.
+Judea, province of, 6f.
+
+Kingdom of God, 68, 86, 90, 173, 190, 231, 232, 235 ff., 238, 241.
+
+Language used by Jesus, 19, 62, 279.
+Last supper, the, 181-187, 303-305.
+Lawyers, see _Scribes_.
+Length of Jesus' ministry, 45-49.
+Literature of the Jews, 18f., 279.
+"Logia," ascribed to Matthew, 32, 42, 158.
+Luke, Gospel of, 26f., 31f., 280.
+
+Mark, Gospel of, 25f., 27, 29, 32, 40, 42, 280, 294f.;
+  last twelve verses of, 204f., 306f.
+Mary Magdalene, 134, 208.
+Mary, the mother of Jesus, 59;
+  had other children, 60, 63f., 283.
+Matthew, Gospel of, 23 ff., 27, 30f., 32, 280.
+Messianic entry into Jerusalem, 170, 301f.
+Messianic hope, the, 16-18, 87, 175, 279.
+Miracles of Jesus, 96, 267, 286f.
+Miraculous birth, the, 57-61, 232.
+Mission of the twelve, 130, 297.
+Mission of the seventy, 158, 300f.
+
+Nathanael, of Cana, 92, 94, 286.
+Nazareth, the view from, 65f.
+  rejection at, 292.
+Nicodemus, 111, 199.
+
+Papias, 22, 29, 34, 47, 102, 281.
+Parables of Jesus, 128f., 231f., 296f.
+Passover, the, 181, 187, 304.
+Paul, 21, 36, 201, 206, 268.
+Pentateuch, Jesus' references to, 244.
+Perea, 104, 153f., 158, 299f.
+Peter, 29, 34, 92, 94, 118, 185, 193, 305, 306;
+  confession of, 136, 142 ff., 297f.
+Pharisees, the, 8-10;
+  attitude to John the Baptist, 82, 113, 289;
+  their blasphemy, 124, 156;
+  question about divorce, 154;
+  about tribute, 173;
+  about the great commandment, 174, 302.
+Philip of Bethsaida, 92, 94, 176.
+Philip the tetrarch, 4.
+Pliny the younger, 21.
+Pontius Pilate, 5, 192, 195.
+Priests, the, 7f., 107;
+  and the temple market, 108.
+Proselytes, 78, 176, 302.
+Psalms, Jesus' use of the, 244.
+Psalms of Solomon, 18, 261.
+Publicans, 6, 72, 222.
+
+Quirinius, census under, 52-55.
+
+Religion of Jesus, 264 ff., 308.
+Resurrection, pharisaic doctrine of, 10, 241;
+  Sadducean rejection of 10, 174.
+
+Sadducees, the, 8, 16, 82;
+  the question about the resurrection, 174, 303;
+  attitude towards Jesus, 193.
+Samaria, 6f.
+  Jesus' journey through, 112.
+Samaritans, how regarded, 14.
+Sanhedrin, the great, at Jerusalem, 7, 13, 192.
+Scribes, their business, 9;
+  power in the sanhedrin, 13;
+  their influence over the religious life, 14;
+  their hope of a Messiah, 16;
+  their washings, 78;
+  chief of them at Jerusalem, 107;
+  their pride of learning and their bondage to tradition, 228.
+Sermon on the mount, 127, 290, 295f.
+Signs, essential marks of the Messiah, 95, 131.
+Soldiers in Palestine, 6, 72, 191.
+Son of Man, the, 124f., 130f., 254-260, 308.
+Son of God, the, 260-264, 308.
+Star of the wise men, 56.
+Suetonius, 21.
+Sychar, site of, 288.
+Synagogue, the, 14.
+Synoptic gospels, 28.
+Synoptic problem, 27-32, 279f.
+
+Tabernacles, feast of, 148, 150, 298f.
+Tacitus, 3, 21, 54.
+Tatian, 23, 38, 47, 281.
+Taxes, Roman, in Judea, 6.
+Temple at Jerusalem, 107;
+  market in 107;
+  cleansing of, 107, 288f.
+Temptation of Jesus, 86-91, 145, 284;
+  locality of, 285;
+  source of the record, 90, 285.
+Tertullian, 45, 53.
+Thomas, 208.
+Tiberius, 1, 21, 50.
+Traditions of the elders, 9, 15f., 68, 74, 139.
+Transfiguration, the, 146f., 292.
+Trial of Jesus, the, 191-195, 305.
+
+Words from the cross, 196 ff., 306.
+
+Zealots, the, 11, 74, 122, 124.
+
+
+
+
+Index of Scripture References
+
+
+
+Ex.
+
+iv. 22                 261
+xix. 10                 78
+xxiv. 1-11             183
+
+
+
+Lev.
+
+xii. 8                  61
+xxiii. 5-11             47
+
+
+
+Num.
+
+xxiii. 19              254
+
+
+
+Deut.
+
+vi. 4-9                 62
+viii. 3                 88
+xviii. 15               92
+xxi. 23                196
+
+
+
+I. Sam.
+
+ii. 26                  61
+
+
+
+I. Kings.
+
+xvii. 1                 72
+
+
+
+II. Kings.
+
+i. 8
+xvii. 24-41             14
+
+
+
+Ps.
+
+ii. 7                  261
+viii. 4                254
+xxii.                  196
+lxxx. 17               254
+lxxxii. 6              261
+ciii. 13               262
+cxiii., cxiv.          304
+cxv. to cxviii.        185, 304
+
+
+
+Isa.
+
+i. 16                   76
+vi. 5                  267
+xi. 2                   85
+xxxv. 5f.              126
+xlii. 1                 85
+li. 2                  254
+liii.                   96, 239
+liii. 7                 93
+lviii.                  76
+lxi. 1f.                45, 85, 126
+lxiii. 16              262
+
+
+
+Jer.
+
+xxxi. 31-34            111, 183
+
+
+
+Ezek.
+
+ii. 1                  254
+xxxiii. 10-20          240
+xxxvi. 25-27           111
+
+
+Dan.
+
+vi. 10                 107
+vii. 1-14              254
+vii. 13f.              255
+viii. 17               254
+
+
+Hos.
+
+i. 10                  261
+
+
+Joel.
+
+ii. 1-14                76
+
+
+Micah.
+
+vi. 8                   76
+
+
+Matt.
+
+i. 1 to iv. 17          23
+ii. 1, 2                52
+iii. 7                  74
+iii. 9                  78
+iii. 10-12              82
+iii. 11                 77
+iii. 14                 82
+iii. 15                 83
+iii. 16                285
+iv. 4, 7, 10           228
+iv. 7                   89
+iv. 8                   90
+iv. 10                  90, 145
+iv. 12                 101, 102, 106, 289
+iv. 12-17               24, 39, 115
+iv. 12 to xviii. 35    102
+iv. 13                 106
+iv. 13-16              115
+iv. 17                 118
+iv. 18-22              106, 115
+iv. 18 to xvi. 20       24
+iv. 23                 115
+iv. 23-25              115
+v. 1                   290
+v. 3-12                296
+v. 13-16               296
+v. 17                   83, 228
+v. 17-19               296
+v. 18                  238
+v. 20                  296
+v. 21-48               228, 296
+v. 25f.                295
+v. 29f.                295
+v. 32                  295
+v. 38, 39              250
+v. 45                  244
+vi. 1-6                 84
+vi. 1-18                64, 296
+vi. 2-4                176
+vi. 9-15                 4, 117, 295
+vi. 19-34              103, 295
+vi. 24                 179
+vi. 25-34               42
+vii. 1-6               296
+vii. 7-11              117, 295
+vii. 13f.              295
+vii. 15-21             296
+vii. 21                262
+vii. 21-27             238
+vii. 22f.              295
+vii. 24-27             296
+vii. 28, 29            226, 249
+viii. 2-4              115
+viii. 5                  7
+viii. 5, 8              43
+viii. 5-13              41, 115, 288, 289
+viii. 10               243
+viii. 10-12             24
+viii. 14-17            115
+viii. 18, 23-27        116
+viii. 19-22            153
+viii. 20               259
+viii. 28-34            116
+ix. 1, 18-26           116
+ix. 2-8                115
+ix. 9-13               115
+ix. 14-17              115
+ix. 27-34              116
+ix. 35                 116
+ix. 36 to xi. 1        116, 118, 297
+x. 1, 5-15             297
+x. 5f.                 130
+x. 7-15                297
+x. 16-42               297
+x. 32                  262
+xi. 2-6                251
+xi. 2-19                41, 116
+xi. 4-6                131
+xi. 11                  80
+xi. 18f.               259
+xi. 19                  96, 220, 256
+xi. 20-24              301
+xi. 20-30              153
+xi. 25-30              300
+xi. 27                 252, 263
+xi. 28-30              160
+xii. 1-8               115
+xii. 9-14              115
+xii. 12                227
+xii. 15-21             115
+xii. 22-45             116, 156
+xii. 28                 85, 248
+xii. 46-50             116
+xii. 50                145
+xiii. 1-53             116, 296
+xiii. 24-30            296
+xiii. 31-33             44, 17
+xiii. 40-43, 49, 50    296
+xiii. 54-58            116, 292
+xiii. 55                61, 63
+xiv. 1-12              116
+xiv. 1 to xxviii. 20    28
+xiv. 13-23              39, 116, 297
+xiv. 19                 46
+xiv. 21-36             116
+xv. 1                   43
+xv. 1-20               116
+xv. 13f.               150
+xv. 21-28              116
+xv. 21-31              140
+xv. 22                 254
+xv. 24                 130
+xv. 29-31              117
+xv. 32-38              117, 297
+xv. 39                 291
+xv. 39 to xvi. 12       17
+xvi. 9f.               297
+xvi. 13-20              94, 117, 298
+xvi. 16                263
+xvi. 16ff.             142
+xvi. 17                142, 224, 262
+xvi. 21                118, 239
+xvi. 21-28             117
+xvi. 21 to xxviii. 20   24
+xvi. 23                239
+xvii. 1-13             117
+xvii. 10-13            193
+xvii. 14-20            117
+xvi. 22-23             117
+xvii. 24-27            117, 139
+xviii. 1-35            117, 148
+xviii. 4               220
+xviii. 12-14            44
+xix. 1f.                39, 153, 154, 298
+xix. 1 to xx. 34       104
+xix. 3-9               228
+xix. 3-12              153
+xix. 13-15             153
+xix. 16 to xx. 16      153
+xx. 17-19              153
+xx. 20-28              153
+xx. 29-34              153
+xxi. 1-11              166
+xxi. 1 to xxvii. 66    104
+xxi. 1 to xxviii. 20    39
+xxi. 4f.               170
+xxi. 9-15              254
+xxi. 14-16             172
+xxi. 17                166
+xxi. 18-19, 12-17      166
+xxi. 20-23             166
+xxi. 23-27             166
+xxi. 28 to xxii. 14    166, 173
+xxi. 33-46              25, 252
+xxii. 1-14             252
+xxii. 15-22            166
+xxii. 23-33            166
+xxii. 34-46            166, 238
+xxii. 41-46            166
+xxiii. 1-39            166
+xxiii. 2                13
+xxiii. 24              233
+xxiii. 37-39            34, 106
+xxiv. 1 to xxvi. 2     167
+xxiv. 6-13             166
+xxv.                   178
+xxv. 37-46             237
+xxv. 40                221
+xxvi. 1f.              147
+xxvi. 2, 6-13          301
+xxvi. 3-5, 14-16       167
+xxvi. 11-13            167
+xxvi. 20               181
+xxvi. 25               200
+xxvi. 26               305
+xxvi. 30, 36-46        167
+xxvi. 30-35            305
+xxvi. 47-56            167
+xxvi. 57 to xxvii. 10  167
+xxvi. 63f.             263
+xxvii. 11-31           167
+xxvii. 32-56           167
+xxvii. 43              261
+xxvii. 46              197, 306
+xxvii. 50              285
+xxvii. 57               34
+xxvii. 57-61           167
+xxvii. 62-66           167
+xxviii. 1-8            201
+xxviii. 9, 10          201
+xxviii. 11-15          201
+xxviii. 16-20          201, 204
+xxviii. 18-20           25
+
+
+Mark.
+
+i. 1-13                 26
+i. 3                    79
+i. 4                    77
+i. 7f.                  93
+i. 10                   84
+i. 11                   68, 84, 261
+i. 14                  101, 102, 106, 289
+i. 14f.                 39, 115
+i. 14 to ix. 50         26, 102
+i. 16-20               115
+i. 21-34               115
+i. 24                  254
+i. 27                  249
+i. 35                  265
+i. 35-39               253
+i. 35-45               115
+ii. 1-12                47, 115, 230, 294
+ii. 1-17                48
+ii. 1 to iii. 6         47, 48, 250, 204f.
+ii. 5                  239
+ii. 6f.                121
+ii. 10                  28, 256, 259
+ii. 10, 28 and ||s     256
+ii. 12                  25
+ii. 13-17               47, 115, 294
+ii. 15-17               96
+ii. 16                  47, 121
+ii. 18-22               26, 47, 115
+ii. 20                 239
+ii. 23                  47
+ii. 23-28              115, 229, 294f.
+ii. 25-27              228
+ii. 27                 257
+ii. 44                 253
+iii. 1-6                26, 115, 295
+iii. 7-12              115
+iii. 11                261
+iii. 13-19             115, 295
+iii. 17, 41             25
+iii. 19-30              40, 42, 116
+iii. 21, 31-35          59, 97
+iii. 22                 34, 121
+iii. 22-30             156
+iii. 28-30             251
+iii. 31-35              59, 97, 116
+iv. 1-34               116, 232, 296
+iv. 3                   64
+iv. 12                 129
+iv. 13                 129
+iv. 26-29              296
+iv. 35-41              116
+v. 1                   290
+v. 1-20                116
+v. 7                   261
+v. 11-13               139
+v. 21-43               116
+v. 30-34               243
+v. 41                   20
+vi. 1-6                 43, 116, 292
+vi. 2f.                220
+vi. 6b                 116
+vi. 7-11               297
+vi. 7-13               116, 147
+vi. 14-29              116
+vi. 15                 290
+vi. 30-34               47
+vi. 30-46               39, 40, 116, 297
+vi. 39                  46
+vi. 47-56              116
+vii. 1                  34
+vii. 1-23, 48           48, 116, 121, 139, 250
+vii. 6-13              233
+vii. 8-13               10
+vii. 10                244
+vii. 13                251
+vii. 14-23             238
+vii. 15                227
+vii. 19                130, 228
+vii. 24-30             116
+vii. 27                140
+vii. 29f.              289
+vii. 31                291
+vii. 31-37             117, 297
+vii. 34                 20
+vii. 37                 25
+viii. 1f.              141
+viii. 1-9              117, 297
+viii. 10               291
+viii. 10-21            117
+viii. 11                96
+vii. 11-13             139
+viii. 14f.             139
+viii. 19f.             297
+viii. 22-26            117
+viii. 27-30            117, 141, 298
+viii. 29               254
+viii. 31               168 ,20, 256, 259
+viii. 31-33             87, 239
+viii. 31-ix. 1         117, 296
+viii. 32f.              93
+viii. 34f.             147
+viii. 34 to ix. 1      146
+viii. 38               256, 259
+ix. 1                  242
+ix. 2                  292
+ix. 2-13               117
+ix. 6                   28
+ix. 9                  147
+ix. 10                 203
+ix. 14-29              117, 147
+ix. 19                 224
+ix. 29                 265
+ix. 30-32              117, 147
+ix. 31                 204
+ix. 33-50              117, 299
+ix. 35-37              234
+ix. 43-47              295
+x. 1                     9, 104, 153, 154, 298
+x. 1 to xvi. 8          26
+x. 2-12                153, 154, 298
+x. 5f.                 244
+x. 11                  153, 154, 160
+x. 13-16               104
+x. 17-31               153, 155, 160
+x. 18                  226
+x. 19                  229
+x. 25                  233
+x. 32-34               147, 153, 155, 162
+x. 35-45               153, 155, 163, 165, 184, 230, 304
+x. 40                  243
+x. 42-45               259
+x. 45                  241
+x. 46                  162
+x. 46-52               153
+x. 47f.                254
+x. 48                  163
+xi. 1-11               166
+xi. 1 to xv. 47        104
+xi. 1 to xvi. 8 [20]    39
+xi. 2f.                 34
+xi. 2-5                112
+xi. 8-10               162
+xi. 9f.                170
+xi. 12-14, 15-18       166
+xi. 12-14, 20-25       172
+xi. 14-36               42
+xi. 15-19               43, 288
+xi. 17                 108
+xi. 19                 166
+xi. 20-27              166
+xi. 25                 295
+xi. 27-33              166
+xi. 29-33              173
+xii. 1-12              166
+xii. 13-17             166, 173
+xii. 16                227
+xii. 18-27             166, 174
+xii. 24-27             228
+xii. 27                186
+xii. 28-34             166, 174
+xii. 35-37             166, 245
+xii. 38-40             166
+xii. 41-44             166
+xiii. and ||s          178, 241, 302
+xiii. 1-37             167
+xiii. 24-27            238
+xiii. 32               243, 247, 252, 263
+xiv. 1f., 10f.         167
+xiv. 3                 169
+xiv. 3-9               166, 301
+xiv. 3-11              169
+xiv. 8                 169
+xiv. 12                303
+xiv. 12-16             112
+xiv. 12-26             167
+xiv. 14                 34
+xiv. 17                181
+xiv. 18-21             184
+xiv. 20                185
+xiv. 21                180
+xiv. 26, 32-42         167
+xiv. 26-31             305
+xiv. 33f.              186
+xiv. 34                145
+xiv. 36                 20, 189, 239, 265
+xiv. 43-52             167
+xiv. 45                190
+xiv. 50                182
+xiv. 53 to xv. 1       190
+xiv. 61                167
+xiv. 61f.              254, 261
+xiv. 61-64             263
+xiv. 62                191
+xiv. 66-72              85, 258
+xv. 1                  192
+xv. 1-20               167
+xv. 2                  254
+xv. 6-15               192
+xv. 21                 182, 195
+xv. 21-41              167
+xv. 22                 305
+xv. 34                  20, 197, 306
+xv. 42                 182
+xv. 42-47              167
+xv. 43                  34
+xv. 46                 182
+xvi. 1                 202
+xvi. 1-8               201
+xvi. 6f.               209
+xvi. [9-20]            204f., 306
+xvi. [9-11]            201
+xvi. [12f.]            201
+xvi. [14]              201
+xvi. [15-18]           201
+xvi. [19f.]             201
+
+
+
+Luke.
+
+
+i. 1-4                  26, 42
+i. 3                    41
+i. 5                    52
+i. 36                   82
+i. 46-55                60
+i. 68-79                68-79
+i. 80                   61
+ii. 1f.                 52
+ii. 8                   56
+ii. 19-51               59
+ii. 24                  61
+ii. 40-52               61
+ii. 41                  62, 107
+ii. 48                  97
+ii. 49                  67, 262
+ii. 52                  63, 69
+iii. 1f.                45, 49, 52
+iii. 13f.               74
+iii. 15                 94
+iii. 21                 64, 82, 85, 265
+iii. 23                 52
+iv. 5                   90
+iv. 13                  87, 146
+iv. 14                 101, 102, 289
+iv. 14, 15              39, 115, 292
+iv. 14 to ix. 50        26, 102
+iv. 16                  62
+iv. 16-19               63
+iv. 16-30               43, 116, 292
+iv. 23                 292
+iv. 31                 106, 115
+iv. 31-41              115
+iv. 42-44              115
+v. 1-11                115, 293
+v. 4-11                 43
+v. 12-16               115
+v. 17                   34
+v. 17-26               115
+v. 24                   28
+v. 27-32               115
+v. 33-39               115
+vi. 1-5                115
+vi. 6-11               115
+vi. 12                  84, 265, 290
+vi. 12-19              115, 295
+vi. 17                 290
+vi. 20                 222
+vi. 20 to vii. 1       115, 295
+vi. 20-26              296
+vi. 27-42              296
+vi. 43-46              296
+vi. 47-49              296
+vii. 1-10               41, 115, 288, 289
+vii. 2-5                 7
+vii. 7                  43
+vii. 11-17              42, 116
+vii. 18-35              41, 116
+vii. 36-50              42, 116, 224
+vii. 47                239
+viii. 1-3              116
+viii. 4-18             116, 296
+viii. 19-21            116
+viii. 22-25            116
+viii. 26               290
+viii. 26-39            116
+viii. 40-56            116
+ix. 1-6                116, 297, 300
+ix. 7-9                116
+ix. 10-17               39, 116, 297
+ix. 11                 135
+ix. 18                 265
+ix. 18-21              117, 298
+ix. 22-27              117
+ix. 28f.                84, 146
+ix. 28-36              117
+ix. 29                 265
+ix. 31                 146
+ix. 37-42              117
+ix. 43-45              117
+ix. 46-50              117
+ix. 51                  39, 157
+ix. 51f.               158, 298
+ix. 51-62              153
+ix. 51 to xviii.        40, 42, 104, 154, 156
+ix. 51 to xix. 27       26
+ix. 57-62              156
+x. 1                   158, 301
+x. 3-12                297
+x. 1-24                153, 300
+x. 13-16               301
+x. 17-20               301
+x. 17-24               160
+x. 18                  248
+x. 22                  252, 263, 300
+x. 25-37                34, 153, 159, 227
+x. 28-37               159
+x. 38-42                34, 111, 153
+xi. 1                   42, 265
+xi. 1-4                 42, 295
+xi. 1-13               117
+xi. 9-13               295
+xi. 14-36               40, 116, 156
+xi. 34-36              295
+xi. 37-52              156
+xi. 37-54              154, 164
+xii. 1-12              156
+xii. 1-59              154, 164, 165
+xii. 13-21             117
+xii. 22-31              42
+xii. 22-34             103, 516, 295
+xii. 49-53             165
+xii. 58f.              295
+xiii. 1-9              154, 161, 164
+xiii. 10-17            117
+xiii. 18-21             44, 117, 296
+xiii. 22               157
+xiii. 22-30            153, 164
+xiii. 24               295
+xiii. 31f.             171, 193
+xiii. 31-35            153, 168
+xiii. 32                 5
+xiii. 34f.              34, 106, 224
+xiii. 35               252
+xiv. 1-24              117
+xiv. 7ff.              304
+xiv. 15-24             161
+xiv. 25-35             154, 156, 164, 165
+xiv. 26                233
+xv.  1f.                96
+xv. 1 to xvi. 31       117
+xv. 4-7                 44
+xv. 7                  233
+xv. 11-32              232
+xvi. 13                295
+xvi. 22                247
+xvi. 31                229
+xvii. 1-4              117
+xvii. 11               157
+xvii. 11-19            153
+xvii. 20-37            154
+xviii. 1-8             154, 164
+xviii. 9-14            154, 159
+xviii. 15-17           153
+xviii. 15 to xix. 28   104
+xviii. 18-30           153
+xviii.  31-34          153
+xviii.  34             203
+xviii.  35-43          153
+xviii. 35 to xix. 28   155, 164
+xix. 1-10              154
+xix. 11-28             154, 163
+xix. 28 to xxiv. 53     27
+xix. 29-44             166
+xix. 29 to xxiii. 56   104
+xix. 29 to xxiii. 53    39
+xix. 37-40             162
+xix. 39                170
+xix. 41-44             170
+xix. 45f.              289
+xix. 45-47f.           166
+xix. 47                172
+xx. 1                  166
+xx. 1-8                166
+xx. 9-19               166
+xx. 20-26              166
+xx. 27-40              166
+xx. 41-44              166
+xx. 45-47              166
+xxi. 1-4               166
+xxi. 5-38              167
+xxii. 37-38            166
+xxii. 1-6              167
+xxii. 7-30             167
+xxii. 14               181
+xxii. 15               181, 183, 303
+xxii. 17               304
+xxii. 17-20            185
+xxii. 19               184
+xxii. 23-30            304
+xxii. 28                87
+xxii. 31-34            185, 305
+xxii. 39-46            167
+xxii. 47-53            167
+xxii. 54-71            167
+xxii. 61f.             193
+xxii. 66-71            192
+xxii. 70               263
+xxiii. 1f.             192
+xxiii. 1-25            167
+xxiii. 4               192
+xxiii. 5-12            192
+xxiii. 13-16           192
+xxiii. 16-24           192
+xxiii. 26-49           167
+xxiii. 27-31           195
+xxiii. 34              197, 306, 307
+xxiii. 43              197, 306
+xxiii. 46               64, 197, 265, 306
+xxiii. 50-56           167
+xxiii. 56              182
+xxiv. 1-12             201
+xxiv. 12               205
+xxiv. 13-35            201
+xxiv. 21               200, 203
+xxiv. 36-43            201
+xxiv. 41-43            213
+xxiv. 44-53            201
+xxiv. 50               205
+xxiv. 51               214, 307
+
+
+
+John.
+
+
+i. 14                   58, 269
+1. 19 to iv. 42         40, 101
+i. 25                   78
+i. 26f.                 93
+i. 28                   92, 284
+i. 29                   93
+i. 29-36                80
+i. 30-34                93
+i. 31                   82
+i. 32-34                84
+i. 35f.                 93
+i. 38                   20, 226
+i. 40f., 43-45          92
+i. 41-45               142
+i. 42-47               239
+i. 44                  290
+i. 49                   94, 142, 254, 261, 263
+i. 51                   95
+ii. 3-5                 97
+ii. 11                 222
+ii. 12                  97
+ii. 13                  46
+ii. 13-22               43, 106, 288
+ii. 16                 262
+ii. 20                  49
+ii. 22                  96
+ii. 23 to iii. 15      106
+ii. 25                  68, 141, 234, 239
+iii. 2                 226
+iii. 16-21,30-36        32
+iii. 22-30             106
+iii. 24                 46, 101
+iii. 23                288
+iii. 24,35             113
+iii. 30                 80
+iii. 34                 85, 86
+iv. 1-3                113
+iv. 1-3, 44            112
+iv. 1-4                289
+iv. 1-42               106
+iv. 1-45               102
+iv. 21-24              109
+iv. 25                  14
+iv. 26                 254
+iv. 30                  95
+iv. 34                 265
+iv. 35                 107, 288, 293
+iv. 42                  40
+iv. 43-45               39, 106, 286
+iv. 46-54              102, 106, 115, 289
+v. 1                    40, 48, 293
+v. 1-9                  32
+v. 1-47                102, 115
+v. 17                  262
+v. 19                  264
+v. 25                  263
+v. 30                  265
+v. 39                  229
+vi. 1-15                39, 116
+vi. 1-71               102
+vi. 4                   46, 138, 293
+vi. 14                  25
+vi. 14f.               119
+vi. 15                  89, 120, 135, 170
+vi. 16-21              116
+vi. 22-71              116
+vi. 30-32               87
+vi. 38                 189, 265
+vi. 64                 178, 180
+vi. 66                 136
+vi. 67                 225
+vi. 67-71              298
+vi. 68                  81, 123
+vi. 68f.               142
+vi. 69                 254
+vii. 1-10               39, 298
+vii. 1-52              117
+vii. 1 to viii. 59     103, 149
+vii. 2                 138
+vii. 2-5               148
+vii. 5                  64
+vii. 10                150
+vii. 15                235
+vii. 22                244
+vii. 23                 32
+vii. 24                227
+vii. 25,32             160
+vii. 31                 95
+vii. 32                299
+vii. 36                149
+vii. 40                254
+vii. 45-52             299
+vii. 49                 13, 220
+vii. 50-52             111
+vii. 53 to viii. 11     37, 117, 149, 157
+viii. 12-59            117
+viii. 14               248
+viii. 15               157
+viii. 46                83, 266
+viii. 59               160, 299
+ix. 1 to x. 39         153
+ix. 1 to xi. 57        104
+ix. 10                 158, 159
+ix. 35                 263
+ix. 35-38              156
+x. 11-18               159
+x. 18                   89
+x. 21                  159
+x. 22                  150, 155, 298
+x. 22, 40-42            58
+x. 24-39               159
+x. 25                  161, 262
+x. 29                  265
+x. 30                  264
+x. 31-39               160
+x. 32                  233
+x. 34                  261
+x. 36                  263
+x. 39                  156
+x. 40                  154, 155, 301
+x. 40-42               153, 160
+xi. 1-7                155
+xi. 1-46               153, 161
+xi. 4                  263
+xi. 6                  161
+xi. 34                 243, 258
+xi. 41f.               161, 265
+xi. 47-50              193
+xi. 47-54              153, 161
+xi. 54                 155, 162, 300
+xi. 55 to xii. 11      166
+xi. 55 to xix. 42      104
+xii. 1                  46, 102, 163, 301
+xii. 1 to xxi. 25       39
+xii. 2                 169
+xii. 4-8               301
+xii. 6                 178
+xii. 7                 169
+xii. 12f.              170
+xii. 12-19             166
+xii. 20-36             166, 176, 302
+xii. 23-36             168
+xii. 36^b(-50)         166
+xii. 37-43              32
+xiii. 1                181, 303
+xiii. 1-15             234, 304
+xiii. 1-30             167
+xiii. 21-30            184
+xiii. 23-26            185
+xiii. 29               178, 303
+xiii. 31 to xvi. 33     32, 167, 305
+xiii. 32f.             305
+xiii. 36-38            305
+xiv. 6-11              264
+xiv. 10                161, 265
+xiv. 28                265
+xiv. 30f.               32
+xv.                     32, 167, 305
+xv. 1                  262
+xvi.                    32, 167, 305
+xvi. 25                264
+xvii. 1-26             167
+xvii. 21               264
+xviii. 1               167
+xviii. 1-12            167
+xviii. 8               190
+xviii. 11^b            189
+xviii. 12-27           167
+xviii. 15              193
+xviii. 28              182, 303
+xviii. 28 to xix. 16   167
+xviii. 31              192
+xviii. 33, 36f.        254
+xix. 7-12              192
+xix. 12-16             193
+xix. 14                606
+xix. 16-37             167
+xix. 19-22             198
+xix. 25                 97
+xix. 26                 97
+xix. 26f.              197, 306
+xix. 28                197, 306
+xix. 30                197, 306
+xix. 31                182, 199, 303
+xix. 31-37             198
+xix. 38                 34
+xix. 38-42             167
+xix. 39                111
+xix. 42                303
+xx. 1-10               201
+xx. 2                  206
+xx. 5-8                 43
+xx. 8                  203
+xx. 9                  200
+xx. 9f., 24f.           93, 94
+xx. 14-18              201
+xx. 17                 209, 214
+xx 19-25               201
+xx. 21                  23
+xx. 26-29              201
+xx. 30                  49
+xx. 30f.               32, 107
+xxi.                   206
+xxi. 2                  92
+xxi. 1-24              201
+xxi. 3-14              293
+xxi. 25                 39
+
+
+
+Acts.
+
+
+i. 1-11                214
+i. 1-12                201
+i. 14                   97
+ii. 36                 202
+v. 36                   89
+v. 37                   53
+vii. 56                254
+xvii. 31               202
+xix. 1-7                80
+xx. 35                  36
+xxi. 38                 89
+xxiii. 8               302
+
+
+
+Rom.
+
+
+i. 3                    21
+i. 4                   202
+v. 19                   21
+ix. 5                   21
+xv. 3                   21
+
+
+
+I. Cor.
+
+
+i. 23                  190
+v. 7                   183
+ix. 1                  202
+x. 16                  304
+xv.                    202
+xv. 3-8                 21, 105, 204
+xv. 4                  204, 213
+xv. 5                  201
+xv. 6                  201
+xv. 6f.                162
+xv. 7                  201
+
+
+
+II. Cor.
+
+
+v. 21                   83
+viii. 9                 21
+x. l                    21
+xii.                   212
+
+
+
+Gal.
+
+
+iii. 13                190
+
+
+
+Phil.
+
+
+ii. 5-11                21, 269
+ii. 7f.                190, 285
+ii. 8                  196
+
+
+
+II. Tim.
+
+
+iii. 15                 63
+
+
+
+Heb.
+
+
+ii. 17                  61
+ii. 17f.                64
+ii. 18                  87
+iv. 15                  61, 63, 67
+v. 7                   147
+v. 7-9                  87
+vii. 26                 57
+xii. 2                 190
+xii. 13                190
+
+
+
+I. Pet.
+
+
+ii. 22                  83
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's The Life of Jesus of Nazareth, by Rush Rhees
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+      font-style: italic;
+    }
+
+    #frontispiece {
+      text-align: center;
+    }
+
+    #frontispiece>img {
+      display: block;
+      margin: auto;
+    }
+
+    #toc ol {
+      list-style-type: upper-roman;
+    }
+
+    #toc ul, #indexes ul {
+      list-style-type: none;
+    }
+
+    #toc ul li:hover {
+      list-style-type: disc;
+    }
+
+-->
+</style>
+
+</head>
+<body>
+
+
+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Life of Jesus of Nazareth, by Rush Rhees
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Life of Jesus of Nazareth
+
+Author: Rush Rhees
+
+Release Date: August 20, 2004 [EBook #13228]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE LIFE OF JESUS OF NAZARETH ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Distributed Proofreaders
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+<div id="tp">
+
+<h1 class="title"><a class="newpage" name="pageiii" id="pageiii" title="iii"></a>The Life of Jesus of Nazareth</h1>
+
+<h2 class="subtitle"><i>A Study</i></h2>
+
+<p class="byline">By</p>
+
+<h2 class="author">Rush Rhees</h2>
+
+<h3>1902</h3>
+</div>
+
+
+<div id="verso">
+<div><a class="newpage" name="pageiv" id="pageiv" title="iv"></a><i>Copyright, 1900,</i></div>
+<div>By Charles Scribner's Sons</div>
+</div>
+
+
+<div id="dedication">
+<h2><a id="v"></a>To</h2>
+
+<p>C. W. McC.</p>
+
+<p>In Recognition of Wise Counsel, Generous Help and Loving Appreciation</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<div id="epigraph">
+<blockquote><p><a class="newpage" name="pagevi" id="pagevi" title="vi"></a>"<i>I would preach ... the need to the world of the faith
+in a Christ, the claim that Jesus is the Christ, and the demand
+for an intelligent faith, which indeed shall transcend but shall
+not despise knowledge, or neglect to have a knowledge to
+transcend.</i>"--<cite>John Patterson Coyle</cite></p></blockquote>
+</div>
+
+
+<div id="preface">
+<h2><a class="newpage" name="pagevii" id="pagevii" title="vii"></a>Preface</h2>
+
+
+
+<p>The aim of this book is to help thoughtful readers of the gospels to
+discern more clearly the features of him whom those writings inimitably
+portray. It is avowedly a study rather than a story, and as a companion to
+the reading of the gospels it seeks to answer some of the questions which
+are raised by a sympathetic consideration of those narratives. These
+answers are offered in an unargumentative way, even where the questions
+are still in debate among scholars. This method has been adopted because
+technical discussion would be of interest to but few of those whom the
+book hopes to serve. On some of the questions a non-committal attitude is
+taken in the belief that for the understanding of the life of Jesus it is
+of little importance which way the decision finally goes. Less attention
+has been given to questions of geography and arch&aelig;ology than to those
+which have a more vital biographical significance.</p>
+
+<p>A word concerning the point of view adopted. The church has inherited a
+rich treasure of doctrine concerning its Lord, the result of patient study
+and, frequently, of heated controversy. It is customary to approach the
+gospels with this interpretation of Christ as a premise, and such a study
+has some unquestionable advantages. <a class="newpage" name="pageviii" id="pageviii" title="viii"></a>With the apostles and evangelists,
+however, the recognition of the divine nature of Jesus was a conclusion
+from their acquaintance with him. The Man of Nazareth was for them
+primarily a man, and they so regarded him until he showed them that he was
+more. Their knowledge of him progressed in the natural way from the human
+to the divine. The gospels, particularly the first three, are marvels of
+simplicity and objectivity. Their authors clearly regarded Jesus as the
+Man from heaven; yet in their thinking they were dominated by the
+influence of a personal Lord rather than by the force of an accepted
+doctrine. It is with no lack of reverence for the importance and truth of
+the divinity of Christ that this book essays to bring the Man Jesus before
+the mind in the reading of the gospels. The incarnation means that God
+chose to reveal the divine through a human life, rather than through a
+series of propositions which formulate truth (Heb. i. 1-4). The most
+perennially refreshing influence for Christian life and thought is
+personal discipleship to that Revealer who is able to-day as of old to
+exhibit in his humanity those qualities which compel the recognition of
+God manifest in the flesh.</p>
+
+<p>An <a href="#appendix">Appendix</a> is added to furnish references to the wide literature of the
+subject for the aid of those who wish to study it more extensively and
+technically; also to discuss some questions of detail which could not be
+considered in the text. This appendix will indicate the extent of my
+indebtedness to others. I would acknowledge special obligation to
+Professor Ernest D. Burton, <a class="newpage" name="pageix" id="pageix" title="ix"></a>of the University of Chicago, for generous
+help and permission to use material found in his "Notes on the Life of
+Jesus;" to Professor Shailer Mathews, also of Chicago, for very valuable
+criticisms; to my colleague, Professor Charles Rufus Brown, for most
+serviceable assistance; and to the editors of this series for helpful
+suggestions and criticism during the making of the book. An unmeasured
+debt is due to another who has sat at my side during the writing of these
+pages, and has given constant inspiration, most discerning criticism, and
+practical aid.</p>
+
+<p><cite>The Newton Theological Institution</cite>, April, 1900.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<div id="toc">
+<p><a class="newpage" name="pagex" id="pagex" title="x"></a></p>
+<h2><a class="newpage" name="pagexi" id="pagexi" title="xi"></a>Contents</h2>
+
+
+
+<h3>Part I</h3>
+
+<h4><a href="#p01">Preparatory</a></h4>
+
+
+<ol>
+<li>
+
+<a href="#p01-01">The Historical Situation</a>
+
+Sections <a href="#s001">1</a>-<a href="#s019">19.</a> Pages <a href="#page001">1</a>-<a href="#page020">20</a>
+
+<ul>
+   <li>Section <a href="#s001">1.</a> The Roman estimate of Judea.</li> <li><a href="#s002">2</a>, <a href="#s003">3.</a> Herod the Great and his
+   sons.</li> <li><a href="#s004">4.</a> Roman procurators in Palestine.</li> <li><a href="#s005">5.</a> Taxes.</li> <li><a href="#s006">6.</a> The army.</li> <li><a href="#s007">7.</a>
+   Administration of justice.</li> <li><a href="#s008">8.</a> The Sadducees.</li> <li><a href="#s009">9</a>, <a href="#s010">10.</a> The Pharisees.</li> <li><a href="#s011">11.</a>
+   The Zealots.</li> <li><a href="#s012">12.</a> The Essenes.</li> <li><a href="#s013">13.</a> The Devout.</li> <li><a href="#s014">14.</a> Herodians and
+   Samaritans.</li> <li><a href="#s015">15.</a> The synagogue.</li> <li><a href="#s016">16.</a> Life under the law.</li> <li><a href="#s017">17.</a> The
+   Messianic hope.</li> <li><a href="#s018">18.</a> Contemporary literature.</li> <li><a href="#s019">19.</a> Language of Palestine.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+
+
+
+<li><a href="#p01-02">Sources of Our Knowledge of Jesus</a>
+
+Sections <a href="#s020">20</a>-<a href="#s035">35</a>. Pages <a href="#page021">21</a>-<a href="#page037">37.</a>
+
+<ul>
+   <li>Section <a href="#s020">20.</a> The testimony of Paul.</li> <li><a href="#s021">21.</a> Secular history.</li> <li><a href="#s022">22.</a> The written
+   gospels.</li> <li><a href="#s023">23.</a> Characteristics of the first gospel.</li> <li><a href="#s024">24.</a> Of the second.</li>
+   <li><a href="#s025">25.</a> Of the third. 26-30. The synoptic problem. 31-32. The Johannine
+   problem.</li> <li><a href="#s034">34.</a> The two narrative sources.</li> <li><a href="#s035">35.</a> Agrapha and Apocrypha.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+
+
+
+<li><a class="newpage" name="pagexii" id="pagexii" title="xii"></a><a href="#p01-03">The Harmony of the Gospels</a>
+
+Sections <a href="#s036">36</a>-<a href="#s044">44</a>. Pages <a href="#page038">38</a>-<a href="#page014">14</a>
+
+<ul>
+   <li>Section <a href="#s036">36.</a> The value of four gospels.</li> <li><a href="#s037">37.</a> Tatian's Diatessaron. 38.
+   Agreement of the gospels concerning the chief events.</li> <li><a href="#s039">39.</a> The principal
+   problems.</li> <li><a href="#s040">40.</a> Relation of Mark and John. </li><li><a href="#s041">41</a>, <a href="#s042">42.</a> Matthew and Luke. 43.
+   Doublets.</li> <li><a href="#s044">44.</a> The degree of certainty attainable.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+
+
+
+<li><a href="#p01-04">The Chronology</a>
+
+Sections <a href="#s045">45</a>-<a href="#s057">57</a>. Pages <a href="#page045">45</a>-<a href="#page056">56</a>
+
+<ul>
+<li>   Sections <a href="#s045">45</a>-<a href="#s048">48</a>. The length of Jesus' public ministry.</li> <li><a href="#s049">49.</a> Date of the
+   first Passover.</li> <li><a href="#s050">50.</a> Date of the crucifixion. 51-56. Date of the
+   nativity.</li> <li><a href="#s057">57.</a> Summary.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+
+
+
+<li><a href="#p01-05">The Early Years of Jesus</a>
+
+Sections <a href="#s058">58</a>-<a href="#s071">71</a>. Pages <a href="#page057">57</a>-<a href="#page069">69</a>
+
+<ul>
+   <li>Section <a href="#s058">58.</a> Apocryphal stories.</li> <li><a href="#s059">59.</a> Silence of the New Testament
+   outside the gospels. 60-62. The miraculous birth.</li> <li><a href="#s063">63.</a> The childhood of
+   Jesus.</li> <li><a href="#s064">64.</a> Home.</li> <li><a href="#s065">65.</a> Religion, Education.</li> <li><a href="#s066">66.</a> Growth.</li> <li><a href="#s067">67.</a> Religious
+   development.</li> <li><a href="#s068">68.</a> The view from Nazareth. 69 The first visit to
+   Jerusalem. 70-71. The carpenter of Nazareth.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+
+
+
+<li><a href="#p01-06">John the Baptist</a>
+
+Sections <a href="#s072">72</a>-<a href="#s084">84</a>. Pages <a href="#page070">70</a>-<a href="#page081">81</a>
+
+<ul>
+   <li>Section <a href="#s072">72.</a> The gospel picture.</li> <li><a href="#s073">73.</a> Notice by Josephus. 74.
+   Characteristics of the prophet 75-78. John's relation to the Essenes;
+   the Pharisees; the Zealots; the Apocalyptists.</li> <li><a href="#s079">79.</a> John and the
+   Prophets. 80-82. Origin of his baptism.</li> <li><a href="#s083">83.</a> His greatness.</li> <li><a href="#s084">84.</a> His
+   limitations and self-effacement.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+
+
+
+<li><a class="newpage" name="pagexiii" id="pagexiii" title="xiii"></a><a href="#p01-07">The Messianic Call</a>
+
+Sections <a href="#s085">85</a>-<a href="#s096">96</a>. Pages <a href="#page082">82</a>-<a href="#page091">91</a>
+
+<ul>
+<li>   Sections </li><li><a href="#s085">85</a>, <a href="#s086">86.</a> John and Jesus.</li> <li><a href="#s087">87.</a> The baptism of Jesus. </li><li><a href="#s088">88</a>, <a href="#s089">89.</a> The
+   Messianic call.</li> <li><a href="#s090">90.</a> The gift of the Spirit. 91-94. The temptation. 95.
+   Source of the narrative.</li> <li><a href="#s096">96.</a> The issue.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+
+
+
+<li><a href="#p01-08">The First Disciples</a>
+
+Sections <a href="#s097">97</a>-<a href="#s105">105</a>. Pages <a href="#page092">92</a>-<a href="#page097">97</a>
+
+<ul>
+   <li>Section <a href="#s097">97.</a> John at Bethany beyond Jordan.</li> <li><a href="#s098">98.</a> The deputation from the
+   priests.</li> <li><a href="#s099">99.</a> John's first testimony.</li> <li><a href="#s100">100.</a> The first disciples.</li> <li><a href="#s101">101.</a> The
+   early Messianic confessions.</li> <li><a href="#s102">102.</a> The visit to Cana.</li> <li><a href="#s103">103.</a> The miracles
+   as disclosures of the character of Jesus.</li> <li><a href="#s104">104.</a> Jesus and his mother.</li>
+   <li><a href="#s105">105.</a> Removal to Capernaum.</li>
+</ul></li>
+</ol>
+
+
+<h3>Part II</h3>
+
+<h4><a href="#p02">The Ministry</a></h4>
+
+
+
+<ol>
+<li><a href="#p02-01">General Survey of the Ministry</a>
+
+Sections <a href="#s106">106</a>-<a href="#s112">112</a>. Pages <a href="#page101">101</a>-<a href="#page105">105</a>
+
+<ul>
+   <li>Section <a href="#s106">106.</a> The early Judean ministry.</li> <li><a href="#s107">107.</a> Withdrawal to Galilee; a
+   new beginning.</li> <li><a href="#s108">108.</a> The ministry in Galilee a unit.</li> <li><a href="#s109">109.</a> Best studied
+   topically.</li> <li><a href="#s110">110.</a> The last journey to Jerusalem.</li> <li><a href="#s111">111.</a> The last week. 112.
+   The resurrection and ascension.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+
+
+
+<li><a class="newpage" name="pagexiv" id="pagexiv" title="xiv"></a><a href="#p02-02">The Early Judean Ministry</a>
+
+Sections <a href="#s113">113</a>-<a href="#s124">124</a>. Pages <a href="#page106">106</a>-<a href="#page114">114</a>
+
+<ul>
+   <li>Outline of events in the Early Judean ministry.</li> <li>Section <a href="#s113">113.</a> The
+   opening ministry at Jerusalem.</li> <li><a href="#s114">114.</a> The record incomplete.</li> <li><a href="#s115">115.</a> The
+   cleansing of the temple.</li> <li><a href="#s116">116.</a> Relation to synoptic account.</li> <li><a href="#s117">117.</a> Jesus'
+   reply to the challenge of his authority.</li> <li><a href="#s118">118.</a> The reserve of Jesus.</li>
+   <li><a href="#s119">119.</a> Discourse with Nicodemus.</li> <li><a href="#s120">120.</a> Measure of success in Jerusalem.</li>
+   <li><a href="#s121">121.</a> The Baptist's last testimony.</li> <li><a href="#s122">122.</a> The arrest of John.</li> <li><a href="#s123">123.</a> The
+   second sign at Cana.</li> <li><a href="#s124">124.</a> Summary.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+
+
+
+<li><a href="#p02-03">The Ministry in Galilee--Its Aim and Method</a>
+
+Sections <a href="#s125">125</a>-<a href="#s149">149</a>. Pages <a href="#page115">115</a>-<a href="#page137">137</a>
+
+<ul>
+   <li>Outline of events in the Galilean ministry.</li> <li>Section <a href="#s125">125.</a> General view.
+   </li><li><a href="#s126">126</a>, <a href="#s127">127.</a> Development of popular enthusiasm.</li> <li><a href="#s128">128.</a> Pharisaic opposition.
+   </li><li><a href="#s129">129</a>, <a href="#s130">130.</a> Jesus and the Messianic hope.</li> <li><a href="#s131">131.</a> Injunctions of silence.
+   132-135. Jesus' twofold aim in Galilee. </li><li><a href="#s136">136</a>, <a href="#s137">137.</a> Character of the
+   teaching of this period: the sermon on the mount.</li> <li><a href="#s138">138.</a> The parables.</li>
+   <li><a href="#s139">139.</a> The instructions for the mission of the twelve.</li> <li><a href="#s140">140.</a> Jesus' tone
+   of authority.</li> <li><a href="#s141">141.</a> His mighty works. 142-144. Demoniac possession. 145.
+   Jesus' personal influence.</li> <li><a href="#s146">146.</a> The feeding of the five thousand. 147,</li>
+   <li><a href="#s148">148.</a> Revulsion of popular feeling.</li> <li><a href="#s149">149.</a> Results of the work in Galilee.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+
+
+
+<li><a href="#p02-04">The Ministry in Galilee--The New Lesson</a>
+
+Sections <a href="#s150">150</a>-<a href="#s165">165</a>. Pages <a href="#page138">138</a>-<a href="#page152">152</a>
+
+<ul>
+   <li>Section <a href="#s150">150.</a> The changed ministry.</li> <li><a href="#s151">151.</a> The question of tradition. 152.
+   Further pharisaic opposition.</li> <li><a href="#s153">153.</a> Jesus in Ph&oelig;nicia.</li> <li><a href="#s154">154.</a> Confirmation
+   of the disciples' faith.</li> <li><a href="#s155">155.</a> <a class="newpage" name="pagexv" id="pagexv" title="xv"></a>The question at C&aelig;sarea Philippi. 156.
+   The corner-stone of the Church. 157-159. The new lesson.</li> <li><a href="#s160">160.</a> The
+   transfiguration.</li> <li><a href="#s161">161.</a> Cure of the epileptic boy.</li> <li><a href="#s162">162.</a> The feast of
+   Tabernacles.</li> <li><a href="#s163">163.</a> Story of Jesus and the adulteress.</li> <li><a href="#s164">164.</a> The new note
+   in Jesus' teaching.</li> <li><a href="#s165">165.</a> Summary of the Galilean ministry.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+
+
+
+<li><a href="#p02-05">The Journey through Perea to Jerusalem</a>
+
+Sections <a href="#s166">166</a>-<a href="#s176">176</a>. Pages <a href="#page153">153</a>-<a href="#page165">165</a>
+
+<ul>
+   <li>Outline of events.</li> <li>Section <a href="#s166">166.</a> The Perean ministry.</li> <li><a href="#s167">167.</a> Account in
+   John. </li><li><a href="#s168">168</a>, <a href="#s169">169.</a> Account in Luke.</li> <li><a href="#s170">170.</a> The mission of the seventy. 171.
+   The feast of Dedication.</li> <li><a href="#s172">172.</a> Withdrawal beyond Jordan.</li> <li><a href="#s173">173.</a> The
+   raising of Lazarus.</li> <li><a href="#s174">174.</a> Ephraim and Jericho. 175,176. Summary.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+
+
+
+<li><a href="#p02-06">The Final Controversies in Jerusalem</a>
+
+Sections <a href="#s177">177</a>-<a href="#s188">188</a>. Pages <a href="#page166">166</a>-<a href="#page180">180</a>
+
+<ul>
+   <li>Outline of events in the last week of Jesus' life.</li> <li>Section <a href="#s177">177.</a> The
+   cross in apostolic preaching.</li> <li><a href="#s178">178.</a> The anointing in Bethany.</li> <li><a href="#s179">179.</a> The
+   Messianic entry.</li> <li><a href="#s180">180.</a> The barren fig-tree.</li> <li><a href="#s181">181.</a> The Monday of Passion
+   week. 182-186. The controversies of Tuesday.</li> <li><a href="#s187">187.</a> Judas. 188.
+   Wednesday, the day of seclusion.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+
+
+
+<li><a href="#p02-07">The Last Supper</a>
+
+Sections <a href="#s189">189</a>-<a href="#s195">195</a>. Pages <a href="#page181">181</a>-<a href="#page187">187</a>
+
+<ul>
+   <li>Section <a href="#s189">189.</a> Preparations. 190,191. Date of the supper.</li> <li><a href="#s192">192.</a> The lesson
+   of humility.</li> <li><a href="#s193">193.</a> The new covenant.</li> <li><a href="#s194">194.</a> The supper and the Passover.</li>
+   <li><a href="#s195">195.</a> Farewell words of admonition and comfort; the intercessory prayer.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+
+
+
+<li><a class="newpage" name="pagexvi" id="pagexvi" title="xvi"></a><a href="#p02-08">The Shadow of Death</a>
+
+Sections <a href="#s196">196</a>-<a href="#s208">208</a>. Pages <a href="#page188">188</a>-<a href="#page200">200</a>
+
+<ul>
+   <li>Sections <a href="#s196">196</a>, <a href="#s197">197.</a> Gethsemane.</li> <li><a href="#s198">198.</a> The betrayal.</li> <li><a href="#s199">199.</a> The trial. 200.
+   Peter's denials.</li> <li><a href="#s201">201.</a> The rejection of Jesus.</li> <li><a href="#s202">202.</a> The greatness of
+   Jesus. </li><li><a href="#s203">203</a>, <a href="#s204">204.</a> The crucifixion.</li> <li><a href="#s205">205.</a> The words from the cross. 206.
+   The death of Jesus.</li> <li><a href="#s207">207.</a> The burial.</li> <li><a href="#s208">208.</a> The Sabbath rest.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+
+
+
+<li><a href="#p02-09">The Resurrection</a>
+
+Sections <a href="#s209">209</a>-<a href="#s222">222</a>. Pages <a href="#page201">201</a>-<a href="#page216">216</a>
+
+<ul>
+   <li>Section <a href="#s209">209.</a> The primary Christian fact.</li> <li><a href="#s210">210.</a> The incredulity of the
+   disciples. 211-216. The appearances of the risen Lord. 217-220. Efforts
+   to explain the belief in the resurrection.</li> <li><a href="#s221">221.</a> The ascension.</li> <li><a href="#s222">222.</a> The
+   new faith of the disciples.</li>
+</ul></li>
+</ol>
+
+
+<h3>Part III</h3>
+
+<h4><a href="#p03">The Minister</a></h4>
+
+
+
+<ol>
+<li><a href="#p03-01">The Friend of Men</a>
+
+Sections <a href="#s223">223</a>-<a href="#s229">229</a>. Pages <a href="#page219">219</a>-<a href="#page225">225</a>
+
+<ul>
+   <li>Section <a href="#s223">223.</a> The contrast between Jesus' attitude and John's towards
+   common social life.</li> <li><a href="#s224">224.</a> Contrast with the scribes. </li><li><a href="#s225">225</a>, <a href="#s226">226.</a> His
+   interest in simple manhood.</li> <li><a href="#s227">227.</a> Regard for human need. 228, 229.
+   Sensitiveness to human sympathy.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+
+
+
+<li><a href="#p03-02">The Teacher with Authority</a>
+
+Sections <a href="#s230">230</a>-<a href="#s241">241</a>. Pages <a href="#page226">226</a>-<a href="#page237">237</a>
+
+<ul>
+   <li>Section <a href="#s230">230.</a> Contrast between Jesus and the scribes.</li> <li><a href="#s231">231.</a> His appeal to
+   the conscience. His attitude to the Old <a class="newpage" name="pagexvii" id="pagexvii" title="xvii"></a>Testament.</li> <li><a href="#s234">234.</a> His teaching
+   occasional.</li> <li><a href="#s235">235.</a> The patience of his method.</li> <li><a href="#s236">236.</a> His use of
+   illustration.</li> <li><a href="#s237">237.</a> Parable.</li> <li><a href="#s238">238.</a> Irony and hyperbole.</li> <li><a href="#s239">239.</a> Object
+   lessons.</li> <li><a href="#s240">240.</a> Jesus' intellectual superiority.</li> <li><a href="#s241">241.</a> His chief theme,
+   the kingdom of God.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+
+
+
+<li><a href="#p03-03">Jesus' Knowledge of Truth</a>
+
+Sections <a href="#s242">242</a>-<a href="#s251">251</a>. Pages <a href="#page238">238</a>-<a href="#page248">248</a>
+
+<ul>
+   <li>Sections <a href="#s242">242</a>, <a href="#s243">243.</a> Jesus' supernatural knowledge.</li> <li><a href="#s244">244.</a> His predictions
+   of his death.</li> <li><a href="#s245">245.</a> Of his resurrection.</li> <li><a href="#s246">246.</a> His apocalyptic
+   predictions. </li><li><a href="#s247">247</a>, <a href="#s248">248.</a> Limitation of his knowledge. </li><li><a href="#s249">249</a>, <a href="#s250">250.</a> Jesus and
+   demoniac possession.</li> <li><a href="#s251">251.</a> His certainty of his own mission.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+
+
+
+<li><a href="#p03-04">Jesus' Conception of Himself</a>
+
+Sections <a href="#s252">252</a>-<a href="#s275">275</a>. Pages <a href="#page249">249</a>-<a href="#page269">269</a>.
+
+<ul>
+   <li>Section <a href="#s252">252.</a> Jesus' confidence in his calling.</li> <li><a href="#s253">253.</a> His independence in
+   teaching.</li> <li><a href="#s254">254.</a> His self-assertions in response to pharisaic criticism.</li>
+   <li><a href="#s255">255.</a> His desire to beget faith in himself. 256,257. His extraordinary
+   personal claim.</li> <li><a href="#s258">258.</a> His acceptance of Messianic titles. 259-266. The
+   Son of Man. 267-269. The Son of God. </li><li><a href="#s270">270</a>, <a href="#s271">271.</a> His consciousness of
+   oneness with God.</li> <li><a href="#s272">272.</a> His confession of dependence; his habit of
+   prayer.</li> <li><a href="#s273">273.</a> No confession of sin. </li><li><a href="#s274">274</a>, <a href="#s275">275.</a> The Word made flesh.</li>
+</ul></li>
+</ol>
+
+<p><a href="#appendix">Appendix</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#index1">Index of Names and Subjects</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#index2">Index of Biblical References</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="images/map.jpg">Map of Palestine</a></p>
+<p><a class="newpage" name="pagexviii" id="pagexviii" title="xviii"></a></p>
+</div>
+
+
+<div class="part" id="p01">
+<h2><a class="newpage" name="page001" id="page001" title="1"></a>Part I</h2>
+
+
+<h3>Preparatory</h3>
+<p><a class="newpage" name="page002" id="page002" title="2"></a></p>
+
+
+<div class="chapter" id="p01-01">
+<h2><a class="newpage" name="page003" id="page003" title="3"></a>I</h2>
+
+<h3>The Historical Situation</h3>
+
+
+
+<div class="section" id="s001"><p><span class="versenum">1.</span> When Tacitus, the Roman historian, records the attempt of Nero to
+charge the Christians with the burning of Rome, he has patience for no
+more than the cursory remark that the sect originated with a Jew who had
+been put to death in Judea during the reign of Tiberius. This province was
+small and despised, and Tacitus could account for the influence of the
+sect which sprang thence only by the fact that all that was infamous and
+abominable flowed into Rome. The Roman's scornful judgment failed to grasp
+the nature and power of the movement whose unpopularity invited Nero's
+lying accusation, yet it emphasizes the significance of him who did "not
+strive, nor cry, nor cause his voice to be heard in the street," whose
+influence, nevertheless, was working as leaven throughout the empire.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s002"><p><span class="versenum">2.</span> Palestine was not under immediate Roman rule when Jesus was born. Herod
+the Great was drawing near the close of the long reign during which, owing
+to his skill in securing Roman favor, he had tyrannized over his unwilling
+people. His claim was that of an adventurer who had power to succeed, even
+as his method had been that of a suspicious tyrant, who murdered right and
+left, lest one of the many with better right than he should rise to
+dispute with him <a class="newpage" name="page004" id="page004" title="4"></a>his throne. When Herod died, his kingdom was divided
+into three parts, and Rome asserted a fuller sovereignty, allowing none of
+his sons to take his royal title. Herod's successors ruled with a measure
+of independence, however, and followed many of their father's ways, though
+none of them had his ability. The best of them was Philip, who had the
+territory farthest from Jerusalem, and least related to Jewish life. He
+ruled over Iturea and Trachonitis, the country to the north and east of
+the Sea of Galilee, having his capital at C&aelig;sarea Philippi, a city built
+and named by him on the site of an older town near the sources of the
+Jordan. He also rebuilt the city of Bethsaida, at the point where the
+Jordan flows into the Sea of Galilee, calling it Julias, after the
+daughter of Augustus. Philip enters the story of the life of Jesus only as
+the ruler of these towns and the intervening region, and as husband of
+Salome, the daughter of Herodias. Living far from Jerusalem and the Jewish
+people, he abandoned even the show of Judaism which characterized his
+father, and lived as a frank heathen in his heathen capital.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s003"><p><span class="versenum">3.</span> The other two who inherited Herod's dominion were brothers, Archelaus
+and Antipas, sons of Malthace, one of Herod's many wives. Archelaus had
+been designated king by Herod, with Judea, Samaria, and Idumea as his
+kingdom; but the emperor allowed him only the territory, with the title
+ethnarch. Antipas was named a tetrarch by Herod, and his territory was
+Galilee and the land east of the Jordan to the southward of the Sea of
+Galilee, called Perea. Antipas was the Herod under whose sway Jesus lived
+in Galilee, and who executed John the Baptist. He was a man of pas<a class="newpage" name="page005" id="page005" title="5"></a>sionate
+temper, with the pride and love of luxury of his father. Having Jews to
+govern, he held, as his father had done, to a show of Judaism, though at
+heart he was as much of a pagan as Philip. He, too, loved building, and
+Tiberias on the Sea of Galilee was built by him for his capital. His
+unscrupulous tyranny and his gross disregard of common righteousness
+appear in his relations with John the Baptist and with Herodias, his
+paramour. Jesus described him well as "that fox" (Luke xiii. 32), for he
+was sly, and worked often by indirection. While his father had energy and
+ability which command a sort of admiration, Antipas was not only bad but
+weak.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s004"><p><span class="versenum">4.</span> Both Philip and Antipas reigned until after the death of Jesus, Philip
+dying in A.D. 34, and Antipas being deposed several years later, probably
+in 39. Archelaus had a much shorter rule, for he was deposed in A.D. 6,
+having been accused by the Jews of unbearable barbarity and tyranny,--a
+charge in which Antipas and Philip joined. The territory of Archelaus was
+then made an imperial province of the second grade, ruled by a procurator
+appointed from among the Roman knights. In provinces under an imperial
+legate (propraetor) the procurator was an officer for the administration
+of the revenues; in provinces of the rank of Judea he was, however, the
+representative of the emperor in all the prerogatives of government,
+having command of the army, and being the final resort in legal procedure,
+as well as supervising the collection of the customs and taxes. Very
+little is known of the procurators appointed after the deposition of
+Archelaus, until Tiberius sent Pontius Pilate in A.D. 26. He held office
+until he was deposed in 36. <a class="newpage" name="page006" id="page006" title="6"></a>Josephus gives several examples of his wanton
+disregard of Jewish prejudice, and of his extreme cruelty. His conduct at
+the trial of Jesus was remarkably gentle and judicial in comparison with
+other acts recorded of his government; yet the fear of trial at Rome,
+which finally induced him to give Jesus over to be crucified, was
+thoroughly characteristic; in fact, his downfall resulted from a complaint
+lodged against him by certain Samaritans whom he had cruelly punished for
+a Messianic uprising.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s005"><p><span class="versenum">5.</span> There were two sorts of Roman taxes in Judea: direct, which were
+collected by salaried officials; and customs, which were farmed out to the
+highest bidder. The direct taxes consisted of a land tax and a poll tax,
+in the collection of which the procurator made use of the local Jewish
+courts; the customs consisted of various duties assessed on exports, and
+they were gathered by representatives of men who had bought the right to
+collect these dues. The chiefs as well as their underlings are called
+publicans in our New Testament, although the name strictly applies only to
+the chiefs. These tax-gatherers, small and great, were everywhere despised
+and execrated, because, in addition to their subserviency to a hated
+government, they had a reputation, usually deserved, for all sorts of
+extortion. Because of this evil repute they were commonly drawn from the
+unscrupulous among the people, so that the frequent coupling of publicans
+and sinners in the gospels probably rested on fact as much as on
+prejudice.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s006"><p><span class="versenum">6.</span> In Samaria and Judea soldiers were under the command of the procurator;
+they took orders from the tetrarch, in Galilee and Perea. The garrison of
+Jeru<a class="newpage" name="page007" id="page007" title="7"></a>salem consisted of one Roman cohort--from five to six hundred
+men--which was reinforced at the time of the principal feasts. These and
+the other forces at the disposal of the procurator were probably recruited
+from the country itself, largely from among the Samaritans. The centurion
+of Capernaum (Matt. viii. 5; Luke vii. 2-5) was an officer in the army of
+Antipas, who, however, doubtless organized his army on the Roman pattern,
+with officers who had had their training with the imperial forces.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s007"><p><span class="versenum">7.</span> The administration of justice in Samaria and Judea was theoretically in
+the hands of the procurator; practically, however, it was left with the
+Jewish courts, either the local councils or the great sanhedrin at
+Jerusalem. This last body consisted of seventy-one "elders." Its president
+was the high-priest, and its members were drawn in large degree from the
+most prominent representatives of the priestly aristocracy. The scribes,
+however, had a controlling influence because of the reverence in which the
+multitude held them. The sanhedrin of Jerusalem had jurisdiction only
+within the province of Judea, where it tried all kinds of offences; its
+judgment was final, except in capital cases, when it had to yield to the
+procurator, who alone could sentence to death. It had great influence also
+in Galilee, and among Jews everywhere, but this was due to the regard all
+Jews had for the holy city. It was, in fact, a sort of Jewish senate,
+which took cognizance of everything that seemed to affect the Jewish
+interests. In Galilee and Perea, Antipas held in his hands the judicial as
+well as the military and financial administration.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s008"><p><a class="newpage" name="page008" id="page008" title="8"></a><span class="versenum">8.</span> To the majority of the priests religion had become chiefly a form.
+They represented the worldly party among the Jews. Since the days of the
+priest-princes who ruled in Jerusalem after the return from the exile,
+they had constituted the Jewish aristocracy, and held most of the wealth
+of the people. It was to their interest to maintain the ritual and the
+traditional customs, and they were proud of their Jewish heritage; of
+genuine interest in religion, however, they had little. This secular
+priestly party was called the Sadducees, probably from Zadok, the
+high-priest in Solomon's time. What theology the Sadducees had was for the
+most part reactionary and negative. They were opposed to the more earnest
+spirit and new thought of the scribes, and naturally produced some
+champions who argued for their theological position; but the mass of them
+cared for other things.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s009"><p><span class="versenum">9.</span> The leaders of the popular thought, on the other hand, were chiefly
+noted for their religious zeal and theological acumen. They represented
+the outgrowth of that spirit which in the Maccabean time had risked all to
+defend the sanctity of the temple and the right of God's people to worship
+him according to his law. They were known as Pharisees, because, as the
+name ("separated") indicates, they insisted on the separation of the
+people of God from all the defilements and snares of the heathen life
+round about them. The Pharisees constituted a fraternity devoted to the
+scrupulous observance of law and tradition in all the concerns of daily
+life. They were specialists in religion, and were the ideal
+representatives of Judaism. Their distinguishing characteristic was
+reverence for the law; <a class="newpage" name="page009" id="page009" title="9"></a>their religion was the religion of a book. By
+punctilious obedience of the law man might hope to gain a record of merit
+which should stand to his credit and secure his reward when God should
+finally judge the world. Because life furnished many situations not dealt
+with in the written law, there was need of its authoritative
+interpretation, in order that ignorance might not cause a man to
+transgress. These interpretations constituted an oral law which
+practically superseded the written code, and they were handed down from
+generation to generation as "the traditions of the fathers." The existence
+of this oral law made necessary a company of scribes and lawyers whose
+business it was to know the traditions and transmit them to their pupils.
+These scribes were the teachers of Israel, the leaders of the Pharisees,
+and the most highly revered class in the community. Pharisaism at its
+beginning was intensely earnest, but in the time of Jesus the earnest
+spirit had died out in zealous formalism. This was the inevitable result
+of their virtual substitution of the written law for the living God. Their
+excessive reverence had banished God from practical relation to the daily
+life. They held that he had declared his will once for all in the law. His
+name was scrupulously revered, his worship was cultivated with minutest
+care, his judgment was anticipated with dread; but he himself, like an
+Oriental monarch, was kept far from common life in an isolation suitable
+to his awful holiness. By a natural consequence conscience gave place to
+scrupulous regard for tradition in the religion of the scribes. The chief
+question with them was not, Is this right? but, What say the elders? The
+soul's sensitiveness of response to God's will and God's truth was lost in
+a <a class="newpage" name="page010" id="page010" title="10"></a>maze of traditions which awoke no spontaneous Amen in the moral nature,
+consequently there was frequent substitution of reputation for character.
+The Pharisees could make void the command, Honor thy father, by an
+ingenious application of the principle of dedication of property to God
+(Mark vii. 8-13), and thus under the guise of scrupulous regard for law
+discovered ways for legal disregard of law. Their theory of religion gave
+abundant room for a piety which made broad its phylacteries and lengthened
+its prayers, while neglecting judgment, mercy, and the love of God.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s010"><p><span class="versenum">10.</span> Yet the earnest and true development in Jewish thinking was found
+among the Pharisees. The early hope of Israel was almost exclusively
+national. In the later books of the Old Testament, in connection with an
+enlarged sense of the importance of the individual, the doctrine of a
+personal resurrection to share the blessings of the Messiah's kingdom
+began to appear. It had its clear development and definite adoption as
+part of the faith of Judaism, however, under the influence of the
+Pharisees. Along with this increased emphasis on the worth of the
+individual came a large development of the doctrine of angels and spirits.
+Towards both of these doctrines the Sadducees took a reactionary position.
+Politically the Pharisees were theocratic in theory, but opportunists in
+practice, accommodating themselves to the existing state of things so long
+as the <i>de facto</i> government did not interfere with the religious life of
+the people. They looked for a kingdom in which God should be evidently the
+king of his people; but they believed that his sovereignty was to be
+realized through the law, hence their sole interest was in the obedi<a class="newpage" name="page011" id="page011" title="11"></a>ence
+of God's people to that law as interpreted by the traditions.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s011"><p><span class="versenum">11.</span> The theocratic spirit was more aggressive in a party which originated
+in the later years of Herod the Great, and found a reckless leader in
+Judas of Galilee, who started a revolt when the governor of Syria
+undertook to make a census of the Jews after the deposition of Archelaus.
+This party bore the name Cananeans or Zealots. They regarded with
+passionate resentment the subjection of God's people to a foreign power,
+and waited eagerly for an opportune time to take the sword and set up the
+kingdom of God; it was with them that the final war against Rome began.
+They were found in largest numbers in Galilee, where the scholasticism of
+the scribes was not so dominating an influence as in Judea. Dr. Edersheim
+has called them the nationalist party. In matters belonging strictly to
+the religious life they followed the Pharisees, only holding a more
+material conception of the hope of Israel.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s012"><p><span class="versenum">12.</span> Another development in Jewish religious life carried separatist
+doctrines to the extreme. Its representatives were called Essenes, though
+what the significance of the name was is no longer clear. Although they
+were allied with the Pharisees in doctrine, they show in some particulars
+the influence of Hellenistic Judaism. This is suggested not only by the
+attention which Philo and Josephus give to them, but also by certain of
+their views, which were very like the doctrines of the Pythagoreans. They
+carried the pharisaic demand for separateness to the extreme of
+asceticism. While they were found in nearly every town in Palestine, some
+of them even practising marriage, the largest group of them lived a
+celibate, <a class="newpage" name="page012" id="page012" title="12"></a>monastic life near the shores of the Dead Sea. This community
+was recruited by the initiation of converts, who only after a novitiate of
+three years were admitted to full membership in the order. They were
+characterized by an extreme scrupulousness concerning ceremonial purity,
+their meals were regarded as sacrifices, and were prepared by members of
+the order, who were looked upon as priests, nor were any allowed to
+partake of the food until they had first bathed themselves. Their regular
+garments were all white, and were regarded as vestments for use at the
+sacrificial meals,--other clothing being assumed as they went out to their
+work. They were industrious agriculturists, their life was communistic,
+and they were renowned for their uprightness. They revered Moses as highly
+as did the scribes; yet they were opposed to animal sacrifices, and,
+although they sent gifts to the temple, were apparently excluded from its
+worship. Their kinship with the Pythagoreans appears in that they
+addressed an invocation to the sun at its rising, and conducted all their
+natural functions with scrupulous modesty, "that they might not offend the
+brightness of God" (Jos. Wars, ii. 8, 9). Their rejection of bloody
+sacrifices, and their view that the soul is imprisoned in the body and at
+death is freed for a better life, besides many features of their life that
+are genuinely Jewish, such as their regard for ceremonial purity, also
+show similarity to the Pythagoreans. It has always been a matter of
+perplexity that these ascetics find no mention in the New Testament. They
+seem to have lived a life too much apart, and to have had little sympathy
+with the ideals of Jesus, or even of John the Baptist.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s013"><p><a class="newpage" name="page013" id="page013" title="13"></a><span class="versenum">13.</span> The common people followed the lead of the Pharisees, though afar
+off. They accepted the teaching concerning tradition, as well as that
+concerning the resurrection, conforming their lives to the prescriptions
+of the scribes more or less strictly, according as they were more or loss
+ruled by religious considerations. It was in consequence of their hold on
+the people that the scribes in the sanhedrin were able often to dictate a
+policy to the Sadducean majority. Jesus voiced the popular opinion when he
+said that "the scribes sit in Moses' seat" (Matt, xxiii. 2). Their leaders
+despised "this multitude which knoweth not the law" (John vii. 49), yet
+delighted to legislate for them, binding heavy burdens and grievous to be
+borne. Many of the people were doubtless too intent on work and gain to be
+very regardful of the <i>minuti&aelig;</i> of conduct as ordained by the scribes;
+many more were too simple-minded to follow the theories of the rabbis
+concerning the aloofness of God from the life of men. These last
+reverenced the scribes, followed their directions, in the main, for the
+conduct of life, yet lived in fellowship with God as their fathers had,
+trusting in his faithfulness, and hoping in his mercy. They are
+represented in the New Testament by such as Simeon and Anna, Zachariah and
+Elizabeth, Joseph and Mary, and the majority of those who heard and heeded
+John's call to repentance. They were Israel's remnant of pure and
+undefiled religion, and constituted what there was of good soil among the
+people for the reception of the seed sown by John's successor. They had no
+name, for they did not constitute a party; for convenience they may be
+called the Devout.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s014"><p><a class="newpage" name="page014" id="page014" title="14"></a><span class="versenum">14.</span> Two other classes among the people are mentioned in the gospels,--the
+Herodians and the Samaritans. The Herodians do not appear outside the New
+Testament, and seem to have been hardly more than a group of men in whom
+the secular spirit was dominant, who thought it best for their interests
+and for the people's to champion the claims of the Herodian family. They
+were probably more akin to the Pharisees than to the Sadducees, for the
+latter were hostile to the Herodian claims, from the first; yet in spirit
+they seem more like to the worldly aristocracy than to the pious scribes.
+The Samaritans lived in the land, a people despising and despised. Their
+territory separated Galilee from Judea, and they were a constant source of
+irritation to the Jews. The hatred was inherited from the days of Ezra,
+when the zealous Jews refused to allow any intercourse with the
+inhabitants of Samaria. These Samaritans were spurned as of impure blood
+and mixed religion (II. Kings xvii. 24-41). The severe attitude adopted
+towards them by Ezra and Nehemiah led to the building of a temple on Mount
+Gerizim, and the establishment of a worship which sought to rival that of
+Jerusalem in all particulars. Very little is known of the tenets of the
+Samaritans in the time of Jesus beyond their belief that Gerizim was the
+place which, according to the law, God chose for his temple, and that a
+Messiah should come to settle all questions of dispute (John iv. 25).</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s015"><p><span class="versenum">15.</span> Although the religious life of the Jews centred ideally in the temple,
+it found its practical expression in the synagogue. This in itself is
+evidence of the relative influence of priests and scribes. There was no
+confessed rivalry. The Pharisee was most insist<a class="newpage" name="page015" id="page015" title="15"></a>ent on the sanctity of the
+temple and the importance of its ritual. Yet with the growing sense of the
+religious significance of the individual as distinct from the nation,
+there arose of necessity a practical need for a system of worship possible
+for the great majority of the people, who could at best visit Jerusalem
+but once or twice a year. The synagogue seems to have been a development
+of the exile, when there was no temple and no sacrifice. It was the
+characteristic institution of Judaism as a religion of the law, furnishing
+in every place opportunity for prayer and study. The elders of each
+community seem ordinarily to have been in control of its synagogue, and to
+have had authority to exclude from its fellowship persons who had come
+under the ban. In addition to these officials there was a ruler of the
+synagogue, who had the direction of all that concerned the worship; a
+<i>chazzan</i>, or minister, who had the care of the sacred books, administered
+discipline, and instructed the children in reading the scripture; and two
+or more receivers of alms. The Sabbath services consisted of prayers, and
+reading of the scriptures--both law and prophets,--and an address or
+sermon. It was in the sermon that the people learned to know the
+"traditions of the elders," whether as applications of the law to the
+daily life, or as legendary embellishments of Hebrew history and prophecy.
+The preacher might be any one whom the ruler of the synagague recognized
+as worthy to address the congregation.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s016"><p><span class="versenum">16.</span> The religious life which centred in the synagogue found daily
+expression in the observance of the law and the traditions. In the measure
+of its control by the scribes it was concerned chiefly with the Sab<a class="newpage" name="page016" id="page016" title="16"></a>bath,
+with the various ablutions needful to the maintenance of ceremonial
+purity, with the distinctions between clean and unclean food, with the
+times and ways of fasting, and with the wearing of fringes and
+phylacteries. These lifeless ceremonies seem to our day wearisome and
+petty in the extreme. It is probable, however, that the growth of the
+various traditions had been so gradual that, as has been aptly said, the
+whole usage seemed no more unreasonable to the Jews than the etiquette of
+polite society does to its devotees. The evil was not so much in the
+minuteness of the regulations as in the external and superficial notion of
+religion which they induced.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s017"><p><span class="versenum">17.</span> Optimism was the mood of Israel's prophets from the earliest times.
+Every generation looked for the dawning of a day which should banish all
+ill and realize the dreams inspired by the covenant in which God had
+chosen Israel for his own. In proportion as the rabbinic formalism held
+control of the hearts of the people, the Messianic hope lost its warmth
+and vigor. Yet the scribes did not abandon the prophetic optimism; they
+held to the letter of the hope, but as its fulfilment was for them
+dependent on perfect obedience to the law, oral and written, their
+interest was diverted to the traditions, and their strength was given to
+legal disputations. Of the rest of the people, the Sadducees naturally
+gave little thought to the promise of future deliverance, they were too
+absorbed with regard for present concerns. Nor is there any evidence that
+the Essenes, with all their reputed knowledge of the future, cherished the
+hope of a Messiah. The other elements among the people who owned the
+general leadership <a class="newpage" name="page017" id="page017" title="17"></a>of the scribes looked eagerly for the coming time when
+God should bring to pass what he had promised through the prophets. While
+some expected God himself to come in judgment, and gave no thought to an
+Anointed one who should represent the Most High to the people, the
+majority looked for a Son of David to sit upon his father's throne. Even
+so, however, there were wide differences in the nature of the hope which
+was set on the coming of this Son of David. The Zealots were looking for a
+victory, which should set Israel on high over all his foes. To the rest of
+the people, however, the method of the consummation was not so clear, and
+they were ready to leave God to work out his purpose in his own way,
+longing meanwhile for the fulfilment of his promise. One class in
+particular gave themselves to visionary representations of the promised
+redemption. They differed from the Zealots in that they saw with unwelcome
+clearness the futility of physical attack upon their enemies; but their
+faith was strong, and at the moment when outward conditions seemed most
+disheartening they looked for a revelation of God's power from heaven,
+destroying all sinners in his wrath, and delivering and comforting his
+people, giving them their lot in a veritable Canaan situated in a renewed
+earth. Such visions are recorded in the Book of Daniel and the Revelation
+of John. They are found in many other apocalypses not included in our
+Bible, and indicate how persistently the minds of the people turned
+towards the promises spoken by the prophets, and meditated on their
+fulfilment. The Devout were midway between the Zealots and the
+Apocalyptists. The songs of Zach<a class="newpage" name="page018" id="page018" title="18"></a>ariah and Mary and the thanksgiving of
+Simeon express their faith. They hoped for a kingdom as tangible as the
+Zealots sought, yet they preferred to <i>wait</i> for the consolation of
+Israel. They believed that God was still in his heaven, that he was not
+disregardful of his people, and that in his own time he would raise up
+unto them their king. They looked for a Son of David, yet his reign was to
+be as remarkable for its purification of his own people as for its
+victories over their foes. These victories indeed were to be largely
+spiritual, for their Messiah was to conquer in the strength of the Spirit
+of God and "by the word of his mouth." Such as these were ready for a
+ministry like John's, and not unready for the new ideal which Jesus was
+about to offer them, though their highest spiritualization of the
+Messianic hope was but a shadow of the reality which Jesus asked them to
+accept.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s018"><p><span class="versenum">18.</span> This last conception of the Messiah is found in a group of psalms
+written in the first century before Christ, during the early days of the
+Roman interference in Judea. These Psalms of Solomon, as they are called,
+are pharisaic in point of view, yet they are not rabbinic in their ideas.
+Their feeling is too deep, and their reliance on God too immediate; they
+fitly follow the psalms of the Old Testament, though afar off. Of another
+type of contemporary literature, Apocalypse, at least two representatives
+besides the Book of Daniel have come down to us from the time of Jesus or
+earlier,--the so-called Book of Enoch, and the fragment known as the
+Assumption of Moses. These writings have peculiar interest, because they
+are probably the source of quotations found in the Epistle of <a class="newpage" name="page019" id="page019" title="19"></a>Jude;
+moreover, some sayings of Jesus reported in the gospels, and in particular
+his chosen title, The Son of Man, are strikingly similar to expressions
+found in Enoch. Can Jesus have read these books? The psalms of the Devout
+were the kind of literature to pass rapidly from heart to heart, until all
+who sympathized with their hope and faith had heard or seen them. The case
+was different with the apocalypses. They are more elaborate and
+enigmatical, and may have been only slightly known. Yet, as Jesus was
+familiar with the canonical Book of Daniel, although it was not read in
+the synagogue service in his time, it is possible that he may also have
+read or heard other books which had not won recognition as canonical. If,
+however, he knew nothing of them, the similarity between the apocalypses
+and some of Jesus' ideas and expressions becomes all the more significant;
+for it shows that these writings gave utterance to thoughts and feelings
+shared by men who never read them, which were, therefore, no isolated
+fancies, but characteristic of the religion of many of the people. With
+these ideas Jesus was familiar; whether he ever read the books must remain
+a question.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s019"><p><span class="versenum">19.</span> This literature exists for us only in translations made in the days of
+the early church. Most of these books were originally written in Hebrew,
+the language of the Old Testament, or in Aramaic, the language of
+Palestine in the time of Jesus. Traces of this language as spoken by Jesus
+have been preserved in the gospels,--the name <i>Rabbi; Abba</i>, translated
+Father; <i>Talitha cumi</i>, addressed to the daughter of Jairus; <i>Ephphatha</i>,
+to the deaf man of Bethsaida; and the cry from the cross, <i>Eloi, Eloi,
+lama sabachthani</i> <a class="newpage" name="page020" id="page020" title="20"></a>(John i. 38; Mark xiv. 36; v. 41; vii. 34; xv. 34). It
+is altogether probable that in his common dealings with men and in his
+teachings Jesus used this language. Greek was the language of the
+government and of trade, and in a measure the Jews were a bilingual
+people. Jesus may thus have had some knowledge of Greek, but it is
+unlikely that he ever used it to any extent either in Galilee, or Judea,
+or in the regions of Tyre and Sidon.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<div class="chapter" id="p01-02">
+<h2><a class="newpage" name="page021" id="page021" title="21"></a>II</h2>
+
+<h3>Sources of Our Knowledge Of Jesus</h3>
+
+
+
+<div class="section" id="s020"><p><span class="versenum">20.</span> The earliest existing record of events in the life of Jesus is given
+to us in the epistles of Paul. His account of the appearances of the Lord
+after his death and resurrection (I. Cor. xv. 3-8) was written within
+thirty years of these events. The date of the testimony, however, is much
+earlier, since Paul refers to the experience which transformed his own
+life, and so carries us back to within a few years of the crucifixion.
+Other facts from Jesus' life may be gathered from Paul, as his descent
+from Abraham and David (Rom. i. 3; ix. 5); his life of obedience (Rom. v.
+19; xv. 3; Phil. ii. 5-11); his poverty (II. Cor. viii. 9); his meekness
+and gentleness (II. Cor. x. 1); other New Testament writings outside of
+our gospels add somewhat to this restricted but very clear testimony.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s021"><p><span class="versenum">21.</span> Secular history knows little of the obscure Galilean. The testimony of
+Tacitus is that the Christians "derived their name and origin from one
+Christ, who in the reign of Tiberius had suffered death by the sentence of
+the procurator, Pontius Pilate" (Annals, xv. 44). Suetonius makes an
+obscure and seemingly ill-informed allusion to Christ in the reason he
+assigns for the edict of Claudius expelling the Jews from Rome (Vit.
+Claud. 25). The younger Pliny in the second century had learned that the
+<a class="newpage" name="page022" id="page022" title="22"></a>numerous Christian community in Bithynia was accustomed to honor Christ
+as God; but he shows no knowledge of the life of Jesus beyond what must be
+inferred concerning one who caused men "to bind themselves with an oath
+not to enter into any wickedness, or commit thefts, robberies, or
+adulteries, or falsify their word, or repudiate trusts committed to them"
+(Epistles X. 96). This secular ignorance is not surprising; but the
+silence of Josephus is. He mentions Jesus in but one clearly genuine
+passage, when telling of the martyrdom of James, the "brother of Jesus,
+who is called the Christ" (Ant. xx. 9. 1). Of John the Baptist, however,
+he has a very appreciative notice (Ant, xviii. 5. 2), and it cannot be
+that he was ignorant of Jesus. His appreciation of John suggests that he
+could not have mentioned Jesus more fully without some approval of his
+life and teaching. This would be a condemnation of his own people, whom he
+desired to commend to Gentile regard; and he seems to have taken the
+cowardly course of silence concerning a matter more noteworthy, even for
+that generation, than much else of which he writes very fully.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s022"><p><span class="versenum">22.</span> The reason for the lack of written Christian records of Jesus' life
+from the earliest time seems to be, not that the apostles had a small
+sense of the importance of his earthly ministry, but that the early
+generation preferred what at a later time was called the "living voice"
+(Papias in Euseb. Ch. Hist. iii. 39). The impression made by Jesus was
+supremely personal; he wrote nothing, did not command his disciples to
+write anything, preferring to influence men's minds by personal power,
+appointing them, in turn, to represent <a class="newpage" name="page023" id="page023" title="23"></a>him to men as he had represented
+the Father to them (John xx. 21). But the time came when the first
+witnesses were passing away, and they were not many who could say, "I saw
+him." Our gospels are the result of the natural desire to preserve the
+apostolic testimony for a generation that could no longer hear the
+apostolic voice; and they are precisely what such a sense of need would
+produce,--vivid pictures of Jesus, agreeing in general features, differing
+more or less in details, reflecting individual feeling for the Master, and
+written not simply to inform men but to convince them of that Master's
+claims. One evidence of the reality of the gospel pictures is the fact
+that we so seldom feel the individual characteristics of each gospel. This
+is especially true of the first three, which, to the vividness of their
+picture, add a remarkable similarity of detail. Tatian, in the second
+century, felt it necessary to make a continuous narrative for the use of
+the church by interweaving the four gospels into one, and he has had many
+successors down to our day; but the fact that unity of impression has
+practically resulted from the four pictures without recourse to such an
+interweaving, invites consideration of the characteristics of these
+remarkable documents.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s023"><p><span class="versenum">23.</span> The first gospel impresses the careful reader with three things: (1) A
+clear sense of the development of Jesus' ministry. The author introduces
+his narrative by an account of the birth of Jesus, of the ministry of John
+the Baptist, and of Jesus' baptism and temptation and withdrawal into
+Galilee (i. 1 to iv. 17). He then depicts the public ministry by grouping
+together, first, teachings of Jesus concerning <a class="newpage" name="page024" id="page024" title="24"></a>the law of the kingdom of
+heaven, then a series of great miracles confirming the new doctrine, then
+the expansion of the ministry and deepening hostility of the Pharisees,
+leading to the teaching by parables, and the final withdrawal from Galilee
+to the north. This ministry resulted in the chilling of popular enthusiasm
+which had been strong at the beginning, but in the winning of a few hearts
+to Jesus' own ideals of the kingdom of God (iv. 18 to xvi. 20). From this
+point the evangelist leads us to Jerusalem, where rejection culminates,
+the sterner teachings of Jesus are massed, and his victory in seeming
+defeat is exhibited (xvi. 21 to xxviii. 20). (2) The evangelist's interest
+is not satisfied by this clear, strong, picture; he wishes to convince men
+that Jesus is Israel's Messiah, hence, throughout, he indicates the
+fulfilment of prophecy. The things in which he sees the fulfilment are
+striking, for, with but one or two exceptions, they are features of the
+life of Jesus objectionable to Jewish feeling. This fact, taken in
+connection with the emphasis which the gospel gives to the death of Jesus
+at the hands of the Jews, and to the resurrection as God's seal of
+approval of him whom his people rejected, forms a forcible argument to
+prove the Messiahship of Jesus, not simply in spite of his rejection by
+the Jews, but by appeal to that rejection as leading to God's signal
+vindication of the crucified one. (3) This evangelist, while proving that
+Jesus is the Messiah promised to Israel, recognizes clearly the freedom of
+the new faith from the exclusiveness of Jewish feeling. The choice of
+Galilee for the Messianic ministry (iv. 12-17), the comment of Jesus on
+the faith of the centurion (viii. 10-12), the rebuke of Israel in the
+<a class="newpage" name="page025" id="page025" title="25"></a>parable of the Wicked Husbandmen (xxi. 33-46), and especially the last
+commission of the risen Lord (xxviii. 18-20), show that this gospel sought
+to convince men of Jewish feeling not only that Jesus is Messiah, but also
+that as Messiah he came to bring salvation to all the world.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s024"><p><span class="versenum">24.</span> The second gospel is much simpler in construction than the first,
+while presenting essentially the same picture of the ministry as is found
+in Matthew. To its simplicity it adds a vividness of narration which
+commends Mark's account as probably representing most nearly the actual
+course of the life of Jesus. While it reports fewer incidents and
+teachings than either of the others, a comparison with Matthew and Luke
+shows a preference in Mark for Jesus' deeds, though addresses are not
+wanting; and, while shorter as a whole, for matters which he reports
+Mark's record is most rich in detail, most dramatic in presentation, and
+actually longer than the parallel accounts in the other gospels. The whole
+narrative is animated in style (note the oft-repeated "immediately") and
+full of graphic traits. The story of Jesus seems to be reproduced from a
+memory which retains fresh personal impressions of events as they
+occurred. Hence the frequent comments on the effect of Jesus' ministry,
+such as "We never saw it on this fashion" (ii. 12), or "He hath done all
+things well" (vii. 37), and the introduction into the narrative of Aramaic
+words,--<i>Boanerges</i> (iii. 17), <i>Talitha, cumi</i> (v. 41), and the like,
+which immediately have to be translated. The gospel discloses no
+artificial plan, the chief word of transition is "and." While some of the
+incidents recorded, such as the second Sabbath controversy <a class="newpage" name="page026" id="page026" title="26"></a>(iii. 1-6) and
+the question about fasting (ii. 18-22), may owe their place to association
+in memory with an event of like character, the book impresses us as a
+collection of annals fresh from the living memory, which present the
+actual Jesus teaching and healing, and going on his way to the cross and
+resurrection. After the briefest possible reference to the ministry of
+John the Baptist and the baptism and temptation of Jesus (i. 1-13), this
+gospel proceeds to set forth the ministry in Galilee (i. 14 to ix. 50).
+The narrative then follows Jesus to Jerusalem, by way of Perea, and closes
+with his victory through death and resurrection (x. 1 to xvi. 8).</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s025"><p><span class="versenum">25.</span> The third gospel is more nearly a biography than any of its
+companions. It opens with a preface stating that after a study of many
+earlier attempts to record the life of Jesus the author has undertaken to
+present as complete an account as possible of that life from the
+beginning. The book is addressed to one Theophilus, doubtless a Greek
+Christian, and its chief aim is practical,--to confirm conviction
+concerning matters of faith (i. 1-4). The author's interest in the
+completeness of his account appears in the fact that it begins with
+incidents antecedent to the birth of John the Baptist and Jesus. Moreover,
+to his desire for completeness we owe much of the story of Jesus,
+otherwise unrecorded for us. Like the first two gospels, Luke represents
+the ministry of Jesus as inaugurated in Galilee, and carried on there
+until the approach of the tragedy at Jerusalem (iv. 14 to ix. 50). It is
+in connection with the journey to Jerusalem (ix. 51 to xix. 27) that he
+inserts most of that which is peculiar to his gospel. His account of the
+rejection at Jeru<a class="newpage" name="page027" id="page027" title="27"></a>salem, the crucifixion, and resurrection, follows in the
+main the same lines as Matthew and Mark; but he gained his knowledge of
+many particulars from different sources (xix. 28 to xxiv. 53). It is
+characteristic of Luke to name Jesus "Lord" more often than either of his
+predecessors. With this exalted conception is coupled a noticeable
+emphasis on Jesus' ministry of compassion; here more than in any other
+gospel he is pictured as the friend of sinners. Moreover, we owe chiefly
+to Luke our knowledge of him as a man of prayer and as subject to repeated
+temptation. An artificial exaltation of Christ, such as is often
+attributed to the later apostolic thought, would tend to reduce, not
+multiply, such evidences of human dependence on God. This fact increases
+our confidence in the accuracy of Luke's picture. The gospel is very full
+of comfort to those under the pressure of poverty, and of rebuke to
+unbelieving wealth, though the parable of the Unjust Steward and story of
+Zacch&aelig;us show that it does not exalt poverty for its own sake. If our
+first gospel pictures Jesus as the fulfilment of God's promises to his
+people, and Mark, as the man of power at work before our very eyes,
+astonishing the multitude while winning the few, Luke sets before us the
+Lord ministering with divine compassion to men subject to like temptations
+with himself, though, unlike them, he knew no sin.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s026"><p><span class="versenum">26.</span> The first three gospels, differing as they do in point of view and
+aim, present essentially one picture of the ministry of Jesus; for they
+agree concerning the locality and progress of his Messianic work, and the
+form and contents of his teaching, showing, in <a class="newpage" name="page028" id="page028" title="28"></a>fact, verbal identity in
+many parts of their narrative. For this reason they are commonly known as
+the Synoptic Gospels. Yet these gospels exhibit differences as remarkable
+as their likenesses. They differ perplexingly in the order in which they
+arrange some of the events in Jesus' life. Which of them should be given
+preference in constructing a harmonious picture of his ministry? They
+often agree to the letter in their report of deeds or words of Jesus, yet
+from beginning to end remarkable verbal differences stand side by side
+with remarkable verbal identities. Some of the identities of language
+suggest irresistibly that the evangelists have used, at least in part, the
+same previously existing written record. One of the clearest evidences of
+this is found in the introduction, at the same place in the parallel
+accounts, of the parenthesis "then saith he to the sick of the palsy"
+which interrupts the words of Jesus in the cure of the paralytic (Mark ii.
+10; Matt. ix. 6; Luke v. 24). When the three gospels are carefully
+compared it appears that Mark contains very little that is not found in
+Matthew and Luke, and that, with one or two exceptions, Luke presents in
+Mark's order the matter that he has in common with the second gospel. The
+same is also true of the relation between the latter part of the Gospel of
+Matthew (Matt. xiv. 1 to the end) and the parallel portion of Mark; while
+the comparison of Matthew's arrangement of his earlier half with Mark
+suggests that the order in the first gospel has been determined by other
+than chronological considerations. In a sense, therefore, we may say that
+the Gospel of Mark reveals the chronological framework on which all three
+of these gospels are constructed. <a class="newpage" name="page029" id="page029" title="28"></a>Comparison discloses further the
+interesting fact that the matter which Matthew and Luke have in common,
+after subtracting their parallels to Mark, consists almost entirely of
+teachings and addresses. Each gospel, however, has some matter peculiar to
+itself.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s027"><p><span class="versenum">27.</span> In considering the problem presented by these facts, it is well to
+remember that no one of these gospels contains within itself any statement
+concerning the identity of its author. We are indebted to tradition for
+the names by which we know them, and no one of them makes any claim to
+apostolic origin. The earliest reference in Christian literature which may
+be applied to our gospels comes from Papias, a Christian of Asia Minor in
+the second century. He reports that an earlier teacher had said, "Mark,
+having become the interpreter of Peter, wrote down accurately, though not,
+indeed, in order, whatsoever he remembered of the things said or done by
+Christ, for he neither heard the Lord nor followed him, but afterward, as
+I said, he followed Peter, who adapted his teachings to the needs of his
+hearers, but with no intention of giving a connected account of the Lord's
+discourses. So that Mark committed no error when he thus wrote some things
+as he remembered them, for he was careful of one thing, not to omit any of
+the things which he had heard and not to state any of them falsely....
+Matthew wrote the oracles [of the Lord] in the Hebrew language [Aramaic],
+and every one interpreted them as he was able" (Euseb. Ch. Hist. iii. 39).
+The result of many years' study by scholars of all shades of opinion is
+the very general conclusion that the writing which Papias attributed <a class="newpage" name="page030" id="page030" title="30"></a>to
+Mark was essentially what we have in our second gospel.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s028"><p><span class="versenum">28.</span> It is almost as universally acknowledged that the work ascribed by the
+second century elder to the apostle Matthew cannot be our first gospel;
+for its language has not the characteristics which other translations from
+Hebrew or Aramaic lead us to expect, while the completeness of its
+narrative exceeds what is suggested by the words of Papias. If, however,
+the matter which Matthew and Luke have in such rich measure in addition to
+Mark's narrative be considered, the likeness between this and the writing
+attributed by Papias to the apostle Matthew is noteworthy. The conclusion
+is now very general, that that apostolic writing is in large measure
+preserved in the discourses in our first and third gospels. The relation
+of our gospels to the two books mentioned by Papias may be conceived,
+then, somewhat as follows: The earliest gospel writing of which we know
+anything was a collection of the teachings of Jesus made by the apostle
+Matthew, in which he collected with simple narrative introductions, those
+sayings of the Lord which from the beginning had passed from mouth to
+mouth in the circle of the disciples. At a later time Mark wrote down the
+account of the ministry of Jesus which Peter had been accustomed to relate
+in his apostolic preaching. The work of the apostle Matthew, while much
+richer in the sayings of Jesus, lacked the completeness that characterizes
+a narrative; hence it occurred to some early disciple to blend together
+these two primitive gospel records, adding such other items of knowledge
+as came to his hand from oral tradition or written memoranda. As his <a class="newpage" name="page031" id="page031" title="31"></a>aim
+was practical rather than historical, he added such editorial comments as
+would make of the new gospel an argument for the Messiahship of Jesus, as
+we have seen. Since the most precious element in this new gospel was the
+apostolic record of the teachings of the Lord, the name of Matthew and not
+of his literary successor, was given to the book.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s029"><p><span class="versenum">29.</span> The third gospel is ascribed, by a probably trustworthy tradition, to
+Luke, the companion of Paul. The author himself says that he made use of
+such earlier records as were accessible, among which the chief seem to
+have been the writings of Mark and the apostle Matthew. To Luke's
+industry, however, we owe our knowledge of many incidents and teachings
+from the life of Jesus which were not contained in these two records, and
+with which we could ill afford to part. Some of these he doubtless found
+in written form, and some he gathered from oral testimony. His close
+agreement with Mark in the arrangement of his narrative suggests that he
+found no clear evidence of a ministry of wider extent in time and place.
+He therefore used Mark as his narrative framework, and of the rich
+materials which he had gathered made a gospel, the completest of any
+written up to his time.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s030"><p><span class="versenum">30.</span> Such in the main is the conclusion of modern study of our first three
+gospels; it explains the general identity of their picture of Jesus and of
+their report of his teaching; it leaves room for those individual
+characteristics which give them so much of their charm; and it traces the
+materials of the gospels far back of the writings as we have them,
+bringing us nearer to the events which they describe. The dates of these
+<a class="newpage" name="page032" id="page032" title="32"></a>documents can be only approximately known. It is probable that the
+"logia" collected by the apostle Matthew were written not later than 60 to
+65 A.D., while the Gospel of Mark dates from before the fall of Jerusalem
+in 70. Our first gospel must have been made between 70 and 100, and the
+Gospel of Luke may be dated about the year 80,--all within sixty or
+seventy years after the death of Jesus.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s031"><p><span class="versenum">31.</span> The fourth gospel gives us a picture of Jesus in striking contrast to
+that of the other three. These present chiefly the works of the Master and
+his teachings concerning the kingdom of God and human conduct, leaving the
+truth concerning the teacher himself to be inferred. John opens the heart
+of Jesus and makes him disclose his thought about himself in a remarkable
+series of teachings of which he is the prime topic. This gospel is
+avowedly an argument (xx. 30, 31); its selection of material is
+confessedly partial; its aim is to confirm the faith of Christians in the
+heavenly nature and saving power of their Lord; and its method is that of
+appeal to testimony, to signs, and to his own self-disclosures. The
+opening verses of the gospel have a somewhat abstract theological
+character; the body of the book, however, consists of a succession of
+incidents and teachings which follow each other in unstudied fashion like
+a collection of annals. This impression is not compromised by the
+recognition, at some points, of accidental displacements, like that which
+has placed xiv. 30, 31 before xv. and xvi., or that which has left a long
+gap between vii. 23 and the incident of v. 1-9, to which it refers. The
+theme of the gospel is the self-disclosure of Jesus. This seems to have
+determined the evangelist's choice of material, <a class="newpage" name="page033" id="page033" title="33"></a>and, as the gospel is an
+argument, he does not hesitate to mingle his own comments with his report
+of Jesus' words, for example (iii. 16-21, 30-36; xii. 37-43). The book is
+characterized by a vividness of detail which indicates a clear memory of
+personal experience. While it is evident that the author has the most
+exalted conception of the nature of his Lord, this seems to have been the
+result of loving meditation on a friend who had early won the mastery over
+his heart and life, and who through long years of contemplation had forced
+upon his disciple's mind the conviction of his transcendent nature. The
+book discloses a profoundly objective attitude; the Christ whom John
+portrays is not the creature of his speculations, but the Master who has
+entered into his experience as a living influence and has compelled
+recognition of his significance. The Son of God is for John the human
+Jesus who, though named at the outset the Word--the Logos,--is the Word
+who was made flesh, that men through him might become the sons of God.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s032"><p><span class="versenum">32.</span> The contrast which the Gospel of John presents to the other three
+concerns not only the teaching of Jesus, but the scene of his ministry and
+its historic development as well. Whatever may be the final judgment
+concerning the fourth gospel, it is manifestly constructed as a simple
+collection of incidents following each other in what was meant to appear a
+chronological sequence. It has been seen that the biographical framework
+of the first three gospels is principally Mark's report of Peter's
+narrative. Now it is a fact that in portions of Matthew and Luke, derived
+elsewhere than from Mark, there are various allusions most easily
+understood if it be assumed that Jesus <a class="newpage" name="page034" id="page034" title="34"></a>visited Jerusalem before his
+appearance there at the end of his ministry. Such, for instance, are the
+parable of the Good Samaritan (Luke x. 25-37), the story of the visit to
+Mary and Martha (Luke x. 38-42), and the lamentation of Jesus over
+Jerusalem (Luke xiii. 34, 35; Matt, xxiii. 37-39). All three gospels,
+moreover, agree in attributing to emissaries from Jerusalem much of the
+hostility manifested against Jesus in his Galilean ministry (Luke v. 17;
+Mark iii. 22; Matt. xv. 1; Mark vii. 1), and presuppose such an
+acquaintance of Jesus with households in and near Jerusalem as is not easy
+to explain if he never visited Judea before his passion (Mark xi. 2, 3;
+xiv. 14; xv. 43 and parallels; compare especially Matt, xxvii. 57; John
+xix. 38). These all suggest that the narrative of Mark does not tell the
+whole story, a conclusion quite in accordance with the account of his work
+given by Papias. It has been assumed that Peter was a Galilean, a man of
+family living in Capernaum. It is not impossible that on some of the
+earlier visits of Jesus to Jerusalem he did not accompany his Master, and
+in reporting the things which he knew he naturally confined himself to his
+own experiences. If this can explain the predominance of Galilean
+incidents in the ministry as depicted in Mark, it will explain the
+predominance of Galilee in the first three gospels, and the contradiction
+between John and the three is reduced to a divergence between two accounts
+of Jesus' ministry written from two different points of view.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s033"><p><span class="versenum">33.</span> The question of the trustworthiness of the fourth gospel is greatly
+simplified by the consideration of the one-sidedness of Mark's
+representation. It is further relieved by the fact that a ministry by
+Jesus in <a class="newpage" name="page035" id="page035" title="35"></a>Jerusalem must have been one of constant self-assertion, for
+Jerusalem represented at its highest those aspects of thought and practice
+which were fundamentally opposed to all that Jesus did and taught.
+Whenever in Galilee, in the ministry pictured by the first three gospels,
+Jesus came in contact with the spirit and feeling characteristic of
+Jerusalem, we find him meeting it by unqualified assertion of his own
+independence and exalted claim to authority, altogether similar to that
+emphasis of his own significance and importance which is the chief
+characteristic of his teachings in the fourth gospel. If it be remembered
+that that gospel was avowedly an argument written to commend to others the
+reverent conclusion concerning the Lord reached by a disciple whose
+thought had dwelt for long years on the marvel of that life, and if we
+recognize that for such an argument the author would select the instances
+and teachings most telling for his own purpose, and would do this as
+naturally as the magnet draws to itself iron filings which are mingled
+with a pile of sand, the exclusively personal character of the teachings
+of Jesus in this gospel need cause little perplexity. Nor need it seem
+surprising that the words of Jesus as reported in John share the
+peculiarities of style which mark the work of the evangelist in the
+prologue to the gospel and in his epistles. His purpose was not primarily
+biographical but argumentative, and he has set forth the picture of his
+Lord as it rose before his own heart, his memory of events being
+interwoven with contemplation on the significance of that life with which
+his had been so blessedly associated. In a gospel written avowedly to
+produce in others a conviction like his own, the evangelist would not have
+<a class="newpage" name="page036" id="page036" title="36"></a>been sensible of any obligation to draw sharp lines between his
+recollection of his Lord's words and his own contemplations upon them and
+upon their significance for his life. If these considerations be kept in
+mind we may accept the uniform tradition of antiquity, confirmed by the
+plain intimation of the gospel itself, that it is essentially the work of
+John, the son of Zebedee, written near the close of his life in Ephesus,
+in the last decade of the first century.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s034"><p><span class="versenum">34.</span> We have in our gospel records, therefore, two authorities for the
+general course of the ministry of Jesus,--Mark and John. Even if the
+fourth gospel should be proved not to be the work of John, its picture of
+the ministry of Jesus must be recognized as coming from some apostolic
+source. A forger would hardly have invited the rejection of his work by
+inventing a narrative which seems to contradict at so many points the
+tradition of the other gospels. The first and third gospels furnish us
+from various sources rich additions to Mark's narrative, and it is to
+these two with the fourth that we turn chiefly for the teachings of Jesus.
+Each gospel should be read, therefore, remembering its incompleteness,
+remembering also the particular purpose and individual enthusiasm for
+Jesus which produced it.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s035"><p><span class="versenum">35.</span> A word may be due to two other claimants to recognition as original
+records from the life of Jesus. One class is represented by that word of
+the Lord which Paul quoted to the Ephesian elders at Miletus (Acts xx.
+35). Scattered here and there in writings of the apostolic and succeeding
+ages are other sayings attributed to Jesus which cannot be found in our
+gospels. A few of these so-called Agrapha seem worthy <a class="newpage" name="page037" id="page037" title="37"></a>of him, and are
+recognized as probably genuine. The most important of them is the story of
+the woman taken in adultery (John vii. 53 to viii. 11), which, though not
+a part of the gospel of John, doubtless gives a true incident from Jesus'
+life. They represent the "many other" things which John and the other
+gospels have omitted, but their small number proves that our gospels have
+preserved for us practically all that was known of Jesus after the first
+witnesses fell asleep. It is certainly surprising that so little exists to
+supplement the story of the gospels, for they are manifestly fragmentary,
+and leave much of Jesus' public life without any record. The other class
+of claimants is of a quite different character,--the so-called Apocryphal
+Gospels. These consist chiefly of legends connected with the birth and
+early years of Jesus, and with his death and resurrection. They are for
+the most part crude tales that have entirely mistaken the real character
+of him whom they seek to exalt, and need only to be read to be rejected.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<div class="chapter" id="p01-03">
+<h2><a class="newpage" name="page038" id="page038" title="38"></a>III</h2>
+
+<h3>The Harmony of the Gospels</h3>
+
+
+
+<div class="section" id="s036"><p><span class="versenum">36.</span> The church early appreciated the value and the difficulty of having
+four different pictures of the life and teachings of the Lord. Iren&aelig;us at
+the close of the second century felt it to be as essential that there
+should be four gospels as that there should be "four zones of the world,
+four principal winds, and four faces of the cherubim" (Against Heresies
+III. ii. 8).</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s037"><p><span class="versenum">37.</span> Before Iren&aelig;us, however, another had sought to obviate the difficulty
+of having four records which seem at some points to disagree, by making a
+combination of the gospels, to which he gave the title "Diatessaron."
+Tatian, the author of this work, was converted from paganism about 152
+A.D., and prepared his unified gospel, probably for the use of the Syrian
+churches, sometime after 172. His work is one of the treasures of the
+early Christian literature recovered for us within the last
+quarter-century. It seems to have won great popularity in the Syrian
+churches, having practically displaced the canonical gospels for nearly
+three centuries, when, owing to its supposed heretical tendency, it was
+suppressed by the determined effort of the church authorities. It is a
+continuous record of Jesus' ministry, beginning with the first six verses
+of the Gospel of John, passing then to the early chapters <a class="newpage" name="page039" id="page039" title="39"></a>of Luke. It
+closes with an account of the resurrection interwoven from all four
+gospels, concluding with John xxi. 25. The arrangement follows generally
+the order of Matthew, additional matter from the other gospels being
+inserted at places which approved themselves to Tatian's judgment. Some
+portions--in particular the genealogies of Jesus--were omitted altogether,
+in accordance with views held by the compiler.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s038"><p><span class="versenum">38.</span> From Tatian's time to the present there have been repeated attempts to
+construct a harmonious representation of events and teachings in the
+ministry of Jesus, generally by setting the parallel accounts side by
+side, following such a succession of events as seemed most probable. Our
+evangelists cared little, if they thought at all, about the requirements
+of strict biography, and they have left us records not easy to arrange on
+any one chronological scheme. Concerning the chief events, however, the
+gospels agree. All four report, for instance, the beginning of the work in
+Galilee (Matt. iv. 12, 17; Mark i. 14, 15; Luke iv. 14, 15; John iv.
+43-45); the feeding of the five thousand when Jesus' popularity in Galilee
+passed its climax (Matt. xiv. 13-23; Mark vi. 30-46; Luke ix. 10-17; John
+vi. 1-15); the departure from Galilee for the final visit to Jerusalem
+(Matt. xix. 1, 2; Mark x. 1; Luke ix. 51; John vii. 1-10); and the week of
+suffering and victory at the end (Matt. xxi. 1 to xxviii. 20; Mark xi. 1
+to xvi. 8 [20]; Luke xix. 29 to xxiv. 53; John xii. 1 to xxi. 25).</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s039"><p><span class="versenum">39.</span> These facts are enough to give us a clear and unified impression of
+the course of Jesus' ministry. When, however, we seek to fill in the
+details given <a class="newpage" name="page040" id="page040" title="40"></a>in the different gospels, difficulties at once arise. Thus,
+first, what shall be done with the long section which John introduces (i.
+19 to iv. 42) before Jesus' withdrawal into Galilee? The other gospels
+make that withdrawal the beginning of his public work. A second difficulty
+arises from the unnamed feast of John v. 1. By one or another scholar this
+feast has been identified with almost every Jewish festival known to us.
+Another problem is furnished by the long section in Luke which is so
+nearly peculiar to his gospel (ix. 51 to xviii. 14). If the section had no
+parallels in the other gospels we might easily conclude that it all
+belongs to a time subsequent to the final departure for Jerusalem; but it
+contains at least one incident from the earlier ministry in Galilee (Luke
+xi. 14-36; compare Mark iii. 19-30), and many teachings of Jesus given by
+Matthew in an earlier connection appear here in Luke. Furthermore, the
+section has to be adjusted to that portion of the Gospel of John which
+deals with the same period and yet reports none of the same details.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s040"><p><span class="versenum">40.</span> If Mark has furnished the narrative framework adopted in the main by
+the first and third gospels, the problem of the order of events in Jesus'
+life becomes a question of the chronological value of Mark, and of the
+estimate to be placed on the narrative of John. If the fourth gospel is
+held to be of apostolic origin and trustworthy, the task of the harmonist
+is chiefly that of combining these two records of Mark and John. The
+testimony of the Baptist, with which the fourth gospel opens, must have
+been given some time after he had baptized Jesus, and the ministry which
+preceded Jesus' return to Galilee (i. 19 to iv. 42) be<a class="newpage" name="page041" id="page041" title="41"></a>longs to a period
+ignored by the other gospels. The first three gospels contain indications
+that Jesus must have visited Judea before the close of his life. They give
+no hint, however, of the time or circumstances of such earlier Judean
+labor. In giving the emphasis they do to the work in Galilee, they present
+a one-sided picture. When, therefore, we find in John a narrative of work
+in Judea, confirmed by hints in the other gospels, we may justly assume
+that the arrangement which fills out the ministry of Jesus by inserting at
+the proper places in Mark's record the events found in John is essentially
+true.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s041"><p><span class="versenum">41.</span> The consideration of the one-sidedness of Mark's narrative simplifies
+the problem of harmony, but it does not solve all of the perplexities.
+Matthew and Luke have much matter, some of it narrative, which Mark has
+not, and for which he suggests no place. Where shall we put, for instance,
+the cure of the centurion's servant (Matt. viii. 5-13; Luke vii. 1-10), or
+John the Baptist's last message (Matt. xi. 2-19; Luke vii. 18-35)? It
+would simplify matters if we could take Luke's statement that he had
+"traced the course of all things accurately from the first" (Luke i. 3),
+as indicating that he had arrived at exact certainty concerning the order
+of events of Jesus' life. It is probable, however, that his statement was
+simply a claim that he had carefully gathered material for a record of the
+whole life of Jesus, from the annunciation of his birth to his ascension.
+While we may believe that some trustworthy tradition led him to give the
+place he has to many of the incidents which he adds to Mark's story, it
+seems impossible to follow him in all respects; for instance, in severing
+the account of the blasphemy <a class="newpage" name="page042" id="page042" title="42"></a>of the Pharisees (xi. 14-36) from the place
+which it holds in Mark (iii. 19-30).</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s042"><p><span class="versenum">42.</span> Still more uncertainty exists concerning the historic connection of
+teachings of Jesus to which Matthew and Luke give different settings; for
+example, the Lord's Prayer (Matt. vi. 9-15; Luke xi. 1-4), and the
+exhortations against anxiety (Matt. vi. 25-34; Luke xii. 22-31). We have
+seen that much of the teaching common to these gospels is probably derived
+from the collection of the "oracles" of the Lord made by the apostle
+Matthew. Everything that we can infer concerning such a collection of
+oracles indicates that, while some of the teachings may have been
+connected with particular historic situations (compare Luke xi. 1), many
+would altogether lack such introductory words. A later example of what
+such a collection may have been has come to light recently in the
+so-called "Sayings of Jesus," discovered in Egypt and published in 1897.
+In these the occasion for the teaching has been quite lost; the sole
+interest centres in the fact that Jesus is supposed to have said the
+things recorded. If Matthew's book contained such "logia" or "oracles," it
+is probable that the original connection in which most of them were spoken
+was a matter of no concern to the apostle, and consequently has been lost
+This in no way compromises the genuineness of these sayings of Jesus. The
+treatment of Luke ix. 51 to xviii. 14 is much simplified by this
+consideration. To Luke's industry (i. 1-4) we owe the preservation of some
+events and very many teachings which no other evangelist has recorded.
+Some of this new material (for instance, vii. 11-17, 36-50) he has
+assigned a place in the midst of Mark's narrative. <a class="newpage" name="page043" id="page043" title="43"></a>Most of it, however,
+he has gathered together in what seems to be a sort of appendix, which he
+has inserted between the close of the ministry in Galilee and the final
+arrival in Judea. For many of the teachings it is now impossible to assign
+a time or place. That this is so will cause no surprise or difficulty if
+we remember that in the earliest days the report of what Jesus said and
+did circulated in the form of oral tradition only. It was the knowledge
+that first-hand witnesses were passing away that led to the writing of the
+gospels. During the period of oral tradition many teachings of the Lord
+were doubtless kept clearly and accurately in memory after the historic
+situations which led to their first utterance were quite forgotten.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s043"><p><span class="versenum">43.</span> This fact helps to explain another perplexity in our gospel
+narratives. A comparison of the two accounts of the cure of the
+centurion's servant reveals differences of detail most perplexing, if we
+ask for minute agreement in records of the same events. When we see that
+of two accounts evidently reporting the same incident, one can say that
+the centurion himself sought Jesus and asked the cure of his servant
+(Matt. viii. 5, 8), while the other makes him declare himself unworthy to
+come in person to the Lord (Luke vii. 7), the question arises whether
+other accounts, similar in the main but differing in detail, should not be
+identified as independent records of one event. Were there two cleansings
+of the temple (John ii. 13-22; Mark xi. 15-19), two miraculous draughts of
+fishes (Luke v. 4-11; John xxi. 5-8), two rejections at Nazareth (Mark vi.
+1-6; Luke iv. 16-30), two parables of the Leaven, of the Mustard <a class="newpage" name="page044" id="page044" title="44"></a>Seed
+(Matt. xiii. 31-33; Luke xiii. 18-21), and of the Lost Sheep (Matt, xviii.
+12-14; Luke xv. 4-7)? Such similar records are often called doublets, and
+the question of identity or distinctness can be answered only after a
+special study of each case. It is important to notice that a given
+teaching, particularly if it took the form of an illustration, would
+naturally be used by Jesus on many different occasions. When, on the other
+hand, we find two accounts of specific doings of Jesus similar in detail
+it is needful to recognize that definite historic situations do not so
+often repeat themselves as do occasions for similar or identical
+teachings.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s044"><p><span class="versenum">44.</span> All these considerations show that while the general order of events
+in the life of Jesus may be determined with a good degree of probability,
+we must be content to remain uncertain concerning the place to be given to
+many incidents and to more teachings. Such uncertainty is of small
+concern, since our unharmonized gospels have not failed during all these
+centuries to produce one fair picture, to the total impression of which
+each teaching and deed make definite contribution quite independently of
+our ability to give to each its particular place in relation to the whole.
+The degree of certainty attainable justifies, however, a continued
+interest in the old study of harmony, because of the more comprehensive
+idea it gives of the ministry depicted in the partial narratives of our
+several gospels.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<div class="chapter" id="p01-04">
+<h2>IV</h2>
+
+<h3><a class="newpage" name="page045" id="page045" title="45"></a>The Chronology</h3>
+
+
+
+<div class="section" id="s045"><p><span class="versenum">45.</span> The length of the public ministry of Jesus was one of the earliest
+questions which arose in the study of the four gospels. In the second and
+third centuries it was not uncommon to find the answer in the passage from
+Isaiah (lxi. 1, 2), which Jesus declared was fulfilled in himself. "The
+acceptable year of the Lord" was taken to indicate that the ministry
+covered little more than a year. The fact that the first three gospels
+mention but one Passover (that at the end), and but one journey to
+Jerusalem, seems at first to be favorable to this conclusion, and to make
+peculiarly significant the care taken by Luke to give the exact date for
+the opening of Jesus' ministry (iii. 1, 2). In fact, the second century
+Gnostics, relying apparently on Luke, assigned both the ministry and death
+of Jesus to the fifteenth year of Tiberius C&aelig;sar,--an interpretation which
+may have given rise to the widely spread, early tradition, found, for
+example, in Tertullian (Ante-nicene Fathers, in. 160), which placed the
+death of Jesus in A.D. 29, during the consulship of L. Rubellius Geminus
+and C. Fufius Geminus.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s046"><p><span class="versenum">46.</span> The theory that the ministry of Jesus extended over but little more
+than one year is beset, however, by difficulties that seem insuperable.
+The first is presented by the three Passovers distinctly mentioned in <a class="newpage" name="page046" id="page046" title="46"></a>the
+Gospel of John (ii. 13; vi. 4; xii. 1). The last of these is plainly
+identical with the one named in the other gospels. The second gives the
+time of year for the feeding of the five thousand, and agrees with the
+mention of "the green grass" in the account of Mark and Matthew (Mark vi.
+39; Matt. xiv. 19). John's first Passover falls in a section which demands
+a place before Mark i. 14 (compare John iii. 24). Hence it must be shown
+that this first Passover is chronologically out of order in the Gospel of
+John, or the one year ministry advocated by the second century Gnostics,
+by Clement of Alexandria, by Origen, and of late years by Keim and others,
+is seen to be impossible. The fact that at this Passover Jesus cleansed
+the temple, and that the other gospels assign such a cleansing to the
+close of the ministry, suggests the possibility that John has set it at
+the opening of his narrative for reasons connected with his argument. This
+interpretation falls, however, before the perfect simplicity of structure
+of John's narrative. The transitions from incident to incident in this
+gospel are those of simple succession, and indicate, on the writer's part,
+no suspicion that he was contradicting notions concerning the ministry of
+Jesus familiar to his contemporaries. Whatever the conclusion reached
+concerning the authorship of the gospel, the fact that it gained currency
+very early as apostolic would seem to prove that its conception of the
+length of Jesus' ministry was not opposed to the recognized apostolic
+testimony. It is safe to conclude, therefore, that time must be allowed in
+Jesus' ministry for at least three Passover seasons.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s047"><p><span class="versenum">47.</span> With this conclusion most modern discussions of the question rest, and
+it is possible that it may <a class="newpage" name="page047" id="page047" title="47"></a>finally win common consent. The order of
+Mark's narrative, however, challenges it. This gospel records near the
+beginning (ii. 23) a controversy with the Pharisees occasioned by the fact
+that Jesus' disciples plucked and ate the ripening grain as they passed on
+a Sabbath day through the fields. As Mark places much later (vi. 30-34)
+the feeding of the five thousand, which occurred at a Passover, that is
+the beginning of the harvest (Lev. xxiii. 5-11), his order suggests the
+necessity of including two harvest seasons in the ministry in Galilee, and
+consequently four Passovers in the public life of Jesus. Two
+considerations are urged against this conclusion. (1) Papias in his
+reference to the Gospel of Mark criticises the order of the gospel; (2)
+Mark ii. 1 to iii. 6 contains a group of five conflicts with the critics
+of Jesus, which represents a massing of opposition that seems unlikely at
+the outset of his Galilean work. The remark of Papias must remain obscure
+until his standard of comparison is known. Some suggest that he knew
+John's order and preferred it, others that he agreed with that adopted by
+Tatian in his Diatessaron. Mark is in accord with neither of these. No
+one, however, knows what order Papias preferred. The early conflict group
+does appear like a collection drawn from different parts of the ministry.
+Yet the nucleus of the group--the cure of the paralytic (ii. 1-12) and the
+call of Levi (ii. 13-17)--is clearly in its right place in Mark (see
+Holtzmann, Hand-commentar, I. 10). The question about fasting (ii. 18-22)
+may have been asked much later, and its present place may be due to
+association in tradition with the criticism of Jesus' fellowship with
+publicans (ii. 16). <a class="newpage" name="page048" id="page048" title="48"></a>In like manner the cure of the withered hand (iii.
+1-6) may have become artificially grouped with the incident of the
+cornfields. It is possible, also, that both Sabbath controversies owe
+their early place in the gospel to traditional association with the early
+conflicts (ii. 1-17). If so, the plucking of the grain actually occurred
+some weeks after the feeding of the five thousand, and probably after the
+controversy about tradition (vii. 1-23), with which, according to Mark,
+Jesus' activity in Galilee practically closed. It is not clear, however,
+what principle of association drew forward to the early group the Sabbath
+conflict, and left in its place the controversy about tradition. It is
+thus possible that the incident of the cornfields belongs also to the
+early nucleus of the group; and in this case the longer ministry,
+including four Passovers, must be accepted. The decision of the question
+is not of vital importance, but it affects the determination of the
+sequence of events in Jesus' life. Whatever the explanation of the remark
+of Papias, the more the gospels are studied the more does Mark's order of
+events commend itself in general as representing the probable fact. Many
+students have inferred the three year ministry from the Gospel of John
+alone, identifying the unnamed feast in John v. 1 with a Passover. But
+John's allusion to that feast is so indefinite that the length of Jesus'
+ministry must be determined quite independently of it.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s048"><p><span class="versenum">48.</span> So long a ministry as three years presents some difficulties, for all
+that is told us in the four gospels would cover but a small fraction of
+this time. John's statement (xx. 30) that he omitted many things from
+Jesus' life in making his book is evidently true of all <a class="newpage" name="page049" id="page049" title="49"></a>the evangelists,
+and long gaps, such as are evident in the fourth gospel, must be assumed
+in the other three. Recalling the character of the gospels as pictures of
+Jesus rather than narratives of his life, we may easily acknowledge the
+incompleteness of our record of the three years of ministry, and wonder
+the more at the vividness of impression produced with such economy of
+material. This meagreness of material is not decisive for the shorter
+rather than the longer ministry, for it is evident that to effect such a
+change in conviction and feeling as Jesus wrought in the minds of the
+ardent Galileans who were his disciples, required time. Three years are
+better suited to effect this change than two.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s049"><p><span class="versenum">49.</span> Closely related to the question of the length of Jesus' ministry is
+another: Can definite dates be given for the chief events in his life? For
+the year of the opening of his public activity the gospels furnish two
+independent testimonies: the remark of the Jews on the occasion of Jesus'
+first visit to Jerusalem, "Forty and six years was this temple in
+building" (John ii. 20), and Luke's careful dating of the appearance of
+John the Baptist, "in the fifteenth year of Tiberius C&aelig;sar" (iii. 1, 2).
+John ii. 20 leads to the conclusion that the first Passover fell in the
+spring of A.D. 26 or 27, since we learn from Josephus (Ant. xv. 11. 1)
+that Herod began to rebuild the temple in the eighteenth year of his
+reign, which closed in the spring of B.C. 19. Luke iii. 1 gives a date
+contradictory to the one just found, if the fifteenth year of Tiberius is
+to be counted from the death of his predecessor, for Augustus died August
+19, A.D. 14. Reckoned from this time the opening of John's work falls in
+the year <a class="newpage" name="page050" id="page050" title="50"></a>A.D. 28, and the first Passover of Jesus' ministry could not be
+earlier than the spring of 29. This is at least two years later than is
+indicated by the statement in John. The remark in John is, however, so
+incidental and so lacking in significance for his argument that its
+definiteness can be explained only as due to a clear historic
+reminiscence; but it does not follow that Luke has erred in the date given
+by him. Although Augustus did not die until A.D. 14, there is evidence
+that Tiberius was associated with him in authority over the army and the
+provinces not later than January, A.D. 12. One who lived and wrote in the
+reign of Titus may possibly have applied to the reign of Tiberius a mode
+of reckoning customary in the case of Titus, as Professor Ramsay has shown
+(Was Christ born at Bethlehem, 202). If this is the fact, Luke reckoned
+from the co-regency of Tiberius; hence the fifteenth year would be A.D. 25
+or 26, according as the co-regency began before or after the first of
+January, A.D. 12. This would place the first Passover of Jesus' ministry
+in the spring of 26 or 27, in agreement with the hint found in John.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s050"><p><span class="versenum">50.</span> If the public ministry of Jesus began with the spring of 26 or 27, the
+close of three years of activity would, come at the Passover of 29 or 30.
+The former of these dates agrees with the early Christian tradition
+already mentioned. But before accepting that traditional date another
+matter must be considered. Jesus was crucified on the Friday at the
+opening of the feast of the Passover. Whether it was the day of the
+sacrifice of the Passover (14 Nisan) or the day following (15 Nisan), is
+not essential for the present question. As the Jewish month began with the
+first appearance <a class="newpage" name="page051" id="page051" title="51"></a>of the new moon, it is evident that, in the year of
+Jesus' death, the month of Nisan must have begun on a day that would make
+the 14th or the 15th fall on Friday. Now it can be shown that in the year
+30 the 14th of Nisan was Thursday (April 6) or Friday (April 7), for at
+best only approximate certainty is attainable. The tradition which assigns
+the passion to 29, generally names March 25 as the day of the month. This
+date is impossible, because it does not coincide with the full moon of
+that month. The choice of March 25 by a late tradition may be explained by
+the fact that it was commonly regarded as the date of the spring equinox,
+the turning of the year towards its renewing. Mr. Turner has shown
+(HastBD. I. 415) that another date found in an early document cannot be so
+explained. Epiphanius was familiar with copies of the Acts of Pilate,
+which gave March 18 as the date of the crucifixion; and it is remarkable
+that this date coincides with the full moon, and also falls on Friday.
+Such a combination gives unusual weight to the tradition, particularly as
+there is no ready way to account for its rise, as in the case of March 25.
+From this supplementary tradition the year 29 gains in probability as the
+year of the passion. Without attempting to arrive at a final
+conclusion,--a task which must be left for chronological specialists,--it
+is safe to assume that Jesus died at the Passover of A.D. 29 or 30.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s051"><p><span class="versenum">51.</span> Concluding that Jesus' active ministry fell within the years A.D. 26
+to 30, is it possible to determine the date of his birth? Four hints are
+furnished by the gospels: he was born before the death of Herod (Matt. ii.
+1; Luke i. 5); he was about thirty years of age at his baptism (Luke iii.
+23); he was <a class="newpage" name="page052" id="page052" title="52"></a>born during a census conducted in Judea in accordance with
+the decree of Augustus at a time when Quirinius was in authority in Syria
+(Luke ii. 1, 2); after his birth wise men from the East were led to visit
+him by observing "his star" (Matt. ii. 1, 2). From these facts it follows
+that the birth of Jesus cannot be placed later than B.C. 4, since Herod
+died about the first of April in that year (Jos. Ant. xvii. 6. 4; 8. 1,
+4). The awkwardness of having to find a date <i>Before Christ</i> for the birth
+of Jesus is due to the miscalculation of the monk, Dionysius the Little,
+who in the sixth century introduced our modern reckoning from "the year of
+our Lord."</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s052"><p><span class="versenum">52.</span> But is it impossible to determine the time of Jesus' birth more
+exactly? Luke (ii. 1, 2) offers what seems to be more definite
+information, but his reference to the decree of Augustus and the enrolment
+under Quirinius are among the most seriously challenged statements in the
+gospels. It has been said (1) that history knows of no edict of Augustus
+ordering a general enrolment of "the world;" (2) that a Roman census could
+not have been taken in Palestine before the death of Herod; (3) that if
+such an enrolment had been taken it would have been unnecessary for Joseph
+and Mary to journey from Nazareth to Bethlehem; (4) that the census taken
+when Quirinius was governor of Syria is definitely assigned by Josephus to
+the year after the deposition of Archelaus, A.D. 6 (Ant. xviii. 1. 1; see
+also Acts v. 37); (5) that if Luke's reference to this census as the
+"first" be appealed to, it must be replied that Quirinius was not governor
+of Syria at any time during the lifetime of Herod. This array of
+difficulties is impressive, and has persuaded <a class="newpage" name="page053" id="page053" title="53"></a>many conservative students
+to concede that in his reference to the census Luke has fallen into error.
+Some recent discoveries in Egypt, however, have furnished new information
+concerning the imperial administration of that province. Inferring that a
+policy adopted in Egypt may have prevailed also in Syria, Professor Ramsay
+has recently put forth a strong argument for Luke's accuracy in respect of
+this census (Was Christ born at Bethlehem, 95-248). That argument may be
+condensed as follows: We have evidence of a system of Roman enrolments in
+Egypt taken every fourteen years, and already traced back to the time of
+Augustus, the earliest document so far recovered belonging, apparently, to
+the census of A.D. 20. It is at least possible that this system of
+Egyptian enrolments may have been part of an imperial policy, of which all
+other trace is lost excepting the statement of Luke. It is significant
+that the date of the census referred to by Josephus (A.D. 6) fits exactly
+the fourteen-year cycle which obtained in Egypt. If the census of A.D. 6
+was preceded by an earlier one its date would be B.C. 8; that is, it would
+be actually taken in B.C. 7, in order to secure the full acts for B.C. 8.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s053"><p><span class="versenum">53.</span> The statement of Tertullian (Against Marcion, iv. 19) that a census
+had been taken in Judea under Augustus by Sentius Saturninus, who was
+governor of Syria about 9 to 7 B.C., certainly comes from some source
+independent of the gospels, and tends to confirm Luke's account of a
+census before the death of Herod. That a Roman census might have been
+taken in Palestine during Herod's life is seen from the fact that in A.D.
+36 Vitellius, the governor of Syria, <a class="newpage" name="page054" id="page054" title="54"></a>had to send Roman forces into
+Cilicia Trach&aelig;a to assist Archelaus, the king of that country, to quell a
+revolt caused by native resistance to a census taken after the Roman
+fashion (Tacitus, Ann. vi. 41). Herod would almost certainly resent as a
+mark of subjection the order to enrol his people; and the fact that he was
+in disfavor with Augustus during the governorship of Saturninus (Josephus,
+Ant. xvi. 9. 1-3), suggests to Professor Ramsay that he may have sought to
+avoid obedience to the imperial will in the matter of the census. If after
+some delay Herod was forced to obey, the enrolment may have been taken in
+the year 7-6. Since it is probable that the Romans would allow Herod to
+give the census as distinctly Jewish a character as possible, it is easy
+to credit the order that all Jews should be registered, so far as
+possible, in their ancestral homes. Hence the journey of Joseph to
+Bethlehem; and if Mary wished to have her child also registered as from
+David's line, her removal with Joseph to Bethlehem is explained. Such a
+delay in the taking of the census would have postponed it until after the
+recall of Saturninus. The statement of Tertullian may therefore indicate
+simply that he knew that a census was taken in Syria by Saturninus.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s054"><p><span class="versenum">54.</span> The successor of Saturninus was Varus, who held the governorship until
+after the death of Herod. How then does Luke refer to the enrolment as
+taken when Quirinius was in authority? It has for a long time been known
+that this man was in Syria before he was there as legate of the emperor in
+A.D. 6. There seems to be evidence that Quirinius was in the East about
+the year B.C. 6, putting down a rebellion on the borders of Cilicia, a
+district joined with Syria into <a class="newpage" name="page055" id="page055" title="55"></a>one province under the early empire.
+Varus was at this time governor, but Quirinius might easily have been
+looked upon as representing for the time the power of the Roman arms. If
+Herod was forced to yield to the imperial wish by the presence in Syria of
+this renowned captain, the statement of Luke is confirmed, and the census
+at which Jesus was born was taken, according to a Jewish fashion, during
+the life of Herod, but under compulsion of Rome exacted by Quirinius,
+while he was in command of the Roman forces in the province of
+Syria-Cilicia. This gives as a probable date for the birth of Jesus B.C.
+6, which accords well with the hints previously considered, inasmuch as it
+is earlier than the death of Herod, and, if born in B.C. 6, Jesus would
+have been thirty-two at his baptism in A.D. 26.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s055"><p><span class="versenum">55.</span> The account given in Matthew of "the star" which drew the wise men to
+Judea gives no sure help in determining the date of the birth of Jesus,
+but it is at least suggestive that in the spring and autumn of B.C. 7
+there occurred a remarkable conjunction of the planets Jupiter and Saturn.
+This was first noticed by Kepler in consequence of a similar conjunction
+observed by him in A.D. 1603. Men much influenced by astrology must have
+been impressed by such a celestial phenomenon, but that it furnishes an
+explanation of the star of the wise men is not clear. If it does, it
+confirms the date otherwise probable for the nativity, that is, not far
+from B.C. 6.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s056"><p><span class="versenum">56.</span> Can we go further and determine the time of year or the month and day
+of the nativity? It should be borne in mind that our Christmas festival
+was not observed earlier than the fourth century, and that the <a class="newpage" name="page056" id="page056" title="56"></a>evidence
+is well-nigh conclusive that December 25th was finally selected for the
+Nativity in order to hallow a much earlier and widely spread pagan
+festival coincident with the winter solstice. If anything exists to
+suggest the time of year it is Luke's mention of "shepherds in the field
+keeping watch by night over their flock" (ii. 8). This seems to indicate
+that it must have been the summer season. In winter the flocks would be
+folded, not pastured, by night.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s057"><p><span class="versenum">57.</span> It therefore seems probable that Jesus was born in the summer of B.C.
+6; that he was baptized in A.D. 26; that the first Passover of his
+ministry was in the spring of 26 or 27; and that he was crucified in the
+spring of 29 or 30.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<div class="chapter" id="p01-05">
+<h2><a class="newpage" name="page057" id="page057" title="57"></a>V</h2>
+
+<h3>The Early Years of Jesus</h3>
+
+<h4>Matt. i. 1 to ii. 23; Luke i. 5 to ii. 52; iii. 23-38</h4>
+
+
+
+<div class="section" id="s058"><p><span class="versenum">58.</span> It is surprising that within a century of the life of the apostles,
+Christian imagination could have so completely mistaken the real greatness
+of Jesus as to let its thirst for wonder fill his early years with scenes
+in which his conduct is as unlovely as it is shocking. That he who in
+manhood was "holy, harmless, undefiled, separate from sinners" (Heb. vii.
+26), could in youth, in a fit of ill-temper, strike a companion with death
+and then meet remonstrance by cursing his accusers with blindness (Gospel
+of Thomas, 4, 5); that he could mock his teachers and spitefully resent
+their control (Pseudo-Matthew, 30, 31); that it could be thought worthy of
+him to exhibit his superiority to common human conditions by carrying
+water in his mantle when his pitcher had been broken (same, 33), or by
+making clay birds in play on the Sabbath and causing them to fly when he
+was rebuked for naughtiness (same, 27);--these and many like legends
+exhibit incredible blindness to the real glory of the Lord. Yet such
+things abound in the early attempts of the pious imagination to write the
+story of the youth of Jesus, and the account of the nativity and its
+antecedents fares as ill, being pitifully trivial where it is not
+revolting.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s059"><p><a class="newpage" name="page058" id="page058" title="58"></a><span class="versenum">59.</span> How completely foreign all this is to the apostolic thought and
+feeling is clear when we notice that excepting the first two chapters of
+Matthew and Luke the New Testament tells us nothing whatever of the years
+which preceded John the Baptist's ministry in the wilderness. The gospels
+are books of testimony to what men had seen and heard (John i. 14); and
+the epistles are practical interpretations of the same in its bearing on
+religious life and hope. The apostles found no difficulty in recognizing
+the divinity and sinlessness of their Lord without inquiring how he came
+into the world or how he spent his early years; it was what he showed
+himself to be, not how he came to be, that formed their conception of him.
+Yet the early chapters of Matthew and Luke should not be classed with the
+later legends. Notwithstanding the attempts of Keim to associate the
+narratives of the infancy in the canonical and apocryphal gospels, a great
+gulf separates them: on the one side there is a reverent and beautiful
+reserve, on the other indelicate, unlovely, and trivial audacity.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s060"><p><span class="versenum">60.</span> The gospel narratives have, however, perplexities of their own, for
+the two accounts agree only in the main features,--the miraculous birth in
+Bethlehem in the days of Herod, Mary being the mother and Joseph the
+foster-father, and Nazareth the subsequent residence. In further details
+they are quite different, and at first sight seem contradictory. Moreover,
+while Matthew sheds a halo of glory over the birth of Jesus, Luke draws a
+picture of humble circumstances and obscurity. These differences, taken
+with the silence of the rest of the New Testament concerning a miraculous
+birth, constitute a real difficulty. To many it <a class="newpage" name="page059" id="page059" title="59"></a>seems strange that the
+disciples and the brethren of Jesus did not refer to these things if they
+knew them to be true. But it must not be overlooked that any familiar
+reference to the circumstances of the birth of Jesus which are narrated in
+the gospels would have invited from the Jews simply a challenge of the
+honor of his home. Moreover, as the knowledge of these wonders did not
+keep Mary from misunderstanding her son (Luke ii. 19, 51; compare Mark in.
+21, 31-35), the publication of them could hardly have helped greatly the
+belief of others. The fact that Mary was so perplexed by the course of
+Jesus in his ministry makes it probable that even until quite late in her
+life she "kept these things and pondered them in her heart."</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s061"><p><span class="versenum">61.</span> No parts of the New Testament are challenged so widely and so
+confidently as these narratives of the infancy. But if they are not to be
+credited with essential truth it is necessary to show what ideas cherished
+in the apostolic church could have led to their invention. That John and
+Paul maintain the divinity of their Lord, yet give no hint that this
+involved a miraculous birth, shows that these stories are no necessary
+outgrowth of that doctrine. The early Christians whether Jewish or Gentile
+would not naturally choose to give pictorial form to their belief in their
+Lord's divinity by the story of an incarnation. The heathen myths
+concerning sons of the gods were in all their associations revolting to
+Christian feeling, and, while the Jewish mind was ready to see divine
+influence at work in the birth of great men in Israel (as Isaac, and
+Samson, and Samuel), the whole tendency of later Judaism was hostile to
+any such idea as actual incarnation. Some would explain the story of the
+<a class="newpage" name="page060" id="page060" title="60"></a>miraculous birth as a conclusion drawn by the Christian consciousness
+from the doctrine of the sinlessness of Jesus. Yet neither Paul nor John,
+who are both clear concerning the doctrine, give any idea that a
+miraculous birth was essential for a sinless being. Some appeal to the
+eagerness of the early Christians to exalt the virginity of Mary, This is
+certainly the animus of many apocryphal legends. But the feeling is as
+foreign to Jewish sentiment and New Testament teaching as it is
+contradictory to the evidence in the gospels that Mary had other children
+born after Jesus.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s062"><p><span class="versenum">62.</span> Moreover, the songs of Mary (Luke i. 46-55) and Zachariah (Luke i.
+68--79) bear in themselves the evidence of origin before the doctrine of
+the cross had transformed the Christian idea of the Messiah. That
+transformed idea abounds in the Epistles and the Acts, and it is difficult
+to conceive how these songs (if they were later inventions) could have
+been left free of any trace of specifically Christian ideas. A Jewish
+Christian would almost certainly have made them more Christian than they
+are; a Gentile Christian could not have made them so strongly and
+naturally Jewish as they are; while a non-Christian Jew would never have
+invented them. Taken with the evidence in Ignatius (Ad Eph. xviii., xix.)
+of the very early currency of the belief in a miraculous birth, they
+confirm the impression that it is easier to accept the evidence offered
+for the miracle than to account for the origin of the stories as legends.
+The idea of a miraculous birth is very foreign to modern thought; it
+becomes credible only as the transcendent nature of Jesus is recognized on
+other grounds. It may not be said that the incarnation required a
+<a class="newpage" name="page061" id="page061" title="61"></a>miraculous conception, yet it may be acknowledged that a miraculous
+conception is a most suitable method for a divine incarnation.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s063"><p><span class="versenum">63.</span> These gospel stories are chiefly significant for us in that they show
+that he in whom his disciples came to recognize a divine nature began his
+earthly life in the utter helplessness and dependence of infancy, and grew
+through boyhood and youth to manhood with such naturalness that his
+neighbors, dull concerning the things of the spirit, could not credit his
+exalted claims. He is shown as one in all points like unto his brethren
+(Heb. ii. 17). Two statements in Luke (ii. 40, 52) describe the growth of
+the divine child as simply as that of his forerunner (Luke i. 80), or that
+of the prophet of old (I. Sam. ii. 26). The clear impression of these
+statements is that Jesus had a normal growth from infancy to manhood,
+while the whole course of the later life as set before us in the gospels
+confirms the scripture doctrine that his normal growth was free from sin
+(Heb. iv. 15).</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s064"><p><span class="versenum">64.</span> The knowledge of the probable conditions of his childhood is as
+satisfying as the apocryphal stories are revolting. The lofty Jewish
+conception of home and its relations is worthy of Jesus. The circumstances
+of the home in Nazareth were humble (Matt. xiii. 55; Luke ii. 24; compare
+Lev. xii. 8). Probably the house was not unlike those seen to-day, of but
+one room, or at most two or three,--the tools of trade mingling with the
+meagre furnishings for home-life. We should not think it a home of penury;
+doubtless the circumstances of Joseph were like those of his neighbors. In
+one respect this home was rich. The wife and mother had an exalted place
+in the Jewish <a class="newpage" name="page062" id="page062" title="62"></a>life, notwithstanding the trivial opinions of some
+supercilious rabbis; and what the gospel tells of the chivalry of Joseph
+renders it certain that love reigned in his home, making it fit for the
+growth of the holy child.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s065"><p><span class="versenum">65.</span> Religion held sway in all the phases of Jewish life. With some it was
+a religion of ceremony,--of prayers and fastings, tithes and boastful
+alms, fringes and phylacteries. But Joseph and Mary belonged to the
+simpler folk, who, while they reverenced the scribes as teachers, knew not
+enough of their subtlety to have substituted barren rites for sincere love
+for the God of their fathers and childlike trust in his mercy. Jesus knew
+not only home life at its fairest, but religion at its best. A father's
+most sacred duty was the teaching of his child in the religion of his
+people (Deut. vi. 4-9), and then, as ever since, the son learned at his
+mother's side to know and love her God, to pray to him, and to know the
+scriptures. No story more thrilling and full of interest, no prospect more
+rich and full of glowing hope, could be found to satisfy the child's
+spirit of wonder than the story of Israel's past and God's promises for
+the future. Religious culture was not confined to the home, however. The
+temple at Jerusalem was the ideal centre of religious life for this
+Nazareth household (Luke ii. 41) as for all the people, yet practically
+worship and instruction were cultivated chiefly by the synagogue (Luke iv.
+16); there God was present in his Holy Word. Week after week the boy Jesus
+heard the scripture in its original Hebrew form, followed by translation
+into Aramaic, and received instruction from it for daily conduct. The
+synagogue probably influenced the boy's intellectual life even more
+directly. In the time of Jesus schools <a class="newpage" name="page063" id="page063" title="63"></a>had been established in all the
+important towns, and were apparently under the control of the synagogue.
+To such a school he may have been sent from about six years of age to be
+taught the scriptures (compare II. Tim. iii. 15), together with the
+reading (Luke iv. 16-19), and perhaps the writing, of the Hebrew language.
+Of his school experience we know nothing beyond the fact that he grew in
+"wisdom and in stature and in favor with God and man" (Luke ii. 52),--a
+sufficient contradiction of the repulsive legends of the apocryphal
+gospels.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s066"><p><span class="versenum">66.</span> The physical growth incident to Jesus' development from boyhood to
+manhood is a familiar thought. The intellectual unfolding which belongs to
+this development is readily recognized. Not so commonly acknowledged, but
+none the less clearly essential to the gospel picture, is the gradual
+unfolding of the child's moral life under circumstances and stimulus
+similar to those with which other children meet (Heb. iv. 15). The man
+Jesus was known as the carpenter (Matt. xiii. 55). The learning of such a
+trade would contribute much to the boy's mastery of his own powers. Far
+more discipline would come from his fellowship with brothers and sisters
+who did not understand his ways nor appreciate the deepest realities of
+his life. Without robbing boyhood days of their naturalness and reality,
+we may be sure that long before Jesus knew how and why he differed from
+his fellows he felt more or less clearly that they were not like him. The
+resulting sense of isolation was a school for self-mastery, lest isolation
+foster any such pride or unloveliness as that with which later legend
+dared to stain the picture of the Lord's youth. Four brothers of <a class="newpage" name="page064" id="page064" title="64"></a>Jesus
+are named by Mark (vi. 3),--James, and Joses, and Judas, and Simon,--the
+gospel adds also that he had sisters living at a later time in Nazareth.
+They were all subject with him to the same home influences, and apparently
+were not unresponsive to them. The similarity of thought and feeling
+between the sermon on the mount and the Epistle of James is not readily
+explained by the influence of master over disciple, since the days of
+James's discipleship began after the resurrection of Jesus. In any case
+there is no reason to think that the companions of Jesus' home were
+uncommonly irritating or in any way irreligious, only Jesus was not
+altogether like them (John vii. 5), and the fact of difference was a moral
+discipline, which among other things led to that moral growth by which
+innocence passed into positive goodness. If the home was such a school of
+discipline, its neighbors, less earnest and less favored with spiritual
+training, furnished more abundant occasion for self-mastery and growth.
+The very fact that in his later years Jesus was no desert preacher, like
+John, but social, and socially sought for, indicates that he did not win
+his manhood's perfection in solitude, but in fellowship with common life
+and in victory over the trials and temptations incident to it (Heb. ii.
+17, 18).</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s067"><p><span class="versenum">67.</span> Yet he must have been familiar with the life which is in secret (Matt.
+vi. 1-18). He who in his later years was a man of much prayer, who began
+(Luke iii. 21) and closed (Luke xxiii. 46) his public life with prayer, as
+a boy was certainly familiar not only with the prayers of home and
+synagogue, but also with quiet, personal resort to the presence of God. It
+would be unjust to think of any abnormal religious <a class="newpage" name="page065" id="page065" title="65"></a>precocity. Jesus was
+the best example the world has seen of perfect spiritual health, but we
+must believe that he came early to know God and to live much with him.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s068"><p><span class="versenum">68.</span> It is instructive in connection with this inwardness of Jesus' life to
+recall the rich familiarity with the whole world of nature which appears
+in his parables and other teachings. The prospect which met his eye if he
+sought escape from the distractions of home and village life, has been
+described by Renan: "The view from the town is limited; but if we ascend a
+little to the plateau swept by a perpetual breeze, which stands above the
+highest houses, the landscape is magnificent. On the west stretch the fine
+outlines of Carmel, terminating in an abrupt spur which seems to run down
+sheer to the sea. Next, one sees the double summit which towers above
+Megiddo; the mountains of the country of Shechem, with their holy places
+of the patriarchal period; the hills of Gilboa, the small picturesque
+group to which is attached the graceful or terrible recollections of
+Shunem and of Endor; and Tabor, with its beautiful rounded form, which
+antiquity compared to a bosom. Through a gap between the mountains of
+Shunem and Tabor are visible the valley of the Jordan and the high plains
+of Perea, which form a continuous line from the eastern side. On the
+north, the mountains of Safed, stretching towards the sea, conceal St.
+Jean d'Acre, but leave the Gulf of Khaifa in sight. Such was the horizon,
+of Jesus. This enchanted circle, cradle of the kingdom of God, was for
+years his world. Indeed, during his whole life he went but little beyond
+the familiar bounds of his childhood. For yonder, <a class="newpage" name="page066" id="page066" title="66"></a>northwards, one can
+almost see, on the flank of Hermon, C&aelig;sarea-Philippi, his farthest point
+of advance into the Gentile world; and to the south the less smiling
+aspect of these Samaritan hills foreshadows the dreariness of Judea
+beyond, parched as by a burning wind of desolation and death." In the
+midst of such scenes we are to understand that, with the physical growth,
+and opening of mind, and moral discipline which filled the early years of
+Jesus, there came also the gradual spiritual unfolding in which the boy
+rose step by step to the fuller knowledge of God and himself.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s069"><p><span class="versenum">69.</span> That unfolding is pictured in an early stage in the story given us
+from the youth of Jesus. It was customary for a Jewish boy not long after
+passing his twelfth year to come under full adult obligation to the law.
+The visit to Jerusalem was probably in preparation for such assumption of
+obligation by Jesus. All his earlier training had filled his mind with the
+sacredness of the Holy City and the glory of the temple. It is easy to
+feel with what joy he would first look upon Zion from the shoulder of the
+Mount of Olives, as he came over it on his journey from Galilee; to
+conceive how the temple and the ritual would fill him with awe in his
+readiness not to criticise, but to idealize everything he saw, and to
+think only of the significance given by it all to the scripture; to
+imagine how eagerly he would talk in the temple court with the learned men
+of his people about the law and the promises with which in home and school
+his youth had been made familiar. Nor is it difficult to appreciate his
+surprise, when Joseph and Mary, only after long searching for him, at last
+found him <a class="newpage" name="page067" id="page067" title="67"></a>in the temple, for he felt that it was the most natural place
+in which he could be found. In his wondering question to Mary, "Did not
+you know that I must be in my Father's house?" (Luke ii. 49), there is a
+premonition of his later consciousness of peculiarly intimate relation to
+God. The question was, however, a sincere inquiry. It was no precocious
+rebuke of Mary's anxiety. The knowledge of himself as Son of God was only
+dawning within him, and was not yet full and clear. This is shown by his
+immediate obedience and his subjection to his parents in Nazareth through
+many years. It is safe, in the interpretation of the acts and words of
+Jesus, to banish utterly as inconceivable anything that savors of the
+theatrical. We must believe that he was always true to himself, and that
+the subjection which he rendered to Joseph and Mary sprang from a real
+sense of childhood's dependence, and was not a show of obedience for any
+edifying end however high.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s070"><p><span class="versenum">70.</span> That question "Did not you know?" is the only hint we possess of
+Jesus' inner life before John's call to repentance rang through the land.
+Meanwhile the carpenter's son became himself the carpenter. Joseph seems
+to have died before the opening of Jesus' ministry. For Jesus as the
+eldest son, this death made those years far other than a time of spiritual
+retreat; responsibility for the home and the pressing duties of trade must
+have filled most of the hours of his days. This is a welcome thought to
+our healthiest sentiment, and true also to the earliest Christian feeling
+(Heb. iv. 15). John the Baptist had his training in the wilderness, but
+Jesus came from familiar intercourse with men, was welcomed <a class="newpage" name="page068" id="page068" title="68"></a>in their
+homes (John ii. 2), knew their life in its homely ongoing, and was the
+friend of all sorts and conditions of men. After that visit to Jerusalem,
+a few more years may have been spent in school, for, whether from school
+instruction, or synagogue preaching, or simple daily experience, the young
+man came to know the traditions of the elders and also to know that
+observance of them is a mockery of the righteousness which God requires.
+Yet he seems to have felt so fully in harmony with God as to be conscious
+of nothing new in the fresh and vital conceptions of righteousness which
+he found in the law and prophets. We may be certain that much of his
+thought was given to Israel's hope of redemption, and that with the
+prophets of old and the singer much nearer his own day (Ps. of Sol. xvii.
+23), he longed that God, according to his promise, would raise up unto his
+people, their King, the Son of David.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s071"><p><span class="versenum">71.</span> He must also have read often from that other book open before him as
+he walked upon the hills of Nazareth. The beauty of the grass and of the
+lilies was surely not a new discovery to him after he began to preach the
+coming kingdom, nor is it likely that he waited until after his baptism to
+form his habit of spending the night in prayer upon the mountain. We may
+be equally sure that he did not first learn to love men and women and long
+for their good after he received the call, "Thou art my beloved son" (Mark
+i. 11). He who in later life read hearts clearly (John ii. 25) doubtless
+gained that skill, as well as the knowledge of human sin and need, early
+in his intercourse with his friends and neighbors in Nazareth; while a
+clear conviction that God's kingdom consists in his sover<a class="newpage" name="page069" id="page069" title="69"></a>eignty over
+loyal hearts must have filled much of his thought about the promised good
+which God would bring to Israel in due time. Thus we may think that in
+quietness and homely industry, in secret life with God and open love for
+men, in study of history and prophecy, in longing for the actual sway of
+God in human life, Jesus lived his life, did his work, and grew in "wisdom
+and in stature and in favor with God and man" (Luke ii. 52).</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<div class="chapter" id="p01-06">
+<h2><a class="newpage" name="page070" id="page070" title="70"></a>VI</h2>
+
+<h3>John The Baptist</h3>
+
+<h4>Matt. iii. 1-17; iv. 12; xiv. 1-12; Mark i. 1-14; vi. 14-29; Luke i. 5-25,
+57-80; iii. 1-22; ix. 7-9; John i. 19-37; iii. 22-30.</h4>
+
+
+
+<div class="section" id="s072"><p><span class="versenum">72.</span> The first reappearance of Jesus in the gospel story, after the temple
+scene in his twelfth year, is on the banks of the Jordan seeking baptism
+from the new prophet. One of the silent evidences of the greatness of
+Jesus is the fact that so great a character as John the Baptist stands in
+our thought simply as accessory to his life. For that the prophet of the
+wilderness was great has been the opinion of all who have been willing to
+seek him in his retirement. One reason for the common neglect of John is
+doubtless the meagreness of information about him. But though details are
+few, the picture of him is drawn in clearest lines: a rugged son of the
+wilderness scorning the gentler things of life, threatening his people
+with coming wrath and calling to repentance while yet there was time; a
+preacher of practical righteousness heeded by publicans and harlots but
+scorned by the elders of his people; a bold and fearless spirit, yet
+subdued in the presence of another who did not strive, nor cry, nor cause
+his voice to be heard in the streets. When the people thought to find in
+John <a class="newpage" name="page071" id="page071" title="71"></a>the promised Messiah, with unparalleled self-effacement he pointed
+them to his rival and rejoiced in that rival's growing success. Side by
+side they worked for a time; then the picture fails, but for a hint of a
+royal audience, with a fearless rebuke of royal disgrace and sin; a prison
+life, with its pathetic shaking of confidence in the early certainties; a
+long and forced inaction, and the question put by a wavering faith, with
+its patient and affectionate reply; then a lewd orgy, a king's oath, a
+girl's demands, a martyr's release, the disciples' lamentation and their
+report to that other who, though seeming a rival, was known to appreciate
+best the greatness of this prophet. Such is the picture in the gospels.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s073"><p><span class="versenum">73.</span> John, unlike his greater successor, has a highly appreciative notice
+from Josephus: "Now some of the Jews thought that the destruction of
+Herod's army came from God, and that very justly, as a punishment for what
+he did against John, who was called the Baptist. For Herod had had him put
+to death though he was a good man, and commanded the Jews to exercise
+virtue, both as to justice towards one another, and piety towards God, and
+so to come to baptism; for baptism would be acceptable to God, if they
+made use of it not in order to expiate some sin, but for the purification
+of the body, provided that the soul was thoroughly purified beforehand by
+righteousness. Now, as many flocked to him, for they were greatly moved by
+hearing his words, Herod, fearing that the great influence, John had over
+the people might lead to some rebellion (for the people seemed likely to
+do anything he should advise), thought it far best, by putting him to
+death, to prevent any mischief he <a class="newpage" name="page072" id="page072" title="72"></a>might cause, and not bring himself into
+difficulties by sparing a man who might make him repent of his leniency
+when it should be too late. Accordingly he was sent a prisoner, in
+consequence of Herod's suspicious temper, to Machaerus, the fortress
+before mentioned, and was there put to death. So the Jews had the opinion
+that the destruction of this army [by Aretas] was sent as a punishment
+upon Herod and was the mark of God's displeasure at him" (Ant. xviii. 5.
+2). This section is commonly accepted as trustworthy. Superficially
+different from the gospel record and assigning quite another cause for
+John's imprisonment and death, it correctly describes his character and
+his influence with the people, and leaves abundant room for a more
+intimately personal motive on the part of Antipas for the imprisonment of
+John. If the jealousy of Herodias was the actual reason for John's arrest,
+it is highly probable that another cause would be named to the world, and
+a likelier one than that given by Josephus could not be found.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s074"><p><span class="versenum">74.</span> The first problem that offers itself in the study of this man is the
+man himself. Whence did he come? Everything about him is surprising. He
+appears as a dweller in the desert, an ascetic, holding aloof from common
+life and content with the scanty fare the wilderness could offer; yet he
+was keenly appreciative of his people's needs, and he knew their
+sins,--the particular ones that beset Pharisees, publicans, soldiers. If a
+recluse in habit, he was far from such in thought; he was therefore no
+seeker for his own soul's peace in his desert life. His dress was
+strikingly suggestive of the old prophet of judgment on national
+infidelity (I. Kings xvii. 1; II. Kings i, 8), the Elijah whom John <a class="newpage" name="page073" id="page073" title="73"></a>would
+not claim to be. His message was commanding, with its double word "Repent"
+and "The kingdom is near." His idea of the kingdom was definite, though
+not at all developed; it signified to him God's dominion, inaugurated by a
+divine judgment which should mean good for the penitent and utter
+destruction for the ungodly; hence the prophet's call to repentance. His
+ministry was one of grace, but the time was drawing near when the Greater
+One would appear to complete by a swift judgment the work which his
+forerunner was beginning. That Greater One would hew down the fruitless
+tree, winnow the wheat from the chaff on the threshing floor, baptize the
+penitent with divine power, and the wicked with the fire of judgment,
+since his was to be a ministry of judgment, not of grace.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s075"><p><span class="versenum">75.</span> Whence, then, came this strange prophet? Near the desert region where
+he spent his youth and where he first proclaimed his message of repentance
+and judgment was the chief settlement of that strange company of Jews
+known as Essenes. It has long been customary to think that during his
+early years John was associated with these fellow-dwellers in the desert,
+if he did not actually join the order. He certainly may have learned from
+them many things. Their sympathy with his ascetic life and with his
+thorough moral earnestness would make them attractive to him, but he was
+far too original a man to get from them more than some suggestions to be
+worked out in his own fashion. The simplicity of his teaching of
+repentance and the disregard of ceremonial in his preaching separate him
+from these monks. John may have known his desert companions, may have
+appreciated some <a class="newpage" name="page074" id="page074" title="74"></a>things in their discipline, but he remained independent
+of their guidance.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s076"><p><span class="versenum">76.</span> The leaders of religious life and thought in his day were
+unquestionably the Pharisees. The controlling idea with them, and
+consequently with the people, was the sanctity of God's law. They were
+conscious of the sinfulness of the people, and their demand for repentance
+was constant. It is a rabbinic commonplace that the delay of the Messiah's
+coming is due to lack of repentance in Israel. But near as this conception
+is to John's, we need but to recall his words to the Pharisees (Matt. iii.
+7) to realize how clearly he saw through the hollowness of their religious
+pretence. With the quibbles of the scribes concerning small and great
+commandments, Sabbaths and hand-washings, John shows no affinity. He may
+have learned some things from these "sitters in Moses' seat," but he was
+not of them.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s077"><p><span class="versenum">77.</span> John's message announced the near approach of the kingdom of God. It
+is probable that many of those who sought his baptism were ardent
+nationalists,--eager to take a hand in realizing that consummation.
+Josephus indicates that it was Herod's fear lest John should lead these
+Zealots to revolt that furnished the ostensible cause of his death. But
+similar as were the interests of John and these nationalists, the distance
+between them was great. The prophet's replies to the publicans and to the
+soldiers, which contain not a word of rebuke for the hated callings (Luke
+iii. 13, 14), show how fundamentally he differed from the Zealots.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s078"><p><span class="versenum">78.</span> But there was another branch of the Pharisees than that which quibbled
+over Sabbath laws, tradi<a class="newpage" name="page075" id="page075" title="75"></a>tions, and tithes, or that which itched to grasp
+the sword; they were men who saw visions and dreamed dreams like those of
+Daniel and the Revelation, and in their visions saw God bringing
+deliverance to his people by swift and sudden judgment. There are some
+marked likenesses between this type of thought and that of John,--the
+impending judgment, the word of warning, the coming blessing, were all in
+John; but one need only compare John's words with such an apocalypse as
+the Assumption of Moses, probably written in Palestine during John's life
+in the desert, to discover that the two messages do not move in the same
+circle of thought at all; there is something practical, something severely
+heart-searching, something at home in every-day life, about John's
+announcement of the coming kingdom that is quite absent from the visions
+of his contemporaries. John had not, like some of these seers, a coddling
+sympathy for people steeped in sin. He traced their troubles to their own
+doors, and would not let ceremonies pass in place of "fruits meet for
+repentance." He came from the desert with rebuke and warning on his lips;
+with no word against the hated Romans, but many against hypocritical
+claimants to the privileges of Abraham; no apology for his message nor
+artificial device of dream or ancient name to secure a hearing, but the
+old-fashioned prophetic method of declaration of truth "whether men will
+hear or whether they will forbear." "All was sharp and cutting, imperious
+earnestness about final questions, unsparing overthrow of all fictitious
+shams in individual as in national life. There are no theories of the law,
+no new good works, no belief in the old, but simply and solely a prophetic
+<a class="newpage" name="page076" id="page076" title="76"></a>clutch at men's consciences, a mighty accusation, a crushing summons to
+contrite repentance and speedy sanctification" (KeimJN. II. 228). We look
+in vain for a parallel in any of John's contemporaries, except in that one
+before whom he bowed, saying, "I have need to be baptized of thee."</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s079"><p><span class="versenum">79.</span> John had, however, predecessors whose work he revived. In Isaiah's
+words, "Wash you, make you clean" (Isa. i 16), one recognizes the type
+which reappeared in John. The great prophetic conception of the Day of the
+Lord--the day of wrath and salvation (Joel ii. 1-14)--is revived in John,
+free from all the fantastic accompaniments which his contemporaries loved.
+The invitations to repentance and new fidelity which abound in Isaiah,
+Ezekiel, Hosea, and Joel; the summons to simple righteousness, which rang
+from the lips of Micah (vi. 8), and of the great prophet of the exile
+(Isa. lviii.), these tell us where John went to school and how well he
+learned his lesson. It is hard for us to realize how great a novelty such
+simplicity was in John's day, or how much originality it required to
+attain to this discipleship of the prophets. From the time when the
+curtain rises on the later history of Israel in the days of the Maccabean
+struggle to the coming of that "voice crying in the wilderness," Israel
+had listened in vain for a prophet who could speak God's will with
+authority. The last thing that people expected when John came was such a
+simple message. He was not the creature of his time, but a revival of the
+older type; yet, as in the days of Elijah God had kept him seven thousand
+in Israel that had not bowed the knee to Baal, so, in the later time, not
+all were bereft of liv<a class="newpage" name="page077" id="page077" title="77"></a>ing faith. These devout souls furnished the soil
+which could produce a life like John's, gifted and chosen by God to
+restore and advance the older and more genuine religion.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s080"><p><span class="versenum">80.</span> If John was thus a revival of the older prophetic order, a second
+question arises: Whence came his baptism, and what did it signify? The
+gospels describe it as a "baptism of repentance for the remission of sins"
+(Mark i. 4). John's declaration that his greater successor should baptize
+with the Holy Spirit and fire (Matt. iii. 11) shows that he viewed his
+baptism as a symbol, rather than as a means, of remission of sin. But it
+was more than a sign of repentance, it was a confession of loyalty to the
+kingdom which John's successor was to establish. It had thus a twofold
+significance: (<i>a</i>) confession of and turning from the old life of sin,
+and (<i>b</i>) consecration to the coming kingdom. Whence, then, came this
+ordinance? Not from the Essenes, for, unlike John's baptism, the bath
+required by these Jewish ascetics was an oft-repeated act. Further, John's
+rite had a far deeper religious significance than the Essene washings.
+These performed their ablutions to secure ritual cleanness as exemplary
+disciples of the Mosaic ideal. The searching of heart which preceded
+John's baptism, and the radical change of life it demanded, seem foreign
+to Essenism. The baptism of John, considered as a ceremony of consecration
+for the coming kingdom, was parallel rather to the initiatory oaths of the
+Essene brotherhood than to their ablutions. Their custom may have served
+to suggest to John a different application of the familiar sacred use of
+the bath; indeed John could hardly have been uninfluenced by the <a class="newpage" name="page078" id="page078" title="78"></a>usage of
+his contemporaries; yet in this, as in his thought, he was not a product
+of their school.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s081"><p><span class="versenum">81.</span> John's baptism was equally independent of the pharisaic influence. The
+scribes made much of "divers washings," but not with any such significance
+as would furnish to John his baptism of repentance and of radical change
+of life. That he was not following a pharisaic leading appears in the
+question put to him by the Pharisees, "Why, then, baptizest thou?" (John
+i. 25). They saw something unique in the ceremony as he conducted it.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s082"><p><span class="versenum">82.</span> Many have held that he derived his baptism from the method of
+admitting proselytes into the Jewish fellowship. It is clear, at least,
+that the later ritual prescribed a ceremonial bath as well as circumcision
+and sacrifice for all who came into Judaism from the Gentiles, and it is
+difficult to conceive of a time when a ceremonial bath would not seem
+indispensable, since Jews regarded all Gentile life as defiling. While
+such an origin for John's baptism would give peculiar force to his rebuke
+of Jewish confidence in the merits of Abraham (Matt. iii. 9), it is more
+likely, as Keim has shown (JN. II. 243 and note), that in this as in his
+other thought John learned of his predecessors rather than his
+contemporaries. Before the giving of the older covenant from Sinai, it is
+said that Moses was required "to sanctify the people and bid them wash
+their garments" (Ex. xix. 10). John was proclaiming the establishment of a
+new covenant, as the prophets had promised. That the people should prepare
+for this by a similar bath of sanctification seems most natural. John
+appeared with a revival of the older and simpler religious ideas of
+Israel's past, deriving his rite as well <a class="newpage" name="page079" id="page079" title="79"></a>as his thought from the springs
+of his people's religious life.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s083"><p><span class="versenum">83.</span> This revival of the prophetic past had nothing scholastic or
+antiquarian about it. John was a disciple, not an imitator, of the great
+men of Israel; his message was not learned from Isaiah or any other,
+though he was educated by studying them. What he declared, he declared as
+truth immediately seen by his own soul, the essence of his power being a
+revival, not in letter but in spirit, of the old, direct cry, "Thus saith
+the Lord." Inasmuch as John's day was otherwise hopelessly in bondage to
+tradition and the study of the letter, by so much is his greatness
+enhanced in bringing again God's direct message to the human conscience.
+John's greatness was that of a pioneer. The Friend of publicans and
+sinners also spoke a simple speech to human hearts; he built on and
+advanced from the old prophets, but it was John who was appointed to
+prepare the people for the new life, "to make ready the way of the Lord"
+(Mark i. 3). The clearness of his perception of truth is not the least of
+his claims to greatness. His knowledge of the simplicity of God's
+requirements in contrast with the hopeless maze of pharisaic traditions,
+and his insight into the characters with whom he had to deal, whether the
+sinless Jesus or the hypocritical Pharisees, show a man marvellously
+gifted by God who made good use of his gift. This greatness appears in
+superlative degree in the self-effacement of him who possessed these
+powers. Greatness always knows itself more or less fully. It was not
+self-ignorance that led John to claim to be but a voice, nor was it mock
+humility. The confession of his unworthiness in com<a class="newpage" name="page080" id="page080" title="80"></a>parison with the
+mightier one who should follow is unmistakably sincere, as is the
+completed joy of this friend of the bridegroom rejoicing greatly because
+of the bridegroom's voice, even when the bridegroom's presence meant the
+recedence of the friend into ever deepening obscurity (John iii. 30).</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s084"><p><span class="versenum">84.</span> But John had marked limitations. He knew well the righteousness of
+God; he knew, and, in effect, proclaimed God's readiness to forgive them
+that would turn from their wicked ways; he knew the simplicity as well as
+the exceeding breadth of the divine commandment; but beyond one flash of
+insight (John i. 29-36), which did not avail to remould his thought, he
+did not know the yearning love of God which seeks to save. It is not
+strange that he did not. Some of the prophets had more knowledge of it
+than he, his own favorite Isaiah knew more of it than he, but it was not
+the thought of John's day. The wonder is that the Baptist so far freed
+himself from current thought; yet he did not belong to the new order. He
+thundered as from Sinai. The simplest child that has learned from the
+heart its "Our Father" has reached a higher knowledge and entered a higher
+privilege (Matt. xi. 11). John's self-effacement, wonderful as it was,
+fell short of discipleship to his greater successor; in fact, at a much
+later time there was still a circle of disciples of the Baptist who kept
+themselves separate from the church (Acts xix. 1-7). He was doubtless too
+strenuous a man readily to become a follower. He could yield his place
+with unapproachable grace, but he remained the prophet of the wilderness
+still. He seemed to belong consciously to the old order, and, by the very
+circumstances ordained of <a class="newpage" name="page081" id="page081" title="81"></a>God who sent him, he could not be of those who,
+sitting at Jesus' feet, learned to surrender to him their preconceptions
+and hopes, and in heart, if not in word, to say, "To whom shall we go,
+thou hast the words of eternal life?" (John vi. 68).</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<div class="chapter" id="p01-07">
+<h2><a class="newpage" name="page082" id="page082" title="82"></a>VII</h2>
+
+<h3>The Messianic Call</h3>
+
+<h4>Matt. iii. 13 TO iv. 11; Mark i. 9-13; Luke iii. 21, 22; iv. 1-13; John i.
+30-34</h4>
+
+
+
+<div class="section" id="s085"><p><span class="versenum">85.</span> In the circle about John all classes of the people were represented:
+Pharisees and Sadducees, jealous of innovation and apprehensive of popular
+excitement; publicans and soldiers, interested in the new preacher or
+touched in conscience; outcasts who came in penitence, and devout souls in
+consecration. The wonder of the new message was carried throughout the
+land and brought great multitudes to the Jordan. Jesus in Nazareth heard
+it, and recognized in John a revival of the long-silent prophetic voice.
+The summons appealed to his loyalty to God's truth, and after the
+multitudes had been baptized (Luke iii. 21) he too sought the prophet of
+the wilderness.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s086"><p><span class="versenum">86.</span> The connection which Luke mentions (i. 36) between the families of
+Jesus and John had not led to any intimacy between the two young men. John
+certainly did not know of his kinsman's mission (John i. 31), nor was his
+conception of the Messiah such that he would look for its fulfilment in
+one like Jesus (Matt. iii. 10-12). One thing, however, was clear as soon
+as they met,--John recognized in Jesus one holier than himself (Matt. iii.
+14). With a prophet's spiritual <a class="newpage" name="page083" id="page083" title="83"></a>insight he read the character of Jesus
+at a glance, and although that character did not prove him to be the
+Messiah, it prepared John for the revelation which was soon to follow.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s087"><p><span class="versenum">87.</span> The reply of Jesus to the unwillingness of John to give him baptism
+(Matt. iii. 15) was an expression of firm purpose to do God's will; the
+absence of any confession of sin is therefore all the more noticeable. In
+all generations the holiest men have been those most conscious of
+imperfection, and in John's message and baptism confession and repentance
+were primary demands; yet Jesus felt no need for repentance, and asked for
+baptism with no word of confession. But for the fact that the total
+impression of his life begat in his disciples the conviction that "he did
+no sin" (I. Pet. ii. 22; compare John viii. 46; II. Cor. v. 21), this
+silence of Jesus would offend the religious sense. Jesus, however, had no
+air of self-sufficiency, he came to make surrender and "to fulfil
+all-righteousness" (Matt. iii. 15). It was the positive aspect of John's
+baptism that drew him to the Jordan. John was preaching the coming of
+God's kingdom. The place held by the doctrine of that kingdom in the later
+teaching of Jesus makes it all but certain that his thought had been
+filled with it for many years. In his reading of the prophets Jesus
+undoubtedly emphasized the spiritual phases of their promises, but it is
+not likely that he had done much criticising of the ideas held by his
+contemporaries before he came to John. As already remarked he seems to
+have been quicker to discover his affinity with the older truth than to be
+conscious of the novelty of his own ways of apprehending it (Matt. v. 17).
+When, then, Jesus heard <a class="newpage" name="page084" id="page084" title="84"></a>John's call for consecration to the approaching
+kingdom he recognized the voice of duty, and he sought the baptism that he
+might do all that he could to "make ready the way of the Lord."</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s088"><p><span class="versenum">88.</span> This act of consecration on Jesus' part was one of personal obedience.
+There were no crowds present (Luke iii. 21), and his thoughts were full of
+prayer. It was an experience which concerned his innermost life with God,
+and it called him to communion with heaven like that in which he sought
+for wisdom before choosing his apostles (Luke vi. 12), and for strength in
+view of his approaching death (Luke ix. 28, 29). His outward declaration
+of loyalty to the coming kingdom was thus not an act of righteousness "to
+be seen of men," but one of personal devotion to him who is and who sees
+in secret (Matt. vi. 1, 6). As the transfiguration followed the prayer on
+Hermon, so this initial consecration was answered from heaven. A part of
+the answer was evident to John, for he saw a visible token of the gift of
+the divine Spirit which was granted to Jesus for the conduct of the work
+he had to do, and he recognized in Jesus the greater successor for whom he
+was simply making preparation (Mark i. 10; John i. 32-34). To Jesus there
+came also with the gift of the Spirit a definite word from heaven, "Thou
+art my beloved Son, in thee I am well pleased" (Mark i. 11). The language
+in Mark and Luke, and the silence of the Baptist concerning the voice from
+heaven (John i. 32-34), indicate that the word came to Jesus alone, and
+was his summons to undertake the work of setting up that kingdom to which
+he had just pledged his loyalty. The expression "My beloved Son" had clear
+Messianic signifi<a class="newpage" name="page085" id="page085" title="85"></a>cance for Jesus' contemporaries (comp. Mark xiv. 62),
+and the message can have signified for him nothing less than a Messianic
+call. It implied more than that child-relation to God which was the
+fundamental fact in his religious life from the beginning: it had an
+official meaning.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s089"><p><span class="versenum">89.</span> For Jesus the sense of being God's child was normally human, and in
+his ministry he invited all men to a similar consciousness of sonship. Yet
+his early years must have brought to him a realization that he was
+different from his fellows. That in him which made a confession at the
+baptism unnatural and which led to John's word, "I have need to be
+baptized by thee," was ready to echo assent when God said, "Thou art my
+Son." He accepted the call and the new office and mission which it
+implied, and he must have recognized that it was for this moment that all
+the past of his life had been making preparation.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s090"><p><span class="versenum">90.</span> The gift of the Spirit to Jesus, which furnished to John the proof
+that the Greater One had appeared, was not an arbitrary sign. The old
+prophetic thought (Isa. xi. 2; xlii. 1; lxi. 1) as well as a later popular
+expectation (Ps. of Sol. xvii. 42) provided for such an anointing of the
+Messiah; and in the actual conduct of his life Jesus was constantly under
+the leading of this Spirit (see Matt. xii. 28 and John iii. 34). The
+temptation which followed the baptism, and in which he faced the
+difficulties in his new task, was the first result of the Spirit's
+control. Its later influence is not so clearly marked in the gospels, but
+they imply that as the older servants of God were guided and strengthened
+by him, so his Son also was aided,--with this difference, however, that he
+possessed com<a class="newpage" name="page086" id="page086" title="86"></a>pletely the heavenly gift (John iii. 34). Jesus' uniform
+confession of dependence on God confirms this teaching of the gift of the
+divine Spirit; and his uniform consciousness of complete power and
+authority confirms the testimony that he had the Spirit "without measure."</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s091"><p><span class="versenum">91.</span> The temptation to which the Spirit "drove" Jesus after his baptism
+gives proof that the call to assume the Messianic office came to him
+unexpectedly; for the three temptations with which his long struggle ended
+were echoes of the voice which he had heard at the Jordan, and subtle
+insinuations of doubt of its meaning. Some withdrawal to contemplate the
+significance of his appointment to a Messianic work was a mental and
+spiritual necessity. As has often been said, if the gospels had not
+recorded the temptation, we should have had to assume one. Jesus being the
+man he was, could not have thought that his call was a summons to an
+entire change in his ideals and his thoughts about God and duty. Yet he
+must have been conscious of the wide differences between his conceptions
+of God's kingdom and the popular expectation. Those differences, by the
+measure of the definiteness of the popular thought and the ardor of the
+popular hope, were the proof of the difficulty of his task. The call meant
+that the Messiah could be such as he was; it meant that the kingdom could
+be and must be a dominion of God primarily in the hearts of men and
+consequently in their world; it meant that his work must be religious
+rather than political, and gracious rather than judicial. These essentials
+of the work which he could do contradicted at nearly every point the
+expectations of his people. How could he <a class="newpage" name="page087" id="page087" title="87"></a>succeed in the face of such
+opposition? His long meditation during forty days doubtless showed him the
+difficulty of his task in all its baldness, yet it did not shake his
+certainty that the call had come to him from God, nor his faith that what
+God had called him to do he could accomplish.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s092"><p><span class="versenum">92.</span> The gospels show no hesitation in calling the experience of these days
+a temptation, nor had the Christian feeling of the first century any
+difficulty in thinking of its Lord as actually suffering temptation (Heb.
+ii. 18; iv. 15). A temptation to be real cannot be hypothetical; evil must
+actually present itself as attractive to the tempted soul. A suggestion of
+evil that takes no hold concretely of the heart is no temptation, nor is
+the resistance of it any victory. The sinlessness of him who sought
+baptism with no confession on his lips nor sense of penitence in his heart
+offers no barrier to his experience of genuine temptation, unless we think
+him incapable of sin, and therefore not "like unto his brethren." Not only
+do the gospels repeatedly refer to his temptations (Luke iv. 13; Mark
+viii. 31-33; Luke xxii. 28; compare Heb. v. 7-9), but they also depict
+clearly the reality of these initial testings. The account as given in
+Matthew and Luke represents the experience with which the forty days'
+struggle culminated. The absorption of Jesus' mind had been so complete
+that he had neglected the needs of his body, and when he turned to think
+of earthly things he was pressed by hunger. A popular notion at a later
+time, and probably also in Jesus' day, was that the Messiah would be able
+to feed his people as Moses had given them manna in the wilderness (John
+vi. 30-32; see EdersLJM. I. 176). He had just <a class="newpage" name="page088" id="page088" title="88"></a>been endowed with the
+divine Spirit for the work before him; it was therefore no fantastic idea
+when the suggestion came that he should use his power to supply his own
+needs in the desert. Nor was the temptation without attractiveness; his
+own physical nature urged its need, and Jesus was no ascetic who found
+discomfort a way of holiness. The evil in the suggestion was that it asked
+him to use his newly given powers for the supply of his own needs, as if
+doubting that God would care for him as for any other of his children.
+There was more than distrust of God suggested; the temptation came with a
+hint of another doubt,--"<i>If</i> thou art God's Son." A miracle would prove
+to himself his appointment and his power. The suggested doubt of his call
+he passed unnoticed; distrust of God he repudiated instantly, falling back
+on his faith in the God he had served these many years (Deut. viii. 3).
+His victory is remarkable because his spirit conquered unhesitatingly
+after a long ecstasy which would naturally have induced a reaction and a
+surrender for the moment to the demand of lower needs.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s093"><p><span class="versenum">93.</span> This firmness of trust opened the way for another evil suggestion. In
+the work before him as God's Anointed many difficulties were on either
+side and across his path. He knew his people, their prejudices, and their
+hardness of heart; and he knew how far he was from their ideal of a
+Messiah. He knew also the watchful jealousy of Rome. Others before him,
+like Judas of Galilee, had tried the Messianic r&ocirc;le and had failed. He,
+however, was confident of his divine call: should he not, therefore, press
+forward with his work, heedless of all danger and regardless of the
+dictates of prudence,--as heedless as if, trus<a class="newpage" name="page089" id="page089" title="89"></a>ting God's promised care,
+he should cast himself down from a pinnacle of the temple to the rocks in
+Kidron below? A fanatic would have yielded to such a temptation. Many
+another than Jesus did so,--Theudas (Acts v. 36), the Egyptian (Acts xxi.
+38); and Bar Cochba (Dio Cassius, lxix. 12-14; Euseb. Ch. Hist. iv. 6).
+Jesus, however, showed his perfect mental health, repudiating the
+temptation by declaring that while man may trust God's care, he must not
+presumptuously put it to the test (Matt. iv. 7). The after life of Jesus
+was a clear commentary on this reply. He constantly sought to avoid
+situations which would compromise his mission or cut short his work (see
+John vi. 15), and when at the end he suffered the death prepared for him
+by his people's hatred, it was because his hour had come and he could say,
+"I lay down my life of myself" (John x. 18). His marvellous control of
+enthusiasm and his self-mastery in all circumstances separate Jesus from
+all ecstatics and fanatics. Yet presumption must have seemed the easier
+course, and could readily wear the mask of trust. He was tempted, yet
+without sin.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s094"><p><span class="versenum">94.</span> As the refusal to doubt led to the temptation to presume, so the
+determination to be prudent opened the way for a third assault upon his
+perfect loyalty to God. The world he was to seek to save was swayed by
+passions; his own people were longing for a Messiah, but they must have
+their kind of a Messiah. If he would acknowledge this actual supremacy of
+evil and self-will in the world, the opposition of passion and prejudice
+might be avoided. If he would own the evil inevitable for the time, and
+accommodate his work to it, he might then be free to lead men to <a class="newpage" name="page090" id="page090" title="90"></a>higher
+and more spiritual views of God's kingdom. His knowledge of his people's
+grossness of heart and materialism of hope made a real temptation of the
+suggestion that he should not openly oppose but should accommodate himself
+to them. Jesus did not underestimate the opposition of "the kingdoms of
+the world," but he truly estimated God's intolerance of any rivalry (Matt.
+iv. 10), and he was true to God and to his own soul. Again, in this as in
+the preceding temptations, Jesus conquered the evil suggestions by
+appropriating to himself truth spoken by God's servants to Israel. Tempted
+in all points like his brethren, he resisted as any one of them could have
+resisted, and won a victory possible, ideally considered, to any other of
+the children of men.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s095"><p><span class="versenum">95.</span> It is not idle curiosity which inquires whence the evangelists got
+this story of the temptation of Jesus. Even if the whole transaction took
+place on the plane of outer sensuous life, and Jesus was bodily carried to
+Jerusalem and to the mountain-top, there is no probability that any
+witnesses were at hand who could tell the tale. But the fact that in any
+case the vision of the kingdoms of the world in a moment of time (Luke iv.
+5) could have been spiritual only, since no mountain, however high (Matt.
+iv. 8), could give, physically, that wide sweep of view, suggests that the
+whole account tells in pictorial language an intensely real, inner
+experience of Jesus. This in no respect reduces the truthfulness of the
+narratives. Temptation never becomes temptation till it passes to that
+inner scene of action and debate. Since Jesus shows in all his teaching a
+natural use of parabolic language to set forth spiritual truth, the
+inference is <a class="newpage" name="page091" id="page091" title="91"></a>almost inevitable that the gospels have in like manner
+adopted the language of vivid picture as alone adequate to depict the
+essential reality of his inner struggle. In any case the narrative could
+have come from no other source than himself. How he came to tell it we do
+not know. On one of the days of private converse with his disciples after
+the confession at C&aelig;sarea Philippi he may have given them this account of
+his own experience, in order to help his loyal Galileans to understand
+more fully his work and the way of it, and to prepare them for that
+disappointment of their expectations which they were so slow to
+acknowledge as possible.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s096"><p><span class="versenum">96.</span> From this struggle in the wilderness Jesus came forth with the clear
+conviction that he was God's Anointed, and in all his after life no
+hesitation appeared. The kingdom which he undertook to establish was that
+dominion of simple righteousness which he had learned to know and love in
+the years of quiet life in Nazareth. He set out to do his work fearlessly,
+but prudently, seeking to win men in his Father's way to acknowledge that
+Father's sovereignty. There is no evidence that, beyond such firm
+conviction and purpose, he had any fixed plan for the work he was to do,
+nor that he saw clearly as yet how his earthly career would end. The third
+temptation, however, shows that he was not unprepared for seeming defeat.
+The struggle had been long and serious,--for the three temptations of the
+end are doubtless typical of the whole of the forty days,--and the victory
+was great and final. With the light of victory as well as the marks of
+warfare on his face, he took his way back towards Galilee.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<div class="chapter" id="p01-08">
+<h2><a class="newpage" name="page092" id="page092" title="92"></a>VIII</h2>
+
+<h3>The First Disciples</h3>
+
+<h4>John i. 19 TO ii. 12</h4>
+
+
+
+<div class="section" id="s097"><p><span class="versenum">97.</span> After the withdrawal of Jesus into the wilderness, John the Baptist
+continued his ministry of preaching and baptizing, moving northward up the
+Jordan valley to Bethany, on the eastern side of the river, near one of
+the fords below the Sea of Galilee (John i. 28). Here Galilee, doubtless,
+contributed more to his audience than Judea. It is certain that some from
+the borders of the lake were at this time among his constant attendants:
+Andrew and Simon of Bethsaida, John the son of Zebedee, and perhaps his
+brother James, probably also Philip of Bethsaida and Nathanael of Cana
+(John i. 40, 41, 43-45; compare xxi. 2).</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s098"><p><span class="versenum">98.</span> The leaders in Jerusalem, becoming apprehensive whither this work
+would lead, sent an embassy to question John. They chose for this mission
+priests and Levites of pharisaic leaning as most influential among the
+people. The impression John and his message were making on the popular
+mind is seen in the questions put to him, "Art thou the Messiah?"
+"Elijah?" "The prophet?" (see Deut. xviii. 15), and in the challenge,
+"Why, then, baptizest thou?" when John disclaimed the right to any of
+these names. John's reply is the echo of his earlier proclamation of <a class="newpage" name="page093" id="page093" title="93"></a>the
+one mightier than he who should baptize with the Spirit (Mark i. 7, 8),
+only now he added that this one was present among them (John i. 26, 27).</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s099"><p><span class="versenum">99.</span> This interview occurred several weeks after Jesus' baptism, for upon
+the next day John saw Jesus (John i. 29), now returned from the
+temptation, and pointed him out to a group of disciples. Something in
+Jesus' face or in his bearing, as he came from his temptation, must have
+impressed John even more than at their first meeting; for he was led to
+think of a prophetic word for the most part ignored by the Messianic
+thought of his day, "He was brought as a lamb to the slaughter" (Isa.
+liii. 7). As he looked on Jesus the mysterious oracle was illuminated for
+him, and he cried, "Behold the lamb of God which taketh away the sin of
+the world." Once again on the next day the same thought rushed to his lips
+when, with two disciples, he saw Jesus passing by (John i. 35, 36). Then
+as Jesus left John's neighborhood and took up again the round of ordinary
+life, John seems to have reverted to his more ordinary Messianic thought,
+his momentary insight into highest truth standing as a thing apart in his
+life. Such a moment's insight, caused by extraordinary circumstances, no
+more requires that John should retain the high thought constantly than
+does Peter's confession of Christ at C&aelig;sarea Philippi exclude his later
+rebuke of his Lord (Mark viii. 32, 33), or his denials (Mark xiv. 66-72).</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s100"><p><span class="versenum">100.</span> The disciples who heard these testimonies from John understood them
+to be Messianic (John i. 30-34), though their later consternation, when
+the cross seemed to shatter their hopes (John xx. 9, 10, 24, <a class="newpage" name="page094" id="page094" title="94"></a>25), shows
+that they did not comprehend their deeper meaning. Two of these disciples
+at once attached themselves to Jesus, and one of them, Andrew of
+Bethsaida, was so impressed by the new master that, having sought out his
+brother Simon, he declared that they had found the Messiah. The other of
+these earliest followers was John the son of Zebedee, and it is possible
+that he also found his brother and introduced James from the very first
+into the circle of the disciples. Jesus was about to take his departure
+for Galilee, and on the next day, as he was leaving, added Philip of
+Bethsaida to the little company of followers. Philip, impressed as Andrew
+had been, brought Nathanael of Cana to Jesus. The undefined something
+about Jesus which drew noble hearts irresistibly to himself, and his
+marvellous knowledge of this new comer, produced the same effect in
+Nathanael, as was seen earlier in Andrew and Philip, and he acknowledged
+the new master as "Son of God, King of Israel" (John i. 49).</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s101"><p><span class="versenum">101.</span> These early confessions in the fourth gospel present a difficulty in
+view of Jesus' warm approval of Peter's acknowledgment of him at C&aelig;sarea
+Philippi (Matt. xvi. 13-20). Jesus saw in that confession a distinct
+advance in the disciples' thought and faith. Yet the religious feeling
+which early questioned whether the Baptist even were not the Messiah (Luke
+iii. 15) would almost certainly have concluded that John's greater
+successor must be God's anointed. The very fact that men's thoughts about
+the Messiah were varied and complex made them ready for some modifications
+of their preconceptions. One with such subtle personal power as Jesus had
+exercised was almost sure to be hailed by some with enthusiasm as the
+looked-<a class="newpage" name="page095" id="page095" title="95"></a>for representative of God. In fact, it is probable that at any
+time in the early days of his ministry Jesus could have been proclaimed
+Messiah, provided he had accepted the people's terms. Such a confession
+would have been merely the outcome of enthusiasm. The people, even the
+disciples, did not know Jesus. They all had high hopes and somewhat fixed
+ideas about the Messiah, nearly every one of which was destined to rude
+shock. How little they knew him Jesus realized (John i. 51), and his
+self-mastery is manifest in his attitude to this early enthusiasm. He was
+no visionary; he had a great work to do and a long lesson to teach, and he
+was patient enough to teach it little by little. He did not rebuke the
+ill-informed faith of a Nathanael, but sought gradually to supplant the
+old thought of the Messiah and of the kingdom by new truth, and to bind
+men's affections to himself for his own sake and the truth's sake, not
+simply for the idea which he impersonated to them.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s102"><p><span class="versenum">102.</span> The visit to Cana seems to have found a place in the fourth gospel,
+because there the new disciples discovered in their master miraculous
+powers which were to them a sign that he was in truth God's anointed. It
+is probable that at the time of this miracle the disciples thought only of
+the power and the marvel, yet the sharp contrast between John's ascetic
+habit and Jesus' use of his divine resources to relieve embarrassment at a
+wedding feast must have impressed every man among them. Their minds,
+however, were as yet too full of Messianic hopes to leave much room for
+reflection. They were content to have a sign, for in the view of Jesus'
+contemporaries signs were essential marks of the Messiah (John vi. 30;
+vii. 31; <a class="newpage" name="page096" id="page096" title="96"></a>Mark viii. 11). They did their reflecting later (John ii. 22).</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s103"><p><span class="versenum">103.</span> Miracles are as great a stumbling-block to modern thought as they
+were a help to the contemporaries of Jesus. The study of Jesus' life
+cannot ignore this fact, nor make little of it. It is fair to insist,
+however, that the question is one of evidence, not of metaphysical
+possibility. Men are wisely slow to-day to claim that they can tell what
+are the limits of the possible. If the question is one of evidence, it is
+in an important sense true that the evidence for miracle in the life of
+Jesus is appreciable only when that life is viewed in its completeness.
+The miracles attributed to Jesus may be studied, however, for the
+disclosure which they give of his character, and of his relation to common
+human need. So it is with this first sign at Cana. Jesus had just heard
+the call to be Messiah, and in his lonely struggle in the wilderness had
+given a loyal answer to that call, and had set out to do his Father's
+business in his Father's way. He who by the Jordan still carried the marks
+of struggle, so that the Baptist saw in him the suffering Saviour of
+Isaiah liii., now returned to the ordinary daily life in Galilee, and as a
+guest at a wedding feast he commenced that ministry of simple human
+friendliness (Matt. xi. 19; compare Mark ii. 15-17; Luke xv. 1, 2), which
+set him in sharp contrast alike with John's asceticism and with the
+ritualism and pedantry of the Pharisees.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s104"><p><span class="versenum">104.</span> His human friendliness is all the more worthy of note, inasmuch as on
+his return to Cana Jesus did not take up again the old relations of life
+as they existed before his baptism. This is clear from his reply to his
+mother when she reported the scarcity <a class="newpage" name="page097" id="page097" title="97"></a>of wine (John ii. 3-5). While it is
+true that the title by which Jesus addressed Mary was neither
+disrespectful nor unkind (John xix. 26), the reply itself was a warning
+that now he was no longer hers in the old sense. A new mission had been
+given him, which henceforth would determine all his conduct, and in that
+mission she could not now share. Here is one of the many indications
+(compare Mark iii. 21, 31-35; Luke ii. 48) that Mary did not understand
+her son nor his work until much later (John xix. 25; Acts i. 14). That
+with such a clear sense of his new and serious mission Jesus' first
+official act was one of kindly relief for social embarrassment is most
+significant. He chose to show his divine authority to his new disciples in
+a way that brought joy to a festal company. Little as the disciples were
+likely to appreciate it at the time, it was beautifully indicative of the
+simplicity and everyday lovableness of Jesus' idea of the earnest service
+of God.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s105"><p><span class="versenum">105.</span> With the disciples thus strengthened in faith, and the mother not
+separated from him though unable to know his deepest thoughts, and the
+brethren who could not yet nor later understand their kinsman and his
+work, Jesus went down to Capernaum (John ii. 12), which proved thenceforth
+to be the centre of his greatest work and teaching. There for a time, how
+long cannot be known, he continued in quiet fellowship with his new
+friends, until the approach of the Passover drew him to Jerusalem to make
+formal opening of his Messianic work in that centre of his people's
+religious life.</p></div>
+</div>
+<p><a class="newpage" name="page098" id="page098" title="98"></a></p>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<div class="part" id="p02">
+<h2><a class="newpage" name="page099" id="page099" title="99"></a>Part II</h2>
+
+<h3>The Ministry</h3>
+
+<p><a class="newpage" name="page100" id="page100" title="100"></a></p>
+
+<div class="chapter" id="p02-01">
+<h2><a class="newpage" name="page101" id="page101" title="101"></a>I</h2>
+
+<h3>General Survey of the Ministry</h3>
+
+
+
+<div class="section" id="s106"><p><span class="versenum">106.</span> The attempt to arrange an orderly account of the way in which Jesus
+set about the work to which he was called at his baptism is met at the
+outset by a problem. The vivid and familiar words of Mark (i. 14),
+seconded by the representation in both Matthew (iv. 12) and Luke (iv. 14),
+indicate the imprisonment of John as the occasion, and Galilee as the
+scene of the inauguration of Jesus' public ministry. The fourth gospel, on
+the other hand, tells of a work of Jesus and his disciples in Judea prior
+to the imprisonment of John (in. 24), and makes this work follow at some
+interval after the inauguration of the Messianic ministry in Jerusalem.
+The minuteness of detail of time and place in the early chapters of John
+(i. 19 to iv. 43), together with the vividness of their narrative, give
+them strong claim to credence. They thus record a ministry earlier than
+that narrated in the other gospels, proving that the actual inauguration
+of Jesus' work occurred in Jerusalem at a Passover season previous to the
+imprisonment of John. This is known as the Early Judean Ministry.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s107"><p><span class="versenum">107.</span> The fact that Peter was wont to tell the story of Jesus' life in such
+a way as to lead Mark to set the opening of the ministry after the close
+of John's activ<a class="newpage" name="page102" id="page102" title="102"></a>ity, indicates that that beginning of work in Galilee
+seemed to the disciples to be in a way the actual inauguration of Jesus'
+constructive and successful work. Peter cannot have been ignorant of the
+labors in Judea, though he may not himself have accompanied Jesus to the
+Passover. A new stage in the life of Jesus began, therefore, with his
+withdrawal to Galilee.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s108"><p><span class="versenum">108.</span> The story of the Galilean ministry is given chiefly by the first
+three gospels, John contributing but two incidents to the period covered
+by that ministry,--a second miracle at Cana (iv. 46-54), and a visit to
+Judea (v. 1-47),--and relating more fully the story of the feeding of the
+multitudes (vi. 1-71). The journey from Judea through Samaria (John iv.
+1-45) should be identified with the removal to Galilee which stands at the
+beginning of Mark's record (i. 14; Matt. iv. 12; Luke iv. 14). Mark's
+account of the Galilean activity of Jesus (i. 14 to ix. 50) is one of such
+simple and steady progress that the whole period must be considered as a
+unit.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s109"><p><span class="versenum">109.</span> In the use which Matthew (iv. 12 to xviii. 35) and Luke (iv. 14 to
+ix. 50) make of Mark's record this unity is emphasized. Their treatment of
+the matter which they add, however, makes it best to study the period
+topically rather than attempt to follow closely a chronological sequence.
+As it is probable that the early writing ascribed by Papias to the apostle
+Matthew failed to preserve in many cases any record of the time and place
+of the teachings of Jesus, so is it certain that the first and third
+evangelists have distributed quite differently the material which they
+seem to have derived from that apostolic document. Mention need only be
+made of the exhor<a class="newpage" name="page103" id="page103" title="103"></a>tation against anxiety which Matthew places in the
+sermon on the mount (vi. 19-34), and which Luke has given after the close
+of the Galilean activity (xii. 22-34). It is possible to form some
+judgment of the general relations of such discourses from the character of
+their contents, but in the absence of positive statement by the
+evangelists it is hopeless to seek to give them a more definite historical
+setting. A topical study can consider them as contributions to the period
+to which they belong, while a chronological study would be lost in
+uncertain conjectures. A topical study may, however, disclose the fact
+that sequence of time was identical with development of method. This is,
+in general, the case with the Galilean ministry. The new lesson which
+Jesus began to teach after the confession at C&aelig;sarea Philippi marked the
+supreme turning point in his whole public activity. Before that crisis the
+work of Jesus was a constructive preparation for the question which called
+forth Peter's confession. Subsequently his work was that of making ready
+for the end, which from that time on he foretold. As has been stated, the
+Galilean ministry is the story of the first three gospels, except for two
+incidents and a discourse added by John. The visit to the feast of
+Tabernacles (John vii. 1 to viii. 59) stands on the border between the
+work in Galilee and that which followed. It was one of Jesus' many
+attempts to win Jerusalem, and is evidence that the author of the fourth
+gospel--either because of special interest in the capital, or because of
+superior knowledge of the work of his Master in Judea--gave emphasis to a
+side of the life of Jesus which the other gospels have neglected.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s110"><p><a class="newpage" name="page104" id="page104" title="104"></a><span class="versenum">110.</span> With the close of the constructive ministry in Galilee, the account
+of Mark (x. 1; compare Matt xix. 1; Luke ix. 51) turns towards Jerusalem
+and the cross. The journey was not direct, but traversed Perea, the domain
+of Antipas beyond Jordan, and was accompanied by continued ministry of
+teaching and healing (Mark x. 1-52; Matt. xix. 1 to xx. 34). It is at this
+point that Luke has inserted the long section peculiar to his gospel (ix.
+51 to xviii. 14), becoming again parallel with Mark as Jesus drew near to
+Jerusalem (xviii. 15 to xix. 28; compare Mark x. 13-52). Much of that
+which Luke adds gives evidence that in all probability it should be placed
+before the change in method at C&aelig;sarea Philippi, while much of it
+undoubtedly belongs to the last months of Jesus' life. Since the last
+journey to Jerusalem is reported with considerable fulness, it is natural
+in a study of Jesus' life to treat that journey by itself. At this point
+John contributes important additions to the record (ix. 1 to xi. 57)
+showing that the journey was not continuous, but was interrupted by
+several more or less hurried visits to the capital, renewed efforts of
+Jesus to win the city.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s111"><p><span class="versenum">111.</span> With the final arrival in Jerusalem the four gospels come together in
+a record of the last days and the crucifixion (Mark xi. 1 to xv. 47; Matt,
+xxi 1 to xxvii. 66; Luke xix. 29 to xxiii. 56; John xi. 55 to xix. 42).
+The evangelists, in their accounts of the last week, seem to have had
+access to completer and more varied information than for any other part of
+the ministry. This causes some difficulties in constructing an ordered
+conception of the events, yet it greatly adds to the fulness of our
+knowledge. It is easier, therefore, <a class="newpage" name="page105" id="page105" title="105"></a>to consider the period in three
+parts,--the final controversies in Jerusalem, the Last Supper, and the
+betrayal, trial, and crucifixion.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s112"><p><span class="versenum">112.</span> In a sense the resurrection and ascension form the conclusion of the
+final visit to Jerusalem, and should be treated with the last week. In a
+larger sense, however, they form the culmination of the whole ministry,
+and therefore constitute a final stage in the study of Jesus' life. At
+this point the record of the gospels is supplemented by the first chapter
+of the Acts and by Paul's concise report of the appearances of the risen
+Christ (I. Cor. xv. 3-8). The various accounts exhibit perplexing
+independence of each other. In total impression, however, they agree, and
+show that the tragedy, by which the enemies of Jesus thought to end his
+career, was turned into signal triumph.</p></div>
+</div><div class="chapter" id="p02-02">
+<div class="outline">
+<h2><a class="newpage" name="page106" id="page106" title="106"></a>   Outline of Events in the Early Judean Ministry</h2>
+
+
+<p>   The first Passover of the public ministry: Cleansing of the
+   temple--John ii. 13-22.</p>
+
+<p>   Early results in Jerusalem: Discourse with Nicodemus--John ii. 23 to
+   iii. 15.</p>
+
+<p>   Withdrawal into rural parts of Judea to preach and baptize--John in.
+   22-30; iv. 1, 2.</p>
+
+<p>   Imprisonment of John the Baptist--Matt. iv. 12; Mark i. 14.</p>
+
+<p>   Withdrawal from Judea through Samaria--John iv. 1-42.</p>
+
+<p>   Unlooked-for welcome in Galilee--John iv. 43-45.</p>
+
+<p>   ? Second sign at Cana: Cure of the Nobleman's son--John iv. 46-54 (see
+   sect. <a href="#a041">A 41</a>).</p>
+
+<p>   [Retirement at Nazareth, the disciples resuming their accustomed
+   calling. Inferred from Matt. iv. 13; Luke iv. 31; Matt. iv. 18-22 and
+   &#8741;s.]</p>
+
+<p>   Events marked ? should possibly be given a different place; &#8741;s stands
+   for "parallel accounts;" for sections marked A--as <a href="#a041">A 41</a>--see Appendix.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+<h2>II</h2>
+
+<h3>The Early Ministry in Judea</h3>
+
+
+
+<div class="section" id="s113"><p><span class="versenum">113.</span> We owe to the fourth gospel our knowledge of the fact that Jesus
+began his general ministry in Jerusalem. The silence of the other records
+concerning this beginning cannot discredit the testimony of John. For
+these other records themselves indicate in various ways that Jesus had
+repeatedly sought to win Jerusalem before his final visit at the end of
+his life (compare Luke xiii. 34; Matt. xxiii. 37). Moreover, the fourth
+gospel is confirmed by the probability, rising <a class="newpage" name="page107" id="page107" title="107"></a>almost to necessity, that
+such a mission as Jesus conceived his to be must seek first to win the
+leaders of his people. The temple at Jerusalem was the centre of worship,
+drawing all Jews sooner or later to itself--even as Jesus in early youth
+was accustomed to go thither at the time of feasts (Luke ii. 41).
+Worshippers of God throughout the world prayed with their faces towards
+Jerusalem (Dan. vi. 10). Moreover, at Jerusalem the chief of the scribes,
+as well as the chief of the priests, were to be found. Compared with
+Jerusalem all other places were provincial and of small influence. A
+Messiah, who had not from the outset given up hope of winning the capital,
+cannot have long delayed his effort to find a following there.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s114"><p><span class="versenum">114.</span> Arriving at Jerusalem at the Passover season, in the early spring,
+Jesus remained in Judea until the following December (John iv. 35).
+Evidently the record which John gives of these months is most fragmentary,
+and from his own statement (xx. 30, 31) it seems highly probable that it
+is one sided, emphasizing those events and teachings in which Jesus
+disclosed more or less clearly his claim to be the Messiah. Doubtless the
+full record would show a much closer similarity between this early work in
+Judea and that later conducted in Galilee than a comparison of John with
+the other gospels would suggest; yet it is evident that Jesus opened his
+ministry in Jerusalem with an unrestrained frankness that is not found
+later in Galilee.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s115"><p><span class="versenum">115.</span> It is a mistake to think of the cleansing of the temple as a distinct
+Messianic manifesto. The market in the temple was a licensed affront to
+spiritual religion. It found its excuse for being in the require<a class="newpage" name="page108" id="page108" title="108"></a>ment that
+worshippers offer to the priests for sacrifice animals levitically clean
+and acceptable, and that gifts for the temple treasury be made in no coin
+other than the sacred "shekel of the sanctuary." The chief priests
+appreciated the convenience which worshippers coming from a distance would
+find if they could obtain all the means of worship within the temple
+enclosure itself. The hierarchy or its representatives seem also to have
+appreciated the opportunity to charge good prices for the accommodation so
+afforded. The result was the intrusion of the spirit of the market-place,
+with all its disputes and haggling, into the place set apart for worship.
+In fact, the only part of the temple open to Gentiles who might wish to
+worship Israel's God was filled with distraction, unseemly strife, and
+extortion (compare Mark xi. 17). Such despite done the sanctity of God's
+house must have outraged the pious sense of many a devout Israelite. There
+is no doubt of what an Isaiah or a Micah would have said and done in such
+a situation. This is exactly what Jesus did. His act was the assumption of
+a full prophetic authority. In itself considered it was nothing more. In
+his expulsion of the traders he had the conscience of the people for his
+ally. There is no need to think of any use of miraculous power. His moral
+earnestness, coupled with the underlying consciousness on the part of the
+traders themselves that they had no business in God's house, readily
+explains the confusion and departure of the intruders. Even those who
+challenged Jesus' conduct did not venture to defend the presence of the
+market in the temple. They only demanded that Jesus show his warrant for
+disturbing a condition of things authorized by the priests.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s116"><p><a class="newpage" name="page109" id="page109" title="109"></a><span class="versenum">116.</span> The temple cleansing is recorded in the other gospels at the end of
+Jesus' ministry, just before the hostility of the Jews culminated in his
+condemnation and death. Inasmuch as these gospels give no account of a
+ministry by Jesus in Jerusalem before the last week of his life, it is
+easy to see how this event came to be associated by them with the only
+Jerusalem sojourn which they record. The definite place given to the event
+in John, together with the seeming necessity that Jesus should condemn
+such authorized affront to the very idea of worship, mark this cleansing
+as the inaugural act of Jesus' ministry of spiritual religion, rather than
+as a final stern rebuke closing his effort to win his people. Against the
+conclusion commonly held that Jesus cleansed the temple both at the
+opening and at the close of his course is the extreme improbability that
+the traders would have been caught twice in the same way. The event fits
+in closely with the story of the last week, because it actually led to the
+beginning of opposition in Jerusalem to the prophet from Galilee. At the
+first the opposition was doubtless of a scornful sort. Later it grew in
+bitterness when it saw how Jesus was able to arouse a popular enthusiasm
+that seemed to threaten the stability of existing conditions.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s117"><p><span class="versenum">117.</span> The reply of Jesus to the challenge of his authority for his
+high-handed act shows that he offered it to the people as an invitation;
+he would lead them to a higher idea and practice of worship (compare John
+iv. 21-24). When they demanded the warrant for his act, he saw that they
+were not ready to follow him, and could not appreciate the only warrant he
+needed for his course. He cleansed the temple because they were destroying
+<a class="newpage" name="page110" id="page110" title="110"></a>it as a place where men could worship God in spirit. In reply to the
+challenge, he who later taught the Samaritan woman that the worship of God
+is not dependent on any place however sacred, answered that they might
+finish their work and destroy the temple as a house of God, yet he would
+speedily re-establish a true means of approach to the Most High for the
+souls of men. He clothed his reply in a figurative dress, as he was often
+wont to do in his teaching,--"Destroy this temple, and in three days I
+will raise it up." To his unsympathetic hearers it must have been
+completely enigmatic. Even the disciples did not catch its meaning until
+after the resurrection had taught them that in their Master a new chapter
+in God's dealing with men had begun.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s118"><p><span class="versenum">118.</span> The unreadiness of the Jewish leaders to receive the only kind of
+message he had to offer produced in Jesus a decided reserve. He did not
+lack a certain kind of success in Jerusalem. His cures of the sick won him
+many followers who seemed ready to believe almost anything of him. But the
+attitude taken by the leaders made it evident that Jesus must make
+disciples who should understand in some measure at least his idea of God's
+kingdom, and, understanding, must be ready to be loyal to it through good
+report and evil. For the position taken by the leaders of the people had
+an ominous significance. It could mean but one thing for
+Jesus,--unrelenting conflict. If they could not be won, they who would so
+legalize the desecration of God's house would not hesitate at any extreme
+in opposing his messenger. This possibility confronted Jesus at the very
+outset; therefore he held the popular enthusiasm in check, knowing that
+<a class="newpage" name="page111" id="page111" title="111"></a>as yet it had little of that kind of faith which could endure seeming
+defeat.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s119"><p><span class="versenum">119.</span> One of those who were drawn to him, however, gave Jesus opportunity
+to lay aside his reserve and speak clearly of the truth lie came to
+publish. He was a member of the Jewish sanhedrin, a rabbi apparently held
+in high regard in Jerusalem. While his associates were dismissing the
+claims of Jesus with a wave of the hand, Nicodemus sought out the new
+teacher by night, and showed his desire to learn what Jesus held to be
+truth concerning God's kingdom. Jesus first reminded the teacher of Israel
+of the old doctrine of the prophets, that Israel must find a new heart
+before God's kingdom can come (Jer. xxxi. 31-34; Ezek. xxxvi. 25-27), and
+then declared that the heavenly truth which God now would reveal to men is
+that all can have the needed new life as freely as the plague-stricken
+Israelites found relief when Moses lifted up the brazen serpent. This
+conversation serves to introduce the evangelist's interpretation of Jesus
+as the only begotten Son of God sent in love to redeem the world (John
+iii. 16-21).</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s120"><p><span class="versenum">120.</span> John's record suggests that Jesus left Jerusalem shortly after the
+conversation with Nicodemus. His work there was not without success, for
+Nicodemus seems to have been henceforth his loyal advocate (compare John
+vii. 50-52; xix. 39); and it may be that at the time of this sojourn he
+won the hearts of his friends in Bethany, for the first picture the
+gospels give of this household seems to presuppose a somewhat intimate
+relation of Jesus to the family (Luke x. 38-42). It would be idle to
+speculate whether it was at this time or later that he became acquainted
+with Joseph of Arimathea, or the friends who during the last week of <a class="newpage" name="page112" id="page112" title="112"></a>his
+life showed him hospitality (Mark xi. 2-6; xiv. 12-16).</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s121"><p><span class="versenum">121.</span> For a time after his withdrawal from Jerusalem he lingered in Judea,
+carrying on a simple ministry of preparation like that of John the
+Baptist. In this way the summer and early autumn seem to have passed,
+Jesus growing more popular as a prophet than John himself had been. The
+fact that Jesus' disciples administered baptism in connection with his
+work roused the jealousy of some of John's followers, and attracted again
+the attention of Jerusalem to the new activity of the bold disturber of
+the temple market. John's disciples complained to him of Jesus' rivalry,
+and received his self-effacing confession, "He must increase, I must
+decrease." The Pharisees, on the other hand, made Jesus feel that further
+work in Judea was for the time unwise, and he withdrew into Galilee for
+retirement, since "a prophet has no honor in his own country" (John iv.
+1-3, 44). Baffled in his first effort to win his people, this journey back
+from the region of the holy city must have been one of no little sadness
+for Jesus. Some urgency for haste led him by the direct road through
+despised Samaria. A seemingly chance conversation with a woman at Jacob's
+well, where he was resting at noonday, gave him an opportunity for
+ministry which was more ingenuously received than any which he had been
+able to render in Judea; and to this woman he declared himself even more
+plainly than to Nicodemus, and preached to her that spiritual idea of
+worship which he had sought to enforce by cleansing Jerusalem's temple.
+Samaria was so isolated from all Jewish interest that Jesus felt no need
+for reserve in this "strange" land. The few days spent there must <a class="newpage" name="page113" id="page113" title="113"></a>have
+been peculiarly welcome to his heart, fresh from rejection in Judea.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s122"><p><span class="versenum">122.</span> One reason why he wished to hasten from Judea seems to have been his
+knowledge of the hostile movement which was making against John the
+Baptist. Either before or soon after Jesus started for Galilee Herod had
+arrested John, ostensibly as a measure of public safety owing to John's
+undue popularity (Jos. Ant. xviii. 5. 2). Herod may have been encouraged
+to take this step by the hostility of the Pharisees to the plain-spoken
+prophet of the desert (see John iv. 1-3). The fourth gospel leaves its
+readers to infer that the imprisonment took place somewhere about this
+time (compare iii. 24 and v. 35), while the other gospels unite in giving
+this arrest as the occasion for Jesus' withdrawal into Galilee.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s123"><p><span class="versenum">123.</span> Arrived in Galilee, Jesus seems to have returned to his home at
+Nazareth, while his disciples went back to their customary occupations,
+until he summoned them again to join him in a new ministry (see sect.
+125). John assigns to this time the cure of a nobleman's son. The father
+sought out Jesus at Cana, having left his son sick at Capernaum. At first
+Jesus apparently repelled his approach, even as he had dealt with seekers
+after marvels at Jerusalem; but on hearing the father's cry of need and
+trust, he at once spoke the word of healing. This event is in so many ways
+a duplicate of the cure of a centurion's servant recorded in Matthew and
+Luke, that to many it seems but another version of the same incident.
+Considering the variations in the story reported by Matthew and Luke, it
+is clearly not possible to prove that John tells of a different case. Yet
+the simple fact of similarity of some details in two <a class="newpage" name="page114" id="page114" title="114"></a>events should not
+exclude the possibility of their still being quite distinct. The reception
+which Jesus gave the two requests for help is very different, and the case
+reported in John is in keeping with the attitude of Jesus before he began
+his new ministry in Galilee. On his arrival in Galilee he wished to avoid
+a mere wonder faith begotten of the enthusiasm he excited in Jerusalem,
+yet this wish yielded at once when a genuine need sought relief at his
+hands.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s124"><p><span class="versenum">124.</span> The apparent result of this first activity in Judea was
+disappointment and failure. He had won no considerable following in the
+capital. He had definitely excited the jealousy and opposition of the
+leading men of his nation. Even such popular enthusiasm as had followed
+his mighty works was of a sort that Jesus could not encourage. The
+situation in Judea had at length become so nearly untenable that he
+decided to withdraw into seclusion in Galilee, where, as a prophet, he
+could be "without honor." He had gone to Jerusalem eager to begin there,
+where God should have had readiest service, the ministry of the kingdom of
+God. Challenge, cold criticism, and superficial faith were the results. A
+new beginning must be made on other lines in other places. Meanwhile Jesus
+retired to his home and his followers to theirs.</p></div></div>
+<div class="chapter" id="p02-03">
+<div class="outline">
+<h2><a class="newpage" name="page115" id="page115" title="115"></a>   Outline of Events in the Galilean Ministry (Chapters <a href="#p02-03">III.</a> and <a href="#p02-04">IV.</a>)</h2>
+
+
+<p>   The imprisonment of John and the withdrawal of Jesus into
+   Galilee--Matt. iv. 12-17; Mark i. 14, 15; Luke iv. 14, 15.</p>
+
+<p>   Removal from Nazareth to Capernaum--Matt. iv. 13-16; Luke iv. 31.</p>
+
+<p>   The call of Simon and Andrew, James and John--Matt. iv. 18-22; Mark i.
+   16-20; Luke v. 1-11.
+
+</p>
+
+<p>   First work in Capernaum--Matt. viii. 14-17; Mark i. 21-34; Luke iv.
+   31-41.</p>
+
+<p>   First circuit of Galilee--Matt. iv. 23; viii. 2-4; Mark i. 35-45; Luke
+   iv. 42-44; v. 12-16.</p>
+
+<p>   Cure of a paralytic in Capernaum--Matt. ix. 2-8; Mark ii. 1-12; Luke v.
+   17-26.</p>
+
+<p>   The call of Matthew--Matt. ix. 9-13; Mark ii. 13-17; Luke v. 27-32.</p>
+
+<p>   ? The question about fasting--Matt ix. 14-17; Mark ii. 18-22; Luke v.
+   33-39 (see sects. 47; <a href="#a054">A 54</a>).</p>
+
+<p>   ? Sabbath cure at Jerusalem at the unnamed feast--John v. 1-47 (see
+   sect. <a href="#a053">A 53</a>).</p>
+
+<p>   ? The Sabbath controversy in the Galilean grain fields--Matt. xii. 1-8;
+   Mark ii. 23-28; Luke vi. 1-5 (see sects. 47; <a href="#a054">A 54</a>).</p>
+
+<p>   ? Another Sabbath controversy: cure of a withered hand--Matt. xii.
+   9-14; Mark iii. 1-6; Luke vi. 6-11 (see sects. 47; <a href="#a054">A 54</a>).</p>
+
+<p>   Jesus followed by multitudes from all parts--Matt. iv. 23-25; xii.
+   15-21; Mark iii. 7-12; Luke vi. 17-19.</p>
+
+<p>   The choosing of the twelve--Matt. x. 2-4; Mark iii. 13-19; Luke vi.
+   12-19.</p>
+
+<p>   The sermon on the mount--Matt. v. 1 to viii. 1; Luke vi. 20 to vii. 1
+   (see sect. <a href="#a055">A 55</a>).</p>
+
+<p>   The cure of a centurion's servant--Matt. viii. 5-13; Luke vii. 1-10;
+   John iv. 46-54.</p>
+
+<p><a class="newpage" name="page116" id="page116" title="116"></a>   The restoration of the widow's son at Nain--Luke vii. 11-17.</p>
+
+<p>   The message from John in prison--Matt. xi. 2-19; Luke vii. 18-35.</p>
+
+<p>   The anointing of Jesus by a sinful woman--Luke vii. 36-50.</p>
+
+<p>   The companions of Jesus on his second circuit of Galilee--Luke viii.
+   1-3.</p>
+
+<p>   Cure of a demoniac in Capernaum and blasphemy by the Pharisees--Matt.
+   xii. 22-45; Mark iii. 19<sup>a</sup>-30; Luke xi. 14-36.</p>
+
+<p>   The true kindred of Jesus--Matt. xii. 46-50; Mark iii. 31-35; Luke
+   viii. 19-21.</p>
+
+<p>   The parables by the sea--Matt. xiii. 1-53; Mark iv. 1-34; Luke viii.
+   4-18 (see sect. <a href="#a056">A 56</a>).</p>
+
+<p>   The tempest stilled--Matt. viii. 18, 23-27; Mark iv. 35-41; Luke viii.
+   22-25.</p>
+
+<p>   Cure of the Gadarene demoniac--Matt. viii. 28-34; Mark v. 1-20; Luke
+   viii. 26-39.</p>
+
+<p>   The restoration of the daughter of Jairus and cure of an invalid
+   woman--Matt. ix. 1, 18-26; Mark v. 21-43; Luke viii. 40-56.</p>
+
+<p>   Cure of blind and dumb--Matt. ix. 27-34.</p>
+
+<p>   Rejection at Nazareth--Matt. xiii. 54-58; Mark vi. 1-6<sup>a</sup>; Luke iv.
+   16-30 (see sect. <a href="#a052">A 52</a>).</p>
+
+<p>   Third circuit of Galilee--Matt. ix. 35; Mark vi. 6<sup>b</sup>.</p>
+
+<p>   The mission of the twelve--Matt. ix. 36 to xi. 1; Mark vi. 7-13; Luke
+   ix. 1-6 (see sect. <a href="#a057">A 57</a>).</p>
+
+<p>   The death of John the Baptist--Matt. xiv. 1-12; Mark vi. 14-29; Luke
+   ix. 7-9.</p>
+
+<p>   Withdrawal of Jesus across the sea and feeding of the five
+   thousand--Matt. xiv. 13-23; Mark vi. 30-46; Luke ix. 10-17; John vi.
+   1-15.</p>
+
+<p>   Return to Capernaum, Jesus walking on the water--Matt. xiv. 24-36; Mark
+   vi. 47-56; John vi. 16-21.</p>
+
+<p>   Teaching about the Bread of Life in the synagogue at Capernaum--John
+   vi. 22-71 (see sect. <a href="#a059">A 59</a>).</p>
+
+<p>   Controversy concerning tradition: handwashing, etc.--Matt. xv. 1-20;
+   Mark vii. 1-23.</p>
+
+<p>   Withdrawal to regions of Tyre and Sidon: the Syroph&oelig;nician woman's
+   daughter--Matt. xv. 21-28; Mark vii. 24-30.</p>
+
+<p><a class="newpage" name="page117" id="page117" title="117"></a>   Return through Decapolis--Matt. xv. 29-31; Mark vii. 31-37.
+</p>
+
+<p>   ? The feeding of the four thousand--Matt. xv. 32-38; Mark viii. 1-9
+   (see sect. <a href="#a058">A 58</a>).</p>
+
+<p>   Pharisaic challenge in Galilee, and warning against the leaven of the
+   Pharisees--Matt xv. 39 to xvi. 12; Mark viii. 10-21.</p>
+
+<p>   Cure of blind man near Bethsaida--Mark viii. 22-26.</p>
+
+<p>   Peter's confession of Jesus as Christ near C&aelig;sarea Philippi--Matt. xvi.
+   13-20; Mark viii. 27-30; Luke ix. 18-21.</p>
+
+<p>   The new lesson, that the Christ must die--Matt. xvi. 21-28; Mark viii.
+   31 to ix. 1; Luke ix. 22-27.</p>
+
+<p>   The transfiguration--Matt. xvii. 1-13; Mark ix. 2-13; Luke ix. 28-36.</p>
+
+<p>   Cure of the epileptic boy--Matt. xvii. 14-20; Mark ix. 14-29; Luke ix.
+   37-43<sup>a</sup>.</p>
+
+<p>   Second prediction of approaching death and resurrection--Matt. xvii.
+   22, 23; Mark ix. 30-32; Luke ix. 43<sup>b</sup>-45.</p>
+
+<p>   Return to Capernaum: the temple tax--Matt. xvii. 24-27; Mark ix. 33<sup>a</sup>.</p>
+
+<p>   Teachings concerning humility and forgiveness--Matt. xviii. 1-35; Mark
+   ix. 33-50; Luke ix. 46-50.</p>
+
+<p>   Visit of Jesus to Jerusalem at the feast of Tabernacles--John vii.
+   1-52; viii. 12-59 (see sect. <a href="#a060">A 60</a>).</p>
+
+<p>   ? The woman taken in adultery--John vii. 53 to viii. 11 (see sect.
+   163).</p>
+
+<p>   The following probably belong to the Galilean ministry before the
+   confession at C&aelig;sarea Philippi (see sect. 168):--</p>
+
+<p>   The disciples taught to pray--Matt. vi. 9-15; vii. 7-11; Luke xi. 1-13.</p>
+
+<p>   The cure of an infirm woman on the Sabbath--Luke xiii. 10-17.</p>
+
+<p>   Two parables: mustard-seed and leaven--Matt. xiii. 31-33; Luke xiii.
+   18-21 (see sect. <a href="#a056">A 56</a>).</p>
+
+<p>   The parable of the rich fool--Luke xii. 13-21.</p>
+
+<p>   Cure on a Sabbath and teaching at a Pharisee's table--Luke xiv. 1-24.</p>
+
+<p>   Five parables--Luke xv. 1 to xvi. 31.</p>
+
+<p>   Certain disconnected teachings--Luke xvii. 1-4.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+<h2><a class="newpage" name="page118" id="page118" title="118"></a>III</h2>
+
+<h3>The Ministry In Galilee--Its Aim and Method</h3>
+
+
+
+<div class="section" id="s125"><p><span class="versenum">125.</span> The work of Jesus in Galilee, which is the principal theme of the
+first three gospels, began with a removal from Nazareth to Capernaum, and
+the calling of four fishermen to be his constant followers. The ready
+obedience which Simon and Andrew and James and John gave to this call is
+an interesting evidence that they did not first come to know Jesus at the
+time of this summons. The narrative presupposes some such earlier
+association as is reported in John, followed by a temporary return to
+their old homes and occupations, while Jesus sought seclusion after his
+work in Judea. The first evangelist has most vividly indicated the
+development of the Galilean ministry, directing attention to two points of
+beginning,--the beginning of Jesus' preaching of the kingdom (Matt. iv.
+17) and the beginning of his predictions of his own sufferings and death
+(xvi. 21). Between these two beginnings lies the ministry of Jesus to the
+enthusiastic multitudes, the second of them marking his choice of a more
+restricted audience and a less popular message. Within the first of these
+periods two events mark epochs,--the mission of the twelve (Matt. ix. 36;
+x. I) to preach the coming kingdom of God and to multiply Jesus' ministry
+of healing, and the feeding of the five thousand when the popular
+enthusiasm <a class="newpage" name="page119" id="page119" title="119"></a>reached its climax (John vi. 14, 15). These events fall not
+far apart, and mark two different phases of the same stage of development
+in his work. The first is emphasized by Matthew, the second by John; both
+help to a clearer understanding of the narrative which Mark has furnished
+to the other gospels for their story of the Galilean ministry. The table
+at the head of this chapter indicates in outline the probable succession
+of events in the Galilean period. The order adopted is that of Mark,
+supplemented by the other gospels. Luke's additions are inserted in his
+order where there is not some reason for believing that he himself
+disregarded the exact sequence of events. Thus the rejection at Nazareth
+is placed late, as in Mark. Much of the material in the long section
+peculiar to Luke is assigned in general to this Galilean period, since all
+knowledge of its precise location in time and place has been lost for us,
+as it not unlikely was for Luke. Although Matthew is the gospel giving the
+clearest general view of the Galilean work, it shows the greatest
+disarrangement of details, and aids but little in determining the sequence
+of events. The material from that gospel is assigned place in accordance
+with such hints as are discoverable in parallel or associated parts of
+Mark or Luke. Of John's contributions one--the feeding of the
+multitudes--is clearly located by its identity with a narrative found in
+all the other gospels. The visit to Jerusalem at the unnamed feast can be
+only tentatively placed.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s126"><p><span class="versenum">126.</span> Viewing this gospel story as a whole, the parallel development of
+popular enthusiasm and official hostility at once attracts attention.
+Jesus' first cures in the synagogue at Capernaum roused the interest and
+<a class="newpage" name="page120" id="page120" title="120"></a>wonder of the multitudes to such an extent that he felt constrained to
+withdraw to other towns. On his return to Capernaum he was so beset with
+crowds that the friends of the paralytic could get at him only by breaking
+up the roof. It was when Jesus found himself followed by multitudes from
+all parts of the land that he selected twelve of his disciples "that they
+might be with him and that he might send them forth to preach," and
+addressed to them in the hearing of the multitudes the exacting, although
+unspeakably winsome teaching of the sermon on the mount. This condition of
+things continued even after Herod had killed John the Baptist, for when
+Jesus, having heard of John's fate, sought retirement with his disciples
+across the sea of Galilee, he was robbed of his seclusion by throngs who
+flocked to him to be healed and to hear of the kingdom of God.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s127"><p><span class="versenum">127.</span> The popular enthusiasm was not indifferent to the question who this
+new teacher might be. At first Jesus impressed the people by his
+authoritative teaching and cures. After the raising of the widow's son at
+Nain the popular feeling found a more definite declaration,--"a great
+prophet has risen up among us." The cure of a demoniac in Capernaum raised
+the further incredulous query, "Can this be the Son of David?" The notion
+that he might be the Messiah seems to have gained acceptance more and more
+as Jesus' popularity grew, for at the time of the feeding of the
+multitudes the enthusiasm burst into a flame of determination to force him
+to undertake the work for which he was so eminently fitted, but from which
+for some inexplicable reason he seemed to shrink (John vi. 15).</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s128"><p><a class="newpage" name="page121" id="page121" title="121"></a><span class="versenum">128.</span> Parallel with the growth of popular enthusiasm, and in part because
+of it, the religious leaders early assumed and consistently maintained an
+attitude of opposition. The gospels connect the critics of Jesus now and
+again with the Pharisees of the capital--the Galilean Pharisees being
+represented as more or less friendly. At the first appearance of Jesus in
+Capernaum even the Sabbath cure in the synagogue passed unchallenged; but
+on the return from his first excursion to other towns, Jesus found critics
+in his audience (Luke connects them directly with Jerusalem). From time to
+time such censors as these objected to the forgiveness by Jesus of the
+sins of the paralytic (Mark ii. 6, 7), criticised his social relations
+with outcasts like the publicans (Mark ii. 16), took offence at his
+carelessness of the Sabbath tradition in his instruction of his disciples
+(Mark ii. 24), and sought to turn the tide of rising popular enthusiasm by
+ascribing his power to cure to a league with the devil (Mark iii. 22).
+Baffled in one charge, they would turn to another, until, after the
+feeding of the multitudes, Jesus showed his complete disregard of all they
+held most dear, replying to a criticism of his disciples for carelessness
+of the ritual of hand-washing by an authoritative setting aside of the
+whole body of their traditions, as well as of the Levitical ceremonial of
+clean and unclean meats (Mark vii. 1-23).</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s129"><p><span class="versenum">129.</span> The wonder is, not that popular enthusiasm for Jesus was great, but
+that it was so hesitating in its judgment about him. The province which
+provided a following to Judas of Galilee a generation earlier than the
+public ministry of Jesus, and which under John of Gischala furnished the
+chief support to the <a class="newpage" name="page122" id="page122" title="122"></a>revolt against Rome a generation later, could have
+been excited to uncontrollable passion by the simple idea that a leader
+was present who could be made to head a movement for Jewish liberty. But
+there was something about Jesus which made it impossible to think of him
+as such a Messiah. He was much more moved by sin lurking within than by
+wrong inflicted from without. He looked for God's kingdom, as did the
+Zealots, but he looked for it within the heart more than in outward
+circumstances. Even the dreamers among the people, who were as unready as
+Jesus for any uprising against Rome, and who waited for God to show his
+own hand in judgment, found in Jesus--come to seek and to save that which
+was lost--something so contradictory of their idea of the celestial judge
+that they could not easily think of him as a Messiah. Jesus was a puzzle
+to the people. They were sure that he was a prophet; but if at any time
+some were tempted to query, "Can this be the Son of David?" the
+incredulous folk expected ever a negative reply.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s130"><p><span class="versenum">130.</span> This was as Jesus wished it to be. An unreasoning enthusiasm could
+only hinder his work. When his early cures in Capernaum stirred the ardent
+feelings of the multitudes, he took occasion to withdraw to other towns
+and allow popular feeling to cool. When later he found himself pressed
+upon by crowds from all quarters of the land, by the sermon on the mount
+he set them thinking on strange and highly spiritual things, far removed
+from the thoughts of Zealots and apocalyptic dreamers.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s131"><p><span class="versenum">131.</span> The manifest contradiction of popular Messianic ideas which Jesus
+presented in his own person <a class="newpage" name="page123" id="page123" title="123"></a>usually served to check undue ardor as long
+as he was present. But when some demoniac proclaimed the high station of
+Jesus, and thus seemed to the people to give supernatural testimony; or
+when some one in need sought him apart from the multitudes, Jesus
+frequently enjoined silence. These injunctions of silence are enigmas
+until they are viewed as a part of Jesus' effort to keep control of
+popular feeling. In his absence the people might dwell on his power and
+easily come to imagine him to be what he was not and could not be. Jesus
+was able by these means to restrain unthinking enthusiasm until the
+multitudes whom he fed on the east side of the sea determined to force him
+to do their will as a Messiah. Then he refused to follow where they
+called, and that happened which would doubtless have happened at an
+earlier time but for Jesus' caution,--the popular enthusiasm subsided, and
+his active work with the common people was at an end. But he had held off
+this crisis until there were a few who did not follow the popular
+defection, but rather clung to him from whom they had heard the words of
+eternal life (John vi. 68).</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s132"><p><span class="versenum">132.</span> Jesus' caution brings to light one aspect of his aim in the Galilean
+ministry,--he sought to win acceptance for the truth he proclaimed. His
+message as reported in the synoptic gospels was the near approach of the
+kingdom of God. Any such proclamation was sure of eager hearing. At first
+he seems to have been content to gather and interest the multitudes by
+this preaching and the works which accompanied it. But he early took
+occasion to state his ideas in the hearing of the multitudes, and in terms
+so simple, so concerned <a class="newpage" name="page124" id="page124" title="124"></a>with every-day life, so exacting as respects
+conduct, and so lacking in the customary glowing picture of the future,
+that the people could not mistake such a teacher for a simple fulfiller of
+their ideas. In this early sermon in effect, and later with increasing
+plainness, he set forth his doctrine of a kingdom of heaven coming not
+with observation, present actually among a people who knew it not, like a
+seed growing secretly in the earth, or leaven quietly leavening a lump of
+meal. By word and deed, in sermon and by parable, he insisted on this
+simple and every-day conception of God's rule among men. With Pharisee,
+Zealot, and dreamer, he held that "the best is yet to be," yet all three
+classes found their most cherished ideals set at nought by the new
+champion of the soul's inner life in fellowship with the living God. In
+all his teaching there was a claim of authority and a manifest
+independence which indicate certainty on his part concerning his own
+mission. Yet so completely is the personal question retired for the time,
+that in his rebuke of the blasphemy of the Pharisees he took pains to
+declare that it was not because they had spoken against the Son of Man,
+that they were in danger, but because they had spoken against the Spirit
+of God, whose presence was manifest in his works. He wished, primarily, to
+win disciples to the kingdom of God.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s133"><p><span class="versenum">133.</span> Yet Jesus was not indifferent in Galilee to what the people thought
+about himself. The question at C&aelig;sarea Philippi shows more fully the aim
+of his ministry. During all the period of the preaching of the kingdom he
+never hesitated to assert himself whenever need for such self-assertion
+arose. This <a class="newpage" name="page125" id="page125" title="125"></a>was evident in his dealing with his pharisaic critics. He
+rarely argued with them, and always assumed a tone of authority which was
+above challenge, asserting that the Son of Man had authority to forgive
+sins, was lord of the Sabbath, was greater than the temple or Jonah or
+Solomon. Moreover, in his positive teaching of the new truth he assumed
+such an authoritative tone that any who thought upon it could but remark
+the extraordinary claim involved in his simple "I say unto you." He wished
+also to win disciples to himself.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s134"><p><span class="versenum">134.</span> The key to the ministry in Galilee is furnished in Jesus' answer to
+the message from John the Baptist. John in prison had heard of the works
+of his successor. Jesus did so much that promised a fulfilment of the
+Messianic hope, yet left so much undone, contradicting in so many ways the
+current idea of a Messiah by his studied avoidance of any demonstration,
+that the older prophet felt a momentary doubt of the correctness of his
+earlier conviction. It is in no way strange that he experienced a reaction
+from that exalted moment of insight when he pointed out Jesus as the Lamb
+of God, particularly after his restless activity had been caged within the
+walls of his prison. Jesus showed that he did not count it strange, by his
+treatment of John's quesestion and by his words about John after the
+messengers had gone. Yet in his reply he gently suggested that the
+question already had its answer if John would but look rightly for it. He
+simply referred to the things that were being done before the eyes of all,
+and asked John to form from them a conclusion concerning him who did them.
+One aid he offered to the imprisoned prophet,--a word from the <a class="newpage" name="page126" id="page126" title="126"></a>Book of
+Isaiah (xxxv. 5f., lxi. 1f.),--and added a blessing for such as "should
+find nothing to stumble at in him." Here Jesus emphasized his works, and
+allowed his message to speak for itself; but he frankly indicated that he
+expected people to pass from wonder at his ministry to an opinion about
+himself. At C&aelig;sarea Philippi he showed to his disciples that this opinion
+about himself was the significant thing in his eyes. Throughout the
+ministry in Galilee, therefore, this twofold aim appears. Jesus would
+first divert attention from himself to his message, in order that he might
+win disciples to the kingdom of God as he conceived it. Having so attached
+them to his idea of the kingdom, he desired to be recognized as that
+kingdom's prince, the Messiah promised by God for his people. He retired
+behind his message in order that men might be drawn to the truth which he
+held dear, knowing that thus they would find themselves led captive to
+himself in a willing devotion.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s135"><p><span class="versenum">135.</span> This aim explains his retirement when popularity pressed, his
+exacting teaching about the spirituality of the kingdom of God, and his
+injunctions of silence. He wished to be known, to be thought about, to be
+accepted as God's anointed, but he would have this only by a genuine
+surrender to his leadership. His disciples must own him master and follow
+him, however much he might disappoint their misconceptions. This aim, too,
+explains his frank self-assertions and exalted personal claims in
+opposition to official criticism. He would not be false to his own sense
+of masterhood, nor allow people to think him bold when his critics were
+away, and cowardly in their presence. Therefore, when needful, he invited
+attention to him<a class="newpage" name="page127" id="page127" title="127"></a>self as greater than the temple or as lord of the
+Sabbath. This kind of self-assertion, however, served his purpose as well
+as his customary self-retirement, for it forced people to face the
+contradiction which he offered to the accepted religious ideas of their
+leaders.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s136"><p><span class="versenum">136.</span> The method which Jesus chose has already been repeatedly
+indicated,--teaching and preaching on the one hand, and works of
+helpfulness to men on the other. The character of the teaching of this
+period is shown in three discourses,--the Sermon on the Mount, the
+Discourse in Parables, and the Instructions to the Twelve. The sermon on
+the mount is given in different forms in Matthew and Luke, that in Matthew
+being evidently the more complete, even after deduction has been made of
+those parts which Luke has assigned with high probability to a later time.
+This address was spoken to the disciples of Jesus found among the
+multitudes who flocked to him from all quarters. It opened with words of
+congratulation for those who, characterized by qualities often despised,
+were yet heirs of God's kingdom. The thought then passed to the
+responsibility of such heirs of the kingdom for the help of a needy world.
+Next, since much in the words and works of Jesus hitherto might have
+suggested to men that he was indifferent to the older religion of his
+people, he carefully explained that he came, not to set aside the old, but
+to realize the spiritual idea for which it stood, by establishing a more
+exacting standard of righteousness. This more exacting righteousness Jesus
+illustrated by a series of restatements of the older law, and then by a
+group of criticisms of current religious practice. The sermon closed with
+warnings against complacent <a class="newpage" name="page128" id="page128" title="128"></a>censoriousness in judging other men's
+failures, and a solemn declaration of the vital seriousness of "these
+sayings of mine." The righteousness required by this new law is not only
+more exacting but unspeakably worthier than the old, being more simply
+manifested in common life, and demanding more intimate filial fellowship
+with the living God.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s137"><p><span class="versenum">137.</span> The teachings included in the sermon by the first gospel, but placed
+later by Luke, supplement the sermon by bidding God's child to lead a
+trustful life, knowing that the heavenly Father cares for him. That Luke
+has omitted much which from Matthew's account clearly belonged to the
+original sermon may be explained by the fact that Gentile readers did not
+share the interest which Jesus' hearers had, and which the readers of the
+first gospel had, in the relation of the new gospel to the older law.
+Hence the restatement of older commands and the criticism of current
+practice was omitted. Similar to the teachings which the first gospel has
+included in the sermon, are many which Luke has preserved in the section
+peculiar to himself. It is not unlikely that they belong also to the
+Galilean ministry. They urge the same sincere, reverent life in the sight
+of God, the same trust in the heavenly Father, the same certainty of his
+love and care; and they do not have that peculiar note of impending
+judgment which entered into the teachings of Jesus after the confession at
+C&aelig;sarea Philippi.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s138"><p><span class="versenum">138.</span> In the story of Mark, which is reproduced in the first and third
+gospels, the use of parable was first introduced in a way to attract the
+attention of the disciples, after pharisaic opposition to Jesus had become
+somewhat bitter and there was need of checking <a class="newpage" name="page129" id="page129" title="129"></a>a too speedy culmination
+of opposition. He chose at that time a form of parable which was enigmatic
+to his disciples, and could but further puzzle hearers who had no sympathy
+with him and his message. Mark (iv. 12) states that this perplexity was in
+accordance with the purpose of Jesus. But it is equally clear that Jesus
+meant to teach the teachable as well as to perplex the critical by these
+illustrations, for in explaining the Sower he suggested that the disciples
+should have understood it without explanation (Mark iv. 13). Many of
+Jesus' parables, however, had no such enigmatic character, but were
+intended simply to help his hearers to understand him. He made use of this
+kind of teaching from first to last. The pictures of the wise and foolish
+builders with which the sermon on the mount concludes show that it was not
+the use of illustration which surprised the disciples in the parables
+associated with the Sower, but his use of such puzzling illustrations.
+Some of the parables of Luke's peculiar section may belong to the Galilean
+ministry, and even to the earlier stages of it. These have none of the
+enigmatic character; the parables of the last days of Jesus' life also
+seem to have been simple and clear to his hearers. The Oriental mind
+prefers the concrete to the abstract, and its teachers have ever made
+large use of illustration. Jesus stands unique, not in that he used
+parables, but in the simplicity and effective beauty of those which he
+used. These illustrations, whether Jesus intended them for the moment to
+enlighten or to confound, served always to set forth concretely some truth
+concerning the relation of men to God, or concerning his kingdom and their
+relation to it. The form of teaching was welcome to his <a class="newpage" name="page130" id="page130" title="130"></a>hearers, and
+served as one of the attractions to draw men to him.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s139"><p><span class="versenum">139.</span> The first gospel assigns another extended discourse to this Galilean
+period,--the Instructions to the Twelve. The mission of the twelve formed
+a new departure as Jesus saw the Galilean crisis approaching. He sought
+thereby to multiply his own work, and commissioned his disciples to heal
+and preach as he was doing. The restriction of their field to Israel
+(Matt. x. 5, 6) simply applied to them the rule he adopted for himself
+during the Galilean period (Matt. xv. 24). Comparison with the accounts in
+Mark and Luke, as well as the character of the instructions found in
+Matthew, show that here the first evangelist has followed his habit of
+gathering together teachings on the same general theme from different
+periods in Jesus' life. Much in the tenth chapter of Matthew indicates
+clearly that the ministry of Jesus had already passed the period of
+popularity, and that his disciples could now look for little but scorn and
+persecution. This was the situation at the end of Jesus' public life, and
+parallel sayings are found in the record of the last week in Jerusalem.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s140"><p><span class="versenum">140.</span> When the teaching of the sermon and the parables is compared with
+Jesus' self-assertion in his replies to pharisaic criticism and blasphemy,
+the difference is striking. Ordinarily he avoided calling attention to
+himself, wishing men to form their opinion of him after they had learned
+to know him as he was. Yet when one looks beneath the surface of his
+teaching, the tone of authority which astonished the multitudes is
+identical with the calm self-confidence which replied to pharisaic
+censure: "The <a class="newpage" name="page131" id="page131" title="131"></a>Son of Man hath authority on the earth to forgive sins."</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s141"><p><span class="versenum">141.</span> Jesus drew the multitudes after him not only by his teachings, but
+also by his mighty works. He certainly was for his contemporaries a
+wonder-worker and healer of disease, and, in order to appreciate the
+impression which he made, the miracles recorded in the gospels must be
+allowed to reveal what they can of his character. The mighty works which
+enchained attention in Galilee were chiefly cures of disease, with
+occasional exhibitions of power over physical nature,--such as the
+stilling of the tempest and the feeding of the five thousand. The
+significant thing about them is their uniform beneficence of purpose and
+simplicity of method. Nothing of the spectacular attached itself to them.
+Jesus repeatedly refused to the critical Pharisees a sign from heaven.
+This was not because he disregarded the importance of signs for his
+generation,--witness his appeal to his works in the reply to John (Matt.
+xi. 4-6); but he felt that in his customary ministry to the needy
+multitudes he had furnished signs in abundance, for his deeds both gave
+evidence of heavenly power and revealed the character of the Father who
+had sent him.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s142"><p><span class="versenum">142.</span> One of the commonest of the ailments cured by Jesus is described in
+the gospels as demoniac possession, the popular idea being that evil
+spirits were accustomed to take up their abode in men, speaking with their
+tongues and acting through their bodies, at the same time afflicting them
+with various physical diseases. Six specific cures of such possession are
+recorded in the story of the Galilean ministry, besides general references
+to the cure of many that were pos<a class="newpage" name="page132" id="page132" title="132"></a>sessed. Of these specific cases the
+Gadarene demoniac shows symptoms of violent insanity; the boy cured near
+C&aelig;sarea Philippi, those of epilepsy; in other cases the disease was more
+local, showing itself in deafness, or blindness, or both. In the cures
+recorded Jesus addressed the possessed with a command to the invading
+demon to depart. He was ordinarily greeted, either before or after such a
+command, with a loud outcry, often accompanied with a recognition of him
+as God's Holy One.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s143"><p><span class="versenum">143.</span> The record of such maladies and their cure is not confined to the New
+Testament. The evil spirit which came upon King Saul is a similar case,
+and Josephus tells of Jewish exorcists who cured possessed persons by the
+use of incantations handed down from King Solomon. The early Christian
+fathers frequently argued the truth of Christianity from the way in which
+demons departed at the command of Christian exorcists, while in the middle
+ages and down to modern times belief in demoniac possession has been
+common, particularly among some of the more superstitious of the peasantry
+in Europe. Moreover, from missionaries in China and other eastern lands it
+is learned that diseases closely resembling the cases of possession
+recorded in the New Testament are frequently met with, and are often cured
+by native Christian ministers.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s144"><p><span class="versenum">144.</span> The similarity of the symptoms of so-called possession to recognized
+mental and physical derangements such as insanity, epilepsy, and hysteria,
+suggests the conclusion that possession should be classed with other
+ailments due to ill adjustment of the relations of the mental and physical
+life. If this conclu<a class="newpage" name="page133" id="page133" title="133"></a>sion is valid, the idea of actual possession by evil
+spirits becomes only an ancient effort to interpret the mysterious
+symptoms in accordance with wide-spread primitive beliefs. This
+explanation would doubtless be generally adopted were it not that it seems
+to compromise either the integrity or the knowledge of Jesus. The gospels
+plainly represent him as treating the supposed demoniac influence as real,
+addressing in his cures not the invalid, but the invading demon. If he did
+this knowing that the whole view was a superstition, was he true to his
+mission to release mankind from its bondage to evil and sin? If he shared
+the superstition of his time, had he the complete knowledge necessary to
+make him the deliverer he claimed to be? These questions are serious and
+difficult, but they form a part of the general problem of the extent of
+Jesus' knowledge, and can be more intelligently discussed in connection
+with that whole problem (sects. 249-251). It is reasonable to demand,
+however, that any conclusion reached concerning the nature of possession
+in the time of Jesus must be considered valid for similar manifestations
+of disease in our own day.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s145"><p><span class="versenum">145.</span> What astonished people in Jesus' cures was not so much that he healed
+the sick as that he did it with such evidence of personal authority. His
+cures and his teachings alike served to attract attention to himself and
+to invite question as to who he could be. Yet a far more powerful means to
+the end he had in view was the subtle, unobtrusive, personal influence
+which without their knowledge knit the hearts of a few to himself. In
+reality both his teaching and his cures were only means of
+self-disclosure. His permanent work during this Galilean period was the
+winning <a class="newpage" name="page134" id="page134" title="134"></a>of personal friends. His chief agency in accomplishing his work
+was what Renan somewhat too romantically has called his "charm." It was
+that in him which drew to his side and kept with him the fishermen of
+Galilee and the publican of Capernaum, during months of constant
+disappointment of their preconceived religious ideas and Messianic hopes;
+it was that which won the confidence of the woman who was a sinner, and
+the constant devotion of Mary Magdalene and Susanna and the others who
+followed him "and ministered to him of their substance." The outstanding
+wonder of early Christianity is the complete transformation not only of
+life but of established religious ideas by the personal impress of Jesus
+on a Peter, a John, and a Paul. The secret of the new element of the
+Christian religion--salvation through personal attachment to Jesus
+Christ--is simply this personal power of the man of Nazareth. The
+multitudes followed because they saw wonderful works or heard wonderful
+words; many because they hoped at length to find in the new prophet the
+champion of their hopes in deliverance from Roman bondage. But these
+sooner or later fell away, disappointed in their desire to use the new
+leader for their own ends. It was only because from out the multitudes
+there were a few who could answer, "To whom shall we go? thou hast the
+words of eternal life," when Jesus asked, "Will ye also go away?" that the
+work in Galilee did not end in complete failure. These few had felt his
+personal power, and they became the nucleus of a new religion of love to a
+personal Saviour.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s146"><p><span class="versenum">146.</span> The test of the personal attachment of the few came shortly after the
+execution of John the Baptist <a class="newpage" name="page135" id="page135" title="135"></a>by Antipas. Word of this tragedy was
+brought to Jesus by John's disciples about the time that he and the twelve
+returned to Capernaum from their tour of preaching. At the suggestion of
+Jesus they withdrew to the eastern side of the lake in search of rest. It
+is not unlikely that the little company also wished to avoid for the time
+the territory of the tyrant who had just put John to death, for Jesus was
+not yet ready for the crisis of his own life. Such a desire for seclusion
+would be intensified by the continued impetuous enthusiasm of the
+multitudes who flocked about him again in Capernaum. In fact, so insistent
+was their interest in Jesus that they would not allow him the quiet he
+sought, but followed around the lake in great numbers when they learned
+that he had taken ship for the other side. He who came not to be
+ministered unto but to minister could not repel the crowds who came to
+him, and he at once "welcomed them, and spake to them of the kingdom of
+God, and them that had need of healing he healed" (Luke ix. 11). The day
+having passed in this ministry, he multiplied the small store of bread and
+fish brought by his disciples in order to feed the weary people. This work
+of power seemed to some among the multitudes to be the last thing needed
+to prove that Jesus was to be their promised deliverer, and they "were
+about to come and take him by force and make him king" (John vi. 15), when
+he withdrew from them and spent the night in prayer.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s147"><p><span class="versenum">147.</span> This sudden determination on the part of the multitudes to force the
+hand of Jesus was probably due to the prevalence of an idea, found also in
+the later rabbinic writers, that the Messiah should feed his <a class="newpage" name="page136" id="page136" title="136"></a>people as
+Moses had provided them manna in the desert. The rebuff which Jesus
+quietly gave them did not cool their ardor, until on the following day, in
+the synagogue in Capernaum, he plainly taught them that they had quite
+missed the significance of his miracle. They thought of loaves and
+material sustenance. He would have had them find in these a sign that he
+could also supply their spirits' need, and he insisted that this, and this
+alone, was his actual mission. From the first the popular enthusiasm had
+had to ignore many contradictions of its cherished notions. But his power
+and the indescribable force of his personality had served hitherto to hold
+them to a hope that he would soon discard the perplexing r&ocirc;le which he had
+chosen for the time to assume, and take up avowedly the proper work of the
+Messiah. This last refusal to accept what seemed to them to be his evident
+duty caused a revulsion in the popular feeling, and "many of his disciples
+turned back and walked no more with him" (John vi. 66). The time of
+sifting had come. Jesus had known that such a rash determination to make
+him king was possible to the Galilean multitudes, and that whenever it
+should come it must be followed by a disillusionment. Now the open
+ministry had run its course. As the multitudes were turning back and
+walking no more with him, he turned to the twelve with the question, "Will
+ye also go away?" and found that with them his method had borne fruit.
+They clung to him in spite of disillusionment, for in him they had found
+what was better than their preconceptions.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s148"><p><span class="versenum">148.</span> It is the fourth gospel that shows clearly the critical significance
+of this event. The others tell <a class="newpage" name="page137" id="page137" title="137"></a>nothing of the sudden determination of the
+multitude, nor of the revulsion of feeling that followed Jesus' refusal to
+yield to their will. Yet these other gospels indicate in their narratives
+that from this time on Jesus avoided the scenes of his former labors, and
+show that when from time to time he returned to the neighborhood of
+Capernaum he was met by such a spirit of hostility that he withdrew again
+immediately to regions where he and his disciples could have time for
+quiet intercourse.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s149"><p><span class="versenum">149.</span> The months of toil in Galilee show results hardly more significant
+than the grain of mustard seed or the little leaven. Popular enthusiasm
+had risen, increased, reached its climax, and waned. Official opposition
+had early been aroused, and had continued with a steadily deepened
+intensity. The wonderful teaching with authority, and the signs wrought on
+them that were sick, had been as seed sown by the wayside or in thorny or
+in stony ground, except for the little handful of hearers who had felt the
+personal power of Jesus and had surrendered to it, ready henceforth to
+follow where he should lead, whether or not it should be in a path of
+their choice. These, however, were the proof that those months had been a
+time of rewarded toil.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<div class="chapter" id="p02-04">
+<h2><a class="newpage" name="page138" id="page138" title="138"></a>IV</h2>
+
+<h3>The Ministry in Galilee--The New Lesson</h3>
+
+
+
+<div class="section" id="s150"><p><span class="versenum">150.</span> With the crisis in Capernaum the ministry in Galilee may be said in
+one sense to have come to an end. Yet Jesus did not immediately go up to
+Jerusalem. Once and again he was found in or near Capernaum, while the
+time between these visits was spent in regions to the north and northwest.
+In fact, the disciples were far from ready for the trial their loyalty was
+to meet before they had seen the end of the opposition to their Lord. The
+time intervening between the collapse of popularity and Jesus' final
+departure from Galilee may well be thought of, then, as a time of further
+discipline of the faith of his followers and of added instruction
+concerning the truth for which their Master stood. The length of this
+supplementary period in Galilee is not definitely known. It extended from
+the Passover to about the feast of Tabernacles (April to October, see John
+vi. 4 and vii. 2). The record of what Jesus did and said in this time is
+meagre, only enough being reported to show that it was a time of repeated
+withdrawals from Galilee and of private instruction for the disciples.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s151"><p><span class="versenum">151.</span> The disciples were trained in faith by further exhibitions of the
+complete break between their Master and the leaders of the people. This
+break appeared <a class="newpage" name="page139" id="page139" title="139"></a>most clearly, soon after the feeding of the multitudes, in
+his reply to a criticism of the disciples for disregard of pharisaic
+traditions concerning hand-washing (Mark vii. 1-23). The critics insisted
+on the sacredness of their traditions. Jesus in reply scored them for
+disregard for the plain demands of God's law, and with a word freed men
+from bondage to the whole ritual of ceremonial cleanness and uncleanness
+(Mark vii. 19), thus attacking Judaism in its citadel.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s152"><p><span class="versenum">152.</span> It was immediately after this that he withdrew with his disciples to
+the regions of Tyre. On his return a little later to the west side of the
+sea of Galilee he was met by hostile Pharisees with a demand for a sign
+(Mark viii. 11-13), and after refusing to satisfy the unbelieving
+challenge,--signs in plenty having been before their eyes since the
+opening of his work among them,--he and his disciples withdrew again from
+Galilee towards C&aelig;sarea Philippi. As they went on their way, Jesus
+distinctly warned them against the influence of their leaders, religious
+and political (Mark viii. 14f.). So far as our records tell us Jesus was
+but once again in Capernaum. Then he was met with the demand that he pay
+the temple tax (Matt. xvii. 24-27). This tax was usually collected just
+before the Passover. As this last visit to Capernaum was probably not far
+from the feast of Tabernacles, Jesus seems to have been in arrears. This
+may have been due to his absence from Capernaum at the time of the
+collection. The prompt answer of Peter may indicate that he knew that in
+other years Jesus had paid this tax, as it is altogether probable that he
+did. The question, however, implies official suspicion that Jesus was
+seeking to evade pay<a class="newpage" name="page140" id="page140" title="140"></a>ment, and exhibits further the straining of the
+relations between him and the Jewish leaders. The conversation of Jesus
+with Peter served to show his clear consciousness of superiority, and was
+a further summons to the disciples to choose between him and his
+opponents.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s153"><p><span class="versenum">153.</span> Within the limits of the Holy Land the faith of the disciples had
+been constantly tested by the increasing opposition between their master
+and their old leaders. When the little company withdrew to Gentile
+regions, however, Jesus had regard for their Jewish feeling. The time
+would come when he would send them forth to make disciples of all the
+nations. For the present he made it his business to nurture their faith in
+him, and when appealed to for help by one of these foreigners, he refused
+to "take the children's bread and cast it to the dogs" (Mark vii. 27).
+Jesus had assumed a different attitude to the Samaritans before the
+opening of his work in Galilee, and in general had shown ready sympathy
+for all in distress. In fact it seems as if he welcomed the Syroph&oelig;nician
+woman's great faith with a feeling of relief from a restriction that he
+had felt it wise to adopt for his work in Ph&oelig;nicia. It appears from his
+later attitude in the Gentile regions of the Decapolis (Mark vii. 31-37;
+Matt. xv. 21-31) that, having once shown his regard for the limitations of
+his disciples' faith in the case of the Syroph&oelig;nician, he felt no longer
+obliged to check his natural readiness to help the needy who sought him
+out. Although in one instance, for reasons no longer known to us, Jesus
+charged a man whom he had cured to keep it secret (Mark vii. 32-37), in
+general his work in these heathen regions seems, after <a class="newpage" name="page141" id="page141" title="141"></a>the visit to
+Ph&oelig;nicia, to have been quite unrestrained, and to have produced the same
+enthusiasm that had earlier brought the multitudes to him in Galilee (Mark
+viii. 1f.).</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s154"><p><span class="versenum">154.</span> This continued activity of healing must have served greatly to
+strengthen the determination of the disciples to cling to Jesus, let the
+leaders say what they would. We can only conjecture what various teachings
+filled the days, and what personal fellowship the disciples had with him
+who spake as never man spake. There was need for advance in the faith of
+these loyal friends. Their enthusiastic declaration when the multitudes
+turned away could easily have been followed by reaction. Each new
+exhibition of the irrevocableness of the break between Jesus and the
+leaders was a severe test of their loyalty. These weeks of withdrawal were
+doubtless filled, therefore, with new proofs that Jesus had the words of
+eternal life.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s155"><p><span class="versenum">155.</span> Before he put to his disciples the crucial question, he who knew what
+was in man (John ii. 25) was confident that they were ready for it. It was
+after the rebuff in Galilee, when the unbelieving Pharisees had again
+demanded a sign of his authority, and after he had definitely warned the
+disciples against the influence of their leaders, that Jesus led his
+little company far to the north towards the slopes of Hermon. There, near
+the recently built C&aelig;sarea Philippi, Jesus plainly asked his disciples
+what the people thought of him (Mark viii. 27-30). We have seen how
+gradually sentiment in Galilee concerning the new teacher crystallized
+until, from thinking him a prophet, the people, first timidly, then
+boldly, con<a class="newpage" name="page142" id="page142" title="142"></a>cluded that such a teacher and worker of signs must be the
+promised king. We have seen also how the popular estimate changed when
+Jesus refused to be guided by the popular will. Now, after the lapse of a
+few weeks, in answer to his inquiry concerning the common opinion of him,
+he is told that the people look on him as a prophet, in whom the spirit of
+the men of old had been revived; but not a whisper remains of the former
+readiness to hail him as the Messiah. It was in the face of such a
+definite revulsion in the popular feeling, in the face, too, of the
+increasing hostility of all the great in the nation, that Peter answered
+for the twelve that they believed Jesus to be the Messiah, God's appointed
+Deliverer of his people (Matt. xvi. 16 ff.). In form this confession was
+no more than Nathanael had rendered on his first meeting with Jesus (John
+i. 49), and was practically the same as the report made by Andrew to Simon
+his brother, and by Philip to Nathanael (John i. 41, 45). In both idea and
+expression the reply to Jesus' question, "Will ye also go away?" (John vi.
+68, 69), was virtually equivalent to this later confession of Peter. Yet
+Jesus found in Peter's answer at C&aelig;sarea Philippi something so significant
+and remarkable that he declared that the faith that could answer thus
+could spring only from a heavenly source (Matt. xvi. 17). The early
+confessions were in fact no more than expressions of more or less
+intelligent expectation that Jesus would fulfil the confessor's hopes. The
+confession at Capernaum followed one of Jesus' mightiest exhibitions of
+power, and was given before the disciples had had time to consider the
+extent of the defection from their Master. Here at C&aelig;sarea Philippi,
+however, the <a class="newpage" name="page143" id="page143" title="143"></a>word was spoken immediately after an acknowledgment that the
+people had no more thought of finding in Jesus their Messiah. It was
+spoken after the disciples had had repeated evidence of the determined
+hostility of the leaders to Jesus. All the disappointment he had given to
+their cherished ideas was emphasized by the isolation in which the little
+company now found itself. One after another their ideas of how a Messiah
+should act and what he should be had received contradiction in what Jesus
+was and did. Yet after the weeks of withdrawal from Galilee, Peter could
+only in effect assert anew what he had declared at Capernaum,--that Jesus
+had the words of eternal life. It was a faith chastened by perplexity, and
+taught at length to follow the Lord let him lead where he would. It was an
+actual surrender to his mastery over thought and life. Here at length
+Jesus had won what he had been seeking during all his work in Galilee,--a
+corner-stone on which to build up the new community of the kingdom of God.
+Peter was the first to confess openly to this simple surrender to the full
+mastery of Jesus. He was the first stone in the foundation of the new
+"building of God."</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s156"><p><span class="versenum">156.</span> In his commendation of Peter Jesus revealed the secret of his method
+in the work which, because of this confession, he could now proceed to do
+more rapidly. He cuts loose utterly from the method of the scribes. He,
+the new teacher, commits to them no body of teaching which they are to
+give to others as the key to eternal life. The salvation they are to
+preach is a salvation by personal attachment; that is, by faith. The rock
+on which he will build his church is personal attachment, faith that is
+ready to leave all <a class="newpage" name="page144" id="page144" title="144"></a>and follow him. Peter, not the substance of his
+confession, was its corner-stone, but Peter, as the first clear confessor
+of a faith that is ready to leave all, a faith whose very nature it is to
+be contagious, and associate with itself others of "like precious faith."
+His faith was as yet meagre, as he showed at once; but it was genuine, the
+surrender of his heart to his Lord's guidance and control. This was the
+distinctive mark of the new religious life inaugurated by Jesus of
+Nazareth.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s157"><p><span class="versenum">157.</span> If anything were needed to prove that the idea that he was the
+Messiah was no new thought to Jesus, it could be found in the new lesson
+which he at once began to teach his disciples. The confession of Peter
+indicated to him simply that the first stage in his work had been
+accomplished. He immediately began to prepare the disciples for the end
+which for some time past he had seen to be inevitable. He taught them more
+than that his death was inevitable; he declared that it was divinely
+necessary that he should be put to death as a result of the hostility of
+the Jews to him ("the Son of Man must suffer"). All the contradictions
+which he had offered to the Messianic ideas of his disciples paled into
+insignificance beside this one. When they saw how he failed to meet the
+hopes that were commonly held, they needed only to urge themselves to
+patience, expecting that in time he would cast off the strange mask and
+take to himself his power and reign. But it was too much for the late
+confessed and very genuine faith of Peter to hear that the Messiah must
+die. So unthinkable was the idea, that he assumed that Jesus had become
+unduly discouraged by the relentlessness of the opposition which <a class="newpage" name="page145" id="page145" title="145"></a>had
+driven him first out of Judea and later out of Galilee. Accordingly Peter
+sought to turn his Master's mind to a brighter prospect, asserting that
+his forebodings could not be true. It is hard for us to conceive the chill
+of heart which must have followed the glow of his confession when he heard
+the stern rebuke of Jesus, who found in Peter's later words the voice of
+the Evil One, as before in his confession he had recognized the Spirit of
+God.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s158"><p><span class="versenum">158.</span> The sternness of Jesus' rebuke escapes extravagance only in view of
+the fact that the words of Peter had greatly affected Jesus himself. At
+the outset of his public life he had faced the difficulty of doing the
+Messiah's work in his Father's way, and had withstood the temptation to
+accommodate himself to the ideas of his world, declaring allegiance to God
+alone (Matt. iv. 10). Yet once and again in the course of his ministry he
+showed that this allegiance cost him much. Luke reports a saying in which
+Jesus confessed that, in view of this prospect of death which Peter was
+opposing so eagerly, he was greatly "straitened" (xii. 50), and at the
+near approach of the end "his soul was exceeding sorrowful" (Mark xiv.
+34). It should never be forgotten that Jesus was a Jew, and heir to all
+the Messianic ideas of his people. In these, glory, not rejection and
+death, was to be the Messiah's portion. That he was always superior to
+current expectations is no sign that he did not feel their force. They
+quite mistake who find the bitterness of Jesus' "cup" simply in his
+physical shrinking from suffering. The temptation was ever with him to
+find some other way to the goal of his work than that which led through
+death. What Peter said hid a force greater <a class="newpage" name="page146" id="page146" title="146"></a>than any word of the
+disciple's. It voiced the crucial temptation of Jesus' life. The answer
+addressed to Peter showed that his words had drawn the thought of Jesus
+away from the disciple to that earlier temptation which was never absent
+from him more than "for a season" (Luke iv. 13).</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s159"><p><span class="versenum">159.</span> Jesus was not content with a mere rebuke of his impulsive disciple.
+In his first announcement of his death as necessary he had also declared
+that it would not be a tragedy, but would be followed by a resurrection.
+This the disciples could not appreciate, as they found the idea of the
+Messiah's death unthinkable. Jesus, however, saw in it the general law,
+that life must ever win its goal by disregard of itself, and called his
+disciples also to walk in the path of self-sacrifice. In order that the
+new lesson might not quite overwhelm the yet feeble faith of these
+followers, Jesus assured them that after his death and resurrection he
+would come as Messianic Judge and fulfil the hopes which his prediction of
+death seemed to blot out utterly (Mark viii. 34 to ix. 1).</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s160"><p><span class="versenum">160.</span> That this new lesson was a difficult one for master as well as
+disciple seems to be shown by the experience which came a few days later
+to Jesus and his three closest friends. He had withdrawn with them to a
+"high mountain" for prayer (Luke ix. 28f.). While he prayed the light of
+heaven came into his face, and his disciples were granted a vision of him
+in celestial glory, conversing with Moses and Elijah, representatives of
+Old Testament law and prophecy. The theme of the discourse was that death
+which had so troubled the disciples, and which then and later weighed
+heavily on Jesus' own spirit (Luke ix. 31). <a class="newpage" name="page147" id="page147" title="147"></a>At the conclusion of the
+vision came a divine injunction to hear him who now was superseding law
+and prophets. The effect of the transfiguration can only be inferred. It
+doubtless brought strengthening to Jesus for his difficult task (compare
+Heb. v. 7), and at least a silencing of remonstrance when he spoke again
+to his disciples of his approaching death. This he did while the little
+company was making its way back towards Capernaum (Mark ix. 30-32), and
+repeatedly later before the end came (Mark x. 32-34; Matt. xxvi. 1f.).</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s161"><p><span class="versenum">161.</span> On Jesus' return from the mountain, he was met by the despairing plea
+of a father and healed his epileptic son, out of whom the disciples were
+unable to cast the demon (Mark ix. 14-29; compare vi. 7, 13). It may have
+been the shock which the new lesson had given the disciples that accounted
+for the reproof of their lack of faith. The new evidence of Jesus' power,
+coupled with this reproof, seems to have restored their confidence in him.
+Perhaps, too, there was something contagious about the spirit of hope with
+which the three came from their vision of the Master's glory. For,
+although they were not free to tell what they had seen (Mark ix. 9), they
+could not have concealed the fact that their faith had received great
+encouragement. Whatever the cause, hope revived for the disciples, for on
+the way back to Capernaum a dispute arose among them concerning personal
+precedence in the kingdom which their Master should soon set up. In this
+rapid reaction from unbelief to faith the disciples seem to have forgotten
+the lesson of self-denial recently given them (Mark viii. 34, 35). In
+Peter's confession the corner-stone of the church <a class="newpage" name="page148" id="page148" title="148"></a>was laid; but the
+superstructure was yet far out of sight. Although his own soul, taking its
+way down into the valley of shadows, might rightly have asked for sympathy
+and complained of its lack, Jesus simply set a little child in the midst
+of them, and taught them again the first lessons of faith,--gentle
+humility and trust. Thereby he rebuked the spirit of rivalry and asked of
+his disciples a generous, unselfish, and forgiving spirit (Matt, xviii.
+1-35).</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s162"><p><span class="versenum">162.</span> It was possibly at this time, certainly near the end of the Galilean
+ministry, that Jesus was approached by his own brethren, who urged him to
+try to win the capital. Their attitude was not one of indifference, though
+clearly not one of actual faith in his claim (John vii. 2-5). They seem to
+have felt that Jesus had not made adequate effort to secure a following in
+Jerusalem, and that he could not hope for success in his work if he
+continued to confine his attention to Galilee. Jesus knew conditions in
+Jerusalem far better than they did, and had no idea as yet of resuming a
+general ministry there. He therefore dismissed the suggestion, and left
+his brethren to go up to the feast disappointed in their desire that he
+make a demonstration at that time. Yet Jesus still yearned over Jerusalem.
+He knew in what organized opposition a general demonstration would result.
+There were some, however, in the capital who had real faith in him. His
+repeated efforts to win Jerusalem mean nothing if we do not recognize that
+he hoped against hope that many of the people might yet turn and let him
+lead them. With some such purpose, therefore, he went up a little later
+without ostentation, and quietly appeared in the temple teaching. The
+effect <a class="newpage" name="page149" id="page149" title="149"></a>of this unannounced arrival was that the opposition was not ready
+for him. The multitude was compelled to form an opinion of him for itself,
+and he had opportunity to make his own impression for a time,
+independently of official suggestion as to what ought to be thought of
+him. This course resulted in a division of sentiment among the people, so
+much so that when the leaders, both secular and religious, sought to
+compass his arrest, the officers sent to take Jesus were themselves
+entranced by his teaching. In spite of the wish of the leaders Jesus
+continued to teach, and many of the people began to think of him with
+favor. When, however, he tried to lead them on to become "disciples
+indeed," they took offence, and showed that they were not ready yet to
+follow him. This effort to "gather the children of Jerusalem" resulted in
+new proof that they preferred his death to his message (John vii. 2 to
+viii. 59).</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s163"><p><span class="versenum">163.</span> Interesting evidence of the fact that "Jesus did many other signs
+which are not written" in our accepted gospels is found in the story of
+his dealing with an adulteress whom the Pharisees brought to him for
+judgment (John vii. 53 to viii. 11). This narrative had no secure place in
+any of the gospels in the earliest days, yet was so highly regarded that
+men would not let it go. Hence in the manuscripts which contain it, it is
+found in various places. Some give it in Luke after chapter xxi., some at
+the end of the Gospel of John, one placing it after John vii. 36. Many
+considerations combine to prove that it was no part of the Gospel of John,
+but as many show that it preserves a true incident in the ministry of
+Jesus. In scene it belongs to the temple, therefore in time to <a class="newpage" name="page150" id="page150" title="150"></a>one of the
+Jerusalem visits. To which of those visits it should he assigned is not
+now discoverable. The ancient copyists who assigned it to this feast of
+Tabernacles, chose as well as later students can. If the incident belongs
+to this visit, it illustrates the patience and the keen insight of Jesus
+in his effort to win self-satisfied Jerusalem.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s164"><p><span class="versenum">164.</span> John is silent concerning the doings of Jesus after the feast of
+Tabernacles. In x. 22 he notes that Jesus was at Jerusalem at the feast of
+Dedication, which followed two months later. It seems probable that after
+his hurried and private journey to the feast of Tabernacles (John vii. 10)
+he returned to Galilee and gathered to himself again the little company of
+his loyal followers, preparatory to that final journey to Jerusalem which
+should bring the end foreseen, unless, perchance, Israel should yet repent
+and turn unto the Lord. As the shadow deepened over his own life, and the
+persistency of the unbelief of his people appeared more and more clearly,
+the teachings of Jesus took on a new note of tragedy which was not
+characteristic of the earlier preaching in Galilee. Even when his topic
+was similar and his treatment of it not unlike some earlier discourse,
+there appeared in it here and there a warning of impending judgment. This
+is seen as early as the reply to the criticism of the disciples for
+disregard of traditions (Matt. xv. 13f.). Many discourses in the section
+peculiar to Luke show by the presence of this note of doom that they
+belong to this later time rather than to the Galilean period proper. (See
+the table prefixed to Chapter V.)</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s165"><p><span class="versenum">165.</span> Two years had nearly passed since Jesus withdrew from Judea to start
+his ministry anew in a differ<a class="newpage" name="page151" id="page151" title="151"></a>ent region and following a different method.
+The fruit of that ministry was small, but significant. His proclamation of
+the coming kingdom and his call to a deeper righteousness, coupled as they
+were with his works of heavenly power, had won at first an enthusiastic
+following. Realizing that an uncontrolled enthusiasm would thwart his
+purpose to introduce a kingdom of the spirit, Jesus had kept his Messianic
+claim in the background, seeking first to win disciples to the kingdom
+that he was proclaiming. Yet emphasize his message as he would, he could
+not conceal his personal significance. In fact he wished by winning
+disciples to his doctrine of the kingdom to attach followers to himself,
+the bearer of the words of eternal life. The great development of popular
+enthusiasm did not deceive him, nor did he hesitate, when the multitude
+would force him to do its will, to show clearly how far he was from being
+a fulfiller of their desires. By successive disappointments of the popular
+ideas he sifted his followers until a few were ready to follow him
+whithersoever he might lead. With these he allowed time for the fact of
+his unpopularity to appear, giving them opportunity to consider the
+relentless hostility of their national leaders to the teacher from
+Galilee. Then when the time was ripe he drew from the loyal few their
+declaration that they would follow him in spite of disappointments and
+unpopularity, their confession that he had come to be to them more than
+their cherished preconceptions, that he had won the mastery over their
+thought and life. He began then to prepare them for the end he had long
+foreseen, and at length, after giving them time for that perplexing
+mystery to find place in their <a class="newpage" name="page152" id="page152" title="152"></a>hearts, he was ready to move on toward the
+crisis which he knew his public appearance in Jerusalem would precipitate.
+Before setting out on this journey his desire still to seek to win
+Jerusalem, if perchance it would repent, led him to visit the capital
+unannounced at the feast of Tabernacles. This taught him that, however
+ready some might be superficially to believe in him, he could as yet win
+in Jerusalem only hatred and plots against his life, and he returned to
+his faithful friends in Galilee.</p></div></div>
+<div class="chapter" id="p02-05">
+<div class="outline">
+<h2><a class="newpage" name="page153" id="page153" title="153"></a>   Outline of Events in the Journey through Perea to Jerusalem</h2>
+
+
+<p>   The final departure from Galilee--Matt. xix. 1, 2; viii. 19-22; Mark x.
+   1; Luke ix. 51-62.</p>
+
+<p>   The mission of the seventy--Matt. xi. 20-30; Luke x. 1-24.</p>
+
+<p>   The visit to the feast of Dedication--John ix. 1 to x. 39.</p>
+
+<p>   Possibly at this time: The parable of the Good Samaritan--Luke x.
+   25-37. The visit to Mary and Martha--Luke x. 38-42.</p>
+
+<p>   Return to Perea--John x. 40-42.</p>
+
+<p>   The visit to Bethany and the raising of Lazarus--John xi. 1-46.</p>
+
+<p>   The withdrawal to Ephraim--John xi. 47-54.</p>
+
+<p>   Events connected with the last journey to Jerusalem, which cannot be
+   more definitely located:</p>
+
+<p>   The question whether few are saved--Luke xiii. 22-30.</p>
+
+<p>   Reply to the warning against Herod, probably near the close--Luke xiii.
+   31-35.</p>
+
+<p>   The cure of ten lepers--Luke xvii. 11-19.</p>
+
+<p>   The question of the Pharisees concerning divorce--Matt. xix. 3-12; Mark
+   x. 2-12.
+
+</p>
+
+<p>   The blessing of little children--Matt. xix. 13-15; Mark x. 13-16; Luke
+   xviii. 15-17.</p>
+
+<p>   The question of the rich young ruler--Matt. xix. 16 to xx. 16; Mark x.
+   17-31; Luke xviii. 18-30.</p>
+
+<p>   The third prediction of death and resurrection--Matt xx. 17-19; Mark x.
+   32-34; Luke xviii. 31-34.</p>
+
+<p>   The ambitious request of the sons of Zebedee--Matt. xx. 20-28; Mark x.
+   35-45.</p>
+
+<p>   The last stage, Jericho to Jerusalem:</p>
+
+<p>   The blind men near Jericho--Matt. xx. 29-34; Mark x. 46-52; Luke xviii.
+   35-43.</p>
+
+<p><a class="newpage" name="page154" id="page154" title="154"></a>   The visit to Zacch&aelig;us--Luke xix. 1-10.</p>
+
+<p>   The parable of the pounds (min&aelig;)--Luke xix. 11-28. Events and
+   discourses found in Luke ix. 51 to xviii. 14, which probably belong
+   after the confession of Peter, and very likely to some stage of the
+   journey to Jerusalem:</p>
+
+<p>   Woes against the Pharisees, uttered at a Pharisee's table--Luke xi.
+   37-54.</p>
+
+<p>   Warnings against the spirit of pharisaism--Luke xii. 1-59.</p>
+
+<p>   Comment on the slaughter of Galileans by Pilate--Luke xiii. 1-9.</p>
+
+<p>   Discourse on counting the cost of discipleship--Luke xiv. 25-35.</p>
+
+<p>   Discourse on the coming of the kingdom--Luke xvii. 20-37.</p>
+
+<p>   Parable of the Unjust Judge--Luke xviii. 1-8.</p>
+
+<p>   Parable of the Pharisee and the Publican--Luke xviii. 9-14.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+<h2>V</h2>
+
+<h3>The Journey through Perea to Jerusalem</h3>
+
+
+
+<div class="section" id="s166"><p><span class="versenum">166.</span> The fourth gospel says that after the visit to Jerusalem at the feast
+of Dedication Jesus withdrew beyond Jordan to the place where John at the
+first was baptizing (x. 40). Matthew and Mark also say that at the close
+of the ministry in Galilee Jesus departed and came into the borders of
+Judea and beyond Jordan, and that in this new region the multitudes again
+flocked to him, and he resumed his ministry of teaching (Matt. xix. 1f.;
+Mark x. 1). What he did and taught at this time is not shown at all by
+John, and only in scant fashion by the other two. They tell of a
+discussion with the Pharisees concerning divorce (Mark x. 2-12); of the
+welcome extended by Jesus to certain little children (Mark x. 13-16); of
+the disappointment of a rich young ruler, who wished to learn <a class="newpage" name="page155" id="page155" title="155"></a>from Jesus
+the way of life, but loved better his great possessions (Mark x. 17-31);
+of a further manifestation of the unlovely spirit of rivalry among the
+disciples in the request of James and John for the best places in the
+kingdom (Mark x. 35-45),--a request following in the records directly
+after another prediction by Jesus of his death and resurrection (Mark x.
+32-34). Then, after a visit to Jericho (Luke xviii. 35 to xix. 28), these
+records come into coincidence with John in the account of the Messianic
+entry into Jerusalem just before the last Passover.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s167"><p><span class="versenum">167.</span> The fourth gospel tells in addition of a considerable activity of
+Jesus in and near Jerusalem during this period. In making the journey
+beyond Jordan start from Jerusalem (x. 40), John shows that Jesus must
+have returned to the capital after his withdrawal from the feast of
+Tabernacles. When and how this took place is not indicated. Later, after
+his retirement from the feast of Dedication Jesus hastened at the summons
+of his friends from beyond Jordan to Bethany when Lazarus died (xi. 1-7).
+From Bethany he went not to the other side of Jordan again, but to Ephraim
+(xi. 54), a town on the border between Judea and Samaria, and from there
+he started towards Jerusalem when the Passover drew near. This record of
+John has, as Dr. Sanday has recently remarked (HastBD II. 630), so many
+marks of verisimilitude that it must be accepted as a true tradition. It
+demands thus that in our conception of the last journey from Galilee room
+be found for several excursions to Jerusalem or its neighborhood. One of
+these at least--to the feast of Dedication (x. 22)--represents another
+effort to "gather the children of Jerusalem." <a class="newpage" name="page156" id="page156" title="156"></a>While not without success,
+for at least the blind man restored by Jesus gave him the full faith he
+sought (ix. 35-38), it showed with fuller clearness the determined
+hostility to Jesus of the influential class (x. 39).</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s168"><p><span class="versenum">168.</span> It has been customary to find in the long section peculiar to Luke
+(ix. 51 to xviii. 14) a fuller account of the Perean ministry, as it has
+been called. For it opens with a final departure from Galilee, and comes
+at its close into parallelism with the record of Matthew and Mark. Yet
+some parts of this section in Luke belong in the earlier Galilean
+ministry. The blasphemy of the Pharisees (xi. 14-36) is clearly identical
+with the incident recorded in Mark iii. 22-30, and Matt. xii. 22-45; while
+several incidents and discourses (see outline prefixed to Chapter III.)
+bear so plainly the marks of the ministry before the revulsion of popular
+favor, that it is easiest to think of them as actually belonging to the
+earlier time, but assigned by Luke to this peculiar section because he
+found no clear place offered for them in the record of Mark. Not a little,
+however, of what Luke records here manifestly belongs to the time when
+Jesus referred openly to his rejection by the Jewish people. The note of
+tragedy characteristic of later discourses appears in the replies of Jesus
+to certain would-be disciples (ix. 57-62), and in his warning that his
+followers count the cost of discipleship (xiv. 25-35). The woes spoken at
+a Pharisee's table (xi. 37-52), the warning to the disciples against
+pharisaism (xii. 1-12), and the encouragement of the "little flock" (xii.
+22-34), with many other paragraphs from this part of the gospel (see
+outline at the head of this chapter), evidently were spoken <a class="newpage" name="page157" id="page157" title="157"></a>at the time
+of the approaching end. Some narratives reflect the neighborhood of
+Jerusalem, and naturally corroborate the indications in the fourth gospel
+that Jesus was repeatedly at the capital during this time. The parable of
+the good Samaritan, for instance, must have been spoken in Judea, else why
+choose the road from Jerusalem to Jericho for the illustration? The visit
+to Mary and Martha shows Jesus at Bethany, and the parable of the Pharisee
+and the Publican, naming the temple as the place of prayer, belongs
+naturally to Judea.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s169"><p><span class="versenum">169.</span> The effort to find the definite progress of events in this part of
+Luke has not been successful. There are three hints of movement towards
+Jerusalem,--the introductory mention of the departure from Galilee (ix.
+51); a statement that Jesus went on his way through cities and villages,
+journeying on unto Jerusalem (xiii. 22); and again a reference to passing
+through the midst of Samaria and Galilee on the way to Jerusalem (xvii.
+11). The attempt to make the third of these belong actually to the last
+stages of the final journey seems artificial. Confessedly the expression
+"through the midst of Samaria and Galilee" is obscure. It is much easier
+to understand, however, if the journey so described is identified with the
+visit to Samaria with which the departure from Galilee opened. It seems
+probable that Luke found these records of events and teachings in Jesus'
+life, and was unable to learn exactly their connection in time and place,
+so placed them after the close of the Galilean story and before the
+account of the passion, much as later some copyist found the story of the
+adulteress (John vii. 53 to viii. 11), and, certain that <a class="newpage" name="page158" id="page158" title="158"></a>it was a true
+incident, gave it a place in connection with the visit to the feast of
+Tabernacles (perhaps influenced by John viii. 15). It must always be
+remembered that the earliest apostolic writing--Matthew's Logia--probably
+consisted of just such disconnected records (see sects. 28, 42), and that,
+as J&uuml;licher (Einleitung i. d. NT. 235) has said, the early church was not
+interested in <i>when</i> Jesus said or did anything. Its interest was in
+<i>what</i> he said and did.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s170"><p><span class="versenum">170.</span> The time of the departure from Galilee for Jerusalem may be set with
+much probability not long before the feast of the Dedication in December;
+for at that feast Jesus was again in Jerusalem, and from it he returned to
+Perea (John x. 22, 40-42). He started southward through Samaria (Luke ix.
+51 ff.), and probably in connection with the early stages of the journey
+he sent out the seventy "into every city and place whither he himself was
+about to come" (Luke x. 1). It is not unlikely that, after the sending out
+of these heralds, he went with a few disciples to make one more effort to
+turn the heart of Jerusalem to himself (John ix., x.). It is impossible to
+determine whither the seventy were sent. The "towns and cities" whither
+Jesus was about to come may have included some from all portions of the
+land, not excepting Judea. The matter must be left in considerable
+obscurity. This, however, may be said, that the reasons offered for
+holding that the story of the sending out of the seventy is only a
+"doublet" of the mission of the twelve are not conclusive (see sect. A
+68). The connection in Luke of the woes against Capernaum, Bethsaida, and
+Chorazin with the instruction of the seventy is very natural, and marks
+this mission as belonging to <a class="newpage" name="page159" id="page159" title="159"></a>the close of the Galilean period, while the
+mission of the twelve belongs to the height of Jesus' popularity.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s171"><p><span class="versenum">171.</span> Our knowledge of Jesus' visit to the feast of Dedication is due to
+John's interest in the cure at about that time of one born blind (John
+ix., x.). The prejudice of the sanhedrists who excommunicated the man for
+his loyalty to Jesus led him in indignation to contrast their method of
+caring for God's "sheep" with his own love and sympathy and genuine
+ministry to their needs. He saw clearly that his course must end in death,
+unless a great change should come over his enemies; yet, as the Good
+Shepherd, he was ready to lay down his life for the sheep, rather than
+leave them to the heartlessness of leaders who cared only for themselves
+(x. 11-18). The critics of Jesus could not, or would not, understand his
+charge against them, and accused him of madness for his extraordinary
+claims. There were some, however, who could not credit the notion that
+Jesus had a devil (John x. 21). It is possible that it was at this time
+that the lawyer questioned him about the breadth of interpretation to be
+given to the word "neighbor" in the law of love, and was answered by the
+parable of the Good Samaritan (Luke x. 25-37). Possibly the parable of the
+Pharisee and the Publican (Luke xviii. 9-14) belongs also to this time. In
+general, however, the visit proved anew that Jerusalem was in no mood to
+accept Jesus (John x. 24-39). His enemies sought to draw from him a
+declaration of his claim to be the Messiah, and Jesus appealed to his
+works, asserting that only their incorrigible prejudice prevented their
+recognizing his claims. He added that his Father, with whom he was ever in
+perfect accord, had drawn <a class="newpage" name="page160" id="page160" title="160"></a>some faithful followers to him, and thereupon,
+angered by his claim to close kinship with God, they appealed to the rough
+logic of violence (John x. 31-39; compare viii. 59).</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s172"><p><span class="versenum">172.</span> After this added attempt to win Jerusalem Jesus withdrew to the
+region beyond Jordan, where John had carried on his ministry to the eager
+multitudes. Here he anew attracted great attention, causing people to
+contrast his ministry with the less remarkable work of John, and to
+acknowledge that John's testimony to him was true (John x. 40-42).
+Possibly it was in this place that the seventy found Jesus when they
+returned to report the success of their mission (Luke x. 17-24), for the
+thanksgiving which Jesus rendered for the faith of the common people in
+contrast with the unbelief of the "wise and prudent" might well express
+his feeling after the fresh evidence he had at the feast of Dedication
+that Jerusalem would none of his mission. The invitation to all the heavy
+laden to take his yoke illustrates, though under another figure, his claim
+to be the Good Shepherd (Matt. xi. 28-30). We have no means of knowing how
+much more of what the gospels assign to the last journey to Jerusalem
+should be put in connection with this sojourn across the Jordan. The
+multitudes that came to him there may have included the Pharisees who
+questioned him about divorce (Mark x. 2-12), and the young ruler who loved
+his great possessions (Mark x. 17-31), as well as the parents who eagerly
+sought the Lord's blessing for their children (Mark x. 13-16). Some parts
+of Luke's narrative seem to belong still later in this journey, yet such a
+section as the reply of Jesus to the report of <a class="newpage" name="page161" id="page161" title="161"></a>Pilate's slaughter of the
+Galileans (xiii. 1-9), or the parable of the Great Supper (xiv. 15-24), is
+suitable to any stage of it.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s173"><p><span class="versenum">173.</span> This sojourn on the other side of Jordan was brought to a close by
+the summons to come to the aid of his friends in Bethany (John xi.). It is
+not strange that the disciples feared his return to Judea, nor that Jesus
+did not hesitate when he recognized the call of duty as well as of
+friendship. In no recorded miracle of Jesus is his power more signally set
+forth, yet here more clearly than anywhere else he is represented as
+dependent on his Father in his exercise of that power. The words of Jesus
+at the grave (John xi. 41, 42) show that he was confident of the
+resurrection of Lazarus, because he had prayed and was sure he was heard.
+It may be that his delay after hearing of the sickness of his friend (xi.
+6) was a time of waiting for answer, and that this explains his confidence
+of safety when the time came for him to expose himself again to the
+hostility of Judea. Jesus indicated not only that on this occasion he had
+help from above in doing his miracles, but that it was the rule in his
+life to seek such help and guidance (xi. 42). In fact, at a later time he
+ascribed all his works to the Father abiding in him (John xiv. 10; compare
+x. 25). The effect of the resurrection of Lazarus was such as to intensify
+the determination of the leaders in Jerusalem--both Pharisees and
+Sadducees--to get rid of Jesus as dangerous to the quiet of the nation
+(John xi. 47-54). In this it simply served to fix a determination already
+present (John vii. 25, 32; viii. 59; x. 31, 39). The miracle does not
+appear in John as the cause of the apprehension of Jesus, but <a class="newpage" name="page162" id="page162" title="162"></a>rather as
+one influence leading to it. It was indeed the total contradiction between
+Jesus and all current and cherished ideas that led to his condemnation;
+the raising of Lazarus only showed that he was becoming dangerously
+popular, and made the priestly leaders feel the necessity of haste. The
+silence of the first three gospels concerning this event is truly
+perplexing, yet it is not any more difficult of explanation, as Beyschlag
+(LJ I. 495) has shown, than the silence of all four evangelists concerning
+the appearance of the risen Jesus to James, or to the five hundred
+brethren (I. Cor. xv. 6, 7). Room must be allowed in our conception of the
+life of Jesus for many things of which no record remains, all the more,
+therefore, for incidents to which but one of the gospels is witness.
+Moreover, after the collapse of popularity in Galilee, the great
+enthusiasm of the multitudes over Jesus when he entered Jerusalem (Luke
+xix. 37-40; Mark xi. 8-10) is most easily understood if he had made some
+such manifestation of power as the restoration of Lazarus.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s174"><p><span class="versenum">174.</span> After the visit to Bethany Jesus withdrew to a little town named
+Ephraim, on the border between Judea and Samaria, and spent some time
+there in seclusion with his disciples (John xi. 54), doubtless
+strengthening his personal hold on them preparatory to the shock their
+faith was about to receive. Of the length of this sojourn nothing is told
+us, nor of the road by which Jesus left Ephraim for Jerusalem (John xii.
+1). The first three gospels show that he began his final approach to the
+Holy City at Jericho (Mark x. 46). It may be that he descended from
+Ephraim direct to Jericho some days before the Passover, rejoining there
+some of the people who had been <a class="newpage" name="page163" id="page163" title="163"></a>impressed by his recent ministry in the
+region "where John at the first was baptizing." It is natural to suppose
+that it was on this journey to Jericho that he warned his disciples again
+of the fate which he saw before him in Jerusalem (Mark x. 32-34), and
+quite probably it was at this time that he rebuked the crude ambition of
+the sons of Zebedee by reminding them that his disciples must be more
+ambitious to serve than to rule, since even "the Son of Man came not to be
+ministered unto but to minister, and to give his life a ransom for many"
+(Mark x. 35-45). At Jericho he was at once crowded upon by enthusiastic
+multitudes. The feeling they had for him may perhaps be inferred from the
+cry of blind Bartimeus, "Thou son of David, have mercy on me" (Mark x.
+48). This enthusiasm received a shock when Jesus chose to be guest in
+Jericho of a chief of the publicans, a shock which Jesus probably intended
+to give, for much the same reason that led him afterwards on his way up to
+Jerusalem to teach his followers in the parable of the pounds that they
+must be ready for long delay in his actual assumption of his kingly right
+(Luke xix. 11-28). Finally, six days before the Passover, he and his
+disciples left Jericho and went up to Bethany preparatory to his final
+appearance in Jerusalem (John xii. 1).</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s175"><p><span class="versenum">175.</span> The interval between the final departure from Galilee and the public
+entry into Jerusalem was given to three different tasks: the renewed
+proclamation of the coming of the kingdom, further efforts to win
+acceptance in Jerusalem, if perchance she might learn to know the things
+that belonged to her peace; and continued training of the disciples,
+specially needed <a class="newpage" name="page164" id="page164" title="164"></a>because of the ill-considered enthusiasm with which they
+were inclined to view the probable issue of this journey to Jerusalem. The
+first of these tasks was conducted as the earlier work in Galilee had
+been, both by teaching and healing, in which Jesus used his disciples even
+more extensively than before. It proved that here as in Galilee the common
+people were ready to hear him gladly, until he showed too radical a
+disappointment of their hopes. In this new ministry to the people Jesus
+spoke very frankly of the seriousness of the opposition which the leaders
+of the people were manifesting, and of the need that those who would be
+his disciples should count the cost of their allegiance (Luke xiii. 22-30;
+xiv. 25-35; xii. 1-59). He did not hesitate to administer the most
+scathing rebuke to the Pharisees for the superficiality and hypocrisy of
+their religious life and teaching (Luke xi. 37-54),--a rebuke which is
+emphasized by the parable in which, on another occasion, he taught God's
+preference for a contrite sinner over a complacent saint (Luke xviii.
+9-14). When reminded of Pilate's outrage upon certain Galilean
+worshippers, he used the calamity to warn his hearers that personal
+godliness was the only protection which could secure them against a more
+serious outbreak of the hostility of the Roman power (Luke xiii. 1-9); and
+it was probably in reply to such an appeal as accompanied this report of
+Pilate's cruelty that Jesus spoke the parable of the Unjust Judge (Luke
+xviii. 1-8), teaching that God's love may be trusted to be no less
+regardful of his people's cry than a selfish man's love of ease would be.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s176"><p><span class="versenum">176.</span> The second of these tasks must not be held to <a class="newpage" name="page165" id="page165" title="165"></a>be perfunctory, even
+though each new effort for Jerusalem proved that genuine acceptance of its
+saviour was increasingly improbable. As the denunciations of the older
+prophets ever left open a way of escape <i>if </i> Israel would return and seek
+the Lord, so the anticipation of rejection and death which filled the
+heart of Jesus does not banish a like <i>if</i> from his own thought of
+Jerusalem in his repeated efforts to "gather her children." The
+combination of the new popular enthusiasm and the fresh proofs of the
+hopelessness of winning Jerusalem made more important the third task,--the
+founding of the faith of the disciples on the rock of personal certainty,
+from which the rising floods of hatred and seeming ruin for the Master's
+cause could not sweep it. It was for them that much of his instruction of
+the multitudes was doubtless primarily intended; they needed above all
+others to count the cost of discipleship (Luke xiv. 25-35), and the
+warnings against the spirit of Pharisaism (Luke xii.) were addressed
+principally to them, even as it was to them that Jesus confessed the
+"straitening" of his own soul in view of the "fire which he had come to
+cast upon the earth" (Luke xii. 49-53),--a confession which had another
+expression when he found it needful to rebuke the personal ambition of the
+sons of Zebedee (Mark x. 35-45). As for Jesus himself, the popular
+enthusiasm had not deceived him, nor the obdurate unbelief of Jerusalem
+daunted him, nor his disciples' misconception of his kingdom disheartened
+him; he still steadfastly set his face to go to Jerusalem.</p></div></div>
+<div class="chapter" id="p02-06">
+<div class="ouline">
+<h2><a class="newpage" name="page166" id="page166" title="166"></a>   Outline of Events in the Last Week of Jesus' Life</h2>
+
+
+<p>   <i>Saturday</i> (?). The anointing in Bethany six days before the
+   Passover--Matt. xxvi. 6-13; Mark xiv. 3-9; John xi. 55 to xii. 11.
+
+</p>
+
+<p>   <i>Sunday</i> (?). The Messianic entry--Matt. xxi. 1-11; Mark xi. 1-11; Luke
+   six. 29-44; John xii. 12-19.</p>
+
+<p>   <i>Monday</i> (?). Visit to the temple: the cursing of the barren
+   fig-tree--Matt. xxi. 18-19, 12-17; Mark xi. 12-14, 15-18; Luke xix. 45,
+   47, 48.</p>
+
+<p>   Return to Bethany for the night--Matt. xxi. 17; Mark xi. 19; Luke xxi.
+   37, 38.</p>
+
+<p>   <i>Tuesday</i> (?). Visit to the temple: the fig-tree found withered--Matt,
+   xxi 20-23; Mark xi. 20-27; Luke xx. 1.</p>
+
+<p>   Challenge of Jesus' authority--Matt. xxi. 23-27; Mark xi. 27-33; Luke
+   xx. 1-8.</p>
+
+<p>   Three parables against the religious leaders--Matt. xxi. 28 to xxii.
+   14; Mark xii. 1-12; Luke xx. 9-19.</p>
+
+<p>   The question about tribute--Matt. xxii. 15-22; Mark xii. 13-17; Luke
+   xx. 20-26.</p>
+
+<p>   The question of the Sadducees about the resurrection--Matt. xxii.
+   23-33; Mark xii. 18-27; Luke xx. 27-40.</p>
+
+<p>   The question of the Pharisees about the great commandment--Matt. xxii.
+   34-40; Mark xii. 28-34.</p>
+
+<p>   Jesus' counter-question about David's son and Lord--Matt. xxii. 41-46;
+   Mark xii. 35-37; Luke xx. 41-44.</p>
+
+<p>   Jesus' denunciation of the scribes and Pharisees--Matt, xxiii. 1-39;
+   Mark xii. 38-40; Luke xx. 45-47.</p>
+
+<p>   The widow's two mites--Mark xii. 41-44; Luke xxi. 1-4.</p>
+
+<p>   The visit of the Greeks--John xii. 20-36<sup>a</sup>.</p>
+
+<p>   Final departure from the temple--John xii. 36<sup>b</sup> (-50).</p>
+
+<p><a class="newpage" name="page167" id="page167" title="167"></a>   Discourse concerning the destruction of Jerusalem and the end of the
+   world--Matt. xxiv. 1 to xxvi. 2; Mark xiii. 1-37; Luke xxi. 5-38.</p>
+
+<p>   Plot of Judas to betray Jesus--Matt. xxvi. 3-5, 14-16; Mark xiv. 1, 2,
+   10, 11; Luke xxii. 1-6.</p>
+
+<p>   <i>Wednesday</i>. Retirement at Bethany. (?)</p>
+
+<p>   <i>Thursday</i>. The Last Supper--Matt. xxvi. 17-30; Mark xiv. 12-26; Luke
+   xxii. 7-30; John xiii. 1-30.</p>
+
+<p>   The farewell words of admonition and comfort--John xiii. 31 to xvi. 33.</p>
+
+<p>   The intercessory prayer--John xvii. 1-26.</p>
+
+<p>   <i>Friday</i>. The agony in Gethsemane--Matt. xxvi. 30, 36-46; Mark xiv. 26,
+   32-42; Luke xxii. 39-46; John xviii. 1.</p>
+
+<p>   The betrayal and arrest--Matt xxvi. 47-56; Mark xiv. 43-52; Luke xxii.
+   47-53; John xviii. 1-12.</p>
+
+<p>   Trial before the high-priests and sanhedrin--Matt. xxvi. 57 to xxvii.
+   10; Mark xiv. 53 to xv. 1<sup>a</sup>; Luke xxii. 54-71; John xviii. 12-27.</p>
+
+<p>   Trial before Pilate--Matt, xxvii. 11-31; Mark xv. 1-20; Luke xxiii.
+   1-25; John xviii. 28 to xix. 16<sup>a</sup>.</p>
+
+<p>   The crucifixion--Matt, xxvii. 32-56; Mark xv. 21-41; Luke xxiii. 26-49;
+   John xix. 16-37.</p>
+
+<p>   The burial--Matt, xxvii. 57-61; Mark xv. 42-47; Luke xxiii. 50-56; John
+   xix. 38-42.</p>
+
+<p>   <i>Saturday</i>. The Sabbath rest--Luke xxiii. 56<sup>b</sup>.</p>
+
+<p>   The watch at the tomb--Matt, xxvii. 62-66.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+<h2>VI</h2>
+
+<h3>The Final Controversies in Jerusalem</h3>
+
+
+
+<div class="section" id="s177"><p><span class="versenum">177.</span> The early Christians were greatly interested in the teachings of
+Jesus and in his deeds, but they thought oftenest of the victory which by
+his resurrection he won out of seeming defeat. This is proved by the fact
+that of the first two gospels over one third, of Luke over one fifth, and
+of the fourth gospel nearly <a class="newpage" name="page168" id="page168" title="168"></a>one half are devoted to the story of the
+passion and resurrection. This preponderance is not strange in view of the
+shock which the death of Jesus caused his disciples, and the new life
+which the resurrection brought to their hearts. The resurrection was the
+fundamental theme of apostolic preaching, the supreme evidence that Jesus
+was the Messiah. Hence the cross early became the object of exultant
+Christian joy and boasting; and in this the church entered actually into
+the Lord's own thought, for through the cross he looked for his exaltation
+and glory (Mark viii. 31; John xii. 23-36). From the time of the
+confession at C&aelig;sarea Philippi, he had had his death avowedly in view, and
+had repeatedly checked the ambitious and unthinking enthusiasm of his
+disciples by reminding them of what he must receive at the hands of the
+leaders of the people. The few months preceding his final appearance in
+Jerusalem had been devoted to the journey to the cross. This explains the
+note of tragedy which appears in his teachings at this period. The people
+had shown that they would none of his ministry. In this they had written
+their national and religious death warrant, and as he approached Jerusalem
+for the final crisis he declared, though with almost breaking heart, "Your
+house is left unto you desolate" (Luke xiii. 31-35). Each new effort of
+Jesus to turn aside the impending judgment of his people by winning their
+acceptance of himself and his message resulted in a new certainty of his
+ultimate rejection, and thus in confirmation of the early recognized
+necessity, that, if he continued the work God had given him to do, he
+should suffer many things, and die at the hands of his own people.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s178"><p><a class="newpage" name="page169" id="page169" title="169"></a><span class="versenum">178.</span> The last chapter in his public ministry began with his arrival at
+Bethany six days before the Passover. It is probable that the caravan with
+which Jesus was travelling reached Bethany not far from the sunset which
+marked the beginning of the Sabbath preceding the feast. Jesus had friends
+there who gladly gave him entertainment, and the Sabbath was doubtless
+spent quietly in this retreat. The holy day closed with the setting sun,
+and then his hosts were able to show him the special attention which they
+desired. The general cordiality of welcome expressed itself in a feast
+given in the house of one Simon, a leper who had probably experienced the
+power of Jesus to heal. He may have been a relative also of Lazarus, for
+Martha assisted in the entertainment, and Lazarus was one of the guests of
+honor (Mark xiv. 3; John xii. 2). During the feast, Mary, the sister of
+Lazarus, poured forth on the head and feet of Jesus a box of the rarest
+perfume. This act of costly adoration seemed extravagant to some,
+particularly to one of Jesus' disciples, who complained that the money
+could have been better spent. This criticism of one who had not counted
+cost in her service was rebuked by Jesus, who defended and commended Mary;
+for in the act he recognized her fear that he might not be long with her
+(Mark xiv. 8; John xii. 7). It is probable that this rebuke, with the
+clear reference to his approaching death, led Judas to decide to abandon
+the apparently waning cause of his Master, and bargain with the leaders in
+Jerusalem to betray him (Mark xiv. 3-11).</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s179"><p><span class="versenum">179.</span> The day following the supper at Bethany--that is, the first day of
+the week--witnessed the welcome of Jesus to Jerusalem by the jubilant
+multitudes. <a class="newpage" name="page170" id="page170" title="170"></a>His mode of entering the city affords a marked contrast to
+his treatment of the determination to make him king after he had fed the
+multitudes in Galilee (John vi. 15). In some respects the circumstances
+were similar. A multitude of the visitors to the feast, hearing that Jesus
+was at Bethany on his way to Jerusalem, went out to meet him with a
+welcome that showed their enthusiastic confidence that at last he would
+assume Messianic power and redeem Israel (John xii. 12, 13). Jesus was now
+ready for a popular demonstration, for the rulers were unwilling longer to
+tolerate his work and his teaching. He had never hesitated to assert his
+superiority to official criticism, and at length the hour had come to
+proclaim the full significance of his independence. In fact it was for
+this that some months before he had set his face steadfastly to go to
+Jerusalem. When, therefore, the crowd from Jerusalem appeared, Jesus took
+the initiative in a genuine Messianic demonstration. He sent two of his
+disciples to a place near by to borrow an ass's colt, on which he might
+ride into the city, fulfilling Zechariah's prophecy of the "king that
+cometh meek, and riding upon an ass" (see Matt. xxi. 4, 5). At this, the
+enthusiasm of his followers, and of those who had come to meet him, became
+unbounded, and without rebuke from Jesus they proceeded towards Jerusalem
+crying, "Hosanna; Blessed <i>is</i> he that cometh in the name of the Lord"
+(Mark xi. 9, 10). Notwithstanding the remonstrances of certain Pharisees
+among the multitude (Luke xix. 39), Jesus accepted the hosannas, for they
+served to emphasize the claim which he now wished, without reserve or
+ambiguity, to make in Jerusalem. The <a class="newpage" name="page171" id="page171" title="171"></a>time for reserve had passed. The
+mass of the people with their leaders had shown clearly that for his
+truth, and himself as bearer of it, they had no liking; while the few had
+become attached to him sufficiently to warrant the supreme test of their
+faith. He could not continue longer his efforts to win the people, for
+both Galilee and Judea were closed to him. Even if he had been content,
+without contradicting popular ideas, to work wonders and proclaim promises
+of coming good, he could with difficulty have continued this work, for
+Herod had already been regarding him with suspicion (Luke xiii. 31). He
+had run his course and must measure strength with the hostile forces in
+Jerusalem. For the last encounter he assumed the aggressive, and entered
+the city as its promised deliverer, the Prince of Peace. The very method
+of his Messianic proclamation was a challenge of current Jewish ideas, for
+they were not looking for so meek and peaceful a leader as Zechariah had
+conceived; this entrance emphasized the old contradiction between Jesus
+and his people's expectations. He accepted the popular welcome with full
+knowledge of the transitoriness of the present enthusiasm. As he advanced
+he saw in thought the fate to which the city and people were blindly
+hurrying, and his day of popular triumph was a day of tears (Luke xix.
+41-44). The city was stirred when the prophet of Nazareth thus entered it;
+but he simply went into the temple, looked about with heavy heart, and, as
+it was late, returned to Bethany with the twelve for the night.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s180"><p><span class="versenum">180.</span> On the following day Jesus furnished to his disciples a parable in
+action illustrating the fate awaiting the nation; for it is only as a
+parable that the <a class="newpage" name="page172" id="page172" title="172"></a>curse of the barren fig-tree can be understood. The idea
+that Jesus showed resentment at disappointment of his hunger when he found
+no figs on the tree out of season is too petty for consideration. He was
+drawn to it by the early foliage, for it was not yet the season for either
+fruit or leaves. One is tempted to believe, as Dr. Bruce has suggested,
+that he had small expectation of finding fruit, and that even before he
+reached the tree with its early leaves he felt a likeness between it and
+the nation of hypocrites whose fate was so clear in his mind. The
+withering of the fig-tree set his disciples thinking; and Jesus showed
+that it was an object lesson, promising that the disciples, by the
+exercise of but a little faith, could do more, even remove
+mountains,--such mountains of difficulty as the opposition of the whole
+Jewish nation would offer to the success of their work in their Master's
+name.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s181"><p><span class="versenum">181.</span> The curse upon the barren fig-tree was spoken as Jesus was going from
+Bethany to Jerusalem on the morning after his Messianic entry, that is, on
+Monday, and it was Tuesday when the disciples found it withered away (Mark
+xi. 12-14, 20-25). On Monday Jesus entered into the temple and taught and
+healed (Luke xix. 47; Matt. xxi. 14-16). It is at this point that Mark
+inserts the cleansing of the temple which John shows to belong rather to
+Jesus' first public visit to Jerusalem. The place which this incident
+holds in the first three gospels has already been explained by the fact
+that it furnished one cause for the official hostility to Jesus, and that
+Mark's story included no earlier visit to the holy city (sect. 116; see A
+39).</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s182"><p><span class="versenum">182.</span> Tuesday, the last day of public activity, ex<a class="newpage" name="page173" id="page173" title="173"></a>hibits Jesus in four
+different lights, according as he had to do with his critics, with the
+devout widow, with the inquiring Greeks, and with his own disciples. The
+opposition to him expressed itself, after the general challenge of his
+authority, in three questions put in succession by Pharisees and
+Herodians, by Sadducees, and by a scribe, more earnest than most, whom the
+Pharisees put forward after they had seen how Jesus silenced the
+Sadducees. Jesus met the opening challenge by a question about John's
+baptism (Mark xi. 29-33) which completely destroyed the complacency of his
+critics, putting them on the defensive. This was more than a clever
+stroke, they could not know what his authority was unless they had a quick
+sense for spiritual things. His question would have served to bring this
+to the surface if they had possessed it. Their reply showed them incapable
+of receiving a real answer to their question. It also gave him opportunity
+to say in three significant parables (Matt. xxi. 28 to xxii. 14) what
+their spiritual blindness signified for them and their nation, giving thus
+a turn to the interview not at all to their minds. As Jesus' rebuke was
+spoken in the hearing of the people, a determined effort was at once made
+to discredit him in the popular mind. The question (Mark xii. 13-17) with
+which the Pharisees and Herodians hoped to ensnare him was most subtle,
+for the popular feeling was as sensitive to the mark of subserviency which
+the payment of tribute kept ever before them as the Roman authorities were
+to the slightest suspicion of revolt against their sway. In none of his
+words had Jesus so clearly asserted the simple other-worldliness of his
+doctrine of the kingdom of God as in his answer <a class="newpage" name="page174" id="page174" title="174"></a>to the question about
+tribute. For him loyalty to the actual earthly sovereign was quite
+compatible with loyalty to God, the lower obligation was in fact a summons
+to be scrupulous also to render to God his due,--a duty in which this
+nation was sadly delinquent. The reply gave no ground for an accusation
+before the governor; but the popular feeling against Rome was so strong
+that it is not unlikely that it contributed somewhat to the readiness of
+the multitude a few days later to prefer Barabbas to Jesus.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s183"><p><span class="versenum">183.</span> A second assault was made by some Sadducees who put to him a crude
+question about the relations of a seven-times married woman in the
+resurrection (Mark xii. 18-27). If this question was asked with the
+expectation of making Jesus ridiculous in the sight of the people it was a
+marked failure, for his reply was so simple and straightforward that he
+won the admiration even of some of the Pharisees. The most significant
+feature of it was his argument from God's reference to himself as God of
+Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob; for in that he taught that the fact of
+fellowship with God implies that God's servants share with him a life that
+death cannot vanquish. The skill with which Jesus met these two questions
+interested some of his hearers and showed to his opponents that they must
+put forward their ablest champions to cope with him. The next test was
+more purely academic in character,--as to what class of commands is
+greatest in the law (Mark xii. 28-34). For the pharisaic scholars this was
+a favorite problem. For Jesus, however, the question contained no problem,
+since all the law is summed up in the two commandments of love. His
+contemporaries were not without power to see the truth of his
+<a class="newpage" name="page175" id="page175" title="175"></a>generalization, and their champion in this last attack was moved with
+admiration for the fineness and sufficiency of Jesus' answer.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s184"><p><span class="versenum">184.</span> All of the assaults served only to show freshly the clearness and
+profoundness of his thought; his critics were quite discomfited in their
+effort to entangle him. They had done with him, but he had still a word
+for them. The business of these scribes was the study of the scriptures.
+They furnished the people with authoritative statements of truth. One of
+the common-places of the current thought was that the Messiah should be
+David's son. Jesus did not deny the truth of this view, yet he showed them
+how partial their ideas were by quoting a word of scripture in which the
+Messiah is shown as David's Lord. If they had been open-minded they might
+have inferred from this that perhaps the man before them was not so
+impossible a Messiah as they thought. This last question closed the
+colloquy; there awaited yet, however, Jesus' calm, scathing arraignment of
+the hypocrisy of these religious leaders. There was no longer any need for
+prudence and every reason for a clear indication of the difference between
+himself and the scribes in motive, in teaching, and in character. The
+final conflict was on, and Jesus freely spoke his mind concerning their
+whole life of piety without godliness. Never have sharper words of
+reproach fallen from human lips than these which Jesus directed against
+the scribes and Pharisees; they are burdened with indignation for the
+misleading of the people, with rebuke for the misrepresentation of God's
+truth, and with scorn for their hollow pretence of righteousness. Through
+it all breathes a note of sorrow for the city <a class="newpage" name="page176" id="page176" title="176"></a>whose house was now left to
+her desolate. The change of scene which introduces the widow offering her
+gift in the temple treasury heightens the significance of the
+controversies through which Jesus had just passed. In his comment on the
+worth of her two mites we hear again the preacher of the sermon on the
+mount, and are assured that it is indeed from him that the severe rebukes
+which have fallen on the scribes have come. There is again a reference to
+the insight of him who sees in secret, and who judges as he sees; while
+allusion is not lacking to the others whose larger gifts attracted a wider
+attention. The whole scene is like a commentary on Matt. vi. 2-4.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s185"><p><span class="versenum">185.</span> Still a different side of Jesus' life appears when the Greeks seek
+him in the temple. They were probably proselytes from some of the Greek
+cities about the Mediterranean where the synagogue offered to the
+earnest-minded a welcome relief from the foolishness and corruption of
+what was left of religion in the heathen world. Having visited Jerusalem
+for the feast, they heard on every hand about the new teacher. They were
+not so bound to rabbinic traditions as the Jews themselves, they had been
+drawn by the finer features of Judaism,--its high morality and its noble
+idea of God. What they heard of Jesus might well attract them, and they
+sought out Philip, a disciple with a Greek name, to request an interview
+with his Master. The evangelist who has preserved the incident (John xii.
+20-36) evidently introduced it because of what it showed of Jesus' inner
+life; hence we have no report of the conversation between him and his
+visitors. The effect of their seeking him was marked, however, for it
+offered sharp contrast to the <a class="newpage" name="page177" id="page177" title="177"></a>rejection which he already felt in his
+dealings with the people who but two days before had hailed him as
+Messiah. This foreign interest in him did not suggest a new avenue for
+Messianic work, it only brought before his mind the influence which was to
+be his in the world which these inquirers represented, and immediately
+with the thought of his glorification came that of the means thereto,--the
+cross whose shadow was already darkening his path. Excepting Gethsemane,
+no more solemn moment in Jesus' life is reported for us. A glimpse is
+given into the inner currents of his soul, and the storm which tossed them
+is seen. It is in marked contrast to the calmness of his controversy with
+the leaders, and to the gentleness of his commendation of the widow. The
+agitation passed almost at once, but it left Jesus in a mood which he had
+not shown before on that day; in it his own thoughts had their way, and
+the doctrine of the grain of wheat dying to appear in larger life, of the
+Son of Man lifted up to draw all men unto him, had utterance, greatly to
+the perplexity of his hearers. It seems to have been one of the few times
+when Jesus spoke for his own soul's relief.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s186"><p><span class="versenum">186.</span> In all the earlier events of the day the disciples of Jesus appear
+but little. He is occupied with others, accepting the challenge of the
+leaders, and completing his testimony to the truth they refused to hear.
+The quieter hours of the later part of the day gave time for further words
+with his friends. The comment on the widow's gift was meant for them, and
+the uncovering of his own soul when the Greeks sought him was in their
+presence. After he had left the temple and the city he gave himself to
+them more ex<a class="newpage" name="page178" id="page178" title="178"></a>clusively. His disciples were perplexed by what they saw and
+felt, for the temper of the people toward their Master could not be
+mistaken. Yet they were sure of him. The leaders among them, therefore,
+asked him privately to tell them when the catastrophe should come, to
+which during the day he had made repeated reference. The conversation
+which followed is reported for us in the discourse on the destruction of
+Jerusalem and the end of the world (Mark xiii. and parallels), in which
+Jesus taught his disciples to expect trouble in their ministry, as he was
+meeting trouble in his; and to be ready for complete disappointment of
+their inherited hopes for the glory of their holy city. He also taught
+them to expect that his work would shortly be carried to perfection, and
+to live in expectancy of his coming to complete all that he was now
+seeming to leave undone. This lesson of patience and expectancy is
+enforced in a group of parables preserved for us in Matthew (chap. xxv.),
+closing with the remarkable picture of the end of all things when the
+Master should return in glory as judge of all to make final announcement
+of the simplicity of God's requirement of righteousness, as it had been
+exhibited in the life which by the despite of men was now drawing to its
+close.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s187"><p><span class="versenum">187.</span> The bargain made by Judas to betray his Lord has always been
+difficult to understand. The man must have had fine possibilities or Jesus
+would not have chosen him for an apostle, nor would the little company
+have made him its treasurer (John xii. 6; xiii. 29). The fact that Jesus
+early discovered his character (John vi. 64) does not compel us to think
+that his selection as an apostle was not perfectly sin<a class="newpage" name="page179" id="page179" title="179"></a>cere; the man must
+have seemed to be still savable and worthy thus to be associated with the
+eleven others who were Jesus' nearest companions. It has often been
+noticed that he was probably the only Judean among the twelve, for
+Kerioth, his home, was a town in southern Judea. The effort has frequently
+been made to redeem his reputation by attributing his betrayal to some
+high motive--such as a desire to force his Master to use his Messianic
+power, and confound his opponents by escaping from their hands and setting
+up the hoped-for kingdom. But the remorse of Judas, in which De Quincey
+finds support for this theory of the betrayal, must be more simply and
+sadly understood. It is more likely that the traitor illustrates Jesus'
+words: "No man can serve two masters; for either he will hate the one and
+love the other; or else he will hold to the one and despise the other. Ye
+cannot serve God and mammon" (Matt. vi. 24). The beginning of his fall may
+have been his disappointment when Jesus showed clearly that he would not
+establish a kingdom conformed to the popular ideas. As the enthusiasm
+which drew him to Jesus cooled, personal greed, with something of
+resentment at the cause of his disappointment, seem to have taken
+possession of him, and they led him on until the stinging rebuke which
+Jesus administered to the criticism of Mary at Bethany prompted the man to
+seek a bargain with the authorities which should insure him at least some
+profit in the general wreck of his hopes. His remorse after he saw in its
+bald hideousness what he had done was psychologically inevitable. Although
+Jesus was aware of Judas' character from the beginning (John vi. 64), he
+that came to <a class="newpage" name="page180" id="page180" title="180"></a>seek and to save that which was lost was no fatalist; and
+this knowledge was doubtless--like that which he had of the fate hanging
+over Jerusalem--subject to the possibility that repentance might change
+what was otherwise a certain destiny. As the event turned he could only
+say, "Good were it for that man if he had not been born" (Mark xiv. 21).</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s188"><p><span class="versenum">188.</span> With this the curtain falls on the public ministry of Jesus. The
+gospels suggest a day of quiet retirement following these controversies
+and warnings, with their fresh demonstration of the irreconcilable
+hostility of people of all classes to him and his work. After the
+seclusion of that day, he returned to give final proof of complete
+obedience to his Father's will.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<div class="chapter" id="p02-07">
+<h2><a class="newpage" name="page181" id="page181" title="181"></a>VII</h2>
+
+<h3>The Last Supper</h3>
+
+
+
+<div class="section" id="s189"><p><span class="versenum">189.</span> On Thursday Jesus and his disciples returned to Jerusalem for the
+last time. Knowing the temper of the leaders, and the danger of arrest at
+any time, Jesus was particularly eager to eat the Passover with his
+disciples (Luke xxii. 15), and he sent two of them--Luke names them as
+Peter and John--to prepare for the supper. In a way which would give no
+information to such a one as Judas, he directed them carefully how to find
+the house where a friend would provide them the upper room that was needed
+for an undisturbed meeting of the little band, and the two went on in
+advance to make ready. When the hour was come Jesus with the others went
+to the appointed place and sat down for the supper (Mark xiv. 17; Luke
+xxii. 14; Matt. xxvi. 20).</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s190"><p><span class="versenum">190.</span> The gospels all report the last evening which the little company
+spent together. There is a perplexing divergence, however, between John
+and the others concerning the relation of this supper to the feast of the
+Passover. In their introduction of the story, Mark and his companion
+gospels indicate that the supper which Jesus ate was the Passover meal
+itself. John, on the other hand, declares that it was "before the feast of
+the Passover" (xiii. 1) that Jesus took this meal with his disciples.
+John's account is consistent throughout, <a class="newpage" name="page182" id="page182" title="182"></a>for he states that on the next
+day the desire of the Jews to "eat the Passover" forbade them to enter the
+house of the governor lest they should incur defilement (xviii. 28). The
+other gospels, moreover, hint in several ways that the day of Jesus' death
+could not have been the day after the Passover; that is, the first day of
+the feast of unleavened bread. Dr. Sanday has recently enumerated these
+afresh, remarking that "the Synoptists make the Sanhedrin say beforehand
+that they will not arrest Jesus 'on the feast day,' and then actually
+arrest him on that day; that not only the guards, but one of the disciples
+(Mark xiv. 47), carries arms, which on the feast day was not allowed; that
+the trial was also held on the feast day, which would be unlawful; that
+the feast day would not be called simply Preparation (see Mark xv. 42, and
+compare John xix. 31); that the phrase 'coming from the field' (Mark xv.
+21 [Greek]) means properly 'coming from work;' that Joseph of Arimathea is
+represented as buying a linen cloth (Mark xv. 46) and the women as
+preparing spices and ointments (Luke xxiii. 56), all of which would be
+contrary to law and custom" (HastBD ii. 634). In these particulars the
+first three gospels seem to confirm the representation of the fourth that
+the day of the last supper was earlier than the regular Jewish Passover.
+On the other hand, a strong argument, though one that has not commended
+itself to other specialists in Jewish arch&aelig;ology, has been put forth by
+Dr. Edersheim (LJM ii. 567f.) to prove that John also indicates that the
+last supper was eaten at the time of the regular Passover. In the present
+condition of our knowledge certainty is impossible. If John does differ
+from the others, his testimony has the greatest <a class="newpage" name="page183" id="page183" title="183"></a>weight. While not
+conclusive, it has some significance that Paul identified Christ with the
+sacrifice of the passover (I. Cor. v. 7), a statement which may indicate
+that he held that Jesus died about the time of the killing of the paschal
+lamb. If John be taken to prove that the last supper occurred a day before
+the regular Passover, Jesus must have felt that the anticipation was
+necessary in order to avoid the publicity and consequent danger of a
+celebration at the same time with all the rest of the city.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s191"><p><span class="versenum">191.</span> Whatever the conclusion concerning the date of the last supper, and
+consequently of the crucifixion, the last meal of Jesus with his disciples
+was for that little company the equivalent of the Passover supper. Luke
+states that the desire of Jesus had looked specially to eating this feast
+with his disciples (xxii. 15). The reason must be found in his certainty
+of the very near end, and in his wish to make the meal a preparation for
+the bitter experiences which were overhanging him and them.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s192"><p><span class="versenum">192.</span> It is customary to connect as occasion and consequence the dispute
+concerning precedence which Luke reports (xxii. 24-30), and the rebuke
+which Jesus administered by washing the disciples' feet (John xiii. 1-20).
+The jealousies of the disciples may have arisen over the allotment of
+seats at the table, as Dr. Edersheim has most fully shown (LJM ii.
+492-503); such a controversy would be the natural sequel of earlier
+disputes concerning greatness, and particularly of the request of James
+and John for the best places in the coming kingdom (Mark x. 35-45), and
+would lead as naturally to the distress of heart with which Jesus declared
+that one of the disciples should betray <a class="newpage" name="page184" id="page184" title="184"></a>him, and that another of them
+should deny him. The narrative in Mark favors the withdrawal of Judas
+before the new rite was appointed. This must seem to be the probability in
+the case, for the presence of Judas would be most incongruous at such a
+memorial service. John's mention of his departure before the announcement
+of Peter's approaching fall confirms this interpretation of Mark (Mark
+xiv. 18-21; John xiii. 21-30).</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s193"><p><span class="versenum">193.</span> The paschal memories furnished to Jesus an opportunity to establish
+for his disciples an institution which should symbolize the new covenant
+which he was soon to seal with his blood. Jesus regarded this new covenant
+as that which was promised by the prophets, especially Jeremiah (xxxi.
+31-34), and his thought, like that of the prophets, goes back to the story
+of the covenant established at Sinai (Ex. xxiv. 1-11). In this way he gave
+to his disciples a conception of his death, which later, if not
+immediately, would help them to regard it as a necessary part of his work
+as Messiah. They were now oppressed by the evident certainty that the near
+future would bring their Master to death; he accordingly gave them a
+sacred reminder of himself and of his death as an essential part of his
+self-giving "for them;" for whatever the conclusion concerning the
+disputed text of Luke (xxii. 19), the institutional character of the act
+and words of Jesus is clear. As Holtzmann remarks (NtTh i. 304): "The
+words 'this do in remembrance of me' were perhaps not spoken; all the more
+certainly do they of themselves express what lay in the situation and made
+itself felt with incontestable conclusiveness."</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s194"><p><span class="versenum">194.</span> Several hints in the records seem to connect <a class="newpage" name="page185" id="page185" title="185"></a>the meal in various
+details with what is known of ancient custom in the celebration of the
+Passover. The hymn with which according to Mark and Matthew the supper
+closed is easily identified with the last part (Psalms cxv. to cxviii.) of
+the so called <i>Hallel</i>, which was sung at the close of the Passover meal.
+The mention of two cups in the familiar text of Luke (xxii. 17-20) agrees
+with the repeated cups of the Passover ritual; so also do the sop and the
+dipping of it with which Jesus indicated to John who the traitor was (John
+xiii. 23-26; Mark xiv. 20). If it could be proved that the customs
+recorded in the Talmud correctly represent the usage in Jesus' time it
+would be of extreme interest to seek to connect what is told us of the
+last supper with that Passover ritual as Dr. Edersheim has done (LJM ii.
+490-512). The antiquity of the rabbinic record is so uncertain, however,
+that it is only useful as showing what possibly may have been the case.
+All that can be asserted is that the rabbinic ritual probably originated
+long before it was recorded, and that as the last supper was a meal which
+Jesus and his disciples celebrated as a Passover, it is probable that some
+such ritual was more or less closely followed.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s195"><p><span class="versenum">195.</span> Luke and John give the fullest reports of what was said at the table.
+All the gospels tell of Peter's declaration of superior loyalty and the
+prediction of his threefold denial; Luke, however, adds that in connection
+with it Jesus assured Peter of his restoration, and charged him to
+strengthen his brethren (Luke xxii. 31-34). John alone gives the long and
+full discourse of admonition and comfort, followed by Jesus' prayer for
+his disciples (xiii. 31 to xvii. 26). It is evident <a class="newpage" name="page186" id="page186" title="186"></a>from the words of
+Jesus as he entered the garden of Gethsemane (Mark xiv. 33, 34), as from
+those which had escaped him when the Greeks sought him the last day in the
+temple (John xii. 27), that his own heart was greatly troubled during the
+supper by the apparent defeat which was now close at hand. His quietness
+and self-possession during the supper, particularly when tenderly
+reproving his disciples for petty ambition, or when solemnly dismissing
+the traitor, or warning Peter of his denials, must not blind us to the
+depth of the emotion which was stirring his own soul. It is only as we
+remember his trouble of heart that it is possible justly to value the
+ministry which in varied ways he rendered to his disciples that night. In
+the discourses reported by John he showed that he realized that the
+approaching separation would sorely try the faith of his followers, and he
+sought to strengthen them by showing his own calmness in view of it, and
+by promising them another who should abide with them spiritually as his
+representative, and continue for them the work which he had begun. He
+therefore urged them to maintain their devotion to him, still to seek and
+find the source of their life and secret of their strength in fellowship
+with him--present, though unseen among them. He sought to convince them
+that his departure was to be for their advantage, that fellowship with him
+spiritually would be far more real and efficacious than the intercourse
+they had already enjoyed. He whose own heart was "exceeding sorrowful even
+unto death" bade his disciples not to let their hearts be troubled nor
+afraid. How long the conversation continued, of when the company left the
+upper chamber, cannot be told. At some time before the arrival at
+Gethsemane <a class="newpage" name="page187" id="page187" title="187"></a>Jesus turned to God in prayer for the disciples whom he was
+about to leave to the severe trial of their faith, asking for them that
+realization of eternal life which he had enjoyed and exemplified in his
+own intimate life with his Father. With this his ministry to them closed
+for the time, and, crossing the Kidron, he entered the garden of
+Gethsemane weighed down by the sorrow of his own soul.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<div class="chapter" id="p02-08">
+<h2><a class="newpage" name="page188" id="page188" title="188"></a>VIII</h2>
+
+<h3>The Shadow of Death</h3>
+
+
+
+<div class="section" id="s196"><p><span class="versenum">196.</span> Of the garden of Gethsemane it is only known that it was across the
+Kidron, on the slope of the Mount of Olives. Tradition has long pointed to
+an enclosure some fifty yards beyond the bridge that crosses the ravine on
+the road leading eastward from St. Stephen's gate. Most students feel that
+this is too near the city and the highway for the place of retreat chosen
+by Jesus. Arch&aelig;ologically and sentimentally the identification of places
+connected with the life of Jesus is of great interest. Practically,
+however, it is easy to over-emphasize the importance of such an
+identification. Granted the fact that in some olive grove on the
+mountain-side, where an oil-press gave a name to the place (Gethsemane),
+Jesus withdrew with his disciples on that last night, and all that is
+important is known. It is of far higher importance to see rightly the
+relation of what took place in that garden to the things which preceded
+and followed it in the life of Jesus. At that time Jesus saw pressed to
+his lips the "cup" from the bitterness of which his whole soul shrank. It
+was not an unlooked-for trial; some time earlier he had sought to cool the
+ardor of the ambition of James and John by telling them that they should
+drink of his cup, and declared that even the Son of Man came not to be
+<a class="newpage" name="page189" id="page189" title="189"></a>ministered unto but to minister, and to give his life a ransom for many.
+The fourth gospel, whose representation omits the agony of Gethsemane and
+only reports its victory, tells how Jesus rebuked the violent impulse of
+Peter with the word, "The cup which my Father hath given me to drink shall
+I not drink it?" (John xviii. 11<sup>b</sup>); and all the gospels exhibit the
+marvellous quietness of spirit and dignity of self-surrender which
+characterized Jesus throughout his trial and execution. In Gethsemane,
+however, we see the struggle in which that calmness and self-mastery were
+won.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s197"><p><span class="versenum">197.</span> It is unbecoming to consider that scene with any vulgar curiosity to
+know what it was that made Jesus so draw back from the drinking of his
+"cup." It is not unfitting, however, to recognize that in his cry, "Abba,
+Father, all things are possible unto thee; remove this cup from me" (Mark
+xiv. 36), an intense longing of his own soul's life had expression. There
+was something in the fate which he saw before him from which his whole
+being shrank. But stronger than this was his fixed desire to do his
+Father's will. Here was supremely illustrated the truth that "he came down
+from heaven, not to do his own will, but the will of him that sent him"
+(John vi. 38). The fullest allowance for the shrinking of the most
+delicately constituted nature from pain and death completely fails to
+account for this dread of Jesus. He was no coward, drawing back from
+sufferings which for simple physical pain were over and again more than
+matched by many of the martyrs to truth who preceded and followed him. He
+himself declared to the sons of Zebedee that they should share a cup in
+kind like <a class="newpage" name="page190" id="page190" title="190"></a>unto his, suffering for the kingdom of God, for the salvation
+of the world. Yet there is a difference evident between what others have
+had to bear and the cup from which Jesus shrank. The death which now stood
+before him in the path of obedience had in it a bitterness quite
+unexplained by the pain and disappointment it entailed. That excess of
+bitterness can probably never be understood by us. A hint of its nature
+may be found in the "shame of the cross" which the author of Hebrews (xii.
+2; xiii. 13) emphasizes, and in the "curse" of the cross which made it a
+stumbling block to Paul and his Jewish brethren (Gal. iii. 13; I. Cor. i.
+23). Jesus came from the garden ready to endure the cross in obedience to
+his Father's will; but it was a costly obedience, a complete emptying of
+himself (Phil. ii. 7, 8).</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s198"><p><span class="versenum">198.</span> The loneliness of Jesus in his struggle is emphasized in the gospels
+of Mark and Matthew. In search of sympathy he had confessed to the
+disciples his trouble of heart, and had taken his three intimates with him
+when he withdrew from the others for prayer, asking them to watch with
+him. They were too heavy of heart and weary of body to stand by in his
+bitter hour, and instead of being in readiness to warn him of the approach
+of the hostile band, he had to awake them to their danger. The fourth
+gospel reports that after the struggle Jesus bore marks of majesty which
+astonished and overawed his foes when he calmly told them that he was the
+one they were seeking. Their fear was overcome, however, when Judas gave
+the appointed sign by kissing his Master (Mark xiv. 45). The thought for
+the disciples' safety which John records (xviii. 8) is another proof <a class="newpage" name="page191" id="page191" title="191"></a>that
+the fight had been won, and Jesus had fully resumed the self-emptying
+ministry appointed to him by his Father.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s199"><p><span class="versenum">199.</span> The band that arrested Jesus was accompanied by a Roman cohort from
+the garrison of the city, but it was not needed, for the disciples offered
+no appreciable resistance; on the contrary, "they all forsook him and
+fled" (Mark xiv. 50). Having arrested Jesus, the band took him to Annas,
+the actual leader of Jewish affairs, though not at the time the official
+high-priest. He had held that office some time before, but had been
+deposed by the Roman governor of Syria after being in power for nine
+years. His influence continued, however, for although he was never
+reinstated, he seems to have been able to secure the appointment for
+members of his own family during a period of many years. Caiaphas, the
+legal high-priest, was his son-in-law. Annas, as the leader of
+aristocratic opinion in Jerusalem, had doubtless been foremost in the
+secret counsels which led to the decision to get rid of Jesus, hence the
+captive was, as a matter of course, taken first to his house. The trial by
+the Jewish authorities was irregular. There seems to have been an informal
+examination of Jesus and various witnesses, first before Annas, and then
+before Caiaphas and a group of members of the sanhedrin, the outcome of
+which was complete failure to secure evidence against Jesus from their
+false witnesses, and the formulation of a charge of blasphemy in
+consequence of his answer to the high-priest acknowledging himself to be
+the Messiah (Mark xiv. 61-64). The early hours before the day were given
+over to mockery and ill-usage of the captive Jesus. When <a class="newpage" name="page192" id="page192" title="192"></a>morning was
+come, the sanhedrin was convened, and he was condemned to death on the
+charge of blasphemy (Mark xv. 1; Luke xxii. 66-71), and then was led in
+bonds to the Roman governor for execution, since the Romans had taken from
+the sanhedrin the authority to execute a death sentence (John xviii. 31).
+Before Pilate the Jews had to name an offence recognized by Roman law; his
+accusers therefore falsified his claim and made him out a political
+Messiah, hostile to Roman rule (Luke xxiii. 1, 2). Pilate soon saw that
+the charge was trumped up, and sought in every way, while keeping the
+good-will of the people, to escape the responsibility of giving sentence
+against Jesus. His first effort was a simple declaration that he found no
+fault in the prisoner (Luke xxiii. 4); then, having heard that he was a
+Galilean, he tried to transfer the case to Herod, who happened to be in
+the city at the time (Luke xxiii. 5-12); he then sought to compromise by
+agreeing to chastise Jesus and then release him (Luke xxiii. 13-16); next
+he offered the people their choice between the innocent Jesus and
+Barabbas, a convicted insurrectionist (Mark xv. 6-15; Luke xxiii. 16-24),
+and the people, instructed by the priests, chose Barabbas, caring nothing
+for a Messiah who would allow himself to be arrested without resistance;
+the fourth gospel tells of Pilate's still further effort, by appealing to
+the people's sympathy, to escape giving sentence, even after he had
+delivered Jesus to the soldiers for the preliminary scourging. Finding the
+Jews ready to urge, at length, a religious charge, Pilate's superstitious
+fear was roused (John xix. 7-12), and he sought again to release him, but
+was finally cowed by the <a class="newpage" name="page193" id="page193" title="193"></a>threat of an accusation against him at Rome,
+and, mocking the people by sitting in judgment to condemn Jesus as their
+king, he gave sentence against the man whom he knew to be innocent (John
+xix. 12-16).</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s200"><p><span class="versenum">200.</span> Some of Jesus' disciples and friends were witnesses of the early
+stages of the informal trial, in particular, John (John xviii. 15) and
+Peter. It was during the progress of the early examination that Peter was
+drawn into his denials by the comments made by the bystanders on his
+connection with the accused. It has been suggested that the house of the
+high-priest where Jesus was tried was built, like other Oriental houses,
+about a court so that the room where Jesus was examined was open to view
+from the court. In this case it is easy to see how Jesus could overhear
+his disciple's strenuous denials of any acquaintance with him, and could
+turn and give him that look which sent him out to weep bitterly (Luke
+xxii. 61, 62). If it be further assumed that Annas and Caiaphas occupied
+different sides of the same high-priestly palace, the double examination
+reported by John would still be within hearing from the one court in which
+the faithless disciple was a fascinated witness of his Master's trial.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s201"><p><span class="versenum">201.</span> Humanly speaking, it may be said that the fate of Jesus was sealed
+when the Sadducean leaders came to look on him seriously as a danger to
+the State (John xi. 47-50, note the mention of chief priests). The
+religious opposition was serious, and might have brought trouble, in some
+such way as it seems to have done to John the Baptist (see Matt. xvii.
+10-13; Luke xiii. 31, 32); but it is doubtful whether the gov<a class="newpage" name="page194" id="page194" title="194"></a>ernor would
+have given much attention to a charge not urged by the men of influence in
+Jerusalem. The notable thing in connection with the last days of Jesus'
+life is the joint opposition of Sadducean priests and Pharisaic scribes.
+That the populace easily changed their cry from "hosanna" to "crucify him"
+is not surprising. Their hosannas were due to a complete misconception of
+Jesus' aim and purpose; disappointed in him, they would be the earliest to
+cry out against him, especially when the choice lay between him and a
+genuine insurrectionist.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s202"><p><span class="versenum">202.</span> Each fresh study of the trial of Jesus gives a fresh impression of
+his greatness. He who but a few hours before was pouring out his soul in
+prayer that his cup might pass, stands forth as the one calm and
+undisturbed actor among all those who took part in the tragic doings of
+that day. His judges and foes were all swayed by passion and self-interest
+and were ready to make travesty of justice, from the leaders of the
+sanhedrin who condemned him on one charge and accused him to the governor
+on another, to the governor himself, who appeared determined to release
+him if he could do it without risk of personal popularity, and who yet, in
+order to avoid accusation at Rome, gave sentence according to the people's
+will. The fickle populace crying "crucify him," the disciples who forsook
+him, the rock-apostle who denied even so much as knowledge of the man,
+show how all the currents of life about him were stirred and full of
+tumult. In all this, of which he was the occasion and centre, he stands
+the supreme example of dignity, self-mastery, and quietness. This is seen
+in his silence in the presence of Annas and Caiaphas, and later before
+<a class="newpage" name="page195" id="page195" title="195"></a>Pilate; in his frank avowal of his Messianic claim in reply to the
+high-priest's challenge, and of his kingly rank in answer to the
+governor's question; and in the look of reproof which he turned upon
+Peter. Not that he was without feeling. There is strong sense of outrage
+in his words, "If I have spoken evil, bear witness of the evil, but if
+well, why smitest thou me?" It was not the quietness of stoic
+indifference, but of perfect self-devotion to the Father's will. He
+maintained it from the time of his arrest to the last cry of trust with
+which he committed his spirit to his Father.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s203"><p><span class="versenum">203.</span> The scourging over, the mock homage of the soldiers done, he was led
+out beyond the city wall to be crucified. The exact place of the
+crucifixion can be determined as little as that of Gethsemane, though
+there is a tradition from the fourth century, and in addition there are
+many conjectures. Jesus was led, apparently, to the ordinary place of
+criminal execution, and with two others, probably insurrectionary robbers
+like those with whom Barabbas had been associated, he was crucified. Two
+episodes in the journey to the place of crucifixion are recorded,--the
+help which Simon of Cyrene was compelled to give to Jesus in carrying his
+cross (Mark xv. 21), and the word of Jesus to those who, following him,
+bewailed his fate (Luke xxiii. 27-31).</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s204"><p><span class="versenum">204.</span> Of the cruelty and torture of crucifixion much has been written and
+often. It would be difficult to exaggerate it. The death by the cross was
+a death by hunger and exhaustion in ordinary cases; it was thus torture
+prolonged for many hours. It is noticeable, however, that it is not the
+suffering but the disgrace and shame of the cross that occupied the
+thought of <a class="newpage" name="page196" id="page196" title="196"></a>the apostolic days. Indeed, were physical suffering chiefly to
+be considered, it would have to be owned that the fact that Jesus died
+within a few hours released him from the most excruciating pains incident
+to this barbarous form of execution. The later ascetic thought loved, and
+still loves, to dwell on the physical torments of the Lord's death. They
+were severe enough to give us awe; but the biblical writers show a much
+healthier mind, and their thought does not invite comparison between the
+pains endured by the Master and those which some of his martyred followers
+bore with great fortitude. The disgrace of the cross was the uttermost;
+for the Romans it was the death of a slave, for the Jews it was patent
+proof of the curse of God (Deut. xxi. 23). The obedience of Jesus was
+unlimited when he submitted to death (Phil. ii. 8). It is on the shame of
+the cross, and on the sacrifice of himself for the life of the world when
+in obedience to his Father's will he "despised the shame," that the
+thought of the apostolic day laid emphasis. In this experience Jesus found
+himself in truth numbered with the transgressors; he was the object of
+scorn for all them that passed by, they mocked at him, at his works, and
+at his confident trust in God. In this last extremity the darkness of
+Gethsemane again swept over Jesus' soul, when he cried out "My God, my
+God," recalling the words of one of the saints of old in his hour of
+distress (Ps. xxii.). Yet, like him, Jesus kept hold on the certainty of
+deliverance; the darkness passed at length.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s205"><p><span class="versenum">205.</span> The evangelists preserve several sayings of Jesus from the cross, the
+records of the different gospels being remarkably diverse. Mark and
+Mat<a class="newpage" name="page197" id="page197" title="197"></a>thew record the exclamation, "My God, my God <i>(Eloi, Eloi</i>), why hast
+thou forsaken me," which the bystander misconstrued as a call for Elijah,
+thinking this pseudo-Messiah was reproaching Elijah for failing to come to
+his help. The same gospels tell of the loud cry with which Jesus died.
+Luke omits the call <i>Eloi</i>, and gives in place of the last expiring cry
+the prayer of trust, "Father, into thy hands I commend my spirit" (xxiii.
+46). Earlier, however, this gospel tells of Jesus' word to the penitent
+robber, "To-day shalt thou be with me in Paradise" (xxiii. 43), and of the
+prayer for his foes, that is, for the Jewish people who blindly condemned
+him (xxiii. 34). The oldest manuscripts cause some doubt whether this last
+saying was originally a part of the Gospel of Luke. If it was not it would
+belong in the same class with the story of the sinful woman which we now
+find in John, both being authentic records of the life of Jesus, though
+from some other source than that in which we now find them. The fourth
+gospel gives quite an independent group of sayings. It interprets the
+dying cry as, "It is finished" (xix. 30), and preceding this it gives the
+cry, "I thirst" (xix. 28), which led to the offering of the vinegar of
+which the first two gospels speak. Earlier it tells of the committal of
+Mary to the care of the beloved disciple (xix. 26, 27). Of these seven
+sayings, "Eloi," "I thirst," "Father, into thy hand I commend my spirit,"
+and "It is finished" belong to the last hours of the life of the crucified
+one, after the darkness of which the first three gospels speak had
+overshadowed the land. Of the cause of that darkness they give no hint,
+for Luke's expression cannot mean an eclipse, since an eclipse at Passover
+<a class="newpage" name="page198" id="page198" title="198"></a>time, that is, at full moon, is an impossibility. The conjecture that
+dense clouds hid the sun is common, and is as suitable as any other.
+Whatever the cause, the evangelists saw in it a token of nature's awe at
+the death of the Son of God. During the hours of the darkness the waves
+swept over his soul, as the cry "my God" shows to our reverent thought.
+But the last word of trust proves that the dying Jesus was not forsaken,
+and that Calvary, like Gethsemane, was a battle won. The earlier sayings
+all express Jesus' continued spirit of ministry, showing even in his
+bitter pain his accustomed thoughtfulness for others' need.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s206"><p><span class="versenum">206.</span> It is futile to speculate on the cause of Jesus' early death. He
+certainly suffered a much shorter time than was ordinarily the case, as
+appears in the fact that at sunset it was necessary to break the legs of
+the robbers so as to hasten death, Jesus having already been some time
+dead. There is something attractive in the theory of Dr. Stroud (The
+Physical Cause of Christ's Death) that Jesus died of rupture of the heart.
+It may have been true, but the evidences on which he based his argument
+are insufficient for proof. To the Jews the death of their victim did not
+give all the satisfaction they desired. In the first place, Pilate
+insisted on mocking them by posting over the head of Jesus the placard,
+"The King of the Jews" (see John xix. 19-22); moreover, their haste had
+brought the crime into close proximity to the feast which they were eager
+to keep from defilement; so that they had still to beg of Pilate that he
+would hasten the death of the victims, that their bodies might not remain
+to desecrate the following Sabbath sanctity (John xix. 31-37); while for
+those <a class="newpage" name="page199" id="page199" title="199"></a>who witnessed it the death of Jesus deepened the impression that a
+hideous crime had been committed in the slaughter of an innocent man (Mark
+xv. 39).</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s207"><p><span class="versenum">207.</span> Among the bystanders few of the disciples of Jesus were to be
+found--they were hiding in fear. Yet some faithful women, and two
+courageous councillors of Jerusalem, were bold enough to make their
+loyalty known. These two men, Joseph of Arimathea and Nicodemus, were
+members of the sanhedrin, but they had had no part in the condemnation of
+Jesus; and after knowing that he was dead, Joseph begged of Pilate the
+body, and he and Nicodemus took Jesus down from the cross and laid him in
+a tomb which Joseph owned near the place of crucifixion, rendering such
+tender ministries as were possible in the closing hours of the day. The
+women who had witnessed his end meanwhile were arranging also to anoint
+the body. They took notice where the two friends had laid him, and then
+went away to rest on the Sabbath day, according to the commandment.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s208"><p><span class="versenum">208.</span> To the Jews it was a high day, the first Sabbath in the eight days of
+their holy feast (John xix. 31). They had eagerly guarded their conduct
+that no ceremonial defilement might prevent their sharing in the paschal
+feast. They believed that they had rid their nation of a dangerous
+disturber of its peace, and men whose conscience shrank not from making
+God's house a house of merchandise, who would punish one who ventured to
+cure a mortal disease if it chanced to cross their Sabbath traditions, who
+had condemned to death the holiest man and godliest teacher the world had
+ever seen because he did not square with their heartless formalism,--such
+men hardly had conscience <a class="newpage" name="page200" id="page200" title="200"></a>enough to feel repentance or remorse for the
+cowardly injustice and crime with which of their own choice they had
+reddened their hands (Matt, xxvii. 25). They doubtless kept their feast
+with satisfaction. Not a few hearts, however, were heavy with grief and
+disappointed hope. They had believed that Jesus "was he that should redeem
+Israel" (Luke xxiv. 21). Stunned, they could not throw away the faith
+which he had kindled in their hearts. Yet he was dead, and only faintly,
+if at all, did they recall his prediction of suffering and his certainty
+of triumph through it all (John xx. 9). What remained for them was the
+last tender ministry to their dead Lord.</p></div></div>
+<div class="chapter" id="p02-09">
+<div class="outline">
+<h2><a class="newpage" name="page201" id="page201" title="201"></a>   Outline of Events after the Resurrection</h2>
+
+
+<p>   <i>The day of the resurrection--Sunday</i>. The visit of the women to the
+   tomb--Matt. xxviii. 1-8; Mark xvi. 1-8; Luke xxiv. 1-12; John xx. 1-10.</p>
+
+<p>   Jesus' first appearance; to Mary--Matt. xxviii. 9 10; [Mark xvi. 9-11];
+   John xx. 11-18.</p>
+
+<p>   The report of the watch--Matt. xxviii. 11-15.</p>
+
+<p>   The appearance to Simon Peter--I. Cor. xv. 5.</p>
+
+<p>   The walk to Emmaus--[Mark xvi 12,13]; Luke xxiv. 13-35.</p>
+
+<p>   The appearance to the ten in the evening--[Mark xvi. 14]; Luke xxiv.
+   36-43; John xx. 19-25; I. Cor. xv. 5.</p>
+
+<p>   <i>One week later--Sunday</i>. The appearance to the eleven, with
+   Thomas--John xx. 26-29.</p>
+
+<p>   <i>Later appearances</i>. To seven disciples by the sea of Galilee--John
+   xxi. 1-24.</p>
+
+<p>   To a company of disciples in. Galilee--Matt, xxviii. 16-20; [Mark xvi.
+   15-18]; I. Cor. xv. 6.</p>
+
+<p>   The appearance to James--I. Cor. xv. 7.</p>
+
+<p>   To the disciples in Jerusalem, followed by the ascension--Mark xvi. 19,
+   20; Luke xxiv. 44-53; Acts i. 1-12; I. Cor. xv. 7.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<h2>IX</h2>
+
+<h3>The Resurrection</h3>
+
+
+
+<div class="section" id="s209"><p><span class="versenum">209.</span> Christianity as a historic religious movement starts from the
+resurrection of Jesus from the dead. This is very clear in the preaching
+and writings of Paul. The first distinctively Christian feature in his
+address at Athens is his statement that God had designated <a class="newpage" name="page202" id="page202" title="202"></a>Jesus to be
+the judge of men by having "raised him from the dead" (Acts xvii. 31), and
+for him the resurrection was the demonstration of the divinity of Christ
+(Rom. i. 4), and the confirmation of the Christian hope (I. Cor. xv.).
+With him the prime qualification for an apostle was that he should have
+seen the risen Lord (I. Cor. ix. 1). The early preaching as recorded in
+Acts shows the same feature, for after repeated testimony to the fact that
+God had raised up Jesus, Peter summed up his address with the declaration,
+"Let all the house of Israel therefore know assuredly, that God hath made
+him both Lord and Christ, this Jesus whom ye crucified" (Acts ii. 36). In
+fact the buoyancy of hope and confidence of faith which gave to the
+despised followers of the Nazarene their strength resulted directly from
+the experiences of the days which followed the deep gloom that settled
+over the disciples when Jesus died.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s210"><p><span class="versenum">210.</span> It can but seem strange to us that after Jesus had so often foretold
+his death and the resurrection which should follow it, his disciples were
+thrown into despair by the cross. Joseph of Arimathea and Nicodemus when
+they embalmed his body may not have known of these teachings which Jesus
+gave to the nearer circle of his followers, but it is difficult to believe
+that the women who prepared their spices to anoint his body (Mark xvi. 1)
+had heard nothing of these predictions, and it is certain that the
+apostles who received with incredulity the first news of the resurrection
+were the men whom Jesus had sought to prepare for this glorious victory.
+The disciples do not seem to have finished "questioning among themselves
+what the rising again from the dead should <a class="newpage" name="page203" id="page203" title="203"></a>mean" (Mark ix. 10, compare
+Luke xviii. 34) until Jesus himself explained it by his return to them
+after his crucifixion. It was formerly common to conclude from the
+scepticism of the disciples that Jesus could not have told them, as he is
+reported to have done, that he would rise again the third day. It is now
+widely conceded, however, that if he foresaw and foretold his death, he
+surely coupled with it a promise of resurrection, otherwise he must have
+surrendered his own conviction that he was Messiah; for a Messiah taken
+and held captive by death was apparently as foreign to Jesus' thought as
+it was unthinkable for the men of his generation. The inability of the
+disciples to adjust their Messianic ideas to the death of their Master was
+not removed by the rebuke Jesus administered to Peter at C&aelig;sarea Philippi;
+their objections were only silenced. It would seem that even when they saw
+his death to be inevitable, they were simply dumb with hope that in some
+way he would come off victor; the cross and the tomb crushed out that
+hope--at least from most of them. If one disciple, his closest friend,
+recalled and believed his words when he saw the empty tomb (John xx. 8),
+others were cast into still deeper sorrow by the report, and could only
+say, "But we hoped that it was he which should redeem Israel" (Luke xxiv.
+21).</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s211"><p><span class="versenum">211.</span> The light which banished the gloom from the hearts of Jesus'
+followers dawned suddenly. There was no time for gradual readjustment of
+ideas and the springing of hope from a faith which would not die. The
+uniform early tradition is that Jesus showed himself alive to his
+disciples "on the third day," that is, a little over thirty-six hours from
+the time of his <a class="newpage" name="page204" id="page204" title="204"></a>death. Not only the gospels, but Paul, who wrote many
+years before our evangelists, testify to this (I. Cor. xv. 4), as does the
+very early observance of the first day of the week as "the Lord's day,"
+and the substitution of "the third day" for "after three days" in the
+gospels which made use of our Gospel of Mark (compare parallels with Mark
+viii. 81; ix. 31; x. 34, and see Holtzmann, NtTh I. 309). Of the events
+which occurred on that third day and after, our earliest account is that
+of Paul. He gives a simple catalogue of the appearances of the risen Lord,
+referring to them as well known, in fact as the familiar subject matter of
+his earliest teaching (I. Cor. xv. 4-8). He gives definite date to none of
+these appearances, indicating only their sequence. He tells of six
+different manifestations, beginning with an appearance to Cephas on the
+third day, then to the twelve, then to a large company of
+disciples,--above five hundred,--then to James, then to all the apostles.
+The sixth in the list is his own experience, which he puts in the same
+class with the appearances of the first Easter morning. Two of these
+instances are found only in Paul's account, the appearance to James and to
+the five hundred brethren, though this last may probably be the same as is
+referred to in the Gospel of Matthew (xxviii. 16-20).</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s212"><p><span class="versenum">212.</span> The gospel records are much fuller, but they differ from each other
+even more than they do from Paul. Mark is unhappily incomplete, for the
+last twelve verses in that gospel, as we have it, are lacking in the
+oldest manuscripts, and were probably written by a second-century
+Christian named Aristion, as a substitute for the proper end of the gospel
+which seems by some acci<a class="newpage" name="page205" id="page205" title="205"></a>dent to have been lost. These twelve verses are
+clearly compiled from our other gospels. They have value as indicating the
+currency of the complete tradition in the early second century, but they
+contribute nothing to our knowledge of the resurrection. All, then, that
+Mark tells is that the women who came early on the first day of the week
+to anoint the body of Jesus found the tomb open and empty, and saw an
+angel who bade them tell the disciples that the Lord had risen. How the
+record originally continued no one knows, for Matthew and Luke use the
+same general testimony up to the point where Mark breaks off, and then go
+quite different ways. Of the two Matthew is closer to Mark than is Luke.
+The first gospel adds to the record of the second an account of an
+appearance of Jesus to the women as they went to report to the disciples,
+and then tells of the meeting of Jesus with the disciples on a mountain in
+Galilee, and his parting commission to them. It gives no account of the
+ascension. Luke agrees with Mark in general concerning the visit of the
+women to the tomb, the angelic vision, and the report to the disciples. He
+says nothing of an appearance of Jesus to the women on their flight from
+the tomb, but, if xxiv. 12 is genuine (see R.V. margin), he, like John,
+tells of Peter's visit to the sepulchre.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s213"><p><span class="versenum">213.</span> Luke further reports the appearances of Jesus to two on their way to
+Emmaus, to Simon, and to the eleven in Jerusalem,--this last being blended
+consciously or unconsciously with the final meeting of Jesus with the
+disciples before his ascension. The genuine text of the gospel (xxiv. 50)
+says nothing of the ascension itself, but clearly implies it. In contrast
+with Matthew it is noticeable that Luke shows no knowl<a class="newpage" name="page206" id="page206" title="206"></a>edge of any
+appearance of Jesus to his disciples in Galilee. John is quite independent
+of Mark, as well as of Matthew and Luke. He mentions only Mary Magdalene
+in connection with the early visit to the tomb, though perhaps he implies
+the presence of others with her ("we" in xx. 2). He tells of a visit of
+Peter and John to the tomb, of an appearance of Jesus to Mary Magdalene,
+of an appearance to ten of the disciples in the evening, and a week later
+to the eleven, including Thomas. So far this gospel makes no reference to
+appearances in Galilee; but in the appendix (chapter xxi.) there is added
+a manifestation to seven disciples as they were fishing on the Sea of
+Galilee.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s214"><p><span class="versenum">214.</span> Criticism which seeks to discredit the gospels, for instance most
+recently R&eacute;ville in his "J&eacute;sus de Nazareth," discovers two separate and
+mutually exclusive lines of tradition,--one telling of appearances in
+Galilee, represented by Mark and the last chapter in John, the other
+telling of appearances in or near Jerusalem, and found in Luke and the
+twentieth chapter of John. It is said that the gospels have sought to
+blend the two cycles, as when Matthew tells of an appearance to the women
+in Jerusalem on their way from the tomb, and when the last chapter of John
+adds to the original gospel a Galilean appearance. Luke, however, who
+makes no reference at all to Galilean manifestations, is taken to prove
+that originally the one cycle knew nothing of the other. This theory
+falls, however, before the uniform tradition of appearances on the third
+day, which must have been in Jerusalem, and the very early testimony of
+Paul to an appearance to above five hundred brethren at once, which could
+not have been in Judea. It need not surprise us that there <a class="newpage" name="page207" id="page207" title="207"></a>should have
+been two cycles of tradition, not however mutually exclusive, if Jesus did
+appear both in Jerusalem and in Galilee. The same kind of local interest
+which is supposed to explain the one-sidedness of the synoptic story of
+the public ministry would easily account for one line of tradition which
+reported Galilean appearances, and another which reported those in
+Jerusalem. Luke may have had access to information which furnished him
+only the Jerusalem story. John and Peter, however, must have known the
+wider facts. The very divergences and seeming contradictions of the
+gospels, troublesome as they are, indicate how completely certainty
+regarding the fact of the resurrection removed from the thought of the
+apostolic day nice carefulness concerning the testimony to individual
+manifestations of the risen Lord. Doubtless the first preaching rested, as
+in the case of Paul, on a simple "I have seen the Lord." When later the
+detailed testimony was wanted for written gospels, it had suffered the lot
+common to orally transmitted records, and divergences had sprung up which
+it is no longer possible for us to resolve. They do not, however,
+challenge the fact which lies behind all the varied testimony.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s215"><p><span class="versenum">215.</span> A general view of the events of that third day and those which
+followed can be constructed from our gospels and Paul. Early on the first
+day of the week certain women, including Mary Magdalene, Mary the mother
+of James and Joses, Salome, Joanna, and others, came to anoint the body of
+Jesus. On their arrival they found that the stone had been rolled back
+from the tomb. Mary Magdalene saw that the grave was empty and ran to tell
+Peter and John. The others saw <a class="newpage" name="page208" id="page208" title="208"></a>also a vision of angels which said that
+Jesus was alive and would see his disciples in Galilee, and ran to report
+this to the disciples. Meanwhile Mary Magdalene returned, following Peter
+and John who ran to see the tomb, and found it empty as she had said. She
+lingered after they left, and Jesus appeared to her, she mistaking him at
+first for the gardener. She then went to tell the disciples that she had
+seen the Lord. These events evidently occurred in the early morning. The
+next incident reported is that of the walk of two disciples, not of the
+twelve, to Emmaus, and the appearance of Jesus to them. At first they did
+not recognize him, not even when he taught them out of the scriptures the
+necessity that the Messiah should die. He was made known when at evening
+he sat down with them to a familiar meal. Either before or after this
+event he had shown himself to Peter. This is the first manifestation
+reported by Paul. If Luke xxiv. 12 is genuine (see R.V. margin), he also
+tells that when the two again reached Jerusalem the apostles received them
+with the news that Peter had seen the Lord. That same evening Jesus
+appeared suddenly among the disciples in their well-guarded upper room.
+His coming was such that he had to convince the disciples that he was not
+simply a disembodied spirit. Luke says that he did this by bidding them
+handle him, and by eating part of a fish before them. According to John,
+Thomas was not with the others at this first meeting with the disciples. A
+week later, presumably in Jerusalem, Jesus again manifested himself to the
+little company, Thomas being with them, and dispelled the doubt of that
+disciple who loved too deeply to indulge a hope which might <a class="newpage" name="page209" id="page209" title="209"></a>only
+disappoint. He had but to see in order to believe, and make supreme
+confession of his faith. The next appearance was probably that to the
+seven disciples by the Sea of Galilee, when Peter, who denied thrice, was
+thrice tested concerning his love for his Lord. Then apparently followed
+the meeting on the mountain reported in Matthew, which was probably the
+same as the appearance to the five hundred brethren; then, probably still
+in Galilee, Jesus appeared to his brother James, who from that time on was
+a leader among the disciples. The next manifestation of which record is
+preserved was the final one in Jerusalem, after which Jesus led his
+disciples out as far as Bethany and was separated from them, henceforth to
+be thought of by them as seated at the right hand of God.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s216"><p><span class="versenum">216.</span> This construction of the story as given in the New Testament does
+violence to the accounts in one particular. It holds that Matthew's report
+of the meeting of Jesus with the women on their way from the tomb on
+Easter morning is to be identified with his meeting with Mary Magdalene.
+This can be done only if it is supposed that in the transmission of the
+tradition the commission given the women by the angel (Mark xvi. 6f.)
+became blended with the message given to Mary by the Lord (John xx. 17),
+the result being virtually the same for the religious interest of the
+first Christians, while for the historic interest of our days it
+constitutes a discrepancy. The difficulty is less on this supposition than
+on any other. It is highly significant that the account of the most
+indubitable fact in the view of the early Christians is the most difficult
+portion of the gospels for the exact harmonist to deal with. This is not
+of <a class="newpage" name="page210" id="page210" title="210"></a>serious moment for the historical student. It is rather a warning
+against theoretical ideas of inspiration.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s217"><p><span class="versenum">217.</span> The universal acknowledgment that the early Christians firmly
+believed in the resurrection of their Lord has made the origin of that
+firm conviction a question of primary importance. The simple facts as set
+forth in the New Testament serve abundantly to account for the faith of
+the early church, but they not only involve a large recognition of the
+miraculous, they also contain perplexities for those who do not stumble at
+the supernatural; hence there have been many attempts to find other
+solutions of the problem. Some of the explanations offered may be
+dismissed with a word: for instance, those which, in one form or other,
+renew the old charge found in the first gospel, that the disciples stole
+the body of Jesus, and then declared that he had risen; and those which
+assume that the death of Jesus was apparent only, that he fainted on the
+cross, and then the chill of the night air and of the sepulchre served to
+revive him, so that in the morning he was able to leave the tomb and
+appear to his disciples as one risen from the dead. This apparent-death
+theory involves Jesus in an ugly deception, while the theory that the
+disciples or any group of them removed the body of Jesus and then gave
+currency to the notion that he had risen, builds the greatest ethical and
+religious movement known to history on a lie. A slightly different
+explanation which was very early suggested was that the Jews themselves,
+or perhaps the gardener, had the body removed, and that when Mary found
+the tomb empty she let her faith conclude that his absence must be due to
+his resurrection.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s218"><p><a class="newpage" name="page211" id="page211" title="211"></a><span class="versenum">218.</span> This last explanation has in recent times been revived in connection
+with the so-called vision-hypothesis by Renan and R&eacute;ville. Mary found the
+tomb empty, and being herself of a highly strung nervous nature--she had
+been cured by Jesus of seven devils--by thinking about the empty tomb she
+soon worked herself into an ecstasy in which her eyes seemed to behold
+what her heart desired to see. She communicated her vision to the others,
+and by a sort of nervous contagion, they, too, fell to seeing visions, and
+it is the report of these that we have in the gospels. The
+vision-hypothesis takes with some, Strauss for instance, a different form.
+These deny that the tomb was found empty at all, and regard this story as
+a contribution of the later legend-making spirit. They hold that the
+disciples fled from Jerusalem as soon as the death of Jesus was an assured
+fact, and not until after they found themselves amid the familiar scenes
+of Galilee, did their faith recover from the shock it had received in
+Jerusalem. In Galilee the experiences of their life with Jesus were lived
+over again, and the old confidence in him as Messiah revived. Thus
+thinking about the Lord, their hearts would say, "He cannot have died,"
+and after a while their faith rose to the conviction which declared, "He
+is not dead;" then they passed into an ecstatic mood and visions followed
+which are the germ out of which the gospel stories have grown.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s219"><p><span class="versenum">219.</span> These different forms of the vision-hypothesis have been subjected to
+most searching criticism by Keim, who is all the more severe because his
+own thought has so much that is akin to them. There are two objections
+which refute the hypothesis. The <a class="newpage" name="page212" id="page212" title="212"></a>first is that the uniform tradition
+which connects the resurrection and the first appearances with the "third
+day" after the crucifixion leaves far too short a time for the recovery of
+faith and the growth of ecstatic feeling which are requisite for these
+visions, even supposing that the disciples' faith had such recuperative
+powers. The second is that once such an ecstatic mood was acquired it
+would be according to experience in analogous cases for the visions to
+continue, if not to increase, as the thought of the risen Lord grew more
+clear and familiar; yet the tradition is uniform that the appearances of
+the risen Christ ceased after, at most, a few weeks. The only later one
+was that which led to the conversion of Paul; and though Paul was a man
+somewhat given to ecstatic experiences (see II. Cor. xii.), he carefully
+distinguishes in his own thought his seeing of the Lord and his heavenly
+visions. In a word, the disciples of Jesus never showed a more healthy,
+normal life than that which gave them strength to found a church of
+believers in the resurrection in the face of persecution and scorn.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s220"><p><span class="versenum">220.</span> Keim seeks to avoid the difficulties which his own acute criticism
+disclosed in the ordinary vision-theory, by another which rejects the
+gospel stories as legendary, yet frankly acknowledges that the faith of
+the apostles in the resurrection was based on a miracle. Their certainty
+was so unshakable, so uniform, so abiding, that it can be accounted for
+only by acknowledging that they did actually see the Lord. This seeing,
+however, was not with the eyes of sense, but with the spiritual vision,
+which properly perceives what pertains to the spirit world into which the
+glorified <a class="newpage" name="page213" id="page213" title="213"></a>Lord had withdrawn when he died. In his spiritual estate he
+manifested himself to his disciples, by a series of divinely caused and
+therefore essentially objective visions, in which he proved to them
+abundantly that he was alive, was victor over death, and had been exalted
+by God to his right hand. This theory is not in itself offensive to faith.
+It concedes that the belief of the disciples rested on actual disclosures
+of himself to them by the glorified Lord. The difficulty with the theory
+is that it relegates the empty tomb to the limbo of legend, though it is a
+feature of the tradition which is found in all the gospels and clearly
+implied in Paul (I. Cor. xv. 4; compare Rom. vi. 4); it also fails to show
+how this glorified Christ came to be thought of by the disciples as
+<i>risen</i>, rather than simply glorified in spirit. This criticism brings us
+back to the necessity of recognizing a resurrection which was in some real
+sense corporeal, difficult as that conception is for us. The gospels
+assert this with great simplicity and delicate reserve. They represent
+Jesus as returning to his disciples with a body which was superior to the
+limitations which hedge our lives about. It may be well described by
+Paul's words, "It is sown a natural body; it is raised a spiritual body."
+Yet the records indicate that when he willed Jesus could offer himself to
+the perception of other senses than sight and hearing--"handle me and see"
+is not an invitation that we expect from a spiritual presence. If,
+however, we have to confess an unsolved mystery here, and still more in
+the record of his eating in the presence of the disciples (Luke xxiv.
+41-43), it is permitted us to own that our knowledge of the possible
+conditions of the fully perfected <a class="newpage" name="page214" id="page214" title="214"></a>life are not such as to warrant great
+dogmatism in criticising the account. The empty tomb, the objective
+presence of the risen Jesus, the renewed faith of his followers, and their
+new power are established data for our thought. With these, many of the
+details may be left in mystery, because we have not yet light sufficient
+to reveal to us all that we should like to know.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s221"><p><span class="versenum">221.</span> The ascension of the risen Christ to his Father is the presupposition
+of all the New Testament teaching. The Acts, the Epistles, and the
+Apocalypse join in the representation that he is now at the right hand of
+God. In fact it may be said that such a view is involved in the doctrine
+of the resurrection, for the very idea of that victory was that death had
+no more dominion over him. It is a fact, however, that none of our gospels
+in their correct text (see Luke xxiv. 51, R.V. margin) tell of the
+ascension. Luke clearly implies it, and John says that Jesus told Mary to
+tell the disciples that he was about to ascend to his Father and their
+Father. In Luke's later book, however (Acts i. 1-11), he gives a full
+a<ins>c</ins>count of a last meeting of Jesus with the disciples, and of
+his ascension to heaven before their eyes. This withdrawal in the cloud
+must be understood as an acted parable; for, in reality, there is no
+reason for thinking that the clouds which hung over Olivet that day were
+any nearer God's presence than the ground on which the disciples stood.
+For them, however, such a disappearance would signify vividly the
+cessation of their earthly intercourse with their Lord, and his return to
+his home with the Father. The word of Jesus to Mary (John xx. 17) may
+fairly be interpreted to <a class="newpage" name="page215" id="page215" title="215"></a>mean that Jesus had ascended to the Father on
+the day of the resurrection, and that each of his subsequent
+manifestations of himself were like that which later he granted to Paul
+near Damascus. In fact it is easier to view the matter in this way than to
+conceive of Jesus as sojourning in some hidden place for forty days after
+his resurrection. What the disciples witnessed ten days before Pentecost
+was a withdrawal similar to those which had separated him from them
+frequently during the recent weeks, only now set before their eyes in such
+a way as to tell them that these manifestations had reached an end; they
+must henceforth wait for the other representative of God and Christ, the
+Spirit, given to them at Pentecost.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s222"><p><span class="versenum">222.</span> The faith with which the disciples waited for the promised spirit was
+a very different faith from that which Peter confessed for his fellows at
+C&aelig;sarea Philippi. It had the same supreme attachment to a personal friend
+who had proved to be God's Anointed; the same readiness to let him lead
+whithersoever he would; the same firm expectation of a restitution of all
+things, in which God should set up his kingdom visibly, with Jesus as the
+King of men. Now, however, their trust was much fuller than before, and
+they looked for a still more glorious kingdom when their friend and Lord
+should come from heaven to assume his reign. They expected Christ to
+return soon in glory, yet his death and victory made them ready to endure
+any persecution for him, certain that, like the sufferings which he
+endured, it would lead to victory. These disciples had no idea that in
+preaching a religion of personal attachment to their Master, in filling
+all men's thoughts with his name, in building <a class="newpage" name="page216" id="page216" title="216"></a>all hope on his return, and
+guiding all life by his teaching and spirit, they were cutting their
+moorings from the religion of their fathers. They remained loyal to the
+law, they were constant in the worship; but they had poured new wine into
+the bottles, and in time it proved the inadequacy of the old forms and
+revolutionized the world's religious life.</p></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+<div class="part" id="p03">
+<h2><a class="newpage" name="page217" id="page217" title="217"></a>Part III</h2>
+
+<h3>The Minister</h3>
+
+<p><a class="newpage" name="page218" id="page218" title="218"></a></p>
+
+<div class="chapter" id="p03-01">
+<h2><a class="newpage" name="page219" id="page219" title="219"></a>I</h2>
+
+<h3>The Friend of Men</h3>
+
+
+
+<div class="section" id="s223"><p><span class="versenum">223.</span> In nothing does the contrast between Jesus and John the Baptist
+appear more clearly than in their attitude towards common social life.
+John had his training and did his work apart from the homes of men. The
+wilderness was his chosen and fit scene of labor. From this solitude he
+sent forth his summons and warning to his people. They who sought him for
+fuller teaching went after him and found him where he was. They then
+returned to their homes and their work, leaving the prophet with his few
+disciples in their seclusion. With Jesus it was otherwise. His first act,
+after attaching to himself a few followers, was to go into Galilee to the
+town of Cana, and there with them to partake in the festivities of a
+wedding. While it is true that most of his teaching was by the wayside,
+among the hills, or by the sea, it is still a surprise to discover how
+often his ministry found its occasion as he was sitting at table in the
+house of some friend, real or feigned. The genuine friendships of Jesus as
+they appear in the gospels are among the most characteristic features of
+his life--witness the home at Bethany, the women who followed him even to
+the cross, and ministered to him of their substance, and the "beloved
+disciple." Jesus calls attention to this contrast between himself and
+John, reminding the people <a class="newpage" name="page220" id="page220" title="220"></a>how some of the scornful pointed the finger at
+himself as "a gluttonous man and a wine-bibber, a friend of publicans and
+sinners." He received his training as a carpenter while John was in his
+wilderness solitude. Men who would probably have stood with admiration
+before John had he visited their synagogue, found Jesus too much one of
+themselves, and would none of him as a prophet (Mark vi. 2, 3).</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s224"><p><span class="versenum">224.</span> A like contrast sets Jesus apart from the scribes of his day. These
+were revered by the people, in part perhaps because they held the common
+folk in such contempt. Their attitude was frank--"this multitude which
+knoweth not the law is accursed" (John vii. 49). The popular enthusiasm
+for Jesus filled them with scorn, until it began to give them alarm. They
+were glad to be reverenced by the people, to interpret the law for them
+"binding heavy burdens and grievous to be borne;" but showed little
+genuine interest in them. Jesus, on the other hand, not only had the
+reverence of the multitudes, but welcomed them. First his words and his
+works drew them, then he himself enchained their hearts. Outcasts, rich
+and poor, crowded into his company, and found him not only a teacher, a
+prophet of righteousness rebuking their sins and calling to repentance,
+but a friend, who was not ashamed to be seen in their homes, to have them
+among his closest attendants, and to be known as their champion. It was
+when such as these were pressing upon him to hear him that Jesus replied
+to the criticism of the scribes in the three parables of recovered
+treasure which stand among the rarest gems of the Master's teaching (Luke
+xv.).</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s225"><p><a class="newpage" name="page221" id="page221" title="221"></a><span class="versenum">225.</span> One class only in the community failed of his sympathy,--the
+self-righteous hypocrites, who thought that godliness consisted in
+scrupulous regard for pious ceremonies, and that zeal was most laudable
+when directed to the removal of motes from their brothers' eyes. For these
+Jesus had words of rebuke and burning scorn. It has been common with some
+to emphasize his friendship for the poor as if he chose them for their
+poverty, and the unlettered for their ignorance. Yet Jesus had no faster
+friends than the women who followed from Galilee and ministered to him of
+their substance, and the two sanhedrists, Joseph whose new tomb received
+his body, and Nicodemus whose liberality provided the spices which
+embalmed him; for these, and not the Galilean fishermen, were faithful to
+the last at the cross and at the grave. In no home did Jesus find a fuller
+or more welcome friendship than in Bethany, where all that is told us of
+its conditions suggests the opposite of poverty. The rich young ruler, who
+showed his too great devotion to his possessions, would hardly have sought
+out Jesus with his question, if he was known as the champion of poverty as
+in itself essential to godliness. The demand made of him surprised him,
+and was suited to his special case. Jesus saw clearly the difficulties
+which wealth puts in the way of faith, but he recognized the power of God
+to overcome them, and when Zaccheus turned disciple, the demand for
+complete surrender of possessions was not repeated. On the contrary Jesus
+taught his disciples that even "the unrighteous mammon" should be used to
+win friends (Luke xvi. 9), so ministering unto some of "the least of these
+my brethren" (Matt. xxv. 40). The beatitude <a class="newpage" name="page222" id="page222" title="222"></a>in Luke's report of the
+sermon on the mount (Luke vi. 20) was not for the poor as poor simply, but
+for those poor folk lightly esteemed who had spiritual sense enough to
+follow Jesus, while the well-to-do as a class were content with the
+"consolation" already in hand. Jesus' interest was in character, wherever
+it was manifest, whether in the repentance of a chief of the publicans, or
+in the widow woman's gift of "all her living;" whether it appeared in the
+hunger for truth shown by Nicodemus, a teacher of Israel, or in the woman
+that was a sinner who washed his feet with her tears. He was the great
+revealer of the worth of simple humanity, in man, woman, or child. Our
+world has never seen another who so surely penetrated all masks or
+disguising circumstances and found the man himself, and having found him
+loved him.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s226"><p><span class="versenum">226.</span> This sympathy for simple manhood was manifested in a genuine interest
+in the common life of men in business, pleasure, or trouble. It is
+significant that the first exercise of his miraculous power should have
+been to relieve the embarrassment of his host at a wedding feast.
+Doubtless we are to understand that the miracle had a deeper purpose than
+simply supplying the needed wine (John ii. 11); but the significant thing
+is that Jesus should choose to manifest his glory in this way. It shows a
+genuine appreciation of social life quite impossible to an ascetic like
+the Baptist. The same appears in the way Jesus allowed his publican
+apostle to introduce him to his former associates, to the great scandal of
+the Pharisees; for a feast at which Jesus and a number of publicans were
+the chief guests accorded not with religion as they understood it. Jesus,
+however, seems to have found <a class="newpage" name="page223" id="page223" title="223"></a>it a welcome opportunity to seek some of his
+lost sheep. The illustrations which he used in his teaching were often his
+best introduction to the common heart, for they were drawn from the
+occupations of the people who came to listen; while the aid Jesus gave to
+his disciples in their fishing showed not only his power, but also his
+respect for their work, a respect further proved when he called them to be
+fishers of men.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s227"><p><span class="versenum">227.</span> Beyond this interest in life's joy and its occupations was that
+unfailing sympathy with its troubles which drew the multitudes to him. He
+was far more than a healer; he studied to rid the people of the idea that
+he was a mere miracle-monger. He healed them because he loved them, and he
+asked of those who sought his help that they too should feel the personal
+relation into which his power had brought them. This seems to be in part
+the significance of his uniform demand for faith. Doubtless Mary, out of
+whom he had cast seven devils, and Simon the leper, who seems to have
+experienced his power to heal, are only single instances of many who found
+in him far more than at first they sought. No further record remains of
+the paralytic who carried off his bed, but left the burden of his sins
+behind, nor of the woman who loved much because she had been forgiven
+much, nor of the Samaritan whose life he uncovered that he might be able
+to give her the living water. Some who had his help for body or heart may
+have gone away forgetful, after the fashion of men, but in the company of
+those who were bold to bear his name after his resurrection there must
+have been many who could not forget.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s228"><p><a class="newpage" name="page224" id="page224" title="224"></a><span class="versenum">228.</span> Jesus' interest in common life was genuine, and he entered into it
+with his heart. The incident of the anointing of his feet as he sat a
+guest in a Pharisee's house shows that he was keenly sensitive to the
+treatment he received at the hands of men. He had nothing to say of the
+slights his host had shown him, until that host began mentally to
+criticise the woman who was ministering to him in her love and penitence.
+Then with quiet dignity Jesus mentioned the several omissions of courtesy
+which he had noticed since he came in, contrasting the woman's attention
+with Simon's neglect (Luke vii. 36-50). One of the saddest things about
+Gethsemane was Jesus' vain pleading with his disciples for sympathy in his
+awful hour. They were too much dazed with awe and fear to lend him their
+hearts' support. He recognized indeed that it was only a weakness of the
+flesh; yet he craved their friendship's help, and repeatedly asked them to
+watch with him, for his soul was exceeding sorrowful. In contrast with
+this disappointment stands the joy with which Jesus heard from Peter the
+confession which proved that the falling off of popular enthusiasm had not
+shaken the loyalty of his chosen companions,--"Blessed art thou, Simon
+Bar-Jonah: for flesh and blood have not revealed it unto thee, but my
+Father which is in heaven" (Matt. xvi. 17). There is the sorrow of
+loneliness as well as rebuke in his complaint, "O faithless generation,
+how long shall I be with you? how long shall I bear with you?" (Mark ix.
+19), and the lamentation over Jerusalem comes from a longing heart (Luke
+xiii. 34).</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s229"><p><span class="versenum">229.</span> The independence of human sympathy which Jesus often showed is all
+the more glorious for the <a class="newpage" name="page225" id="page225" title="225"></a>evidence the gospels give of his longing for
+it. When he put the question to the twelve, "Would ye also go away?" (John
+vi. 67), there is no hint in his manner that their defection with the rest
+would turn him at all from faithfully fulfilling the task appointed to him
+by his Father. In fact only now and then did he allow his own hunger to
+appear. Ordinarily he showed himself as the friend longing to help, but
+not seeking ministry from others; he rather sought to win his disciples to
+unselfishness by showing as well as saying that he came not to be
+ministered unto but to minister. He washed the feet of his disciples to
+rebuke their petty jealousies, but we have no hint that he showed that he
+felt personal neglect. His own heart was full of "sorrow even unto death,"
+but his word was, "Let not your heart be troubled;" he asked in vain for
+the sympathy of his nearest friends in Gethsemane, yet when the band came
+to arrest him he pleaded, "Let these, the disciples, go their way."</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<div class="chapter" id="p03-02">
+<h2><a class="newpage" name="page226" id="page226" title="226"></a>II</h2>
+
+<h3>The Teacher with Authority</h3>
+
+
+
+<div class="section" id="s230"><p><span class="versenum">230.</span> To his contemporaries Jesus was primarily a teacher. The name by
+which he is oftenest named in the gospels is Teacher,--translated Master
+in the English versions and the equivalent of Rabbi in the language used
+by Jesus (John i. 38). People thought of him as a rabbi approved of God by
+his power to work miracles (John iii. 2), but it was not the miracles that
+most impressed them. The popular comment was, "He taught them as one
+having authority, and not as the scribes" (Matt. vii. 29). Two leading
+characteristics of the scribes were their pride of learning, and their
+bondage to tradition. In fact the learning of which they were proud was
+knowledge of the body of tradition on whose sanctity they insisted; their
+teaching was scholastic and pedantic, an endless citing of precedents and
+discussion of trifles. To all this Jesus presented a refreshing contrast.
+In commending truth to the people, he was content with a simple "verily,"
+and in defining duty he rested on his unsupported "I say unto you," even
+when his dictum stood opposed to that which had been said to them of old
+time.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s231"><p><span class="versenum">231.</span> In this freedom from the bondage of tradition Jesus was not alone.
+John the Baptist's message had been as simple and unsupported by appeal to
+the elders. <a class="newpage" name="page227" id="page227" title="227"></a>Jesus and John both revived the method of the older prophets,
+and it is in large measure due to this that the people distinguished them
+clearly from their ordinary teachers, and held them both to be prophets.
+One thing involved in this authoritative method was a frank appeal to the
+conscience of men. So completely had the scribes substituted memory of
+tradition for appeal to the simple sense of right, that they were utterly
+dazed when Jesus undertook to settle questions of Sabbath observance and
+ceremonial cleanliness by asking his hearers to use their religious common
+sense, and consider whether a man is not much better than a sheep, or
+whether a man is not defiled rather by what comes out of his mouth than by
+what enters into it (Matt. xii. 12; Mark vii. 15). Jesus was for his
+generation the great discoverer of the conscience, and for all time the
+champion of its dignity against finespun theory and traditional practice.
+All his teaching has this quality in greater or less degree. It appears
+when by means of the parable of the Good Samaritan he makes the lawyer
+answer his own question (Luke x. 25-37), when he bids the multitude in
+Jerusalem "judge not according to the appearance, but judge righteous
+judgment" (John vii. 24), when he asks his inquisitors in the temple whose
+image and superscription the coin they used in common business bears (Mark
+xii. 16). His whole work in Galilee was proof of his confidence that in
+earnest souls the conscience would be his ally, and that he could impress
+himself on them far more indelibly than any sign from heaven could enforce
+his claim.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s232"><p><span class="versenum">232.</span> Jesus was not only independent of the traditions of the scribes, he
+was also very free at times with <a class="newpage" name="page228" id="page228" title="228"></a>the letter of the Old Testament. When by
+a word he "made all meats clean" (Mark vii. 19), he set himself against
+the permanent validity of the Levitical ritual. When the Pharisees pleaded
+Moses for their authority in the matter of divorce, Jesus referred them
+back of Moses to the original constitution of mankind (Matt. xix. 3-9).
+His general attitude to the Sabbath was not only opposed to the traditions
+of the scribes, it also disregarded the Old Testament conception of the
+Sabbath as an institution. Yet Jesus took pains to declare that he came
+not to set aside the old but to fulfil it (Matt. v. 17). The contrasts
+which he draws between things said to them of old and his new teachings
+(Matt. v. 21-48) look at first much like a doing away of the old. Jesus
+did not so conceive them. He rather thought of them as fresh statements of
+the idea which underlay the old; they fulfilled the old by realizing more
+fully that which it had set before an earlier generation. He was the most
+radical teacher the men of his day could conceive, but his work was
+clearing rubbish away from the roots of venerable truth that it might bear
+fruit, rather than rooting up the old to put something else in its place.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s233"><p><span class="versenum">233.</span> The Old Testament was for Jesus a holy book. His mind was filled with
+its stories and its language. In the teachings which have been preserved
+for us he has made use of writings from all parts of the Jewish
+scriptures--Law, Prophets, and Psalms. The Old Testament furnished him the
+weapons for his own soul's struggle with temptation (Matt. iv. 4, 7, 10),
+it gave him arguments for use against his opponents (Mark xii. 24-27; ii.
+25-27), and it was for him an inexhaustible storehouse of <a class="newpage" name="page229" id="page229" title="229"></a>illustration in
+his teaching. When inquirers sought the way of life he pointed them to the
+scriptures (Mark x. 19; see also John v. 39), and declared that the rising
+of one from the dead would not avail for the warning of those who were
+unmoved by Moses and the prophets (Luke xvi. 31). When Jesus' personal
+attitude to the Old Testament is considered it is noticeable that while
+his quotations and allusions cover a wide range, and show very general
+familiarity with the whole book, there appears a decided predominance of
+Deuteronomy, the last part of Isaiah, and the Psalms. It is not difficult
+to see that these books are closer in spirit to his own thought than much
+else in the old writings; his use of the scripture shows that some parts
+appealed to him more than others.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s234"><p><span class="versenum">234.</span> Jesus as a teacher was popular and practical rather than systematic
+and theoretical. The freshness of his ideas is proof that he was not
+lacking in thorough and orderly thinking, for his complete departure from
+current conceptions of the kingdom of God indicates perfect mastery of
+ethical and theological truth. It is all the more remarkable, therefore,
+that so much of his profoundest teaching seems to have been almost
+accidental. The most formal discourse preserved to us is the sermon on the
+mount, in which human conduct is regulated by the thought of God as Father
+and Searcher of hearts. For the rest the great ideas of Jesus have
+utterance in response to specific conditions presented to him in his
+ministry. His most radical sayings concerning the Sabbath followed a
+criticism of his disciples for plucking ears of grain as they passed
+through the fields on the Sabbath day (Mark ii. 23-28); his authority to
+forgive sins was announced when a paralytic <a class="newpage" name="page230" id="page230" title="230"></a>was brought to him for
+healing (Mark ii. 1-12); so far as the gospels indicate, we should have
+missed Jesus' clearest statement of the significance of his own death but
+for the ambitious request of James and John (Mark x. 35-45). Examples of
+the occasional character of his teaching might be greatly multiplied. He
+did not seek to be the founder of a school; important as his teachings
+were, they take a place in his work second to his personal influence on
+his followers. He desired to win disciples whose faith in him would
+withstand all shocks, rather than to train experts who would pass on his
+ideas to others. His disciples did become experts, for we owe to them the
+vivid presentation we have of the exalted and unique teaching of their
+Master; but they were thus skilful because they surrendered themselves to
+his personal mastery, and learned to know the springs of his own life and
+thought.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s235"><p><span class="versenum">235.</span> Nothing in the teaching of Jesus is more remarkable than his
+confidence that men who believed in him would adequately represent him and
+his message to the world. The parable of the Leaven seems to have set
+forth his own method. We owe our gospels to no injunction given by him to
+write down what he said and did. He impressed himself on his followers,
+filled them with a love to himself which made them sensitive to his ideas
+as a photographic plate is to light, teaching them his truth in forms that
+did not at first show any effect on their thought, but were developed into
+strength and clearness by the experiences of the passing years. Christian
+ethics and theology are far more than an orderly presentation of the
+teaching of Jesus; in so far as they are purely Christian they are the
+systematic setting forth of truth involved, <a class="newpage" name="page231" id="page231" title="231"></a>though not expressed, in what
+he said and did in his ministry among men. His ideas were radical and
+thoroughly revolutionary. His method, however, had in it all the patience
+of God's working in nature, and the hidden noiseless power of an evolution
+is its characteristic. Hence it was that he chose to teach some things
+exclusively in figure. So great and unfamiliar a truth as the gradual
+development of God's kingdom was unwelcome to the thought of his time. He
+made it, therefore, the theme of many of his parables; and although the
+disciples did not understand what he meant, the picture remained with
+them, and in after years they grew up to his idea.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s236"><p><span class="versenum">236.</span> Jesus' use of illustration is one of the most marked features of his
+teaching. In one sense this simply proves him to be a genuine Oriental,
+for to contemplate and present abstract truths in concrete form is
+characteristic of the Semitic mind. In the case of Jesus, however, it
+proves more: the variety and homeliness of his illustrations show how
+completely conversant he was alike with common life and with spiritual
+truth. There is a freedom and ease about his use of figurative language
+which suggests, as nothing else could, his own clear certainty concerning
+the things of which he spoke. The fact, too, that his mind dealt so
+naturally with the highest thoughts has made his illustrations unique for
+profound truth and simple beauty. Nearly the whole range of figurative
+speech is represented in his recorded words, including forms like irony
+and hyperbole, often held to be unnatural to such serious speech as his.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s237"><p><span class="versenum">237.</span> Another figure has become almost identified with the name of
+Jesus,--such abundant and incom<a class="newpage" name="page232" id="page232" title="232"></a>parable use did he make of it. Parable
+was, however, no invention of his, for the rabbis of his own and later
+times, as well as the sages and prophets who went before them, made use of
+it. As distinguished from other forms of illustration, the parable is a
+picture true to actual human life, used to enforce a religious truth. The
+picture may be drawn in detail, as in the story of the Lost Son (Luke xv.
+11-32), or it may be the concisest narration possible, as in the parable
+of the Leaven (Matt. xiii. 33); but it always retains its character as a
+narrative true to human experience. It is this that gives parable the
+peculiar value it has for religious teaching, since it brings unfamiliar
+truth close home to every-day life. Like all the illustrations used by
+Jesus, the parable was ordinarily chosen as a means of making clear the
+spiritual truth which he was presenting. Illustration never finds place as
+mere ornament in his addresses. His parables, however, were sometimes used
+to baffle the unteachable and critical. Such was the case on the occasion
+in Jesus' life when attention is first called in the gospels to this mode
+of teaching (Mark iv. 1-34). The parable of the Sower would mean little to
+hearers who held the crude and material ideas of the kingdom which
+prevailed among Jesus' contemporaries. It was used as an invitation to
+consider a great truth, and for teachable disciples was full of suggestion
+and meaning; while for the critical curiosity of unfriendly hearers it was
+only a pointless story,--a means adopted by Jesus to save his pearls from
+being trampled under foot, and perhaps also to prevent too early a
+decision against him on the part of his opponents.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s238"><p><span class="versenum">238.</span> In nothing is Jesus' ease in handling deepest <a class="newpage" name="page233" id="page233" title="233"></a>truth more apparent
+than in his use of irony and hyperbole in his illustrations. In his
+reference to the Pharisees as "ninety and nine just persons which need no
+repentance" (Luke xv. 7), and in his question, "Many good works have I
+shewed you from the Father, for which of these works do you stone me?"
+(John x. 32), the irony is plain, but not any plainer than the rhetorical
+exaggeration of his accusation against the scribes, "You strain out a gnat
+and swallow a camel" (Matt, xxiii. 24), or his declaration that "it is
+easier for a camel to go through a needle's eye than for a rich man to
+enter into the kingdom of God" (Mark x. 25), or his charge, "If a man
+cometh unto me and hateth not his own father and mother ... he cannot be
+my disciple" (Luke xiv. 26). The force of these statements is in their
+hyperbole. Only to an interpretation which regards the letter above the
+spirit can they cause difficulty. In so far as they remove Jesus utterly
+from the pedantic carefulness for words which marked the scribes they are
+among the rare treasures of his teachings. The simple spirit will not busy
+itself about finding something that may be called a needle's eye through
+which a camel can pass by squeezing, nor will it seek a camel which could
+conceivably be swallowed, nor will it stumble at a seeming command to hate
+those for whom God's law, as emphasized indeed by Jesus (Mark vii. 6-13),
+demands peculiar love and honor. The childlike spirit which is heir of
+God's kingdom readily understands this warning against the snare of
+riches, this rebuke of the hypocritical life, and this demand for a love
+for the Master which shall take the first place in the heart.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s239"><p><span class="versenum">239.</span> Jesus sometimes used object lessons as well as <a class="newpage" name="page234" id="page234" title="234"></a>illustrations, and
+for the same purpose,--to make his thought transparently clear to his
+hearers. The demand for a childlike faith in order to enter the kingdom of
+God was enforced by the presence of a little child whom Jesus set in the
+midst of the circle to whom he was talking (Mark ix. 35-37). The unworthy
+ambitions of the disciples were rebuked by Jesus' taking himself the
+menial place and washing their feet (John xiii. 1-15).</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s240"><p><span class="versenum">240.</span> The simplicity and homeliness of Jesus' teaching are not more
+remarkable than the alertness of mind which he showed on all occasions.
+The comment of the fourth gospel, "he needed not that any one should bear
+witness concerning man, for he himself knew what was in man" (ii. 25),
+doubtless refers to his supernatural insight, but it also tells of his
+quick perception of what was involved in each situation in which he found
+himself. Whether it was Nicodemus coming to him by night, or the lawyer
+asking, "Who is my neighbor?" or a dissatisfied heir demanding that his
+brother divide the inheritance with him, or a group of Pharisees seeking
+to undermine his power by attributing his cures to the devil, or trying to
+entrap him by a question about tribute, Jesus was never caught unawares.
+His absorption in heavenly truth was not accompanied by any blindness to
+earthly facts. He knew what the men of his day were thinking about, what
+they hoped for, to what follies they gave their hearts, and what sins hid
+God from them. He was eminently a man of the people, thoroughly acquainted
+with all that interested his fellows, and in the most natural, human way.
+Whatever of the supernatural there was in his knowledge did not make it
+unnatural. <a class="newpage" name="page235" id="page235" title="235"></a>As he was socially at ease with the best and most cultivated
+of his day, so he was intellectually the master of every situation. This
+appears nowhere more strikingly than in his dealing with his pharisaic
+critics. When they were shocked by his forgiveness of sins, or offended by
+his indifference to the Sabbath tradition, or goaded into blasphemy by his
+growing influence over the people, or troubled by his disciples' disregard
+of the traditional washings, or when later they conspired to entrap him in
+his speech,--from first to last he was so manifestly superior to his
+opponents that they withdrew discomfited, until at length they in madness
+killed, without reason, him against whom they could find no adequate
+charge. His lack of "learning" (John vii. 15) was simply his innocence of
+rabbinic training; he had no diploma from their schools. In keenness of
+argument, however, and invincibleness of reasoning, as well as in the
+clearness of his insight, he was ever their unapproachable superior. His
+reply to the charge of league with Beelzebub is as merciless an exposure
+of feeble malice as can be found in human literature. He was as worthy to
+be Master of his disciples' thinking as he was to be Lord of their hearts.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s241"><p><span class="versenum">241.</span> In the teaching of Jesus two topics have the leading place,--the
+Kingdom of God, and Himself. His thought about himself calls for separate
+consideration, but it may be remarked here that as his ministry progressed
+he spoke with increasing frankness about his own claims. It became more
+and more apparent that he sought to be Lord rather than Teacher simply,
+and to impress men with himself rather than with his ideas. Yet his ideas
+were constantly urged on his disciples, and they were summed up in his
+conception <a class="newpage" name="page236" id="page236" title="236"></a>of the kingdom of God, or the kingdom of heaven. This was the
+topic, directly or indirectly, of far the greater part of his teaching.
+The phrase was as familiar to his contemporaries as it is common in his
+words; but his understanding of it was radically different from theirs. He
+and they took it to mean the realization on earth of heavenly conditions
+(kingdom of heaven), or of God's actual sovereignty over the world
+(kingdom of God); but of the God whose will was thus to be realized they
+conceived quite differently. Strictly speaking there is nothing novel in
+the idea of God as Father which abounds in the teaching of Jesus. He never
+offers it as novel, but takes it for granted that his hearers are familiar
+with the name. It appears in some earlier writers both in and out of the
+Old Testament. Yet no one of them uses it as constantly, as naturally, and
+as confidently as did Jesus. With him it was the simple equivalent of his
+idea of God, and it was central for his personal religious life as well as
+for his teaching. "My Father" always lies back of references in his
+teaching to "your Father." This is the key to what is novel in Jesus' idea
+of the kingdom of God. His contemporaries thought of God as the covenant
+king of Israel who would in his own time make good his promises, rid his
+people of their foes, set them on high among the nations, establish his
+law in their hearts, and rule over them as their king. The whole
+conception, while in a real sense religious, was concerned more with the
+nation than with individuals, and looked rather for temporal blessings
+than for spiritual good. With Jesus the kingdom is the realization of
+God's fatherly sway over the hearts of his children. It begins when men
+come to own God as their Father, and <a class="newpage" name="page237" id="page237" title="237"></a>seek to do his will for the love
+they bear him. It shows development towards its full manifestation when
+men as children of God look on each other as brothers, and govern conduct
+by love which will no more limit itself to friends than God shuts off his
+sunlight from sinners. From this love to God and men it will grow into a
+new order of things in which God's will shall be done as it is in heaven,
+even as from the little leaven the whole lump is leavened. Jesus did not
+set aside the idea of a judgment, but while his fellows commonly made it
+the inauguration, he made it the consummation of the kingdom; they thought
+of it as the day of confusion for apostates and Gentiles, he taught that
+it would be the day of condemnation of all unbrotherliness (Matt. xxv.
+31-46). This central idea--a new order of life in which men have come to
+love and obey God as their Father, and to love and live for men as their
+brothers--attaches to itself naturally all the various phases of the
+teaching of Jesus, including his emphasis on himself; for he made that
+emphasis in order that, as the Way, the Truth, and the Life, he might lead
+men unto the Father.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<div class="chapter" id="p03-03">
+<h2><a class="newpage" name="page238" id="page238" title="238"></a>III</h2>
+
+<h3>Jesus' Knowledge of Truth</h3>
+
+
+
+<div class="section" id="s242"><p><span class="versenum">242.</span> The note of authority in the teaching of Jesus is evidence of his own
+clear knowledge of the things of which he spoke. As if by swift intuition,
+his mind penetrated to the heart of things. In the scriptures he saw the
+underlying truth which should stand till heaven and earth shall pass
+(Matt. v. 18); in the ceremonies of his people's religion he saw so
+clearly the spiritual significance that he did not hesitate to sacrifice
+the passing form (Mark vii. 14-23); such a theological development as the
+pharisaic doctrine of the resurrection he unhesitatingly adopted because
+he saw that it was based on the ultimate significance of the soul's
+fellowship with God (Mark xiii. 24-27); he reduced religion and ethics to
+simplicity by summing up all commandments in one,--Thou shalt love (Matt.
+xxii. 37-40); and at the same time insisted as no other prophet had done
+on the finality of conduct and the necessity of obedience (Matt. vii.
+21-27). His penetration to the heart of an idea was nowhere more clear
+than in his doctrine of the kingdom of God as realized in the filial soul,
+and as involving a judgment which should take cognizance only of
+brotherliness of conduct. It would not be difficult to show that all these
+different aspects of his teaching grew naturally out of <a class="newpage" name="page239" id="page239" title="239"></a>his knowledge of
+God as his Father and the Father of all men; they were the fruit,
+therefore, of personal certainty of ultimate and all-dominating truth.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s243"><p><span class="versenum">243.</span> If the knowledge of Jesus had been shown only in matters of spiritual
+truth, it would still have marked him as one apart from ordinary men.
+There were other directions, however, in which he surpassed the common
+mind. The fourth gospel declares that "he knew what was in man" (ii. 25),
+and all the evangelists give evidence of such knowledge. Not only the
+designation of Judas as the traitor, and of Peter as the one who should
+deny him, before their weakness and sin had shown themselves, but also
+Jesus' quick reading of the heart of the paralytic who was brought to him
+for healing, and of the woman who washed his feet with her tears (Mark ii.
+5; Luke vii. 47), and his knowledge of the character of Simon and
+Nathanael (John i. 42, 47,) as well as his sure perception of the intent
+of the various questioners whom he met, indicate that he had powers of
+insight unshared by his fellow men.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s244"><p><span class="versenum">244.</span> Furthermore, the gospels state explicitly that Jesus predicted his
+own death from a time at least six months before the end (Matt. xvi. 21),
+and they indicate that the idea was not new to him when he first
+communicated it to his disciples (Matt. xvi. 23; Mark ii. 20). He viewed
+his approaching death, moreover, as a necessity (Mark viii. 31-33), yet he
+was no fatalist concerning it. He could still in Gethsemane plead with his
+Father, to whom all things are possible, to open to him some other way of
+accomplishing his work (Mark xiv. 36). The old Testament picture of the
+suffering and dying servant of Jehovah (Isa. liii.) <a class="newpage" name="page240" id="page240" title="240"></a>was doubtless
+familiar to Jesus. Although it was not interpreted Messianically by the
+scribes, Jesus probably applied it to himself when thinking of his death;
+yet the predictions of the prophets always provided for a non-fulfilment
+in case Israel should turn unto the Lord in truth (see Ezek. xxxiii.
+10-20). Moreover, the contradiction which Jesus felt between his ideas and
+those cherished by the leaders of his people, whether priests or scribes,
+was so radical that his death might well seem inevitable; yet it was
+possible that his people might repent, and Jerusalem consent to accept him
+as God's anointed. Neither prophecy, nor the actual conditions of his
+life, therefore, would give Jesus any fatalistic certainty of his coming
+death. In Gethsemane his heart pleaded against it, while his will bowed
+still to God in perfect loyalty. It is not for us to explain his
+prediction of death by appealing to the connection which the apostolic
+thought established between the death of Christ and the salvation of men,
+for we are not competent to say that God could not have effected
+redemption in some other way if the repentance of the Jews had, humanly
+speaking, removed from Jesus the necessity of death. All that can be said
+is that he knew the prophetic picture, knew also the hardness of heart
+which had taken possession of the Jews, and knew that he must not swerve
+from his course of obedience to what he saw to be God's will for him.
+Since that obedience brought him into fatal opposition to human prejudice
+and passion, he saw that he must die, and that such a death was one of the
+steps in his establishment of God's kingdom among men. So he went on his
+way ready "not to be ministered unto but to <a class="newpage" name="page241" id="page241" title="241"></a>minister, and to give his
+life a ransom for many" (Mark x. 45).</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s245"><p><span class="versenum">245.</span> With his prediction of his death the gospels usually associate a
+prophecy of his speedy resurrection. As has been already remarked (sect.
+210), it is being generally recognized that if Jesus believed that he was
+the Messiah, he must have associated with the thought of death that of
+victory over death, which for all Jewish minds meant a resurrection from
+the dead. Jesus certainly taught that his death was part of his Messianic
+work, it could not therefore be his end. The prediction of the
+resurrection is the necessary corollary of his expectation of death; and
+it may reverently be believed that his knowledge of it was intimately
+involved with his certainty that it was as Messiah that he was to die.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s246"><p><span class="versenum">246.</span> From the time when he began to tell his disciples that he must die,
+Jesus began also to teach that his earthly ministry was not to finish his
+work, but that he should return in glory from heaven to realize fully all
+that was involved in the idea of God's kingdom. His predictions resemble
+in form the representations found in the Book of Daniel and the Book of
+Enoch; and the understanding of them is involved in difficulties like
+those which beset such apocalyptic writings. In general, apocalypses were
+written in times of great distress for God's people, and represented the
+deliverance which should usher in God's kingdom as near at hand. One
+feature of them is a complete lack of perspective in the picture of the
+future. It may be that this fact will in part account for one great
+perplexity in the apocalyptic sayings of Jesus. In the chief of these
+(Mark xiii. and parallels), <a class="newpage" name="page242" id="page242" title="242"></a>predictions of the destruction of Jerusalem
+are so mingled with promises of his own second coming and the end of all
+things that many have sought to resolve the difficulty by separating the
+discourse into two different ones,--one a short Jewish apocalypse
+predicting the destruction of Jerusalem and the coming of the Son of Man
+within the life of that generation; the other, Jesus' own prediction of
+the end of all things, concerning which he warns his disciples that they
+be not deceived, but watch diligently and patiently for God's full
+salvation. The difficulties of this discourse as it stands are so great
+that any solution which accounts for all the facts must be welcomed. So
+far as this analysis seeks to remove from the account of Jesus' own words
+the references to a fulfilment of the predictions within the life of that
+generation, it is confronted by other sayings of Jesus (Mark ix. 1) and by
+the problem of the uniform belief of the apostolic age that he would
+speedily return. That belief must have had some ground. What more natural
+than that words of Jesus, rightly or wrongly understood, led to the common
+Christian expectation? Some such analysis may yet establish itself as the
+true solution of the difficulties; it may be, however, that in adopting
+the apocalyptic form of discourse, Jesus also adopted its lack of
+perspective, and spoke coincidently of future events in the progress of
+the kingdom, which, in their complete realization at least, were widely
+separated in time. In such a case it would not be strange if the disciples
+looked for the fulfilment of all of the predictions within the limit
+assigned for the accomplishment of some of them.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s247"><p><span class="versenum">247.</span> Whatever the explanation of these difficulties, <a class="newpage" name="page243" id="page243" title="243"></a>the gospels clearly
+represent Jesus as predicting his own return in glory to establish his
+kingdom,--a crowning evidence of his claim to supernatural knowledge. It
+is all the more significant, therefore, that it is in connection with his
+prediction of his future coming that he made the most definite declaration
+of his own ignorance: "Of that day or that hour knoweth no one, not even
+the angels in heaven, neither the Son, but the Father" (Mark xiii. 32).
+This confession of the limitation of his knowledge is conclusive. Yet it
+is not isolated. With his undoubted power to read "what was in man," he
+was not independent of ordinary ways of learning facts. When the woman was
+healed who touched the hem of his garment, Jesus knew that his power had
+been exercised, but he discovered the object of his healing by asking,
+"Who touched me?" and calling the woman out from the crowd to acknowledge
+her blessing (Mark v. 30-34); when the centurion urged Jesus to heal his
+boy without taking the trouble to come to his house, Jesus "marvelled" at
+his faith (Matt. viii. 10); when he came to Bethany, assured of his
+Father's answer to his prayer for the raising of Lazarus, he asked as
+simply as any other one in the company, "Where have ye laid him?" (John
+xi. 34). It should not be forgotten that his knowledge of approaching
+death, resurrection, and return in glory did not prevent the earnest
+pleading in Gethsemane, and it may be that his reply to the ambition of
+James and John, it "is not mine to give" (Mark x. 40), is a confession of
+ignorance as well as subordination to his Father.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s248"><p><span class="versenum">248.</span> The supernatural knowledge of Jesus, so far as its exercise is
+apparent in the gospels, was concerned with the truths intimately related
+to his reli<a class="newpage" name="page244" id="page244" title="244"></a>gious teaching or his Messianic work. There is no evidence
+that it occupied itself at all with facts of nature or of history
+discovered by others at a later day. When he says of God that "he maketh
+his sun to rise on the evil and the good" (Matt. v. 45), there is no
+evidence that he thought of the earth and its relation to the sun
+differently from his contemporaries; it is probable that his thought
+anticipated Galileo's discovery no more than do his words. Much the same
+may be said with reference to the purely literary or historical questions
+of Old Testament criticism, now so much discussed. If it is proved by just
+interpretation of all the facts that the Pentateuch is only in an ideal
+sense to be attributed to Moses, and that many of the psalms inscribed
+with his name cannot have been written by David, the propriety of Jesus'
+references to what "Moses said" (Mark vii. 10), and the validity of his
+argument for the relative unimportance of the Davidic descent of the
+Messiah, will not suffer. Had Jesus had in mind the ultimate facts
+concerning the literary structure of the Pentateuch, he could not have
+hoped to hold the attention of his hearers upon the religious teaching he
+was seeking to enforce, unless he referred to the early books of the Old
+Testament as written by Moses. Jesus did repeatedly go back of Moses to
+more primitive origins (Mark x. 5, 6; John vii. 22); yet there is no
+likelihood that the literary question was ever present in his thinking.
+This phase of his intellectual life, like that which concerned his
+knowledge of the natural universe, was in all probability one of the
+points in which he was made like unto his brethren, sharing, as matter of
+course, their views on questions that were indif<a class="newpage" name="page245" id="page245" title="245"></a>ferent for the spiritual
+mission he came to fulfil. If this was the case, his argument from the one
+hundred and tenth Psalm (Mark xii. 35-37) would simply give evidence that
+he accepted the views of his time concerning the Psalm, and proceeded to
+use it to correct other views of his time concerning what was of most
+importance in the doctrine of the Messiah. The last of these was of vital
+importance for his teaching; the first was for this teaching quite as
+indifferent a matter as the relations of the earth and the sun in the
+solar system.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s249"><p><span class="versenum">249.</span> A more perplexing difficulty arises from his handling of the cases of
+so-called demoniac possession. He certainly treated these invalids as if
+they were actually under the control of demons: he rebuked, banished, gave
+commands to the demons, and in this way wrought his cures upon the
+possessed. It has already been remarked that the symptoms shown in the
+cases cured by Jesus can be duplicated from cases of hysteria, epilepsy,
+or insanity, which have come under modern medical examination. Three
+questions then arise concerning his treatment of the possessed. 1. Did he
+unquestioningly share the interpretation which his contemporaries put upon
+the symptoms, and simply bring relief by his miraculous power? 2. Did he
+know that those whom he healed were not afflicted by evil spirits, and
+accommodate himself in his cures to their notions? 3. Does he prove by his
+treatment that the unfortunates actually were being tormented by
+diabolical agencies, which he banished by his word? The last of these
+possibilities should not be held to be impossible until much more is known
+than we now know about <a class="newpage" name="page246" id="page246" title="246"></a>the mysterious phenomena of abnormal psychical
+states. If this is the explanation of the maladies for Jesus' day,
+however, it should be accepted also as the explanation of similar abnormal
+symptoms when they appear in our modern life, for the old hypothesis of a
+special activity of evil spirits at the time of the incarnation is
+inadequate to account for the fact that in some quarters similar maladies
+have been similarly explained from the earliest times until the present
+day. If, however, he knew his people to be in error in ascribing these
+afflictions to diabolical influence, he need have felt no call to correct
+it. If the disease had been the direct effect of such a delusion, Jesus
+would have encouraged the error by accommodating himself to the popular
+notion. The idea of possession, however, was only an attempt to explain
+very real distress. Jesus desired to cure, not to inform his patients. The
+notion in no way interfered with his turning the thought of those he
+healed towards God, the centre of help and of health. He is not open,
+therefore, to the charge of having failed to free men from the thraldom of
+superstition if he accommodated himself to their belief concerning
+demoniac possession. His cure, and his infusion of true thoughts of God
+into the heart, furnished an antidote to superstition more efficacious
+than any amount of discussion of the truth or falseness of the current
+explanation of the disease. On the other hand, if we are not ready to
+conclude that the action of Jesus has demonstrated the validity of the
+ancient explanation, we may acknowledge that it would do no violence to
+his power, or dignity, or integrity, if it should be held that he did not
+concern himself with an inquiry into the cause <a class="newpage" name="page247" id="page247" title="247"></a>of the disease which
+presented itself to him for help, but adopted unquestioningly the
+explanation held by all his contemporaries, even as he used their
+language, dress, manner of life, and in one particular, at least, their
+representation of the life after death (Luke xvi. 22--Abraham's bosom).
+His own confession of ignorance of a large item of religious knowledge
+(Mark xiii. 32) leaves open the possibility that in so minor a matter as
+the explanation of a common disease he simply shared the ideas of his
+time. In this case, when one so afflicted came under his treatment, he
+applied his supernatural power, even as in cases of leprosy or fever, and
+cured the trouble, needing no scientific knowledge of its cause. If
+accommodation or ignorance led Jesus to treat these sick folk as
+possessed, it does not challenge his integrity nor his trustworthiness in
+all the matters which belong properly to his own peculiar work.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s250"><p><span class="versenum">250.</span> There is one incident in the gospels which favors the conclusion that
+Jesus definitely adopted the current idea,--the permission granted by him
+to the demons to go from the Gadarene into the herd of swine, and the
+consequent drowning of the herd (Mark v. 11-13). On any theory this
+incident is full of difficulty. Bernhard Weiss (LXt II. 226 ff.) holds
+that Jesus accommodated himself to current views, and that the man, having
+received for the possessing demons permission to go into the swine, was at
+once seized by a final paroxysm, and rushed among the swine, stampeding
+them so that they ran down the hillside into the sea.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s251"><p><span class="versenum">251.</span> In recent years the view has been somewhat widely advocated that his
+power over demoniacs was <a class="newpage" name="page248" id="page248" title="248"></a>to Jesus himself one of the chief proofs of his
+Messiahship. His words are quoted: "If I, by the Spirit of God, cast out
+demons, then is the kingdom of God come upon you" (Matt. xii. 28); and "I
+beheld Satan falling as lightning from heaven" (Luke x. 18). The first of
+these is in the midst of an <i>ad hominem</i> reply of Jesus to the charge that
+he owed his power to a league with the devil (Matt. xii. 28); and the
+second was his remark when the seventy reported with joy that the demons
+were subject unto them (Luke x. 18). The gospels, however, trace his
+certainty of his Messiahship to quite other causes, primarily to his
+knowledge of himself as God's child, then to the Voice which, coming at
+the baptism, summoned him as God's beloved Son to do the work of the
+Messiah. Throughout his ministry Jesus exhibits a certainty of his mission
+quite independent of external evidences,--"Even if I bear witness of
+myself, my witness is true; for I know whence I came and whither I go"
+(John viii. 14).</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<div class="chapter" id="p03-04">
+<h2><a class="newpage" name="page249" id="page249" title="249"></a>IV</h2>
+
+<h3>Jesus' Conception of Himself</h3>
+
+
+
+<div class="section" id="s252"><p><span class="versenum">252.</span> When Jesus called forth the confession of Peter at C&aelig;sarea Philippi
+he brought into prominence the question which during the earlier stages of
+the Galilean ministry he had studiously kept in the background. This is no
+indication, however, that he was late in reaching a conclusion for himself
+concerning his relation to the kingdom which he was preaching. From the
+time of his baptism and temptation every manifestation of the inner facts
+of his life shows unhesitating confidence in the reality of his call and
+in his understanding of his mission. This is the case whether the fourth
+gospel or the first three be appealed to for evidence. It is generally
+felt that the Gospel of John presents its sharpest contrast to the
+synoptic gospels in respect of the development of Jesus' self-disclosures.
+A careful consideration of the first three gospels, however, shows that
+the difference is not in Jesus' thought about himself.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s253"><p><span class="versenum">253.</span> The first thing which impressed the people during the ministry in
+Galilee was Jesus' assumption of authority, whether in teaching or in
+action (Mark i. 27; Matt. vii. 28, 29). His method of teaching
+distinguished him sharply from the scribes, who were constantly appealing
+to the opinion of the elders to establish the validity of their
+conclusions. Jesus <a class="newpage" name="page250" id="page250" title="250"></a>taught with a simple "I say unto you." In this,
+however, he differed not only from the scribes, but also from the
+prophets, to whom in many ways he bore so strong a likeness. They
+proclaimed their messages with the sanction of a "Thus saith the Lord;" he
+did not hesitate to oppose the letter of scripture as well as the
+tradition of the elders with his unsupported word (Matt. v. 38, 39; Mark
+vii. 1-23). His teaching revealed his unhesitating certainty concerning
+spiritual truth, and although he reverenced deeply the Jewish scriptures,
+and knew that his work was the fulfilment of their promises, he used them
+always as one whose superiority to God's earlier messengers was as
+complete as his reverence for them. He was confident that what they
+suggested of truth he was able to declare clearly; he used them as a
+master does his tools.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s254"><p><span class="versenum">254.</span> More striking than Jesus' independence in his teaching is the
+calmness of his self-assertion when he was opposed by pharisaic criticism
+and hostility. He preferred to teach the truth of the kingdom, working his
+cures in such a way that men should think about God's goodness rather than
+their healer's significance. Yet coincidently with this method of his
+choice he did not hesitate to reply to pharisaic opposition with
+unqualified self-assertion and exalted personal claim. Even if the
+conflicts which Mark has gathered together at the opening of his gospel
+(ii. 1 to iii. 6) did not all occur as early as he has placed them, the
+nucleus of the group belongs to the early time. Since the people greatly
+reverenced his critics, he felt it unnecessary to guard against arousing
+undue enthusiasm by this frank avowal of his claims. He <a class="newpage" name="page251" id="page251" title="251"></a>consequently
+asserted his authority to forgive sins, his special mission to the sick in
+soul whom the scribes shunned as defiling, his right to modify the
+conception of Sabbath observance; even as, later, he warned his critics of
+their fearful danger if they ascribed his good deeds to diabolical power
+(Mark iii. 28-30), and as, after the collapse of popularity, he rebuked
+them for making void the word of God by their tradition (Mark vii. 13).
+His attitude to the scribes in Galilee from the beginning discloses as
+definite Messianic claims as any ascribed by the fourth gospel to this
+early period.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s255"><p><span class="versenum">255.</span> These facts of the independence of Jesus in his teaching and his
+self-assertion in response to criticism confirm the impression that his
+answer to John the Baptist (Matt. xi. 2-6) gives the key to his method in
+Galilee. In John's inquiry the question of Jesus' personal relation to the
+kingdom was definitely asked. The answer, "Blessed is he whosoever shall
+find none occasion of stumbling in me," showed plainly that Jesus was in
+no doubt in the matter, although for the time he still preferred to let
+his ministry be the means of leading men to form their conclusions
+concerning him. What he brought into prominence at C&aelig;sarea Philippi,
+therefore, was that which had been the familiar subject of his own
+thinking from the time of his baptism.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s256"><p><span class="versenum">256.</span> In the ministry subsequent to the confession of Peter the
+self-disclosures of Jesus became more frequent and clear. His predictions
+of his approaching death were at the time the greatest difficulty to his
+disciples; when considered in their significance for his own life,
+however, they prove that his conviction of his Messiahship was as
+independent of current <a class="newpage" name="page252" id="page252" title="252"></a>and inherited ideas as was his teaching concerning
+the kingdom. When he came to see that death was the inevitable issue of
+his work, he at once discovered in it a divine necessity; it does not seem
+to have shaken in the least his certainty that he was the Messiah.
+Associated with this conception of his death is the conviction which
+appears in all the later teachings, that in rejecting him his people were
+pronouncing their own doom. Because she would not accept him as her
+deliverer, Jerusalem's "house was left unto her desolate" (Luke xiii. 35).
+His sense of his supreme significance appears most clearly in some of the
+later parables, such as The Marriage of the King's Son (Matt. xxii. 1-14)
+and The Wicked Husbandmen (Matt. xxi. 33-44), which definitely connect the
+condemnation of the chosen people with their rejection of God's Son. Two
+other sayings in the first three gospels express the personal claim of
+Jesus in the most exalted form,--his declaration on the return of the
+seventy: "All things have been delivered unto me of my Father, and no man
+knoweth who the Son is save the Father, and who the Father is save the
+Son, and he to whomsoever the Son willeth to reveal him" (Luke x. 22;
+Matt. xi. 27); and his confession of the limits of his own knowledge: "But
+of that day and hour knoweth no one, not even the angels in heaven,
+neither the Son, but the Father" (Mark xiii. 32). The confession of
+ignorance, by the position given to the Son in the climax which denied
+that any save the Father had a knowledge of the time of the end, is quite
+as extraordinary as the claim to sole qualification to reveal the Father.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s257"><p><span class="versenum">257.</span> The similarity of these last two sayings to the <a class="newpage" name="page253" id="page253" title="253"></a>discourses in the
+fourth gospel has often been remarked; the likeness is particularly close
+between them and the claims of Jesus recorded in the fifth chapter of
+John. It is interesting to note that in the incident which introduces the
+discourse in that chapter Jesus shows that he preferred, after healing the
+man at the pool, to avoid the attention of the multitudes, precisely as in
+Galilee he sought to check too great popular excitement by withdrawing
+from Capernaum after his first ministry there (Mark i. 35-39), and
+enjoining silence on the leper who had been healed by him (Mark ii. 44).
+When, however, he found himself opposed by the criticism of the Pharisees
+he spoke with unhesitating self-assertion and exalted personal claim, even
+as he did in like situations in Galilee. During his earlier ministry in
+Judea he had not shown this reserve. The cleansing of the temple, although
+it was no more than any prophet sure of his divine commission would have
+done, was a bold challenge to the people to consider who he was who
+ventured thus to criticise the priestly administration of God's house. In
+his subsequent dealings with Nicodemus and the Samaritan woman Jesus
+manifested a like readiness to draw attention to himself. From the time of
+the feeding of the multitudes all four of the gospels represent him as
+asserting his claims, with this difference, however, that in John it is
+the rule rather than the exception to find sayings similar to the two in
+which the self-assertion in the other gospels reaches its highest
+expression. Although the method of Jesus varied at different times and in
+different localities, yet it is evident that he stood before the people
+from the first with the consciousness that he had the right to claim
+<a class="newpage" name="page254" id="page254" title="254"></a>their allegiance as no one of the prophets who preceded him would have
+been bold to do.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s258"><p><span class="versenum">258.</span> During the course of his ministry Jesus used of himself, or suffered
+others to use with reference to him, many of the titles by which his
+people were accustomed to refer to the Messiah. Thus he was named "the
+Messiah" (Mark viii. 29; xiv. 61; John iv. 26); "the King of the Jews"
+(Mark xv. 2; John i. 49; xviii. 33, 36, 37); "the Son of David" (Mark x.
+47, 48; Matt. xv. 22; xxi. 9, 15); "the Holy One of God" (John vi. 69;
+compare Mark i. 24); "the Prophet" (John vi. 14; vii. 40). It is evident
+that none of these titles was common; they represent, rather, the bold
+venture of more or less intelligent faith on the part of men who were
+impressed by him. There are two names, however, that are more significant
+of Jesus' thought about himself,--"the Son of God" and "the Son of Man."</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s259"><p><span class="versenum">259.</span> The latter of these titles is unique in the use Jesus made of it.
+Excepting Stephen's speech (Acts vii. 56), it is found in the New
+Testament only in the sayings of Jesus, and its precise significance is
+still a subject of learned debate. The expression is found in the Old
+Testament as a poetical equivalent for Man, usually with emphasis on human
+frailty (Ps. viii. 4; Num. xxiii. 19; Isa. li. 12), though sometimes it
+signifies special dignity (Ps. lxxx. 17). Ezekiel was regularly addressed
+in his visions as Son of Man (Ezek. ii. 1 and often; see also Dan. viii.
+17), probably in contrast with the divine majesty.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s260"><p><span class="versenum">260.</span> In one of Daniel's visions (vii. 1-14) the world-kingdoms which had
+oppressed God's people and were to be destroyed were symbolized by beasts
+<a class="newpage" name="page255" id="page255" title="255"></a>that came up out of the sea,--a winged lion, a bear, a four-headed winged
+leopard, and a terrible ten-horned beast; in contrast with these the
+kingdom of the saints of the Most High was represented by "one like unto a
+son of man," who came with the clouds of heaven (vii. 13, 14). Here the
+language is obviously poetic, and is used to suggest the unapproachable
+superiority of the kingdom of heaven to the kingdoms of the world. The
+expression "one like unto a son of man" is equivalent, therefore, to "one
+resembling mankind." The vision in Daniel had great influence over the
+author of the so-called Similitudes of Enoch (Book of Enoch, chapters
+xxxvii. to lxxi.). He, however, personified the "one like unto a son of
+man," and gave the title "the Son of Man" to the heavenly man who will
+come at the end of all things, seated on God's throne, to judge the world.
+This author used also the titles "the Elect One" and "the Righteous One"
+(or "the Holy One of God"), but "the Son of Man" is the prevalent name for
+the Messiah in these Similitudes.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s261"><p><span class="versenum">261.</span> The facts thus stated do not account for Jesus' use of the
+expression. Many of his sayings undoubtedly suggest a development of the
+Daniel vision resembling that in the Similitudes. This does not prove that
+Jesus or his disciples had read these writings, though it does suggest the
+possibility that they knew them. It is probable, however, that the
+apocalypses gave formulated expression to thoughts that were more widely
+current than those writings ever came to be. The likeness between the
+language of Jesus and that found in the Similitudes may therefore prove no
+more than that the Daniel vision <a class="newpage" name="page256" id="page256" title="256"></a>was more or less commonly interpreted of
+a personal Messiah in Jesus' day.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s262"><p><span class="versenum">262.</span> Much of the use of the title by Jesus, however, is completely foreign
+to the ideas suggested by Enoch and Daniel. Besides apocalyptic sayings
+like those in Enoch (Mark viii. 38 and often), the name occurs in
+predictions of his sufferings and death (Mark viii. 31 and often), and in
+claims to extraordinary if not essentially divine authority (Mark ii. 10,
+28 and parallels); it is also used sometimes simply as an emphatic "I"
+(Matt. xi. 19 and often). Whatever relation Jesus bore to the Enoch
+writings, therefore, the name "the Son of Man" as he used it was his own
+creation.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s263"><p><span class="versenum">263.</span> Students of Aramaic have in recent years asserted that it was not
+customary in the dialect which Jesus spoke to make distinction between
+"the son of man" and "man," since the expression commonly used for "man"
+would be literally translated "son of man." It is asserted, moreover, that
+if our gospels be read substituting "man" for "the Son of Man" wherever it
+appears, it will be found that many supposed Messianic claims become
+general statements of Jesus' conception of the high prerogatives of man,
+while in other places the name stands simply as an emphatic substitute for
+the personal pronoun. Thus, for instance, Jesus is found to assert that
+authority on earth to forgive sins belongs to man (Mark ii. 10), and,
+toward the end of his course, to have taught simply that he himself must
+meet with suffering (Mark viii. 31), and will come on the clouds to judge
+the world (Mark viii. 38). The proportion of cases in which the general
+reference is possible is, <a class="newpage" name="page257" id="page257" title="257"></a>however, very small; and even if the
+equivalence of "man" and "son of man" should be established, most of the
+statements of Jesus in which our gospels use the latter expression exhibit
+a conception of himself which challenges attention, transcending that
+which would be tolerated in any other man. The debate concerning the usage
+in the language spoken by Jesus is not yet closed, however, and Dr. Gustaf
+Dalman (WJ I. 191-197) has recently argued that the equivalence of the two
+expressions holds only in poetic passages, precisely as it does in Hebrew,
+and that our gospels represent correctly a distinction observed by Jesus
+when they report him, for instance, as saying in one sentence, "the
+Sabbath was made for man" (Mark ii. 27), and in the next, "the Son of Man
+is lord even of the Sabbath." The antecedent probability is so great that
+the dialect of Jesus' time would be capable of expressing a distinction
+found in the Hebrew of the Old Testament and in the Syriac of the
+second-century version of the New Testament, that Dalman's opinion carries
+much weight.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s264"><p><span class="versenum">264.</span> Many of those who look for a distinct significance in the title "the
+Son of Man," find in it a claim by Jesus to be the ideal or typical man,
+in whom humanity has found its highest expression. It thus stands sharply
+in contrast with "the Son of God," which is held to express his claim to
+divinity. So understood, the titles represent truth early recognized by
+the church in its thought about its Lord. Yet it must be acknowledged that
+the conception "the ideal man" is too Hellenic to have been at home in the
+thought of those to whom Jesus addressed his teaching. If the phrase
+suggested anything more to his <a class="newpage" name="page258" id="page258" title="258"></a>hearers than the human frailty or the
+human dignity of him who bore it, it probably had a Messianic meaning like
+that found in the Similitudes of Enoch. A hint of this understanding of
+the name appears in the perplexed question reported in John (xii. 34): "We
+have heard out of the law that the Messiah abideth forever; and how sayest
+thou, The Son of Man must be lifted up? who is this Son of Man?" Here the
+difficulty arose because the people identified the Son of Man with the
+Messiah, yet could not conceive how such a Messiah could die. In fact, if
+the conception of the Son of Man which is found in Enoch had obtained any
+general currency among the people, either from that book or independently
+of it, it was so foreign to the earthly condition and manner of life of
+the Galilean prophet, that it would not have occurred to his hearers to
+treat his use of the title as a Messianic claim until after that claim had
+been published in some other and more definite form. Their Son of Man was
+to come with the clouds of heaven, seated on God's throne, to execute
+judgment on all sinners and apostates; the Nazarene fulfilled none of
+these conditions. The name, as used by Jesus, was probably always an
+enigma to the people, at least until he openly declared its Messianic
+significance in his reply to the high-priest's question at his trial (Mark
+xiv. 62), and gave the council the ground it desired for a charge of
+blasphemy against him.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s265"><p><span class="versenum">265.</span> What did this title signify to Jesus? His use of it alone can furnish
+answer, and in this the variety is so great that it causes perplexity.
+"The Son of Man came eating and drinking" is his description of his own
+life in contrast with John the Baptist <a class="newpage" name="page259" id="page259" title="259"></a>(Matt. xi. 18, 19). "The Son of
+Man hath not where to lay his head" was his reply to one over-zealous
+follower (Matt. viii. 20). Unseemly rivalry among his disciples was
+rebuked by the reminder that "even the Son of Man came not to be
+ministered unto but to minister" (Mark x. 42-45). When it became needful
+to prepare the disciples for his approaching death he taught them that
+"the Son of Man must suffer many things ... and be killed, and after three
+days rise again" (Mark viii. 31). On the other hand, the paralytic's cure
+was made to demonstrate that "the Son of Man hath authority upon the earth
+to forgive sins" (Mark ii. 10). Similarly it is the Son of Man who after
+his exaltation shall come "in the glory of his Father with the holy
+angels" (Mark viii. 38). In these typical cases the title expresses Jesus'
+consciousness of heavenly authority as well as self-sacrificing ministry,
+of coming exaltation as well as present lowliness; and the suffering and
+death which were the common lot of other sons of men were appointed for
+this Son of Man by a divine necessity. The name is, therefore, more than a
+substitute for the personal pronoun; it expresses Jesus' consciousness of
+a mission that set him apart from the rest of men.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s266"><p><span class="versenum">266.</span> We do not know how Jesus came to adopt this title. Its association
+with the predictions of his coming glory shows that he knew that in him
+the Daniel vision was to have fulfilment. The predictions of suffering and
+death, however, are completely foreign to that apocalyptic conception,
+being akin rather, as Professor Charles has suggested, to the prophecies
+of the suffering servant in the Book of Isaiah (Book of Enoch, p.
+314-317). Moreover, it may not be fanci<a class="newpage" name="page260" id="page260" title="260"></a>ful to find in his claims to
+heavenly authority a hint of the thought of the eighth Psalm, "Thou madest
+him to have dominion over the works of thy hands; thou hast put all things
+under his feet" (see Dalman WJ I. 218). Although the name expresses a
+consciousness of dignity, vicarious ministry, and authority, similar to
+thoughts found in Daniel, Isaiah, and the Psalms, it was not deduced from
+these scriptures by any synthesis of diverse ideas. It rather indicates
+that Jesus in his own nature realized a synthesis which no amount of study
+of scripture would ever have suggested. He drew his conception of himself
+from his own self-knowledge, not from his Messianic meditations. On his
+lips, then, "the Son of Man" indicates that he knew himself to be the Man
+whom God had chosen to be Lord over all (compare Dalman as above). The
+lowly estate which contradicted the Daniel vision prevented Jesus' hearers
+from recognizing in the title a Messianic claim; for him, however, it was
+the expression of the very heart of his Messianic consciousness.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s267"><p><span class="versenum">267.</span> If Jesus gave expression to his official consciousness when he used
+the name "the Son of Man," the title "the Son of God" may be said to
+express his more personal thought about himself. It is necessary to
+distinguish between the meaning of this title to the contemporaries of
+Jesus and his own conception of it. In the popular thought "the Son of
+God" was the designation of that man whom God would at length raise up and
+crown with dignity and power for the deliverance of his people. This
+meaning followed from the Messianic interpretation of the second Psalm, in
+which the theocratic king is called God's son (Ps. <a class="newpage" name="page261" id="page261" title="261"></a>ii. 7). In another
+psalm, which Jesus himself quotes (John x. 34), magistrates and judges are
+called "sons of the Most High" (lxxxii. 6). Another Old Testament use
+casts light on this,--the designation of Israel as God's son, his
+firstborn (Ex. iv. 22; Hos. i. 10), with which may be compared a
+remarkable expression in the so-called Psalms of Solomon (xviii. 4), "Thy
+chastisement was upon us [that is, Israel] as upon a son, firstborn, only
+begotten." In all these passages that which constitutes a man the son of
+God is God's choice of him for a special work, while Israel collectively
+bears the title to suggest God's fatherly love for the people he had taken
+for his own. The Messianic title, therefore, described not a metaphysical,
+but an official or ethical, relation to God. It is certainly in this sense
+that the high-priest asked Jesus "Art thou the Messiah the son of the
+Blessed?" (Mark xiv. 61), and that the crowd about the cross flung their
+taunts at him (Matt, xxvii. 43), and the demoniacs proclaimed their
+knowledge of him (Mark iii. 11; v. 7). The name must be interpreted in
+this sense also in the confession of Nathanael (John i. 49); moreover, it
+was not the coupling of the names "Messiah" and "son of the living God" in
+Peter's confession that gave it its great significance for Jesus. In all
+of these cases there is no evidence that there has been any advance over
+the theocratic significance which made the title "the Son of God" fitting
+for the man chosen by God for the fulfilment of his promises.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s268"><p><span class="versenum">268.</span> The case is different with the name by which Jesus was called at his
+baptism (Mark i. 11). The difference here, however, arises not from
+anything in the name as used on this occasion, but from that in <a class="newpage" name="page262" id="page262" title="262"></a>Jesus
+which acknowledged and accepted the title. With Jesus the consciousness
+that God was his Father preceded the knowledge that as "his Son" he was to
+undertake the work of the Messiah. The force of the call at the baptism is
+found in the response which his own soul gave to the word "Thou art my
+Son." The nature of that response is seen in his habitual reference to God
+as in a peculiar sense <i>his</i> Father. The name "Father" for God was used by
+him in all his teaching, and there is no evidence that he or any of his
+hearers regarded it as a novelty. Psalm ciii. 13 and Isaiah lxiii. 16
+indicate that the conception was natural to Jewish thinking. The unique
+feature in Jesus' usage is his careful distinction between the general
+references to "your Father" and his constant personal allusions to "my
+Father." Witness the reply to his mother in the temple (Luke ii. 49); his
+word to Peter, "Flesh and blood hath not revealed it unto thee, but my
+Father which is in heaven" (Matt. xvi. 17), his solemn warning, "Not every
+one that saith unto me Lord, Lord, shall enter into the kingdom of heaven,
+but he that doeth the will of my Father which is in heaven" (Matt. vii.
+21), and the promise, "Every one who shall confess me before men ... him
+will I also confess before my Father" (Matt. x. 32). In the fourth gospel
+the same intimate reference is common: so, for example, the temple is "my
+Father's house" (ii. 16), the Sabbath cure is defended because "my Father
+worketh even until now" (v. 17), the cures are done "in My Father's name"
+(x. 25), "I am the vine, and my Father is the husbandman" (xv. 1). This
+mode of expression discloses a consciousness of unique filial relation to
+God which is independent of, even as <a class="newpage" name="page263" id="page263" title="263"></a>it was antecedent to, the
+consciousness of official relation.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s269"><p><span class="versenum">269.</span> The full name "the Son of God" was seldom applied by Jesus to
+himself, the only recorded instances being found in the fourth gospel (v.
+25; ix. 35?; x. 36; xi. 4). He frequently acquiesced in the use of the
+title by others in addressing him (for example, John i. 49; Matt. xvi. 16;
+xxvi. 63f.; Mark xiv. 61f.; Luke xxii. 70); but for himself he preferred
+the simpler phrase "the Son." This mode of expression occurs often in
+John, and is found also in the two passages, already noticed, in which the
+other gospels give clearest expression to the extraordinary self-assertion
+of Jesus (Matt. xi. 27; Luke x. 22; and Mark xiii. 32). In the first of
+them his claim to be the only one who can adequately reveal God is founded
+on the consciousness that the relation between himself and God is so
+intimate that God alone adequately knows him, whom men were so ready to
+set at nought, and he alone knows God. This relation, in which he and God
+stand together in contrast with all other men, is expressed by the
+unqualified names, "the Father" and "the Son." In the second passage Jesus
+confessed the limitation of his knowledge, but again in such a way as to
+set himself and God in contrast not only with men, but also with "the
+angels in heaven." Such assertions as these indicate that he who, knowing
+his full humanity, chose the title "the Son of Man" to express his
+consciousness that he had been appointed by God to be the Messiah, was yet
+aware in his inner heart that his relation to God was even closer than
+that in which he stood to men.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s270"><p><span class="versenum">270.</span> There is no word in John which goes beyond <a class="newpage" name="page264" id="page264" title="264"></a>the two self-declarations
+of Jesus which crown the record of the other evangelists, yet in the
+fourth gospel the same claim to unique relation to God is more frequently
+and frankly avowed. The most unqualified assertion of intimacy--"I and the
+Father are one" (x. 30)--states what is clearly implied throughout the
+gospel (so xiv. 6-11; xvi. 25; and particularly xvii. 21, "that they may
+be one, even as we are one"). It has often been said, and truly, that this
+claim to unity with the Father, taken by itself, signifies no more than
+perfect spiritual and ethical harmony with God. Yet when the words are
+considered in their connection, and more particularly when the two supreme
+self-declarations in the synoptic gospels are associated with them, they
+express a sense of relation to God so utterly unique, so strongly
+contrasting the Father and the Son with all others, that we cannot
+conceive of any other man, even the saintliest, taking like words upon his
+lips.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s271"><p><span class="versenum">271.</span> These titles in which Jesus gave expression to his official and his
+personal consciousness present clearly the problem which he offers to
+human thought. Jesus stands before us in the gospels as a man aware of
+completest kinship with his brethren, yet conscious at the same time of
+standing nearer to God than he does to men.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s272"><p><span class="versenum">272.</span> It is highly significant that the gospel which records most fully the
+claim of Jesus to be more closely related to God than he was to men, most
+fully records also his definite acknowledgment of dependence on his
+Father, and of that Father's supremacy over him and all others. "The Son
+can do nothing of himself" (John v. 19), "I speak not from myself" <a class="newpage" name="page265" id="page265" title="265"></a>(xiv.
+10), "my Father is greater than all" (x. 29), "the Father is greater than
+I" (xiv. 28),--these confessions join with the common reference to God as
+"him that sent me" (v. 30 and often) in giving voice to his own spirit of
+reverence. It appears as clearly in his habitual submission to his
+Father's will,--"My meat is to do the will of him that sent me, and to
+accomplish his work" (John iv. 34); "I am come down from heaven, not to do
+mine own will, but the will of him that sent me" (John vi. 38). This
+submission reached its fulness in the prayer of Gethsemane, recorded in
+the earlier gospels,--"Father, all things are possible unto thee; remove
+this cup from me: howbeit not what I will, but what thou wilt" (Mark xiv.
+36). Jesus was a man of prayer; not only in Gethsemane, but also
+throughout his ministry he habitually sought his Father in that communion
+in which the soul of man finds its light and strength for life's duty.
+When he was baptized (Luke iii. 21), after the first flush of success in
+Capernaum (Mark i. 35), before choosing the twelve (Luke vi. 12), before
+the question at C&aelig;sarea Philippi (Luke ix. 18), at the transfiguration
+(Luke ix. 29), on the cross (Luke xxiii. 46),--at all the crises of his
+life he turned to God in prayer. Moreover, prayer was his habit, for it
+was after a night of prayer which has no connection with any crisis
+reported for us (Luke xi. 1), that he taught his disciples the Lord's
+prayer in response to their requests. The prayer beside the grave of
+Lazarus (John xi. 41, 42) suggests that his miracles were often, if not
+always (compare Mark ix. 29), preceded by definite prayer to God. His
+habit of prayer was the natural expression of his trust in God. From the
+<a class="newpage" name="page266" id="page266" title="266"></a>resistance to the temptations in the wilderness to the last cry, "Father,
+into thy hands I commend my spirit," his life is an example of childlike
+faith in God.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s273"><p><span class="versenum">273.</span> Yet throughout his life of obedience and trust Jesus never gave one
+indication that he felt the need of penitence when he came before God. He
+perceived as no one else has ever done the searching inwardness of God's
+law, and demanded of men that they tolerate no lower ambition than to be
+like God, yet he never breathed a sigh of conscious failure, or gave sign
+that he blushed when the eternal light shone into his own soul. He was
+baptized, but without confession of sin. He challenged his enemies to
+convict him of sin (John viii. 46). Such a challenge might have rested on
+a man's certainty that his critics did not know his inner life; but
+hypocrisy has no place in the character of Jesus. The reply to the rich
+young ruler, "Why callest thou me good?" (Mark x. 18), even if it was a
+confession that freedom from past sin was still far less than that
+absolute goodness that God alone possesses, simply sets in stronger light
+his silence concerning personal failure, and his omission in all his
+praying to seek forgiveness. It is probable, however, that that reply
+deals not with the "good" as the "ethically perfect," but as the
+"supremely beneficent," so that Jesus simply reminded the seeker after
+life that God alone is the one to be approached as the Gracious and
+Merciful One by sinful men (see Dalman WJ I. 277). Thus the reply becomes
+a fresh expression of the reverence of Jesus, and still further emphasizes
+his failure to confess his sinfulness.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s274"><p><span class="versenum">274.</span> In all this thought about himself Jesus stands <a class="newpage" name="page267" id="page267" title="267"></a>before us as a man,
+conscious of his close kinship with his fellows. Like them he hungered and
+thirsted and grew weary, like them he longed for friendship and for
+sympathy, like them he trusted God and prayed to God and learned still to
+trust when his request was denied. He stands before us also as a man
+conscious of being anointed by God for the great work which all the
+prophets had foretold, and of being fully equipped with authority and
+power and the promise of unapproachable dignity. Of deep religious spirit
+and great reverence for the scriptures of his people, he yet used these
+scriptures as a master does his tools, to serve his work rather than to
+instruct him in it. He drew his knowledge from within and from above, and
+proclaimed his own fulfilment of the scriptures when he filled them with
+new meaning. A man always devout, always at prayer, he is never seen, like
+Isaiah, prostrate before the Most High, crying, "I am undone" (Isa. vi.
+5). In his moments of greatest seriousness and most manifest communion
+with heaven he looked to God as his nearest of kin, and felt himself a
+stranger on the earth fulfilling his Father's will. He felt heaven to be
+his home not simply by God's gracious promise, but by the right of
+previous possession. His kinship with men was a condescension, his natural
+fellowship was with God.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="s275"><p><span class="versenum">275.</span> The miracles with which the gospels have filled the record of Jesus'
+life have caused perplexity to many, and they belong with other mysterious
+things recorded for us in the story of the past or occurring under the
+incredulous observation of our scientific generation. They all pale,
+however, before the unaccountable exception presented to universal human
+<a class="newpage" name="page268" id="page268" title="268"></a>experience by this Man of Nazareth. It confronts us when we think of the
+unschooled Jew who, in his thought of God, rose not only above all of his
+generation, but higher than all who had gone before him, or have come
+after, one who built on the foundation of the past a superstructure of
+religion new, and simple, and clearly heavenly. It confronts us when we
+think of this Man who believed that it was given to him to establish the
+kingdom that should fill the whole earth, and who had the boldness and the
+faith to ignore the opposition of all the world's wisdom and of all its
+enthroned power, and to fulfil his task as the woman does who hides her
+leaven in the meal, content to wait for years, or millenniums, until his
+truth shall conquer in the realization of God's will on earth even as it
+is done in heaven. It confronts us when we consider that the Man who has
+shown his brethren what obedience means, who has taught them to pray, who
+has been for all these centuries the Way, the Truth, the Life, by whom
+they come to God, habitually claimed without shadow of abashment or
+slightest hint of conscious presumption, a nature, a relation to God, a
+freedom from sin, that other men according to the measure of their
+godliness would shun as blasphemy. If the personal claim was true, and not
+the blind pretence of vanity, the Jesus of the gospels is the exception to
+the uniform fact of human nature, but he is no longer unaccountable; and
+if his claim was true, his knowledge of the absolute religion, and his
+choice of the irresistible propaganda, are no less extraordinary, but they
+are not unaccountable. Paul, whose life was transformed and his thinking
+revolutionized by his meeting with the risen Jesus, thought on these
+things <a class="newpage" name="page269" id="page269" title="269"></a>and believed that "the name which, is above every name" was his by
+right of nature as well as by the reward of obedience (Phil. ii. 5-11).
+John, who leaned on Jesus' breast during his earthly life, and who
+meditated on the meaning of that life through a ministry of many decades,
+came to believe that he whom he had seen with his eyes, heard with his
+ears, handled with his hands, was, indeed, "the Word made flesh" (John i.
+14), through whom the very God revealed his love to men. Through all the
+perplexities of doubt, amidst all the obscurings of irrelevant
+speculations, the hearts of men to-day turn to this Jesus of Nazareth as
+their supreme revelation of God, and find in him "the Master of their
+thinking and the Lord of their lives."</p>
+
+<p>"Lord, to whom shall we go? Thou hast the words of eternal life. And we
+have believed and know that thou art the Holy One of God."</p></div>
+<p><a class="newpage" name="page270" id="page270" title="270"></a></p>
+</div></div>
+
+
+<div id="appendix">
+<h2><a class="newpage" name="page271" id="page271" title="271"></a><a class="newpage" name="page272" id="page272" title="272"></a><a class="newpage" name="page273" id="page273" title="273"></a>Appendix</h2>
+
+<h3>Books of Reference on the Life of Jesus</h3>
+
+
+
+<div class="section" id="a001"><p><span class="versenum">1.</span> A concise account of the voluminous literature on this subject maybe
+found at the close of the article JESUS CHRIST by Zockler in
+<i>Schaff-Herzog, Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge</i>. Of the earlier of
+the modern works it is well to mention David Friedrich Strauss, <i>Das Leben
+Jesu</i> (2 vols. 1835), in which he sought to reduce all the gospel miracles
+to myths. August Neander, <i>Das Leben Jesu Christi</i>, 1837, wrote in
+opposition to the attitude taken by Strauss. Both of these works have been
+translated into English. Ernst Renan, <i>Vie de J&eacute;sus</i> (1863, 16th ed.
+1879), translated, <i>The Life of Jesus</i> (1863), is a charming, though often
+superficial and patronizing, presentation of the subject. For vivid word
+pictures of scenes in the life of Jesus his book is unsurpassed. Renan's
+inability to appreciate the more serious aspects of the work of Christ
+appears constantly, while his effort to discover romance in the life of
+Jesus is offensive. More important than any of these is Theodor Keim,
+<i>Geschichte Jesu von Nazara</i> (1867-72, 3 vols.), translated, <i>The History
+of Jesus of Nazara</i> (1876-81, 6 vols.). The author rejects the fourth
+gospel and holds that Matthew is the most primitive of the synoptic
+gospels; he does not reject the supernatural as such, but reduces it as
+much as possible by recognizing a legendary element in the gospels. When
+the work is read with these peculiarities in mind, it is one of the most
+stimulating and spiritually illuminating treatments of the subject.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a002"><p><span class="versenum">2.</span> Critically more trustworthy, and exegetically very valuable, is
+Bernhard Weiss, <i>Das Leben Jesu</i> (3d ed. 1889, 2 vols.), translated from
+the first ed., <i>The Life of Christ</i> (1883, 3 vols.). It is more helpful
+for correct understanding of details than for a complete view of the Life
+of Jesus. Rivalling Weiss in many ways, yet neither so exact nor so
+trustworthy, though more interesting, is Willibald Beyschlag, <i>Das Leben
+Jesu</i> (3d ed. 1893, 2 vols.). The most important discussion in English is
+Alfred Edersheim, <i>The Life and Times of Jesus the Messiah</i> (1883 and
+later editions, 2 vols.). This is valuable for its illustration of
+conditions in Palestine in the time of Jesus by quotations from the
+rabbinic literature. The material used is enormous, but is not always
+treated with due criticism, and the book should be read with the fact in
+mind that most of the rabbinic writings date from several centuries after
+Christ. Sch&uuml;rer (see below) should be used wherever possible as a
+counter-balance. Dr. Edersheim follows the gospel story in detail; his
+book is, therefore, a commentary as well as a biography.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a003"><p><span class="versenum">3.</span> Albert R&eacute;ville, <i>Jesus de Nazareth</i> (1897, 2 vols.), aims to bring the
+work of Renan up to date, and to supply some of the lacks which are felt
+in the earlier treatise. The book is pretentious and learned. In some
+parts, as in the treatment of the youth of Jesus, and of the sermon on the
+mount, it is helpfully suggestive. The Jesus whom the author admires,
+however, is the Jesus of Galilee. The journey to Jerusalem was a sad
+mistake, and the assumption of the Messianic r&ocirc;le a fall from the high
+ideal maintained in the teaching in Galilee. In criticism M. R&eacute;ville
+accepts the two document synoptic theory, and assigns the fourth gospel to
+about 140 A.D. He rejects the supernatural, explaining many of the
+miracles as legendary embellishments of actual events.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a004"><p><span class="versenum">4.</span> The most important treatment of the subject is the article JESUS CHRIST
+by William Sanday in the <i>Hastings Bible Dictionary</i> (1899). It is of the
+highest value, discussing the subject topically with great clearness and
+with <a class="newpage" name="page275" id="page275" title="275"></a>a rare combination of learning and common sense. S. T. Andrews, <i>The
+Life of Our Lord</i> (2d ed. 1892), is a thorough and very useful study of
+the gospels, considering minutely all questions of chronology, harmony,
+and geography. It presents the different views with fairness, and offers
+conservative conclusions. G. H. Gilbert, <i>The Student's Life of Jesus</i>
+(1896), is complete in plan and careful in treatment, while being very
+concise. Dr. Gilbert faces the problems of the subject frankly, and his
+treatment is scholarly and reverent. James Stalker, <i>The Life of Jesus
+Christ</i> (1880), is a short work whose value lies in the good conception
+which it gives of the ministry of Jesus viewed as a whole. In simplicity,
+insight, and clearness the book is a classic, though now somewhat out of
+date. <i>Studies in the Life of Christ</i>, by A.M. Fairbairn (1882), is of
+great value for the topics considered. The title indicates that the
+treatment is fragmentary. The long treatises of Farrar (1875, 2 vols.) and
+Geikie (1877, 2 vols.) are useful as commentaries on the words and works
+of Jesus. Farrar often interprets most helpfully the essence of an
+incident, and Geikie furnishes a mass of illustrative material from
+rabbinic sources, though with less criticism than even Edersheim has used.
+Neither of these works, however, deals with the fundamental problems of
+the composition of the gospels, nor are they satisfactory on other
+perplexing questions, for example, the miraculous birth.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a005"><p><span class="versenum">5.</span> The most important accessory for the study of the life of Jesus is Emil
+Sch&uuml;rer, <i>Geschichte des J&uuml;dischen Volkes im Zeitalter Jesu Christi</i> (2d
+ed. 1886, 1890, 2 vols. A 3d ed. of 2d part in 2 vols., 1898), translated,
+<i>A History of the Jewish People in the Time of Jesus Christ</i> (1885-6, 5
+vols.). The political history of the Jews from 175 B.C. to 135 A.D., and
+the intellectual and religious life of the times in which Jesus lived,
+with the Jewish literature of Palestine and the dispersion, are all
+treated with thoroughness and masterful learning. W. Baldensperger, <i>Das
+Selbstbewusstsein Jesu im Lichte der messianischen <a class="newpage" name="page276" id="page276" title="276"></a>Hoffnungen seiner
+Zeit</i> (2d ed. 1892), furnishes in the first part a survey of the Messianic
+hopes of the Jews which is in many respects the most satisfactory account
+that is accessible. The second part discusses the problem of Jesus'
+conception of himself in a reverent and learned way. George Adam Smith,
+<i>The Historical Geography of the Holy Land</i> (1894), is indispensable for
+the study of the physical features of the land as they bear on its
+history, and on the work of Jesus. The maps are the best that have yet
+appeared.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a006"><p><span class="versenum">6.</span> Discussions of the Teaching of Jesus in works on Biblical Theology have
+much that is important for the study of Jesus' life. The most significant
+is H. H. Wendt, <i>Die Lehre Jesu</i> (1886, 2 vols.). The second volume has
+been translated <i>The Teaching of Jesus</i> (1892, 2 vols.); the first volume
+of the original work is an elaborate discussion of the sources, and has
+not been done into English. Reference may be made especially to H. J.
+Holtzmann, <i>Lehrbuch der Neutestamentlichen Theologie</i> (1897, 2 vols.),
+and also to G. H. Gilbert, <i>The Revelation of Jesus</i> (1899). Gustaf
+Dalman, <i>Die Worte Jesu</i> (1898), of which the first volume only has
+appeared, is a study of the meaning of the most significant expressions
+used in the gospel records of the teaching of Jesus, made with the aid of
+thorough knowledge of Aramaic usage and of the language of post-canonical
+Jewish literature.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a007"><p><span class="versenum">7.</span> A good synopsis or Harmony of the gospels is most useful. The best
+<i>Harmony is</i> that of Stevens and Burton (1894), which exhibits the
+divergencies of the parallel accounts in the gospels as faithfully as the
+agreements. A good synopsis of the Greek text of the first three gospels
+is Huck, <i>Synapse</i> (1892). Robinson's <i>Greek Harmony of the Gospels</i>,
+edited by M. B. Biddle, using Tischendorf's text, has also valuable notes
+discussing questions of harmony.</p></div>
+
+
+
+<div class="section" id="abbreviations">
+<h4><a class="newpage" name="page277" id="page277" title="277"></a>Abbreviations</h4>
+
+
+
+<table summary="Abbreviations">
+<tr><td>AndLOL</td><td>        Andrews, The Life of Our Lord, 2d ed., 1892.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>BaldSJ</td><td>        Baldensperger, Das Selbstbewusstsein Jesu, 2d ed., 1892.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>BeysLJ</td><td>        Beyschlag, Das Leben Jesu, 3d ed., 2 vols., 1893.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>BovonNTTh</td><td>     Bovon, Th&eacute;ologie du Nouveau Testament, 1892.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>DalmanWJ</td><td>      Dalman, Die Worte Jesu, I., 1898.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>EdersLJM</td><td>      Edersheim, The Life and Times of Jesus the Messiah, 2 vols.,
+              1883.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>FairbSLX</td><td>      Fairbairn, Studies in the Life of Christ, 1882.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>GilbertLJ</td><td>     Gilbert, The Student's Life of Jesus, 1896.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>GilbertRJ</td><td>     Gilbert, The Revelation of Jesus, 1899.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>HoltzNtTh</td><td>     Holtzmann, Neutestamentliche Theologie, 2 vols., 1897.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>KeimJN</td><td>        Keim, The History of Jesus of Nazara, 6 vols., 1876-81.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>R&eacute;villeJN</td><td>     R&eacute;ville, J&eacute;sus de Nazareth, 2 vols., 1897.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>SandayHastBD</td><td>  Sanday, the article JESUS CHRIST in the Hastings Bible
+              Dictionary, 1899.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Sch&uuml;rerJPTX</td><td>   Sch&uuml;rer, The History of the Jewish People in the Time of
+              Jesus Christ, 1885-86. Division I. vols. i. and ii.; Division
+              II. vols. i., ii., and iii.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>SmithHGHL</td><td>     Smith, Historical Geography of the Holy Land, 1894.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>SB</td><td>            Stevens and Burton, Harmony of the Gospels, 1894.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>WeissLX</td><td>       Weiss, The Life of Christ, 3 vols., 1883.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>WendtLJ</td><td>       Wendt, Die Lehre Jesu, 2 vols., 1886.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>WendtTJ</td><td>       Wendt, The Teaching of Jesus, 2 vols., 1892.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>EnBib</td><td>         Encyclopedia Biblica, 1899.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>HastBD</td><td>        Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible, 1898.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>SBD<sup>2</sup></td><td>         Smith's Dictionary of the Bible, revision of the first volume
+              of the original English edition, 1893.</td></tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<h2><a class="newpage" name="page278" id="page278" title="278"></a>References</h2>
+
+
+
+<h3>Part I.--Preparatory</h3>
+
+
+<h4>I</h4>
+
+<h5>The Historical Situation</h5>
+
+<div class="section" id="a008"><p><span class="versenum">8.</span> Read SandayHastBD II. 604-609. On the Land, its physical
+characteristics, its political divisions, its climate, its roads, and its
+varying civilization, SmithHGHL is unsurpassed. Its identifications of
+disputed localities are cautions. Robinson, <i>Biblical Researches in
+Palestine</i>, and Thomson, <i>The Land and the Book</i>, give fuller detail
+concerning particular localities, but no such general view as Smith.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a009"><p><span class="versenum">9.</span> On Political conditions, Sch&uuml;rerJPTX I. i. and ii. is the fullest and
+most trustworthy treatise. More concise essays are Oscar Holtzmann, <i>Nt.
+Zeitgeschichte</i> (1895), 57-118; S. Mathews, <i>History of NT Times in
+Palestine</i> (1899), 1-158; Riggs, <i>Maccabean and Roman Periods of Jewish
+History</i> (1900), especially &sect;&sect; 206-234, 257-267, 276-282. On the Religious
+Life and Parties in Palestine, Sch&uuml;rerJPTX II. i. and ii.; O. Holtzmann,
+<i>NtZeitg</i>, 136-177; Mathews, <i>NT Times</i>, see index; Riggs, <i>Mac. and Rom.
+Periods</i>, &sect;&sect; 235-256; Muirhead, <i>The Times of Christ</i> (1898), 69-150. In
+addition Wellhausen, <i>Die Pharisd&auml;er und die Sadduc&auml;er</i> (1874); on the
+<i>Essenes</i>, Conybeare in HastBD I. 767-772, also Lightfoot, <i>Colossians</i>,
+80-98, 347-419; Wellhausen, <i>Isr. u. j&uuml;d. Geschichte</i><sup>3</sup> (1897), 258-262;
+on the Samaritans, A. Cowley, in <i>Expos</i>. V. i. 161-174; Jew. Quar. Rev.
+VIII. (1896) 562-575.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a010"><p><a class="newpage" name="page279" id="page279" title="279"></a><span class="versenum">10.</span> On the Messianic hope, Sch&uuml;rerJPTX II. ii. 126-187; BaldSJ 3-122;
+Muirhead, <i>Times of Xt.</i>, 112-150; Briggs, <i>Messiah of the Gospels</i>
+(1894), 1-40; WendtTJ I. 33-84; Mathews, <i>NT Times</i>, 159-169; Riggs, <i>Mac.
+and Rom. Periods</i>, &sect;&sect; 251-256.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a011"><p><span class="versenum">11.</span> On the language of Palestine see Arnold Meyer, <i>Jesu Muttersprache</i>
+(1896); DalmanWJ I. 1-57; Sch&uuml;rerJPTX II. i. 8-10, 47-51; Neubauer,
+<i>Studia Biblica</i>, I. 39-74.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a012"><p><span class="versenum">12.</span> On Jewish literature dating near the times of Jesus see Sch&uuml;rerJPTX
+II. iii.; BaldSJ. 3-122; EdersLJM I. 31-39; Deane, <i>Pseudepigrapha</i>
+(1891); Thomson, <i>Books which influenced our Lord</i>, etc. (1891); and
+special editions, such as Alexandre, <i>Sibylline Oracles</i> (1869); Deane,
+<i>The Wisdom of Solomon</i> (1881); Charles, <i>The Book of Enoch</i> (1893), <i>The
+Apocalypse of Baruch</i> (1896), <i>The Assumption of Moses</i> (1897), and <i>The
+Book of Jubilees</i> (1895); Charles and Morfill, <i>The Secrets of Enoch</i>
+(1896); Ryle and James, <i>The Psalms of the Pharisees</i> [Psalms of Solomon]
+(1891); Bensly and James, <i>Fourth Esdras</i> (1895); Charles, EnBib I.
+213-250; HastBD I. 109f.; Porter, HastBD I. 110-123; James, EnBib I.
+249-261.</p></div>
+
+
+<h4>II</h4>
+
+<h5>The Sources</h5>
+
+<div class="section" id="a013"><p><span class="versenum">13.</span> On the sources outside the gospels see Anthony, <i>Introduction to the
+Life of Jesus</i>, 19-108; KeimJN I. 12-59; BeysLJ I. 59-72; GilbertLJ 74-78;
+Knowling, <i>Witness of the Epistles</i>; Stevens, <i>Pauline Theol</i>. 204-208;
+Sabatier, <i>Apostle Paul</i>, 76-85. On Josephus as a source see also
+Sch&uuml;rerJPTX I. ii. 143-149; R&eacute;villeJN I. 272-280. On the individual
+gospels see Burton, <i>The Purpose and Plan of the Four Gospels</i> (Univ.
+Chic. Press, 1900); Bruce, <i>With Open Face</i>, 1-61; Weiss, <i>Introduction to
+N.T.</i>, II. 239-386; J&uuml;licher, <i>Einleitung i. d. NT</i>, 189-207. On Matthew,
+<a class="newpage" name="page280" id="page280" title="280"></a>Burton Bib. Wld. I. 1898, 37-44, 91-101; on Mark, Swete, <i>Comm. on Mark</i>,
+ix-lxxxix; on Luke, Plummer, <i>Comm. on Luke</i>, xi-lxx; Mathews, Bib. Wld.
+1895, I. 336-342, 448-455; on John, Burton, Bib. Wld. 1899, I. 16-41,
+102-105; Westcott, <i>Comm. on John</i>, v-lxxvii; Rhees in Abbott's <i>The Bible
+as Literature</i>, 281-297. On the synoptic question see Sanday SBD<sup>2</sup>,
+1217-1243, and Expositor, Feb.-June, 1891; Woods, <i>Studia Biblica</i>, II.
+59-104; Salmon, <i>Introduction</i><sup>7</sup>, 99-151, 570-581; Stanton in HastBD II.
+234-243; J&uuml;licher, <i>Einl.</i> 207-227. A. Wright, <i>Composition of the Four
+Gospels</i> (1890) and <i>Some NT Problems</i> (1898), defends the oral tradition
+theory in a modified form. On possible dislocations in John see Spitta,
+<i>Urchristentum</i>, I. 157-204; Bacon, Jour. Bib. Lit. 1894, 64-76; Burton,
+Bib. Wld. 1899, I. 27-35. For the history of opinion see specially H. J.
+Holtzmann, <i>Einl.</i><sup>3</sup> 340-375. On the Johannine question see Sanday,
+Expositor, Nov. 1891-May 1892; Sch&uuml;rer, Cont. Rev. Sept. 1891; Watkins
+SBD<sup>2</sup> 1739-1764; Burton, Bib. Wld. 1899, I. 16-41; Reynolds in HastBD II.
+694-722; Zahn, <i>Einl.</i> II. 445-564 (defends Johannine authorship);
+J&uuml;licher, <i>Einl.</i> 238-250 (rejects Johannine authorship). For the history
+of opinion see Watkins, <i>Bampton Lecture</i> for 1890; Holtzmann, <i>Einl.</i><sup>3</sup>
+433-438. P. Ewald, <i>Hauptproblem der evang. Frage</i>, argues the
+authenticity of the fourth gospel from the one-sidedness of the synoptic
+story. See also Jour. Bib. Lit. 1898, I. 87-102.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a014"><p><span class="versenum">14.</span> R&eacute;ville proposes to reconstruct Jos. Ant. xviii. 3. 3 thus: "'At that
+time appeared Jesus, a wise man, who did astonishing things. That is why a
+good number of Jews and also of Greeks attached themselves to him.' Then
+follows some phrase probably signifying that these adherents had committed
+the error of proclaiming him Christ, and then 'denounced by the leading
+men of the nation, this Jesus was condemned by Pilate to die on the cross.
+But those who had loved him before persevered in their sentiment, and
+still to-day there exists a class of people who take from him their name
+Christians.'"</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a015"><p><a class="newpage" name="page281" id="page281" title="281"></a><span class="versenum">15.</span> On the testimony of Papias (Euseb. <i>Ch. Hist</i>. iii. 39. 4) see
+Lightfoot, Cont. Rev. 1875, II. 379 ff., and McGiffert's notes in his
+<i>Eusebius</i>, 170 ff.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a016"><p><span class="versenum">16.</span> For a collection of probably genuine Agrapha see Ropes, <i>Die Spruche
+Jesu</i>, 154-161, and Amer. Jour. Theol. 1897, 758-776; Resch, <i>Agrapha</i>,
+gives a much longer list. He is criticised by Ropes. On lost and
+uncanonical gospels see Salmon, <i>Intr.</i><sup>7</sup> 173-190, 580-591; Kruger, <i>Early
+Christian Literature</i>, 50-57. For the recently discovered Gospel of Peter
+see Swete, <i>The Gospel of Peter</i>; and on the so-called <i>Sayings of Jesus</i>
+found in Egypt in 1896 see Harnack, <i>Expositor</i>, V. vi. 321-340, 401-416,
+and essay by Sanday and Lock. <i>Apocryphal Gospels</i> are most conveniently
+found in <i>Ante-nicene Fathers</i>, VIII. 361-476.</p></div>
+
+
+<h4>III</h4>
+
+<h5>The Harmony of the Gospels</h5>
+
+<div class="section" id="a017"><p><span class="versenum">17.</span> The Diatessaron of Tatian is translated with notes by Hill, <i>The
+Earliest Life of Christ</i>. See also <i>Ante-nic. Fathers</i>, IX. 35-138.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a018"><p><span class="versenum">18.</span> For the extreme position concerning Doublets see Holtzmann,
+<i>Hand-commentar zum NT</i> I. passim. E. Haupt, Studien u. Kritiken, 1884,
+25, remarks that Jesus must often have repeated his teaching in
+essentially the same form.</p></div>
+
+
+<h4>IV</h4>
+
+<h5>Chronology</h5>
+
+<div class="section" id="a019"><p><span class="versenum">19.</span> For data and discussion of the various problems see Wieseler,
+<i>Chronological Synopsis</i>; Lewin, <i>Fasti Sacra; </i> KeimJN II. 379-402;
+AndLOL 1-52; Sch&uuml;rerJPTX I. ii. 30-32, 105-143; O. Holtzmann, <i>NtZeitg</i>,
+118-124, 125-127, 131-132; Turner HastBD I. 403-415; <a class="newpage" name="page282" id="page282" title="282"></a>Ramsay, <i>Was Christ
+born at Bethlehem</i>; and von Soden in EnBib. I. 799-812. For patristic
+opinion concerning the length of Jesus' ministry, see HastBD I. 410. For
+the argument for a one-year ministry, see KeimJN II. 398; O. Holtzmann,
+<i>NtZeitg</i>, 131f. For two years, see Wieseler, <i>Chron. Synop</i>. 204-220;
+WeissLX I. 389-392; Turner, in HastBD. For three years, see AndLOL
+189-198; note by Robertson in Broadus, <i>Harmony of the Gospels</i>, 241-244.
+Compare R&eacute;villeJN II. 227-231; Zahn, <i>Einl.</i> II. 516f.</p></div>
+
+
+<h4>V</h4>
+
+<h5>The Early Years</h5>
+
+<div class="section" id="a020"><p><span class="versenum">20.</span> On the problem of the Virgin birth see GilbertLJ 79-89; WeissLX I.
+211-233; Swete, <i>Apos. Creed</i>, 42-55; Bruce, <i>Apologetics</i>, 407-413;
+Ropes, Andover Rev. 1893, 695-712; FairbSLX 30-45; Godet, <i>Comm. on Luke</i>,
+Rem. on chaps. I. and II.; BovonNTTh I. 198-217. These maintain
+historicity. The other side: BeysLJ I. 148-174; Meyer, <i>Comm. on Matt</i>.,
+Rem. on 1.18; Keim JN II. 38-101; R&eacute;ville, New World, 1892, 695-723, and
+JN I. 361-408; Holtz<del>mann</del>NtTh I. 409-415. On the early years of
+Jesus see EdersLJM I. 217-254; WeissLX I. 275-293; Hughes, <i>Manliness of
+Xt</i>, 35-60; WendtTJ I. 90-96; Stapfer, <i>Jesus Christ before his Ministry;
+</i> FairbSLX 46-63; BeysLJ II. 44-65; R&eacute;villeJN I. 409-438.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a021"><p><span class="versenum">21.</span> For some of the early legends concerning the birth and childhood of
+Jesus, see the so-called <i>Protevangelium of James</i>, the <i>Gospel of
+Pseudo-Matthew</i>, and the <i>Gospel of Thomas</i>, Ante-nic. Fathers, VIII.
+361-383, 395-398. For Jewish calumnies see Laible, <i>J. X. im Thalmud</i>,
+9-39.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a022"><p><span class="versenum">22.</span> On the two genealogies see AndLOL 62-68; WeissLX I. 211-221; Godet on
+Luke, iii. 23-38. These refer Luke's genealogy to Marv. Hervey SBD<sup>2</sup>
+1145-1148, Plummer on Luke, iii. 23, EdersLJM I. 149, Gil<a class="newpage" name="page283" id="page283" title="283"></a>bertLJ 81f.,
+with the early fathers (see Plummer), refer both to Joseph. For the view
+that they are unauthentic see Holtzmann, <i>Hand-comm.</i> I. 39-41; Bacon in
+HastBD II. 137-141.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a023"><p><span class="versenum">23.</span> On the "brethren" of Jesus see Mayor, HastBD I. 320-326;
+And<del>rews</del>LOL 111-123. These make the brethren sons of Joseph and
+Mary. Lightfoot, <i>Galatians</i><sup>10</sup>, 252-291, regards them as sons of Joseph
+by a former marriage.</p></div>
+
+
+<h4>VI</h4>
+
+<h5>John the Baptist</h5>
+
+<div class="section" id="a024"><p><span class="versenum">24.</span> On the character and work of John the Baptist see KeimJN II. 201-266
+and references in the index under John the Baptist. Keim's is much the
+most satisfactory treatment; it is, moreover, Keim at his best. See also
+Ewald, <i>Hist, of Israel</i>, VI. 160-200; WeissLX I. 307-316; FairbSLX 64-79;
+W. A. Stevens, Homil. Rev. 1891, II. 163 ff.; Bebb in HastBD II. 677-680;
+Wellhausen <i>Isr. u. judische Geschichte</i>, 342f.; Feather, <i>Last of the
+Prophets</i>. Reynolds, <i>John the Baptist</i>, obscures its excellencies by a
+vast amount of irrelevant discussion.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a025"><p><span class="versenum">25.</span> On the existence of a separate company of disciples of John see Mk.
+ii. 18, Mt. ix. 14, Lk. v. 33; Mk. vi. 29, Mt. xiv. 12; Mt. xi. 2f., Lk.
+vii. 18f.; Lk. xi. 1; Jn. i. 35f.; iii. 25; Ac. xix. 1-3. Consult
+Lightfoot, <i>Colossians</i>, 400 ff.; Baldensperger, <i>Der Prolog des vierten
+Evangeliums</i>, 93-152.</p></div>
+
+
+<h4>VII</h4>
+
+<h5>The Messianic Call</h5>
+
+<div class="section" id="a026"><p><span class="versenum">26.</span> On the baptism of Jesus see WendtTJ I. 96-101; EdersLJM I. 278-287;
+BaldSJ 219-229. WeissLX I. 316-336 says that the baptism meant for Jesus,
+already <a class="newpage" name="page284" id="page284" title="284"></a>conscious of his Messiahship, "the close of his former life and
+the opening of one perfectly new" (322); KeimJN II. 290-299 makes it an
+act of consecration, but eliminates the Voice and Dove; BeysLJ I. 215-231
+thinks that Jesus, conscious of no sin, yet not aware of his Messiahship,
+sought the baptism carrying "the sins and guilt of his people on his
+heart, as if they were his own" (229). Against Beyschlag see E. Haupt in
+Studien u. Kritiken, 1887, 381. Baldensperger shows clearly that the
+Messianic call was a revelation to Jesus, not a conclusion from a course
+of reasoning.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a027"><p><span class="versenum">27.</span> On the temptation see WendtTJ I. 101-105; WeissLX I. 337-354; EdersLJM
+I. 299-307; Fairb<del>airn</del>SLX 80-98; BaldSJ 230-236; BeysLJ I.
+231-237; KeimJN II. 317-329. All these see in temptation the necessary
+result of the Messianic call at the baptism.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a028"><p><span class="versenum">28.</span> The locality of the baptism of Jesus cannot be determined. Tradition
+has fixed on one of the fords of the Jordan near Jericho, see SmithHGHL
+496, note 1. On the probable location of Bethany (Bethabarah) (Jn. i. 28)
+see discussion in AndLOL 146-151; EnBib 548; and especially Smith's note
+as above.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a029"><p><span class="versenum">29.</span> On the anointing of Jesus with the Holy Spirit see WeissLX I. 323-336;
+BeysLJ I. 230f. For the influence of the Spirit in the later life of Jesus
+see Mk. i. 12; Mt. iv. 1; Lk. iv. 1; iv. 14, 18, 21; Mk. iii. 29, 30; Mt.
+xii. 28; Jn. iii. 34; compare Ac. i. 2; x. 38. Clearly these refer not to
+the ethical and religious indwelling of the Divine Spirit (comp. Rom. i.
+4), but to the special equipment for official duty. This is the OT sense,
+see Ex. xxxi. 2-5; Jud. iii. 10; I. Sam. xi. 6; Isa. xi. 1f.; xlii. 1;
+lxi. 1; and consult Schultz, <i>Old Test. Theol.</i> II. 202f. Jesus seems to
+have needed a like divine equipment, notwithstanding his divine nature.
+See GilbertLJ 121f.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a030"><p><span class="versenum">30.</span> How this Messianic anointing is to be related to the doctrine of
+Jesus' essential divine nature cannot be determined with certainty. It
+must not be forgotten, <a class="newpage" name="page285" id="page285" title="285"></a>however, that it is a <i>datum</i> for Christology, and
+that it cannot be explained away. It indicates one of the particulars in
+which Jesus was made like unto his brethren. What was involved when the
+Son of God "emptied himself and was made in the likeness of men" (Phil.
+ii. 7) we can only vaguely conceive. Two views of early heretical sects
+seem rightly to have been rejected. The Docetic view, held by some
+Gnostics of the 2d cent., dates the incarnation from the baptism, but
+distinguishes Christ from the human Jesus, who only served as a vehicle
+for the manifestation of the Son of God; the Christ descended on Jesus at
+the baptism, ascending again to heaven from the cross, compare Mt. iii. 16
+and xxvii. 50 in the Greek; see Schaff <i>Hist. of Xn Church</i><sup>2</sup>, II. 455f.
+The recently discovered Gospel of Peter presents this view, Gosp. Pet. &sect;
+5. The Nestorian view represents that the baptism was, in a sense, Jesus'
+"birth from above" (Jn. iii. 3, 5); thus the incarnation was first
+complete at the baptism though the Logos had been associated with Jesus
+from the beginning. See Schaff, <i>Hist, of Xn Church</i><sup>2</sup>, III. 717 ff.;
+Conybeare, <i>History of Xmas</i>, Amer. Jour. Theol. 1899, 1-21.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a031"><p><span class="versenum">31.</span> The traditional locality of the temptation is a mountain near Jericho
+called <i>Quarantana</i>, see AndLOL 155; the tradition seems to date no
+further back than the crusades. It is, however, probable that the
+"wilderness" (Mt. iv. 1, Mk. i. 12, Lk. iv. 1) is the same wilderness
+mentioned in connection with John's earlier life and work (Mt. iii. 1, Mk.
+i. 4), the region W and NW of the Dead Sea, see SmithHGHL 317. Others
+(Stanley, <i>Sinai and Palestine</i>, 308; EdersLJM I. 300, 339 notes) hold
+that the temptation took place in the desert regions SE of the sea of
+Galilee; this is possibly correct, though the record in the gospels
+suggests the wilderness of Judea. On the source of the temptation story
+see WeissLX I. 339 ff.; BeysLJ I. 234; Bacon, Bib. Wld. 1900, I. 18-25.</p></div>
+
+
+<h4>VIII</h4>
+
+<h5>The First Disciples</h5>
+
+<div class="section" id="a032"><p><a class="newpage" name="page286" id="page286" title="286"></a><span class="versenum">32.</span> SandayHastBD II. 612f.; GilbertLJ 144-157; WeissLX I. 355-387; AndLOL
+155-165; EdersLJM I. 336-363; BeysLJ II. 129-148 (assigns here a
+considerable part of the synoptic account of work in Capernaum).</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a033"><p><span class="versenum">33.</span> <i>The early confessions</i>. On the genuineness of the Baptist's testimony
+to "the Lamb of God" see M. Dods in <i>Expos. Gk. Test</i>. I .695f.; Westcott,
+<i>Comm. on John</i>, 20; EdersLJM 1. 342 ff.; WeissLX 1. 362f. (thinks the
+evangelist added "who taketh away the sin of the world"); Holtzmann,
+<i>Hand-comm.</i> IV. 38f. holds that the evangelist has put in the mouth of
+the Baptist a conception which was first current after the death of Jesus.
+On the confessions of Nathanael and the others, see Jour. Bib. Lit. 1898,
+21-30.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a034"><p><span class="versenum">34.</span> <i>Cana</i> is probably the modern Khirbet Kana, eight miles N of Nazareth.
+A rival site is Kefr Kenna, three and one-half miles NE from Nazareth. See
+EnBib and HastBD, also AndLOL 162-164.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a035"><p><span class="versenum">35.</span> <i>The miracles of Jesus</i> are challenged by modern thought. It is
+customary in reading other documents than the N.T. instantly to relegate
+the miraculous to the domain of legend. Miracles, however, are integral
+parts of the story of Jesus' life, and those who attempt to write that
+life eliminating the supernatural are constrained to recognize that he had
+marvellous power as an exorcist and healer of some forms of nervous
+disease. So E. A. Abbott, <i>The Spirit on the Waters</i>, 169-201. Our
+knowledge of nature does not warrant a dogmatic definition of the limits
+of the possible; see James, <i>The Will to Believe</i>, vii.-xiii., 299-327.
+The question is confessedly one of adequate evidence. The evidence for the
+supreme miracle--the transcendent character of Jesus--is clear, see Part
+III. chap. iv.; and the miracu<a class="newpage" name="page287" id="page287" title="287"></a>lous element in the story of his life must
+be considered in view of this supreme miracle. In association with him his
+miracles gain in credibility. In estimating the evidence for them their
+dignity and worthiness is important. What the devout imagination would do
+in embellishing the story of Jesus is exhibited in the apocryphal gospels;
+the miracles of the canonical gospels are of an entirely different type,
+which commends them as authentic. By definition a miracle is an event not
+explicable in terms of ordinary human experience. It is therefore futile
+to attempt to picture the miracles of Jesus in their occurrence, for the
+imagination has no material except that furnished by ordinary experience.
+For our day the miracles are of importance chiefly for the exhibition they
+give of the character of Jesus; they can be studied with this in view
+without regard to the curious question how they happened. Read
+SandayHastBD II. 624-628; and see Fisher, <i>Grounds of Christian and
+Theistic Belief, </i> chaps, iv.--vi., <i>Supernatural Origin of
+Christianity</i><sup>3</sup>, chap, xi.; Bruce, <i>Miraculous Element in the Gospels;
+Apologetics</i>, 409 ff.; Illingworth, <i>Divine Immanence</i>; Rainy, Orr, and
+Dods, <i>The Supernatural in Christianity</i>.</p></div>
+
+
+
+<h3>Part II.--The Ministry</h3>
+
+
+<h4>I</h4>
+
+<h5>General Survey</h5>
+
+<div class="section" id="a036"><p><span class="versenum">36.</span> SandayHastBD II. 609f.; GilbertLJ 136-143; AndLOL 125-137; BeysLJ I.
+256-295.</p></div>
+
+
+<h4>II</h4>
+
+<h5>The Early Ministry in Judea</h5>
+
+<div class="section" id="a037"><p><span class="versenum">37.</span> SandayHastBD II. 612<sup>b</sup>-613<sup>b</sup>; WeissLX II. 3-53; EdersLJM I. 364-429;
+BeysLJ II. 147-168; GilbertLJ 158-179.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a038"><p><a class="newpage" name="page288" id="page288" title="288"></a><span class="versenum">38.</span> On <i>the chronological significance of John iv</i>. 35 see AndLOL 183;
+WeissLX II. 40; Wieseler, <i>Synop</i>. 212 ff, who find indication that the
+journey was in December. EdersLJM I. 419f.; Turner in HastBD I. 408, find
+indication of early summer. Some treat iv. 35 as a proverb with no
+chronological significance; so Alford, <i>Comm. on John</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a039"><p><span class="versenum">39.</span> Geographical notes. <i>Aenon</i> near Salim has not been identified. Most
+favor a site in Samaria, seven miles from a place named Salim, which lay
+four miles E of Shechem, see Conder, <i>Tent Work in Palestine</i>, II. 57, 58;
+Stevens, Jour. Bib. Lit. 1883, 128-141. But can John have been baptizing
+in Samaria? WeissLX II. 28 says "it is perfectly impossible that he [John]
+can have taken up his station in Samaria." Other suggestions are: some
+place in the Jordan valley (but then why remark on the abundance of water,
+Jn. iii. 23?); near Jerusalem; and in the south of Judea. See AndLOL
+173-175. <i>Sychar</i> is the modern 'Askar, about a mile and three-quarters
+from Nablus (Shechem), and half a mile N of Jacob's well. See SmithHGHL
+367-375.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a040"><p><span class="versenum">40.</span> General questions. <i>Was the temple twice cleansed?</i> (see sect. 116).
+Probably not. The two reports (Jn. ii. 13-22; Mk. xi. 15-18 &para;s) are
+similar in respect of Jesus' indignation, its cause, its expression, its
+result, and a consequent challenge of his authority. They differ in the
+time of the event (John assigns to first Passover, synoptics to the last)
+and in a possibly greater sternness in the synoptic account. These
+differences are no greater than appear in other records of identical
+events (compare Mt. viii. 5-13 with Lk. vii. 2-10), while the repetition
+of such an act would probably have been met by serious opposition. If the
+temple was cleansed but once, John indicates the true time. At the
+beginning of the ministry it was a demand that the people follow the new
+leader in the purification of God's house and the establishment of a truer
+worship. At the end it could have had only a vindictive significance,
+since the people <a class="newpage" name="page289" id="page289" title="289"></a>had already signified to the clear insight of Jesus that
+they would not accept his leadership. For two distinct cleansings see the
+discussion in AndLOL 169f., 437; EdersLJM I. 373; Plummer on Luke xix.
+45f. For one cleansing at the end see KeimJN V. 113-131. For one cleansing
+at the beginning see WeissLX II. 6 ff.; BeysLJ II. 149 ff.; GilbertLJ 159
+ff.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a041"><p><span class="versenum">41.</span> <i>The journey to Galilee</i>. Do John (iv. 1-4, 43-45) and Mark (i. 14 =
+Mt. iv. 12; Lk. iv. 14) report the same journey? Both are journeys from
+the south introducing work in Galilee; yet the reasons given for the
+journey are different (compare Jn. iv. 1-3 with Mk. i. 14). If the
+Pharisees had a hand in John's "delivering up" (Mk. i. 14; comp. Jos. Ant.
+xviii. 5. 2), the same hostile movement may have impelled Jesus to leave
+Judea. He may not have heard of John's imprisonment until after his
+departure, or some time before he opened his new ministry in Galilee. See
+GilbertLJ 173f. AndLOL 176-182 argues against the identification.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a042"><p><span class="versenum">42.</span> <i>The nobleman's son</i> (Jn. iv. 46-54). Is this a doublet of Mt. viii.
+5-13; Lk. vii. 2-10? John differs from synoptics in the time, the place,
+the disease, the suppliant, his plea, and Jesus' attitude. Matthew and
+Mark differ from each other concerning the bearers of the centurion's
+messages to Jesus. John's account is similar to synoptic superficially,
+but is probably not a doublet. Compare Syro-Ph&oelig;nician's daughter (Mk. vii.
+29f.). See GilbertLJ 202; Meyer on John iv. 51-54; Plummer on Luke vii.
+10. WeissLX II. 45-51 identifies. Read SandayHastBD II. 613.</p></div>
+
+
+
+<h4>III and IV</h4>
+
+<h5>The Ministry in Galilee</h5>
+
+<div class="section" id="a043"><p><span class="versenum">43.</span> Read SandayHastBD II. 613-630; GilbertLJ 180-283. Consult WeissLX II.
+44 to III. 153; EdersLJM I. 472 to II. 125; BeysLJ II. 140-147,168-294.
+See AndLOL <a class="newpage" name="page290" id="page290" title="290"></a>209-363 for discussion of details, and KeimJN III. 10 to IV.
+346 for an illuminating, though not unprejudiced, topical treatment.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a044"><p><span class="versenum">44.</span> Geographical notes. <i>Capernaum</i>. The site is not clearly identified,
+two ruins on the NW of Sea of Galilee are rival claimants,--Tell Hum and
+Khan Minyeh. Tell Hum is advocated by Thomson, <i>Land and Book, Central
+Pal. and Ph&oelig;nicia</i> (1882), 416-420; Khan Minyeh, by SmithHGHL 456, EnBib
+I. 696 ff. Latter is probably correct. See AndLOL 224-237.
+
+<i>Bethsaida</i>. The full name is Bethsaida Julias, located at entrance of
+Jordan into the Sea of Galilee. <del>Smith</del>EnBib I. 565f.,
+<ins>Smith</ins>HGHL 457f., shows that there is no need of the hypothesis
+of a second Bethsaida to meet the statement in Mk. vi. 45, or that in Jn.
+i. 44. See also AndLOL 230-236. Ewing HastBD I. 282f. renews the argument
+for two Bethsaidas.
+
+<i>Chorazin</i> was probably the modern Kerazeh, about one mile N of Tell Hum,
+and back from the lake. See <del>Smith</del>EnBib I. 751;
+<ins>Smith</ins>HGHL 456; AndLOL 237f.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a045"><p><span class="versenum">45.</span> <i>The mountain of the sermon on the mount</i> (Mt. v. 1; Lk. vi. 12)
+probably refers to the Galilean highlands as distinct from the shore of
+the lake. More definite location is not possible. See AndLOL 268f.;
+EdersLJM I. 524. The traditional site, the Horns of Hattin, is a hill
+lying about seven miles SW from Khan Minyeh, which has near the top a
+level place (Lk. vi. 17) flanked by two low peaks or "horns."</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a046"><p><span class="versenum">46.</span> <i>The country of the Gerasenes, Gadarenes, or Gergesenes</i>. Gadarenes is
+the best attested reading in Mt. viii. 28, Gerasenes in Mk. v. 1 and Lk.
+viii. 26; Gergesenes has only secondary attestation. Gadara is identified
+with Um Keis on the Yarmuk, some six miles SE of the Sea of Galilee. This
+cannot have been the site of the miracle, though it is possible that
+Gadara may have controlled the country round about, including the shores
+of the sea. Gerasa is the name of a city in the highlands of Gilead,
+twenty miles E of Jordan, and <a class="newpage" name="page291" id="page291" title="291"></a>thirty-five SE of the Sea of Galilee, and
+it clearly cannot have been the scene of the miracle. Near the E shore of
+the sea Thomson discovered the ruins of a village which now bears the name
+Khersa. The formation of the land in the neighborhood closely suits the
+narrative of the gospels. This is now accepted as the true identification.
+See Thomson <i>Land and Book, Central Palestine</i>, 353-355; SBD<sup>2</sup> 1097-1100;
+HastBD II. 159f.; AndLOL 296-300. The name "Gadarenes" may indicate that
+Gadara had jurisdiction over the region of Khersa; the names "Gerasenes"
+and "Gergesenes" may be derived directly and independently from Khersa, or
+may be corruptions due to the obscurity of Khersa.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a047"><p><span class="versenum">47.</span> <i>The feeding of the five thousand</i> took place on the E of the sea, in
+a desert region, abundant in grass, and mountainous, and located in the
+neighborhood of a place named Bethsaida. Near the ruins of Bethsaida
+Julias is a plain called now Butaiha, "a smooth, grassy place near the sea
+and the mountains," which meets the requirements of the narrative. See
+AndLOL 322f.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a048"><p><span class="versenum">48.</span> <i>The return of Jesus from the regions of Tyre "through Sidon"</i> (Mk.
+vii. 31) avoided Galilee, crossing N of Galilee to the territory of Philip
+and "<i>the Decapolis</i>." This latter name applies to a group of free Greek
+cities, situated for the most part E of the Jordan. Most of the cities of
+the group were farther S than the Sea of Galilee; some, however, were E
+and NE of that sea, hence Jesus' approach from C&aelig;sarea Philippi or
+Damascus could be described as "through Decapolis." See SmithHGHL 593-608;
+En Bib I. 1051 ff.; Sch&uuml;rerJPTX II. i. 94-121.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a049"><p><span class="versenum">49.</span> Of <i>Magadan</i> (Mt. xv. 39) or <i>Dalmanutha</i> (Mk. viii. 10) all that is
+known is that they must have been on the W coast of the Sea of Galilee.
+They have never been identified, though there are many conjectures. See
+SBD<sup>2</sup>, HastBD, and En Bib.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a050"><p><span class="versenum">50.</span> <i>C&aelig;sarea Philippi</i> was situated at the easternmost and most important
+of the sources of the Jordan, it is <a class="newpage" name="page292" id="page292" title="292"></a>called Panias by Jos. Ant. xv. 10.3,
+now Banias. Probably a sanctuary of the god Pan. Here Herod the Great
+built a temple which he dedicated to C&aelig;sar; Philip the Tetrarch enlarged
+the town and called it C&aelig;sarea Philippi. See SBD<sup>2</sup>; HastBD; EnBib.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a051"><p><span class="versenum">51.</span> <i>The mountain of the transfiguration</i>. The traditional site, since the
+fourth century, is Tabor in Galilee. Most recent opinion has favored one
+of the shoulders of Hermon, owing to the supposed connection of the event
+with the sojourn near C&aelig;sarea Philippi. WeissLX III. 98 points out that
+there is no evidence that Jesus lingered for "six days" (Mk. ix. 2) near
+that town, and that therefore the effort to locate the transfiguration is
+futile. GilbertLJ 274 thinks that Mk. ix. 30 is decisive in favor of a
+place outside Galilee; he therefore holds to the common view that Hermon
+is the true locality. See AndLOL 357f.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a052"><p><span class="versenum">52.</span> General questions. <i>Was Jesus twice rejected at Nazareth?</i> (comp. Lk.
+iv. 16-30 with Mk. vi. 1-6<sup>a</sup>; Mt. xiii. 54-58). Here are two accounts that
+read like independent traditions of the same event; they agree concerning
+the place, the teaching in the synagogue on the Sabbath, the astonishment
+of the Nazarenes, their scornful question, and Jesus' rejoinder. Luke
+makes no reference to the disciples (Mk. vi. 1) nor to the working of
+miracles (Mk. vi. 5); Matthew and Mark, on the other hand, say nothing of
+an attempt at violence. These differences are no more serious, however,
+than appear in the two accounts of the appeal of the centurion to Jesus
+(Mt. viii. 5-8; Lk. vii. 3-7). Moreover, Lk. iv. 23 indicates a time after
+the ministry in Capernaum had won renown, which agrees with the place
+given the rejection in Mark. The general statement (Lk. iv. 14f.) suggests
+that the visit to Nazareth is given at the beginning as an instance of
+"preaching in their synagogues." The three accounts probably refer to one
+event reported independently. For identification see WeissLX III. 34;
+Plummer on Luke iv. 30; GilbertLJ <a class="newpage" name="page293" id="page293" title="293"></a>254f. For two rejections see Godet's
+supplementary note on Lk. iv. 16-30; Meyer on Mt. xiii. 53-58; EdersLJM I.
+457, note 1; Wieseler, <i>Synopsis</i>, 278. BeysLJ I. 270 identifies but
+prefers Luke's date.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a053"><p><span class="versenum">53.</span> <i>Were there two miraculous draughts of fish?</i> Lk. v. 1-11 is sometimes
+identified with Jn. xxi. 3-13. So WendtLJ I. 211f., WeissLX II. 57f., and
+Meyer on Luke v. 1-11. Against the identification see Alford, Godet, and
+Plummer on the passage in Luke. The two are alike in scene, the night of
+bootless toil, the great catch at Jesus' word. They differ in personnel,
+antecedent relations of the fishermen with Jesus, the effect of the
+miracle on Peter, and the subsequent teaching of Jesus, as well as in
+time. These differences make identification difficult.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a054"><p><span class="versenum">54.</span> <i>Where in the synoptic story should the journey to the feast in
+Jerusalem</i> (Jn. v.) <i>be placed?</i> There is nothing in John's narrative to
+identify the feast, although it is his custom to name the festivals to
+which he refers (Passover, ii. 13, 23; vi. 4; xi. 55; xii. 1; Tabernacles,
+vii. 2; Dedication, x. 22). Even if John wrote "the feast," rather than "a
+feast" (the MSS. vary, A B D and seven other uncials omit the article), it
+would be impossible to decide between Passover and Tabernacles. The
+omission of the article suggests either that the feast was of minor
+importance, or that its identification was of no significance for the
+understanding of the following discourse. Since a year and four months
+probably elapsed between the journey into Galilee (Jn. iv. 35) and the
+next Passover mentioned in John (vi. 4), v. 1 may refer to any one of the
+feasts of the Jewish year. The commonest interpretation prefers Purim, a
+festival of a secular and somewhat hilarious type, which occurred on the
+14th and 15th of Adar, a month before the Passover. It is difficult to
+believe that this feast would have called Jesus to Jerusalem. See WeissLX
+II. 391; GilbertLJ 137-139, 142, 234-235. Against this interpretation see
+EdersLJM II. 765. Edersheim advocates the feast of <a class="newpage" name="page294" id="page294" title="294"></a>Wood Gathering on the
+15th of Ab--about our August. On this day all the people were permitted to
+offer wood for the use of the altar in the temple, while during the rest
+of the year the privilege was reserved for special families. See LJM II
+765f.; Westcott, <i>Comm. on John</i>, add. note on v. 1, argues for the feast
+of Trumpets, or the new moon of the month Tisri,--about our
+September,--which was celebrated as the beginning of the civil year.
+Others have suggested Pentecost, fifty days after the Passover; the day of
+Atonement--but this was a fast, not a feast; and Tabernacles. The majority
+of those who do not favor Purim prefer the Passover, notwithstanding the
+difficulty of thinking that John would refer to this feast simply as "a
+feast of the Jews." Read AndLOL 193-198, remembering that the question
+must be considered independently of the question of the length of Jesus'
+ministry. The impossibility of determining the feast renders the
+adjustment of this visit to the synoptic story very uncertain. It may be
+that there was some connection between the Sabbath controversy in Galilee
+(Mk. ii. 23-28) and the criticism Jesus aroused in Jerusalem (Jn. v.). If
+so, one of the spring feasts, Passover or Pentecost, would best suit the
+circumstances; but this arrangement is quite uncertain.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a055"><p><span class="versenum">55.</span> <i>Do the five conflicts of Mk. ii. 1 to iii. 6 belong at the early
+place in the ministry of Jesus to which that gospel assigns them</i>? It is
+commonly held that they do not, and the argument for a two-year ministry
+rests on this assumption (see SandayHastBD II. 613). Holtzmann,
+<i>Hand-commentar</i> I. 9f., remarks that at least for the cure of the
+paralytic and for the call and feast of Levi (Mk. ii. 1, 13, 15) the
+evangelist was confident that he was following the actual order of events;
+note the call of the fifth disciple, Mk. ii. 13, between the call of the
+four, Mk. i. 16-20, and that of the twelve, iii. 16-19. The question about
+fasting may owe its place (Mk. ii. 18-22) to association with the
+criticism of Jesus for eating with publicans (Mk. ii. 16). In like manner
+the <a class="newpage" name="page295" id="page295" title="295"></a>second Sabbath conflict (Mk. iii. 1-6) may be attached to the first
+(ii. 23-28) as a result of the identity of subject, for it is noteworthy
+that Mark records only these two Sabbath conflicts; moreover, the plot of
+Herodians and Pharisees to kill Jesus strongly suggests a later time
+for the actual occurrence of this criticism. The first Sabbath question, however,
+may belong early, as Mark has placed it. Weiss, Markusevangelium, 76, LX II.
+232 ff., places these conflicts late. Edersheim, LJM II. 51 ff., discusses
+the Sabbath controversies after the feeding of the multitudes. R&eacute;villeJN II.
+229 places the first of them early.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a056"><p>56. <i>The sermon on the mount.</i> Luke (vi. 12-19 = Mk. iii. 13-19<sup>a</sup>
+indicates the place in the Galilean ministry; Matthew has therefore anticipated
+in assigning it to the beginning. The identity of the two sermons
+(Mt. v. 1 to vii. 27; Lk. vi. 20-49) is shown by the fact
+that each begins with beatitudes, each closes with the
+parables of the wise and foolish builders, each is followed by the cure of
+a centurian's servant in Capernaum (Mt.
+viii. 5-13; Lk. vii. 1-10), and the teachings which are
+found in each account are given in the same order.
+Matthew is much fuller than Luke, many teachings
+given in the sermon in Matthew being found in later
+contexts in Luke. Much of the sermon in Matthew,
+however, evidently belonged to the original discourse,
+and was omitted by Luke, perhaps because of less interest
+to Gentile than to Jewish Christians. The following
+sections are found elsewhere in Luke, and were
+probably associated with the sermon by the first evangelist:
+Mt. v. 25, 26; Lk. xii. 58, 59; Mt. vi. 9-13; Lk. xi. 2-4; Mt. vi. 19-34; Lk. xii.
+21-34; xi. 34-36; xvi. 13; Mt. vii. 7-11; Lk. xi. 9-13; Mt. vii. 13, 14; Lk. xiii.
+24. The first evangelist's habit of grouping may explain also the presence
+in his sermon of teachings which he himself has duplicated later, thus:
+Mt. v. 29, 30 = xviii. 8,9; v. 32 = xix. 9, comp. Mk. x. 11, ix. 43-47, Lk. xvi. 18;
+Mt. vi. 14, 15 = Mk. xi. 25. Matthew vii. 22, 23 has the <a class="newpage" name="page296" id="page296" title="296"></a>
+character of the teachings which follow the confession at
+C&aelig;sarea Phillipi, and is quite unlike the other early
+teachings. It may belong to the later time, for it was
+natural for the early Christians to associate together
+teachings which the Lord uttered on widely separated
+occasions. The sermon as originally given may be
+analyzed as follows: The privileges of the heirs of the
+kingdom of God, Mt. v. 3-13; Lk. vi. 20-26; their responsibilities,
+Mt. v. 13-16; the relation of the new to the old, Mt. v. 17-19;
+the text of the discourse, Mt. v. 20; the new conception of morality, Mt. v. 21-48;
+Lk. vi. 27-36; the new practice of religion, Mt. vi. 1-8, 16-18; warning
+against a censorious spirit, Mt. vii. 16-20; Lk.
+vi. 43-46; the wise and foolish builders, Mt. vii. 24-27;
+Lk. vi. 47-49.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a057"><p>57. <i>The discourse in parables.</i> Matthew gives seven
+parables at this point (xiii.), Mark (iv. 1-34) has three,
+one of them is not given in Matthew, Luke (viii. 4-18) gives
+in this connection but one,--the Sower. Many think
+that the Tares of Matthew (xiii. 24-30, 36-43) is a doublet
+of Mark's Seed growing secretly (iv. 26-29); so Weiss
+LX II. 209 note, against which view see WendtLJ I.
+178 f., and Bruce, <i>Parabolic Teaching of Xt</i>, 119. Matthew
+has probably made here a group of parables, as in chapters v. to vii.
+he has made a group of other teachings.
+The interpretation of the Tares, and of the Draw-net (xiii. 40-43, 49, 50),
+may indicate that these parables were spoken after Jesus began to teach plainly
+concerning the end of the world (Mk. viii. 31 to ix. 1), Luke
+gives the Mustard Seed and Leaven in another connection (xiii. 18-21),
+and it may be that Matthew has taken them out of their true context to associate
+them with the other parables of his group; yet in popular teaching
+it must be recognized that illustrations are most likely
+to be repeated in different situations. On the parables see Goebel,
+<i>The Parables of Jesus</i> (1890), Bruce, <i>The Parabolic Teaching of Christ</i>,
+3d ed. (1886), J&uuml;licher, <a class="newpage" name="page297" id="page297" title="297"></a><i>Die Gleichnissreden Jesu</i> (2 vols. 1899), and the commentaries on
+the gospels.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a058"><p><span class="versenum">58.</span> <i>The instructions to the twelve</i>. Mt. ix. 36 to xi. 1. x. 1, 5-14
+corresponds in general with Mk. vi. 7-11; Lk. ix. 1-5. The similarity is
+closer, however, between x. 7-15 and Lk. x. 3-12--the instructions to the
+seventy (see sect. <a href="#a068">A 68</a>). The rest of Mt. x. (16-42) is paralleled by
+teachings found in the closing discourses in the synoptic gospels, and in
+teachings preserved in the section peculiar to Luke (ix. 51 to xviii. 14.
+See SB sects. 88-92, footnotes). It is probable that here the first
+evangelist has made a group of instructions to disciples gathered from all
+parts of the Lord's teachings; such a collection was of great practical
+value in the early time of persecution.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a059"><p><span class="versenum">59.</span> <i>Did Jesus twice feed the multitudes</i>? All the gospels record the
+feeding of the five thousand (Mt. xiv. 13-23; Mk. vi. 30-46; Lk. ix.
+10-17; Jn. vi. 1-15), Matthew (xv. 32-38) and Mark (viii. 1-9) give also
+the feeding of the four thousand. The similarities are so great that the
+two accounts would be regarded as doublets if they occurred in different
+gospels. The difficulty with such an identification is chiefly the
+reference which in both Matthew (xvi. 9, 10) and Mark (viii. 19, 20) Jesus
+is said to have made to the two feedings. The evangelists clearly
+distinguished the two. In view of this fact the differences between the
+accounts become important. These concern the occasion of the two miracles,
+the number fed, the nationality of the multitudes (compare Jn. vi. 31 and
+Mk. vii. 31), the number of loaves and of baskets of broken pieces (the
+name for basket is different in the two cases, and is preserved
+consistently in Mk. viii. 19, 20; Mt. xvi. 9, 10). See GilbertLJ 259-262,
+Gould, and Swete, on Mk. viii. 1-9; Meyer, Alford, on Mt. xv. 32-38.
+WeissLX II. 376f., BeysLJ I. 279f., WendtLJ I. 42, Holtzmann <i>Hand-comm.</i>
+I. 186 ff., identify the accounts. See also SandayHastBD II. 629.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a060"><p><span class="versenum">60.</span> <i>Did Peter twice confess faith in Jesus as Messiah</i>? <a class="newpage" name="page298" id="page298" title="298"></a>Synoptics give
+his confession at C&aelig;esarea Philippi (Mk. viii. 27-30; Mt. xvi. 13-20; Lk.
+ix. 18-21). John, however, gives a confession earlier at Capernaum (vi.
+66-71). WeissLX III. 53 identifies the two, placing that in John at
+C&aelig;sarea Philippi, since there is no evidence that all of the long
+discourse of Jn. vi. was spoken in Capernaum the day after the feeding of
+the five thousand. This may be correct, yet the marked recognition which
+Jesus gave to the confession at C&aelig;sarea Philippi does not demand that he
+first at that time received a confession of his disciples' faith. The
+confession in Jn. vi. 68, 69 declared that the twelve were not shaken in
+their faith by the recent defection of many disciples. At C&aelig;sarea Philippi
+the confession was made after the revulsion of popular feeling had been
+made fully evident, and after the twelve had had time for reaction of
+enthusiasm consequent upon the growing coldness of the multitudes and
+active opposition of the leaders. The confession of C&aelig;sarea Philippi holds
+its unique significance, whether or not Jn. vi. 68 is identified with it.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a061"><p><span class="versenum">61.</span> <i>The journey to Tabernacles</i> (Jn. vii.). Where in the synoptic story
+should it be placed? Lk. ix. 51 ff. records the final departure from
+Galilee. The journey of Jn. vii. is the last journey from Galilee given in
+John. Yet the two are very different. In John, Jesus went in haste,
+unpremeditatedly, in secret, and unaccompanied, and confronted the people
+with himself unexpectedly during the feast. In Luke (Mk. x. 1 and Mt. xix.
+1 are so general that they give no aid) he advanced deliberately, with
+careful plans, announcing his coming in advance, accompanied by many
+disciples, with whom he went from place to place, arriving in Jerusalem
+long after he had set out. The two journeys cannot be identified. John
+seems to keep Jesus in the south after the Tabernacles, but his account
+does not forbid a return to Galilee between Tabernacles and Dedication (x.
+22). After the hurried visit to Tabernacles, Jesus probably went back to
+Galilee, and gathered his disciples again <a class="newpage" name="page299" id="page299" title="299"></a>for the final journey towards
+his cross--for the visit to Jerusalem had given fresh evidence of the kind
+of treatment he must expect in the capital (Jn. vii. 32, 45-52; viii. 59).
+See AndLOL 369-379. Andrews suggests that the feast occurred before the
+withdrawal to C&aelig;sarea Philippi (376); this is possible, but it seems more
+natural to place it during the sojourn in Capernaum after the return from
+the north (Mk. ix. 33-50). See SB, sects. 82-85.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a062"><p><span class="versenum">62.</span> On the phenomena and interpretation of <i>Demoniac Possession</i> see J. L.
+Nevius, <i>Demon Possession and allied Themes</i>; Conybeare, Jew. Quar. Rev.
+VIII. (1896) 576-608, IX. (1896-7) 59-114, 444-470, 581-603; J. Weiss in
+<i>Re&auml;lencyklop&auml;die</i>,<sup>3</sup> Hauck-Herzog, IV. 408-419; Binet, <i>Alterations of
+Personality</i>, 325-356; James, <i>Psychology, </i> I. 373-400; and the articles
+on DEMONS in EnBib and HastBD.</p></div>
+
+<h4>V</h4>
+
+<h5>The Journey through Perea to Jerusalem</h5>
+
+<div class="section" id="a063"><p><span class="versenum">63.</span> Read SandayHastBD II. 630-632; see GilbertLJ 298-310: WeissLX III.
+157-223; KeimJN V, 1-64; BeysLJ I. 287-294. II. 333-419; AndLOL 365-420;
+EdersLJM II. 126-360.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a064"><p><span class="versenum">64.</span> This journey began sometime between Tabernacles and Dedication
+(October and December) of the last year of Jesus' life, and continued
+until the arrival in Bethany six days before the last Passover.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a065"><p><span class="versenum">65.</span> Geographical notes. <i>Perea</i>--a part of the domain of Antipas--was the
+Jewish territory E of the Jordan. Its northern limit seems to have been
+marked by Pella (Jos. Wars, iii 3. 3) or Gadara (Wars, iv. 7. 3), and its
+E boundary was marked by Philadelphia (Ant. xx. 1. 1); it extended S to
+the domain of Aretas, king of Arabia. The population was mixed, though
+predomi<a class="newpage" name="page300" id="page300" title="300"></a>natingly Jewish. Cities of the Decapolis, however, lay within the
+limits of Perea, and introduced Greek life and ideas to the people. On the
+highlands back from the Jordan it was a fertile and well populated land.
+See SmithHGHL 539f.; Sch&uuml;rerJPTX II. i. 2-4.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a066"><p><span class="versenum">66.</span> On <i>Bethany and Jericho</i> see BDs and, for the latter, SmithHGHL 266
+ff.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a067"><p><span class="versenum">67.</span> <i>Ephraim</i>, (John xi. 54) is generally identified with the Ephron of
+II. Chron. xiii. 19 (Jos. Wars, iv. 9. 9). Robinson located it at et
+Taiyibeh, 4 m. NE of Bethel, and 14 from Jerusalem. See HastBD l. 728;
+SBD<sup>2</sup> 975.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a068"><p><span class="versenum">68.</span> General questions. <i>The mission of the seventy</i>. Luke records two
+missions, that of the twelve (ix. 1-6), and that of the seventy (x. 1-24).
+Many regard these as doublets, similar to the two feedings in Mark. So
+WeissLX II. 307 ff., BeysLJ I. 275, WendtLJ I. 84f. In favor of this
+conclusion emphasis is given to the fact that in Jewish thought seventy
+symbolized the nations of the world as twelve symbolized Israel. It is
+suggested that in his search for full records Luke came upon an account of
+the mission of disciples which had already been modified in the interests
+of Gentile Christianity, and failing to recognize its identity with the
+account of the mission furnished by Mark, he added it in his peculiar
+section. The similarity of the instructions given follows from the nature
+of the case. A second sending out of disciples is suitable in view of the
+entrance into a region hitherto unvisited. As Dr. Sanday has remarked, the
+sayings connected by Luke with this mission bear witness to the
+authenticity of the account. There is therefore no need to identify the
+two missions. See particularly SandayHastBD II. 614, also GilbertLJ
+226-230, Plummer's <i>Comm. on Luke</i>, 269 ff. Luke probably gives the
+correct place for the thanksgiving, self-declaration, and invitation of
+Jesus, in which the synoptists approach most nearly to the thought of John
+(Lk. x. 21, 22; Mt. xi. 25-30). The return of the seventy (Lk. x. <a class="newpage" name="page301" id="page301" title="301"></a>17-20)
+followed the woes addressed to the unbelieving cities (Lk. x. 13-16; Mt.
+xi. 20-24).</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a069"><p><span class="versenum">69.</span> <i>The destination of the seventy</i>. It is customary to think of them as
+sent to the various cities of Perea (see AndLOL 381-383). Were it not for
+the words "whither he himself was about to come" (Lk. x. I), it would be
+natural to conclude that they were sent E to Gerasa and Philadelphia, and
+S to the regions of the Dead Sea. If John's account is accepted, Jesus
+spent not a little time of the interval between his departure from Galilee
+and his final arrival in Bethany in and near Jerusalem. It may be that
+after the withdrawal from the Dedication he went far into the Perean
+districts. But John x. 40 is against it. The question must be left
+unanswered. The messengers may have visited places in all parts of
+Palestine.</p></div>
+
+
+<h4>VI</h4>
+
+<h5>The Controversies of the Last Week</h5>
+
+<div class="section" id="a070"><p><span class="versenum">70.</span> See GilbertLJ 311-335; WeissLX III. 224-270; AndLOL 421-450; KeimJN V.
+65-275; BeysLJ II. 422-434; EdersLJM II. 363-478; SandayHastBD II 632f.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a071"><p><span class="versenum">71.</span> <i>The supper at Bethany</i>. John is definite, "six days before the
+passover" (xii. I). Synoptists place it after the day of controversy, on
+the Wednesday preceding the Passover (Mk. xiv. I, 3-9; Mt. xxvi. 2, 6-13).
+John is probably correct. The rebuke of Judas (Jn. xii. 4-8) was probably
+associated in the thought of the disciples with his later treachery;
+consequently the synoptists report the plot of Judas and this supper in
+close connection.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a072"><p><span class="versenum">72.</span> <i>The Messianic entry into Jerusalem</i> is regarded by R&eacute;ville as a
+surrender by Jesus of his lofty Messianic ideal in response to the
+temptation to seek a popular <a class="newpage" name="page302" id="page302" title="302"></a>following. Keim with finer insight says,
+"Even if it had certainly been his wish to bring the kingdom of heaven
+near in Jerusalem quietly and gradually, and with a healthy mental
+progress, as in Galilee, yet ... in the face of the irritability of his
+opponents, in the face of the powerful means at their disposal of crushing
+him ... there remained but one chance,--reckless publicity, the conquest
+of the partially prepared nation by means, not of force, but of idea....
+He came staking his life upon the venture, but also believing that God
+must finish his work through life or death" (JN V. 100f.).</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a073"><p><span class="versenum">73.</span> <i>The question about the resurrection</i> was probably a familiar
+Sadducean problem with which they made merry at the expense of the
+scribes. On the resurrection in Jewish thought see Charles, <i>Eschatology,
+Hebrew, Jewish, and Christian</i>, by index. For the scepticism of the
+Sadducees see also Ac. xxiii. 8; Jos. Wars, ii, 8. 14.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a074"><p><span class="versenum">74.</span> On the "<i>great commandment</i>" see EdersLJM II. 403 ff.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a075"><p><span class="versenum">75.</span> The eschatological discourse presents serious exegetical difficulties.
+Many cut the knot by assuming that Mk. xiii. and &#8741;s contain a little
+Jewish apocalypse written shortly before the destruction of Jerusalem,
+which has been blended with genuine predictions of Jesus concerning his
+second coming. See Charles, <i>Eschatology</i>, 323-. 329; WendtLJ I. 9-21;
+Holtz<del>mann</del>NtT<del>H</del><ins>h</ins> I. 325 ff.; and Bruce's
+criticism in <i>Expos. Gk. Test</i>. I. 287f., also Sanday's note in HastBD II.
+635f.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a076"><p><span class="versenum">76.</span> On <i>the relation of proselytes</i> to Judaism see Sch&uuml;rerJPTX II. ii.
+291-327. The synagogue in heathen lands drew to itself by its monotheism
+and its pure ethics the finest spirits of paganism. But few of them,
+however, submitted to circumcision, and became thus proselytes. Most of
+them constituted the class of "them that fear God" to whom Paul constantly
+appealed in his apostolic mission. The Greeks of Jn. xii. 20 ff. were
+probably circumcised proselytes.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a077"><p><span class="versenum">77.</span> On <i>Judas</i> see Plummer in HastBD II. 796 ff.; <a class="newpage" name="page303" id="page303" title="303"></a>EdersLJM II. 471-478;
+WeissLX III. 285-289; AndLOL by index. De Quincey's essay on <i>Judas
+Iscariot</i> is an elaborate defence.</p></div>
+
+
+<h4>VII</h4>
+
+<h5>The Last Supper</h5>
+
+<div class="section" id="a078"><p><span class="versenum">78.</span> GilbertLJ 335-354; WeissLX III. 273-318; EdersLJM II. 479-532; AndLOL
+450-497; KeimJN V. 275-343; BeysLJ II. 434-448; SandayHastBD II. 633-638.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a079"><p><span class="versenum">79.</span> <i>The day of the last supper</i>. John seems clearly to place it on the
+day before the Passover--13 Nisan. See xiii. I, 29; xviii. 28; xix. 14,
+31, 42. Synoptists as clearly declare that the supper was prepared on the
+"first day of unleavened bread, when they sacrificed the Passover" (Mk.
+xiv. 12; see also Lk. xxii. 15); this is confirmed by the similarity
+between the Passover ritual as tradition has preserved it, and the course
+of events at the supper. Unless interpretation can remove the
+contradiction, John must have the preference. WeissLX III. 273-282, BeysLJ
+II. 390-399, accept John and correct the synoptists by him; thus the
+supper anticipated the Passover. Some hold that John can be interpreted
+harmoniously with synoptists, and be shown to indicate that the supper was
+on the 14th Nisan. So EdersLJM II. 508, 566f., 612f.; AndLOL 452-481;
+GilbertLJ 335-339. Others believe that a true interpretation of synoptists
+shows that in calling the last supper a Passover they correctly represent
+the character, but misapprehend the time, of the meal. For this argument
+see Muirhead, <i>Times of Xt</i>, 163-169, and read SandayHastBD II. 633-636
+and his references. The debate is still on, but the advantage seems to be
+with those who assign the supper to the 13th and the crucifixion to the
+14th Nisan.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a080"><p><span class="versenum">80.</span> <i>Did Jesus institute a memorial sacrament</i>? Read SandayHastBD II.
+636-638, and Thayer, in Jour. Bib. <a class="newpage" name="page304" id="page304" title="304"></a>Lit. 1899, 110-131; see also
+McGiffert, <i>Apostolic Age</i>, 68 ff. note; Holtz<del>mann</del>NtTh I.
+296-304.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a081"><p><span class="versenum">81.</span> <i>The Passover ritual</i>. The order according to the rabbis was the
+following: the first cup of wine and water was taken by the leader, who
+gave thanks over it, and then it was shared by all (compare Lk. xxii. 17);
+then the head of the company washed his hands--Dr. Edersheim connects with
+this the washing of the disciples' feet, which changed the ceremony from
+an act of distinction into one of humble service; after this the dishes
+were brought on the table, then the leader dipped some of the bitter herbs
+into salt water or vinegar, spoke a blessing, and partook of them, then
+handed them to each of the company; then one of the loaves of unleavened
+bread was broken; after this a second cup was filled, and before it was
+drunk the significance of the Passover was explained by the leader in
+reply to a question by the youngest of the company, after which the first
+part of the Hallel (Ps. cxiii., cxiv.) was sung, and then the cup was
+drunk; then followed the supper itself beginning with "the sop,"--a piece
+of the paschal lamb, a piece of unleavened bread, and bitter herbs,
+wrapped together and dipped in the vinegar,--which was passed around the
+company (compare the sop which Jesus gave to Judas); after the supper came
+a third cup, known as "the cup of blessing" (see I. Cor. x. 16); then
+followed grace after meat; then a fourth cup, in connection with which the
+remainder of the Hallel was sung (Ps. cxv. to cxviii.), followed by
+certain other songs and prayers. See EdersLJM II. 496-512; AndLOL 488-494.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a082"><p><span class="versenum">82.</span> <i>The washing of the disciples' feet</i>. John (xiii. 1-11) says this
+occurred "during supper" (v. 2), and before the designation of the
+traitor. Luke (xxii. 23-30) tells of a dispute about greatness among the
+disciples. This dispute may have arisen over the assignment of places at
+table (compare Lk. xiv. 7 ff.; Mk. x. 33-45); if so, the reason for the
+lesson in humility is apparent. See AndLOL 482-484; EdersLJM II. 492-503.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a083"><p><a class="newpage" name="page305" id="page305" title="305"></a><span class="versenum">83.</span> <i>Did Jesus twice predict Peter's denials</i>? Mark (xiv. 26-31) and
+Matthew (xxvi. 30-35) place the prediction after the departure for
+Gethsemane; Luke (xxii. 31-34) and John (xiii. 36-38), during the supper.
+AndLOL 494 ff. thinks Peter was warned twice, EdersLJM. II. 535-537 holds
+to one warning on the way to Gethsemane. Antecedent probability favors
+this view.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a084"><p><span class="versenum">84.</span> <i>Where in John should the institution of the sacrament be placed</i>?
+Probably after the departure of Judas (Mark xiv. 21f.; Matt. xxvi. 26),
+thus not before xiii. 30. The most likely place is between, verses 32 and
+33. There is no break at this point, and it remains a mystery why John's
+account of the passion omitted this central feature of early Christian
+belief and practice. The omission argues for rather than against apostolic
+authorship, as a forger would not have ventured to disregard the leading
+service of the church in an account of the life of its Lord. See Westcott,
+<i>Comm. on John</i>, 188.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a085"><p><span class="versenum">85.</span> On the possible <i>disarrangement of the last discourses</i> (xiii. 31 to
+xvi. 33) in our text of John see Spitta, <i>Urchristentum</i>, I. 168-193;
+Bacon, Jour. Bib. Lit. 1894, 64-76; Burton, Bib. Wld. 1899 I. 32.</p></div>
+
+
+<h4>VIII</h4>
+
+<h5>The Shadow of the Cross</h5>
+
+<div class="section" id="a086"><p><span class="versenum">86.</span> See GilbertLJ 354-384; AndLOL 497-588; WeissLX III. 319-381; BeysLJ I.
+390-432, II. 448-473; EdersLJM II. 533-620; KeimJN VI. 1-274; SandayHastBD
+II. 632f.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a087"><p><span class="versenum">87.</span> On the location of <i>Gethsemane and Golgotha</i> see AndLOL 499f.,
+575-588; and HastBD II. 164, 226f.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a088"><p><span class="versenum">88.</span> On the progress of <i>Jesus' trial by the Jewish authorities, </i> see
+AndLOL 505-516; GilbertLJ 359-363. The <i>legality of the trial</i> has been
+carefully discussed by A. T. Innes, <i>The Trial of Jesus Christ</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a089"><p><a class="newpage" name="page306" id="page306" title="306"></a><span class="versenum">89.</span> On the form and sequence of <i>Peter's denials</i>, see Westcott, <i>Comm.
+on John</i>, 263-266; AndLOL 516-521.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a090"><p><span class="versenum">90.</span> The <i>Words from the Cross</i>. Matthew (xxvii. 46) and Mark (xv. 34)
+report one; Luke (xxiii. 34?, 43, 46) adds three, omitting the one found
+in Matthew and Mark; John adds three more (xix. 26f., 28, 30). Luke xxiii.
+34 is bracketed by Westcott and Hort because omitted by a very important
+group of MSS. (<span lang="he" xml:lang="he" title="Aleph">&#1488;</span><sup>a</sup>BD*) and some early versions. The saying
+is almost certainly authentic, though it may have been added to Luke by
+some early copyist. See Westcott and Hort, <i>N.T. in Greek</i>, II. Appendix,
+68; and Plummer, <i>Comm. on Luke</i>, 544f.</p></div>
+
+
+<h4>IX</h4>
+
+<h5>The Resurrection and Ascension</h5>
+
+<div class="section" id="a091"><p><span class="versenum">91.</span> Read SandayHastBD II. 638-643; see KeimJK VI. 274-383, for a still
+valid criticism of the position of R&eacute;villeJN II. 428-478; see also WeissLX
+III. 382-409; BeysLJ I. 433-481, II. 474-493; BovonNTTh I. 350-375;
+GilbertLJ 385-405; Loofs, <i>Die Auferstehungsberichte und ihr Wert</i>;
+EdersLJM II. 621-652; AndLOL 589-639.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a092"><p><span class="versenum">92.</span> The last twelve verses of Mark (xvi. 9-20) are omitted by the oldest
+MSS (<span lang="he" xml:lang="he" title="Aleph">&#1488;</span>B) and by the recently discovered Sinaitic Syriac, as
+well as by other versions and fathers. An Armenian MS. has been found
+ascribing the section to one Ariston, or Aristion, a second century elder,
+and this explanation of the origin of the verses is widely accepted. The
+gospel cannot have ended with the words "for they were afraid," but no
+satisfactory explanation of the condition of its text has been found. For
+a recent hypothesis see Rohrbach, <i>Der Schluss des Markusevangeliums</i>; on
+Aristion as the author, see Conybeare in Expos. IV. viii. (1893) 241, IV.
+x. 219, V. ii. 401; see also SandayHastBD II. 638f., Bruce, <i>Expos. Gk.
+Test</i>. I. 454f. For discussion of textual evidence see Westcott and Hort,
+<a class="newpage" name="page307" id="page307" title="307"></a><i>NT in Greek</i>, II. Appendix, 28-51, and Burgon, <i>The last twelve verses
+of St. Mark</i> (a passionate defence).</p>
+
+<p>Luke xxiv. 51 is omitted by <span lang="he" xml:lang="he" title="Aleph">&#1488;</span>*D and several old Latin MSS.
+See Plummer and Bruce on the passage.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a093"><p><span class="versenum">93.</span> "<i>After three days</i>." This formula, which appears often in Mark, is
+altered in parallels in Matthew and Luke to "on the third day" (see
+Concordance). Jesus died on Friday, lay in the tomb over Saturday, and
+rose very early Sunday morning. Thus he spent a part of Friday, and a part
+of Sunday, and all of Saturday in the grave. According to Jewish reckoning
+this was counted three days.</p></div>
+
+<div class="section" id="a094"><p><span class="versenum">94.</span> <i>Emmaus</i>. A village about 60 furlongs from Jerusalem. Cannot have been
+the Emmaus in the Shephelah, 20 m. from Jerusalem. May have been el
+Kubeibeh, 63 furlongs distant on the road from Jerusalem to Lydda. See
+AndLOL 617-619; but also HastBD I. 700.</p></div>
+
+
+
+
+<h3>Part III.--The Minister</h3>
+
+
+<h4>I</h4>
+
+<h5>The Friend of Men</h5>
+
+<div class="section" id="a095"><p><span class="versenum">95.</span> Head Mathews, <i>The Social Teachings of Jesus, </i> especially 132-174;
+see also Robinson, <i>The Saviour in the Newer Light</i>, 343 ff.</p></div>
+
+
+<h4>II</h4>
+
+<h5>The Teacher with Authority</h5>
+
+<div class="section" id="a096"><p><span class="versenum">96.</span> See WendtTJ I. 106-151; Stevens, <i>Theol. of the N.T.</i> 1-16; Beyschlag,
+<i>N.T. Theology, I</i>. 31-34. In particular on the Parables see references in
+sect. <a href="#a056">A 56</a>. On the content of Jesus' teaching see WendtTJ 2 vols.;
+<a class="newpage" name="page308" id="page308" title="308"></a>Dalman, <i>Die Worte Jesu; Stevens, Theol. of the N.T.</i> 17-244; Beyschlag,
+<i>N.T. Theol</i>. I. 27-299; Mathews, <i>Social Teaching of Jesus</i>; Gilbert,
+<i>The Revelation of Jesus</i>; Bruce, <i>The Kingdom of God</i>.</p></div>
+
+
+<h4>III</h4>
+
+<h5>Jesus' Knowledge of Truth</h5>
+
+<div class="section" id="a097"><p><span class="versenum">97.</span> Adamson, <i>The Mind in Christ</i>; GilbertRJ 169f., 240-242; Schwartzkopf,
+<i>The Prophecies of Jesus Christ</i>.</p></div>
+
+
+<h4>IV</h4>
+
+<h5>Jesus' Conception of Himself</h5>
+
+<div class="section" id="a098"><p><span class="versenum">98.</span> BaldSJ 125-282; Stalker, <i>Christology of Jesus</i>,
+Holtz<del>mann</del>NtTh I. 234-304; WendtTJ II. 122-183; GilbertRJ
+167-228; Stevens, <i>Theol. of the N.T.</i> 41-64, 199-212. On the title "Son
+of Man" see particularly DalmanWJ I. 191-219; Charles, <i>Eschatology</i>,
+214f. note; against, A. Meyer, <i>Jesu Muttersprache</i>, 91-101, and others.
+See also Holtz<del>mann</del>NtTh I. 246-264. On the name "Son of God,"
+see Dalman WJ I. 219-237; Holtzmann NtTh I. 265-278; Stalker,
+<i>Christology</i>, 86-123; Gilbert, as above. On the personal religion of
+Jesus see Burton, Bib. Wld. 1899, II. 394-403. For the total impression of
+the character of Jesus, read Bushnell, <i>The Character of Jesus</i>.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<div id="indexes">
+<h2><a class="newpage" name="page309" id="page309" title="309"></a>Indexes<a class="newpage" name="page310" id="page310" title="310"></a></h2>
+
+
+
+<div id="index1">
+<h3><a class="newpage" name="page311" id="page311" title="311"></a>Index of Names and Subjects</h3>
+
+
+
+<p>[References are to pages.]</p>
+
+
+<ul>
+<li>&AElig;non, site of, <a href="#page288">288</a>.</li>
+<li>"After three days," <a href="#page307">307</a>.</li>
+<li>Agrapha, <a href="#page036">36</a>, <a href="#page149">149</a>, <a href="#page281">281</a>.</li>
+<li>Andrew, of Bethsaida, <a href="#page092">92</a>, <a href="#page094">94</a>, <a href="#page118">118</a>.</li>
+<li>Angels, doctrine of, <a href="#page010">10</a>.</li>
+<li>Annas, <a href="#page191">191</a>, <a href="#page193">193</a>, <a href="#page194">194</a>.</li>
+<li>Antipas, <a href="#page004">4</a>, <a href="#page192">192</a>.</li>
+<li>Apocalypse, <a href="#page017">17</a>f., <a href="#page122">122</a>, <a href="#page124">124</a>, <a href="#page241">241</a>.</li>
+<li>Apocryphal gospels, <a href="#page037">37</a>, <a href="#page281">281</a>, <a href="#page282">282</a>.</li>
+<li>Archelaus, <a href="#page004">4</a>, <a href="#page005">5</a>.</li>
+<li>Aristion, author of Mark xvi. <a href="#page009">9</a>-<a href="#page020">20</a>, <a href="#page204">204</a>f., <a href="#page306">306</a>f.</li>
+<li>Assumption of Moses, <a href="#page075">75</a></li>
+
+<li>Baptism of John, see <i>John the Baptist</i>.</li>
+<li>Baptism of Jesus, <a href="#page083">83</a>-<a href="#page086">86</a>, <a href="#page283">283</a>f.</li>
+<li>Barabbas, <a href="#page174">174</a>, <a href="#page192">192</a>.</li>
+<li>Bethany beyond Jordan, <a href="#page092">92</a>, <a href="#page284">284</a>.</li>
+<li>Bethany, supper at, <a href="#page169">169</a>, <a href="#page301">301</a>.</li>
+<li>Bethsaida, site of, <a href="#page290">290</a>.</li>
+<li>Books of reference, <a href="#page273">273</a>-<a href="#page277">277</a>.</li>
+<li>Brethren of Jesus, <a href="#page063">63</a>f., <a href="#page283">283</a>.</li>
+
+<li>C&aelig;sarea Philippi, <a href="#page004">4</a>, <a href="#page291">291</a>.
+<ul>  <li>confession at, see <i>Peter</i>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Caiaphas, <a href="#page191">191</a>, <a href="#page193">193</a>, <a href="#page194">194</a>.</li>
+<li>Cana of Galilee, <a href="#page095">95</a>, <a href="#page222">222</a>, <a href="#page286">286</a>.</li>
+<li>Cananeans or Zealots, party of, <a href="#page011">11</a>, <a href="#page074">74</a>.</li>
+<li>Capernaum, site of, <a href="#page290">290</a>.</li>
+<li>Census under Quirinius, <a href="#page011">11</a>, <a href="#page052">52</a>-<a href="#page055">55</a>.</li>
+<li>Chorazin, site of, <a href="#page290">290</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Dalmanutha, <a href="#page291">291</a>.</li>
+<li>Dalmanutha, Books of, <a href="#page017">17</a>f., <a href="#page241">241</a>, <a href="#page254">254</a>f.</li>
+<li>Decapolis, the, <a href="#page140">140</a>, <a href="#page291">291</a>.</li>
+<li>Dedication, feast of, <a href="#page150">150</a>, <a href="#page154">154</a>.</li>
+<li>Demoniac possession, <a href="#page131">131</a>-<a href="#page133">133</a>, <a href="#page245">245</a>-<a href="#page248">248</a>, <a href="#page299">299</a>.</li>
+<li>Devout, the, <a href="#page013">13</a>, <a href="#page017">17</a>.</li>
+<li>Diatessaron of Tatian, <a href="#page038">38</a>, <a href="#page047">47</a>, <a href="#page281">281</a>.</li>
+<li>Doublets, <a href="#page044">44</a>, <a href="#page281">281</a>.</li>
+<li>Draughts of fish, miraculous, <a href="#page293">293</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Emmaus, site of, <a href="#page307">307</a>.</li>
+<li>Enoch, Book of, <a href="#page241">241</a>, <a href="#page256">256</a>-<a href="#page258">258</a>.</li>
+<li>Ephraim, site of, <a href="#page300">300</a>.</li>
+<li>Essenes,<ul><li> manner of living, <a href="#page011">11</a>-<a href="#page012">12</a>;</li>
+  <li>their hope of Messiah, <a href="#page016">16</a>;</li>
+  <li>their settlement, <a href="#page073">73</a>;</li>
+  <li>relation to John the Baptist, <a href="#page073">73</a>, <a href="#page077">77</a>.</li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Five thousand, the feeding of, <a href="#page135">135</a>f., <a href="#page291">291</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Gadarenes, country of, <a href="#page247">247</a>, <a href="#page290">290</a>f.</li>
+<li>Genealogies of Jesus, <a href="#page282">282</a>.</li>
+<li>Gethsemane, <a href="#page177">177</a>, <a href="#page186">186</a>, <a href="#page188">188</a>f., <a href="#page265">265</a>, <a href="#page305">305</a>.</li>
+<li>Golgotha, <a href="#page305">305</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Herod the Great, <a href="#page003">3</a>;
+<ul>  <li>began to rebuild temple, <a href="#page049">49</a>;</li>
+  <li>census during his reign, <a href="#page054">54</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Herod Antipas, <a href="#page004">4</a>, <a href="#page192">192</a>.</li>
+<li>Herodians, <a href="#page014">14</a>, <a href="#page173">173</a>.</li>
+
+<li>James, brother of John, <a href="#page092">92</a>, <a href="#page094">94</a>, <a href="#page118">118</a>.</li>
+<li>Jesus,<ul><li> language of, <a href="#page019">19</a>, <a href="#page062">62</a>, <a href="#page279">279</a>;</li>
+  <li>date of birth, <a href="#page052">52</a>-<a href="#page056">56</a>;</li>
+  <li>the miraculous conception, <a href="#page058">58</a>-<a href="#page061">61</a>;</li>
+  <li>growth, physical, intellectual, moral, and spiritual, <a href="#page061">61</a>-<a href="#page066">66</a>;</li>
+  <li>his brothers and sisters, <a href="#page064">64</a>;</li>
+  <li>visit to Jerusalem in his twelfth year, <a href="#page066">66</a>-<a class="newpage" name="page312" id="page312" title="312"></a><a href="#page068">68</a>;</li>
+  <li>life in Nazareth, <a href="#page068">68</a>f.;</li>
+  <li>his baptism, <a href="#page083">83</a>-<a href="#page086">86</a>;</li>
+  <li>his temptation, <a href="#page086">86</a>-<a href="#page091">91</a>;</li>
+  <li>his first disciples, <a href="#page092">92</a>-<a href="#page095">95</a>;</li>
+  <li>at Cana, <a href="#page095">95</a>;</li>
+  <li>his social friendliness, <a href="#page096">96</a>, <a href="#page219">219</a>f.;</li>
+  <li>the cleansing of the temple, <a href="#page108">108</a>-<a href="#page110">110</a>;</li>
+  <li>talk with Nicodemus, <a href="#page111">111</a>;</li>
+  <li>the woman of Samaria, <a href="#page112">112</a>;</li>
+  <li>cure of nobleman's son, <a href="#page113">113</a>;</li>
+  <li>in retirement in Galilee, <a href="#page113">113</a>f.;</li>
+  <li>call of four disciples, <a href="#page118">118</a>;</li>
+  <li>popular enthusiasm and pharisaic opposition, <a href="#page119">119</a>-<a href="#page121">121</a>;</li>
+  <li>his withdrawals and injunctions of silence, <a href="#page122">122</a> ff.;</li>
+  <li>blasphemy of the Pharisees, <a href="#page124">124</a>;</li>
+  <li>the reply to John's message, <a href="#page125">125</a>;</li>
+  <li>his twofold aim in Galilee, <a href="#page126">126</a>;</li>
+  <li>his method, <a href="#page127">127</a>;</li>
+  <li>the sermon on the mount, <a href="#page127">127</a>f.;</li>
+  <li>the parables, <a href="#page128">128</a>f., <a href="#page231">231</a>f., <a href="#page296">296</a>f.;</li>
+  <li>instruction of the twelve, <a href="#page130">130</a>, <a href="#page297">297</a>;</li>
+  <li>his mighty works, <a href="#page131">131</a>f.;</li>
+  <li>his personal influence, <a href="#page133">133</a>;</li>
+  <li>the feeding of the five thousand, <a href="#page135">135</a>f.;</li>
+  <li>the revulsion in popular feeling, <a href="#page136">136</a>;</li>
+  <li>the controversy about hand washing, <a href="#page139">139</a>;</li>
+  <li>the withdrawal to the north, <a href="#page138">138</a>;</li>
+  <li>the demand for a sign, <a href="#page139">139</a>;</li>
+  <li>disciples warned against the Pharisees, <a href="#page139">139</a>;</li>
+  <li>the question at C&aelig;sarea Philippi, <a href="#page141">141</a>f.;</li>
+  <li>commendation of Peter, <a href="#page143">143</a>;</li>
+  <li>announcement of approaching death, <a href="#page144">144</a>;</li>
+  <li>rebuke of Peter, <a href="#page145">145</a>;</li>
+  <li>the transfiguration, <a href="#page146">146</a>f.;</li>
+  <li>the epileptic boy, <a href="#page147">147</a>;</li>
+  <li>rebuke of worldly ambition, <a href="#page147">147</a>f.;</li>
+  <li>Jesus and his brethren, <a href="#page148">148</a>;</li>
+  <li>at the feast of Tabernacles, <a href="#page148">148</a>;</li>
+  <li>return to Galilee, <a href="#page150">150</a>;</li>
+  <li>final departure from Galilee, <a href="#page154">154</a>;</li>
+  <li>the mission of the seventy, <a href="#page158">158</a>;</li>
+  <li>visit to the feast of Dedication, <a href="#page159">159</a>;</li>
+  <li>in Perea, <a href="#page160">160</a>;</li>
+  <li>the summons to Bethany, <a href="#page161">161</a>f.;</li>
+  <li>official determination to get rid of him, <a href="#page161">161</a>;</li>
+  <li>at Ephraim, <a href="#page162">162</a>;</li>
+  <li>question about divorce, <a href="#page154">154</a>;</li>
+  <li>blessing little children, <a href="#page154">154</a>;</li>
+  <li>the rich young ruler, <a href="#page154">154</a>;</li>
+  <li>request of Salome, <a href="#page163">163</a>;</li>
+  <li>Bartimeus, <a href="#page163">163</a>;</li>
+  <li>Zacch&aelig;us, <a href="#page163">163</a>;</li>
+  <li>anointing at Bethany, <a href="#page169">169</a>;</li>
+  <li>the Messianic entry, <a href="#page170">170</a>f.;</li>
+  <li>the barren fig-tree, <a href="#page172">172</a>;</li>
+  <li>the questions of the leaders, <a href="#page173">173</a>f.;</li>
+  <li>counter question, <a href="#page175">175</a>;</li>
+  <li>denunciation of scribes, <a href="#page175">175</a>;</li>
+  <li>the widow's mites, <a href="#page176">176</a>;</li>
+  <li>visit of the Greeks. <a href="#page176">176</a>f.;</li>
+  <li>the eschatological discourse, <a href="#page178">178</a>;</li>
+  <li>bargain of Judas, <a href="#page169">169</a>, <a href="#page178">178</a>f.;</li>
+  <li>the last supper, <a href="#page181">181</a>-<a href="#page184">184</a>;</li>
+  <li>dispute and foot washing, <a href="#page184">184</a>;</li>
+  <li>withdrawal of Judas, <a href="#page184">184</a>;</li>
+  <li>prediction of Peter's denials, <a href="#page185">185</a>;</li>
+  <li>discourse and prayer, <a href="#page185">185</a>-<a href="#page187">187</a>;</li>
+  <li>Gethsemane, <a href="#page188">188</a>-<a href="#page190">190</a>;</li>
+  <li>betrayal and arrest, <a href="#page190">190</a>f.;</li>
+  <li>trial by Jews, <a href="#page191">191</a>f.;</li>
+  <li>trial by Pilate, <a href="#page192">192</a>-<a href="#page194">194</a>;</li>
+  <li>crucifixion, <a href="#page195">195</a>-<a href="#page198">198</a>;</li>
+  <li>burial of Jesus, <a href="#page199">199</a>;</li>
+  <li>the resurrection, <a href="#page201">201</a>-<a href="#page210">210</a>;</li>
+  <li>the ascension, <a href="#page214">214</a>f.;</li>
+  <li>Jesus' attitude to common life, <a href="#page219">219</a>-<a href="#page223">223</a>;</li>
+  <li>his hunger for sympathy, <a href="#page223">223</a>;</li>
+  <li>Jesus as a teacher, <a href="#page226">226</a>f.;</li>
+  <li>his attitude to Old Testament, <a href="#page227">227</a>-<a href="#page229">229</a>;</li>
+  <li>his confidence in men, <a href="#page230">230</a>f.;</li>
+  <li>his use of illustration, <a href="#page231">231</a>-<a href="#page233">233</a>;</li>
+  <li>his alertness of mind, <a href="#page234">234</a>;</li>
+  <li>his leading ideas, <a href="#page235">235</a> ff.;</li>
+  <li>his supernatural knowledge, <a href="#page239">239</a>-<a href="#page244">244</a>;</li>
+  <li>his confession of ignorance, <a href="#page243">243</a>;</li>
+  <li>his kinship with men, <a href="#page244">244</a>f.;</li>
+  <li>treatment of demoniac possession, <a href="#page245">245</a>-<a href="#page248">248</a>;</li>
+  <li>his certainty of his Messianic call, <a href="#page249">249</a>-<a href="#page254">254</a>;</li>
+  <li>his adoption of Messianic titles, <a href="#page254">254</a>-<a href="#page264">264</a>;</li>
+  <li>his consciousness of dependence on God, <a href="#page264">264</a>-<a href="#page266">266</a>;</li>
+  <li>the problem of Jesus, <a href="#page267">267</a>-<a href="#page269">269</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>John, Gospel of, <a href="#page032">32</a>-<a href="#page036">36</a>, <a href="#page040">40</a>f., <a href="#page181">181</a>, <a href="#page280">280</a>, <a href="#page305">305</a>.</li>
+<li>John the Baptist, <a href="#page070">70</a>-<a href="#page081">81</a>;
+<ul>  <li>notice by Josephus, <a href="#page071">71</a>f., <a href="#page279">279</a>f.;</li>
+  <li>his idea of the kingdom of God, <a href="#page073">73</a>;</li>
+  <li>his relation to current thought, <a href="#page073">73</a>-<a href="#page076">76</a>;</li>
+  <li>his baptism, <a href="#page077">77</a>f., <a href="#page083">83</a>;</li>
+  <li>baptism of Jesus, <a href="#page082">82</a>-<a href="#page084">84</a>;</li>
+  <li>the embassy from the priests, <a href="#page092">92</a>;</li>
+  <li>testimony--"the Lamb of God," <a href="#page093">93</a>, <a href="#page286">286</a>;</li>
+  <li>baptizing at &AElig;non, <a href="#page112">112</a>;</li>
+  <li>his self-effacing witness to Jesus, <a href="#page079">79</a>, <a href="#page112">112</a>;</li>
+  <li>hostility of the Pharisees, <a href="#page113">113</a>, <a href="#page289">289</a>;</li>
+  <li>arrest by Antipas, <a href="#page071">71</a>f., <a href="#page113">113</a>;</li>
+  <li>his message to Jesus, <a href="#page125">125</a>;</li>
+  <li>death in prison, <a href="#page134">134</a>f.; his significance, <a href="#page079">79</a>-<a href="#page081">81</a>, <a href="#page226">226</a>;</li>
+  <li>the disciples of John, <a href="#page112">112</a>, <a href="#page283">283</a>;</li>
+  <li>literature about John, <a href="#page283">283</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>John, son of Zebedee, <a href="#page036">36</a>, <a href="#page092">92</a>, <a href="#page094">94</a>, <a href="#page118">118</a>, <a href="#page193">193</a>,<a href="#page269">269</a>.</li>
+<li><a class="newpage" name="page313" id="page313" title="313"></a>John of Gischals, <a href="#page121">121</a>.</li>
+<li>Joseph of Arimathea, <a href="#page182">182</a>, <a href="#page199">199</a>.</li>
+<li>Josephus, <a href="#page022">22</a>;
+<ul>  <li>notice of John the Baptist, <a href="#page071">71</a>, <a href="#page279">279</a>f.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Judas of Galilee, <a href="#page011">11</a>, <a href="#page121">121</a>.</li>
+<li>Judas the betrayer, <a href="#page169">169</a>, <a href="#page181">181</a>, <a href="#page302">302</a>;
+<ul>  <li>the bargain, <a href="#page178">178</a>;</li>
+  <li>his selection as an apostle, <a href="#page179">179</a>;</li>
+  <li>his criticism of Mary at Bethany, <a href="#page179">179</a>;</li>
+  <li>his kiss, <a href="#page190">190</a>;</li>
+  <li>his remorse, <a href="#page179">179</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Judea, province of, <a href="#page006">6</a>f.</li>
+
+<li>Kingdom of God, <a href="#page068">68</a>, <a href="#page086">86</a>, <a href="#page090">90</a>, <a href="#page173">173</a>, <a href="#page190">190</a>, <a href="#page231">231</a>, <a href="#page232">232</a>, <a href="#page235">235</a> ff., <a href="#page238">238</a>, <a href="#page241">241</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Language used by Jesus, <a href="#page019">19</a>, <a href="#page062">62</a>, <a href="#page279">279</a>.</li>
+<li>Last supper, the, <a href="#page181">181</a>-<a href="#page187">187</a>, <a href="#page303">303</a>-<a href="#page305">305</a>.</li>
+<li>Lawyers, see <i>Scribes</i>.</li>
+<li>Length of Jesus' ministry, <a href="#page045">45</a>-<a href="#page049">49</a>.</li>
+<li>Literature of the Jews, <a href="#page018">18</a>f., <a href="#page279">279</a>.</li>
+<li>"Logia," ascribed to Matthew, <a href="#page032">32</a>, <a href="#page042">42</a>, <a href="#page158">158</a>.</li>
+<li>Luke, Gospel of, <a href="#page026">26</a>f., <a href="#page031">31</a>f., <a href="#page280">280</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Mark, Gospel of, <a href="#page025">25</a>f., <a href="#page027">27</a>, <a href="#page029">29</a>, <a href="#page032">32</a>, <a href="#page040">40</a>, <a href="#page042">42</a>, <a href="#page280">280</a>, <a href="#page294">294</a>f.;
+<ul>  <li>last twelve verses of, <a href="#page204">204</a>f., <a href="#page306">306</a>f.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Mary Magdalene, <a href="#page134">134</a>, <a href="#page208">208</a>.</li>
+<li>Mary, the mother of Jesus, <a href="#page059">59</a>;
+<ul>  <li>had other children, <a href="#page060">60</a>, <a href="#page063">63</a>f., <a href="#page283">283</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Matthew, Gospel of, <a href="#page023">23</a> ff., <a href="#page027">27</a>, <a href="#page030">30</a>f., <a href="#page032">32</a>, <a href="#page280">280</a>.</li>
+<li>Messianic entry into Jerusalem, <a href="#page170">170</a>, <a href="#page301">301</a>f.</li>
+<li>Messianic hope, the, <a href="#page016">16</a>-<a href="#page018">18</a>, <a href="#page087">87</a>, <a href="#page175">175</a>, <a href="#page279">279</a>.</li>
+<li>Miracles of Jesus, <a href="#page096">96</a>, <a href="#page267">267</a>, <a href="#page286">286</a>f.</li>
+<li>Miraculous birth, the, <a href="#page057">57</a>-<a href="#page061">61</a>, <a href="#page232">232</a>.</li>
+<li>Mission of the twelve, <a href="#page130">130</a>, <a href="#page297">297</a>.</li>
+<li>Mission of the seventy, <a href="#page158">158</a>, <a href="#page300">300</a>f.</li>
+
+<li>Nathanael, of Cana, <a href="#page092">92</a>, <a href="#page094">94</a>, <a href="#page286">286</a>.</li>
+<li>Nazareth,<ul><li> the view from, <a href="#page065">65</a>f.</li>
+  <li>rejection at, <a href="#page292">292</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Nicodemus, <a href="#page111">111</a>, <a href="#page199">199</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Papias, <a href="#page022">22</a>, <a href="#page029">29</a>, <a href="#page034">34</a>, <a href="#page047">47</a>, <a href="#page102">102</a>, <a href="#page281">281</a>.</li>
+<li>Parables of Jesus, <a href="#page128">128</a>f., <a href="#page231">231</a>f., <a href="#page296">296</a>f.</li>
+<li>Passover, the, <a href="#page181">181</a>, <a href="#page187">187</a>, <a href="#page304">304</a>.</li>
+<li>Paul, <a href="#page021">21</a>, <a href="#page036">36</a>, <a href="#page201">201</a>, <a href="#page206">206</a>, <a href="#page268">268</a>.</li>
+<li>Pentateuch, Jesus' references to, <a href="#page244">244</a>.</li>
+<li>Perea, <a href="#page104">104</a>, <a href="#page153">153</a>f., <a href="#page158">158</a>, <a href="#page299">299</a>f.</li>
+<li>Peter, <a href="#page029">29</a>, <a href="#page034">34</a>, <a href="#page092">92</a>, <a href="#page094">94</a>, <a href="#page118">118</a>, <a href="#page185">185</a>, <a href="#page193">193</a>, <a href="#page305">305</a>, <a href="#page306">306</a>;
+<ul>  <li>confession of, <a href="#page136">136</a>, <a href="#page142">142</a> ff., <a href="#page297">297</a>f.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Pharisees, the, <a href="#page008">8</a>-<a href="#page010">10</a>;
+<ul>  <li>attitude to John the Baptist, <a href="#page082">82</a>, <a href="#page113">113</a>, <a href="#page289">289</a>;</li>
+  <li>their blasphemy, <a href="#page124">124</a>, <a href="#page156">156</a>;</li>
+  <li>question about divorce, <a href="#page154">154</a>;</li>
+  <li>about tribute, <a href="#page173">173</a>;</li>
+  <li>about the great commandment, <a href="#page174">174</a>, <a href="#page302">302</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Philip of Bethsaida, <a href="#page092">92</a>, <a href="#page094">94</a>, <a href="#page176">176</a>.</li>
+<li>Philip the tetrarch, <a href="#page004">4</a>.</li>
+<li>Pliny the younger, <a href="#page021">21</a>.</li>
+<li>Pontius Pilate, <a href="#page005">5</a>, <a href="#page192">192</a>, <a href="#page195">195</a>.</li>
+<li>Priests, the, <a href="#page007">7</a>f., <a href="#page107">107</a>;
+<ul>  <li>and the temple market, <a href="#page108">108</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Proselytes, <a href="#page078">78</a>, <a href="#page176">176</a>, <a href="#page302">302</a>.</li>
+<li>Psalms, Jesus' use of the, <a href="#page244">244</a>.</li>
+<li>Psalms of Solomon, <a href="#page018">18</a>, <a href="#page261">261</a>.</li>
+<li>Publicans, <a href="#page006">6</a>, <a href="#page072">72</a>, <a href="#page222">222</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Quirinius, census under, <a href="#page052">52</a>-<a href="#page055">55</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Religion of Jesus, <a href="#page264">264</a> ff., <a href="#page308">308</a>.</li>
+<li>Resurrection,<ul><li> pharisaic doctrine of, <a href="#page010">10</a>, <a href="#page241">241</a>;</li>
+  <li>Sadducean rejection of <a href="#page010">10</a>, <a href="#page174">174</a>.</li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Sadducees, the, <a href="#page008">8</a>, <a href="#page016">16</a>, <a href="#page082">82</a>;
+<ul>  <li>the question about the resurrection, <a href="#page174">174</a>, <a href="#page303">303</a>;</li>
+  <li>attitude towards Jesus, <a href="#page193">193</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Samaria, <a href="#page006">6</a>f.
+<ul>  <li>Jesus' journey through, <a href="#page112">112</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Samaritans, how regarded, <a href="#page014">14</a>.</li>
+<li>Sanhedrin, the great, at Jerusalem, <a href="#page007">7</a>, <a href="#page013">13</a>, <a href="#page192">192</a>.</li>
+<li>Scribes,<ul><li> their business, <a href="#page009">9</a>;</li>
+  <li>power in the sanhedrin, <a href="#page013">13</a>;</li>
+  <li>their influence over the religious life, <a href="#page014">14</a>;</li>
+  <li>their hope of a Messiah, <a href="#page016">16</a>;</li>
+  <li>their washings, <a href="#page078">78</a>;</li>
+  <li>chief of them at Jerusalem, <a href="#page107">107</a>;</li>
+  <li>their pride of learning and their bondage to tradition, <a href="#page228">228</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Sermon on the mount, <a href="#page127">127</a>, <a href="#page290">290</a>, <a href="#page295">295</a>f.</li>
+<li>Signs, essential marks of the Messiah, <a href="#page095">95</a>, <a href="#page131">131</a>.</li>
+<li>Soldiers in Palestine, <a href="#page006">6</a>, <a href="#page072">72</a>, <a href="#page191">191</a>.</li>
+<li>Son of Man, the, <a href="#page124">124</a>f., <a href="#page130">130</a>f., <a href="#page254">254</a>-<a href="#page260">260</a>, <a href="#page308">308</a>.</li>
+<li><a class="newpage" name="page314" id="page314" title="314"></a>Son of God, the, <a href="#page260">260</a>-<a href="#page264">264</a>, <a href="#page308">308</a>.</li>
+<li>Star of the wise men, <a href="#page056">56</a>.</li>
+<li>Suetonius, <a href="#page021">21</a>.</li>
+<li>Sychar, site of, <a href="#page288">288</a>.</li>
+<li>Synagogue, the, <a href="#page014">14</a>.</li>
+<li>Synoptic gospels, <a href="#page028">28</a>.</li>
+<li>Synoptic problem, <a href="#page027">27</a>-<a href="#page032">32</a>, <a href="#page279">279</a>f.</li>
+
+<li>Tabernacles, feast of, <a href="#page148">148</a>, <a href="#page150">150</a>, <a href="#page298">298</a>f.</li>
+<li>Tacitus, <a href="#page003">3</a>, <a href="#page021">21</a>, <a href="#page054">54</a>.</li>
+<li>Tatian, <a href="#page023">23</a>, <a href="#page038">38</a>, <a href="#page047">47</a>, <a href="#page281">281</a>.</li>
+<li>Taxes, Roman, in Judea, <a href="#page006">6</a>.</li>
+<li>Temple at Jerusalem, <a href="#page107">107</a>;
+<ul>  <li>market in <a href="#page107">107</a>;</li>
+  <li>cleansing of, <a href="#page107">107</a>, <a href="#page288">288</a>f.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Temptation of Jesus, <a href="#page086">86</a>-<a href="#page091">91</a>, <a href="#page145">145</a>, <a href="#page284">284</a>;
+<ul>  <li>locality of, <a href="#page285">285</a>;</li>
+  <li>source of the record, <a href="#page090">90</a>, <a href="#page285">285</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Tertullian, <a href="#page045">45</a>, <a href="#page053">53</a>.</li>
+<li>Thomas, <a href="#page208">208</a>.</li>
+<li>Tiberius, <a href="#page001">1</a>, <a href="#page021">21</a>, <a href="#page050">50</a>.</li>
+<li>Traditions of the elders, <a href="#page009">9</a>, <a href="#page015">15</a>f., <a href="#page068">68</a>, <a href="#page074">74</a>, <a href="#page139">139</a>.</li>
+<li>Transfiguration, the, <a href="#page146">146</a>f., <a href="#page292">292</a>.</li>
+<li>Trial of Jesus, the, <a href="#page191">191</a>-<a href="#page195">195</a>, <a href="#page305">305</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Words from the cross, <a href="#page196">196</a> ff., <a href="#page306">306</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Zealots, the, <a href="#page011">11</a>, <a href="#page074">74</a>, <a href="#page122">122</a>, <a href="#page124">124</a>.</li>
+</ul></div>
+
+
+
+<div id="index2">
+<h3><a class="newpage" name="page315" id="page315" title="315"></a>Index of Scripture References</h3>
+
+
+
+<table summary="Index of Scripture References">
+<tr><th colspan="2">Ex.</th></tr>
+
+<tr><td>iv. 22                 </td><td><a href="#page261">261</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xix. 10                 </td><td><a href="#page078">78</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxiv. 1-11             </td><td><a href="#page183">183</a></td></tr>
+
+
+
+<tr><th colspan="2">Lev.</th></tr>
+
+<tr><td>xii. 8                  </td><td><a href="#page061">61</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxiii. 5-11             </td><td><a href="#page047">47</a></td></tr>
+
+
+
+<tr><th colspan="2">Num.</th></tr>
+
+<tr><td>xxiii. 19              </td><td><a href="#page254">254</a></td></tr>
+
+
+
+<tr><th colspan="2">Deut.</th></tr>
+
+<tr><td>vi. 4-9                 </td><td><a href="#page062">62</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>viii. 3                 </td><td><a href="#page088">88</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xviii. 15               </td><td><a href="#page092">92</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxi. 23                </td><td><a href="#page196">196</a></td></tr>
+
+
+
+<tr><th colspan="2">I. Sam.</th></tr>
+
+<tr><td>ii. 26                  </td><td><a href="#page061">61</a></td></tr>
+
+
+
+<tr><th colspan="2">I. Kings.</th></tr>
+
+<tr><td>xvii. 1                 </td><td><a href="#page072">72</a></td></tr>
+
+
+
+<tr><th colspan="2">II. Kings.</th></tr>
+
+<tr><td>i. 8                    </td><td><a href="#page078">78</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xvii. 24-41             </td><td><a href="#page014">14</a></td></tr>
+
+
+
+<tr><th colspan="2">Ps.</th></tr>
+
+<tr><td>ii. 7                  </td><td><a href="#page261">261</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>viii. 4                </td><td><a href="#page254">254</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxii.                  </td><td><a href="#page196">196</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>lxxx. 17               </td><td><a href="#page254">254</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>lxxxii. 6              </td><td><a href="#page261">261</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ciii. 13               </td><td><a href="#page262">262</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>cxiii., cxiv.          </td><td><a href="#page304">304</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>cxv. to cxviii.        </td><td><a href="#page185">185</a>, <a href="#page304">304</a></td></tr>
+
+
+
+<tr><th colspan="2">Isa.</th></tr>
+
+<tr><td>i. 16                   </td><td><a href="#page076">76</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vi. 5                  </td><td><a href="#page267">267</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xi. 2                   </td><td><a href="#page085">85</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxxv. 5f.              </td><td><a href="#page126">126</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xlii. 1                 </td><td><a href="#page085">85</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>li. 2                  </td><td><a href="#page254">254</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>liii.                   </td><td><a href="#page096">96</a>, <a href="#page239">239</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>liii. 7                 </td><td><a href="#page093">93</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>lviii.                  </td><td><a href="#page076">76</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>lxi. 1f.                </td><td><a href="#page045">45</a>, <a href="#page085">85</a>, <a href="#page126">126</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>lxiii. 16              </td><td><a href="#page262">262</a></td></tr>
+
+
+
+<tr><th colspan="2">Jer.</th></tr>
+
+<tr><td>xxxi. 31-34            </td><td><a href="#page111">111</a>, <a href="#page183">183</a></td></tr>
+
+
+
+<tr><th colspan="2">Ezek.</th></tr>
+
+<tr><td>ii. 1                  </td><td><a href="#page254">254</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxxiii. 10-20          </td><td><a href="#page240">240</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxxvi. 25-27           </td><td><a href="#page111">111</a></td></tr>
+
+
+<tr><th colspan="2">Dan.</th></tr>
+
+<tr><td>vi. 10                 </td><td><a href="#page107">107</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vii. 1-14              </td><td><a href="#page254">254</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vii. 13f.              </td><td><a href="#page255">255</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>viii. 17               </td><td><a href="#page254">254</a></td></tr>
+
+
+<tr><th colspan="2">Hos.</th></tr>
+
+<tr><td>i. 10                  </td><td><a href="#page261">261</a></td></tr>
+
+
+<tr><th colspan="2">Joel.</th></tr>
+
+<tr><td>ii. 1-14                </td><td><a href="#page076">76</a></td></tr>
+
+
+<tr><th colspan="2">Micah.</th></tr>
+
+<tr><td>vi. 8                   </td><td><a href="#page076">76</a></td></tr>
+
+
+<tr><th colspan="2">Matt.</th></tr>
+
+<tr><td>i. 1 to iv. 17          </td><td><a href="#page023">23</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ii. 1, 2                </td><td><a href="#page052">52</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iii. 7                  </td><td><a href="#page074">74</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iii. 9                  </td><td><a href="#page078">78</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iii. 10-12              </td><td><a href="#page082">82</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iii. 11                 </td><td><a href="#page077">77</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iii. 14                 </td><td><a href="#page082">82</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iii. 15                 </td><td><a href="#page083">83</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iii. 16                </td><td><a href="#page285">285</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iv. 4, 7, 10           </td><td><a href="#page228">228</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iv. 7                   </td><td><a href="#page089">89</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iv. 8                   </td><td><a href="#page090">90</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iv. 10                  </td><td><a href="#page090">90</a>, <a href="#page145">145</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iv. 12                 </td><td><a href="#page101">101</a>, <a href="#page102">102</a>, <a href="#page106">106</a>, <a href="#page289">289</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iv. 12-17               </td><td><a href="#page024">24</a>, <a href="#page039">39</a>, <a href="#page115">115</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iv. 12 to xviii. 35    </td><td><a href="#page102">102</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iv. 13                 </td><td><a href="#page106">106</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iv. 13-16              </td><td><a href="#page115">115</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iv. 17                 </td><td><a href="#page118">118</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iv. 18-22              </td><td><a href="#page106">106</a>, <a href="#page115">115</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iv. 18 to xvi. 20       </td><td><a href="#page024">24</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iv. 23                 </td><td><a href="#page115">115</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iv. 23-25              </td><td><a href="#page115">115</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>v. 1                   </td><td><a href="#page290">290</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>v. 3-12                </td><td><a href="#page296">296</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>v. 13-16               </td><td><a href="#page296">296</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>v. 17                   </td><td><a href="#page083">83</a>, <a href="#page228">228</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>v. 17-19               </td><td><a href="#page296">296</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>v. 18                  </td><td><a href="#page238">238</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>v. 20                  </td><td><a href="#page296">296</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>v. 21-48               </td><td><a href="#page228">228</a>, <a href="#page296">296</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>v. 25f.                </td><td><a href="#page295">295</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>v. 29f.                </td><td><a href="#page295">295</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>v. 32                  </td><td><a href="#page295">295</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>v. 38, 39              </td><td><a href="#page250">250</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>v. 45                  </td><td><a href="#page244">244</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vi. 1-6                 </td><td><a href="#page084">84</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vi. 1-18                </td><td><a href="#page064">64</a>, <a href="#page296">296</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vi. 2-4                </td><td><a href="#page176">176</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vi. 9-15                 </td><td><a href="#page004">4</a>, <a href="#page117">117</a>, <a href="#page295">295</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vi. 19-34              </td><td><a href="#page103">103</a>, <a href="#page295">295</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vi. 24                 </td><td><a href="#page179">179</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vi. 25-34               </td><td><a href="#page042">42</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vii. 1-6               </td><td><a href="#page296">296</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vii. 7-11              </td><td><a href="#page117">117</a>, <a href="#page295">295</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vii. 13f.              </td><td><a href="#page295">295</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vii. 15-21             </td><td><a href="#page296">296</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vii. 21                </td><td><a href="#page262">262</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vii. 21-27             </td><td><a href="#page238">238</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vii. 22f.              </td><td><a href="#page295">295</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vii. 24-27             </td><td><a href="#page296">296</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vii. 28, 29            </td><td><a href="#page226">226</a>, <a href="#page249">249</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>viii. 2-4              </td><td><a href="#page115">115</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>viii. 5                  </td><td><a href="#page007">7</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>viii. 5, 8              </td><td><a href="#page043">43</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>viii. 5-13              </td><td><a href="#page041">41</a>, <a href="#page115">115</a>, <a href="#page288">288</a>, <a href="#page289">289</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>viii. 10               </td><td><a href="#page243">243</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>viii. 10-12             </td><td><a href="#page024">24</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>viii. 14-17            </td><td><a href="#page115">115</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>viii. 18, 23-27        </td><td><a href="#page116">116</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>viii. 19-22            </td><td><a href="#page153">153</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>viii. 20               </td><td><a href="#page259">259</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>viii. 28-34            </td><td><a href="#page116">116</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ix. 1, 18-26           </td><td><a href="#page116">116</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ix. 2-8                </td><td><a href="#page115">115</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ix. 9-13               </td><td><a href="#page115">115</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ix. 14-17              </td><td><a href="#page115">115</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ix. 27-34              </td><td><a href="#page116">116</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ix. 35                 </td><td><a href="#page116">116</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ix. 36 to xi. 1        </td><td><a href="#page116">116</a>, <a href="#page118">118</a>, <a href="#page297">297</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>x. 1, 5-15             </td><td><a href="#page297">297</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>x. 5f.                 </td><td><a href="#page130">130</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>x. 7-15                </td><td><a href="#page297">297</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>x. 16-42               </td><td><a href="#page297">297</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>x. 32                  </td><td><a href="#page262">262</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xi. 2-6                </td><td><a href="#page251">251</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xi. 2-19                </td><td><a href="#page041">41</a>, <a href="#page116">116</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xi. 4-6                </td><td><a href="#page131">131</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xi. 11                  </td><td><a href="#page080">80</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xi. 18f.               </td><td><a href="#page259">259</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xi. 19                  </td><td><a href="#page096">96</a>, <a href="#page220">220</a>, <a href="#page256">256</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xi. 20-24              </td><td><a href="#page301">301</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xi. 20-30              </td><td><a href="#page153">153</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xi. 25-30              </td><td><a href="#page300">300</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xi. 27                 </td><td><a href="#page252">252</a>, <a href="#page263">263</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xi. 28-30              </td><td><a href="#page160">160</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><a class="newpage" name="page316" id="page316" title="316"></a>xii. 1-8               </td><td><a href="#page115">115</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xii. 9-14              </td><td><a href="#page115">115</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xii. 12                </td><td><a href="#page227">227</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xii. 15-21             </td><td><a href="#page115">115</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xii. 22-45             </td><td><a href="#page116">116</a>, <a href="#page156">156</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xii. 28                 </td><td><a href="#page085">85</a>, <a href="#page248">248</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xii. 46-50             </td><td><a href="#page116">116</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xii. 50                </td><td><a href="#page145">145</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xiii. 1-53             </td><td><a href="#page116">116</a>, <a href="#page296">296</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xiii. 24-30            </td><td><a href="#page296">296</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xiii. 31-33             </td><td><a href="#page044">44</a>, <a href="#page017">17</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xiii. 40-43, 49, 50    </td><td><a href="#page296">296</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xiii. 54-58            </td><td><a href="#page116">116</a>, <a href="#page292">292</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xiii. 55                </td><td><a href="#page061">61</a>, <a href="#page063">63</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xiv. 1-12              </td><td><a href="#page116">116</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xiv. 1 to xxviii. 20    </td><td><a href="#page028">28</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xiv. 13-23              </td><td><a href="#page039">39</a>, <a href="#page116">116</a>, <a href="#page297">297</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xiv. 19                 </td><td><a href="#page046">46</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xiv. 21-36             </td><td><a href="#page116">116</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xv. 1                   </td><td><a href="#page043">43</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xv. 1-20               </td><td><a href="#page116">116</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xv. 13f.               </td><td><a href="#page150">150</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xv. 21-28              </td><td><a href="#page116">116</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xv. 21-31              </td><td><a href="#page140">140</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xv. 22                 </td><td><a href="#page254">254</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xv. 24                 </td><td><a href="#page130">130</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xv. 29-31              </td><td><a href="#page117">117</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xv. 32-38              </td><td><a href="#page117">117</a>, <a href="#page297">297</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xv. 39                 </td><td><a href="#page291">291</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xv. 39 to xvi. 12       </td><td><a href="#page017">17</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xvi. 9f.               </td><td><a href="#page297">297</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xvi. 13-20              </td><td><a href="#page094">94</a>, <a href="#page117">117</a>, <a href="#page298">298</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xvi. 16                </td><td><a href="#page263">263</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xvi. 16ff.             </td><td><a href="#page142">142</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xvi. 17                </td><td><a href="#page142">142</a>, <a href="#page224">224</a>, <a href="#page262">262</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xvi. 21                </td><td><a href="#page118">118</a>, <a href="#page239">239</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xvi. 21-28             </td><td><a href="#page117">117</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xvi. 21 to xxviii. 20   </td><td><a href="#page024">24</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xvi. 23                </td><td><a href="#page239">239</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xvii. 1-13             </td><td><a href="#page117">117</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xvii. 10-13            </td><td><a href="#page193">193</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xvii. 14-20            </td><td><a href="#page117">117</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xvi. 22-23             </td><td><a href="#page117">117</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xvii. 24-27            </td><td><a href="#page117">117</a>, <a href="#page139">139</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xviii. 1-35            </td><td><a href="#page117">117</a>, <a href="#page148">148</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xviii. 4               </td><td><a href="#page220">220</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xviii. 12-14            </td><td><a href="#page044">44</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xix. 1f.                </td><td><a href="#page039">39</a>, <a href="#page153">153</a>, <a href="#page154">154</a>, <a href="#page298">298</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xix. 1 to xx. 34       </td><td><a href="#page104">104</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xix. 3-9               </td><td><a href="#page228">228</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xix. 3-12              </td><td><a href="#page153">153</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xix. 13-15             </td><td><a href="#page153">153</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xix. 16 to xx. 16      </td><td><a href="#page153">153</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xx. 17-19              </td><td><a href="#page153">153</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xx. 20-28              </td><td><a href="#page153">153</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xx. 29-34              </td><td><a href="#page153">153</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxi. 1-11              </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxi. 1 to xxvii. 66    </td><td><a href="#page104">104</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxi. 1 to xxviii. 20    </td><td><a href="#page039">39</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxi. 4f.               </td><td><a href="#page170">170</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxi. 9-15              </td><td><a href="#page254">254</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxi. 14-16             </td><td><a href="#page172">172</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxi. 17                </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxi. 18-19, 12-17      </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxi. 20-23             </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxi. 23-27             </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxi. 28 to xxii. 14    </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a>, <a href="#page173">173</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxi. 33-46              </td><td><a href="#page025">25</a>, <a href="#page252">252</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxii. 1-14             </td><td><a href="#page252">252</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxii. 15-22            </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxii. 23-33            </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxii. 34-46            </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a>, <a href="#page238">238</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxii. 41-46            </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxiii. 1-39            </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxiii. 2                </td><td><a href="#page013">13</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxiii. 24              </td><td><a href="#page233">233</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxiii. 37-39            </td><td><a href="#page034">34</a>, <a href="#page106">106</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxiv. 1 to xxvi. 2     </td><td><a href="#page167">167</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxiv. 6-13             </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxv.                   </td><td><a href="#page178">178</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxv. 37-46             </td><td><a href="#page237">237</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxv. 40                </td><td><a href="#page221">221</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxvi. 1f.              </td><td><a href="#page147">147</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxvi. 2, 6-13          </td><td><a href="#page301">301</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxvi. 3-5, 14-16       </td><td><a href="#page167">167</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxvi. 11-13            </td><td><a href="#page167">167</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxvi. 20               </td><td><a href="#page181">181</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxvi. 25               </td><td><a href="#page200">200</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxvi. 26               </td><td><a href="#page305">305</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxvi. 30, 36-46        </td><td><a href="#page167">167</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxvi. 30-35            </td><td><a href="#page305">305</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxvi. 47-56            </td><td><a href="#page167">167</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxvi. 57 to xxvii. 10  </td><td><a href="#page167">167</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxvi. 63f.             </td><td><a href="#page263">263</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxvii. 11-31           </td><td><a href="#page167">167</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxvii. 32-56           </td><td><a href="#page167">167</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxvii. 43              </td><td><a href="#page261">261</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxvii. 46              </td><td><a href="#page197">197</a>, <a href="#page306">306</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxvii. 50              </td><td><a href="#page285">285</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxvii. 57               </td><td><a href="#page034">34</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxvii. 57-61           </td><td><a href="#page167">167</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxvii. 62-66           </td><td><a href="#page167">167</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxviii. 1-8            </td><td><a href="#page201">201</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxviii. 9, 10          </td><td><a href="#page201">201</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxviii. 11-15          </td><td><a href="#page201">201</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxviii. 16-20          </td><td><a href="#page201">201</a>, <a href="#page204">204</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxviii. 18-20           </td><td><a href="#page025">25</a></td></tr>
+
+
+<tr><th colspan="2">Mark.</th></tr>
+
+<tr><td>i. 1-13                 </td><td><a href="#page026">26</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>i. 3                    </td><td><a href="#page079">79</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>i. 4                    </td><td><a href="#page077">77</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>i. 7f.                  </td><td><a href="#page093">93</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>i. 10                   </td><td><a href="#page084">84</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>i. 11                   </td><td><a href="#page068">68</a>, <a href="#page084">84</a>, <a href="#page261">261</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>i. 14                  </td><td><a href="#page101">101</a>, <a href="#page102">102</a>, <a href="#page106">106</a>, <a href="#page289">289</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>i. 14f.                 </td><td><a href="#page039">39</a>, <a href="#page115">115</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>i. 14 to ix. 50         </td><td><a href="#page026">26</a>, <a href="#page102">102</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>i. 16-20               </td><td><a href="#page115">115</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>i. 21-34               </td><td><a href="#page115">115</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>i. 24                  </td><td><a href="#page254">254</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>i. 27                  </td><td><a href="#page249">249</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>i. 35                  </td><td><a href="#page265">265</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>i. 35-39               </td><td><a href="#page253">253</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>i. 35-45               </td><td><a href="#page115">115</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ii. 1-12                </td><td><a href="#page047">47</a>, <a href="#page115">115</a>, <a href="#page230">230</a>, <a href="#page294">294</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ii. 1-17                </td><td><a href="#page048">48</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ii. 1 to iii. 6         </td><td><a href="#page047">47</a>, <a href="#page048">48</a>, <a href="#page250">250</a>, <a href="#page204">204</a>f.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>ii. 5                  </td><td><a href="#page239">239</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ii. 6f.                </td><td><a href="#page121">121</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ii. 10                  </td><td><a href="#page028">28</a>, <a href="#page256">256</a>, <a href="#page259">259</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ii. 10, 28 and &#8741;s      </td><td><a href="#page256">256</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ii. 12                  </td><td><a href="#page025">25</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ii. 13-17               </td><td><a href="#page047">47</a>, <a href="#page115">115</a>, <a href="#page294">294</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ii. 15-17               </td><td><a href="#page096">96</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ii. 16                  </td><td><a href="#page047">47</a>, <a href="#page121">121</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ii. 18-22               </td><td><a href="#page026">26</a>, <a href="#page047">47</a>, <a href="#page115">115</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ii. 20                 </td><td><a href="#page239">239</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ii. 23                  </td><td><a href="#page047">47</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ii. 23-28              </td><td><a href="#page115">115</a>, <a href="#page229">229</a>, <a href="#page294">294</a>f.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>ii. 25-27              </td><td><a href="#page228">228</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ii. 27                 </td><td><a href="#page257">257</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ii. 44                 </td><td><a href="#page253">253</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iii. 1-6                </td><td><a href="#page026">26</a>, <a href="#page115">115</a>, <a href="#page295">295</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iii. 7-12              </td><td><a href="#page115">115</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iii. 11                </td><td><a href="#page261">261</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iii. 13-19             </td><td><a href="#page115">115</a>, <a href="#page295">295</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iii. 17, 41             </td><td><a href="#page025">25</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iii. 19-30              </td><td><a href="#page040">40</a>, <a href="#page042">42</a>, <a href="#page116">116</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iii. 21, 31-35          </td><td><a href="#page059">59</a>, <a href="#page097">97</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iii. 22                 </td><td><a href="#page034">34</a>, <a href="#page121">121</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iii. 22-30             </td><td><a href="#page156">156</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iii. 28-30             </td><td><a href="#page251">251</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iii. 31-35              </td><td><a href="#page059">59</a>, <a href="#page097">97</a>, <a href="#page116">116</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iv. 1-34               </td><td><a href="#page116">116</a>, <a href="#page232">232</a>, <a href="#page296">296</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iv. 3                   </td><td><a href="#page064">64</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iv. 12                 </td><td><a href="#page129">129</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iv. 13                 </td><td><a href="#page129">129</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iv. 26-29              </td><td><a href="#page296">296</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iv. 35-41              </td><td><a href="#page116">116</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>v. 1                   </td><td><a href="#page290">290</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>v. 1-20                </td><td><a href="#page116">116</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>v. 7                   </td><td><a href="#page261">261</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>v. 11-13               </td><td><a href="#page139">139</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>v. 21-43               </td><td><a href="#page116">116</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>v. 30-34               </td><td><a href="#page243">243</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>v. 41                   </td><td><a href="#page020">20</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vi. 1-6                 </td><td><a href="#page043">43</a>, <a href="#page116">116</a>, <a href="#page292">292</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vi. 2f.                </td><td><a href="#page220">220</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vi. 6b                 </td><td><a href="#page116">116</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vi. 7-11               </td><td><a href="#page297">297</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vi. 7-13               </td><td><a href="#page116">116</a>, <a href="#page147">147</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vi. 14-29              </td><td><a href="#page116">116</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vi. 15                 </td><td><a href="#page290">290</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vi. 30-34               </td><td><a href="#page047">47</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vi. 30-46               </td><td><a href="#page039">39</a>, <a href="#page040">40</a>, <a href="#page116">116</a>, <a href="#page297">297</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vi. 39                  </td><td><a href="#page046">46</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vi. 47-56              </td><td><a href="#page116">116</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vii. 1                  </td><td><a href="#page034">34</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vii. 1-23, 48           </td><td><a href="#page048">48</a>, <a href="#page116">116</a>, <a href="#page121">121</a>, <a href="#page139">139</a>, <a href="#page250">250</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vii. 6-13              </td><td><a href="#page233">233</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vii. 8-13               </td><td><a href="#page010">10</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vii. 10                </td><td><a href="#page244">244</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vii. 13                </td><td><a href="#page251">251</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vii. 14-23             </td><td><a href="#page238">238</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vii. 15                </td><td><a href="#page227">227</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vii. 19                </td><td><a href="#page130">130</a>, <a href="#page228">228</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vii. 24-30             </td><td><a href="#page116">116</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vii. 27                </td><td><a href="#page140">140</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vii. 29f.              </td><td><a href="#page289">289</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vii. 31                </td><td><a href="#page291">291</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vii. 31-37             </td><td><a href="#page117">117</a>, <a href="#page297">297</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vii. 34                 </td><td><a href="#page020">20</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vii. 37                 </td><td><a href="#page025">25</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>viii. 1f.              </td><td><a href="#page141">141</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>viii. 1-9              </td><td><a href="#page117">117</a>, <a href="#page297">297</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>viii. 10               </td><td><a href="#page291">291</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>viii. 10-21            </td><td><a href="#page117">117</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>viii. 11                </td><td><a href="#page096">96</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vii. 11-13             </td><td><a href="#page139">139</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>viii. 14f.             </td><td><a href="#page139">139</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><a class="newpage" name="page317" id="page317" title="317"></a>viii. 19f.             </td><td><a href="#page297">297</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>viii. 22-26            </td><td><a href="#page117">117</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>viii. 27-30            </td><td><a href="#page117">117</a>, <a href="#page141">141</a>, <a href="#page298">298</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>viii. 29               </td><td><a href="#page254">254</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>viii. 31               </td><td><a href="#page168">168</a>, <a href="#page020">20</a>, <a href="#page256">256</a>, <a href="#page259">259</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>viii. 31-33             </td><td><a href="#page087">87</a>, <a href="#page239">239</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>viii. 31-ix. 1         </td><td><a href="#page117">117</a>, <a href="#page296">296</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>viii. 32f.              </td><td><a href="#page093">93</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>viii. 34f.             </td><td><a href="#page147">147</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>viii. 34 to ix. 1      </td><td><a href="#page146">146</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>viii. 38               </td><td><a href="#page256">256</a>, <a href="#page259">259</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ix. 1                  </td><td><a href="#page242">242</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ix. 2                  </td><td><a href="#page292">292</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ix. 2-13               </td><td><a href="#page117">117</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ix. 6                   </td><td><a href="#page028">28</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ix. 9                  </td><td><a href="#page147">147</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ix. 10                 </td><td><a href="#page203">203</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ix. 14-29              </td><td><a href="#page117">117</a>, <a href="#page147">147</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ix. 19                 </td><td><a href="#page224">224</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ix. 29                 </td><td><a href="#page265">265</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ix. 30-32              </td><td><a href="#page117">117</a>, <a href="#page147">147</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ix. 31                 </td><td><a href="#page204">204</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ix. 33-50              </td><td><a href="#page117">117</a>, <a href="#page299">299</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ix. 35-37              </td><td><a href="#page234">234</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ix. 43-47              </td><td><a href="#page295">295</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>x. 1                     </td><td><a href="#page009"></a>, <a href="#page104">104</a>, <a href="#page153">153</a>, <a href="#page154">154</a>, <a href="#page298">298</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>x. 1 to xvi. 8          </td><td><a href="#page026">26</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>x. 2-12                </td><td><a href="#page153">153</a>, <a href="#page154">154</a>, <a href="#page298">298</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>x. 5f.                 </td><td><a href="#page244">244</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>x. 11                  </td><td><a href="#page153">153</a>, <a href="#page154">154</a>, <a href="#page160">160</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>x. 13-16               </td><td><a href="#page104">104</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>x. 17-31               </td><td><a href="#page153">153</a>, <a href="#page155">155</a>, <a href="#page160">160</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>x. 18                  </td><td><a href="#page226">226</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>x. 19                  </td><td><a href="#page229">229</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>x. 25                  </td><td><a href="#page233">233</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>x. 32-34               </td><td><a href="#page147">147</a>, <a href="#page153">153</a>, <a href="#page155">155</a>, <a href="#page162">162</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>x. 35-45               </td><td><a href="#page153">153</a>, <a href="#page155">155</a>, <a href="#page163">163</a>, <a href="#page165">165</a>, <a href="#page184">184</a>, <a href="#page230">230</a>, <a href="#page304">304</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>x. 40                  </td><td><a href="#page243">243</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>x. 42-45               </td><td><a href="#page259">259</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>x. 45                  </td><td><a href="#page241">241</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>x. 46                  </td><td><a href="#page162">162</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>x. 46-52               </td><td><a href="#page153">153</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>x. 47f.                </td><td><a href="#page254">254</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>x. 48                  </td><td><a href="#page163">163</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xi. 1-11               </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xi. 1 to xv. 47        </td><td><a href="#page104">104</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xi. 1 to xvi. 8 [20]    </td><td><a href="#page039">39</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xi. 2f.                 </td><td><a href="#page034">34</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xi. 2-5                </td><td><a href="#page112">112</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xi. 8-10               </td><td><a href="#page162">162</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xi. 9f.                </td><td><a href="#page170">170</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xi. 12-14, 15-18       </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xi. 12-14, 20-25       </td><td><a href="#page172">172</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xi. 14-36               </td><td><a href="#page042">42</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xi. 15-19               </td><td><a href="#page043">43</a>, <a href="#page288">288</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xi. 17                 </td><td><a href="#page108">108</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xi. 19                 </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xi. 20-27              </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xi. 25                 </td><td><a href="#page295">295</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xi. 27-33              </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xi. 29-33              </td><td><a href="#page173">173</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xii. 1-12              </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xii. 13-17             </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a>, <a href="#page173">173</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xii. 16                </td><td><a href="#page227">227</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xii. 18-27             </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a>, <a href="#page174">174</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xii. 24-27             </td><td><a href="#page228">228</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xii. 27                </td><td><a href="#page186">186</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xii. 28-34             </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a>, <a href="#page174">174</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xii. 35-37             </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a>, <a href="#page245">245</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xii. 38-40             </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xii. 41-44             </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xiii. and &#8741;s           </td><td><a href="#page178">178</a>, <a href="#page241">241</a>, <a href="#page302">302</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xiii. 1-37             </td><td><a href="#page167">167</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xiii. 24-27            </td><td><a href="#page238">238</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xiii. 32               </td><td><a href="#page243">243</a>, <a href="#page247">247</a>, <a href="#page252">252</a>, <a href="#page263">263</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xiv. 1f., 10f.         </td><td><a href="#page167">167</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xiv. 3                 </td><td><a href="#page169">169</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xiv. 3-9               </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a>, <a href="#page301">301</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xiv. 3-11              </td><td><a href="#page169">169</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xiv. 8                 </td><td><a href="#page169">169</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xiv. 12                </td><td><a href="#page303">303</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xiv. 12-16             </td><td><a href="#page112">112</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xiv. 12-26             </td><td><a href="#page167">167</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xiv. 14                 </td><td><a href="#page034">34</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xiv. 17                </td><td><a href="#page181">181</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xiv. 18-21             </td><td><a href="#page184">184</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xiv. 20                </td><td><a href="#page185">185</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xiv. 21                </td><td><a href="#page180">180</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xiv. 26, 32-42         </td><td><a href="#page167">167</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xiv. 26-31             </td><td><a href="#page305">305</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xiv. 33f.              </td><td><a href="#page186">186</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xiv. 34                </td><td><a href="#page145">145</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xiv. 36                 </td><td><a href="#page020">20</a>, <a href="#page189">189</a>, <a href="#page239">239</a>, <a href="#page265">265</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xiv. 43-52             </td><td><a href="#page167">167</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xiv. 45                </td><td><a href="#page190">190</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xiv. 50                </td><td><a href="#page182">182</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xiv. 53 to xv. 1       </td><td><a href="#page190">190</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xiv. 61                </td><td><a href="#page167">167</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xiv. 61f.              </td><td><a href="#page254">254</a>, <a href="#page261">261</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xiv. 61-64             </td><td><a href="#page263">263</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xiv. 62                </td><td><a href="#page191">191</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xiv. 66-72              </td><td><a href="#page085">85</a>, <a href="#page258">258</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xv. 1                  </td><td><a href="#page192">192</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xv. 1-20               </td><td><a href="#page167">167</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xv. 2                  </td><td><a href="#page254">254</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xv. 6-15               </td><td><a href="#page192">192</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xv. 21                 </td><td><a href="#page182">182</a>, <a href="#page195">195</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xv. 21-41              </td><td><a href="#page167">167</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xv. 22                 </td><td><a href="#page305">305</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xv. 34                  </td><td><a href="#page020">20</a>, <a href="#page197">197</a>, <a href="#page306">306</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xv. 42                 </td><td><a href="#page182">182</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xv. 42-47              </td><td><a href="#page167">167</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xv. 43                  </td><td><a href="#page034">34</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xv. 46                 </td><td><a href="#page182">182</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xvi. 1                 </td><td><a href="#page202">202</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xvi. 1-8               </td><td><a href="#page201">201</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xvi. 6f.               </td><td><a href="#page209">209</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xvi. [9-20]            </td><td><a href="#page204">204</a>f., <a href="#page306">306</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xvi. [9-11]            </td><td><a href="#page201">201</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xvi. [12f.]            </td><td><a href="#page201">201</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xvi. [14]              </td><td><a href="#page201">201</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xvi. [15-18]           </td><td><a href="#page201">201</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xvi. [19f.]             </td><td><a href="#page201">201</a></td></tr>
+
+
+
+<tr><th colspan="2">Luke.</th></tr>
+
+
+<tr><td>i. 1-4                  </td><td><a href="#page026">26</a>, <a href="#page042">42</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>i. 3                    </td><td><a href="#page041">41</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>i. 5                    </td><td><a href="#page052">52</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>i. 36                   </td><td><a href="#page082">82</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>i. 46-55                </td><td><a href="#page060">60</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>i. 68-79                </td><td><a href="#page068">68</a>-<a href="#page079">79</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>i. 80                   </td><td><a href="#page061">61</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ii. 1f.                 </td><td><a href="#page052">52</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ii. 8                   </td><td><a href="#page056">56</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ii. 19-51               </td><td><a href="#page059">59</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ii. 24                  </td><td><a href="#page061">61</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ii. 40-52               </td><td><a href="#page061">61</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ii. 41                  </td><td><a href="#page062">62</a>, <a href="#page107">107</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ii. 48                  </td><td><a href="#page097">97</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ii. 49                  </td><td><a href="#page067">67</a>, <a href="#page262">262</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ii. 52                  </td><td><a href="#page063">63</a>, <a href="#page069">69</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iii. 1f.                </td><td><a href="#page045">45</a>, <a href="#page049">49</a>, <a href="#page052">52</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iii. 13f.               </td><td><a href="#page074">74</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iii. 15                 </td><td><a href="#page094">94</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iii. 21                 </td><td><a href="#page064">64</a>, <a href="#page082">82</a>, <a href="#page085">85</a>, <a href="#page265">265</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iii. 23                 </td><td><a href="#page052">52</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iv. 5                   </td><td><a href="#page090">90</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iv. 13                  </td><td><a href="#page087">87</a>, <a href="#page146">146</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iv. 14                 </td><td><a href="#page101">101</a>, <a href="#page102">102</a>, <a href="#page289">289</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iv. 14, 15              </td><td><a href="#page039">39</a>, <a href="#page115">115</a>, <a href="#page292">292</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iv. 14 to ix. 50        </td><td><a href="#page026">26</a>, <a href="#page102">102</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iv. 16                  </td><td><a href="#page062">62</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iv. 16-19               </td><td><a href="#page063">63</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iv. 16-30               </td><td><a href="#page043">43</a>, <a href="#page116">116</a>, <a href="#page292">292</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iv. 23                 </td><td><a href="#page292">292</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iv. 31                 </td><td><a href="#page106">106</a>, <a href="#page115">115</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iv. 31-41              </td><td><a href="#page115">115</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iv. 42-44              </td><td><a href="#page115">115</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>v. 1-11                </td><td><a href="#page115">115</a>, <a href="#page293">293</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>v. 4-11                 </td><td><a href="#page043">43</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>v. 12-16               </td><td><a href="#page115">115</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>v. 17                   </td><td><a href="#page034">34</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>v. 17-26               </td><td><a href="#page115">115</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>v. 24                   </td><td><a href="#page028">28</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>v. 27-32               </td><td><a href="#page115">115</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>v. 33-39               </td><td><a href="#page115">115</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vi. 1-5                </td><td><a href="#page115">115</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vi. 6-11               </td><td><a href="#page115">115</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vi. 12                  </td><td><a href="#page084">84</a>, <a href="#page265">265</a>, <a href="#page290">290</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vi. 12-19              </td><td><a href="#page115">115</a>, <a href="#page295">295</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vi. 17                 </td><td><a href="#page290">290</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vi. 20                 </td><td><a href="#page222">222</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vi. 20 to vii. 1       </td><td><a href="#page115">115</a>, <a href="#page295">295</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vi. 20-26              </td><td><a href="#page296">296</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vi. 27-42              </td><td><a href="#page296">296</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vi. 43-46              </td><td><a href="#page296">296</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vi. 47-49              </td><td><a href="#page296">296</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vii. 1-10               </td><td><a href="#page041">41</a>, <a href="#page115">115</a>, <a href="#page288">288</a>, <a href="#page289">289</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vii. 2-5                 </td><td><a href="#page007">7</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vii. 7                  </td><td><a href="#page043">43</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vii. 11-17              </td><td><a href="#page042">42</a>, <a href="#page116">116</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vii. 18-35              </td><td><a href="#page041">41</a>, <a href="#page116">116</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vii. 36-50              </td><td><a href="#page042">42</a>, <a href="#page116">116</a>, <a href="#page224">224</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vii. 47                </td><td><a href="#page239">239</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>viii. 1-3              </td><td><a href="#page116">116</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>viii. 4-18             </td><td><a href="#page116">116</a>, <a href="#page296">296</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>viii. 19-21            </td><td><a href="#page116">116</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>viii. 22-25            </td><td><a href="#page116">116</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>viii. 26               </td><td><a href="#page290">290</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>viii. 26-39            </td><td><a href="#page116">116</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>viii. 40-56            </td><td><a href="#page116">116</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ix. 1-6                </td><td><a href="#page116">116</a>, <a href="#page297">297</a>, <a href="#page300">300</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ix. 7-9                </td><td><a href="#page116">116</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ix. 10-17               </td><td><a href="#page039">39</a>, <a href="#page116">116</a>, <a href="#page297">297</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ix. 11                 </td><td><a href="#page135">135</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ix. 18                 </td><td><a href="#page265">265</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ix. 18-21              </td><td><a href="#page117">117</a>, <a href="#page298">298</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><a class="newpage" name="page318" id="page318" title="318"></a>ix. 22-27              </td><td><a href="#page117">117</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ix. 28f.                </td><td><a href="#page084">84</a>, <a href="#page146">146</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ix. 28-36              </td><td><a href="#page117">117</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ix. 29                 </td><td><a href="#page265">265</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ix. 31                 </td><td><a href="#page146">146</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ix. 37-42              </td><td><a href="#page117">117</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ix. 43-45              </td><td><a href="#page117">117</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ix. 46-50              </td><td><a href="#page117">117</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ix. 51                  </td><td><a href="#page039">39</a>, <a href="#page157">157</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ix. 51f.               </td><td><a href="#page158">158</a>, <a href="#page298">298</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ix. 51-62              </td><td><a href="#page153">153</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ix. 51 to xviii.        </td><td><a href="#page040">40</a>, <a href="#page042">42</a>, <a href="#page104">104</a>, <a href="#page154">154</a>, <a href="#page156">156</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ix. 51 to xix. 27       </td><td><a href="#page026">26</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ix. 57-62              </td><td><a href="#page156">156</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>x. 1                   </td><td><a href="#page158">158</a>, <a href="#page301">301</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>x. 3-12                </td><td><a href="#page297">297</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>x. 1-24                </td><td><a href="#page153">153</a>, <a href="#page300">300</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>x. 13-16               </td><td><a href="#page301">301</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>x. 17-20               </td><td><a href="#page301">301</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>x. 17-24               </td><td><a href="#page160">160</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>x. 18                  </td><td><a href="#page248">248</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>x. 22                  </td><td><a href="#page252">252</a>, <a href="#page263">263</a>, <a href="#page300">300</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>x. 25-37                </td><td><a href="#page034">34</a>, <a href="#page153">153</a>, <a href="#page159">159</a>, <a href="#page227">227</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>x. 28-37               </td><td><a href="#page159">159</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>x. 38-42                </td><td><a href="#page034">34</a>, <a href="#page111">111</a>, <a href="#page153">153</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xi. 1                   </td><td><a href="#page042">42</a>, <a href="#page265">265</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xi. 1-4                 </td><td><a href="#page042">42</a>, <a href="#page295">295</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xi. 1-13               </td><td><a href="#page117">117</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xi. 9-13               </td><td><a href="#page295">295</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xi. 14-36               </td><td><a href="#page040">40</a>, <a href="#page116">116</a>, <a href="#page156">156</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xi. 34-36              </td><td><a href="#page295">295</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xi. 37-52              </td><td><a href="#page156">156</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xi. 37-54              </td><td><a href="#page154">154</a>, <a href="#page164">164</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xii. 1-12              </td><td><a href="#page156">156</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xii. 1-59              </td><td><a href="#page154">154</a>, <a href="#page164">164</a>, <a href="#page165">165</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xii. 13-21             </td><td><a href="#page117">117</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xii. 22-31              </td><td><a href="#page042">42</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xii. 22-34             </td><td><a href="#page103">103</a>, <a href="#page156">156</a>, <a href="#page295">295</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xii. 49-53             </td><td><a href="#page165">165</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xii. 58f.              </td><td><a href="#page295">295</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xiii. 1-9              </td><td><a href="#page154">154</a>, <a href="#page161">161</a>, <a href="#page164">164</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xiii. 10-17            </td><td><a href="#page117">117</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xiii. 18-21             </td><td><a href="#page044">44</a>, <a href="#page117">117</a>, <a href="#page296">296</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xiii. 22               </td><td><a href="#page157">157</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xiii. 22-30            </td><td><a href="#page153">153</a>, <a href="#page164">164</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xiii. 24               </td><td><a href="#page295">295</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xiii. 31f.             </td><td><a href="#page171">171</a>, <a href="#page193">193</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xiii. 31-35            </td><td><a href="#page153">153</a>, <a href="#page168">168</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xiii. 32                 </td><td><a href="#page005">5</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xiii. 34f.              </td><td><a href="#page034">34</a>, <a href="#page106">106</a>, <a href="#page224">224</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xiii. 35               </td><td><a href="#page252">252</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xiv. 1-24              </td><td><a href="#page117">117</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xiv. 7ff.              </td><td><a href="#page304">304</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xiv. 15-24             </td><td><a href="#page161">161</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xiv. 25-35             </td><td><a href="#page154">154</a>, <a href="#page156">156</a>, <a href="#page164">164</a>, <a href="#page165">165</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xiv. 26                </td><td><a href="#page233">233</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xv.  1f.                </td><td><a href="#page096">96</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xv. 1 to xvi. 31       </td><td><a href="#page117">117</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xv. 4-7                 </td><td><a href="#page044">44</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xv. 7                  </td><td><a href="#page233">233</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xv. 11-32              </td><td><a href="#page232">232</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xvi. 13                </td><td><a href="#page295">295</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xvi. 22                </td><td><a href="#page247">247</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xvi. 31                </td><td><a href="#page229">229</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xvii. 1-4              </td><td><a href="#page117">117</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xvii. 11               </td><td><a href="#page157">157</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xvii. 11-19            </td><td><a href="#page153">153</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xvii. 20-37            </td><td><a href="#page154">154</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xviii. 1-8             </td><td><a href="#page154">154</a>, <a href="#page164">164</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xviii. 9-14            </td><td><a href="#page154">154</a>, <a href="#page159">159</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xviii. 15-17           </td><td><a href="#page153">153</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xviii. 15 to xix. 28   </td><td><a href="#page104">104</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xviii. 18-30           </td><td><a href="#page153">153</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xviii.  31-34          </td><td><a href="#page153">153</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xviii.  34             </td><td><a href="#page203">203</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xviii.  35-43          </td><td><a href="#page153">153</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xviii. 35 to xix. 28   </td><td><a href="#page155">155</a>, <a href="#page164">164</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xix. 1-10              </td><td><a href="#page154">154</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xix. 11-28             </td><td><a href="#page154">154</a>, <a href="#page163">163</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xix. 28 to xxiv. 53     </td><td><a href="#page027">27</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xix. 29-44             </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xix. 29 to xxiii. 56   </td><td><a href="#page104">104</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xix. 29 to xxiii. 53    </td><td><a href="#page039">39</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xix. 37-40             </td><td><a href="#page162">162</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xix. 39                </td><td><a href="#page170">170</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xix. 41-44             </td><td><a href="#page170">170</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xix. 45f.              </td><td><a href="#page289">289</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xix. 45-47f.           </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xix. 47                </td><td><a href="#page172">172</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xx. 1                  </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xx. 1-8                </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xx. 9-19               </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xx. 20-26              </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xx. 27-40              </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xx. 41-44              </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xx. 45-47              </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxi. 1-4               </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxi. 5-38              </td><td><a href="#page167">167</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxii. 37-38            </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxii. 1-6              </td><td><a href="#page167">167</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxii. 7-30             </td><td><a href="#page167">167</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxii. 14               </td><td><a href="#page181">181</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxii. 15               </td><td><a href="#page181">181</a>, <a href="#page183">183</a>, <a href="#page303">303</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxii. 17               </td><td><a href="#page304">304</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxii. 17-20            </td><td><a href="#page185">185</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxii. 19               </td><td><a href="#page184">184</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxii. 23-30            </td><td><a href="#page304">304</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxii. 28                </td><td><a href="#page087">87</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxii. 31-34            </td><td><a href="#page185">185</a>, <a href="#page305">305</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxii. 39-46            </td><td><a href="#page167">167</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxii. 47-53            </td><td><a href="#page167">167</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxii. 54-71            </td><td><a href="#page167">167</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxii. 61f.             </td><td><a href="#page193">193</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxii. 66-71            </td><td><a href="#page192">192</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxii. 70               </td><td><a href="#page263">263</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxiii. 1f.             </td><td><a href="#page192">192</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxiii. 1-25            </td><td><a href="#page167">167</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxiii. 4               </td><td><a href="#page192">192</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxiii. 5-12            </td><td><a href="#page192">192</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxiii. 13-16           </td><td><a href="#page192">192</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxiii. 16-24           </td><td><a href="#page192">192</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxiii. 26-49           </td><td><a href="#page167">167</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxiii. 27-31           </td><td><a href="#page195">195</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxiii. 34              </td><td><a href="#page197">197</a>, <a href="#page306">306</a>, <a href="#page307">307</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxiii. 43              </td><td><a href="#page197">197</a>, <a href="#page306">306</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxiii. 46               </td><td><a href="#page064">64</a>, <a href="#page197">197</a>, <a href="#page265">265</a>, <a href="#page306">306</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxiii. 50-56           </td><td><a href="#page167">167</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxiii. 56              </td><td><a href="#page182">182</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxiv. 1-12             </td><td><a href="#page201">201</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxiv. 12               </td><td><a href="#page205">205</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxiv. 13-35            </td><td><a href="#page201">201</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxiv. 21               </td><td><a href="#page200">200</a>, <a href="#page203">203</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxiv. 36-43            </td><td><a href="#page201">201</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxiv. 41-43            </td><td><a href="#page213">213</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxiv. 44-53            </td><td><a href="#page201">201</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxiv. 50               </td><td><a href="#page205">205</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxiv. 51               </td><td><a href="#page214">214</a>, <a href="#page307">307</a></td></tr>
+
+
+
+<tr><th colspan="2">John.</th></tr>
+
+
+<tr><td>i. 14                   </td><td><a href="#page058">58</a>, <a href="#page269">269</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>1. 19 to iv. 42         </td><td><a href="#page040">40</a>, <a href="#page101">101</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>i. 25                   </td><td><a href="#page078">78</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>i. 26f.                 </td><td><a href="#page093">93</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>i. 28                   </td><td><a href="#page092">92</a>, <a href="#page284">284</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>i. 29                   </td><td><a href="#page093">93</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>i. 29-36                </td><td><a href="#page080">80</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>i. 30-34                </td><td><a href="#page093">93</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>i. 31                   </td><td><a href="#page082">82</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>i. 32-34                </td><td><a href="#page084">84</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>i. 35f.                 </td><td><a href="#page093">93</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>i. 38                   </td><td><a href="#page020">20</a>, <a href="#page226">226</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>i. 40f., 43-45          </td><td><a href="#page092">92</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>i. 41-45               </td><td><a href="#page142">142</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>i. 42-47               </td><td><a href="#page239">239</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>i. 44                  </td><td><a href="#page290">290</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>i. 49                   </td><td><a href="#page094">94</a>, <a href="#page142">142</a>, <a href="#page254">254</a>, <a href="#page261">261</a>, <a href="#page263">263</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>i. 51                   </td><td><a href="#page095">95</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ii. 3-5                 </td><td><a href="#page097">97</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ii. 11                 </td><td><a href="#page222">222</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ii. 12                  </td><td><a href="#page097">97</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ii. 13                  </td><td><a href="#page046">46</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ii. 13-22               </td><td><a href="#page043">43</a>, <a href="#page106">106</a>, <a href="#page288">288</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ii. 16                 </td><td><a href="#page262">262</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ii. 20                  </td><td><a href="#page049">49</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ii. 22                  </td><td><a href="#page096">96</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ii. 23 to iii. 15      </td><td><a href="#page106">106</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ii. 25                  </td><td><a href="#page068">68</a>, <a href="#page141">141</a>, <a href="#page234">234</a>, <a href="#page239">239</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iii. 2                 </td><td><a href="#page226">226</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iii. 16-21,30-36        </td><td><a href="#page032">32</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iii. 22-30             </td><td><a href="#page106">106</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iii. 24                 </td><td><a href="#page046">46</a>, <a href="#page101">101</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iii. 23                </td><td><a href="#page288">288</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iii. 24,35             </td><td><a href="#page113">113</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iii. 30                 </td><td><a href="#page080">80</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iii. 34                 </td><td><a href="#page085">85</a>, <a href="#page086">86</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iv. 1-3                </td><td><a href="#page113">113</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iv. 1-3, 44            </td><td><a href="#page112">112</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iv. 1-4                </td><td><a href="#page289">289</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iv. 1-42               </td><td><a href="#page106">106</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iv. 1-45               </td><td><a href="#page102">102</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iv. 21-24              </td><td><a href="#page109">109</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iv. 25                  </td><td><a href="#page014">14</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iv. 26                 </td><td><a href="#page254">254</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iv. 30                  </td><td><a href="#page095">95</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iv. 34                 </td><td><a href="#page265">265</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iv. 35                 </td><td><a href="#page107">107</a>, <a href="#page288">288</a>, <a href="#page293">293</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iv. 42                  </td><td><a href="#page040">40</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iv. 43-45               </td><td><a href="#page039">39</a>, <a href="#page106">106</a>, <a href="#page286">286</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iv. 46-54              </td><td><a href="#page102">102</a>, <a href="#page106">106</a>, <a href="#page115">115</a>, <a href="#page289">289</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>v. 1                    </td><td><a href="#page040">40</a>, <a href="#page048">48</a>, <a href="#page293">293</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>v. 1-9                  </td><td><a href="#page032">32</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>v. 1-47                </td><td><a href="#page102">102</a>, <a href="#page115">115</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>v. 17                  </td><td><a href="#page262">262</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>v. 19                  </td><td><a href="#page264">264</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>v. 25                  </td><td><a href="#page263">263</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>v. 30                  </td><td><a href="#page265">265</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>v. 39                  </td><td><a href="#page229">229</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vi. 1-15                </td><td><a href="#page039">39</a>, <a href="#page116">116</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vi. 1-71               </td><td><a href="#page102">102</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><a class="newpage" name="page319" id="page319" title="319"></a>vi. 4                   </td><td><a href="#page046">46</a>, <a href="#page138">138</a>, <a href="#page293">293</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vi. 14                  </td><td><a href="#page025">25</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vi. 14f.               </td><td><a href="#page119">119</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vi. 15                  </td><td><a href="#page089">89</a>, <a href="#page120">120</a>, <a href="#page135">135</a>, <a href="#page170">170</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vi. 16-21              </td><td><a href="#page116">116</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vi. 22-71              </td><td><a href="#page116">116</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vi. 30-32               </td><td><a href="#page087">87</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vi. 38                 </td><td><a href="#page189">189</a>, <a href="#page265">265</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vi. 64                 </td><td><a href="#page178">178</a>, <a href="#page180">180</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vi. 66                 </td><td><a href="#page136">136</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vi. 67                 </td><td><a href="#page225">225</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vi. 67-71              </td><td><a href="#page298">298</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vi. 68                  </td><td><a href="#page081">81</a>, <a href="#page123">123</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vi. 68f.               </td><td><a href="#page142">142</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vi. 69                 </td><td><a href="#page254">254</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vii. 1-10               </td><td><a href="#page039">39</a>, <a href="#page298">298</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vii. 1-52              </td><td><a href="#page117">117</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vii. 1 to viii. 59     </td><td><a href="#page103">103</a>, <a href="#page149">149</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vii. 2                 </td><td><a href="#page138">138</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vii. 2-5               </td><td><a href="#page148">148</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vii. 5                  </td><td><a href="#page064">64</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vii. 10                </td><td><a href="#page150">150</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vii. 15                </td><td><a href="#page235">235</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vii. 22                </td><td><a href="#page244">244</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vii. 23                 </td><td><a href="#page032">32</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vii. 24                </td><td><a href="#page227">227</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vii. 25,32             </td><td><a href="#page160">160</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vii. 31                 </td><td><a href="#page095">95</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vii. 32                </td><td><a href="#page299">299</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vii. 36                </td><td><a href="#page149">149</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vii. 40                </td><td><a href="#page254">254</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vii. 45-52             </td><td><a href="#page299">299</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vii. 49                 </td><td><a href="#page013">13</a>, <a href="#page220">220</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vii. 50-52             </td><td><a href="#page111">111</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vii. 53 to viii. 11     </td><td><a href="#page037">37</a>, <a href="#page117">117</a>, <a href="#page149">149</a>, <a href="#page157">157</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>viii. 12-59            </td><td><a href="#page117">117</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>viii. 14               </td><td><a href="#page248">248</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>viii. 15               </td><td><a href="#page157">157</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>viii. 46                </td><td><a href="#page083">83</a>, <a href="#page266">266</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>viii. 59               </td><td><a href="#page160">160</a>, <a href="#page299">299</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ix. 1 to x. 39         </td><td><a href="#page153">153</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ix. 1 to xi. 57        </td><td><a href="#page104">104</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ix. 10                 </td><td><a href="#page158">158</a>, <a href="#page159">159</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ix. 35                 </td><td><a href="#page263">263</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ix. 35-38              </td><td><a href="#page156">156</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>x. 11-18               </td><td><a href="#page159">159</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>x. 18                   </td><td><a href="#page089">89</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>x. 21                  </td><td><a href="#page159">159</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>x. 22                  </td><td><a href="#page150">150</a>, <a href="#page155">155</a>, <a href="#page298">298</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>x. 22, 40-42            </td><td><a href="#page058">58</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>x. 24-39               </td><td><a href="#page159">159</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>x. 25                  </td><td><a href="#page161">161</a>, <a href="#page262">262</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>x. 29                  </td><td><a href="#page265">265</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>x. 30                  </td><td><a href="#page264">264</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>x. 31-39               </td><td><a href="#page160">160</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>x. 32                  </td><td><a href="#page233">233</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>x. 34                  </td><td><a href="#page261">261</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>x. 36                  </td><td><a href="#page263">263</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>x. 39                  </td><td><a href="#page156">156</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>x. 40                  </td><td><a href="#page154">154</a>, <a href="#page155">155</a>, <a href="#page301">301</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>x. 40-42               </td><td><a href="#page153">153</a>, <a href="#page160">160</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xi. 1-7                </td><td><a href="#page155">155</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xi. 1-46               </td><td><a href="#page153">153</a>, <a href="#page161">161</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xi. 4                  </td><td><a href="#page263">263</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xi. 6                  </td><td><a href="#page161">161</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xi. 34                 </td><td><a href="#page243">243</a>, <a href="#page258">258</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xi. 41f.               </td><td><a href="#page161">161</a>, <a href="#page265">265</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xi. 47-50              </td><td><a href="#page193">193</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xi. 47-54              </td><td><a href="#page153">153</a>, <a href="#page161">161</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xi. 54                 </td><td><a href="#page155">155</a>, <a href="#page162">162</a>, <a href="#page300">300</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xi. 55 to xii. 11      </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xi. 55 to xix. 42      </td><td><a href="#page104">104</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xii. 1                  </td><td><a href="#page046">46</a>, <a href="#page102">102</a>, <a href="#page163">163</a>, <a href="#page301">301</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xii. 1 to xxi. 25       </td><td><a href="#page039">39</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xii. 2                 </td><td><a href="#page169">169</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xii. 4-8               </td><td><a href="#page301">301</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xii. 6                 </td><td><a href="#page178">178</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xii. 7                 </td><td><a href="#page169">169</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xii. 12f.              </td><td><a href="#page170">170</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xii. 12-19             </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xii. 20-36             </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a>, <a href="#page176">176</a>, <a href="#page302">302</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xii. 23-36             </td><td><a href="#page168">168</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xii. 36<sup>b</sup>(-50)         </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xii. 37-43              </td><td><a href="#page032">32</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xiii. 1                </td><td><a href="#page181">181</a>, <a href="#page303">303</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xiii. 1-15             </td><td><a href="#page234">234</a>, <a href="#page304">304</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xiii. 1-30             </td><td><a href="#page167">167</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xiii. 21-30            </td><td><a href="#page184">184</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xiii. 23-26            </td><td><a href="#page185">185</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xiii. 29               </td><td><a href="#page178">178</a>, <a href="#page303">303</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xiii. 31 to xvi. 33     </td><td><a href="#page032">32</a>, <a href="#page167">167</a>, <a href="#page305">305</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xiii. 32f.             </td><td><a href="#page305">305</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xiii. 36-38            </td><td><a href="#page305">305</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xiv. 6-11              </td><td><a href="#page264">264</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xiv. 10                </td><td><a href="#page161">161</a>, <a href="#page265">265</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xiv. 28                </td><td><a href="#page265">265</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xiv. 30f.               </td><td><a href="#page032">32</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xv.                     </td><td><a href="#page032">32</a>, <a href="#page167">167</a>, <a href="#page305">305</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xv. 1                  </td><td><a href="#page262">262</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xvi.                    </td><td><a href="#page032">32</a>, <a href="#page167">167</a>, <a href="#page305">305</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xvi. 25                </td><td><a href="#page264">264</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xvii. 1-26             </td><td><a href="#page167">167</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xvii. 21               </td><td><a href="#page264">264</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xviii. 1               </td><td><a href="#page167">167</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xviii. 1-12            </td><td><a href="#page167">167</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xviii. 8               </td><td><a href="#page190">190</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xviii. 11<sup>b</sup>            </td><td><a href="#page189">189</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xviii. 12-27           </td><td><a href="#page167">167</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xviii. 15              </td><td><a href="#page193">193</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xviii. 28              </td><td><a href="#page182">182</a>, <a href="#page303">303</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xviii. 28 to xix. 16   </td><td><a href="#page167">167</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xviii. 31              </td><td><a href="#page192">192</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xviii. 33, 36f.        </td><td><a href="#page254">254</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xix. 7-12              </td><td><a href="#page192">192</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xix. 12-16             </td><td><a href="#page193">193</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xix. 14                </td><td><a href="#page303">303</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xix. 16-37             </td><td><a href="#page167">167</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xix. 19-22             </td><td><a href="#page198">198</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xix. 25                 </td><td><a href="#page097">97</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xix. 26                 </td><td><a href="#page097">97</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xix. 26f.              </td><td><a href="#page197">197</a>, <a href="#page306">306</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xix. 28                </td><td><a href="#page197">197</a>, <a href="#page306">306</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xix. 30                </td><td><a href="#page197">197</a>, <a href="#page306">306</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xix. 31                </td><td><a href="#page182">182</a>, <a href="#page199">199</a>, <a href="#page303">303</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xix. 31-37             </td><td><a href="#page198">198</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xix. 38                 </td><td><a href="#page034">34</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xix. 38-42             </td><td><a href="#page167">167</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xix. 39                </td><td><a href="#page111">111</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xix. 42                </td><td><a href="#page303">303</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xx. 1-10               </td><td><a href="#page201">201</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xx. 2                  </td><td><a href="#page206">206</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xx. 5-8                 </td><td><a href="#page043">43</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xx. 8                  </td><td><a href="#page203">203</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xx. 9                  </td><td><a href="#page200">200</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xx. 9f., 24f.           </td><td><a href="#page093">93</a>, <a href="#page094">94</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xx. 14-18              </td><td><a href="#page201">201</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xx. 17                 </td><td><a href="#page209">209</a>, <a href="#page214">214</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xx 19-25               </td><td><a href="#page201">201</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xx. 21                  </td><td><a href="#page023">23</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xx. 26-29              </td><td><a href="#page201">201</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xx. 30                  </td><td><a href="#page049">49</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xx. 30f.               </td><td><a href="#page032">32</a>, <a href="#page107">107</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxi.                   </td><td><a href="#page206">206</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxi. 2                  </td><td><a href="#page092">92</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxi. 1-24              </td><td><a href="#page201">201</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxi. 3-14              </td><td><a href="#page293">293</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxi. 25                 </td><td><a href="#page039">39</a></td></tr>
+
+
+
+<tr><th colspan="2">Acts.</th></tr>
+
+
+<tr><td>i. 1-11                </td><td><a href="#page214">214</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>i. 1-12                </td><td><a href="#page201">201</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>i. 14                   </td><td><a href="#page097">97</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ii. 36                 </td><td><a href="#page202">202</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>v. 36                   </td><td><a href="#page089">89</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>v. 37                   </td><td><a href="#page053">53</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vii. 56                </td><td><a href="#page254">254</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xvii. 31               </td><td><a href="#page202">202</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xix. 1-7                </td><td><a href="#page080">80</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xx. 35                  </td><td><a href="#page036">36</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxi. 38                 </td><td><a href="#page089">89</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xxiii. 8               </td><td><a href="#page302">302</a></td></tr>
+
+
+
+<tr><th colspan="2">Rom.</th></tr>
+
+
+<tr><td>i. 3                    </td><td><a href="#page021">21</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>i. 4                   </td><td><a href="#page202">202</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>v. 19                   </td><td><a href="#page021">21</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ix. 5                   </td><td><a href="#page021">21</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xv. 3                   </td><td><a href="#page021">21</a></td></tr>
+
+
+
+<tr><th colspan="2">I. Cor.</th></tr>
+
+
+<tr><td>i. 23                  </td><td><a href="#page190">190</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>v. 7                   </td><td><a href="#page183">183</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ix. 1                  </td><td><a href="#page202">202</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>x. 16                  </td><td><a href="#page304">304</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xv.                    </td><td><a href="#page202">202</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xv. 3-8                 </td><td><a href="#page021">21</a>, <a href="#page105">105</a>, <a href="#page204">204</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xv. 4                  </td><td><a href="#page204">204</a>, <a href="#page213">213</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xv. 5                  </td><td><a href="#page201">201</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xv. 6                  </td><td><a href="#page201">201</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xv. 6f.                </td><td><a href="#page162">162</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xv. 7                  </td><td><a href="#page201">201</a></td></tr>
+
+
+
+<tr><th colspan="2">II. Cor.</th></tr>
+
+
+<tr><td>v. 21                   </td><td><a href="#page083">83</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>viii. 9                 </td><td><a href="#page021">21</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>x. l                    </td><td><a href="#page021">21</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xii.                   </td><td><a href="#page212">212</a></td></tr>
+
+
+
+<tr><th colspan="2">Gal.</th></tr>
+
+
+<tr><td>iii. 13                </td><td><a href="#page190">190</a></td></tr>
+
+
+
+<tr><th colspan="2"><a class="newpage" name="page320" id="page320" title="320"></a>Phil.</th></tr>
+
+
+<tr><td>ii. 5-11                </td><td><a href="#page021">21</a>, <a href="#page269">269</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ii. 7f.                </td><td><a href="#page190">190</a>, <a href="#page285">285</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ii. 8                  </td><td><a href="#page196">196</a></td></tr>
+
+
+
+<tr><th colspan="2">II. Tim.</th></tr>
+
+
+<tr><td>iii. 15                 </td><td><a href="#page063">63</a></td></tr>
+
+
+
+<tr><th colspan="2">Heb.</th></tr>
+
+
+<tr><td>ii. 17                  </td><td><a href="#page061">61</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ii. 17f.                </td><td><a href="#page064">64</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>ii. 18                  </td><td><a href="#page087">87</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>iv. 15                  </td><td><a href="#page061">61</a>, <a href="#page063">63</a>, <a href="#page067">67</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>v. 7                   </td><td><a href="#page147">147</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>v. 7-9                  </td><td><a href="#page087">87</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>vii. 26                 </td><td><a href="#page057">57</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xii. 2                 </td><td><a href="#page190">190</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>xii. 13                </td><td><a href="#page190">190</a></td></tr>
+
+
+
+<tr><th colspan="2">I. Pet.</th></tr>
+
+
+<tr><td>ii. 22                  </td><td><a href="#page083">83</a></td></tr>
+</table>
+</div></div>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Life of Jesus of Nazareth, by Rush Rhees
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Life of Jesus of Nazareth
+
+Author: Rush Rhees
+
+Release Date: August 20, 2004 [EBook #13228]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE LIFE OF JESUS OF NAZARETH ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Distributed Proofreaders
+
+
+
+
+[Transcriber's note: Superscripted letters and numbers have been marked
+with a preceding caret (^).]
+
+
+
+
+The Life of Jesus of Nazareth
+
+_A Study_
+
+By
+
+Rush Rhees
+
+1902
+
+
+
+
+_Copyright, 1900,_
+By Charles Scribner's Sons
+
+
+
+
+To
+
+C. W. McC.
+
+In Recognition of Wise Counsel, Generous Help and Loving Appreciation
+
+
+
+
+"_I would preach ... the need to the world of the faith
+in a Christ, the claim that Jesus is the Christ, and the demand
+for an intelligent faith, which indeed shall transcend but shall
+not despise knowledge, or neglect to have a knowledge to
+transcend._"--John Patterson Coyle
+
+
+
+
+Preface
+
+
+
+The aim of this book is to help thoughtful readers of the gospels to
+discern more clearly the features of him whom those writings inimitably
+portray. It is avowedly a study rather than a story, and as a companion to
+the reading of the gospels it seeks to answer some of the questions which
+are raised by a sympathetic consideration of those narratives. These
+answers are offered in an unargumentative way, even where the questions
+are still in debate among scholars. This method has been adopted because
+technical discussion would be of interest to but few of those whom the
+book hopes to serve. On some of the questions a non-committal attitude is
+taken in the belief that for the understanding of the life of Jesus it is
+of little importance which way the decision finally goes. Less attention
+has been given to questions of geography and archaeology than to those
+which have a more vital biographical significance.
+
+A word concerning the point of view adopted. The church has inherited a
+rich treasure of doctrine concerning its Lord, the result of patient study
+and, frequently, of heated controversy. It is customary to approach the
+gospels with this interpretation of Christ as a premise, and such a study
+has some unquestionable advantages. With the apostles and evangelists,
+however, the recognition of the divine nature of Jesus was a conclusion
+from their acquaintance with him. The Man of Nazareth was for them
+primarily a man, and they so regarded him until he showed them that he was
+more. Their knowledge of him progressed in the natural way from the human
+to the divine. The gospels, particularly the first three, are marvels of
+simplicity and objectivity. Their authors clearly regarded Jesus as the
+Man from heaven; yet in their thinking they were dominated by the
+influence of a personal Lord rather than by the force of an accepted
+doctrine. It is with no lack of reverence for the importance and truth of
+the divinity of Christ that this book essays to bring the Man Jesus before
+the mind in the reading of the gospels. The incarnation means that God
+chose to reveal the divine through a human life, rather than through a
+series of propositions which formulate truth (Heb. i. 1-4). The most
+perennially refreshing influence for Christian life and thought is
+personal discipleship to that Revealer who is able to-day as of old to
+exhibit in his humanity those qualities which compel the recognition of
+God manifest in the flesh.
+
+An Appendix is added to furnish references to the wide literature of the
+subject for the aid of those who wish to study it more extensively and
+technically; also to discuss some questions of detail which could not be
+considered in the text. This appendix will indicate the extent of my
+indebtedness to others. I would acknowledge special obligation to
+Professor Ernest D. Burton, of the University of Chicago, for generous
+help and permission to use material found in his "Notes on the Life of
+Jesus;" to Professor Shailer Mathews, also of Chicago, for very valuable
+criticisms; to my colleague, Professor Charles Rufus Brown, for most
+serviceable assistance; and to the editors of this series for helpful
+suggestions and criticism during the making of the book. An unmeasured
+debt is due to another who has sat at my side during the writing of these
+pages, and has given constant inspiration, most discerning criticism, and
+practical aid.
+
+The Newton Theological Institution, April, 1900.
+
+
+
+
+Contents
+
+
+
+Part I
+
+Preparatory
+
+
+
+I
+
+The Historical Situation
+
+Sections 1-19. Pages 1-20
+
+   Section 1. The Roman estimate of Judea. 2, 3. Herod the Great and his
+   sons. 4. Roman procurators in Palestine. 5. Taxes. 6. The army. 7.
+   Administration of justice. 8. The Sadducees. 9,10. The Pharisees. 11.
+   The Zealots. 12. The Essenes. 13. The Devout. 14. Herodians and
+   Samaritans. 15. The synagogue. 16. Life under the law. 17. The
+   Messianic hope. 18. Contemporary literature. 19. Language of Palestine.
+
+
+II
+
+Sources of Our Knowledge of Jesus
+
+Sections 20-35. Pages 21-37
+
+   Section 20. The testimony of Paul. 21. Secular history. 22. The written
+   gospels. 23. Characteristics of the first gospel. 24. Of the second.
+   25. Of the third. 26-30. The synoptic problem. 31-32. The Johannine
+   problem. 34. The two narrative sources. 35. Agrapha and Apocrypha.
+
+
+III
+
+The Harmony of the Gospels
+
+Sections 36-44. Pages 38-14
+
+   Section 36. The value of four gospels. 37. Tatian's Diatessaron. 38.
+   Agreement of the gospels concerning the chief events. 39. The principal
+   problems. 40. Relation of Mark and John. 41, 42. Matthew and Luke. 43.
+   Doublets. 44. The degree of certainty attainable.
+
+
+IV
+
+The Chronology
+
+Sections 45-57. Pages 45-56
+
+   Sections 45-48. The length of Jesus' public ministry. 49. Date of the
+   first Passover. 50. Date of the crucifixion. 51-56. Date of the
+   nativity. 57. Summary.
+
+
+V
+
+The Early Years of Jesus
+
+Sections 58-71. Pages 57-69
+
+   Section 58. Apocryphal stories. 59. Silence of the New Testament
+   outside the gospels. 60-62. The miraculous birth. 63. The childhood of
+   Jesus. 64. Home. 65. Religion, Education. 66. Growth. 67. Religious
+   development. 68. The view from Nazareth. 69 The first visit to
+   Jerusalem. 70-71. The carpenter of Nazareth.
+
+
+VI
+
+John the Baptist
+
+Sections 72-84. Pages 70-81
+
+   Section 72. The gospel picture. 73. Notice by Josephus. 74.
+   Characteristics of the prophet 75-78. John's relation to the Essenes;
+   the Pharisees; the Zealots; the Apocalyptists. 79. John and the
+   Prophets. 80-82. Origin of his baptism. 83. His greatness. 84. His
+   limitations and self-effacement.
+
+
+VII
+
+The Messianic Call
+
+Sections 85-96. Pages 82-91
+
+   Sections 85, 86. John and Jesus. 87. The baptism of Jesus. 88, 89. The
+   Messianic call. 90. The gift of the Spirit. 91-94. The temptation. 95.
+   Source of the narrative. 96. The issue.
+
+
+VIII
+
+The First Disciples
+
+Sections 97-105. Pages 92-97
+
+   Section 97. John at Bethany beyond Jordan. 98. The deputation from the
+   priests. 99. John's first testimony. 100. The first disciples. 101. The
+   early Messianic confessions. 102. The visit to Cana. 103. The miracles
+   as disclosures of the character of Jesus. 104. Jesus and his mother.
+   105. Removal to Capernaum.
+
+
+
+Part II
+
+The Ministry
+
+
+I
+
+General Survey of the Ministry
+
+Sections 106-112. Pages 101-105
+
+   Section 106. The early Judean ministry. 107. Withdrawal to Galilee; a
+   new beginning. 108. The ministry in Galilee a unit. 109. Best studied
+   topically. 110. The last journey to Jerusalem. 111. The last week. 112.
+   The resurrection and ascension.
+
+
+II
+
+The Early Judean Ministry
+
+Sections 113-124. Pages 106-114
+
+   Outline of events in the Early Judean ministry. Section 113. The
+   opening ministry at Jerusalem. 114. The record incomplete. 115. The
+   cleansing of the temple. 116. Relation to synoptic account. 117. Jesus'
+   reply to the challenge of his authority. 118. The reserve of Jesus.
+   119. Discourse with Nicodemus. 120. Measure of success in Jerusalem.
+   121. The Baptist's last testimony. 122. The arrest of John. 123. The
+   second sign at Cana. 124. Summary.
+
+
+III
+
+The Ministry in Galilee--Its Aim and Method
+
+Sections 125-149. Pages 115-137
+
+   Outline of events in the Galilean ministry. Section 125. General view.
+   126, 127. Development of popular enthusiasm. 128. Pharisaic opposition.
+   129, 130. Jesus and the Messianic hope. 131. Injunctions of silence.
+   132-135. Jesus' twofold aim in Galilee. 136, 137. Character of the
+   teaching of this period: the sermon on the mount. 138. The parables.
+   139. The instructions for the mission of the twelve. 140. Jesus' tone
+   of authority. 141. His mighty works. 142-144. Demoniac possession. 145.
+   Jesus' personal influence. 146. The feeding of the five thousand. 147,
+   148. Revulsion of popular feeling. 149. Results of the work in Galilee.
+
+
+IV
+
+The Ministry in Galilee--The New Lesson
+
+Sections 150-165. Pages 138-152
+
+   Section 150. The changed ministry. 151. The question of tradition. 152.
+   Further pharisaic opposition. 153. Jesus in Phoenicia. 154. Confirmation
+   of the disciples' faith. 155. The question at Caesarea Philippi. 156.
+   The corner-stone of the Church. 157-159. The new lesson. 160. The
+   transfiguration. 161. Cure of the epileptic boy. 162. The feast of
+   Tabernacles. 163. Story of Jesus and the adulteress. 164. The new note
+   in Jesus' teaching. 165. Summary of the Galilean ministry.
+
+
+V
+
+The Journey through Perea to Jerusalem
+
+Sections 166-176. Pages 153-165
+
+   Outline of events. Section 166. The Perean ministry. 167. Account in
+   John. 168, 169. Account in Luke. 170. The mission of the seventy. 171.
+   The feast of Dedication. 172. Withdrawal beyond Jordan. 173. The
+   raising of Lazarus. 174. Ephraim and Jericho. 175,176. Summary.
+
+
+VI
+
+The Final Controversies in Jerusalem
+
+Sections 177-188. Pages 166-180
+
+   Outline of events in the last week of Jesus' life. Section 177. The
+   cross in apostolic preaching. 178. The anointing in Bethany. 179. The
+   Messianic entry. 180. The barren fig-tree. 181. The Monday of Passion
+   week. 182-186. The controversies of Tuesday. 187. Judas. 188.
+   Wednesday, the day of seclusion.
+
+
+VII
+
+The Last Supper
+
+Sections 189-195. Pages 181-187
+
+   Section 189. Preparations. 190,191. Date of the supper. 192. The lesson
+   of humility. 193. The new covenant. 194. The supper and the Passover.
+   195. Farewell words of admonition and comfort; the intercessory prayer.
+
+
+VIII
+
+The Shadow of Death
+
+Sections 196-208. Pages 188-200
+
+   Sections 196, 197. Gethsemane. 198. The betrayal. 199. The trial. 200.
+   Peter's denials. 201. The rejection of Jesus. 202. The greatness of
+   Jesus. 203, 204. The crucifixion. 205. The words from the cross. 206.
+   The death of Jesus. 207. The burial. 208. The Sabbath rest.
+
+
+IX
+
+The Resurrection
+
+Sections 209-222. Pages 201-216
+
+   Section 209. The primary Christian fact. 210. The incredulity of the
+   disciples. 211-216. The appearances of the risen Lord. 217-220. Efforts
+   to explain the belief in the resurrection. 221. The ascension. 222. The
+   new faith of the disciples.
+
+
+
+Part III
+
+The Minister
+
+
+I
+
+The Friend of Men
+
+Sections 223-229. Pages 219-225
+
+   Section 223. The contrast between Jesus' attitude and John's towards
+   common social life. 224. Contrast with the scribes. 225, 226. His
+   interest in simple manhood. 227. Regard for human need. 228, 229.
+   Sensitiveness to human sympathy.
+
+
+II
+
+The Teacher with Authority
+
+Sections 230-241. Pages 226-237
+
+   Section 230. Contrast between Jesus and the scribes. 231. His appeal to
+   the conscience. His attitude to the Old Testament. 234. His teaching
+   occasional. 235. The patience of his method. 236. His use of
+   illustration. 237. Parable. 238. Irony and hyperbole. 239. Object
+   lessons. 240. Jesus' intellectual superiority. 241. His chief theme,
+   the kingdom of God.
+
+
+III
+
+Jesus' Knowledge of Truth
+
+Sections 242-251. Pages 238-248
+
+   Sections 242, 243. Jesus' supernatural knowledge. 244. His predictions
+   of his death. 245. Of his resurrection. 246. His apocalyptic
+   predictions. 247, 248. Limitation of his knowledge. 249, 250. Jesus and
+   demoniac possession. 251. His certainty of his own mission.
+
+
+IV
+
+Jesus' Conception of Himself
+
+Sections 252-275. Pages 249-269.
+
+   Section 252. Jesus' confidence in his calling. 253. His independence in
+   teaching. 254. His self-assertions in response to pharisaic criticism.
+   255. His desire to beget faith in himself. 256,257. His extraordinary
+   personal claim. 258. His acceptance of Messianic titles. 259-266. The
+   Son of Man. 267-269. The Son of God. 270, 271. His consciousness of
+   oneness with God. 272. His confession of dependence; his habit of
+   prayer. 273. No confession of sin. 274, 275. The Word made flesh.
+
+
+Appendix
+
+Index of Names and Subjects
+
+Index of Biblical References
+
+Map of Palestine
+
+
+
+
+Part I
+
+
+Preparatory
+
+
+
+
+I
+
+The Historical Situation
+
+
+
+1. When Tacitus, the Roman historian, records the attempt of Nero to
+charge the Christians with the burning of Rome, he has patience for no
+more than the cursory remark that the sect originated with a Jew who had
+been put to death in Judea during the reign of Tiberius. This province was
+small and despised, and Tacitus could account for the influence of the
+sect which sprang thence only by the fact that all that was infamous and
+abominable flowed into Rome. The Roman's scornful judgment failed to grasp
+the nature and power of the movement whose unpopularity invited Nero's
+lying accusation, yet it emphasizes the significance of him who did "not
+strive, nor cry, nor cause his voice to be heard in the street," whose
+influence, nevertheless, was working as leaven throughout the empire.
+
+2. Palestine was not under immediate Roman rule when Jesus was born. Herod
+the Great was drawing near the close of the long reign during which, owing
+to his skill in securing Roman favor, he had tyrannized over his unwilling
+people. His claim was that of an adventurer who had power to succeed, even
+as his method had been that of a suspicious tyrant, who murdered right and
+left, lest one of the many with better right than he should rise to
+dispute with him his throne. When Herod died, his kingdom was divided
+into three parts, and Rome asserted a fuller sovereignty, allowing none of
+his sons to take his royal title. Herod's successors ruled with a measure
+of independence, however, and followed many of their father's ways, though
+none of them had his ability. The best of them was Philip, who had the
+territory farthest from Jerusalem, and least related to Jewish life. He
+ruled over Iturea and Trachonitis, the country to the north and east of
+the Sea of Galilee, having his capital at Caesarea Philippi, a city built
+and named by him on the site of an older town near the sources of the
+Jordan. He also rebuilt the city of Bethsaida, at the point where the
+Jordan flows into the Sea of Galilee, calling it Julias, after the
+daughter of Augustus. Philip enters the story of the life of Jesus only as
+the ruler of these towns and the intervening region, and as husband of
+Salome, the daughter of Herodias. Living far from Jerusalem and the Jewish
+people, he abandoned even the show of Judaism which characterized his
+father, and lived as a frank heathen in his heathen capital.
+
+3. The other two who inherited Herod's dominion were brothers, Archelaus
+and Antipas, sons of Malthace, one of Herod's many wives. Archelaus had
+been designated king by Herod, with Judea, Samaria, and Idumea as his
+kingdom; but the emperor allowed him only the territory, with the title
+ethnarch. Antipas was named a tetrarch by Herod, and his territory was
+Galilee and the land east of the Jordan to the southward of the Sea of
+Galilee, called Perea. Antipas was the Herod under whose sway Jesus lived
+in Galilee, and who executed John the Baptist. He was a man of passionate
+temper, with the pride and love of luxury of his father. Having Jews to
+govern, he held, as his father had done, to a show of Judaism, though at
+heart he was as much of a pagan as Philip. He, too, loved building, and
+Tiberias on the Sea of Galilee was built by him for his capital. His
+unscrupulous tyranny and his gross disregard of common righteousness
+appear in his relations with John the Baptist and with Herodias, his
+paramour. Jesus described him well as "that fox" (Luke xiii. 32), for he
+was sly, and worked often by indirection. While his father had energy and
+ability which command a sort of admiration, Antipas was not only bad but
+weak.
+
+4. Both Philip and Antipas reigned until after the death of Jesus, Philip
+dying in A.D. 34, and Antipas being deposed several years later, probably
+in 39. Archelaus had a much shorter rule, for he was deposed in A.D. 6,
+having been accused by the Jews of unbearable barbarity and tyranny,--a
+charge in which Antipas and Philip joined. The territory of Archelaus was
+then made an imperial province of the second grade, ruled by a procurator
+appointed from among the Roman knights. In provinces under an imperial
+legate (propraetor) the procurator was an officer for the administration
+of the revenues; in provinces of the rank of Judea he was, however, the
+representative of the emperor in all the prerogatives of government,
+having command of the army, and being the final resort in legal procedure,
+as well as supervising the collection of the customs and taxes. Very
+little is known of the procurators appointed after the deposition of
+Archelaus, until Tiberius sent Pontius Pilate in A.D. 26. He held office
+until he was deposed in 36. Josephus gives several examples of his wanton
+disregard of Jewish prejudice, and of his extreme cruelty. His conduct at
+the trial of Jesus was remarkably gentle and judicial in comparison with
+other acts recorded of his government; yet the fear of trial at Rome,
+which finally induced him to give Jesus over to be crucified, was
+thoroughly characteristic; in fact, his downfall resulted from a complaint
+lodged against him by certain Samaritans whom he had cruelly punished for
+a Messianic uprising.
+
+5. There were two sorts of Roman taxes in Judea: direct, which were
+collected by salaried officials; and customs, which were farmed out to the
+highest bidder. The direct taxes consisted of a land tax and a poll tax,
+in the collection of which the procurator made use of the local Jewish
+courts; the customs consisted of various duties assessed on exports, and
+they were gathered by representatives of men who had bought the right to
+collect these dues. The chiefs as well as their underlings are called
+publicans in our New Testament, although the name strictly applies only to
+the chiefs. These tax-gatherers, small and great, were everywhere despised
+and execrated, because, in addition to their subserviency to a hated
+government, they had a reputation, usually deserved, for all sorts of
+extortion. Because of this evil repute they were commonly drawn from the
+unscrupulous among the people, so that the frequent coupling of publicans
+and sinners in the gospels probably rested on fact as much as on
+prejudice.
+
+6. In Samaria and Judea soldiers were under the command of the procurator;
+they took orders from the tetrarch, in Galilee and Perea. The garrison of
+Jerusalem consisted of one Roman cohort--from five to six hundred
+men--which was reinforced at the time of the principal feasts. These and
+the other forces at the disposal of the procurator were probably recruited
+from the country itself, largely from among the Samaritans. The centurion
+of Capernaum (Matt. viii. 5; Luke vii. 2-5) was an officer in the army of
+Antipas, who, however, doubtless organized his army on the Roman pattern,
+with officers who had had their training with the imperial forces.
+
+7. The administration of justice in Samaria and Judea was theoretically in
+the hands of the procurator; practically, however, it was left with the
+Jewish courts, either the local councils or the great sanhedrin at
+Jerusalem. This last body consisted of seventy-one "elders." Its president
+was the high-priest, and its members were drawn in large degree from the
+most prominent representatives of the priestly aristocracy. The scribes,
+however, had a controlling influence because of the reverence in which the
+multitude held them. The sanhedrin of Jerusalem had jurisdiction only
+within the province of Judea, where it tried all kinds of offences; its
+judgment was final, except in capital cases, when it had to yield to the
+procurator, who alone could sentence to death. It had great influence also
+in Galilee, and among Jews everywhere, but this was due to the regard all
+Jews had for the holy city. It was, in fact, a sort of Jewish senate,
+which took cognizance of everything that seemed to affect the Jewish
+interests. In Galilee and Perea, Antipas held in his hands the judicial as
+well as the military and financial administration.
+
+8. To the majority of the priests religion had become chiefly a form.
+They represented the worldly party among the Jews. Since the days of the
+priest-princes who ruled in Jerusalem after the return from the exile,
+they had constituted the Jewish aristocracy, and held most of the wealth
+of the people. It was to their interest to maintain the ritual and the
+traditional customs, and they were proud of their Jewish heritage; of
+genuine interest in religion, however, they had little. This secular
+priestly party was called the Sadducees, probably from Zadok, the
+high-priest in Solomon's time. What theology the Sadducees had was for the
+most part reactionary and negative. They were opposed to the more earnest
+spirit and new thought of the scribes, and naturally produced some
+champions who argued for their theological position; but the mass of them
+cared for other things.
+
+9. The leaders of the popular thought, on the other hand, were chiefly
+noted for their religious zeal and theological acumen. They represented
+the outgrowth of that spirit which in the Maccabean time had risked all to
+defend the sanctity of the temple and the right of God's people to worship
+him according to his law. They were known as Pharisees, because, as the
+name ("separated") indicates, they insisted on the separation of the
+people of God from all the defilements and snares of the heathen life
+round about them. The Pharisees constituted a fraternity devoted to the
+scrupulous observance of law and tradition in all the concerns of daily
+life. They were specialists in religion, and were the ideal
+representatives of Judaism. Their distinguishing characteristic was
+reverence for the law; their religion was the religion of a book. By
+punctilious obedience of the law man might hope to gain a record of merit
+which should stand to his credit and secure his reward when God should
+finally judge the world. Because life furnished many situations not dealt
+with in the written law, there was need of its authoritative
+interpretation, in order that ignorance might not cause a man to
+transgress. These interpretations constituted an oral law which
+practically superseded the written code, and they were handed down from
+generation to generation as "the traditions of the fathers." The existence
+of this oral law made necessary a company of scribes and lawyers whose
+business it was to know the traditions and transmit them to their pupils.
+These scribes were the teachers of Israel, the leaders of the Pharisees,
+and the most highly revered class in the community. Pharisaism at its
+beginning was intensely earnest, but in the time of Jesus the earnest
+spirit had died out in zealous formalism. This was the inevitable result
+of their virtual substitution of the written law for the living God. Their
+excessive reverence had banished God from practical relation to the daily
+life. They held that he had declared his will once for all in the law. His
+name was scrupulously revered, his worship was cultivated with minutest
+care, his judgment was anticipated with dread; but he himself, like an
+Oriental monarch, was kept far from common life in an isolation suitable
+to his awful holiness. By a natural consequence conscience gave place to
+scrupulous regard for tradition in the religion of the scribes. The chief
+question with them was not, Is this right? but, What say the elders? The
+soul's sensitiveness of response to God's will and God's truth was lost in
+a maze of traditions which awoke no spontaneous Amen in the moral nature,
+consequently there was frequent substitution of reputation for character.
+The Pharisees could make void the command, Honor thy father, by an
+ingenious application of the principle of dedication of property to God
+(Mark vii. 8-13), and thus under the guise of scrupulous regard for law
+discovered ways for legal disregard of law. Their theory of religion gave
+abundant room for a piety which made broad its phylacteries and lengthened
+its prayers, while neglecting judgment, mercy, and the love of God.
+
+10. Yet the earnest and true development in Jewish thinking was found
+among the Pharisees. The early hope of Israel was almost exclusively
+national. In the later books of the Old Testament, in connection with an
+enlarged sense of the importance of the individual, the doctrine of a
+personal resurrection to share the blessings of the Messiah's kingdom
+began to appear. It had its clear development and definite adoption as
+part of the faith of Judaism, however, under the influence of the
+Pharisees. Along with this increased emphasis on the worth of the
+individual came a large development of the doctrine of angels and spirits.
+Towards both of these doctrines the Sadducees took a reactionary position.
+Politically the Pharisees were theocratic in theory, but opportunists in
+practice, accommodating themselves to the existing state of things so long
+as the _de facto_ government did not interfere with the religious life of
+the people. They looked for a kingdom in which God should be evidently the
+king of his people; but they believed that his sovereignty was to be
+realized through the law, hence their sole interest was in the obedience
+of God's people to that law as interpreted by the traditions.
+
+11. The theocratic spirit was more aggressive in a party which originated
+in the later years of Herod the Great, and found a reckless leader in
+Judas of Galilee, who started a revolt when the governor of Syria
+undertook to make a census of the Jews after the deposition of Archelaus.
+This party bore the name Cananeans or Zealots. They regarded with
+passionate resentment the subjection of God's people to a foreign power,
+and waited eagerly for an opportune time to take the sword and set up the
+kingdom of God; it was with them that the final war against Rome began.
+They were found in largest numbers in Galilee, where the scholasticism of
+the scribes was not so dominating an influence as in Judea. Dr. Edersheim
+has called them the nationalist party. In matters belonging strictly to
+the religious life they followed the Pharisees, only holding a more
+material conception of the hope of Israel.
+
+12. Another development in Jewish religious life carried separatist
+doctrines to the extreme. Its representatives were called Essenes, though
+what the significance of the name was is no longer clear. Although they
+were allied with the Pharisees in doctrine, they show in some particulars
+the influence of Hellenistic Judaism. This is suggested not only by the
+attention which Philo and Josephus give to them, but also by certain of
+their views, which were very like the doctrines of the Pythagoreans. They
+carried the pharisaic demand for separateness to the extreme of
+asceticism. While they were found in nearly every town in Palestine, some
+of them even practising marriage, the largest group of them lived a
+celibate, monastic life near the shores of the Dead Sea. This community
+was recruited by the initiation of converts, who only after a novitiate of
+three years were admitted to full membership in the order. They were
+characterized by an extreme scrupulousness concerning ceremonial purity,
+their meals were regarded as sacrifices, and were prepared by members of
+the order, who were looked upon as priests, nor were any allowed to
+partake of the food until they had first bathed themselves. Their regular
+garments were all white, and were regarded as vestments for use at the
+sacrificial meals,--other clothing being assumed as they went out to their
+work. They were industrious agriculturists, their life was communistic,
+and they were renowned for their uprightness. They revered Moses as highly
+as did the scribes; yet they were opposed to animal sacrifices, and,
+although they sent gifts to the temple, were apparently excluded from its
+worship. Their kinship with the Pythagoreans appears in that they
+addressed an invocation to the sun at its rising, and conducted all their
+natural functions with scrupulous modesty, "that they might not offend the
+brightness of God" (Jos. Wars, ii. 8, 9). Their rejection of bloody
+sacrifices, and their view that the soul is imprisoned in the body and at
+death is freed for a better life, besides many features of their life that
+are genuinely Jewish, such as their regard for ceremonial purity, also
+show similarity to the Pythagoreans. It has always been a matter of
+perplexity that these ascetics find no mention in the New Testament. They
+seem to have lived a life too much apart, and to have had little sympathy
+with the ideals of Jesus, or even of John the Baptist.
+
+13. The common people followed the lead of the Pharisees, though afar
+off. They accepted the teaching concerning tradition, as well as that
+concerning the resurrection, conforming their lives to the prescriptions
+of the scribes more or less strictly, according as they were more or loss
+ruled by religious considerations. It was in consequence of their hold on
+the people that the scribes in the sanhedrin were able often to dictate a
+policy to the Sadducean majority. Jesus voiced the popular opinion when he
+said that "the scribes sit in Moses' seat" (Matt, xxiii. 2). Their leaders
+despised "this multitude which knoweth not the law" (John vii. 49), yet
+delighted to legislate for them, binding heavy burdens and grievous to be
+borne. Many of the people were doubtless too intent on work and gain to be
+very regardful of the _minutiae_ of conduct as ordained by the scribes;
+many more were too simple-minded to follow the theories of the rabbis
+concerning the aloofness of God from the life of men. These last
+reverenced the scribes, followed their directions, in the main, for the
+conduct of life, yet lived in fellowship with God as their fathers had,
+trusting in his faithfulness, and hoping in his mercy. They are
+represented in the New Testament by such as Simeon and Anna, Zachariah and
+Elizabeth, Joseph and Mary, and the majority of those who heard and heeded
+John's call to repentance. They were Israel's remnant of pure and
+undefiled religion, and constituted what there was of good soil among the
+people for the reception of the seed sown by John's successor. They had no
+name, for they did not constitute a party; for convenience they may be
+called the Devout.
+
+14. Two other classes among the people are mentioned in the gospels,--the
+Herodians and the Samaritans. The Herodians do not appear outside the New
+Testament, and seem to have been hardly more than a group of men in whom
+the secular spirit was dominant, who thought it best for their interests
+and for the people's to champion the claims of the Herodian family. They
+were probably more akin to the Pharisees than to the Sadducees, for the
+latter were hostile to the Herodian claims, from the first; yet in spirit
+they seem more like to the worldly aristocracy than to the pious scribes.
+The Samaritans lived in the land, a people despising and despised. Their
+territory separated Galilee from Judea, and they were a constant source of
+irritation to the Jews. The hatred was inherited from the days of Ezra,
+when the zealous Jews refused to allow any intercourse with the
+inhabitants of Samaria. These Samaritans were spurned as of impure blood
+and mixed religion (II. Kings xvii. 24-41). The severe attitude adopted
+towards them by Ezra and Nehemiah led to the building of a temple on Mount
+Gerizim, and the establishment of a worship which sought to rival that of
+Jerusalem in all particulars. Very little is known of the tenets of the
+Samaritans in the time of Jesus beyond their belief that Gerizim was the
+place which, according to the law, God chose for his temple, and that a
+Messiah should come to settle all questions of dispute (John iv. 25).
+
+15. Although the religious life of the Jews centred ideally in the temple,
+it found its practical expression in the synagogue. This in itself is
+evidence of the relative influence of priests and scribes. There was no
+confessed rivalry. The Pharisee was most insistent on the sanctity of the
+temple and the importance of its ritual. Yet with the growing sense of the
+religious significance of the individual as distinct from the nation,
+there arose of necessity a practical need for a system of worship possible
+for the great majority of the people, who could at best visit Jerusalem
+but once or twice a year. The synagogue seems to have been a development
+of the exile, when there was no temple and no sacrifice. It was the
+characteristic institution of Judaism as a religion of the law, furnishing
+in every place opportunity for prayer and study. The elders of each
+community seem ordinarily to have been in control of its synagogue, and to
+have had authority to exclude from its fellowship persons who had come
+under the ban. In addition to these officials there was a ruler of the
+synagogue, who had the direction of all that concerned the worship; a
+_chazzan_, or minister, who had the care of the sacred books, administered
+discipline, and instructed the children in reading the scripture; and two
+or more receivers of alms. The Sabbath services consisted of prayers, and
+reading of the scriptures--both law and prophets,--and an address or
+sermon. It was in the sermon that the people learned to know the
+"traditions of the elders," whether as applications of the law to the
+daily life, or as legendary embellishments of Hebrew history and prophecy.
+The preacher might be any one whom the ruler of the synagague recognized
+as worthy to address the congregation.
+
+16. The religious life which centred in the synagogue found daily
+expression in the observance of the law and the traditions. In the measure
+of its control by the scribes it was concerned chiefly with the Sabbath,
+with the various ablutions needful to the maintenance of ceremonial
+purity, with the distinctions between clean and unclean food, with the
+times and ways of fasting, and with the wearing of fringes and
+phylacteries. These lifeless ceremonies seem to our day wearisome and
+petty in the extreme. It is probable, however, that the growth of the
+various traditions had been so gradual that, as has been aptly said, the
+whole usage seemed no more unreasonable to the Jews than the etiquette of
+polite society does to its devotees. The evil was not so much in the
+minuteness of the regulations as in the external and superficial notion of
+religion which they induced.
+
+17. Optimism was the mood of Israel's prophets from the earliest times.
+Every generation looked for the dawning of a day which should banish all
+ill and realize the dreams inspired by the covenant in which God had
+chosen Israel for his own. In proportion as the rabbinic formalism held
+control of the hearts of the people, the Messianic hope lost its warmth
+and vigor. Yet the scribes did not abandon the prophetic optimism; they
+held to the letter of the hope, but as its fulfilment was for them
+dependent on perfect obedience to the law, oral and written, their
+interest was diverted to the traditions, and their strength was given to
+legal disputations. Of the rest of the people, the Sadducees naturally
+gave little thought to the promise of future deliverance, they were too
+absorbed with regard for present concerns. Nor is there any evidence that
+the Essenes, with all their reputed knowledge of the future, cherished the
+hope of a Messiah. The other elements among the people who owned the
+general leadership of the scribes looked eagerly for the coming time when
+God should bring to pass what he had promised through the prophets. While
+some expected God himself to come in judgment, and gave no thought to an
+Anointed one who should represent the Most High to the people, the
+majority looked for a Son of David to sit upon his father's throne. Even
+so, however, there were wide differences in the nature of the hope which
+was set on the coming of this Son of David. The Zealots were looking for a
+victory, which should set Israel on high over all his foes. To the rest of
+the people, however, the method of the consummation was not so clear, and
+they were ready to leave God to work out his purpose in his own way,
+longing meanwhile for the fulfilment of his promise. One class in
+particular gave themselves to visionary representations of the promised
+redemption. They differed from the Zealots in that they saw with unwelcome
+clearness the futility of physical attack upon their enemies; but their
+faith was strong, and at the moment when outward conditions seemed most
+disheartening they looked for a revelation of God's power from heaven,
+destroying all sinners in his wrath, and delivering and comforting his
+people, giving them their lot in a veritable Canaan situated in a renewed
+earth. Such visions are recorded in the Book of Daniel and the Revelation
+of John. They are found in many other apocalypses not included in our
+Bible, and indicate how persistently the minds of the people turned
+towards the promises spoken by the prophets, and meditated on their
+fulfilment. The Devout were midway between the Zealots and the
+Apocalyptists. The songs of Zachariah and Mary and the thanksgiving of
+Simeon express their faith. They hoped for a kingdom as tangible as the
+Zealots sought, yet they preferred to _wait_ for the consolation of
+Israel. They believed that God was still in his heaven, that he was not
+disregardful of his people, and that in his own time he would raise up
+unto them their king. They looked for a Son of David, yet his reign was to
+be as remarkable for its purification of his own people as for its
+victories over their foes. These victories indeed were to be largely
+spiritual, for their Messiah was to conquer in the strength of the Spirit
+of God and "by the word of his mouth." Such as these were ready for a
+ministry like John's, and not unready for the new ideal which Jesus was
+about to offer them, though their highest spiritualization of the
+Messianic hope was but a shadow of the reality which Jesus asked them to
+accept.
+
+18. This last conception of the Messiah is found in a group of psalms
+written in the first century before Christ, during the early days of the
+Roman interference in Judea. These Psalms of Solomon, as they are called,
+are pharisaic in point of view, yet they are not rabbinic in their ideas.
+Their feeling is too deep, and their reliance on God too immediate; they
+fitly follow the psalms of the Old Testament, though afar off. Of another
+type of contemporary literature, Apocalypse, at least two representatives
+besides the Book of Daniel have come down to us from the time of Jesus or
+earlier,--the so-called Book of Enoch, and the fragment known as the
+Assumption of Moses. These writings have peculiar interest, because they
+are probably the source of quotations found in the Epistle of Jude;
+moreover, some sayings of Jesus reported in the gospels, and in particular
+his chosen title, The Son of Man, are strikingly similar to expressions
+found in Enoch. Can Jesus have read these books? The psalms of the Devout
+were the kind of literature to pass rapidly from heart to heart, until all
+who sympathized with their hope and faith had heard or seen them. The case
+was different with the apocalypses. They are more elaborate and
+enigmatical, and may have been only slightly known. Yet, as Jesus was
+familiar with the canonical Book of Daniel, although it was not read in
+the synagogue service in his time, it is possible that he may also have
+read or heard other books which had not won recognition as canonical. If,
+however, he knew nothing of them, the similarity between the apocalypses
+and some of Jesus' ideas and expressions becomes all the more significant;
+for it shows that these writings gave utterance to thoughts and feelings
+shared by men who never read them, which were, therefore, no isolated
+fancies, but characteristic of the religion of many of the people. With
+these ideas Jesus was familiar; whether he ever read the books must remain
+a question.
+
+19. This literature exists for us only in translations made in the days of
+the early church. Most of these books were originally written in Hebrew,
+the language of the Old Testament, or in Aramaic, the language of
+Palestine in the time of Jesus. Traces of this language as spoken by Jesus
+have been preserved in the gospels,--the name _Rabbi; Abba_, translated
+Father; _Talitha cumi_, addressed to the daughter of Jairus; _Ephphatha_,
+to the deaf man of Bethsaida; and the cry from the cross, _Eloi, Eloi,
+lama sabachthani_ (John i. 38; Mark xiv. 36; v. 41; vii. 34; xv. 34). It
+is altogether probable that in his common dealings with men and in his
+teachings Jesus used this language. Greek was the language of the
+government and of trade, and in a measure the Jews were a bilingual
+people. Jesus may thus have had some knowledge of Greek, but it is
+unlikely that he ever used it to any extent either in Galilee, or Judea,
+or in the regions of Tyre and Sidon.
+
+
+
+
+II
+
+Sources of Our Knowledge Of Jesus
+
+
+
+20. The earliest existing record of events in the life of Jesus is given
+to us in the epistles of Paul. His account of the appearances of the Lord
+after his death and resurrection (I. Cor. xv. 3-8) was written within
+thirty years of these events. The date of the testimony, however, is much
+earlier, since Paul refers to the experience which transformed his own
+life, and so carries us back to within a few years of the crucifixion.
+Other facts from Jesus' life may be gathered from Paul, as his descent
+from Abraham and David (Rom. i. 3; ix. 5); his life of obedience (Rom. v.
+19; xv. 3; Phil. ii. 5-11); his poverty (II. Cor. viii. 9); his meekness
+and gentleness (II. Cor. x. 1); other New Testament writings outside of
+our gospels add somewhat to this restricted but very clear testimony.
+
+21. Secular history knows little of the obscure Galilean. The testimony of
+Tacitus is that the Christians "derived their name and origin from one
+Christ, who in the reign of Tiberius had suffered death by the sentence of
+the procurator, Pontius Pilate" (Annals, xv. 44). Suetonius makes an
+obscure and seemingly ill-informed allusion to Christ in the reason he
+assigns for the edict of Claudius expelling the Jews from Rome (Vit.
+Claud. 25). The younger Pliny in the second century had learned that the
+numerous Christian community in Bithynia was accustomed to honor Christ
+as God; but he shows no knowledge of the life of Jesus beyond what must be
+inferred concerning one who caused men "to bind themselves with an oath
+not to enter into any wickedness, or commit thefts, robberies, or
+adulteries, or falsify their word, or repudiate trusts committed to them"
+(Epistles X. 96). This secular ignorance is not surprising; but the
+silence of Josephus is. He mentions Jesus in but one clearly genuine
+passage, when telling of the martyrdom of James, the "brother of Jesus,
+who is called the Christ" (Ant. xx. 9. 1). Of John the Baptist, however,
+he has a very appreciative notice (Ant, xviii. 5. 2), and it cannot be
+that he was ignorant of Jesus. His appreciation of John suggests that he
+could not have mentioned Jesus more fully without some approval of his
+life and teaching. This would be a condemnation of his own people, whom he
+desired to commend to Gentile regard; and he seems to have taken the
+cowardly course of silence concerning a matter more noteworthy, even for
+that generation, than much else of which he writes very fully.
+
+22. The reason for the lack of written Christian records of Jesus' life
+from the earliest time seems to be, not that the apostles had a small
+sense of the importance of his earthly ministry, but that the early
+generation preferred what at a later time was called the "living voice"
+(Papias in Euseb. Ch. Hist. iii. 39). The impression made by Jesus was
+supremely personal; he wrote nothing, did not command his disciples to
+write anything, preferring to influence men's minds by personal power,
+appointing them, in turn, to represent him to men as he had represented
+the Father to them (John xx. 21). But the time came when the first
+witnesses were passing away, and they were not many who could say, "I saw
+him." Our gospels are the result of the natural desire to preserve the
+apostolic testimony for a generation that could no longer hear the
+apostolic voice; and they are precisely what such a sense of need would
+produce,--vivid pictures of Jesus, agreeing in general features, differing
+more or less in details, reflecting individual feeling for the Master, and
+written not simply to inform men but to convince them of that Master's
+claims. One evidence of the reality of the gospel pictures is the fact
+that we so seldom feel the individual characteristics of each gospel. This
+is especially true of the first three, which, to the vividness of their
+picture, add a remarkable similarity of detail. Tatian, in the second
+century, felt it necessary to make a continuous narrative for the use of
+the church by interweaving the four gospels into one, and he has had many
+successors down to our day; but the fact that unity of impression has
+practically resulted from the four pictures without recourse to such an
+interweaving, invites consideration of the characteristics of these
+remarkable documents.
+
+23. The first gospel impresses the careful reader with three things: (1) A
+clear sense of the development of Jesus' ministry. The author introduces
+his narrative by an account of the birth of Jesus, of the ministry of John
+the Baptist, and of Jesus' baptism and temptation and withdrawal into
+Galilee (i. 1 to iv. 17). He then depicts the public ministry by grouping
+together, first, teachings of Jesus concerning the law of the kingdom of
+heaven, then a series of great miracles confirming the new doctrine, then
+the expansion of the ministry and deepening hostility of the Pharisees,
+leading to the teaching by parables, and the final withdrawal from Galilee
+to the north. This ministry resulted in the chilling of popular enthusiasm
+which had been strong at the beginning, but in the winning of a few hearts
+to Jesus' own ideals of the kingdom of God (iv. 18 to xvi. 20). From this
+point the evangelist leads us to Jerusalem, where rejection culminates,
+the sterner teachings of Jesus are massed, and his victory in seeming
+defeat is exhibited (xvi. 21 to xxviii. 20). (2) The evangelist's interest
+is not satisfied by this clear, strong, picture; he wishes to convince men
+that Jesus is Israel's Messiah, hence, throughout, he indicates the
+fulfilment of prophecy. The things in which he sees the fulfilment are
+striking, for, with but one or two exceptions, they are features of the
+life of Jesus objectionable to Jewish feeling. This fact, taken in
+connection with the emphasis which the gospel gives to the death of Jesus
+at the hands of the Jews, and to the resurrection as God's seal of
+approval of him whom his people rejected, forms a forcible argument to
+prove the Messiahship of Jesus, not simply in spite of his rejection by
+the Jews, but by appeal to that rejection as leading to God's signal
+vindication of the crucified one. (3) This evangelist, while proving that
+Jesus is the Messiah promised to Israel, recognizes clearly the freedom of
+the new faith from the exclusiveness of Jewish feeling. The choice of
+Galilee for the Messianic ministry (iv. 12-17), the comment of Jesus on
+the faith of the centurion (viii. 10-12), the rebuke of Israel in the
+parable of the Wicked Husbandmen (xxi. 33-46), and especially the last
+commission of the risen Lord (xxviii. 18-20), show that this gospel sought
+to convince men of Jewish feeling not only that Jesus is Messiah, but also
+that as Messiah he came to bring salvation to all the world.
+
+24. The second gospel is much simpler in construction than the first,
+while presenting essentially the same picture of the ministry as is found
+in Matthew. To its simplicity it adds a vividness of narration which
+commends Mark's account as probably representing most nearly the actual
+course of the life of Jesus. While it reports fewer incidents and
+teachings than either of the others, a comparison with Matthew and Luke
+shows a preference in Mark for Jesus' deeds, though addresses are not
+wanting; and, while shorter as a whole, for matters which he reports
+Mark's record is most rich in detail, most dramatic in presentation, and
+actually longer than the parallel accounts in the other gospels. The whole
+narrative is animated in style (note the oft-repeated "immediately") and
+full of graphic traits. The story of Jesus seems to be reproduced from a
+memory which retains fresh personal impressions of events as they
+occurred. Hence the frequent comments on the effect of Jesus' ministry,
+such as "We never saw it on this fashion" (ii. 12), or "He hath done all
+things well" (vii. 37), and the introduction into the narrative of Aramaic
+words,--_Boanerges_ (iii. 17), _Talitha, cumi_ (v. 41), and the like,
+which immediately have to be translated. The gospel discloses no
+artificial plan, the chief word of transition is "and." While some of the
+incidents recorded, such as the second Sabbath controversy (iii. 1-6) and
+the question about fasting (ii. 18-22), may owe their place to association
+in memory with an event of like character, the book impresses us as a
+collection of annals fresh from the living memory, which present the
+actual Jesus teaching and healing, and going on his way to the cross and
+resurrection. After the briefest possible reference to the ministry of
+John the Baptist and the baptism and temptation of Jesus (i. 1-13), this
+gospel proceeds to set forth the ministry in Galilee (i. 14 to ix. 50).
+The narrative then follows Jesus to Jerusalem, by way of Perea, and closes
+with his victory through death and resurrection (x. 1 to xvi. 8).
+
+25. The third gospel is more nearly a biography than any of its
+companions. It opens with a preface stating that after a study of many
+earlier attempts to record the life of Jesus the author has undertaken to
+present as complete an account as possible of that life from the
+beginning. The book is addressed to one Theophilus, doubtless a Greek
+Christian, and its chief aim is practical,--to confirm conviction
+concerning matters of faith (i. 1-4). The author's interest in the
+completeness of his account appears in the fact that it begins with
+incidents antecedent to the birth of John the Baptist and Jesus. Moreover,
+to his desire for completeness we owe much of the story of Jesus,
+otherwise unrecorded for us. Like the first two gospels, Luke represents
+the ministry of Jesus as inaugurated in Galilee, and carried on there
+until the approach of the tragedy at Jerusalem (iv. 14 to ix. 50). It is
+in connection with the journey to Jerusalem (ix. 51 to xix. 27) that he
+inserts most of that which is peculiar to his gospel. His account of the
+rejection at Jerusalem, the crucifixion, and resurrection, follows in the
+main the same lines as Matthew and Mark; but he gained his knowledge of
+many particulars from different sources (xix. 28 to xxiv. 53). It is
+characteristic of Luke to name Jesus "Lord" more often than either of his
+predecessors. With this exalted conception is coupled a noticeable
+emphasis on Jesus' ministry of compassion; here more than in any other
+gospel he is pictured as the friend of sinners. Moreover, we owe chiefly
+to Luke our knowledge of him as a man of prayer and as subject to repeated
+temptation. An artificial exaltation of Christ, such as is often
+attributed to the later apostolic thought, would tend to reduce, not
+multiply, such evidences of human dependence on God. This fact increases
+our confidence in the accuracy of Luke's picture. The gospel is very full
+of comfort to those under the pressure of poverty, and of rebuke to
+unbelieving wealth, though the parable of the Unjust Steward and story of
+Zacchaeus show that it does not exalt poverty for its own sake. If our
+first gospel pictures Jesus as the fulfilment of God's promises to his
+people, and Mark, as the man of power at work before our very eyes,
+astonishing the multitude while winning the few, Luke sets before us the
+Lord ministering with divine compassion to men subject to like temptations
+with himself, though, unlike them, he knew no sin.
+
+26. The first three gospels, differing as they do in point of view and
+aim, present essentially one picture of the ministry of Jesus; for they
+agree concerning the locality and progress of his Messianic work, and the
+form and contents of his teaching, showing, in fact, verbal identity in
+many parts of their narrative. For this reason they are commonly known as
+the Synoptic Gospels. Yet these gospels exhibit differences as remarkable
+as their likenesses. They differ perplexingly in the order in which they
+arrange some of the events in Jesus' life. Which of them should be given
+preference in constructing a harmonious picture of his ministry? They
+often agree to the letter in their report of deeds or words of Jesus, yet
+from beginning to end remarkable verbal differences stand side by side
+with remarkable verbal identities. Some of the identities of language
+suggest irresistibly that the evangelists have used, at least in part, the
+same previously existing written record. One of the clearest evidences of
+this is found in the introduction, at the same place in the parallel
+accounts, of the parenthesis "then saith he to the sick of the palsy"
+which interrupts the words of Jesus in the cure of the paralytic (Mark ii.
+10; Matt. ix. 6; Luke v. 24). When the three gospels are carefully
+compared it appears that Mark contains very little that is not found in
+Matthew and Luke, and that, with one or two exceptions, Luke presents in
+Mark's order the matter that he has in common with the second gospel. The
+same is also true of the relation between the latter part of the Gospel of
+Matthew (Matt. xiv. 1 to the end) and the parallel portion of Mark; while
+the comparison of Matthew's arrangement of his earlier half with Mark
+suggests that the order in the first gospel has been determined by other
+than chronological considerations. In a sense, therefore, we may say that
+the Gospel of Mark reveals the chronological framework on which all three
+of these gospels are constructed. Comparison discloses further the
+interesting fact that the matter which Matthew and Luke have in common,
+after subtracting their parallels to Mark, consists almost entirely of
+teachings and addresses. Each gospel, however, has some matter peculiar to
+itself.
+
+27. In considering the problem presented by these facts, it is well to
+remember that no one of these gospels contains within itself any statement
+concerning the identity of its author. We are indebted to tradition for
+the names by which we know them, and no one of them makes any claim to
+apostolic origin. The earliest reference in Christian literature which may
+be applied to our gospels comes from Papias, a Christian of Asia Minor in
+the second century. He reports that an earlier teacher had said, "Mark,
+having become the interpreter of Peter, wrote down accurately, though not,
+indeed, in order, whatsoever he remembered of the things said or done by
+Christ, for he neither heard the Lord nor followed him, but afterward, as
+I said, he followed Peter, who adapted his teachings to the needs of his
+hearers, but with no intention of giving a connected account of the Lord's
+discourses. So that Mark committed no error when he thus wrote some things
+as he remembered them, for he was careful of one thing, not to omit any of
+the things which he had heard and not to state any of them falsely....
+Matthew wrote the oracles [of the Lord] in the Hebrew language [Aramaic],
+and every one interpreted them as he was able" (Euseb. Ch. Hist. iii. 39).
+The result of many years' study by scholars of all shades of opinion is
+the very general conclusion that the writing which Papias attributed to
+Mark was essentially what we have in our second gospel.
+
+28. It is almost as universally acknowledged that the work ascribed by the
+second century elder to the apostle Matthew cannot be our first gospel;
+for its language has not the characteristics which other translations from
+Hebrew or Aramaic lead us to expect, while the completeness of its
+narrative exceeds what is suggested by the words of Papias. If, however,
+the matter which Matthew and Luke have in such rich measure in addition to
+Mark's narrative be considered, the likeness between this and the writing
+attributed by Papias to the apostle Matthew is noteworthy. The conclusion
+is now very general, that that apostolic writing is in large measure
+preserved in the discourses in our first and third gospels. The relation
+of our gospels to the two books mentioned by Papias may be conceived,
+then, somewhat as follows: The earliest gospel writing of which we know
+anything was a collection of the teachings of Jesus made by the apostle
+Matthew, in which he collected with simple narrative introductions, those
+sayings of the Lord which from the beginning had passed from mouth to
+mouth in the circle of the disciples. At a later time Mark wrote down the
+account of the ministry of Jesus which Peter had been accustomed to relate
+in his apostolic preaching. The work of the apostle Matthew, while much
+richer in the sayings of Jesus, lacked the completeness that characterizes
+a narrative; hence it occurred to some early disciple to blend together
+these two primitive gospel records, adding such other items of knowledge
+as came to his hand from oral tradition or written memoranda. As his aim
+was practical rather than historical, he added such editorial comments as
+would make of the new gospel an argument for the Messiahship of Jesus, as
+we have seen. Since the most precious element in this new gospel was the
+apostolic record of the teachings of the Lord, the name of Matthew and not
+of his literary successor, was given to the book.
+
+29. The third gospel is ascribed, by a probably trustworthy tradition, to
+Luke, the companion of Paul. The author himself says that he made use of
+such earlier records as were accessible, among which the chief seem to
+have been the writings of Mark and the apostle Matthew. To Luke's
+industry, however, we owe our knowledge of many incidents and teachings
+from the life of Jesus which were not contained in these two records, and
+with which we could ill afford to part. Some of these he doubtless found
+in written form, and some he gathered from oral testimony. His close
+agreement with Mark in the arrangement of his narrative suggests that he
+found no clear evidence of a ministry of wider extent in time and place.
+He therefore used Mark as his narrative framework, and of the rich
+materials which he had gathered made a gospel, the completest of any
+written up to his time.
+
+30. Such in the main is the conclusion of modern study of our first three
+gospels; it explains the general identity of their picture of Jesus and of
+their report of his teaching; it leaves room for those individual
+characteristics which give them so much of their charm; and it traces the
+materials of the gospels far back of the writings as we have them,
+bringing us nearer to the events which they describe. The dates of these
+documents can be only approximately known. It is probable that the
+"logia" collected by the apostle Matthew were written not later than 60 to
+65 A.D., while the Gospel of Mark dates from before the fall of Jerusalem
+in 70. Our first gospel must have been made between 70 and 100, and the
+Gospel of Luke may be dated about the year 80,--all within sixty or
+seventy years after the death of Jesus.
+
+31. The fourth gospel gives us a picture of Jesus in striking contrast to
+that of the other three. These present chiefly the works of the Master and
+his teachings concerning the kingdom of God and human conduct, leaving the
+truth concerning the teacher himself to be inferred. John opens the heart
+of Jesus and makes him disclose his thought about himself in a remarkable
+series of teachings of which he is the prime topic. This gospel is
+avowedly an argument (xx. 30, 31); its selection of material is
+confessedly partial; its aim is to confirm the faith of Christians in the
+heavenly nature and saving power of their Lord; and its method is that of
+appeal to testimony, to signs, and to his own self-disclosures. The
+opening verses of the gospel have a somewhat abstract theological
+character; the body of the book, however, consists of a succession of
+incidents and teachings which follow each other in unstudied fashion like
+a collection of annals. This impression is not compromised by the
+recognition, at some points, of accidental displacements, like that which
+has placed xiv. 30, 31 before xv. and xvi., or that which has left a long
+gap between vii. 23 and the incident of v. 1-9, to which it refers. The
+theme of the gospel is the self-disclosure of Jesus. This seems to have
+determined the evangelist's choice of material, and, as the gospel is an
+argument, he does not hesitate to mingle his own comments with his report
+of Jesus' words, for example (iii. 16-21, 30-36; xii. 37-43). The book is
+characterized by a vividness of detail which indicates a clear memory of
+personal experience. While it is evident that the author has the most
+exalted conception of the nature of his Lord, this seems to have been the
+result of loving meditation on a friend who had early won the mastery over
+his heart and life, and who through long years of contemplation had forced
+upon his disciple's mind the conviction of his transcendent nature. The
+book discloses a profoundly objective attitude; the Christ whom John
+portrays is not the creature of his speculations, but the Master who has
+entered into his experience as a living influence and has compelled
+recognition of his significance. The Son of God is for John the human
+Jesus who, though named at the outset the Word--the Logos,--is the Word
+who was made flesh, that men through him might become the sons of God.
+
+32. The contrast which the Gospel of John presents to the other three
+concerns not only the teaching of Jesus, but the scene of his ministry and
+its historic development as well. Whatever may be the final judgment
+concerning the fourth gospel, it is manifestly constructed as a simple
+collection of incidents following each other in what was meant to appear a
+chronological sequence. It has been seen that the biographical framework
+of the first three gospels is principally Mark's report of Peter's
+narrative. Now it is a fact that in portions of Matthew and Luke, derived
+elsewhere than from Mark, there are various allusions most easily
+understood if it be assumed that Jesus visited Jerusalem before his
+appearance there at the end of his ministry. Such, for instance, are the
+parable of the Good Samaritan (Luke x. 25-37), the story of the visit to
+Mary and Martha (Luke x. 38-42), and the lamentation of Jesus over
+Jerusalem (Luke xiii. 34, 35; Matt, xxiii. 37-39). All three gospels,
+moreover, agree in attributing to emissaries from Jerusalem much of the
+hostility manifested against Jesus in his Galilean ministry (Luke v. 17;
+Mark iii. 22; Matt. xv. 1; Mark vii. 1), and presuppose such an
+acquaintance of Jesus with households in and near Jerusalem as is not easy
+to explain if he never visited Judea before his passion (Mark xi. 2, 3;
+xiv. 14; xv. 43 and parallels; compare especially Matt, xxvii. 57; John
+xix. 38). These all suggest that the narrative of Mark does not tell the
+whole story, a conclusion quite in accordance with the account of his work
+given by Papias. It has been assumed that Peter was a Galilean, a man of
+family living in Capernaum. It is not impossible that on some of the
+earlier visits of Jesus to Jerusalem he did not accompany his Master, and
+in reporting the things which he knew he naturally confined himself to his
+own experiences. If this can explain the predominance of Galilean
+incidents in the ministry as depicted in Mark, it will explain the
+predominance of Galilee in the first three gospels, and the contradiction
+between John and the three is reduced to a divergence between two accounts
+of Jesus' ministry written from two different points of view.
+
+33. The question of the trustworthiness of the fourth gospel is greatly
+simplified by the consideration of the one-sidedness of Mark's
+representation. It is further relieved by the fact that a ministry by
+Jesus in Jerusalem must have been one of constant self-assertion, for
+Jerusalem represented at its highest those aspects of thought and practice
+which were fundamentally opposed to all that Jesus did and taught.
+Whenever in Galilee, in the ministry pictured by the first three gospels,
+Jesus came in contact with the spirit and feeling characteristic of
+Jerusalem, we find him meeting it by unqualified assertion of his own
+independence and exalted claim to authority, altogether similar to that
+emphasis of his own significance and importance which is the chief
+characteristic of his teachings in the fourth gospel. If it be remembered
+that that gospel was avowedly an argument written to commend to others the
+reverent conclusion concerning the Lord reached by a disciple whose
+thought had dwelt for long years on the marvel of that life, and if we
+recognize that for such an argument the author would select the instances
+and teachings most telling for his own purpose, and would do this as
+naturally as the magnet draws to itself iron filings which are mingled
+with a pile of sand, the exclusively personal character of the teachings
+of Jesus in this gospel need cause little perplexity. Nor need it seem
+surprising that the words of Jesus as reported in John share the
+peculiarities of style which mark the work of the evangelist in the
+prologue to the gospel and in his epistles. His purpose was not primarily
+biographical but argumentative, and he has set forth the picture of his
+Lord as it rose before his own heart, his memory of events being
+interwoven with contemplation on the significance of that life with which
+his had been so blessedly associated. In a gospel written avowedly to
+produce in others a conviction like his own, the evangelist would not have
+been sensible of any obligation to draw sharp lines between his
+recollection of his Lord's words and his own contemplations upon them and
+upon their significance for his life. If these considerations be kept in
+mind we may accept the uniform tradition of antiquity, confirmed by the
+plain intimation of the gospel itself, that it is essentially the work of
+John, the son of Zebedee, written near the close of his life in Ephesus,
+in the last decade of the first century.
+
+34. We have in our gospel records, therefore, two authorities for the
+general course of the ministry of Jesus,--Mark and John. Even if the
+fourth gospel should be proved not to be the work of John, its picture of
+the ministry of Jesus must be recognized as coming from some apostolic
+source. A forger would hardly have invited the rejection of his work by
+inventing a narrative which seems to contradict at so many points the
+tradition of the other gospels. The first and third gospels furnish us
+from various sources rich additions to Mark's narrative, and it is to
+these two with the fourth that we turn chiefly for the teachings of Jesus.
+Each gospel should be read, therefore, remembering its incompleteness,
+remembering also the particular purpose and individual enthusiasm for
+Jesus which produced it.
+
+35. A word may be due to two other claimants to recognition as original
+records from the life of Jesus. One class is represented by that word of
+the Lord which Paul quoted to the Ephesian elders at Miletus (Acts xx.
+35). Scattered here and there in writings of the apostolic and succeeding
+ages are other sayings attributed to Jesus which cannot be found in our
+gospels. A few of these so-called Agrapha seem worthy of him, and are
+recognized as probably genuine. The most important of them is the story of
+the woman taken in adultery (John vii. 53 to viii. 11), which, though not
+a part of the gospel of John, doubtless gives a true incident from Jesus'
+life. They represent the "many other" things which John and the other
+gospels have omitted, but their small number proves that our gospels have
+preserved for us practically all that was known of Jesus after the first
+witnesses fell asleep. It is certainly surprising that so little exists to
+supplement the story of the gospels, for they are manifestly fragmentary,
+and leave much of Jesus' public life without any record. The other class
+of claimants is of a quite different character,--the so-called Apocryphal
+Gospels. These consist chiefly of legends connected with the birth and
+early years of Jesus, and with his death and resurrection. They are for
+the most part crude tales that have entirely mistaken the real character
+of him whom they seek to exalt, and need only to be read to be rejected.
+
+
+
+
+III
+
+The Harmony of the Gospels
+
+
+
+36. The church early appreciated the value and the difficulty of having
+four different pictures of the life and teachings of the Lord. Irenaeus at
+the close of the second century felt it to be as essential that there
+should be four gospels as that there should be "four zones of the world,
+four principal winds, and four faces of the cherubim" (Against Heresies
+III. ii. 8).
+
+37. Before Irenaeus, however, another had sought to obviate the difficulty
+of having four records which seem at some points to disagree, by making a
+combination of the gospels, to which he gave the title "Diatessaron."
+Tatian, the author of this work, was converted from paganism about 152
+A.D., and prepared his unified gospel, probably for the use of the Syrian
+churches, sometime after 172. His work is one of the treasures of the
+early Christian literature recovered for us within the last
+quarter-century. It seems to have won great popularity in the Syrian
+churches, having practically displaced the canonical gospels for nearly
+three centuries, when, owing to its supposed heretical tendency, it was
+suppressed by the determined effort of the church authorities. It is a
+continuous record of Jesus' ministry, beginning with the first six verses
+of the Gospel of John, passing then to the early chapters of Luke. It
+closes with an account of the resurrection interwoven from all four
+gospels, concluding with John xxi. 25. The arrangement follows generally
+the order of Matthew, additional matter from the other gospels being
+inserted at places which approved themselves to Tatian's judgment. Some
+portions--in particular the genealogies of Jesus--were omitted altogether,
+in accordance with views held by the compiler.
+
+38. From Tatian's time to the present there have been repeated attempts to
+construct a harmonious representation of events and teachings in the
+ministry of Jesus, generally by setting the parallel accounts side by
+side, following such a succession of events as seemed most probable. Our
+evangelists cared little, if they thought at all, about the requirements
+of strict biography, and they have left us records not easy to arrange on
+any one chronological scheme. Concerning the chief events, however, the
+gospels agree. All four report, for instance, the beginning of the work in
+Galilee (Matt. iv. 12, 17; Mark i. 14, 15; Luke iv. 14, 15; John iv.
+43-45); the feeding of the five thousand when Jesus' popularity in Galilee
+passed its climax (Matt. xiv. 13-23; Mark vi. 30-46; Luke ix. 10-17; John
+vi. 1-15); the departure from Galilee for the final visit to Jerusalem
+(Matt. xix. 1, 2; Mark x. 1; Luke ix. 51; John vii. 1-10); and the week of
+suffering and victory at the end (Matt. xxi. 1 to xxviii. 20; Mark xi. 1
+to xvi. 8 [20]; Luke xix. 29 to xxiv. 53; John xii. 1 to xxi. 25).
+
+39. These facts are enough to give us a clear and unified impression of
+the course of Jesus' ministry. When, however, we seek to fill in the
+details given in the different gospels, difficulties at once arise. Thus,
+first, what shall be done with the long section which John introduces (i.
+19 to iv. 42) before Jesus' withdrawal into Galilee? The other gospels
+make that withdrawal the beginning of his public work. A second difficulty
+arises from the unnamed feast of John v. 1. By one or another scholar this
+feast has been identified with almost every Jewish festival known to us.
+Another problem is furnished by the long section in Luke which is so
+nearly peculiar to his gospel (ix. 51 to xviii. 14). If the section had no
+parallels in the other gospels we might easily conclude that it all
+belongs to a time subsequent to the final departure for Jerusalem; but it
+contains at least one incident from the earlier ministry in Galilee (Luke
+xi. 14-36; compare Mark iii. 19-30), and many teachings of Jesus given by
+Matthew in an earlier connection appear here in Luke. Furthermore, the
+section has to be adjusted to that portion of the Gospel of John which
+deals with the same period and yet reports none of the same details.
+
+40. If Mark has furnished the narrative framework adopted in the main by
+the first and third gospels, the problem of the order of events in Jesus'
+life becomes a question of the chronological value of Mark, and of the
+estimate to be placed on the narrative of John. If the fourth gospel is
+held to be of apostolic origin and trustworthy, the task of the harmonist
+is chiefly that of combining these two records of Mark and John. The
+testimony of the Baptist, with which the fourth gospel opens, must have
+been given some time after he had baptized Jesus, and the ministry which
+preceded Jesus' return to Galilee (i. 19 to iv. 42) belongs to a period
+ignored by the other gospels. The first three gospels contain indications
+that Jesus must have visited Judea before the close of his life. They give
+no hint, however, of the time or circumstances of such earlier Judean
+labor. In giving the emphasis they do to the work in Galilee, they present
+a one-sided picture. When, therefore, we find in John a narrative of work
+in Judea, confirmed by hints in the other gospels, we may justly assume
+that the arrangement which fills out the ministry of Jesus by inserting at
+the proper places in Mark's record the events found in John is essentially
+true.
+
+41. The consideration of the one-sidedness of Mark's narrative simplifies
+the problem of harmony, but it does not solve all of the perplexities.
+Matthew and Luke have much matter, some of it narrative, which Mark has
+not, and for which he suggests no place. Where shall we put, for instance,
+the cure of the centurion's servant (Matt. viii. 5-13; Luke vii. 1-10), or
+John the Baptist's last message (Matt. xi. 2-19; Luke vii. 18-35)? It
+would simplify matters if we could take Luke's statement that he had
+"traced the course of all things accurately from the first" (Luke i. 3),
+as indicating that he had arrived at exact certainty concerning the order
+of events of Jesus' life. It is probable, however, that his statement was
+simply a claim that he had carefully gathered material for a record of the
+whole life of Jesus, from the annunciation of his birth to his ascension.
+While we may believe that some trustworthy tradition led him to give the
+place he has to many of the incidents which he adds to Mark's story, it
+seems impossible to follow him in all respects; for instance, in severing
+the account of the blasphemy of the Pharisees (xi. 14-36) from the place
+which it holds in Mark (iii. 19-30).
+
+42. Still more uncertainty exists concerning the historic connection of
+teachings of Jesus to which Matthew and Luke give different settings; for
+example, the Lord's Prayer (Matt. vi. 9-15; Luke xi. 1-4), and the
+exhortations against anxiety (Matt. vi. 25-34; Luke xii. 22-31). We have
+seen that much of the teaching common to these gospels is probably derived
+from the collection of the "oracles" of the Lord made by the apostle
+Matthew. Everything that we can infer concerning such a collection of
+oracles indicates that, while some of the teachings may have been
+connected with particular historic situations (compare Luke xi. 1), many
+would altogether lack such introductory words. A later example of what
+such a collection may have been has come to light recently in the
+so-called "Sayings of Jesus," discovered in Egypt and published in 1897.
+In these the occasion for the teaching has been quite lost; the sole
+interest centres in the fact that Jesus is supposed to have said the
+things recorded. If Matthew's book contained such "logia" or "oracles," it
+is probable that the original connection in which most of them were spoken
+was a matter of no concern to the apostle, and consequently has been lost
+This in no way compromises the genuineness of these sayings of Jesus. The
+treatment of Luke ix. 51 to xviii. 14 is much simplified by this
+consideration. To Luke's industry (i. 1-4) we owe the preservation of some
+events and very many teachings which no other evangelist has recorded.
+Some of this new material (for instance, vii. 11-17, 36-50) he has
+assigned a place in the midst of Mark's narrative. Most of it, however,
+he has gathered together in what seems to be a sort of appendix, which he
+has inserted between the close of the ministry in Galilee and the final
+arrival in Judea. For many of the teachings it is now impossible to assign
+a time or place. That this is so will cause no surprise or difficulty if
+we remember that in the earliest days the report of what Jesus said and
+did circulated in the form of oral tradition only. It was the knowledge
+that first-hand witnesses were passing away that led to the writing of the
+gospels. During the period of oral tradition many teachings of the Lord
+were doubtless kept clearly and accurately in memory after the historic
+situations which led to their first utterance were quite forgotten.
+
+43. This fact helps to explain another perplexity in our gospel
+narratives. A comparison of the two accounts of the cure of the
+centurion's servant reveals differences of detail most perplexing, if we
+ask for minute agreement in records of the same events. When we see that
+of two accounts evidently reporting the same incident, one can say that
+the centurion himself sought Jesus and asked the cure of his servant
+(Matt. viii. 5, 8), while the other makes him declare himself unworthy to
+come in person to the Lord (Luke vii. 7), the question arises whether
+other accounts, similar in the main but differing in detail, should not be
+identified as independent records of one event. Were there two cleansings
+of the temple (John ii. 13-22; Mark xi. 15-19), two miraculous draughts of
+fishes (Luke v. 4-11; John xxi. 5-8), two rejections at Nazareth (Mark vi.
+1-6; Luke iv. 16-30), two parables of the Leaven, of the Mustard Seed
+(Matt. xiii. 31-33; Luke xiii. 18-21), and of the Lost Sheep (Matt, xviii.
+12-14; Luke xv. 4-7)? Such similar records are often called doublets, and
+the question of identity or distinctness can be answered only after a
+special study of each case. It is important to notice that a given
+teaching, particularly if it took the form of an illustration, would
+naturally be used by Jesus on many different occasions. When, on the other
+hand, we find two accounts of specific doings of Jesus similar in detail
+it is needful to recognize that definite historic situations do not so
+often repeat themselves as do occasions for similar or identical
+teachings.
+
+44. All these considerations show that while the general order of events
+in the life of Jesus may be determined with a good degree of probability,
+we must be content to remain uncertain concerning the place to be given to
+many incidents and to more teachings. Such uncertainty is of small
+concern, since our unharmonized gospels have not failed during all these
+centuries to produce one fair picture, to the total impression of which
+each teaching and deed make definite contribution quite independently of
+our ability to give to each its particular place in relation to the whole.
+The degree of certainty attainable justifies, however, a continued
+interest in the old study of harmony, because of the more comprehensive
+idea it gives of the ministry depicted in the partial narratives of our
+several gospels.
+
+
+
+
+IV
+
+The Chronology
+
+
+
+45. The length of the public ministry of Jesus was one of the earliest
+questions which arose in the study of the four gospels. In the second and
+third centuries it was not uncommon to find the answer in the passage from
+Isaiah (lxi. 1, 2), which Jesus declared was fulfilled in himself. "The
+acceptable year of the Lord" was taken to indicate that the ministry
+covered little more than a year. The fact that the first three gospels
+mention but one Passover (that at the end), and but one journey to
+Jerusalem, seems at first to be favorable to this conclusion, and to make
+peculiarly significant the care taken by Luke to give the exact date for
+the opening of Jesus' ministry (iii. 1, 2). In fact, the second century
+Gnostics, relying apparently on Luke, assigned both the ministry and death
+of Jesus to the fifteenth year of Tiberius Caesar,--an interpretation which
+may have given rise to the widely spread, early tradition, found, for
+example, in Tertullian (Ante-nicene Fathers, in. 160), which placed the
+death of Jesus in A.D. 29, during the consulship of L. Rubellius Geminus
+and C. Fufius Geminus.
+
+46. The theory that the ministry of Jesus extended over but little more
+than one year is beset, however, by difficulties that seem insuperable.
+The first is presented by the three Passovers distinctly mentioned in the
+Gospel of John (ii. 13; vi. 4; xii. 1). The last of these is plainly
+identical with the one named in the other gospels. The second gives the
+time of year for the feeding of the five thousand, and agrees with the
+mention of "the green grass" in the account of Mark and Matthew (Mark vi.
+39; Matt. xiv. 19). John's first Passover falls in a section which demands
+a place before Mark i. 14 (compare John iii. 24). Hence it must be shown
+that this first Passover is chronologically out of order in the Gospel of
+John, or the one year ministry advocated by the second century Gnostics,
+by Clement of Alexandria, by Origen, and of late years by Keim and others,
+is seen to be impossible. The fact that at this Passover Jesus cleansed
+the temple, and that the other gospels assign such a cleansing to the
+close of the ministry, suggests the possibility that John has set it at
+the opening of his narrative for reasons connected with his argument. This
+interpretation falls, however, before the perfect simplicity of structure
+of John's narrative. The transitions from incident to incident in this
+gospel are those of simple succession, and indicate, on the writer's part,
+no suspicion that he was contradicting notions concerning the ministry of
+Jesus familiar to his contemporaries. Whatever the conclusion reached
+concerning the authorship of the gospel, the fact that it gained currency
+very early as apostolic would seem to prove that its conception of the
+length of Jesus' ministry was not opposed to the recognized apostolic
+testimony. It is safe to conclude, therefore, that time must be allowed in
+Jesus' ministry for at least three Passover seasons.
+
+47. With this conclusion most modern discussions of the question rest, and
+it is possible that it may finally win common consent. The order of
+Mark's narrative, however, challenges it. This gospel records near the
+beginning (ii. 23) a controversy with the Pharisees occasioned by the fact
+that Jesus' disciples plucked and ate the ripening grain as they passed on
+a Sabbath day through the fields. As Mark places much later (vi. 30-34)
+the feeding of the five thousand, which occurred at a Passover, that is
+the beginning of the harvest (Lev. xxiii. 5-11), his order suggests the
+necessity of including two harvest seasons in the ministry in Galilee, and
+consequently four Passovers in the public life of Jesus. Two
+considerations are urged against this conclusion. (1) Papias in his
+reference to the Gospel of Mark criticises the order of the gospel; (2)
+Mark ii. 1 to iii. 6 contains a group of five conflicts with the critics
+of Jesus, which represents a massing of opposition that seems unlikely at
+the outset of his Galilean work. The remark of Papias must remain obscure
+until his standard of comparison is known. Some suggest that he knew
+John's order and preferred it, others that he agreed with that adopted by
+Tatian in his Diatessaron. Mark is in accord with neither of these. No
+one, however, knows what order Papias preferred. The early conflict group
+does appear like a collection drawn from different parts of the ministry.
+Yet the nucleus of the group--the cure of the paralytic (ii. 1-12) and the
+call of Levi (ii. 13-17)--is clearly in its right place in Mark (see
+Holtzmann, Hand-commentar, I. 10). The question about fasting (ii. 18-22)
+may have been asked much later, and its present place may be due to
+association in tradition with the criticism of Jesus' fellowship with
+publicans (ii. 16). In like manner the cure of the withered hand (iii.
+1-6) may have become artificially grouped with the incident of the
+cornfields. It is possible, also, that both Sabbath controversies owe
+their early place in the gospel to traditional association with the early
+conflicts (ii. 1-17). If so, the plucking of the grain actually occurred
+some weeks after the feeding of the five thousand, and probably after the
+controversy about tradition (vii. 1-23), with which, according to Mark,
+Jesus' activity in Galilee practically closed. It is not clear, however,
+what principle of association drew forward to the early group the Sabbath
+conflict, and left in its place the controversy about tradition. It is
+thus possible that the incident of the cornfields belongs also to the
+early nucleus of the group; and in this case the longer ministry,
+including four Passovers, must be accepted. The decision of the question
+is not of vital importance, but it affects the determination of the
+sequence of events in Jesus' life. Whatever the explanation of the remark
+of Papias, the more the gospels are studied the more does Mark's order of
+events commend itself in general as representing the probable fact. Many
+students have inferred the three year ministry from the Gospel of John
+alone, identifying the unnamed feast in John v. 1 with a Passover. But
+John's allusion to that feast is so indefinite that the length of Jesus'
+ministry must be determined quite independently of it.
+
+48. So long a ministry as three years presents some difficulties, for all
+that is told us in the four gospels would cover but a small fraction of
+this time. John's statement (xx. 30) that he omitted many things from
+Jesus' life in making his book is evidently true of all the evangelists,
+and long gaps, such as are evident in the fourth gospel, must be assumed
+in the other three. Recalling the character of the gospels as pictures of
+Jesus rather than narratives of his life, we may easily acknowledge the
+incompleteness of our record of the three years of ministry, and wonder
+the more at the vividness of impression produced with such economy of
+material. This meagreness of material is not decisive for the shorter
+rather than the longer ministry, for it is evident that to effect such a
+change in conviction and feeling as Jesus wrought in the minds of the
+ardent Galileans who were his disciples, required time. Three years are
+better suited to effect this change than two.
+
+49. Closely related to the question of the length of Jesus' ministry is
+another: Can definite dates be given for the chief events in his life? For
+the year of the opening of his public activity the gospels furnish two
+independent testimonies: the remark of the Jews on the occasion of Jesus'
+first visit to Jerusalem, "Forty and six years was this temple in
+building" (John ii. 20), and Luke's careful dating of the appearance of
+John the Baptist, "in the fifteenth year of Tiberius Caesar" (iii. 1, 2).
+John ii. 20 leads to the conclusion that the first Passover fell in the
+spring of A.D. 26 or 27, since we learn from Josephus (Ant. xv. 11. 1)
+that Herod began to rebuild the temple in the eighteenth year of his
+reign, which closed in the spring of B.C. 19. Luke iii. 1 gives a date
+contradictory to the one just found, if the fifteenth year of Tiberius is
+to be counted from the death of his predecessor, for Augustus died August
+19, A.D. 14. Reckoned from this time the opening of John's work falls in
+the year A.D. 28, and the first Passover of Jesus' ministry could not be
+earlier than the spring of 29. This is at least two years later than is
+indicated by the statement in John. The remark in John is, however, so
+incidental and so lacking in significance for his argument that its
+definiteness can be explained only as due to a clear historic
+reminiscence; but it does not follow that Luke has erred in the date given
+by him. Although Augustus did not die until A.D. 14, there is evidence
+that Tiberius was associated with him in authority over the army and the
+provinces not later than January, A.D. 12. One who lived and wrote in the
+reign of Titus may possibly have applied to the reign of Tiberius a mode
+of reckoning customary in the case of Titus, as Professor Ramsay has shown
+(Was Christ born at Bethlehem, 202). If this is the fact, Luke reckoned
+from the co-regency of Tiberius; hence the fifteenth year would be A.D. 25
+or 26, according as the co-regency began before or after the first of
+January, A.D. 12. This would place the first Passover of Jesus' ministry
+in the spring of 26 or 27, in agreement with the hint found in John.
+
+50. If the public ministry of Jesus began with the spring of 26 or 27, the
+close of three years of activity would, come at the Passover of 29 or 30.
+The former of these dates agrees with the early Christian tradition
+already mentioned. But before accepting that traditional date another
+matter must be considered. Jesus was crucified on the Friday at the
+opening of the feast of the Passover. Whether it was the day of the
+sacrifice of the Passover (14 Nisan) or the day following (15 Nisan), is
+not essential for the present question. As the Jewish month began with the
+first appearance of the new moon, it is evident that, in the year of
+Jesus' death, the month of Nisan must have begun on a day that would make
+the 14th or the 15th fall on Friday. Now it can be shown that in the year
+30 the 14th of Nisan was Thursday (April 6) or Friday (April 7), for at
+best only approximate certainty is attainable. The tradition which assigns
+the passion to 29, generally names March 25 as the day of the month. This
+date is impossible, because it does not coincide with the full moon of
+that month. The choice of March 25 by a late tradition may be explained by
+the fact that it was commonly regarded as the date of the spring equinox,
+the turning of the year towards its renewing. Mr. Turner has shown
+(HastBD. I. 415) that another date found in an early document cannot be so
+explained. Epiphanius was familiar with copies of the Acts of Pilate,
+which gave March 18 as the date of the crucifixion; and it is remarkable
+that this date coincides with the full moon, and also falls on Friday.
+Such a combination gives unusual weight to the tradition, particularly as
+there is no ready way to account for its rise, as in the case of March 25.
+From this supplementary tradition the year 29 gains in probability as the
+year of the passion. Without attempting to arrive at a final
+conclusion,--a task which must be left for chronological specialists,--it
+is safe to assume that Jesus died at the Passover of A.D. 29 or 30.
+
+51. Concluding that Jesus' active ministry fell within the years A.D. 26
+to 30, is it possible to determine the date of his birth? Four hints are
+furnished by the gospels: he was born before the death of Herod (Matt. ii.
+1; Luke i. 5); he was about thirty years of age at his baptism (Luke iii.
+23); he was born during a census conducted in Judea in accordance with
+the decree of Augustus at a time when Quirinius was in authority in Syria
+(Luke ii. 1, 2); after his birth wise men from the East were led to visit
+him by observing "his star" (Matt. ii. 1, 2). From these facts it follows
+that the birth of Jesus cannot be placed later than B.C. 4, since Herod
+died about the first of April in that year (Jos. Ant. xvii. 6. 4; 8. 1,
+4). The awkwardness of having to find a date _Before Christ_ for the birth
+of Jesus is due to the miscalculation of the monk, Dionysius the Little,
+who in the sixth century introduced our modern reckoning from "the year of
+our Lord."
+
+52. But is it impossible to determine the time of Jesus' birth more
+exactly? Luke (ii. 1, 2) offers what seems to be more definite
+information, but his reference to the decree of Augustus and the enrolment
+under Quirinius are among the most seriously challenged statements in the
+gospels. It has been said (1) that history knows of no edict of Augustus
+ordering a general enrolment of "the world;" (2) that a Roman census could
+not have been taken in Palestine before the death of Herod; (3) that if
+such an enrolment had been taken it would have been unnecessary for Joseph
+and Mary to journey from Nazareth to Bethlehem; (4) that the census taken
+when Quirinius was governor of Syria is definitely assigned by Josephus to
+the year after the deposition of Archelaus, A.D. 6 (Ant. xviii. 1. 1; see
+also Acts v. 37); (5) that if Luke's reference to this census as the
+"first" be appealed to, it must be replied that Quirinius was not governor
+of Syria at any time during the lifetime of Herod. This array of
+difficulties is impressive, and has persuaded many conservative students
+to concede that in his reference to the census Luke has fallen into error.
+Some recent discoveries in Egypt, however, have furnished new information
+concerning the imperial administration of that province. Inferring that a
+policy adopted in Egypt may have prevailed also in Syria, Professor Ramsay
+has recently put forth a strong argument for Luke's accuracy in respect of
+this census (Was Christ born at Bethlehem, 95-248). That argument may be
+condensed as follows: We have evidence of a system of Roman enrolments in
+Egypt taken every fourteen years, and already traced back to the time of
+Augustus, the earliest document so far recovered belonging, apparently, to
+the census of A.D. 20. It is at least possible that this system of
+Egyptian enrolments may have been part of an imperial policy, of which all
+other trace is lost excepting the statement of Luke. It is significant
+that the date of the census referred to by Josephus (A.D. 6) fits exactly
+the fourteen-year cycle which obtained in Egypt. If the census of A.D. 6
+was preceded by an earlier one its date would be B.C. 8; that is, it would
+be actually taken in B.C. 7, in order to secure the full acts for B.C. 8.
+
+53. The statement of Tertullian (Against Marcion, iv. 19) that a census
+had been taken in Judea under Augustus by Sentius Saturninus, who was
+governor of Syria about 9 to 7 B.C., certainly comes from some source
+independent of the gospels, and tends to confirm Luke's account of a
+census before the death of Herod. That a Roman census might have been
+taken in Palestine during Herod's life is seen from the fact that in A.D.
+36 Vitellius, the governor of Syria, had to send Roman forces into
+Cilicia Trachaea to assist Archelaus, the king of that country, to quell a
+revolt caused by native resistance to a census taken after the Roman
+fashion (Tacitus, Ann. vi. 41). Herod would almost certainly resent as a
+mark of subjection the order to enrol his people; and the fact that he was
+in disfavor with Augustus during the governorship of Saturninus (Josephus,
+Ant. xvi. 9. 1-3), suggests to Professor Ramsay that he may have sought to
+avoid obedience to the imperial will in the matter of the census. If after
+some delay Herod was forced to obey, the enrolment may have been taken in
+the year 7-6. Since it is probable that the Romans would allow Herod to
+give the census as distinctly Jewish a character as possible, it is easy
+to credit the order that all Jews should be registered, so far as
+possible, in their ancestral homes. Hence the journey of Joseph to
+Bethlehem; and if Mary wished to have her child also registered as from
+David's line, her removal with Joseph to Bethlehem is explained. Such a
+delay in the taking of the census would have postponed it until after the
+recall of Saturninus. The statement of Tertullian may therefore indicate
+simply that he knew that a census was taken in Syria by Saturninus.
+
+54. The successor of Saturninus was Varus, who held the governorship until
+after the death of Herod. How then does Luke refer to the enrolment as
+taken when Quirinius was in authority? It has for a long time been known
+that this man was in Syria before he was there as legate of the emperor in
+A.D. 6. There seems to be evidence that Quirinius was in the East about
+the year B.C. 6, putting down a rebellion on the borders of Cilicia, a
+district joined with Syria into one province under the early empire.
+Varus was at this time governor, but Quirinius might easily have been
+looked upon as representing for the time the power of the Roman arms. If
+Herod was forced to yield to the imperial wish by the presence in Syria of
+this renowned captain, the statement of Luke is confirmed, and the census
+at which Jesus was born was taken, according to a Jewish fashion, during
+the life of Herod, but under compulsion of Rome exacted by Quirinius,
+while he was in command of the Roman forces in the province of
+Syria-Cilicia. This gives as a probable date for the birth of Jesus B.C.
+6, which accords well with the hints previously considered, inasmuch as it
+is earlier than the death of Herod, and, if born in B.C. 6, Jesus would
+have been thirty-two at his baptism in A.D. 26.
+
+55. The account given in Matthew of "the star" which drew the wise men to
+Judea gives no sure help in determining the date of the birth of Jesus,
+but it is at least suggestive that in the spring and autumn of B.C. 7
+there occurred a remarkable conjunction of the planets Jupiter and Saturn.
+This was first noticed by Kepler in consequence of a similar conjunction
+observed by him in A.D. 1603. Men much influenced by astrology must have
+been impressed by such a celestial phenomenon, but that it furnishes an
+explanation of the star of the wise men is not clear. If it does, it
+confirms the date otherwise probable for the nativity, that is, not far
+from B.C. 6.
+
+56. Can we go further and determine the time of year or the month and day
+of the nativity? It should be borne in mind that our Christmas festival
+was not observed earlier than the fourth century, and that the evidence
+is well-nigh conclusive that December 25th was finally selected for the
+Nativity in order to hallow a much earlier and widely spread pagan
+festival coincident with the winter solstice. If anything exists to
+suggest the time of year it is Luke's mention of "shepherds in the field
+keeping watch by night over their flock" (ii. 8). This seems to indicate
+that it must have been the summer season. In winter the flocks would be
+folded, not pastured, by night.
+
+57. It therefore seems probable that Jesus was born in the summer of B.C.
+6; that he was baptized in A.D. 26; that the first Passover of his
+ministry was in the spring of 26 or 27; and that he was crucified in the
+spring of 29 or 30.
+
+
+
+
+V
+
+The Early Years of Jesus
+
+Matt. i. 1 to ii. 23; Luke i. 5 to ii. 52; iii. 23-38
+
+
+
+58. It is surprising that within a century of the life of the apostles,
+Christian imagination could have so completely mistaken the real greatness
+of Jesus as to let its thirst for wonder fill his early years with scenes
+in which his conduct is as unlovely as it is shocking. That he who in
+manhood was "holy, harmless, undefiled, separate from sinners" (Heb. vii.
+26), could in youth, in a fit of ill-temper, strike a companion with death
+and then meet remonstrance by cursing his accusers with blindness (Gospel
+of Thomas, 4, 5); that he could mock his teachers and spitefully resent
+their control (Pseudo-Matthew, 30, 31); that it could be thought worthy of
+him to exhibit his superiority to common human conditions by carrying
+water in his mantle when his pitcher had been broken (same, 33), or by
+making clay birds in play on the Sabbath and causing them to fly when he
+was rebuked for naughtiness (same, 27);--these and many like legends
+exhibit incredible blindness to the real glory of the Lord. Yet such
+things abound in the early attempts of the pious imagination to write the
+story of the youth of Jesus, and the account of the nativity and its
+antecedents fares as ill, being pitifully trivial where it is not
+revolting.
+
+59. How completely foreign all this is to the apostolic thought and
+feeling is clear when we notice that excepting the first two chapters of
+Matthew and Luke the New Testament tells us nothing whatever of the years
+which preceded John the Baptist's ministry in the wilderness. The gospels
+are books of testimony to what men had seen and heard (John i. 14); and
+the epistles are practical interpretations of the same in its bearing on
+religious life and hope. The apostles found no difficulty in recognizing
+the divinity and sinlessness of their Lord without inquiring how he came
+into the world or how he spent his early years; it was what he showed
+himself to be, not how he came to be, that formed their conception of him.
+Yet the early chapters of Matthew and Luke should not be classed with the
+later legends. Notwithstanding the attempts of Keim to associate the
+narratives of the infancy in the canonical and apocryphal gospels, a great
+gulf separates them: on the one side there is a reverent and beautiful
+reserve, on the other indelicate, unlovely, and trivial audacity.
+
+60. The gospel narratives have, however, perplexities of their own, for
+the two accounts agree only in the main features,--the miraculous birth in
+Bethlehem in the days of Herod, Mary being the mother and Joseph the
+foster-father, and Nazareth the subsequent residence. In further details
+they are quite different, and at first sight seem contradictory. Moreover,
+while Matthew sheds a halo of glory over the birth of Jesus, Luke draws a
+picture of humble circumstances and obscurity. These differences, taken
+with the silence of the rest of the New Testament concerning a miraculous
+birth, constitute a real difficulty. To many it seems strange that the
+disciples and the brethren of Jesus did not refer to these things if they
+knew them to be true. But it must not be overlooked that any familiar
+reference to the circumstances of the birth of Jesus which are narrated in
+the gospels would have invited from the Jews simply a challenge of the
+honor of his home. Moreover, as the knowledge of these wonders did not
+keep Mary from misunderstanding her son (Luke ii. 19, 51; compare Mark in.
+21, 31-35), the publication of them could hardly have helped greatly the
+belief of others. The fact that Mary was so perplexed by the course of
+Jesus in his ministry makes it probable that even until quite late in her
+life she "kept these things and pondered them in her heart."
+
+61. No parts of the New Testament are challenged so widely and so
+confidently as these narratives of the infancy. But if they are not to be
+credited with essential truth it is necessary to show what ideas cherished
+in the apostolic church could have led to their invention. That John and
+Paul maintain the divinity of their Lord, yet give no hint that this
+involved a miraculous birth, shows that these stories are no necessary
+outgrowth of that doctrine. The early Christians whether Jewish or Gentile
+would not naturally choose to give pictorial form to their belief in their
+Lord's divinity by the story of an incarnation. The heathen myths
+concerning sons of the gods were in all their associations revolting to
+Christian feeling, and, while the Jewish mind was ready to see divine
+influence at work in the birth of great men in Israel (as Isaac, and
+Samson, and Samuel), the whole tendency of later Judaism was hostile to
+any such idea as actual incarnation. Some would explain the story of the
+miraculous birth as a conclusion drawn by the Christian consciousness
+from the doctrine of the sinlessness of Jesus. Yet neither Paul nor John,
+who are both clear concerning the doctrine, give any idea that a
+miraculous birth was essential for a sinless being. Some appeal to the
+eagerness of the early Christians to exalt the virginity of Mary, This is
+certainly the animus of many apocryphal legends. But the feeling is as
+foreign to Jewish sentiment and New Testament teaching as it is
+contradictory to the evidence in the gospels that Mary had other children
+born after Jesus.
+
+62. Moreover, the songs of Mary (Luke i. 46-55) and Zachariah (Luke i.
+68--79) bear in themselves the evidence of origin before the doctrine of
+the cross had transformed the Christian idea of the Messiah. That
+transformed idea abounds in the Epistles and the Acts, and it is difficult
+to conceive how these songs (if they were later inventions) could have
+been left free of any trace of specifically Christian ideas. A Jewish
+Christian would almost certainly have made them more Christian than they
+are; a Gentile Christian could not have made them so strongly and
+naturally Jewish as they are; while a non-Christian Jew would never have
+invented them. Taken with the evidence in Ignatius (Ad Eph. xviii., xix.)
+of the very early currency of the belief in a miraculous birth, they
+confirm the impression that it is easier to accept the evidence offered
+for the miracle than to account for the origin of the stories as legends.
+The idea of a miraculous birth is very foreign to modern thought; it
+becomes credible only as the transcendent nature of Jesus is recognized on
+other grounds. It may not be said that the incarnation required a
+miraculous conception, yet it may be acknowledged that a miraculous
+conception is a most suitable method for a divine incarnation.
+
+63. These gospel stories are chiefly significant for us in that they show
+that he in whom his disciples came to recognize a divine nature began his
+earthly life in the utter helplessness and dependence of infancy, and grew
+through boyhood and youth to manhood with such naturalness that his
+neighbors, dull concerning the things of the spirit, could not credit his
+exalted claims. He is shown as one in all points like unto his brethren
+(Heb. ii. 17). Two statements in Luke (ii. 40, 52) describe the growth of
+the divine child as simply as that of his forerunner (Luke i. 80), or that
+of the prophet of old (I. Sam. ii. 26). The clear impression of these
+statements is that Jesus had a normal growth from infancy to manhood,
+while the whole course of the later life as set before us in the gospels
+confirms the scripture doctrine that his normal growth was free from sin
+(Heb. iv. 15).
+
+64. The knowledge of the probable conditions of his childhood is as
+satisfying as the apocryphal stories are revolting. The lofty Jewish
+conception of home and its relations is worthy of Jesus. The circumstances
+of the home in Nazareth were humble (Matt. xiii. 55; Luke ii. 24; compare
+Lev. xii. 8). Probably the house was not unlike those seen to-day, of but
+one room, or at most two or three,--the tools of trade mingling with the
+meagre furnishings for home-life. We should not think it a home of penury;
+doubtless the circumstances of Joseph were like those of his neighbors. In
+one respect this home was rich. The wife and mother had an exalted place
+in the Jewish life, notwithstanding the trivial opinions of some
+supercilious rabbis; and what the gospel tells of the chivalry of Joseph
+renders it certain that love reigned in his home, making it fit for the
+growth of the holy child.
+
+65. Religion held sway in all the phases of Jewish life. With some it was
+a religion of ceremony,--of prayers and fastings, tithes and boastful
+alms, fringes and phylacteries. But Joseph and Mary belonged to the
+simpler folk, who, while they reverenced the scribes as teachers, knew not
+enough of their subtlety to have substituted barren rites for sincere love
+for the God of their fathers and childlike trust in his mercy. Jesus knew
+not only home life at its fairest, but religion at its best. A father's
+most sacred duty was the teaching of his child in the religion of his
+people (Deut. vi. 4-9), and then, as ever since, the son learned at his
+mother's side to know and love her God, to pray to him, and to know the
+scriptures. No story more thrilling and full of interest, no prospect more
+rich and full of glowing hope, could be found to satisfy the child's
+spirit of wonder than the story of Israel's past and God's promises for
+the future. Religious culture was not confined to the home, however. The
+temple at Jerusalem was the ideal centre of religious life for this
+Nazareth household (Luke ii. 41) as for all the people, yet practically
+worship and instruction were cultivated chiefly by the synagogue (Luke iv.
+16); there God was present in his Holy Word. Week after week the boy Jesus
+heard the scripture in its original Hebrew form, followed by translation
+into Aramaic, and received instruction from it for daily conduct. The
+synagogue probably influenced the boy's intellectual life even more
+directly. In the time of Jesus schools had been established in all the
+important towns, and were apparently under the control of the synagogue.
+To such a school he may have been sent from about six years of age to be
+taught the scriptures (compare II. Tim. iii. 15), together with the
+reading (Luke iv. 16-19), and perhaps the writing, of the Hebrew language.
+Of his school experience we know nothing beyond the fact that he grew in
+"wisdom and in stature and in favor with God and man" (Luke ii. 52),--a
+sufficient contradiction of the repulsive legends of the apocryphal
+gospels.
+
+66. The physical growth incident to Jesus' development from boyhood to
+manhood is a familiar thought. The intellectual unfolding which belongs to
+this development is readily recognized. Not so commonly acknowledged, but
+none the less clearly essential to the gospel picture, is the gradual
+unfolding of the child's moral life under circumstances and stimulus
+similar to those with which other children meet (Heb. iv. 15). The man
+Jesus was known as the carpenter (Matt. xiii. 55). The learning of such a
+trade would contribute much to the boy's mastery of his own powers. Far
+more discipline would come from his fellowship with brothers and sisters
+who did not understand his ways nor appreciate the deepest realities of
+his life. Without robbing boyhood days of their naturalness and reality,
+we may be sure that long before Jesus knew how and why he differed from
+his fellows he felt more or less clearly that they were not like him. The
+resulting sense of isolation was a school for self-mastery, lest isolation
+foster any such pride or unloveliness as that with which later legend
+dared to stain the picture of the Lord's youth. Four brothers of Jesus
+are named by Mark (vi. 3),--James, and Joses, and Judas, and Simon,--the
+gospel adds also that he had sisters living at a later time in Nazareth.
+They were all subject with him to the same home influences, and apparently
+were not unresponsive to them. The similarity of thought and feeling
+between the sermon on the mount and the Epistle of James is not readily
+explained by the influence of master over disciple, since the days of
+James's discipleship began after the resurrection of Jesus. In any case
+there is no reason to think that the companions of Jesus' home were
+uncommonly irritating or in any way irreligious, only Jesus was not
+altogether like them (John vii. 5), and the fact of difference was a moral
+discipline, which among other things led to that moral growth by which
+innocence passed into positive goodness. If the home was such a school of
+discipline, its neighbors, less earnest and less favored with spiritual
+training, furnished more abundant occasion for self-mastery and growth.
+The very fact that in his later years Jesus was no desert preacher, like
+John, but social, and socially sought for, indicates that he did not win
+his manhood's perfection in solitude, but in fellowship with common life
+and in victory over the trials and temptations incident to it (Heb. ii.
+17, 18).
+
+67. Yet he must have been familiar with the life which is in secret (Matt.
+vi. 1-18). He who in his later years was a man of much prayer, who began
+(Luke iii. 21) and closed (Luke xxiii. 46) his public life with prayer, as
+a boy was certainly familiar not only with the prayers of home and
+synagogue, but also with quiet, personal resort to the presence of God. It
+would be unjust to think of any abnormal religious precocity. Jesus was
+the best example the world has seen of perfect spiritual health, but we
+must believe that he came early to know God and to live much with him.
+
+68. It is instructive in connection with this inwardness of Jesus' life to
+recall the rich familiarity with the whole world of nature which appears
+in his parables and other teachings. The prospect which met his eye if he
+sought escape from the distractions of home and village life, has been
+described by Renan: "The view from the town is limited; but if we ascend a
+little to the plateau swept by a perpetual breeze, which stands above the
+highest houses, the landscape is magnificent. On the west stretch the fine
+outlines of Carmel, terminating in an abrupt spur which seems to run down
+sheer to the sea. Next, one sees the double summit which towers above
+Megiddo; the mountains of the country of Shechem, with their holy places
+of the patriarchal period; the hills of Gilboa, the small picturesque
+group to which is attached the graceful or terrible recollections of
+Shunem and of Endor; and Tabor, with its beautiful rounded form, which
+antiquity compared to a bosom. Through a gap between the mountains of
+Shunem and Tabor are visible the valley of the Jordan and the high plains
+of Perea, which form a continuous line from the eastern side. On the
+north, the mountains of Safed, stretching towards the sea, conceal St.
+Jean d'Acre, but leave the Gulf of Khaifa in sight. Such was the horizon,
+of Jesus. This enchanted circle, cradle of the kingdom of God, was for
+years his world. Indeed, during his whole life he went but little beyond
+the familiar bounds of his childhood. For yonder, northwards, one can
+almost see, on the flank of Hermon, Caesarea-Philippi, his farthest point
+of advance into the Gentile world; and to the south the less smiling
+aspect of these Samaritan hills foreshadows the dreariness of Judea
+beyond, parched as by a burning wind of desolation and death." In the
+midst of such scenes we are to understand that, with the physical growth,
+and opening of mind, and moral discipline which filled the early years of
+Jesus, there came also the gradual spiritual unfolding in which the boy
+rose step by step to the fuller knowledge of God and himself.
+
+69. That unfolding is pictured in an early stage in the story given us
+from the youth of Jesus. It was customary for a Jewish boy not long after
+passing his twelfth year to come under full adult obligation to the law.
+The visit to Jerusalem was probably in preparation for such assumption of
+obligation by Jesus. All his earlier training had filled his mind with the
+sacredness of the Holy City and the glory of the temple. It is easy to
+feel with what joy he would first look upon Zion from the shoulder of the
+Mount of Olives, as he came over it on his journey from Galilee; to
+conceive how the temple and the ritual would fill him with awe in his
+readiness not to criticise, but to idealize everything he saw, and to
+think only of the significance given by it all to the scripture; to
+imagine how eagerly he would talk in the temple court with the learned men
+of his people about the law and the promises with which in home and school
+his youth had been made familiar. Nor is it difficult to appreciate his
+surprise, when Joseph and Mary, only after long searching for him, at last
+found him in the temple, for he felt that it was the most natural place
+in which he could be found. In his wondering question to Mary, "Did not
+you know that I must be in my Father's house?" (Luke ii. 49), there is a
+premonition of his later consciousness of peculiarly intimate relation to
+God. The question was, however, a sincere inquiry. It was no precocious
+rebuke of Mary's anxiety. The knowledge of himself as Son of God was only
+dawning within him, and was not yet full and clear. This is shown by his
+immediate obedience and his subjection to his parents in Nazareth through
+many years. It is safe, in the interpretation of the acts and words of
+Jesus, to banish utterly as inconceivable anything that savors of the
+theatrical. We must believe that he was always true to himself, and that
+the subjection which he rendered to Joseph and Mary sprang from a real
+sense of childhood's dependence, and was not a show of obedience for any
+edifying end however high.
+
+70. That question "Did not you know?" is the only hint we possess of
+Jesus' inner life before John's call to repentance rang through the land.
+Meanwhile the carpenter's son became himself the carpenter. Joseph seems
+to have died before the opening of Jesus' ministry. For Jesus as the
+eldest son, this death made those years far other than a time of spiritual
+retreat; responsibility for the home and the pressing duties of trade must
+have filled most of the hours of his days. This is a welcome thought to
+our healthiest sentiment, and true also to the earliest Christian feeling
+(Heb. iv. 15). John the Baptist had his training in the wilderness, but
+Jesus came from familiar intercourse with men, was welcomed in their
+homes (John ii. 2), knew their life in its homely ongoing, and was the
+friend of all sorts and conditions of men. After that visit to Jerusalem,
+a few more years may have been spent in school, for, whether from school
+instruction, or synagogue preaching, or simple daily experience, the young
+man came to know the traditions of the elders and also to know that
+observance of them is a mockery of the righteousness which God requires.
+Yet he seems to have felt so fully in harmony with God as to be conscious
+of nothing new in the fresh and vital conceptions of righteousness which
+he found in the law and prophets. We may be certain that much of his
+thought was given to Israel's hope of redemption, and that with the
+prophets of old and the singer much nearer his own day (Ps. of Sol. xvii.
+23), he longed that God, according to his promise, would raise up unto his
+people, their King, the Son of David.
+
+71. He must also have read often from that other book open before him as
+he walked upon the hills of Nazareth. The beauty of the grass and of the
+lilies was surely not a new discovery to him after he began to preach the
+coming kingdom, nor is it likely that he waited until after his baptism to
+form his habit of spending the night in prayer upon the mountain. We may
+be equally sure that he did not first learn to love men and women and long
+for their good after he received the call, "Thou art my beloved son" (Mark
+i. 11). He who in later life read hearts clearly (John ii. 25) doubtless
+gained that skill, as well as the knowledge of human sin and need, early
+in his intercourse with his friends and neighbors in Nazareth; while a
+clear conviction that God's kingdom consists in his sovereignty over
+loyal hearts must have filled much of his thought about the promised good
+which God would bring to Israel in due time. Thus we may think that in
+quietness and homely industry, in secret life with God and open love for
+men, in study of history and prophecy, in longing for the actual sway of
+God in human life, Jesus lived his life, did his work, and grew in "wisdom
+and in stature and in favor with God and man" (Luke ii. 52).
+
+
+
+
+VI
+
+John The Baptist
+
+Matt. iii. 1-17; iv. 12; xiv. 1-12; Mark i. 1-14; vi. 14-29; Luke i. 5-25,
+57-80; iii. 1-22; ix. 7-9; John i. 19-37; iii. 22-30.
+
+
+
+72. The first reappearance of Jesus in the gospel story, after the temple
+scene in his twelfth year, is on the banks of the Jordan seeking baptism
+from the new prophet. One of the silent evidences of the greatness of
+Jesus is the fact that so great a character as John the Baptist stands in
+our thought simply as accessory to his life. For that the prophet of the
+wilderness was great has been the opinion of all who have been willing to
+seek him in his retirement. One reason for the common neglect of John is
+doubtless the meagreness of information about him. But though details are
+few, the picture of him is drawn in clearest lines: a rugged son of the
+wilderness scorning the gentler things of life, threatening his people
+with coming wrath and calling to repentance while yet there was time; a
+preacher of practical righteousness heeded by publicans and harlots but
+scorned by the elders of his people; a bold and fearless spirit, yet
+subdued in the presence of another who did not strive, nor cry, nor cause
+his voice to be heard in the streets. When the people thought to find in
+John the promised Messiah, with unparalleled self-effacement he pointed
+them to his rival and rejoiced in that rival's growing success. Side by
+side they worked for a time; then the picture fails, but for a hint of a
+royal audience, with a fearless rebuke of royal disgrace and sin; a prison
+life, with its pathetic shaking of confidence in the early certainties; a
+long and forced inaction, and the question put by a wavering faith, with
+its patient and affectionate reply; then a lewd orgy, a king's oath, a
+girl's demands, a martyr's release, the disciples' lamentation and their
+report to that other who, though seeming a rival, was known to appreciate
+best the greatness of this prophet. Such is the picture in the gospels.
+
+73. John, unlike his greater successor, has a highly appreciative notice
+from Josephus: "Now some of the Jews thought that the destruction of
+Herod's army came from God, and that very justly, as a punishment for what
+he did against John, who was called the Baptist. For Herod had had him put
+to death though he was a good man, and commanded the Jews to exercise
+virtue, both as to justice towards one another, and piety towards God, and
+so to come to baptism; for baptism would be acceptable to God, if they
+made use of it not in order to expiate some sin, but for the purification
+of the body, provided that the soul was thoroughly purified beforehand by
+righteousness. Now, as many flocked to him, for they were greatly moved by
+hearing his words, Herod, fearing that the great influence, John had over
+the people might lead to some rebellion (for the people seemed likely to
+do anything he should advise), thought it far best, by putting him to
+death, to prevent any mischief he might cause, and not bring himself into
+difficulties by sparing a man who might make him repent of his leniency
+when it should be too late. Accordingly he was sent a prisoner, in
+consequence of Herod's suspicious temper, to Machaerus, the fortress
+before mentioned, and was there put to death. So the Jews had the opinion
+that the destruction of this army [by Aretas] was sent as a punishment
+upon Herod and was the mark of God's displeasure at him" (Ant. xviii. 5.
+2). This section is commonly accepted as trustworthy. Superficially
+different from the gospel record and assigning quite another cause for
+John's imprisonment and death, it correctly describes his character and
+his influence with the people, and leaves abundant room for a more
+intimately personal motive on the part of Antipas for the imprisonment of
+John. If the jealousy of Herodias was the actual reason for John's arrest,
+it is highly probable that another cause would be named to the world, and
+a likelier one than that given by Josephus could not be found.
+
+74. The first problem that offers itself in the study of this man is the
+man himself. Whence did he come? Everything about him is surprising. He
+appears as a dweller in the desert, an ascetic, holding aloof from common
+life and content with the scanty fare the wilderness could offer; yet he
+was keenly appreciative of his people's needs, and he knew their
+sins,--the particular ones that beset Pharisees, publicans, soldiers. If a
+recluse in habit, he was far from such in thought; he was therefore no
+seeker for his own soul's peace in his desert life. His dress was
+strikingly suggestive of the old prophet of judgment on national
+infidelity (I. Kings xvii. 1; II. Kings i, 8), the Elijah whom John would
+not claim to be. His message was commanding, with its double word "Repent"
+and "The kingdom is near." His idea of the kingdom was definite, though
+not at all developed; it signified to him God's dominion, inaugurated by a
+divine judgment which should mean good for the penitent and utter
+destruction for the ungodly; hence the prophet's call to repentance. His
+ministry was one of grace, but the time was drawing near when the Greater
+One would appear to complete by a swift judgment the work which his
+forerunner was beginning. That Greater One would hew down the fruitless
+tree, winnow the wheat from the chaff on the threshing floor, baptize the
+penitent with divine power, and the wicked with the fire of judgment,
+since his was to be a ministry of judgment, not of grace.
+
+75. Whence, then, came this strange prophet? Near the desert region where
+he spent his youth and where he first proclaimed his message of repentance
+and judgment was the chief settlement of that strange company of Jews
+known as Essenes. It has long been customary to think that during his
+early years John was associated with these fellow-dwellers in the desert,
+if he did not actually join the order. He certainly may have learned from
+them many things. Their sympathy with his ascetic life and with his
+thorough moral earnestness would make them attractive to him, but he was
+far too original a man to get from them more than some suggestions to be
+worked out in his own fashion. The simplicity of his teaching of
+repentance and the disregard of ceremonial in his preaching separate him
+from these monks. John may have known his desert companions, may have
+appreciated some things in their discipline, but he remained independent
+of their guidance.
+
+76. The leaders of religious life and thought in his day were
+unquestionably the Pharisees. The controlling idea with them, and
+consequently with the people, was the sanctity of God's law. They were
+conscious of the sinfulness of the people, and their demand for repentance
+was constant. It is a rabbinic commonplace that the delay of the Messiah's
+coming is due to lack of repentance in Israel. But near as this conception
+is to John's, we need but to recall his words to the Pharisees (Matt. iii.
+7) to realize how clearly he saw through the hollowness of their religious
+pretence. With the quibbles of the scribes concerning small and great
+commandments, Sabbaths and hand-washings, John shows no affinity. He may
+have learned some things from these "sitters in Moses' seat," but he was
+not of them.
+
+77. John's message announced the near approach of the kingdom of God. It
+is probable that many of those who sought his baptism were ardent
+nationalists,--eager to take a hand in realizing that consummation.
+Josephus indicates that it was Herod's fear lest John should lead these
+Zealots to revolt that furnished the ostensible cause of his death. But
+similar as were the interests of John and these nationalists, the distance
+between them was great. The prophet's replies to the publicans and to the
+soldiers, which contain not a word of rebuke for the hated callings (Luke
+iii. 13, 14), show how fundamentally he differed from the Zealots.
+
+78. But there was another branch of the Pharisees than that which quibbled
+over Sabbath laws, traditions, and tithes, or that which itched to grasp
+the sword; they were men who saw visions and dreamed dreams like those of
+Daniel and the Revelation, and in their visions saw God bringing
+deliverance to his people by swift and sudden judgment. There are some
+marked likenesses between this type of thought and that of John,--the
+impending judgment, the word of warning, the coming blessing, were all in
+John; but one need only compare John's words with such an apocalypse as
+the Assumption of Moses, probably written in Palestine during John's life
+in the desert, to discover that the two messages do not move in the same
+circle of thought at all; there is something practical, something severely
+heart-searching, something at home in every-day life, about John's
+announcement of the coming kingdom that is quite absent from the visions
+of his contemporaries. John had not, like some of these seers, a coddling
+sympathy for people steeped in sin. He traced their troubles to their own
+doors, and would not let ceremonies pass in place of "fruits meet for
+repentance." He came from the desert with rebuke and warning on his lips;
+with no word against the hated Romans, but many against hypocritical
+claimants to the privileges of Abraham; no apology for his message nor
+artificial device of dream or ancient name to secure a hearing, but the
+old-fashioned prophetic method of declaration of truth "whether men will
+hear or whether they will forbear." "All was sharp and cutting, imperious
+earnestness about final questions, unsparing overthrow of all fictitious
+shams in individual as in national life. There are no theories of the law,
+no new good works, no belief in the old, but simply and solely a prophetic
+clutch at men's consciences, a mighty accusation, a crushing summons to
+contrite repentance and speedy sanctification" (KeimJN. II. 228). We look
+in vain for a parallel in any of John's contemporaries, except in that one
+before whom he bowed, saying, "I have need to be baptized of thee."
+
+79. John had, however, predecessors whose work he revived. In Isaiah's
+words, "Wash you, make you clean" (Isa. i 16), one recognizes the type
+which reappeared in John. The great prophetic conception of the Day of the
+Lord--the day of wrath and salvation (Joel ii. 1-14)--is revived in John,
+free from all the fantastic accompaniments which his contemporaries loved.
+The invitations to repentance and new fidelity which abound in Isaiah,
+Ezekiel, Hosea, and Joel; the summons to simple righteousness, which rang
+from the lips of Micah (vi. 8), and of the great prophet of the exile
+(Isa. lviii.), these tell us where John went to school and how well he
+learned his lesson. It is hard for us to realize how great a novelty such
+simplicity was in John's day, or how much originality it required to
+attain to this discipleship of the prophets. From the time when the
+curtain rises on the later history of Israel in the days of the Maccabean
+struggle to the coming of that "voice crying in the wilderness," Israel
+had listened in vain for a prophet who could speak God's will with
+authority. The last thing that people expected when John came was such a
+simple message. He was not the creature of his time, but a revival of the
+older type; yet, as in the days of Elijah God had kept him seven thousand
+in Israel that had not bowed the knee to Baal, so, in the later time, not
+all were bereft of living faith. These devout souls furnished the soil
+which could produce a life like John's, gifted and chosen by God to
+restore and advance the older and more genuine religion.
+
+80. If John was thus a revival of the older prophetic order, a second
+question arises: Whence came his baptism, and what did it signify? The
+gospels describe it as a "baptism of repentance for the remission of sins"
+(Mark i. 4). John's declaration that his greater successor should baptize
+with the Holy Spirit and fire (Matt. iii. 11) shows that he viewed his
+baptism as a symbol, rather than as a means, of remission of sin. But it
+was more than a sign of repentance, it was a confession of loyalty to the
+kingdom which John's successor was to establish. It had thus a twofold
+significance: (_a_) confession of and turning from the old life of sin,
+and (_b_) consecration to the coming kingdom. Whence, then, came this
+ordinance? Not from the Essenes, for, unlike John's baptism, the bath
+required by these Jewish ascetics was an oft-repeated act. Further, John's
+rite had a far deeper religious significance than the Essene washings.
+These performed their ablutions to secure ritual cleanness as exemplary
+disciples of the Mosaic ideal. The searching of heart which preceded
+John's baptism, and the radical change of life it demanded, seem foreign
+to Essenism. The baptism of John, considered as a ceremony of consecration
+for the coming kingdom, was parallel rather to the initiatory oaths of the
+Essene brotherhood than to their ablutions. Their custom may have served
+to suggest to John a different application of the familiar sacred use of
+the bath; indeed John could hardly have been uninfluenced by the usage of
+his contemporaries; yet in this, as in his thought, he was not a product
+of their school.
+
+81. John's baptism was equally independent of the pharisaic influence. The
+scribes made much of "divers washings," but not with any such significance
+as would furnish to John his baptism of repentance and of radical change
+of life. That he was not following a pharisaic leading appears in the
+question put to him by the Pharisees, "Why, then, baptizest thou?" (John
+i. 25). They saw something unique in the ceremony as he conducted it.
+
+82. Many have held that he derived his baptism from the method of
+admitting proselytes into the Jewish fellowship. It is clear, at least,
+that the later ritual prescribed a ceremonial bath as well as circumcision
+and sacrifice for all who came into Judaism from the Gentiles, and it is
+difficult to conceive of a time when a ceremonial bath would not seem
+indispensable, since Jews regarded all Gentile life as defiling. While
+such an origin for John's baptism would give peculiar force to his rebuke
+of Jewish confidence in the merits of Abraham (Matt. iii. 9), it is more
+likely, as Keim has shown (JN. II. 243 and note), that in this as in his
+other thought John learned of his predecessors rather than his
+contemporaries. Before the giving of the older covenant from Sinai, it is
+said that Moses was required "to sanctify the people and bid them wash
+their garments" (Ex. xix. 10). John was proclaiming the establishment of a
+new covenant, as the prophets had promised. That the people should prepare
+for this by a similar bath of sanctification seems most natural. John
+appeared with a revival of the older and simpler religious ideas of
+Israel's past, deriving his rite as well as his thought from the springs
+of his people's religious life.
+
+83. This revival of the prophetic past had nothing scholastic or
+antiquarian about it. John was a disciple, not an imitator, of the great
+men of Israel; his message was not learned from Isaiah or any other,
+though he was educated by studying them. What he declared, he declared as
+truth immediately seen by his own soul, the essence of his power being a
+revival, not in letter but in spirit, of the old, direct cry, "Thus saith
+the Lord." Inasmuch as John's day was otherwise hopelessly in bondage to
+tradition and the study of the letter, by so much is his greatness
+enhanced in bringing again God's direct message to the human conscience.
+John's greatness was that of a pioneer. The Friend of publicans and
+sinners also spoke a simple speech to human hearts; he built on and
+advanced from the old prophets, but it was John who was appointed to
+prepare the people for the new life, "to make ready the way of the Lord"
+(Mark i. 3). The clearness of his perception of truth is not the least of
+his claims to greatness. His knowledge of the simplicity of God's
+requirements in contrast with the hopeless maze of pharisaic traditions,
+and his insight into the characters with whom he had to deal, whether the
+sinless Jesus or the hypocritical Pharisees, show a man marvellously
+gifted by God who made good use of his gift. This greatness appears in
+superlative degree in the self-effacement of him who possessed these
+powers. Greatness always knows itself more or less fully. It was not
+self-ignorance that led John to claim to be but a voice, nor was it mock
+humility. The confession of his unworthiness in comparison with the
+mightier one who should follow is unmistakably sincere, as is the
+completed joy of this friend of the bridegroom rejoicing greatly because
+of the bridegroom's voice, even when the bridegroom's presence meant the
+recedence of the friend into ever deepening obscurity (John iii. 30).
+
+84. But John had marked limitations. He knew well the righteousness of
+God; he knew, and, in effect, proclaimed God's readiness to forgive them
+that would turn from their wicked ways; he knew the simplicity as well as
+the exceeding breadth of the divine commandment; but beyond one flash of
+insight (John i. 29-36), which did not avail to remould his thought, he
+did not know the yearning love of God which seeks to save. It is not
+strange that he did not. Some of the prophets had more knowledge of it
+than he, his own favorite Isaiah knew more of it than he, but it was not
+the thought of John's day. The wonder is that the Baptist so far freed
+himself from current thought; yet he did not belong to the new order. He
+thundered as from Sinai. The simplest child that has learned from the
+heart its "Our Father" has reached a higher knowledge and entered a higher
+privilege (Matt. xi. 11). John's self-effacement, wonderful as it was,
+fell short of discipleship to his greater successor; in fact, at a much
+later time there was still a circle of disciples of the Baptist who kept
+themselves separate from the church (Acts xix. 1-7). He was doubtless too
+strenuous a man readily to become a follower. He could yield his place
+with unapproachable grace, but he remained the prophet of the wilderness
+still. He seemed to belong consciously to the old order, and, by the very
+circumstances ordained of God who sent him, he could not be of those who,
+sitting at Jesus' feet, learned to surrender to him their preconceptions
+and hopes, and in heart, if not in word, to say, "To whom shall we go,
+thou hast the words of eternal life?" (John vi. 68).
+
+
+
+
+VII
+
+The Messianic Call
+
+Matt. iii. 13 TO iv. 11; Mark i. 9-13; Luke iii. 21, 22; iv. 1-13; John i.
+30-34
+
+
+
+85. In the circle about John all classes of the people were represented:
+Pharisees and Sadducees, jealous of innovation and apprehensive of popular
+excitement; publicans and soldiers, interested in the new preacher or
+touched in conscience; outcasts who came in penitence, and devout souls in
+consecration. The wonder of the new message was carried throughout the
+land and brought great multitudes to the Jordan. Jesus in Nazareth heard
+it, and recognized in John a revival of the long-silent prophetic voice.
+The summons appealed to his loyalty to God's truth, and after the
+multitudes had been baptized (Luke iii. 21) he too sought the prophet of
+the wilderness.
+
+86. The connection which Luke mentions (i. 36) between the families of
+Jesus and John had not led to any intimacy between the two young men. John
+certainly did not know of his kinsman's mission (John i. 31), nor was his
+conception of the Messiah such that he would look for its fulfilment in
+one like Jesus (Matt. iii. 10-12). One thing, however, was clear as soon
+as they met,--John recognized in Jesus one holier than himself (Matt. iii.
+14). With a prophet's spiritual insight he read the character of Jesus
+at a glance, and although that character did not prove him to be the
+Messiah, it prepared John for the revelation which was soon to follow.
+
+87. The reply of Jesus to the unwillingness of John to give him baptism
+(Matt. iii. 15) was an expression of firm purpose to do God's will; the
+absence of any confession of sin is therefore all the more noticeable. In
+all generations the holiest men have been those most conscious of
+imperfection, and in John's message and baptism confession and repentance
+were primary demands; yet Jesus felt no need for repentance, and asked for
+baptism with no word of confession. But for the fact that the total
+impression of his life begat in his disciples the conviction that "he did
+no sin" (I. Pet. ii. 22; compare John viii. 46; II. Cor. v. 21), this
+silence of Jesus would offend the religious sense. Jesus, however, had no
+air of self-sufficiency, he came to make surrender and "to fulfil
+all-righteousness" (Matt. iii. 15). It was the positive aspect of John's
+baptism that drew him to the Jordan. John was preaching the coming of
+God's kingdom. The place held by the doctrine of that kingdom in the later
+teaching of Jesus makes it all but certain that his thought had been
+filled with it for many years. In his reading of the prophets Jesus
+undoubtedly emphasized the spiritual phases of their promises, but it is
+not likely that he had done much criticising of the ideas held by his
+contemporaries before he came to John. As already remarked he seems to
+have been quicker to discover his affinity with the older truth than to be
+conscious of the novelty of his own ways of apprehending it (Matt. v. 17).
+When, then, Jesus heard John's call for consecration to the approaching
+kingdom he recognized the voice of duty, and he sought the baptism that he
+might do all that he could to "make ready the way of the Lord."
+
+88. This act of consecration on Jesus' part was one of personal obedience.
+There were no crowds present (Luke iii. 21), and his thoughts were full of
+prayer. It was an experience which concerned his innermost life with God,
+and it called him to communion with heaven like that in which he sought
+for wisdom before choosing his apostles (Luke vi. 12), and for strength in
+view of his approaching death (Luke ix. 28, 29). His outward declaration
+of loyalty to the coming kingdom was thus not an act of righteousness "to
+be seen of men," but one of personal devotion to him who is and who sees
+in secret (Matt. vi. 1, 6). As the transfiguration followed the prayer on
+Hermon, so this initial consecration was answered from heaven. A part of
+the answer was evident to John, for he saw a visible token of the gift of
+the divine Spirit which was granted to Jesus for the conduct of the work
+he had to do, and he recognized in Jesus the greater successor for whom he
+was simply making preparation (Mark i. 10; John i. 32-34). To Jesus there
+came also with the gift of the Spirit a definite word from heaven, "Thou
+art my beloved Son, in thee I am well pleased" (Mark i. 11). The language
+in Mark and Luke, and the silence of the Baptist concerning the voice from
+heaven (John i. 32-34), indicate that the word came to Jesus alone, and
+was his summons to undertake the work of setting up that kingdom to which
+he had just pledged his loyalty. The expression "My beloved Son" had clear
+Messianic significance for Jesus' contemporaries (comp. Mark xiv. 62),
+and the message can have signified for him nothing less than a Messianic
+call. It implied more than that child-relation to God which was the
+fundamental fact in his religious life from the beginning: it had an
+official meaning.
+
+89. For Jesus the sense of being God's child was normally human, and in
+his ministry he invited all men to a similar consciousness of sonship. Yet
+his early years must have brought to him a realization that he was
+different from his fellows. That in him which made a confession at the
+baptism unnatural and which led to John's word, "I have need to be
+baptized by thee," was ready to echo assent when God said, "Thou art my
+Son." He accepted the call and the new office and mission which it
+implied, and he must have recognized that it was for this moment that all
+the past of his life had been making preparation.
+
+90. The gift of the Spirit to Jesus, which furnished to John the proof
+that the Greater One had appeared, was not an arbitrary sign. The old
+prophetic thought (Isa. xi. 2; xlii. 1; lxi. 1) as well as a later popular
+expectation (Ps. of Sol. xvii. 42) provided for such an anointing of the
+Messiah; and in the actual conduct of his life Jesus was constantly under
+the leading of this Spirit (see Matt. xii. 28 and John iii. 34). The
+temptation which followed the baptism, and in which he faced the
+difficulties in his new task, was the first result of the Spirit's
+control. Its later influence is not so clearly marked in the gospels, but
+they imply that as the older servants of God were guided and strengthened
+by him, so his Son also was aided,--with this difference, however, that he
+possessed completely the heavenly gift (John iii. 34). Jesus' uniform
+confession of dependence on God confirms this teaching of the gift of the
+divine Spirit; and his uniform consciousness of complete power and
+authority confirms the testimony that he had the Spirit "without measure."
+
+91. The temptation to which the Spirit "drove" Jesus after his baptism
+gives proof that the call to assume the Messianic office came to him
+unexpectedly; for the three temptations with which his long struggle ended
+were echoes of the voice which he had heard at the Jordan, and subtle
+insinuations of doubt of its meaning. Some withdrawal to contemplate the
+significance of his appointment to a Messianic work was a mental and
+spiritual necessity. As has often been said, if the gospels had not
+recorded the temptation, we should have had to assume one. Jesus being the
+man he was, could not have thought that his call was a summons to an
+entire change in his ideals and his thoughts about God and duty. Yet he
+must have been conscious of the wide differences between his conceptions
+of God's kingdom and the popular expectation. Those differences, by the
+measure of the definiteness of the popular thought and the ardor of the
+popular hope, were the proof of the difficulty of his task. The call meant
+that the Messiah could be such as he was; it meant that the kingdom could
+be and must be a dominion of God primarily in the hearts of men and
+consequently in their world; it meant that his work must be religious
+rather than political, and gracious rather than judicial. These essentials
+of the work which he could do contradicted at nearly every point the
+expectations of his people. How could he succeed in the face of such
+opposition? His long meditation during forty days doubtless showed him the
+difficulty of his task in all its baldness, yet it did not shake his
+certainty that the call had come to him from God, nor his faith that what
+God had called him to do he could accomplish.
+
+92. The gospels show no hesitation in calling the experience of these days
+a temptation, nor had the Christian feeling of the first century any
+difficulty in thinking of its Lord as actually suffering temptation (Heb.
+ii. 18; iv. 15). A temptation to be real cannot be hypothetical; evil must
+actually present itself as attractive to the tempted soul. A suggestion of
+evil that takes no hold concretely of the heart is no temptation, nor is
+the resistance of it any victory. The sinlessness of him who sought
+baptism with no confession on his lips nor sense of penitence in his heart
+offers no barrier to his experience of genuine temptation, unless we think
+him incapable of sin, and therefore not "like unto his brethren." Not only
+do the gospels repeatedly refer to his temptations (Luke iv. 13; Mark
+viii. 31-33; Luke xxii. 28; compare Heb. v. 7-9), but they also depict
+clearly the reality of these initial testings. The account as given in
+Matthew and Luke represents the experience with which the forty days'
+struggle culminated. The absorption of Jesus' mind had been so complete
+that he had neglected the needs of his body, and when he turned to think
+of earthly things he was pressed by hunger. A popular notion at a later
+time, and probably also in Jesus' day, was that the Messiah would be able
+to feed his people as Moses had given them manna in the wilderness (John
+vi. 30-32; see EdersLJM. I. 176). He had just been endowed with the
+divine Spirit for the work before him; it was therefore no fantastic idea
+when the suggestion came that he should use his power to supply his own
+needs in the desert. Nor was the temptation without attractiveness; his
+own physical nature urged its need, and Jesus was no ascetic who found
+discomfort a way of holiness. The evil in the suggestion was that it asked
+him to use his newly given powers for the supply of his own needs, as if
+doubting that God would care for him as for any other of his children.
+There was more than distrust of God suggested; the temptation came with a
+hint of another doubt,--"_If_ thou art God's Son." A miracle would prove
+to himself his appointment and his power. The suggested doubt of his call
+he passed unnoticed; distrust of God he repudiated instantly, falling back
+on his faith in the God he had served these many years (Deut. viii. 3).
+His victory is remarkable because his spirit conquered unhesitatingly
+after a long ecstasy which would naturally have induced a reaction and a
+surrender for the moment to the demand of lower needs.
+
+93. This firmness of trust opened the way for another evil suggestion. In
+the work before him as God's Anointed many difficulties were on either
+side and across his path. He knew his people, their prejudices, and their
+hardness of heart; and he knew how far he was from their ideal of a
+Messiah. He knew also the watchful jealousy of Rome. Others before him,
+like Judas of Galilee, had tried the Messianic role and had failed. He,
+however, was confident of his divine call: should he not, therefore, press
+forward with his work, heedless of all danger and regardless of the
+dictates of prudence,--as heedless as if, trusting God's promised care,
+he should cast himself down from a pinnacle of the temple to the rocks in
+Kidron below? A fanatic would have yielded to such a temptation. Many
+another than Jesus did so,--Theudas (Acts v. 36), the Egyptian (Acts xxi.
+38); and Bar Cochba (Dio Cassius, lxix. 12-14; Euseb. Ch. Hist. iv. 6).
+Jesus, however, showed his perfect mental health, repudiating the
+temptation by declaring that while man may trust God's care, he must not
+presumptuously put it to the test (Matt. iv. 7). The after life of Jesus
+was a clear commentary on this reply. He constantly sought to avoid
+situations which would compromise his mission or cut short his work (see
+John vi. 15), and when at the end he suffered the death prepared for him
+by his people's hatred, it was because his hour had come and he could say,
+"I lay down my life of myself" (John x. 18). His marvellous control of
+enthusiasm and his self-mastery in all circumstances separate Jesus from
+all ecstatics and fanatics. Yet presumption must have seemed the easier
+course, and could readily wear the mask of trust. He was tempted, yet
+without sin.
+
+94. As the refusal to doubt led to the temptation to presume, so the
+determination to be prudent opened the way for a third assault upon his
+perfect loyalty to God. The world he was to seek to save was swayed by
+passions; his own people were longing for a Messiah, but they must have
+their kind of a Messiah. If he would acknowledge this actual supremacy of
+evil and self-will in the world, the opposition of passion and prejudice
+might be avoided. If he would own the evil inevitable for the time, and
+accommodate his work to it, he might then be free to lead men to higher
+and more spiritual views of God's kingdom. His knowledge of his people's
+grossness of heart and materialism of hope made a real temptation of the
+suggestion that he should not openly oppose but should accommodate himself
+to them. Jesus did not underestimate the opposition of "the kingdoms of
+the world," but he truly estimated God's intolerance of any rivalry (Matt.
+iv. 10), and he was true to God and to his own soul. Again, in this as in
+the preceding temptations, Jesus conquered the evil suggestions by
+appropriating to himself truth spoken by God's servants to Israel. Tempted
+in all points like his brethren, he resisted as any one of them could have
+resisted, and won a victory possible, ideally considered, to any other of
+the children of men.
+
+95. It is not idle curiosity which inquires whence the evangelists got
+this story of the temptation of Jesus. Even if the whole transaction took
+place on the plane of outer sensuous life, and Jesus was bodily carried to
+Jerusalem and to the mountain-top, there is no probability that any
+witnesses were at hand who could tell the tale. But the fact that in any
+case the vision of the kingdoms of the world in a moment of time (Luke iv.
+5) could have been spiritual only, since no mountain, however high (Matt.
+iv. 8), could give, physically, that wide sweep of view, suggests that the
+whole account tells in pictorial language an intensely real, inner
+experience of Jesus. This in no respect reduces the truthfulness of the
+narratives. Temptation never becomes temptation till it passes to that
+inner scene of action and debate. Since Jesus shows in all his teaching a
+natural use of parabolic language to set forth spiritual truth, the
+inference is almost inevitable that the gospels have in like manner
+adopted the language of vivid picture as alone adequate to depict the
+essential reality of his inner struggle. In any case the narrative could
+have come from no other source than himself. How he came to tell it we do
+not know. On one of the days of private converse with his disciples after
+the confession at Caesarea Philippi he may have given them this account of
+his own experience, in order to help his loyal Galileans to understand
+more fully his work and the way of it, and to prepare them for that
+disappointment of their expectations which they were so slow to
+acknowledge as possible.
+
+96. From this struggle in the wilderness Jesus came forth with the clear
+conviction that he was God's Anointed, and in all his after life no
+hesitation appeared. The kingdom which he undertook to establish was that
+dominion of simple righteousness which he had learned to know and love in
+the years of quiet life in Nazareth. He set out to do his work fearlessly,
+but prudently, seeking to win men in his Father's way to acknowledge that
+Father's sovereignty. There is no evidence that, beyond such firm
+conviction and purpose, he had any fixed plan for the work he was to do,
+nor that he saw clearly as yet how his earthly career would end. The third
+temptation, however, shows that he was not unprepared for seeming defeat.
+The struggle had been long and serious,--for the three temptations of the
+end are doubtless typical of the whole of the forty days,--and the victory
+was great and final. With the light of victory as well as the marks of
+warfare on his face, he took his way back towards Galilee.
+
+
+
+
+VIII
+
+The First Disciples
+
+John i. 19 TO ii. 12
+
+
+
+97. After the withdrawal of Jesus into the wilderness, John the Baptist
+continued his ministry of preaching and baptizing, moving northward up the
+Jordan valley to Bethany, on the eastern side of the river, near one of
+the fords below the Sea of Galilee (John i. 28). Here Galilee, doubtless,
+contributed more to his audience than Judea. It is certain that some from
+the borders of the lake were at this time among his constant attendants:
+Andrew and Simon of Bethsaida, John the son of Zebedee, and perhaps his
+brother James, probably also Philip of Bethsaida and Nathanael of Cana
+(John i. 40, 41, 43-45; compare xxi. 2).
+
+98. The leaders in Jerusalem, becoming apprehensive whither this work
+would lead, sent an embassy to question John. They chose for this mission
+priests and Levites of pharisaic leaning as most influential among the
+people. The impression John and his message were making on the popular
+mind is seen in the questions put to him, "Art thou the Messiah?"
+"Elijah?" "The prophet?" (see Deut. xviii. 15), and in the challenge,
+"Why, then, baptizest thou?" when John disclaimed the right to any of
+these names. John's reply is the echo of his earlier proclamation of the
+one mightier than he who should baptize with the Spirit (Mark i. 7, 8),
+only now he added that this one was present among them (John i. 26, 27).
+
+99. This interview occurred several weeks after Jesus' baptism, for upon
+the next day John saw Jesus (John i. 29), now returned from the
+temptation, and pointed him out to a group of disciples. Something in
+Jesus' face or in his bearing, as he came from his temptation, must have
+impressed John even more than at their first meeting; for he was led to
+think of a prophetic word for the most part ignored by the Messianic
+thought of his day, "He was brought as a lamb to the slaughter" (Isa.
+liii. 7). As he looked on Jesus the mysterious oracle was illuminated for
+him, and he cried, "Behold the lamb of God which taketh away the sin of
+the world." Once again on the next day the same thought rushed to his lips
+when, with two disciples, he saw Jesus passing by (John i. 35, 36). Then
+as Jesus left John's neighborhood and took up again the round of ordinary
+life, John seems to have reverted to his more ordinary Messianic thought,
+his momentary insight into highest truth standing as a thing apart in his
+life. Such a moment's insight, caused by extraordinary circumstances, no
+more requires that John should retain the high thought constantly than
+does Peter's confession of Christ at Caesarea Philippi exclude his later
+rebuke of his Lord (Mark viii. 32, 33), or his denials (Mark xiv. 66-72).
+
+100. The disciples who heard these testimonies from John understood them
+to be Messianic (John i. 30-34), though their later consternation, when
+the cross seemed to shatter their hopes (John xx. 9, 10, 24, 25), shows
+that they did not comprehend their deeper meaning. Two of these disciples
+at once attached themselves to Jesus, and one of them, Andrew of
+Bethsaida, was so impressed by the new master that, having sought out his
+brother Simon, he declared that they had found the Messiah. The other of
+these earliest followers was John the son of Zebedee, and it is possible
+that he also found his brother and introduced James from the very first
+into the circle of the disciples. Jesus was about to take his departure
+for Galilee, and on the next day, as he was leaving, added Philip of
+Bethsaida to the little company of followers. Philip, impressed as Andrew
+had been, brought Nathanael of Cana to Jesus. The undefined something
+about Jesus which drew noble hearts irresistibly to himself, and his
+marvellous knowledge of this new comer, produced the same effect in
+Nathanael, as was seen earlier in Andrew and Philip, and he acknowledged
+the new master as "Son of God, King of Israel" (John i. 49).
+
+101. These early confessions in the fourth gospel present a difficulty in
+view of Jesus' warm approval of Peter's acknowledgment of him at Caesarea
+Philippi (Matt. xvi. 13-20). Jesus saw in that confession a distinct
+advance in the disciples' thought and faith. Yet the religious feeling
+which early questioned whether the Baptist even were not the Messiah (Luke
+iii. 15) would almost certainly have concluded that John's greater
+successor must be God's anointed. The very fact that men's thoughts about
+the Messiah were varied and complex made them ready for some modifications
+of their preconceptions. One with such subtle personal power as Jesus had
+exercised was almost sure to be hailed by some with enthusiasm as the
+looked-for representative of God. In fact, it is probable that at any
+time in the early days of his ministry Jesus could have been proclaimed
+Messiah, provided he had accepted the people's terms. Such a confession
+would have been merely the outcome of enthusiasm. The people, even the
+disciples, did not know Jesus. They all had high hopes and somewhat fixed
+ideas about the Messiah, nearly every one of which was destined to rude
+shock. How little they knew him Jesus realized (John i. 51), and his
+self-mastery is manifest in his attitude to this early enthusiasm. He was
+no visionary; he had a great work to do and a long lesson to teach, and he
+was patient enough to teach it little by little. He did not rebuke the
+ill-informed faith of a Nathanael, but sought gradually to supplant the
+old thought of the Messiah and of the kingdom by new truth, and to bind
+men's affections to himself for his own sake and the truth's sake, not
+simply for the idea which he impersonated to them.
+
+102. The visit to Cana seems to have found a place in the fourth gospel,
+because there the new disciples discovered in their master miraculous
+powers which were to them a sign that he was in truth God's anointed. It
+is probable that at the time of this miracle the disciples thought only of
+the power and the marvel, yet the sharp contrast between John's ascetic
+habit and Jesus' use of his divine resources to relieve embarrassment at a
+wedding feast must have impressed every man among them. Their minds,
+however, were as yet too full of Messianic hopes to leave much room for
+reflection. They were content to have a sign, for in the view of Jesus'
+contemporaries signs were essential marks of the Messiah (John vi. 30;
+vii. 31; Mark viii. 11). They did their reflecting later (John ii. 22).
+
+103. Miracles are as great a stumbling-block to modern thought as they
+were a help to the contemporaries of Jesus. The study of Jesus' life
+cannot ignore this fact, nor make little of it. It is fair to insist,
+however, that the question is one of evidence, not of metaphysical
+possibility. Men are wisely slow to-day to claim that they can tell what
+are the limits of the possible. If the question is one of evidence, it is
+in an important sense true that the evidence for miracle in the life of
+Jesus is appreciable only when that life is viewed in its completeness.
+The miracles attributed to Jesus may be studied, however, for the
+disclosure which they give of his character, and of his relation to common
+human need. So it is with this first sign at Cana. Jesus had just heard
+the call to be Messiah, and in his lonely struggle in the wilderness had
+given a loyal answer to that call, and had set out to do his Father's
+business in his Father's way. He who by the Jordan still carried the marks
+of struggle, so that the Baptist saw in him the suffering Saviour of
+Isaiah liii., now returned to the ordinary daily life in Galilee, and as a
+guest at a wedding feast he commenced that ministry of simple human
+friendliness (Matt. xi. 19; compare Mark ii. 15-17; Luke xv. 1, 2), which
+set him in sharp contrast alike with John's asceticism and with the
+ritualism and pedantry of the Pharisees.
+
+104. His human friendliness is all the more worthy of note, inasmuch as on
+his return to Cana Jesus did not take up again the old relations of life
+as they existed before his baptism. This is clear from his reply to his
+mother when she reported the scarcity of wine (John ii. 3-5). While it is
+true that the title by which Jesus addressed Mary was neither
+disrespectful nor unkind (John xix. 26), the reply itself was a warning
+that now he was no longer hers in the old sense. A new mission had been
+given him, which henceforth would determine all his conduct, and in that
+mission she could not now share. Here is one of the many indications
+(compare Mark iii. 21, 31-35; Luke ii. 48) that Mary did not understand
+her son nor his work until much later (John xix. 25; Acts i. 14). That
+with such a clear sense of his new and serious mission Jesus' first
+official act was one of kindly relief for social embarrassment is most
+significant. He chose to show his divine authority to his new disciples in
+a way that brought joy to a festal company. Little as the disciples were
+likely to appreciate it at the time, it was beautifully indicative of the
+simplicity and everyday lovableness of Jesus' idea of the earnest service
+of God.
+
+105. With the disciples thus strengthened in faith, and the mother not
+separated from him though unable to know his deepest thoughts, and the
+brethren who could not yet nor later understand their kinsman and his
+work, Jesus went down to Capernaum (John ii. 12), which proved thenceforth
+to be the centre of his greatest work and teaching. There for a time, how
+long cannot be known, he continued in quiet fellowship with his new
+friends, until the approach of the Passover drew him to Jerusalem to make
+formal opening of his Messianic work in that centre of his people's
+religious life.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Part II
+
+The Ministry
+
+
+
+
+I
+
+General Survey of the Ministry
+
+
+
+106. The attempt to arrange an orderly account of the way in which Jesus
+set about the work to which he was called at his baptism is met at the
+outset by a problem. The vivid and familiar words of Mark (i. 14),
+seconded by the representation in both Matthew (iv. 12) and Luke (iv. 14),
+indicate the imprisonment of John as the occasion, and Galilee as the
+scene of the inauguration of Jesus' public ministry. The fourth gospel, on
+the other hand, tells of a work of Jesus and his disciples in Judea prior
+to the imprisonment of John (in. 24), and makes this work follow at some
+interval after the inauguration of the Messianic ministry in Jerusalem.
+The minuteness of detail of time and place in the early chapters of John
+(i. 19 to iv. 43), together with the vividness of their narrative, give
+them strong claim to credence. They thus record a ministry earlier than
+that narrated in the other gospels, proving that the actual inauguration
+of Jesus' work occurred in Jerusalem at a Passover season previous to the
+imprisonment of John. This is known as the Early Judean Ministry.
+
+107. The fact that Peter was wont to tell the story of Jesus' life in such
+a way as to lead Mark to set the opening of the ministry after the close
+of John's activity, indicates that that beginning of work in Galilee
+seemed to the disciples to be in a way the actual inauguration of Jesus'
+constructive and successful work. Peter cannot have been ignorant of the
+labors in Judea, though he may not himself have accompanied Jesus to the
+Passover. A new stage in the life of Jesus began, therefore, with his
+withdrawal to Galilee.
+
+108. The story of the Galilean ministry is given chiefly by the first
+three gospels, John contributing but two incidents to the period covered
+by that ministry,--a second miracle at Cana (iv. 46-54), and a visit to
+Judea (v. 1-47),--and relating more fully the story of the feeding of the
+multitudes (vi. 1-71). The journey from Judea through Samaria (John iv.
+1-45) should be identified with the removal to Galilee which stands at the
+beginning of Mark's record (i. 14; Matt. iv. 12; Luke iv. 14). Mark's
+account of the Galilean activity of Jesus (i. 14 to ix. 50) is one of such
+simple and steady progress that the whole period must be considered as a
+unit.
+
+109. In the use which Matthew (iv. 12 to xviii. 35) and Luke (iv. 14 to
+ix. 50) make of Mark's record this unity is emphasized. Their treatment of
+the matter which they add, however, makes it best to study the period
+topically rather than attempt to follow closely a chronological sequence.
+As it is probable that the early writing ascribed by Papias to the apostle
+Matthew failed to preserve in many cases any record of the time and place
+of the teachings of Jesus, so is it certain that the first and third
+evangelists have distributed quite differently the material which they
+seem to have derived from that apostolic document. Mention need only be
+made of the exhortation against anxiety which Matthew places in the
+sermon on the mount (vi. 19-34), and which Luke has given after the close
+of the Galilean activity (xii. 22-34). It is possible to form some
+judgment of the general relations of such discourses from the character of
+their contents, but in the absence of positive statement by the
+evangelists it is hopeless to seek to give them a more definite historical
+setting. A topical study can consider them as contributions to the period
+to which they belong, while a chronological study would be lost in
+uncertain conjectures. A topical study may, however, disclose the fact
+that sequence of time was identical with development of method. This is,
+in general, the case with the Galilean ministry. The new lesson which
+Jesus began to teach after the confession at Caesarea Philippi marked the
+supreme turning point in his whole public activity. Before that crisis the
+work of Jesus was a constructive preparation for the question which called
+forth Peter's confession. Subsequently his work was that of making ready
+for the end, which from that time on he foretold. As has been stated, the
+Galilean ministry is the story of the first three gospels, except for two
+incidents and a discourse added by John. The visit to the feast of
+Tabernacles (John vii. 1 to viii. 59) stands on the border between the
+work in Galilee and that which followed. It was one of Jesus' many
+attempts to win Jerusalem, and is evidence that the author of the fourth
+gospel--either because of special interest in the capital, or because of
+superior knowledge of the work of his Master in Judea--gave emphasis to a
+side of the life of Jesus which the other gospels have neglected.
+
+110. With the close of the constructive ministry in Galilee, the account
+of Mark (x. 1; compare Matt xix. 1; Luke ix. 51) turns towards Jerusalem
+and the cross. The journey was not direct, but traversed Perea, the domain
+of Antipas beyond Jordan, and was accompanied by continued ministry of
+teaching and healing (Mark x. 1-52; Matt. xix. 1 to xx. 34). It is at this
+point that Luke has inserted the long section peculiar to his gospel (ix.
+51 to xviii. 14), becoming again parallel with Mark as Jesus drew near to
+Jerusalem (xviii. 15 to xix. 28; compare Mark x. 13-52). Much of that
+which Luke adds gives evidence that in all probability it should be placed
+before the change in method at Caesarea Philippi, while much of it
+undoubtedly belongs to the last months of Jesus' life. Since the last
+journey to Jerusalem is reported with considerable fulness, it is natural
+in a study of Jesus' life to treat that journey by itself. At this point
+John contributes important additions to the record (ix. 1 to xi. 57)
+showing that the journey was not continuous, but was interrupted by
+several more or less hurried visits to the capital, renewed efforts of
+Jesus to win the city.
+
+111. With the final arrival in Jerusalem the four gospels come together in
+a record of the last days and the crucifixion (Mark xi. 1 to xv. 47; Matt,
+xxi 1 to xxvii. 66; Luke xix. 29 to xxiii. 56; John xi. 55 to xix. 42).
+The evangelists, in their accounts of the last week, seem to have had
+access to completer and more varied information than for any other part of
+the ministry. This causes some difficulties in constructing an ordered
+conception of the events, yet it greatly adds to the fulness of our
+knowledge. It is easier, therefore, to consider the period in three
+parts,--the final controversies in Jerusalem, the Last Supper, and the
+betrayal, trial, and crucifixion.
+
+112. In a sense the resurrection and ascension form the conclusion of the
+final visit to Jerusalem, and should be treated with the last week. In a
+larger sense, however, they form the culmination of the whole ministry,
+and therefore constitute a final stage in the study of Jesus' life. At
+this point the record of the gospels is supplemented by the first chapter
+of the Acts and by Paul's concise report of the appearances of the risen
+Christ (I. Cor. xv. 3-8). The various accounts exhibit perplexing
+independence of each other. In total impression, however, they agree, and
+show that the tragedy, by which the enemies of Jesus thought to end his
+career, was turned into signal triumph.
+
+   Outline of Events in the Early Judean Ministry
+
+
+   The first Passover of the public ministry: Cleansing of the
+   temple--John ii. 13-22.
+
+   Early results in Jerusalem: Discourse with Nicodemus--John ii. 23 to
+   iii. 15.
+
+   Withdrawal into rural parts of Judea to preach and baptize--John in.
+   22-30; iv. 1, 2.
+
+   Imprisonment of John the Baptist--Matt. iv. 12; Mark i. 14.
+
+   Withdrawal from Judea through Samaria--John iv. 1-42.
+
+   Unlooked-for welcome in Galilee--John iv. 43-45.
+
+   ? Second sign at Cana: Cure of the Nobleman's son--John iv. 46-54 (see
+   sect. A 41).
+
+   [Retirement at Nazareth, the disciples resuming their accustomed
+   calling. Inferred from Matt. iv. 13; Luke iv. 31; Matt. iv. 18-22 and
+   ||s.]
+
+   Events marked ? should possibly be given a different place; ||s stands
+   for "parallel accounts;" for sections marked A--as A 41--see Appendix.
+
+
+
+
+II
+
+The Early Ministry in Judea
+
+
+
+113. We owe to the fourth gospel our knowledge of the fact that Jesus
+began his general ministry in Jerusalem. The silence of the other records
+concerning this beginning cannot discredit the testimony of John. For
+these other records themselves indicate in various ways that Jesus had
+repeatedly sought to win Jerusalem before his final visit at the end of
+his life (compare Luke xiii. 34; Matt. xxiii. 37). Moreover, the fourth
+gospel is confirmed by the probability, rising almost to necessity, that
+such a mission as Jesus conceived his to be must seek first to win the
+leaders of his people. The temple at Jerusalem was the centre of worship,
+drawing all Jews sooner or later to itself--even as Jesus in early youth
+was accustomed to go thither at the time of feasts (Luke ii. 41).
+Worshippers of God throughout the world prayed with their faces towards
+Jerusalem (Dan. vi. 10). Moreover, at Jerusalem the chief of the scribes,
+as well as the chief of the priests, were to be found. Compared with
+Jerusalem all other places were provincial and of small influence. A
+Messiah, who had not from the outset given up hope of winning the capital,
+cannot have long delayed his effort to find a following there.
+
+114. Arriving at Jerusalem at the Passover season, in the early spring,
+Jesus remained in Judea until the following December (John iv. 35).
+Evidently the record which John gives of these months is most fragmentary,
+and from his own statement (xx. 30, 31) it seems highly probable that it
+is one sided, emphasizing those events and teachings in which Jesus
+disclosed more or less clearly his claim to be the Messiah. Doubtless the
+full record would show a much closer similarity between this early work in
+Judea and that later conducted in Galilee than a comparison of John with
+the other gospels would suggest; yet it is evident that Jesus opened his
+ministry in Jerusalem with an unrestrained frankness that is not found
+later in Galilee.
+
+115. It is a mistake to think of the cleansing of the temple as a distinct
+Messianic manifesto. The market in the temple was a licensed affront to
+spiritual religion. It found its excuse for being in the requirement that
+worshippers offer to the priests for sacrifice animals levitically clean
+and acceptable, and that gifts for the temple treasury be made in no coin
+other than the sacred "shekel of the sanctuary." The chief priests
+appreciated the convenience which worshippers coming from a distance would
+find if they could obtain all the means of worship within the temple
+enclosure itself. The hierarchy or its representatives seem also to have
+appreciated the opportunity to charge good prices for the accommodation so
+afforded. The result was the intrusion of the spirit of the market-place,
+with all its disputes and haggling, into the place set apart for worship.
+In fact, the only part of the temple open to Gentiles who might wish to
+worship Israel's God was filled with distraction, unseemly strife, and
+extortion (compare Mark xi. 17). Such despite done the sanctity of God's
+house must have outraged the pious sense of many a devout Israelite. There
+is no doubt of what an Isaiah or a Micah would have said and done in such
+a situation. This is exactly what Jesus did. His act was the assumption of
+a full prophetic authority. In itself considered it was nothing more. In
+his expulsion of the traders he had the conscience of the people for his
+ally. There is no need to think of any use of miraculous power. His moral
+earnestness, coupled with the underlying consciousness on the part of the
+traders themselves that they had no business in God's house, readily
+explains the confusion and departure of the intruders. Even those who
+challenged Jesus' conduct did not venture to defend the presence of the
+market in the temple. They only demanded that Jesus show his warrant for
+disturbing a condition of things authorized by the priests.
+
+116. The temple cleansing is recorded in the other gospels at the end of
+Jesus' ministry, just before the hostility of the Jews culminated in his
+condemnation and death. Inasmuch as these gospels give no account of a
+ministry by Jesus in Jerusalem before the last week of his life, it is
+easy to see how this event came to be associated by them with the only
+Jerusalem sojourn which they record. The definite place given to the event
+in John, together with the seeming necessity that Jesus should condemn
+such authorized affront to the very idea of worship, mark this cleansing
+as the inaugural act of Jesus' ministry of spiritual religion, rather than
+as a final stern rebuke closing his effort to win his people. Against the
+conclusion commonly held that Jesus cleansed the temple both at the
+opening and at the close of his course is the extreme improbability that
+the traders would have been caught twice in the same way. The event fits
+in closely with the story of the last week, because it actually led to the
+beginning of opposition in Jerusalem to the prophet from Galilee. At the
+first the opposition was doubtless of a scornful sort. Later it grew in
+bitterness when it saw how Jesus was able to arouse a popular enthusiasm
+that seemed to threaten the stability of existing conditions.
+
+117. The reply of Jesus to the challenge of his authority for his
+high-handed act shows that he offered it to the people as an invitation;
+he would lead them to a higher idea and practice of worship (compare John
+iv. 21-24). When they demanded the warrant for his act, he saw that they
+were not ready to follow him, and could not appreciate the only warrant he
+needed for his course. He cleansed the temple because they were destroying
+it as a place where men could worship God in spirit. In reply to the
+challenge, he who later taught the Samaritan woman that the worship of God
+is not dependent on any place however sacred, answered that they might
+finish their work and destroy the temple as a house of God, yet he would
+speedily re-establish a true means of approach to the Most High for the
+souls of men. He clothed his reply in a figurative dress, as he was often
+wont to do in his teaching,--"Destroy this temple, and in three days I
+will raise it up." To his unsympathetic hearers it must have been
+completely enigmatic. Even the disciples did not catch its meaning until
+after the resurrection had taught them that in their Master a new chapter
+in God's dealing with men had begun.
+
+118. The unreadiness of the Jewish leaders to receive the only kind of
+message he had to offer produced in Jesus a decided reserve. He did not
+lack a certain kind of success in Jerusalem. His cures of the sick won him
+many followers who seemed ready to believe almost anything of him. But the
+attitude taken by the leaders made it evident that Jesus must make
+disciples who should understand in some measure at least his idea of God's
+kingdom, and, understanding, must be ready to be loyal to it through good
+report and evil. For the position taken by the leaders of the people had
+an ominous significance. It could mean but one thing for
+Jesus,--unrelenting conflict. If they could not be won, they who would so
+legalize the desecration of God's house would not hesitate at any extreme
+in opposing his messenger. This possibility confronted Jesus at the very
+outset; therefore he held the popular enthusiasm in check, knowing that
+as yet it had little of that kind of faith which could endure seeming
+defeat.
+
+119. One of those who were drawn to him, however, gave Jesus opportunity
+to lay aside his reserve and speak clearly of the truth lie came to
+publish. He was a member of the Jewish sanhedrin, a rabbi apparently held
+in high regard in Jerusalem. While his associates were dismissing the
+claims of Jesus with a wave of the hand, Nicodemus sought out the new
+teacher by night, and showed his desire to learn what Jesus held to be
+truth concerning God's kingdom. Jesus first reminded the teacher of Israel
+of the old doctrine of the prophets, that Israel must find a new heart
+before God's kingdom can come (Jer. xxxi. 31-34; Ezek. xxxvi. 25-27), and
+then declared that the heavenly truth which God now would reveal to men is
+that all can have the needed new life as freely as the plague-stricken
+Israelites found relief when Moses lifted up the brazen serpent. This
+conversation serves to introduce the evangelist's interpretation of Jesus
+as the only begotten Son of God sent in love to redeem the world (John
+iii. 16-21).
+
+120. John's record suggests that Jesus left Jerusalem shortly after the
+conversation with Nicodemus. His work there was not without success, for
+Nicodemus seems to have been henceforth his loyal advocate (compare John
+vii. 50-52; xix. 39); and it may be that at the time of this sojourn he
+won the hearts of his friends in Bethany, for the first picture the
+gospels give of this household seems to presuppose a somewhat intimate
+relation of Jesus to the family (Luke x. 38-42). It would be idle to
+speculate whether it was at this time or later that he became acquainted
+with Joseph of Arimathea, or the friends who during the last week of his
+life showed him hospitality (Mark xi. 2-6; xiv. 12-16).
+
+121. For a time after his withdrawal from Jerusalem he lingered in Judea,
+carrying on a simple ministry of preparation like that of John the
+Baptist. In this way the summer and early autumn seem to have passed,
+Jesus growing more popular as a prophet than John himself had been. The
+fact that Jesus' disciples administered baptism in connection with his
+work roused the jealousy of some of John's followers, and attracted again
+the attention of Jerusalem to the new activity of the bold disturber of
+the temple market. John's disciples complained to him of Jesus' rivalry,
+and received his self-effacing confession, "He must increase, I must
+decrease." The Pharisees, on the other hand, made Jesus feel that further
+work in Judea was for the time unwise, and he withdrew into Galilee for
+retirement, since "a prophet has no honor in his own country" (John iv.
+1-3, 44). Baffled in his first effort to win his people, this journey back
+from the region of the holy city must have been one of no little sadness
+for Jesus. Some urgency for haste led him by the direct road through
+despised Samaria. A seemingly chance conversation with a woman at Jacob's
+well, where he was resting at noonday, gave him an opportunity for
+ministry which was more ingenuously received than any which he had been
+able to render in Judea; and to this woman he declared himself even more
+plainly than to Nicodemus, and preached to her that spiritual idea of
+worship which he had sought to enforce by cleansing Jerusalem's temple.
+Samaria was so isolated from all Jewish interest that Jesus felt no need
+for reserve in this "strange" land. The few days spent there must have
+been peculiarly welcome to his heart, fresh from rejection in Judea.
+
+122. One reason why he wished to hasten from Judea seems to have been his
+knowledge of the hostile movement which was making against John the
+Baptist. Either before or soon after Jesus started for Galilee Herod had
+arrested John, ostensibly as a measure of public safety owing to John's
+undue popularity (Jos. Ant. xviii. 5. 2). Herod may have been encouraged
+to take this step by the hostility of the Pharisees to the plain-spoken
+prophet of the desert (see John iv. 1-3). The fourth gospel leaves its
+readers to infer that the imprisonment took place somewhere about this
+time (compare iii. 24 and v. 35), while the other gospels unite in giving
+this arrest as the occasion for Jesus' withdrawal into Galilee.
+
+123. Arrived in Galilee, Jesus seems to have returned to his home at
+Nazareth, while his disciples went back to their customary occupations,
+until he summoned them again to join him in a new ministry (see sect.
+125). John assigns to this time the cure of a nobleman's son. The father
+sought out Jesus at Cana, having left his son sick at Capernaum. At first
+Jesus apparently repelled his approach, even as he had dealt with seekers
+after marvels at Jerusalem; but on hearing the father's cry of need and
+trust, he at once spoke the word of healing. This event is in so many ways
+a duplicate of the cure of a centurion's servant recorded in Matthew and
+Luke, that to many it seems but another version of the same incident.
+Considering the variations in the story reported by Matthew and Luke, it
+is clearly not possible to prove that John tells of a different case. Yet
+the simple fact of similarity of some details in two events should not
+exclude the possibility of their still being quite distinct. The reception
+which Jesus gave the two requests for help is very different, and the case
+reported in John is in keeping with the attitude of Jesus before he began
+his new ministry in Galilee. On his arrival in Galilee he wished to avoid
+a mere wonder faith begotten of the enthusiasm he excited in Jerusalem,
+yet this wish yielded at once when a genuine need sought relief at his
+hands.
+
+124. The apparent result of this first activity in Judea was
+disappointment and failure. He had won no considerable following in the
+capital. He had definitely excited the jealousy and opposition of the
+leading men of his nation. Even such popular enthusiasm as had followed
+his mighty works was of a sort that Jesus could not encourage. The
+situation in Judea had at length become so nearly untenable that he
+decided to withdraw into seclusion in Galilee, where, as a prophet, he
+could be "without honor." He had gone to Jerusalem eager to begin there,
+where God should have had readiest service, the ministry of the kingdom of
+God. Challenge, cold criticism, and superficial faith were the results. A
+new beginning must be made on other lines in other places. Meanwhile Jesus
+retired to his home and his followers to theirs.
+
+   Outline of Events in the Galilean Ministry (Chapters III. And IV.)
+
+
+   The imprisonment of John and the withdrawal of Jesus into
+   Galilee--Matt. iv. 12-17; Mark i. 14, 15; Luke iv. 14, 15.
+
+   Removal from Nazareth to Capernaum--Matt. iv. 13-16; Luke iv. 31.
+
+   The call of Simon and Andrew, James and John--Matt. iv. 18-22; Mark i.
+   16-20; Luke v. 1-11.
+
+   First work in Capernaum--Matt. viii. 14-17; Mark i. 21-34; Luke iv.
+   31-41.
+
+   First circuit of Galilee--Matt. iv. 23; viii. 2-4; Mark i. 35-45; Luke
+   iv. 42-44; v. 12-16.
+
+   Cure of a paralytic in Capernaum--Matt. ix. 2-8; Mark ii. 1-12; Luke v.
+   17-26.
+
+   The call of Matthew--Matt. ix. 9-13; Mark ii. 13-17; Luke v. 27-32.
+
+   ? The question about fasting--Matt ix. 14-17; Mark ii. 18-22; Luke v.
+   33-39 (see sects. 47; A 54).
+
+   ? Sabbath cure at Jerusalem at the unnamed feast--John v. 1-47 (see
+   sect. A 53).
+
+   ? The Sabbath controversy in the Galilean grain fields--Matt. xii. 1-8;
+   Mark ii. 23-28; Luke vi. 1-5 (see sects. 47; A 54).
+
+   ? Another Sabbath controversy: cure of a withered hand--Matt. xii.
+   9-14; Mark iii. 1-6; Luke vi. 6-11 (see sects. 47; A 54).
+
+   Jesus followed by multitudes from all parts--Matt. iv. 23-25; xii.
+   15-21; Mark iii. 7-12; Luke vi. 17-19.
+
+   The choosing of the twelve--Matt. x. 2-4; Mark iii. 13-19; Luke vi.
+   12-19.
+
+   The sermon on the mount--Matt. v. 1 to viii. 1; Luke vi. 20 to vii. 1
+   (see sect. A 55).
+
+   The cure of a centurion's servant--Matt. viii. 5-13; Luke vii. 1-10;
+   John iv. 46-54.
+
+   The restoration of the widow's son at Nain--Luke vii. 11-17.
+
+   The message from John in prison--Matt. xi. 2-19; Luke vii. 18-35.
+
+   The anointing of Jesus by a sinful woman--Luke vii. 36-50.
+
+   The companions of Jesus on his second circuit of Galilee--Luke viii.
+   1-3.
+
+   Cure of a demoniac in Capernaum and blasphemy by the Pharisees--Matt.
+   xii. 22-45; Mark iii. 19^a-30; Luke xi. 14-36.
+
+   The true kindred of Jesus--Matt. xii. 46-50; Mark iii. 31-35; Luke
+   viii. 19-21.
+
+   The parables by the sea--Matt. xiii. 1-53; Mark iv. 1-34; Luke viii.
+   4-18 (see sect. A 56).
+
+   The tempest stilled--Matt. viii. 18, 23-27; Mark iv. 35-41; Luke viii.
+   22-25.
+
+   Cure of the Gadarene demoniac--Matt. viii. 28-34; Mark v. 1-20; Luke
+   viii. 26-39.
+
+   The restoration of the daughter of Jairus and cure of an invalid
+   woman--Matt. ix. 1, 18-26; Mark v. 21-43; Luke viii. 40-56.
+
+   Cure of blind and dumb--Matt. ix. 27-34.
+
+   Rejection at Nazareth--Matt. xiii. 54-58; Mark vi. 1-6^a; Luke iv.
+   16-30 (see sect. A 52).
+
+   Third circuit of Galilee--Matt. ix. 35; Mark vi. 6^b.
+
+   The mission of the twelve--Matt. ix. 36 to xi. 1; Mark vi. 7-13; Luke
+   ix. 1-6 (see sect. A 57).
+
+   The death of John the Baptist--Matt. xiv. 1-12; Mark vi. 14-29; Luke
+   ix. 7-9.
+
+   Withdrawal of Jesus across the sea and feeding of the five
+   thousand--Matt. xiv. 13-23; Mark vi. 30-46; Luke ix. 10-17; John vi.
+   1-15.
+
+   Return to Capernaum, Jesus walking on the water--Matt. xiv. 24-36; Mark
+   vi. 47-56; John vi. 16-21.
+
+   Teaching about the Bread of Life in the synagogue at Capernaum--John
+   vi. 22-71 (see sect. A 59).
+
+   Controversy concerning tradition: handwashing, etc.--Matt. xv. 1-20;
+   Mark vii. 1-23.
+
+   Withdrawal to regions of Tyre and Sidon: the Syrophoenician woman's
+   daughter--Matt. xv. 21-28; Mark vii. 24-30.
+
+   Return through Decapolis--Matt. xv. 29-31; Mark vii. 31-37.
+
+   ? The feeding of the four thousand--Matt. xv. 32-38; Mark viii. 1-9
+   (see sect. A 58).
+
+   Pharisaic challenge in Galilee, and warning against the leaven of the
+   Pharisees--Matt xv. 39 to xvi. 12; Mark viii. 10-21.
+
+   Cure of blind man near Bethsaida--Mark viii. 22-26.
+
+   Peter's confession of Jesus as Christ near Caesarea Philippi--Matt. xvi.
+   13-20; Mark viii. 27-30; Luke ix. 18-21.
+
+   The new lesson, that the Christ must die--Matt. xvi. 21-28; Mark viii.
+   31 to ix. 1; Luke ix. 22-27.
+
+   The transfiguration--Matt. xvii. 1-13; Mark ix. 2-13; Luke ix. 28-36.
+
+   Cure of the epileptic boy--Matt. xvii. 14-20; Mark ix. 14-29; Luke ix.
+   37-43^a.
+
+   Second prediction of approaching death and resurrection--Matt. xvii.
+   22, 23; Mark ix. 30-32; Luke ix. 43^b-45.
+
+   Return to Capernaum: the temple tax--Matt. xvii. 24-27; Mark ix. 33^a.
+
+   Teachings concerning humility and forgiveness--Matt. xviii. 1-35; Mark
+   ix. 33-50; Luke ix. 46-50.
+
+   Visit of Jesus to Jerusalem at the feast of Tabernacles--John vii.
+   1-52; viii. 12-59 (see sect. A 60).
+
+   ? The woman taken in adultery--John vii. 53 to viii. 11 (see sect.
+   163).
+
+   The following probably belong to the Galilean ministry before the
+   confession at Caesarea Philippi (see sect. 168):--
+
+   The disciples taught to pray--Matt. vi. 9-15; vii. 7-11; Luke xi. 1-13.
+
+   The cure of an infirm woman on the Sabbath--Luke xiii. 10-17.
+
+   Two parables: mustard-seed and leaven--Matt. xiii. 31-33; Luke xiii.
+   18-21 (see sect. A 56).
+
+   The parable of the rich fool--Luke xii. 13-21.
+
+   Cure on a Sabbath and teaching at a Pharisee's table--Luke xiv. 1-24.
+
+   Five parables--Luke xv. 1 to xvi. 31.
+
+   Certain disconnected teachings--Luke xvii. 1-4.
+
+
+
+
+III
+
+The Ministry In Galilee--its Aim And Method
+
+
+
+125. The work of Jesus in Galilee, which is the principal theme of the
+first three gospels, began with a removal from Nazareth to Capernaum, and
+the calling of four fishermen to be his constant followers. The ready
+obedience which Simon and Andrew and James and John gave to this call is
+an interesting evidence that they did not first come to know Jesus at the
+time of this summons. The narrative presupposes some such earlier
+association as is reported in John, followed by a temporary return to
+their old homes and occupations, while Jesus sought seclusion after his
+work in Judea. The first evangelist has most vividly indicated the
+development of the Galilean ministry, directing attention to two points of
+beginning,--the beginning of Jesus' preaching of the kingdom (Matt. iv.
+17) and the beginning of his predictions of his own sufferings and death
+(xvi. 21). Between these two beginnings lies the ministry of Jesus to the
+enthusiastic multitudes, the second of them marking his choice of a more
+restricted audience and a less popular message. Within the first of these
+periods two events mark epochs,--the mission of the twelve (Matt. ix. 36;
+x. I) to preach the coming kingdom of God and to multiply Jesus' ministry
+of healing, and the feeding of the five thousand when the popular
+enthusiasm reached its climax (John vi. 14, 15). These events fall not
+far apart, and mark two different phases of the same stage of development
+in his work. The first is emphasized by Matthew, the second by John; both
+help to a clearer understanding of the narrative which Mark has furnished
+to the other gospels for their story of the Galilean ministry. The table
+at the head of this chapter indicates in outline the probable succession
+of events in the Galilean period. The order adopted is that of Mark,
+supplemented by the other gospels. Luke's additions are inserted in his
+order where there is not some reason for believing that he himself
+disregarded the exact sequence of events. Thus the rejection at Nazareth
+is placed late, as in Mark. Much of the material in the long section
+peculiar to Luke is assigned in general to this Galilean period, since all
+knowledge of its precise location in time and place has been lost for us,
+as it not unlikely was for Luke. Although Matthew is the gospel giving the
+clearest general view of the Galilean work, it shows the greatest
+disarrangement of details, and aids but little in determining the sequence
+of events. The material from that gospel is assigned place in accordance
+with such hints as are discoverable in parallel or associated parts of
+Mark or Luke. Of John's contributions one--the feeding of the
+multitudes--is clearly located by its identity with a narrative found in
+all the other gospels. The visit to Jerusalem at the unnamed feast can be
+only tentatively placed.
+
+126. Viewing this gospel story as a whole, the parallel development of
+popular enthusiasm and official hostility at once attracts attention.
+Jesus' first cures in the synagogue at Capernaum roused the interest and
+wonder of the multitudes to such an extent that he felt constrained to
+withdraw to other towns. On his return to Capernaum he was so beset with
+crowds that the friends of the paralytic could get at him only by breaking
+up the roof. It was when Jesus found himself followed by multitudes from
+all parts of the land that he selected twelve of his disciples "that they
+might be with him and that he might send them forth to preach," and
+addressed to them in the hearing of the multitudes the exacting, although
+unspeakably winsome teaching of the sermon on the mount. This condition of
+things continued even after Herod had killed John the Baptist, for when
+Jesus, having heard of John's fate, sought retirement with his disciples
+across the sea of Galilee, he was robbed of his seclusion by throngs who
+flocked to him to be healed and to hear of the kingdom of God.
+
+127. The popular enthusiasm was not indifferent to the question who this
+new teacher might be. At first Jesus impressed the people by his
+authoritative teaching and cures. After the raising of the widow's son at
+Nain the popular feeling found a more definite declaration,--"a great
+prophet has risen up among us." The cure of a demoniac in Capernaum raised
+the further incredulous query, "Can this be the Son of David?" The notion
+that he might be the Messiah seems to have gained acceptance more and more
+as Jesus' popularity grew, for at the time of the feeding of the
+multitudes the enthusiasm burst into a flame of determination to force him
+to undertake the work for which he was so eminently fitted, but from which
+for some inexplicable reason he seemed to shrink (John vi. 15).
+
+128. Parallel with the growth of popular enthusiasm, and in part because
+of it, the religious leaders early assumed and consistently maintained an
+attitude of opposition. The gospels connect the critics of Jesus now and
+again with the Pharisees of the capital--the Galilean Pharisees being
+represented as more or less friendly. At the first appearance of Jesus in
+Capernaum even the Sabbath cure in the synagogue passed unchallenged; but
+on the return from his first excursion to other towns, Jesus found critics
+in his audience (Luke connects them directly with Jerusalem). From time to
+time such censors as these objected to the forgiveness by Jesus of the
+sins of the paralytic (Mark ii. 6, 7), criticised his social relations
+with outcasts like the publicans (Mark ii. 16), took offence at his
+carelessness of the Sabbath tradition in his instruction of his disciples
+(Mark ii. 24), and sought to turn the tide of rising popular enthusiasm by
+ascribing his power to cure to a league with the devil (Mark iii. 22).
+Baffled in one charge, they would turn to another, until, after the
+feeding of the multitudes, Jesus showed his complete disregard of all they
+held most dear, replying to a criticism of his disciples for carelessness
+of the ritual of hand-washing by an authoritative setting aside of the
+whole body of their traditions, as well as of the Levitical ceremonial of
+clean and unclean meats (Mark vii. 1-23).
+
+129. The wonder is, not that popular enthusiasm for Jesus was great, but
+that it was so hesitating in its judgment about him. The province which
+provided a following to Judas of Galilee a generation earlier than the
+public ministry of Jesus, and which under John of Gischala furnished the
+chief support to the revolt against Rome a generation later, could have
+been excited to uncontrollable passion by the simple idea that a leader
+was present who could be made to head a movement for Jewish liberty. But
+there was something about Jesus which made it impossible to think of him
+as such a Messiah. He was much more moved by sin lurking within than by
+wrong inflicted from without. He looked for God's kingdom, as did the
+Zealots, but he looked for it within the heart more than in outward
+circumstances. Even the dreamers among the people, who were as unready as
+Jesus for any uprising against Rome, and who waited for God to show his
+own hand in judgment, found in Jesus--come to seek and to save that which
+was lost--something so contradictory of their idea of the celestial judge
+that they could not easily think of him as a Messiah. Jesus was a puzzle
+to the people. They were sure that he was a prophet; but if at any time
+some were tempted to query, "Can this be the Son of David?" the
+incredulous folk expected ever a negative reply.
+
+130. This was as Jesus wished it to be. An unreasoning enthusiasm could
+only hinder his work. When his early cures in Capernaum stirred the ardent
+feelings of the multitudes, he took occasion to withdraw to other towns
+and allow popular feeling to cool. When later he found himself pressed
+upon by crowds from all quarters of the land, by the sermon on the mount
+he set them thinking on strange and highly spiritual things, far removed
+from the thoughts of Zealots and apocalyptic dreamers.
+
+131. The manifest contradiction of popular Messianic ideas which Jesus
+presented in his own person usually served to check undue ardor as long
+as he was present. But when some demoniac proclaimed the high station of
+Jesus, and thus seemed to the people to give supernatural testimony; or
+when some one in need sought him apart from the multitudes, Jesus
+frequently enjoined silence. These injunctions of silence are enigmas
+until they are viewed as a part of Jesus' effort to keep control of
+popular feeling. In his absence the people might dwell on his power and
+easily come to imagine him to be what he was not and could not be. Jesus
+was able by these means to restrain unthinking enthusiasm until the
+multitudes whom he fed on the east side of the sea determined to force him
+to do their will as a Messiah. Then he refused to follow where they
+called, and that happened which would doubtless have happened at an
+earlier time but for Jesus' caution,--the popular enthusiasm subsided, and
+his active work with the common people was at an end. But he had held off
+this crisis until there were a few who did not follow the popular
+defection, but rather clung to him from whom they had heard the words of
+eternal life (John vi. 68).
+
+132. Jesus' caution brings to light one aspect of his aim in the Galilean
+ministry,--he sought to win acceptance for the truth he proclaimed. His
+message as reported in the synoptic gospels was the near approach of the
+kingdom of God. Any such proclamation was sure of eager hearing. At first
+he seems to have been content to gather and interest the multitudes by
+this preaching and the works which accompanied it. But he early took
+occasion to state his ideas in the hearing of the multitudes, and in terms
+so simple, so concerned with every-day life, so exacting as respects
+conduct, and so lacking in the customary glowing picture of the future,
+that the people could not mistake such a teacher for a simple fulfiller of
+their ideas. In this early sermon in effect, and later with increasing
+plainness, he set forth his doctrine of a kingdom of heaven coming not
+with observation, present actually among a people who knew it not, like a
+seed growing secretly in the earth, or leaven quietly leavening a lump of
+meal. By word and deed, in sermon and by parable, he insisted on this
+simple and every-day conception of God's rule among men. With Pharisee,
+Zealot, and dreamer, he held that "the best is yet to be," yet all three
+classes found their most cherished ideals set at nought by the new
+champion of the soul's inner life in fellowship with the living God. In
+all his teaching there was a claim of authority and a manifest
+independence which indicate certainty on his part concerning his own
+mission. Yet so completely is the personal question retired for the time,
+that in his rebuke of the blasphemy of the Pharisees he took pains to
+declare that it was not because they had spoken against the Son of Man,
+that they were in danger, but because they had spoken against the Spirit
+of God, whose presence was manifest in his works. He wished, primarily, to
+win disciples to the kingdom of God.
+
+133. Yet Jesus was not indifferent in Galilee to what the people thought
+about himself. The question at Caesarea Philippi shows more fully the aim
+of his ministry. During all the period of the preaching of the kingdom he
+never hesitated to assert himself whenever need for such self-assertion
+arose. This was evident in his dealing with his pharisaic critics. He
+rarely argued with them, and always assumed a tone of authority which was
+above challenge, asserting that the Son of Man had authority to forgive
+sins, was lord of the Sabbath, was greater than the temple or Jonah or
+Solomon. Moreover, in his positive teaching of the new truth he assumed
+such an authoritative tone that any who thought upon it could but remark
+the extraordinary claim involved in his simple "I say unto you." He wished
+also to win disciples to himself.
+
+134. The key to the ministry in Galilee is furnished in Jesus' answer to
+the message from John the Baptist. John in prison had heard of the works
+of his successor. Jesus did so much that promised a fulfilment of the
+Messianic hope, yet left so much undone, contradicting in so many ways the
+current idea of a Messiah by his studied avoidance of any demonstration,
+that the older prophet felt a momentary doubt of the correctness of his
+earlier conviction. It is in no way strange that he experienced a reaction
+from that exalted moment of insight when he pointed out Jesus as the Lamb
+of God, particularly after his restless activity had been caged within the
+walls of his prison. Jesus showed that he did not count it strange, by his
+treatment of John's quesestion and by his words about John after the
+messengers had gone. Yet in his reply he gently suggested that the
+question already had its answer if John would but look rightly for it. He
+simply referred to the things that were being done before the eyes of all,
+and asked John to form from them a conclusion concerning him who did them.
+One aid he offered to the imprisoned prophet,--a word from the Book of
+Isaiah (xxxv. 5f., lxi. 1f.),--and added a blessing for such as "should
+find nothing to stumble at in him." Here Jesus emphasized his works, and
+allowed his message to speak for itself; but he frankly indicated that he
+expected people to pass from wonder at his ministry to an opinion about
+himself. At Caesarea Philippi he showed to his disciples that this opinion
+about himself was the significant thing in his eyes. Throughout the
+ministry in Galilee, therefore, this twofold aim appears. Jesus would
+first divert attention from himself to his message, in order that he might
+win disciples to the kingdom of God as he conceived it. Having so attached
+them to his idea of the kingdom, he desired to be recognized as that
+kingdom's prince, the Messiah promised by God for his people. He retired
+behind his message in order that men might be drawn to the truth which he
+held dear, knowing that thus they would find themselves led captive to
+himself in a willing devotion.
+
+135. This aim explains his retirement when popularity pressed, his
+exacting teaching about the spirituality of the kingdom of God, and his
+injunctions of silence. He wished to be known, to be thought about, to be
+accepted as God's anointed, but he would have this only by a genuine
+surrender to his leadership. His disciples must own him master and follow
+him, however much he might disappoint their misconceptions. This aim, too,
+explains his frank self-assertions and exalted personal claims in
+opposition to official criticism. He would not be false to his own sense
+of masterhood, nor allow people to think him bold when his critics were
+away, and cowardly in their presence. Therefore, when needful, he invited
+attention to himself as greater than the temple or as lord of the
+Sabbath. This kind of self-assertion, however, served his purpose as well
+as his customary self-retirement, for it forced people to face the
+contradiction which he offered to the accepted religious ideas of their
+leaders.
+
+136. The method which Jesus chose has already been repeatedly
+indicated,--teaching and preaching on the one hand, and works of
+helpfulness to men on the other. The character of the teaching of this
+period is shown in three discourses,--the Sermon on the Mount, the
+Discourse in Parables, and the Instructions to the Twelve. The sermon on
+the mount is given in different forms in Matthew and Luke, that in Matthew
+being evidently the more complete, even after deduction has been made of
+those parts which Luke has assigned with high probability to a later time.
+This address was spoken to the disciples of Jesus found among the
+multitudes who flocked to him from all quarters. It opened with words of
+congratulation for those who, characterized by qualities often despised,
+were yet heirs of God's kingdom. The thought then passed to the
+responsibility of such heirs of the kingdom for the help of a needy world.
+Next, since much in the words and works of Jesus hitherto might have
+suggested to men that he was indifferent to the older religion of his
+people, he carefully explained that he came, not to set aside the old, but
+to realize the spiritual idea for which it stood, by establishing a more
+exacting standard of righteousness. This more exacting righteousness Jesus
+illustrated by a series of restatements of the older law, and then by a
+group of criticisms of current religious practice. The sermon closed with
+warnings against complacent censoriousness in judging other men's
+failures, and a solemn declaration of the vital seriousness of "these
+sayings of mine." The righteousness required by this new law is not only
+more exacting but unspeakably worthier than the old, being more simply
+manifested in common life, and demanding more intimate filial fellowship
+with the living God.
+
+137. The teachings included in the sermon by the first gospel, but placed
+later by Luke, supplement the sermon by bidding God's child to lead a
+trustful life, knowing that the heavenly Father cares for him. That Luke
+has omitted much which from Matthew's account clearly belonged to the
+original sermon may be explained by the fact that Gentile readers did not
+share the interest which Jesus' hearers had, and which the readers of the
+first gospel had, in the relation of the new gospel to the older law.
+Hence the restatement of older commands and the criticism of current
+practice was omitted. Similar to the teachings which the first gospel has
+included in the sermon, are many which Luke has preserved in the section
+peculiar to himself. It is not unlikely that they belong also to the
+Galilean ministry. They urge the same sincere, reverent life in the sight
+of God, the same trust in the heavenly Father, the same certainty of his
+love and care; and they do not have that peculiar note of impending
+judgment which entered into the teachings of Jesus after the confession at
+Caesarea Philippi.
+
+138. In the story of Mark, which is reproduced in the first and third
+gospels, the use of parable was first introduced in a way to attract the
+attention of the disciples, after pharisaic opposition to Jesus had become
+somewhat bitter and there was need of checking a too speedy culmination
+of opposition. He chose at that time a form of parable which was enigmatic
+to his disciples, and could but further puzzle hearers who had no sympathy
+with him and his message. Mark (iv. 12) states that this perplexity was in
+accordance with the purpose of Jesus. But it is equally clear that Jesus
+meant to teach the teachable as well as to perplex the critical by these
+illustrations, for in explaining the Sower he suggested that the disciples
+should have understood it without explanation (Mark iv. 13). Many of
+Jesus' parables, however, had no such enigmatic character, but were
+intended simply to help his hearers to understand him. He made use of this
+kind of teaching from first to last. The pictures of the wise and foolish
+builders with which the sermon on the mount concludes show that it was not
+the use of illustration which surprised the disciples in the parables
+associated with the Sower, but his use of such puzzling illustrations.
+Some of the parables of Luke's peculiar section may belong to the Galilean
+ministry, and even to the earlier stages of it. These have none of the
+enigmatic character; the parables of the last days of Jesus' life also
+seem to have been simple and clear to his hearers. The Oriental mind
+prefers the concrete to the abstract, and its teachers have ever made
+large use of illustration. Jesus stands unique, not in that he used
+parables, but in the simplicity and effective beauty of those which he
+used. These illustrations, whether Jesus intended them for the moment to
+enlighten or to confound, served always to set forth concretely some truth
+concerning the relation of men to God, or concerning his kingdom and their
+relation to it. The form of teaching was welcome to his hearers, and
+served as one of the attractions to draw men to him.
+
+139. The first gospel assigns another extended discourse to this Galilean
+period,--the Instructions to the Twelve. The mission of the twelve formed
+a new departure as Jesus saw the Galilean crisis approaching. He sought
+thereby to multiply his own work, and commissioned his disciples to heal
+and preach as he was doing. The restriction of their field to Israel
+(Matt. x. 5, 6) simply applied to them the rule he adopted for himself
+during the Galilean period (Matt. xv. 24). Comparison with the accounts in
+Mark and Luke, as well as the character of the instructions found in
+Matthew, show that here the first evangelist has followed his habit of
+gathering together teachings on the same general theme from different
+periods in Jesus' life. Much in the tenth chapter of Matthew indicates
+clearly that the ministry of Jesus had already passed the period of
+popularity, and that his disciples could now look for little but scorn and
+persecution. This was the situation at the end of Jesus' public life, and
+parallel sayings are found in the record of the last week in Jerusalem.
+
+140. When the teaching of the sermon and the parables is compared with
+Jesus' self-assertion in his replies to pharisaic criticism and blasphemy,
+the difference is striking. Ordinarily he avoided calling attention to
+himself, wishing men to form their opinion of him after they had learned
+to know him as he was. Yet when one looks beneath the surface of his
+teaching, the tone of authority which astonished the multitudes is
+identical with the calm self-confidence which replied to pharisaic
+censure: "The Son of Man hath authority on the earth to forgive sins."
+
+141. Jesus drew the multitudes after him not only by his teachings, but
+also by his mighty works. He certainly was for his contemporaries a
+wonder-worker and healer of disease, and, in order to appreciate the
+impression which he made, the miracles recorded in the gospels must be
+allowed to reveal what they can of his character. The mighty works which
+enchained attention in Galilee were chiefly cures of disease, with
+occasional exhibitions of power over physical nature,--such as the
+stilling of the tempest and the feeding of the five thousand. The
+significant thing about them is their uniform beneficence of purpose and
+simplicity of method. Nothing of the spectacular attached itself to them.
+Jesus repeatedly refused to the critical Pharisees a sign from heaven.
+This was not because he disregarded the importance of signs for his
+generation,--witness his appeal to his works in the reply to John (Matt.
+xi. 4-6); but he felt that in his customary ministry to the needy
+multitudes he had furnished signs in abundance, for his deeds both gave
+evidence of heavenly power and revealed the character of the Father who
+had sent him.
+
+142. One of the commonest of the ailments cured by Jesus is described in
+the gospels as demoniac possession, the popular idea being that evil
+spirits were accustomed to take up their abode in men, speaking with their
+tongues and acting through their bodies, at the same time afflicting them
+with various physical diseases. Six specific cures of such possession are
+recorded in the story of the Galilean ministry, besides general references
+to the cure of many that were possessed. Of these specific cases the
+Gadarene demoniac shows symptoms of violent insanity; the boy cured near
+Caesarea Philippi, those of epilepsy; in other cases the disease was more
+local, showing itself in deafness, or blindness, or both. In the cures
+recorded Jesus addressed the possessed with a command to the invading
+demon to depart. He was ordinarily greeted, either before or after such a
+command, with a loud outcry, often accompanied with a recognition of him
+as God's Holy One.
+
+143. The record of such maladies and their cure is not confined to the New
+Testament. The evil spirit which came upon King Saul is a similar case,
+and Josephus tells of Jewish exorcists who cured possessed persons by the
+use of incantations handed down from King Solomon. The early Christian
+fathers frequently argued the truth of Christianity from the way in which
+demons departed at the command of Christian exorcists, while in the middle
+ages and down to modern times belief in demoniac possession has been
+common, particularly among some of the more superstitious of the peasantry
+in Europe. Moreover, from missionaries in China and other eastern lands it
+is learned that diseases closely resembling the cases of possession
+recorded in the New Testament are frequently met with, and are often cured
+by native Christian ministers.
+
+144. The similarity of the symptoms of so-called possession to recognized
+mental and physical derangements such as insanity, epilepsy, and hysteria,
+suggests the conclusion that possession should be classed with other
+ailments due to ill adjustment of the relations of the mental and physical
+life. If this conclusion is valid, the idea of actual possession by evil
+spirits becomes only an ancient effort to interpret the mysterious
+symptoms in accordance with wide-spread primitive beliefs. This
+explanation would doubtless be generally adopted were it not that it seems
+to compromise either the integrity or the knowledge of Jesus. The gospels
+plainly represent him as treating the supposed demoniac influence as real,
+addressing in his cures not the invalid, but the invading demon. If he did
+this knowing that the whole view was a superstition, was he true to his
+mission to release mankind from its bondage to evil and sin? If he shared
+the superstition of his time, had he the complete knowledge necessary to
+make him the deliverer he claimed to be? These questions are serious and
+difficult, but they form a part of the general problem of the extent of
+Jesus' knowledge, and can be more intelligently discussed in connection
+with that whole problem (sects. 249-251). It is reasonable to demand,
+however, that any conclusion reached concerning the nature of possession
+in the time of Jesus must be considered valid for similar manifestations
+of disease in our own day.
+
+145. What astonished people in Jesus' cures was not so much that he healed
+the sick as that he did it with such evidence of personal authority. His
+cures and his teachings alike served to attract attention to himself and
+to invite question as to who he could be. Yet a far more powerful means to
+the end he had in view was the subtle, unobtrusive, personal influence
+which without their knowledge knit the hearts of a few to himself. In
+reality both his teaching and his cures were only means of
+self-disclosure. His permanent work during this Galilean period was the
+winning of personal friends. His chief agency in accomplishing his work
+was what Renan somewhat too romantically has called his "charm." It was
+that in him which drew to his side and kept with him the fishermen of
+Galilee and the publican of Capernaum, during months of constant
+disappointment of their preconceived religious ideas and Messianic hopes;
+it was that which won the confidence of the woman who was a sinner, and
+the constant devotion of Mary Magdalene and Susanna and the others who
+followed him "and ministered to him of their substance." The outstanding
+wonder of early Christianity is the complete transformation not only of
+life but of established religious ideas by the personal impress of Jesus
+on a Peter, a John, and a Paul. The secret of the new element of the
+Christian religion--salvation through personal attachment to Jesus
+Christ--is simply this personal power of the man of Nazareth. The
+multitudes followed because they saw wonderful works or heard wonderful
+words; many because they hoped at length to find in the new prophet the
+champion of their hopes in deliverance from Roman bondage. But these
+sooner or later fell away, disappointed in their desire to use the new
+leader for their own ends. It was only because from out the multitudes
+there were a few who could answer, "To whom shall we go? thou hast the
+words of eternal life," when Jesus asked, "Will ye also go away?" that the
+work in Galilee did not end in complete failure. These few had felt his
+personal power, and they became the nucleus of a new religion of love to a
+personal Saviour.
+
+146. The test of the personal attachment of the few came shortly after the
+execution of John the Baptist by Antipas. Word of this tragedy was
+brought to Jesus by John's disciples about the time that he and the twelve
+returned to Capernaum from their tour of preaching. At the suggestion of
+Jesus they withdrew to the eastern side of the lake in search of rest. It
+is not unlikely that the little company also wished to avoid for the time
+the territory of the tyrant who had just put John to death, for Jesus was
+not yet ready for the crisis of his own life. Such a desire for seclusion
+would be intensified by the continued impetuous enthusiasm of the
+multitudes who flocked about him again in Capernaum. In fact, so insistent
+was their interest in Jesus that they would not allow him the quiet he
+sought, but followed around the lake in great numbers when they learned
+that he had taken ship for the other side. He who came not to be
+ministered unto but to minister could not repel the crowds who came to
+him, and he at once "welcomed them, and spake to them of the kingdom of
+God, and them that had need of healing he healed" (Luke ix. 11). The day
+having passed in this ministry, he multiplied the small store of bread and
+fish brought by his disciples in order to feed the weary people. This work
+of power seemed to some among the multitudes to be the last thing needed
+to prove that Jesus was to be their promised deliverer, and they "were
+about to come and take him by force and make him king" (John vi. 15), when
+he withdrew from them and spent the night in prayer.
+
+147. This sudden determination on the part of the multitudes to force the
+hand of Jesus was probably due to the prevalence of an idea, found also in
+the later rabbinic writers, that the Messiah should feed his people as
+Moses had provided them manna in the desert. The rebuff which Jesus
+quietly gave them did not cool their ardor, until on the following day, in
+the synagogue in Capernaum, he plainly taught them that they had quite
+missed the significance of his miracle. They thought of loaves and
+material sustenance. He would have had them find in these a sign that he
+could also supply their spirits' need, and he insisted that this, and this
+alone, was his actual mission. From the first the popular enthusiasm had
+had to ignore many contradictions of its cherished notions. But his power
+and the indescribable force of his personality had served hitherto to hold
+them to a hope that he would soon discard the perplexing role which he had
+chosen for the time to assume, and take up avowedly the proper work of the
+Messiah. This last refusal to accept what seemed to them to be his evident
+duty caused a revulsion in the popular feeling, and "many of his disciples
+turned back and walked no more with him" (John vi. 66). The time of
+sifting had come. Jesus had known that such a rash determination to make
+him king was possible to the Galilean multitudes, and that whenever it
+should come it must be followed by a disillusionment. Now the open
+ministry had run its course. As the multitudes were turning back and
+walking no more with him, he turned to the twelve with the question, "Will
+ye also go away?" and found that with them his method had borne fruit.
+They clung to him in spite of disillusionment, for in him they had found
+what was better than their preconceptions.
+
+148. It is the fourth gospel that shows clearly the critical significance
+of this event. The others tell nothing of the sudden determination of the
+multitude, nor of the revulsion of feeling that followed Jesus' refusal to
+yield to their will. Yet these other gospels indicate in their narratives
+that from this time on Jesus avoided the scenes of his former labors, and
+show that when from time to time he returned to the neighborhood of
+Capernaum he was met by such a spirit of hostility that he withdrew again
+immediately to regions where he and his disciples could have time for
+quiet intercourse.
+
+149. The months of toil in Galilee show results hardly more significant
+than the grain of mustard seed or the little leaven. Popular enthusiasm
+had risen, increased, reached its climax, and waned. Official opposition
+had early been aroused, and had continued with a steadily deepened
+intensity. The wonderful teaching with authority, and the signs wrought on
+them that were sick, had been as seed sown by the wayside or in thorny or
+in stony ground, except for the little handful of hearers who had felt the
+personal power of Jesus and had surrendered to it, ready henceforth to
+follow where he should lead, whether or not it should be in a path of
+their choice. These, however, were the proof that those months had been a
+time of rewarded toil.
+
+
+
+
+IV
+
+The Ministry in Galilee--The New Lesson
+
+
+
+150. With the crisis in Capernaum the ministry in Galilee may be said in
+one sense to have come to an end. Yet Jesus did not immediately go up to
+Jerusalem. Once and again he was found in or near Capernaum, while the
+time between these visits was spent in regions to the north and northwest.
+In fact, the disciples were far from ready for the trial their loyalty was
+to meet before they had seen the end of the opposition to their Lord. The
+time intervening between the collapse of popularity and Jesus' final
+departure from Galilee may well be thought of, then, as a time of further
+discipline of the faith of his followers and of added instruction
+concerning the truth for which their Master stood. The length of this
+supplementary period in Galilee is not definitely known. It extended from
+the Passover to about the feast of Tabernacles (April to October, see John
+vi. 4 and vii. 2). The record of what Jesus did and said in this time is
+meagre, only enough being reported to show that it was a time of repeated
+withdrawals from Galilee and of private instruction for the disciples.
+
+151. The disciples were trained in faith by further exhibitions of the
+complete break between their Master and the leaders of the people. This
+break appeared most clearly, soon after the feeding of the multitudes, in
+his reply to a criticism of the disciples for disregard of pharisaic
+traditions concerning hand-washing (Mark vii. 1-23). The critics insisted
+on the sacredness of their traditions. Jesus in reply scored them for
+disregard for the plain demands of God's law, and with a word freed men
+from bondage to the whole ritual of ceremonial cleanness and uncleanness
+(Mark vii. 19), thus attacking Judaism in its citadel.
+
+152. It was immediately after this that he withdrew with his disciples to
+the regions of Tyre. On his return a little later to the west side of the
+sea of Galilee he was met by hostile Pharisees with a demand for a sign
+(Mark viii. 11-13), and after refusing to satisfy the unbelieving
+challenge,--signs in plenty having been before their eyes since the
+opening of his work among them,--he and his disciples withdrew again from
+Galilee towards Caesarea Philippi. As they went on their way, Jesus
+distinctly warned them against the influence of their leaders, religious
+and political (Mark viii. 14f.). So far as our records tell us Jesus was
+but once again in Capernaum. Then he was met with the demand that he pay
+the temple tax (Matt. xvii. 24-27). This tax was usually collected just
+before the Passover. As this last visit to Capernaum was probably not far
+from the feast of Tabernacles, Jesus seems to have been in arrears. This
+may have been due to his absence from Capernaum at the time of the
+collection. The prompt answer of Peter may indicate that he knew that in
+other years Jesus had paid this tax, as it is altogether probable that he
+did. The question, however, implies official suspicion that Jesus was
+seeking to evade payment, and exhibits further the straining of the
+relations between him and the Jewish leaders. The conversation of Jesus
+with Peter served to show his clear consciousness of superiority, and was
+a further summons to the disciples to choose between him and his
+opponents.
+
+153. Within the limits of the Holy Land the faith of the disciples had
+been constantly tested by the increasing opposition between their master
+and their old leaders. When the little company withdrew to Gentile
+regions, however, Jesus had regard for their Jewish feeling. The time
+would come when he would send them forth to make disciples of all the
+nations. For the present he made it his business to nurture their faith in
+him, and when appealed to for help by one of these foreigners, he refused
+to "take the children's bread and cast it to the dogs" (Mark vii. 27).
+Jesus had assumed a different attitude to the Samaritans before the
+opening of his work in Galilee, and in general had shown ready sympathy
+for all in distress. In fact it seems as if he welcomed the Syrophoenician
+woman's great faith with a feeling of relief from a restriction that he
+had felt it wise to adopt for his work in Phoenicia. It appears from his
+later attitude in the Gentile regions of the Decapolis (Mark vii. 31-37;
+Matt. xv. 21-31) that, having once shown his regard for the limitations of
+his disciples' faith in the case of the Syrophoenician, he felt no longer
+obliged to check his natural readiness to help the needy who sought him
+out. Although in one instance, for reasons no longer known to us, Jesus
+charged a man whom he had cured to keep it secret (Mark vii. 32-37), in
+general his work in these heathen regions seems, after the visit to
+Phoenicia, to have been quite unrestrained, and to have produced the same
+enthusiasm that had earlier brought the multitudes to him in Galilee (Mark
+viii. 1f.).
+
+154. This continued activity of healing must have served greatly to
+strengthen the determination of the disciples to cling to Jesus, let the
+leaders say what they would. We can only conjecture what various teachings
+filled the days, and what personal fellowship the disciples had with him
+who spake as never man spake. There was need for advance in the faith of
+these loyal friends. Their enthusiastic declaration when the multitudes
+turned away could easily have been followed by reaction. Each new
+exhibition of the irrevocableness of the break between Jesus and the
+leaders was a severe test of their loyalty. These weeks of withdrawal were
+doubtless filled, therefore, with new proofs that Jesus had the words of
+eternal life.
+
+155. Before he put to his disciples the crucial question, he who knew what
+was in man (John ii. 25) was confident that they were ready for it. It was
+after the rebuff in Galilee, when the unbelieving Pharisees had again
+demanded a sign of his authority, and after he had definitely warned the
+disciples against the influence of their leaders, that Jesus led his
+little company far to the north towards the slopes of Hermon. There, near
+the recently built Caesarea Philippi, Jesus plainly asked his disciples
+what the people thought of him (Mark viii. 27-30). We have seen how
+gradually sentiment in Galilee concerning the new teacher crystallized
+until, from thinking him a prophet, the people, first timidly, then
+boldly, concluded that such a teacher and worker of signs must be the
+promised king. We have seen also how the popular estimate changed when
+Jesus refused to be guided by the popular will. Now, after the lapse of a
+few weeks, in answer to his inquiry concerning the common opinion of him,
+he is told that the people look on him as a prophet, in whom the spirit of
+the men of old had been revived; but not a whisper remains of the former
+readiness to hail him as the Messiah. It was in the face of such a
+definite revulsion in the popular feeling, in the face, too, of the
+increasing hostility of all the great in the nation, that Peter answered
+for the twelve that they believed Jesus to be the Messiah, God's appointed
+Deliverer of his people (Matt. xvi. 16 ff.). In form this confession was
+no more than Nathanael had rendered on his first meeting with Jesus (John
+i. 49), and was practically the same as the report made by Andrew to Simon
+his brother, and by Philip to Nathanael (John i. 41, 45). In both idea and
+expression the reply to Jesus' question, "Will ye also go away?" (John vi.
+68, 69), was virtually equivalent to this later confession of Peter. Yet
+Jesus found in Peter's answer at Caesarea Philippi something so significant
+and remarkable that he declared that the faith that could answer thus
+could spring only from a heavenly source (Matt. xvi. 17). The early
+confessions were in fact no more than expressions of more or less
+intelligent expectation that Jesus would fulfil the confessor's hopes. The
+confession at Capernaum followed one of Jesus' mightiest exhibitions of
+power, and was given before the disciples had had time to consider the
+extent of the defection from their Master. Here at Caesarea Philippi,
+however, the word was spoken immediately after an acknowledgment that the
+people had no more thought of finding in Jesus their Messiah. It was
+spoken after the disciples had had repeated evidence of the determined
+hostility of the leaders to Jesus. All the disappointment he had given to
+their cherished ideas was emphasized by the isolation in which the little
+company now found itself. One after another their ideas of how a Messiah
+should act and what he should be had received contradiction in what Jesus
+was and did. Yet after the weeks of withdrawal from Galilee, Peter could
+only in effect assert anew what he had declared at Capernaum,--that Jesus
+had the words of eternal life. It was a faith chastened by perplexity, and
+taught at length to follow the Lord let him lead where he would. It was an
+actual surrender to his mastery over thought and life. Here at length
+Jesus had won what he had been seeking during all his work in Galilee,--a
+corner-stone on which to build up the new community of the kingdom of God.
+Peter was the first to confess openly to this simple surrender to the full
+mastery of Jesus. He was the first stone in the foundation of the new
+"building of God."
+
+156. In his commendation of Peter Jesus revealed the secret of his method
+in the work which, because of this confession, he could now proceed to do
+more rapidly. He cuts loose utterly from the method of the scribes. He,
+the new teacher, commits to them no body of teaching which they are to
+give to others as the key to eternal life. The salvation they are to
+preach is a salvation by personal attachment; that is, by faith. The rock
+on which he will build his church is personal attachment, faith that is
+ready to leave all and follow him. Peter, not the substance of his
+confession, was its corner-stone, but Peter, as the first clear confessor
+of a faith that is ready to leave all, a faith whose very nature it is to
+be contagious, and associate with itself others of "like precious faith."
+His faith was as yet meagre, as he showed at once; but it was genuine, the
+surrender of his heart to his Lord's guidance and control. This was the
+distinctive mark of the new religious life inaugurated by Jesus of
+Nazareth.
+
+157. If anything were needed to prove that the idea that he was the
+Messiah was no new thought to Jesus, it could be found in the new lesson
+which he at once began to teach his disciples. The confession of Peter
+indicated to him simply that the first stage in his work had been
+accomplished. He immediately began to prepare the disciples for the end
+which for some time past he had seen to be inevitable. He taught them more
+than that his death was inevitable; he declared that it was divinely
+necessary that he should be put to death as a result of the hostility of
+the Jews to him ("the Son of Man must suffer"). All the contradictions
+which he had offered to the Messianic ideas of his disciples paled into
+insignificance beside this one. When they saw how he failed to meet the
+hopes that were commonly held, they needed only to urge themselves to
+patience, expecting that in time he would cast off the strange mask and
+take to himself his power and reign. But it was too much for the late
+confessed and very genuine faith of Peter to hear that the Messiah must
+die. So unthinkable was the idea, that he assumed that Jesus had become
+unduly discouraged by the relentlessness of the opposition which had
+driven him first out of Judea and later out of Galilee. Accordingly Peter
+sought to turn his Master's mind to a brighter prospect, asserting that
+his forebodings could not be true. It is hard for us to conceive the chill
+of heart which must have followed the glow of his confession when he heard
+the stern rebuke of Jesus, who found in Peter's later words the voice of
+the Evil One, as before in his confession he had recognized the Spirit of
+God.
+
+158. The sternness of Jesus' rebuke escapes extravagance only in view of
+the fact that the words of Peter had greatly affected Jesus himself. At
+the outset of his public life he had faced the difficulty of doing the
+Messiah's work in his Father's way, and had withstood the temptation to
+accommodate himself to the ideas of his world, declaring allegiance to God
+alone (Matt. iv. 10). Yet once and again in the course of his ministry he
+showed that this allegiance cost him much. Luke reports a saying in which
+Jesus confessed that, in view of this prospect of death which Peter was
+opposing so eagerly, he was greatly "straitened" (xii. 50), and at the
+near approach of the end "his soul was exceeding sorrowful" (Mark xiv.
+34). It should never be forgotten that Jesus was a Jew, and heir to all
+the Messianic ideas of his people. In these, glory, not rejection and
+death, was to be the Messiah's portion. That he was always superior to
+current expectations is no sign that he did not feel their force. They
+quite mistake who find the bitterness of Jesus' "cup" simply in his
+physical shrinking from suffering. The temptation was ever with him to
+find some other way to the goal of his work than that which led through
+death. What Peter said hid a force greater than any word of the
+disciple's. It voiced the crucial temptation of Jesus' life. The answer
+addressed to Peter showed that his words had drawn the thought of Jesus
+away from the disciple to that earlier temptation which was never absent
+from him more than "for a season" (Luke iv. 13).
+
+159. Jesus was not content with a mere rebuke of his impulsive disciple.
+In his first announcement of his death as necessary he had also declared
+that it would not be a tragedy, but would be followed by a resurrection.
+This the disciples could not appreciate, as they found the idea of the
+Messiah's death unthinkable. Jesus, however, saw in it the general law,
+that life must ever win its goal by disregard of itself, and called his
+disciples also to walk in the path of self-sacrifice. In order that the
+new lesson might not quite overwhelm the yet feeble faith of these
+followers, Jesus assured them that after his death and resurrection he
+would come as Messianic Judge and fulfil the hopes which his prediction of
+death seemed to blot out utterly (Mark viii. 34 to ix. 1).
+
+160. That this new lesson was a difficult one for master as well as
+disciple seems to be shown by the experience which came a few days later
+to Jesus and his three closest friends. He had withdrawn with them to a
+"high mountain" for prayer (Luke ix. 28f.). While he prayed the light of
+heaven came into his face, and his disciples were granted a vision of him
+in celestial glory, conversing with Moses and Elijah, representatives of
+Old Testament law and prophecy. The theme of the discourse was that death
+which had so troubled the disciples, and which then and later weighed
+heavily on Jesus' own spirit (Luke ix. 31). At the conclusion of the
+vision came a divine injunction to hear him who now was superseding law
+and prophets. The effect of the transfiguration can only be inferred. It
+doubtless brought strengthening to Jesus for his difficult task (compare
+Heb. v. 7), and at least a silencing of remonstrance when he spoke again
+to his disciples of his approaching death. This he did while the little
+company was making its way back towards Capernaum (Mark ix. 30-32), and
+repeatedly later before the end came (Mark x. 32-34; Matt. xxvi. 1f.).
+
+161. On Jesus' return from the mountain, he was met by the despairing plea
+of a father and healed his epileptic son, out of whom the disciples were
+unable to cast the demon (Mark ix. 14-29; compare vi. 7, 13). It may have
+been the shock which the new lesson had given the disciples that accounted
+for the reproof of their lack of faith. The new evidence of Jesus' power,
+coupled with this reproof, seems to have restored their confidence in him.
+Perhaps, too, there was something contagious about the spirit of hope with
+which the three came from their vision of the Master's glory. For,
+although they were not free to tell what they had seen (Mark ix. 9), they
+could not have concealed the fact that their faith had received great
+encouragement. Whatever the cause, hope revived for the disciples, for on
+the way back to Capernaum a dispute arose among them concerning personal
+precedence in the kingdom which their Master should soon set up. In this
+rapid reaction from unbelief to faith the disciples seem to have forgotten
+the lesson of self-denial recently given them (Mark viii. 34, 35). In
+Peter's confession the corner-stone of the church was laid; but the
+superstructure was yet far out of sight. Although his own soul, taking its
+way down into the valley of shadows, might rightly have asked for sympathy
+and complained of its lack, Jesus simply set a little child in the midst
+of them, and taught them again the first lessons of faith,--gentle
+humility and trust. Thereby he rebuked the spirit of rivalry and asked of
+his disciples a generous, unselfish, and forgiving spirit (Matt, xviii.
+1-35).
+
+162. It was possibly at this time, certainly near the end of the Galilean
+ministry, that Jesus was approached by his own brethren, who urged him to
+try to win the capital. Their attitude was not one of indifference, though
+clearly not one of actual faith in his claim (John vii. 2-5). They seem to
+have felt that Jesus had not made adequate effort to secure a following in
+Jerusalem, and that he could not hope for success in his work if he
+continued to confine his attention to Galilee. Jesus knew conditions in
+Jerusalem far better than they did, and had no idea as yet of resuming a
+general ministry there. He therefore dismissed the suggestion, and left
+his brethren to go up to the feast disappointed in their desire that he
+make a demonstration at that time. Yet Jesus still yearned over Jerusalem.
+He knew in what organized opposition a general demonstration would result.
+There were some, however, in the capital who had real faith in him. His
+repeated efforts to win Jerusalem mean nothing if we do not recognize that
+he hoped against hope that many of the people might yet turn and let him
+lead them. With some such purpose, therefore, he went up a little later
+without ostentation, and quietly appeared in the temple teaching. The
+effect of this unannounced arrival was that the opposition was not ready
+for him. The multitude was compelled to form an opinion of him for itself,
+and he had opportunity to make his own impression for a time,
+independently of official suggestion as to what ought to be thought of
+him. This course resulted in a division of sentiment among the people, so
+much so that when the leaders, both secular and religious, sought to
+compass his arrest, the officers sent to take Jesus were themselves
+entranced by his teaching. In spite of the wish of the leaders Jesus
+continued to teach, and many of the people began to think of him with
+favor. When, however, he tried to lead them on to become "disciples
+indeed," they took offence, and showed that they were not ready yet to
+follow him. This effort to "gather the children of Jerusalem" resulted in
+new proof that they preferred his death to his message (John vii. 2 to
+viii. 59).
+
+163. Interesting evidence of the fact that "Jesus did many other signs
+which are not written" in our accepted gospels is found in the story of
+his dealing with an adulteress whom the Pharisees brought to him for
+judgment (John vii. 53 to viii. 11). This narrative had no secure place in
+any of the gospels in the earliest days, yet was so highly regarded that
+men would not let it go. Hence in the manuscripts which contain it, it is
+found in various places. Some give it in Luke after chapter xxi., some at
+the end of the Gospel of John, one placing it after John vii. 36. Many
+considerations combine to prove that it was no part of the Gospel of John,
+but as many show that it preserves a true incident in the ministry of
+Jesus. In scene it belongs to the temple, therefore in time to one of the
+Jerusalem visits. To which of those visits it should he assigned is not
+now discoverable. The ancient copyists who assigned it to this feast of
+Tabernacles, chose as well as later students can. If the incident belongs
+to this visit, it illustrates the patience and the keen insight of Jesus
+in his effort to win self-satisfied Jerusalem.
+
+164. John is silent concerning the doings of Jesus after the feast of
+Tabernacles. In x. 22 he notes that Jesus was at Jerusalem at the feast of
+Dedication, which followed two months later. It seems probable that after
+his hurried and private journey to the feast of Tabernacles (John vii. 10)
+he returned to Galilee and gathered to himself again the little company of
+his loyal followers, preparatory to that final journey to Jerusalem which
+should bring the end foreseen, unless, perchance, Israel should yet repent
+and turn unto the Lord. As the shadow deepened over his own life, and the
+persistency of the unbelief of his people appeared more and more clearly,
+the teachings of Jesus took on a new note of tragedy which was not
+characteristic of the earlier preaching in Galilee. Even when his topic
+was similar and his treatment of it not unlike some earlier discourse,
+there appeared in it here and there a warning of impending judgment. This
+is seen as early as the reply to the criticism of the disciples for
+disregard of traditions (Matt. xv. 13f.). Many discourses in the section
+peculiar to Luke show by the presence of this note of doom that they
+belong to this later time rather than to the Galilean period proper. (See
+the table prefixed to Chapter V.)
+
+165. Two years had nearly passed since Jesus withdrew from Judea to start
+his ministry anew in a different region and following a different method.
+The fruit of that ministry was small, but significant. His proclamation of
+the coming kingdom and his call to a deeper righteousness, coupled as they
+were with his works of heavenly power, had won at first an enthusiastic
+following. Realizing that an uncontrolled enthusiasm would thwart his
+purpose to introduce a kingdom of the spirit, Jesus had kept his Messianic
+claim in the background, seeking first to win disciples to the kingdom
+that he was proclaiming. Yet emphasize his message as he would, he could
+not conceal his personal significance. In fact he wished by winning
+disciples to his doctrine of the kingdom to attach followers to himself,
+the bearer of the words of eternal life. The great development of popular
+enthusiasm did not deceive him, nor did he hesitate, when the multitude
+would force him to do its will, to show clearly how far he was from being
+a fulfiller of their desires. By successive disappointments of the popular
+ideas he sifted his followers until a few were ready to follow him
+whithersoever he might lead. With these he allowed time for the fact of
+his unpopularity to appear, giving them opportunity to consider the
+relentless hostility of their national leaders to the teacher from
+Galilee. Then when the time was ripe he drew from the loyal few their
+declaration that they would follow him in spite of disappointments and
+unpopularity, their confession that he had come to be to them more than
+their cherished preconceptions, that he had won the mastery over their
+thought and life. He began then to prepare them for the end he had long
+foreseen, and at length, after giving them time for that perplexing
+mystery to find place in their hearts, he was ready to move on toward the
+crisis which he knew his public appearance in Jerusalem would precipitate.
+Before setting out on this journey his desire still to seek to win
+Jerusalem, if perchance it would repent, led him to visit the capital
+unannounced at the feast of Tabernacles. This taught him that, however
+ready some might be superficially to believe in him, he could as yet win
+in Jerusalem only hatred and plots against his life, and he returned to
+his faithful friends in Galilee.
+
+   Outline of Events in the Journey through Perea to Jerusalem
+
+
+   The final departure from Galilee--Matt. xix. 1, 2; viii. 19-22; Mark x.
+   1; Luke ix. 51-62.
+
+   The mission of the seventy--Matt. xi. 20-30; Luke x. 1-24.
+
+   The visit to the feast of Dedication--John ix. 1 to x. 39.
+
+   Possibly at this time: The parable of the Good Samaritan--Luke x.
+   25-37. The visit to Mary and Martha--Luke x. 38-42.
+
+   Return to Perea--John x. 40-42.
+
+   The visit to Bethany and the raising of Lazarus--John xi. 1-46.
+
+   The withdrawal to Ephraim--John xi. 47-54.
+
+   Events connected with the last journey to Jerusalem, which cannot be
+   more definitely located:
+
+   The question whether few are saved--Luke xiii. 22-30.
+
+   Reply to the warning against Herod, probably near the close--Luke xiii.
+   31-35.
+
+   The cure of ten lepers--Luke xvii. 11-19.
+
+   The question of the Pharisees concerning divorce--Matt. xix. 3-12; Mark
+   x. 2-12.
+
+   The blessing of little children--Matt. xix. 13-15; Mark x. 13-16; Luke
+   xviii. 15-17.
+
+   The question of the rich young ruler--Matt. xix. 16 to xx. 16; Mark x.
+   17-31; Luke xviii. 18-30.
+
+   The third prediction of death and resurrection--Matt xx. 17-19; Mark x.
+   32-34; Luke xviii. 31-34.
+
+   The ambitious request of the sons of Zebedee--Matt. xx. 20-28; Mark x.
+   35-45.
+
+   The last stage, Jericho to Jerusalem:
+
+   The blind men near Jericho--Matt. xx. 29-34; Mark x. 46-52; Luke xviii.
+   35-43.
+
+   The visit to Zacchaeus--Luke xix. 1-10.
+
+   The parable of the pounds (minae)--Luke xix. 11-28. Events and
+   discourses found in Luke ix. 51 to xviii. 14, which probably belong
+   after the confession of Peter, and very likely to some stage of the
+   journey to Jerusalem:
+
+   Woes against the Pharisees, uttered at a Pharisee's table--Luke xi.
+   37-54.
+
+   Warnings against the spirit of pharisaism--Luke xii. 1-59.
+
+   Comment on the slaughter of Galileans by Pilate--Luke xiii. 1-9.
+
+   Discourse on counting the cost of discipleship--Luke xiv. 25-35.
+
+   Discourse on the coming of the kingdom--Luke xvii. 20-37.
+
+   Parable of the Unjust Judge--Luke xviii. 1-8.
+
+   Parable of the Pharisee and the Publican--Luke xviii. 9-14.
+
+
+
+
+V
+
+The Journey through Perea to Jerusalem
+
+
+
+166. The fourth gospel says that after the visit to Jerusalem at the feast
+of Dedication Jesus withdrew beyond Jordan to the place where John at the
+first was baptizing (x. 40). Matthew and Mark also say that at the close
+of the ministry in Galilee Jesus departed and came into the borders of
+Judea and beyond Jordan, and that in this new region the multitudes again
+flocked to him, and he resumed his ministry of teaching (Matt. xix. 1f.;
+Mark x. 1). What he did and taught at this time is not shown at all by
+John, and only in scant fashion by the other two. They tell of a
+discussion with the Pharisees concerning divorce (Mark x. 2-12); of the
+welcome extended by Jesus to certain little children (Mark x. 13-16); of
+the disappointment of a rich young ruler, who wished to learn from Jesus
+the way of life, but loved better his great possessions (Mark x. 17-31);
+of a further manifestation of the unlovely spirit of rivalry among the
+disciples in the request of James and John for the best places in the
+kingdom (Mark x. 35-45),--a request following in the records directly
+after another prediction by Jesus of his death and resurrection (Mark x.
+32-34). Then, after a visit to Jericho (Luke xviii. 35 to xix. 28), these
+records come into coincidence with John in the account of the Messianic
+entry into Jerusalem just before the last Passover.
+
+167. The fourth gospel tells in addition of a considerable activity of
+Jesus in and near Jerusalem during this period. In making the journey
+beyond Jordan start from Jerusalem (x. 40), John shows that Jesus must
+have returned to the capital after his withdrawal from the feast of
+Tabernacles. When and how this took place is not indicated. Later, after
+his retirement from the feast of Dedication Jesus hastened at the summons
+of his friends from beyond Jordan to Bethany when Lazarus died (xi. 1-7).
+From Bethany he went not to the other side of Jordan again, but to Ephraim
+(xi. 54), a town on the border between Judea and Samaria, and from there
+he started towards Jerusalem when the Passover drew near. This record of
+John has, as Dr. Sanday has recently remarked (HastBD II. 630), so many
+marks of verisimilitude that it must be accepted as a true tradition. It
+demands thus that in our conception of the last journey from Galilee room
+be found for several excursions to Jerusalem or its neighborhood. One of
+these at least--to the feast of Dedication (x. 22)--represents another
+effort to "gather the children of Jerusalem." While not without success,
+for at least the blind man restored by Jesus gave him the full faith he
+sought (ix. 35-38), it showed with fuller clearness the determined
+hostility to Jesus of the influential class (x. 39).
+
+168. It has been customary to find in the long section peculiar to Luke
+(ix. 51 to xviii. 14) a fuller account of the Perean ministry, as it has
+been called. For it opens with a final departure from Galilee, and comes
+at its close into parallelism with the record of Matthew and Mark. Yet
+some parts of this section in Luke belong in the earlier Galilean
+ministry. The blasphemy of the Pharisees (xi. 14-36) is clearly identical
+with the incident recorded in Mark iii. 22-30, and Matt. xii. 22-45; while
+several incidents and discourses (see outline prefixed to Chapter III.)
+bear so plainly the marks of the ministry before the revulsion of popular
+favor, that it is easiest to think of them as actually belonging to the
+earlier time, but assigned by Luke to this peculiar section because he
+found no clear place offered for them in the record of Mark. Not a little,
+however, of what Luke records here manifestly belongs to the time when
+Jesus referred openly to his rejection by the Jewish people. The note of
+tragedy characteristic of later discourses appears in the replies of Jesus
+to certain would-be disciples (ix. 57-62), and in his warning that his
+followers count the cost of discipleship (xiv. 25-35). The woes spoken at
+a Pharisee's table (xi. 37-52), the warning to the disciples against
+pharisaism (xii. 1-12), and the encouragement of the "little flock" (xii.
+22-34), with many other paragraphs from this part of the gospel (see
+outline at the head of this chapter), evidently were spoken at the time
+of the approaching end. Some narratives reflect the neighborhood of
+Jerusalem, and naturally corroborate the indications in the fourth gospel
+that Jesus was repeatedly at the capital during this time. The parable of
+the good Samaritan, for instance, must have been spoken in Judea, else why
+choose the road from Jerusalem to Jericho for the illustration? The visit
+to Mary and Martha shows Jesus at Bethany, and the parable of the Pharisee
+and the Publican, naming the temple as the place of prayer, belongs
+naturally to Judea.
+
+169. The effort to find the definite progress of events in this part of
+Luke has not been successful. There are three hints of movement towards
+Jerusalem,--the introductory mention of the departure from Galilee (ix.
+51); a statement that Jesus went on his way through cities and villages,
+journeying on unto Jerusalem (xiii. 22); and again a reference to passing
+through the midst of Samaria and Galilee on the way to Jerusalem (xvii.
+11). The attempt to make the third of these belong actually to the last
+stages of the final journey seems artificial. Confessedly the expression
+"through the midst of Samaria and Galilee" is obscure. It is much easier
+to understand, however, if the journey so described is identified with the
+visit to Samaria with which the departure from Galilee opened. It seems
+probable that Luke found these records of events and teachings in Jesus'
+life, and was unable to learn exactly their connection in time and place,
+so placed them after the close of the Galilean story and before the
+account of the passion, much as later some copyist found the story of the
+adulteress (John vii. 53 to viii. 11), and, certain that it was a true
+incident, gave it a place in connection with the visit to the feast of
+Tabernacles (perhaps influenced by John viii. 15). It must always be
+remembered that the earliest apostolic writing--Matthew's Logia--probably
+consisted of just such disconnected records (see sects. 28, 42), and that,
+as Juelicher (Einleitung i. d. NT. 235) has said, the early church was not
+interested in _when_ Jesus said or did anything. Its interest was in
+_what_ he said and did.
+
+170. The time of the departure from Galilee for Jerusalem may be set with
+much probability not long before the feast of the Dedication in December;
+for at that feast Jesus was again in Jerusalem, and from it he returned to
+Perea (John x. 22, 40-42). He started southward through Samaria (Luke ix.
+51 ff.), and probably in connection with the early stages of the journey
+he sent out the seventy "into every city and place whither he himself was
+about to come" (Luke x. 1). It is not unlikely that, after the sending out
+of these heralds, he went with a few disciples to make one more effort to
+turn the heart of Jerusalem to himself (John ix., x.). It is impossible to
+determine whither the seventy were sent. The "towns and cities" whither
+Jesus was about to come may have included some from all portions of the
+land, not excepting Judea. The matter must be left in considerable
+obscurity. This, however, may be said, that the reasons offered for
+holding that the story of the sending out of the seventy is only a
+"doublet" of the mission of the twelve are not conclusive (see sect. A
+68). The connection in Luke of the woes against Capernaum, Bethsaida, and
+Chorazin with the instruction of the seventy is very natural, and marks
+this mission as belonging to the close of the Galilean period, while the
+mission of the twelve belongs to the height of Jesus' popularity.
+
+171. Our knowledge of Jesus' visit to the feast of Dedication is due to
+John's interest in the cure at about that time of one born blind (John
+ix., x.). The prejudice of the sanhedrists who excommunicated the man for
+his loyalty to Jesus led him in indignation to contrast their method of
+caring for God's "sheep" with his own love and sympathy and genuine
+ministry to their needs. He saw clearly that his course must end in death,
+unless a great change should come over his enemies; yet, as the Good
+Shepherd, he was ready to lay down his life for the sheep, rather than
+leave them to the heartlessness of leaders who cared only for themselves
+(x. 11-18). The critics of Jesus could not, or would not, understand his
+charge against them, and accused him of madness for his extraordinary
+claims. There were some, however, who could not credit the notion that
+Jesus had a devil (John x. 21). It is possible that it was at this time
+that the lawyer questioned him about the breadth of interpretation to be
+given to the word "neighbor" in the law of love, and was answered by the
+parable of the Good Samaritan (Luke x. 25-37). Possibly the parable of the
+Pharisee and the Publican (Luke xviii. 9-14) belongs also to this time. In
+general, however, the visit proved anew that Jerusalem was in no mood to
+accept Jesus (John x. 24-39). His enemies sought to draw from him a
+declaration of his claim to be the Messiah, and Jesus appealed to his
+works, asserting that only their incorrigible prejudice prevented their
+recognizing his claims. He added that his Father, with whom he was ever in
+perfect accord, had drawn some faithful followers to him, and thereupon,
+angered by his claim to close kinship with God, they appealed to the rough
+logic of violence (John x. 31-39; compare viii. 59).
+
+172. After this added attempt to win Jerusalem Jesus withdrew to the
+region beyond Jordan, where John had carried on his ministry to the eager
+multitudes. Here he anew attracted great attention, causing people to
+contrast his ministry with the less remarkable work of John, and to
+acknowledge that John's testimony to him was true (John x. 40-42).
+Possibly it was in this place that the seventy found Jesus when they
+returned to report the success of their mission (Luke x. 17-24), for the
+thanksgiving which Jesus rendered for the faith of the common people in
+contrast with the unbelief of the "wise and prudent" might well express
+his feeling after the fresh evidence he had at the feast of Dedication
+that Jerusalem would none of his mission. The invitation to all the heavy
+laden to take his yoke illustrates, though under another figure, his claim
+to be the Good Shepherd (Matt. xi. 28-30). We have no means of knowing how
+much more of what the gospels assign to the last journey to Jerusalem
+should be put in connection with this sojourn across the Jordan. The
+multitudes that came to him there may have included the Pharisees who
+questioned him about divorce (Mark x. 2-12), and the young ruler who loved
+his great possessions (Mark x. 17-31), as well as the parents who eagerly
+sought the Lord's blessing for their children (Mark x. 13-16). Some parts
+of Luke's narrative seem to belong still later in this journey, yet such a
+section as the reply of Jesus to the report of Pilate's slaughter of the
+Galileans (xiii. 1-9), or the parable of the Great Supper (xiv. 15-24), is
+suitable to any stage of it.
+
+173. This sojourn on the other side of Jordan was brought to a close by
+the summons to come to the aid of his friends in Bethany (John xi.). It is
+not strange that the disciples feared his return to Judea, nor that Jesus
+did not hesitate when he recognized the call of duty as well as of
+friendship. In no recorded miracle of Jesus is his power more signally set
+forth, yet here more clearly than anywhere else he is represented as
+dependent on his Father in his exercise of that power. The words of Jesus
+at the grave (John xi. 41, 42) show that he was confident of the
+resurrection of Lazarus, because he had prayed and was sure he was heard.
+It may be that his delay after hearing of the sickness of his friend (xi.
+6) was a time of waiting for answer, and that this explains his confidence
+of safety when the time came for him to expose himself again to the
+hostility of Judea. Jesus indicated not only that on this occasion he had
+help from above in doing his miracles, but that it was the rule in his
+life to seek such help and guidance (xi. 42). In fact, at a later time he
+ascribed all his works to the Father abiding in him (John xiv. 10; compare
+x. 25). The effect of the resurrection of Lazarus was such as to intensify
+the determination of the leaders in Jerusalem--both Pharisees and
+Sadducees--to get rid of Jesus as dangerous to the quiet of the nation
+(John xi. 47-54). In this it simply served to fix a determination already
+present (John vii. 25, 32; viii. 59; x. 31, 39). The miracle does not
+appear in John as the cause of the apprehension of Jesus, but rather as
+one influence leading to it. It was indeed the total contradiction between
+Jesus and all current and cherished ideas that led to his condemnation;
+the raising of Lazarus only showed that he was becoming dangerously
+popular, and made the priestly leaders feel the necessity of haste. The
+silence of the first three gospels concerning this event is truly
+perplexing, yet it is not any more difficult of explanation, as Beyschlag
+(LJ I. 495) has shown, than the silence of all four evangelists concerning
+the appearance of the risen Jesus to James, or to the five hundred
+brethren (I. Cor. xv. 6, 7). Room must be allowed in our conception of the
+life of Jesus for many things of which no record remains, all the more,
+therefore, for incidents to which but one of the gospels is witness.
+Moreover, after the collapse of popularity in Galilee, the great
+enthusiasm of the multitudes over Jesus when he entered Jerusalem (Luke
+xix. 37-40; Mark xi. 8-10) is most easily understood if he had made some
+such manifestation of power as the restoration of Lazarus.
+
+174. After the visit to Bethany Jesus withdrew to a little town named
+Ephraim, on the border between Judea and Samaria, and spent some time
+there in seclusion with his disciples (John xi. 54), doubtless
+strengthening his personal hold on them preparatory to the shock their
+faith was about to receive. Of the length of this sojourn nothing is told
+us, nor of the road by which Jesus left Ephraim for Jerusalem (John xii.
+1). The first three gospels show that he began his final approach to the
+Holy City at Jericho (Mark x. 46). It may be that he descended from
+Ephraim direct to Jericho some days before the Passover, rejoining there
+some of the people who had been impressed by his recent ministry in the
+region "where John at the first was baptizing." It is natural to suppose
+that it was on this journey to Jericho that he warned his disciples again
+of the fate which he saw before him in Jerusalem (Mark x. 32-34), and
+quite probably it was at this time that he rebuked the crude ambition of
+the sons of Zebedee by reminding them that his disciples must be more
+ambitious to serve than to rule, since even "the Son of Man came not to be
+ministered unto but to minister, and to give his life a ransom for many"
+(Mark x. 35-45). At Jericho he was at once crowded upon by enthusiastic
+multitudes. The feeling they had for him may perhaps be inferred from the
+cry of blind Bartimeus, "Thou son of David, have mercy on me" (Mark x.
+48). This enthusiasm received a shock when Jesus chose to be guest in
+Jericho of a chief of the publicans, a shock which Jesus probably intended
+to give, for much the same reason that led him afterwards on his way up to
+Jerusalem to teach his followers in the parable of the pounds that they
+must be ready for long delay in his actual assumption of his kingly right
+(Luke xix. 11-28). Finally, six days before the Passover, he and his
+disciples left Jericho and went up to Bethany preparatory to his final
+appearance in Jerusalem (John xii. 1).
+
+175. The interval between the final departure from Galilee and the public
+entry into Jerusalem was given to three different tasks: the renewed
+proclamation of the coming of the kingdom, further efforts to win
+acceptance in Jerusalem, if perchance she might learn to know the things
+that belonged to her peace; and continued training of the disciples,
+specially needed because of the ill-considered enthusiasm with which they
+were inclined to view the probable issue of this journey to Jerusalem. The
+first of these tasks was conducted as the earlier work in Galilee had
+been, both by teaching and healing, in which Jesus used his disciples even
+more extensively than before. It proved that here as in Galilee the common
+people were ready to hear him gladly, until he showed too radical a
+disappointment of their hopes. In this new ministry to the people Jesus
+spoke very frankly of the seriousness of the opposition which the leaders
+of the people were manifesting, and of the need that those who would be
+his disciples should count the cost of their allegiance (Luke xiii. 22-30;
+xiv. 25-35; xii. 1-59). He did not hesitate to administer the most
+scathing rebuke to the Pharisees for the superficiality and hypocrisy of
+their religious life and teaching (Luke xi. 37-54),--a rebuke which is
+emphasized by the parable in which, on another occasion, he taught God's
+preference for a contrite sinner over a complacent saint (Luke xviii.
+9-14). When reminded of Pilate's outrage upon certain Galilean
+worshippers, he used the calamity to warn his hearers that personal
+godliness was the only protection which could secure them against a more
+serious outbreak of the hostility of the Roman power (Luke xiii. 1-9); and
+it was probably in reply to such an appeal as accompanied this report of
+Pilate's cruelty that Jesus spoke the parable of the Unjust Judge (Luke
+xviii. 1-8), teaching that God's love may be trusted to be no less
+regardful of his people's cry than a selfish man's love of ease would be.
+
+176. The second of these tasks must not be held to be perfunctory, even
+though each new effort for Jerusalem proved that genuine acceptance of its
+saviour was increasingly improbable. As the denunciations of the older
+prophets ever left open a way of escape _if _ Israel would return and seek
+the Lord, so the anticipation of rejection and death which filled the
+heart of Jesus does not banish a like _if_ from his own thought of
+Jerusalem in his repeated efforts to "gather her children." The
+combination of the new popular enthusiasm and the fresh proofs of the
+hopelessness of winning Jerusalem made more important the third task,--the
+founding of the faith of the disciples on the rock of personal certainty,
+from which the rising floods of hatred and seeming ruin for the Master's
+cause could not sweep it. It was for them that much of his instruction of
+the multitudes was doubtless primarily intended; they needed above all
+others to count the cost of discipleship (Luke xiv. 25-35), and the
+warnings against the spirit of Pharisaism (Luke xii.) were addressed
+principally to them, even as it was to them that Jesus confessed the
+"straitening" of his own soul in view of the "fire which he had come to
+cast upon the earth" (Luke xii. 49-53),--a confession which had another
+expression when he found it needful to rebuke the personal ambition of the
+sons of Zebedee (Mark x. 35-45). As for Jesus himself, the popular
+enthusiasm had not deceived him, nor the obdurate unbelief of Jerusalem
+daunted him, nor his disciples' misconception of his kingdom disheartened
+him; he still steadfastly set his face to go to Jerusalem.
+
+   Outline of Events in the Last Week of Jesus' Life
+
+
+   _Saturday_ (?). The anointing in Bethany six days before the
+   Passover--Matt. xxvi. 6-13; Mark xiv. 3-9; John xi. 55 to xii. 11.
+
+   _Sunday_ (?). The Messianic entry--Matt. xxi. 1-11; Mark xi. 1-11; Luke
+   six. 29-44; John xii. 12-19.
+
+   _Monday_ (?). Visit to the temple: the cursing of the barren
+   fig-tree--Matt. xxi. 18-19, 12-17; Mark xi. 12-14, 15-18; Luke xix. 45,
+   47, 48.
+
+   Return to Bethany for the night--Matt. xxi. 17; Mark xi. 19; Luke xxi.
+   37, 38.
+
+   _Tuesday_ (?). Visit to the temple: the fig-tree found withered--Matt,
+   xxi 20-23; Mark xi. 20-27; Luke xx. 1.
+
+   Challenge of Jesus' authority--Matt. xxi. 23-27; Mark xi. 27-33; Luke
+   xx. 1-8.
+
+   Three parables against the religious leaders--Matt. xxi. 28 to xxii.
+   14; Mark xii. 1-12; Luke xx. 9-19.
+
+   The question about tribute--Matt. xxii. 15-22; Mark xii. 13-17; Luke
+   xx. 20-26.
+
+   The question of the Sadducees about the resurrection--Matt. xxii.
+   23-33; Mark xii. 18-27; Luke xx. 27-40.
+
+   The question of the Pharisees about the great commandment--Matt. xxii.
+   34-40; Mark xii. 28-34.
+
+   Jesus' counter-question about David's son and Lord--Matt. xxii. 41-46;
+   Mark xii. 35-37; Luke xx. 41-44.
+
+   Jesus' denunciation of the scribes and Pharisees--Matt, xxiii. 1-39;
+   Mark xii. 38-40; Luke xx. 45-47.
+
+   The widow's two mites--Mark xii. 41-44; Luke xxi. 1-4.
+
+   The visit of the Greeks--John xii. 20-36^a.
+
+   Final departure from the temple--John xii. 36^b (-50).
+
+   Discourse concerning the destruction of Jerusalem and the end of the
+   world--Matt. xxiv. 1 to xxvi. 2; Mark xiii. 1-37; Luke xxi. 5-38.
+
+   Plot of Judas to betray Jesus--Matt. xxvi. 3-5, 14-16; Mark xiv. 1, 2,
+   10, 11; Luke xxii. 1-6.
+
+   _Wednesday_. Retirement at Bethany. (?)
+
+   _Thursday_. The Last Supper--Matt. xxvi. 17-30; Mark xiv. 12-26; Luke
+   xxii. 7-30; John xiii. 1-30.
+
+   The farewell words of admonition and comfort--John xiii. 31 to xvi. 33.
+
+   The intercessory prayer--John xvii. 1-26.
+
+   _Friday_. The agony in Gethsemane--Matt. xxvi. 30, 36-46; Mark xiv. 26,
+   32-42; Luke xxii. 39-46; John xviii. 1.
+
+   The betrayal and arrest--Matt xxvi. 47-56; Mark xiv. 43-52; Luke xxii.
+   47-53; John xviii. 1-12.
+
+   Trial before the high-priests and sanhedrin--Matt. xxvi. 57 to xxvii.
+   10; Mark xiv. 53 to xv. 1^a; Luke xxii. 54-71; John xviii. 12-27.
+
+   Trial before Pilate--Matt, xxvii. 11-31; Mark xv. 1-20; Luke xxiii.
+   1-25; John xviii. 28 to xix. 16^a.
+
+   The crucifixion--Matt, xxvii. 32-56; Mark xv. 21-41; Luke xxiii. 26-49;
+   John xix. 16-37.
+
+   The burial--Matt, xxvii. 57-61; Mark xv. 42-47; Luke xxiii. 50-56; John
+   xix. 38-42.
+
+   _Saturday_. The Sabbath rest--Luke xxiii. 56^b.
+
+   The watch at the tomb--Matt, xxvii. 62-66.
+
+
+
+
+VI
+
+The Final Controversies in Jerusalem
+
+
+
+177. The early Christians were greatly interested in the teachings of
+Jesus and in his deeds, but they thought oftenest of the victory which by
+his resurrection he won out of seeming defeat. This is proved by the fact
+that of the first two gospels over one third, of Luke over one fifth, and
+of the fourth gospel nearly one half are devoted to the story of the
+passion and resurrection. This preponderance is not strange in view of the
+shock which the death of Jesus caused his disciples, and the new life
+which the resurrection brought to their hearts. The resurrection was the
+fundamental theme of apostolic preaching, the supreme evidence that Jesus
+was the Messiah. Hence the cross early became the object of exultant
+Christian joy and boasting; and in this the church entered actually into
+the Lord's own thought, for through the cross he looked for his exaltation
+and glory (Mark viii. 31; John xii. 23-36). From the time of the
+confession at Caesarea Philippi, he had had his death avowedly in view, and
+had repeatedly checked the ambitious and unthinking enthusiasm of his
+disciples by reminding them of what he must receive at the hands of the
+leaders of the people. The few months preceding his final appearance in
+Jerusalem had been devoted to the journey to the cross. This explains the
+note of tragedy which appears in his teachings at this period. The people
+had shown that they would none of his ministry. In this they had written
+their national and religious death warrant, and as he approached Jerusalem
+for the final crisis he declared, though with almost breaking heart, "Your
+house is left unto you desolate" (Luke xiii. 31-35). Each new effort of
+Jesus to turn aside the impending judgment of his people by winning their
+acceptance of himself and his message resulted in a new certainty of his
+ultimate rejection, and thus in confirmation of the early recognized
+necessity, that, if he continued the work God had given him to do, he
+should suffer many things, and die at the hands of his own people.
+
+178. The last chapter in his public ministry began with his arrival at
+Bethany six days before the Passover. It is probable that the caravan with
+which Jesus was travelling reached Bethany not far from the sunset which
+marked the beginning of the Sabbath preceding the feast. Jesus had friends
+there who gladly gave him entertainment, and the Sabbath was doubtless
+spent quietly in this retreat. The holy day closed with the setting sun,
+and then his hosts were able to show him the special attention which they
+desired. The general cordiality of welcome expressed itself in a feast
+given in the house of one Simon, a leper who had probably experienced the
+power of Jesus to heal. He may have been a relative also of Lazarus, for
+Martha assisted in the entertainment, and Lazarus was one of the guests of
+honor (Mark xiv. 3; John xii. 2). During the feast, Mary, the sister of
+Lazarus, poured forth on the head and feet of Jesus a box of the rarest
+perfume. This act of costly adoration seemed extravagant to some,
+particularly to one of Jesus' disciples, who complained that the money
+could have been better spent. This criticism of one who had not counted
+cost in her service was rebuked by Jesus, who defended and commended Mary;
+for in the act he recognized her fear that he might not be long with her
+(Mark xiv. 8; John xii. 7). It is probable that this rebuke, with the
+clear reference to his approaching death, led Judas to decide to abandon
+the apparently waning cause of his Master, and bargain with the leaders in
+Jerusalem to betray him (Mark xiv. 3-11).
+
+179. The day following the supper at Bethany--that is, the first day of
+the week--witnessed the welcome of Jesus to Jerusalem by the jubilant
+multitudes. His mode of entering the city affords a marked contrast to
+his treatment of the determination to make him king after he had fed the
+multitudes in Galilee (John vi. 15). In some respects the circumstances
+were similar. A multitude of the visitors to the feast, hearing that Jesus
+was at Bethany on his way to Jerusalem, went out to meet him with a
+welcome that showed their enthusiastic confidence that at last he would
+assume Messianic power and redeem Israel (John xii. 12, 13). Jesus was now
+ready for a popular demonstration, for the rulers were unwilling longer to
+tolerate his work and his teaching. He had never hesitated to assert his
+superiority to official criticism, and at length the hour had come to
+proclaim the full significance of his independence. In fact it was for
+this that some months before he had set his face steadfastly to go to
+Jerusalem. When, therefore, the crowd from Jerusalem appeared, Jesus took
+the initiative in a genuine Messianic demonstration. He sent two of his
+disciples to a place near by to borrow an ass's colt, on which he might
+ride into the city, fulfilling Zechariah's prophecy of the "king that
+cometh meek, and riding upon an ass" (see Matt. xxi. 4, 5). At this, the
+enthusiasm of his followers, and of those who had come to meet him, became
+unbounded, and without rebuke from Jesus they proceeded towards Jerusalem
+crying, "Hosanna; Blessed _is_ he that cometh in the name of the Lord"
+(Mark xi. 9, 10). Notwithstanding the remonstrances of certain Pharisees
+among the multitude (Luke xix. 39), Jesus accepted the hosannas, for they
+served to emphasize the claim which he now wished, without reserve or
+ambiguity, to make in Jerusalem. The time for reserve had passed. The
+mass of the people with their leaders had shown clearly that for his
+truth, and himself as bearer of it, they had no liking; while the few had
+become attached to him sufficiently to warrant the supreme test of their
+faith. He could not continue longer his efforts to win the people, for
+both Galilee and Judea were closed to him. Even if he had been content,
+without contradicting popular ideas, to work wonders and proclaim promises
+of coming good, he could with difficulty have continued this work, for
+Herod had already been regarding him with suspicion (Luke xiii. 31). He
+had run his course and must measure strength with the hostile forces in
+Jerusalem. For the last encounter he assumed the aggressive, and entered
+the city as its promised deliverer, the Prince of Peace. The very method
+of his Messianic proclamation was a challenge of current Jewish ideas, for
+they were not looking for so meek and peaceful a leader as Zechariah had
+conceived; this entrance emphasized the old contradiction between Jesus
+and his people's expectations. He accepted the popular welcome with full
+knowledge of the transitoriness of the present enthusiasm. As he advanced
+he saw in thought the fate to which the city and people were blindly
+hurrying, and his day of popular triumph was a day of tears (Luke xix.
+41-44). The city was stirred when the prophet of Nazareth thus entered it;
+but he simply went into the temple, looked about with heavy heart, and, as
+it was late, returned to Bethany with the twelve for the night.
+
+180. On the following day Jesus furnished to his disciples a parable in
+action illustrating the fate awaiting the nation; for it is only as a
+parable that the curse of the barren fig-tree can be understood. The idea
+that Jesus showed resentment at disappointment of his hunger when he found
+no figs on the tree out of season is too petty for consideration. He was
+drawn to it by the early foliage, for it was not yet the season for either
+fruit or leaves. One is tempted to believe, as Dr. Bruce has suggested,
+that he had small expectation of finding fruit, and that even before he
+reached the tree with its early leaves he felt a likeness between it and
+the nation of hypocrites whose fate was so clear in his mind. The
+withering of the fig-tree set his disciples thinking; and Jesus showed
+that it was an object lesson, promising that the disciples, by the
+exercise of but a little faith, could do more, even remove
+mountains,--such mountains of difficulty as the opposition of the whole
+Jewish nation would offer to the success of their work in their Master's
+name.
+
+181. The curse upon the barren fig-tree was spoken as Jesus was going from
+Bethany to Jerusalem on the morning after his Messianic entry, that is, on
+Monday, and it was Tuesday when the disciples found it withered away (Mark
+xi. 12-14, 20-25). On Monday Jesus entered into the temple and taught and
+healed (Luke xix. 47; Matt. xxi. 14-16). It is at this point that Mark
+inserts the cleansing of the temple which John shows to belong rather to
+Jesus' first public visit to Jerusalem. The place which this incident
+holds in the first three gospels has already been explained by the fact
+that it furnished one cause for the official hostility to Jesus, and that
+Mark's story included no earlier visit to the holy city (sect. 116; see A
+39).
+
+182. Tuesday, the last day of public activity, exhibits Jesus in four
+different lights, according as he had to do with his critics, with the
+devout widow, with the inquiring Greeks, and with his own disciples. The
+opposition to him expressed itself, after the general challenge of his
+authority, in three questions put in succession by Pharisees and
+Herodians, by Sadducees, and by a scribe, more earnest than most, whom the
+Pharisees put forward after they had seen how Jesus silenced the
+Sadducees. Jesus met the opening challenge by a question about John's
+baptism (Mark xi. 29-33) which completely destroyed the complacency of his
+critics, putting them on the defensive. This was more than a clever
+stroke, they could not know what his authority was unless they had a quick
+sense for spiritual things. His question would have served to bring this
+to the surface if they had possessed it. Their reply showed them incapable
+of receiving a real answer to their question. It also gave him opportunity
+to say in three significant parables (Matt. xxi. 28 to xxii. 14) what
+their spiritual blindness signified for them and their nation, giving thus
+a turn to the interview not at all to their minds. As Jesus' rebuke was
+spoken in the hearing of the people, a determined effort was at once made
+to discredit him in the popular mind. The question (Mark xii. 13-17) with
+which the Pharisees and Herodians hoped to ensnare him was most subtle,
+for the popular feeling was as sensitive to the mark of subserviency which
+the payment of tribute kept ever before them as the Roman authorities were
+to the slightest suspicion of revolt against their sway. In none of his
+words had Jesus so clearly asserted the simple other-worldliness of his
+doctrine of the kingdom of God as in his answer to the question about
+tribute. For him loyalty to the actual earthly sovereign was quite
+compatible with loyalty to God, the lower obligation was in fact a summons
+to be scrupulous also to render to God his due,--a duty in which this
+nation was sadly delinquent. The reply gave no ground for an accusation
+before the governor; but the popular feeling against Rome was so strong
+that it is not unlikely that it contributed somewhat to the readiness of
+the multitude a few days later to prefer Barabbas to Jesus.
+
+183. A second assault was made by some Sadducees who put to him a crude
+question about the relations of a seven-times married woman in the
+resurrection (Mark xii. 18-27). If this question was asked with the
+expectation of making Jesus ridiculous in the sight of the people it was a
+marked failure, for his reply was so simple and straightforward that he
+won the admiration even of some of the Pharisees. The most significant
+feature of it was his argument from God's reference to himself as God of
+Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob; for in that he taught that the fact of
+fellowship with God implies that God's servants share with him a life that
+death cannot vanquish. The skill with which Jesus met these two questions
+interested some of his hearers and showed to his opponents that they must
+put forward their ablest champions to cope with him. The next test was
+more purely academic in character,--as to what class of commands is
+greatest in the law (Mark xii. 28-34). For the pharisaic scholars this was
+a favorite problem. For Jesus, however, the question contained no problem,
+since all the law is summed up in the two commandments of love. His
+contemporaries were not without power to see the truth of his
+generalization, and their champion in this last attack was moved with
+admiration for the fineness and sufficiency of Jesus' answer.
+
+184. All of the assaults served only to show freshly the clearness and
+profoundness of his thought; his critics were quite discomfited in their
+effort to entangle him. They had done with him, but he had still a word
+for them. The business of these scribes was the study of the scriptures.
+They furnished the people with authoritative statements of truth. One of
+the common-places of the current thought was that the Messiah should be
+David's son. Jesus did not deny the truth of this view, yet he showed them
+how partial their ideas were by quoting a word of scripture in which the
+Messiah is shown as David's Lord. If they had been open-minded they might
+have inferred from this that perhaps the man before them was not so
+impossible a Messiah as they thought. This last question closed the
+colloquy; there awaited yet, however, Jesus' calm, scathing arraignment of
+the hypocrisy of these religious leaders. There was no longer any need for
+prudence and every reason for a clear indication of the difference between
+himself and the scribes in motive, in teaching, and in character. The
+final conflict was on, and Jesus freely spoke his mind concerning their
+whole life of piety without godliness. Never have sharper words of
+reproach fallen from human lips than these which Jesus directed against
+the scribes and Pharisees; they are burdened with indignation for the
+misleading of the people, with rebuke for the misrepresentation of God's
+truth, and with scorn for their hollow pretence of righteousness. Through
+it all breathes a note of sorrow for the city whose house was now left to
+her desolate. The change of scene which introduces the widow offering her
+gift in the temple treasury heightens the significance of the
+controversies through which Jesus had just passed. In his comment on the
+worth of her two mites we hear again the preacher of the sermon on the
+mount, and are assured that it is indeed from him that the severe rebukes
+which have fallen on the scribes have come. There is again a reference to
+the insight of him who sees in secret, and who judges as he sees; while
+allusion is not lacking to the others whose larger gifts attracted a wider
+attention. The whole scene is like a commentary on Matt. vi. 2-4.
+
+185. Still a different side of Jesus' life appears when the Greeks seek
+him in the temple. They were probably proselytes from some of the Greek
+cities about the Mediterranean where the synagogue offered to the
+earnest-minded a welcome relief from the foolishness and corruption of
+what was left of religion in the heathen world. Having visited Jerusalem
+for the feast, they heard on every hand about the new teacher. They were
+not so bound to rabbinic traditions as the Jews themselves, they had been
+drawn by the finer features of Judaism,--its high morality and its noble
+idea of God. What they heard of Jesus might well attract them, and they
+sought out Philip, a disciple with a Greek name, to request an interview
+with his Master. The evangelist who has preserved the incident (John xii.
+20-36) evidently introduced it because of what it showed of Jesus' inner
+life; hence we have no report of the conversation between him and his
+visitors. The effect of their seeking him was marked, however, for it
+offered sharp contrast to the rejection which he already felt in his
+dealings with the people who but two days before had hailed him as
+Messiah. This foreign interest in him did not suggest a new avenue for
+Messianic work, it only brought before his mind the influence which was to
+be his in the world which these inquirers represented, and immediately
+with the thought of his glorification came that of the means thereto,--the
+cross whose shadow was already darkening his path. Excepting Gethsemane,
+no more solemn moment in Jesus' life is reported for us. A glimpse is
+given into the inner currents of his soul, and the storm which tossed them
+is seen. It is in marked contrast to the calmness of his controversy with
+the leaders, and to the gentleness of his commendation of the widow. The
+agitation passed almost at once, but it left Jesus in a mood which he had
+not shown before on that day; in it his own thoughts had their way, and
+the doctrine of the grain of wheat dying to appear in larger life, of the
+Son of Man lifted up to draw all men unto him, had utterance, greatly to
+the perplexity of his hearers. It seems to have been one of the few times
+when Jesus spoke for his own soul's relief.
+
+186. In all the earlier events of the day the disciples of Jesus appear
+but little. He is occupied with others, accepting the challenge of the
+leaders, and completing his testimony to the truth they refused to hear.
+The quieter hours of the later part of the day gave time for further words
+with his friends. The comment on the widow's gift was meant for them, and
+the uncovering of his own soul when the Greeks sought him was in their
+presence. After he had left the temple and the city he gave himself to
+them more exclusively. His disciples were perplexed by what they saw and
+felt, for the temper of the people toward their Master could not be
+mistaken. Yet they were sure of him. The leaders among them, therefore,
+asked him privately to tell them when the catastrophe should come, to
+which during the day he had made repeated reference. The conversation
+which followed is reported for us in the discourse on the destruction of
+Jerusalem and the end of the world (Mark xiii. and parallels), in which
+Jesus taught his disciples to expect trouble in their ministry, as he was
+meeting trouble in his; and to be ready for complete disappointment of
+their inherited hopes for the glory of their holy city. He also taught
+them to expect that his work would shortly be carried to perfection, and
+to live in expectancy of his coming to complete all that he was now
+seeming to leave undone. This lesson of patience and expectancy is
+enforced in a group of parables preserved for us in Matthew (chap. xxv.),
+closing with the remarkable picture of the end of all things when the
+Master should return in glory as judge of all to make final announcement
+of the simplicity of God's requirement of righteousness, as it had been
+exhibited in the life which by the despite of men was now drawing to its
+close.
+
+187. The bargain made by Judas to betray his Lord has always been
+difficult to understand. The man must have had fine possibilities or Jesus
+would not have chosen him for an apostle, nor would the little company
+have made him its treasurer (John xii. 6; xiii. 29). The fact that Jesus
+early discovered his character (John vi. 64) does not compel us to think
+that his selection as an apostle was not perfectly sincere; the man must
+have seemed to be still savable and worthy thus to be associated with the
+eleven others who were Jesus' nearest companions. It has often been
+noticed that he was probably the only Judean among the twelve, for
+Kerioth, his home, was a town in southern Judea. The effort has frequently
+been made to redeem his reputation by attributing his betrayal to some
+high motive--such as a desire to force his Master to use his Messianic
+power, and confound his opponents by escaping from their hands and setting
+up the hoped-for kingdom. But the remorse of Judas, in which De Quincey
+finds support for this theory of the betrayal, must be more simply and
+sadly understood. It is more likely that the traitor illustrates Jesus'
+words: "No man can serve two masters; for either he will hate the one and
+love the other; or else he will hold to the one and despise the other. Ye
+cannot serve God and mammon" (Matt. vi. 24). The beginning of his fall may
+have been his disappointment when Jesus showed clearly that he would not
+establish a kingdom conformed to the popular ideas. As the enthusiasm
+which drew him to Jesus cooled, personal greed, with something of
+resentment at the cause of his disappointment, seem to have taken
+possession of him, and they led him on until the stinging rebuke which
+Jesus administered to the criticism of Mary at Bethany prompted the man to
+seek a bargain with the authorities which should insure him at least some
+profit in the general wreck of his hopes. His remorse after he saw in its
+bald hideousness what he had done was psychologically inevitable. Although
+Jesus was aware of Judas' character from the beginning (John vi. 64), he
+that came to seek and to save that which was lost was no fatalist; and
+this knowledge was doubtless--like that which he had of the fate hanging
+over Jerusalem--subject to the possibility that repentance might change
+what was otherwise a certain destiny. As the event turned he could only
+say, "Good were it for that man if he had not been born" (Mark xiv. 21).
+
+188. With this the curtain falls on the public ministry of Jesus. The
+gospels suggest a day of quiet retirement following these controversies
+and warnings, with their fresh demonstration of the irreconcilable
+hostility of people of all classes to him and his work. After the
+seclusion of that day, he returned to give final proof of complete
+obedience to his Father's will.
+
+
+
+
+VII
+
+The Last Supper
+
+
+
+189. On Thursday Jesus and his disciples returned to Jerusalem for the
+last time. Knowing the temper of the leaders, and the danger of arrest at
+any time, Jesus was particularly eager to eat the Passover with his
+disciples (Luke xxii. 15), and he sent two of them--Luke names them as
+Peter and John--to prepare for the supper. In a way which would give no
+information to such a one as Judas, he directed them carefully how to find
+the house where a friend would provide them the upper room that was needed
+for an undisturbed meeting of the little band, and the two went on in
+advance to make ready. When the hour was come Jesus with the others went
+to the appointed place and sat down for the supper (Mark xiv. 17; Luke
+xxii. 14; Matt. xxvi. 20).
+
+190. The gospels all report the last evening which the little company
+spent together. There is a perplexing divergence, however, between John
+and the others concerning the relation of this supper to the feast of the
+Passover. In their introduction of the story, Mark and his companion
+gospels indicate that the supper which Jesus ate was the Passover meal
+itself. John, on the other hand, declares that it was "before the feast of
+the Passover" (xiii. 1) that Jesus took this meal with his disciples.
+John's account is consistent throughout, for he states that on the next
+day the desire of the Jews to "eat the Passover" forbade them to enter the
+house of the governor lest they should incur defilement (xviii. 28). The
+other gospels, moreover, hint in several ways that the day of Jesus' death
+could not have been the day after the Passover; that is, the first day of
+the feast of unleavened bread. Dr. Sanday has recently enumerated these
+afresh, remarking that "the Synoptists make the Sanhedrin say beforehand
+that they will not arrest Jesus 'on the feast day,' and then actually
+arrest him on that day; that not only the guards, but one of the disciples
+(Mark xiv. 47), carries arms, which on the feast day was not allowed; that
+the trial was also held on the feast day, which would be unlawful; that
+the feast day would not be called simply Preparation (see Mark xv. 42, and
+compare John xix. 31); that the phrase 'coming from the field' (Mark xv.
+21 [Greek]) means properly 'coming from work;' that Joseph of Arimathea is
+represented as buying a linen cloth (Mark xv. 46) and the women as
+preparing spices and ointments (Luke xxiii. 56), all of which would be
+contrary to law and custom" (HastBD ii. 634). In these particulars the
+first three gospels seem to confirm the representation of the fourth that
+the day of the last supper was earlier than the regular Jewish Passover.
+On the other hand, a strong argument, though one that has not commended
+itself to other specialists in Jewish archaeology, has been put forth by
+Dr. Edersheim (LJM ii. 567f.) to prove that John also indicates that the
+last supper was eaten at the time of the regular Passover. In the present
+condition of our knowledge certainty is impossible. If John does differ
+from the others, his testimony has the greatest weight. While not
+conclusive, it has some significance that Paul identified Christ with the
+sacrifice of the passover (I. Cor. v. 7), a statement which may indicate
+that he held that Jesus died about the time of the killing of the paschal
+lamb. If John be taken to prove that the last supper occurred a day before
+the regular Passover, Jesus must have felt that the anticipation was
+necessary in order to avoid the publicity and consequent danger of a
+celebration at the same time with all the rest of the city.
+
+191. Whatever the conclusion concerning the date of the last supper, and
+consequently of the crucifixion, the last meal of Jesus with his disciples
+was for that little company the equivalent of the Passover supper. Luke
+states that the desire of Jesus had looked specially to eating this feast
+with his disciples (xxii. 15). The reason must be found in his certainty
+of the very near end, and in his wish to make the meal a preparation for
+the bitter experiences which were overhanging him and them.
+
+192. It is customary to connect as occasion and consequence the dispute
+concerning precedence which Luke reports (xxii. 24-30), and the rebuke
+which Jesus administered by washing the disciples' feet (John xiii. 1-20).
+The jealousies of the disciples may have arisen over the allotment of
+seats at the table, as Dr. Edersheim has most fully shown (LJM ii.
+492-503); such a controversy would be the natural sequel of earlier
+disputes concerning greatness, and particularly of the request of James
+and John for the best places in the coming kingdom (Mark x. 35-45), and
+would lead as naturally to the distress of heart with which Jesus declared
+that one of the disciples should betray him, and that another of them
+should deny him. The narrative in Mark favors the withdrawal of Judas
+before the new rite was appointed. This must seem to be the probability in
+the case, for the presence of Judas would be most incongruous at such a
+memorial service. John's mention of his departure before the announcement
+of Peter's approaching fall confirms this interpretation of Mark (Mark
+xiv. 18-21; John xiii. 21-30).
+
+193. The paschal memories furnished to Jesus an opportunity to establish
+for his disciples an institution which should symbolize the new covenant
+which he was soon to seal with his blood. Jesus regarded this new covenant
+as that which was promised by the prophets, especially Jeremiah (xxxi.
+31-34), and his thought, like that of the prophets, goes back to the story
+of the covenant established at Sinai (Ex. xxiv. 1-11). In this way he gave
+to his disciples a conception of his death, which later, if not
+immediately, would help them to regard it as a necessary part of his work
+as Messiah. They were now oppressed by the evident certainty that the near
+future would bring their Master to death; he accordingly gave them a
+sacred reminder of himself and of his death as an essential part of his
+self-giving "for them;" for whatever the conclusion concerning the
+disputed text of Luke (xxii. 19), the institutional character of the act
+and words of Jesus is clear. As Holtzmann remarks (NtTh i. 304): "The
+words 'this do in remembrance of me' were perhaps not spoken; all the more
+certainly do they of themselves express what lay in the situation and made
+itself felt with incontestable conclusiveness."
+
+194. Several hints in the records seem to connect the meal in various
+details with what is known of ancient custom in the celebration of the
+Passover. The hymn with which according to Mark and Matthew the supper
+closed is easily identified with the last part (Psalms cxv. to cxviii.) of
+the so called _Hallel_, which was sung at the close of the Passover meal.
+The mention of two cups in the familiar text of Luke (xxii. 17-20) agrees
+with the repeated cups of the Passover ritual; so also do the sop and the
+dipping of it with which Jesus indicated to John who the traitor was (John
+xiii. 23-26; Mark xiv. 20). If it could be proved that the customs
+recorded in the Talmud correctly represent the usage in Jesus' time it
+would be of extreme interest to seek to connect what is told us of the
+last supper with that Passover ritual as Dr. Edersheim has done (LJM ii.
+490-512). The antiquity of the rabbinic record is so uncertain, however,
+that it is only useful as showing what possibly may have been the case.
+All that can be asserted is that the rabbinic ritual probably originated
+long before it was recorded, and that as the last supper was a meal which
+Jesus and his disciples celebrated as a Passover, it is probable that some
+such ritual was more or less closely followed.
+
+195. Luke and John give the fullest reports of what was said at the table.
+All the gospels tell of Peter's declaration of superior loyalty and the
+prediction of his threefold denial; Luke, however, adds that in connection
+with it Jesus assured Peter of his restoration, and charged him to
+strengthen his brethren (Luke xxii. 31-34). John alone gives the long and
+full discourse of admonition and comfort, followed by Jesus' prayer for
+his disciples (xiii. 31 to xvii. 26). It is evident from the words of
+Jesus as he entered the garden of Gethsemane (Mark xiv. 33, 34), as from
+those which had escaped him when the Greeks sought him the last day in the
+temple (John xii. 27), that his own heart was greatly troubled during the
+supper by the apparent defeat which was now close at hand. His quietness
+and self-possession during the supper, particularly when tenderly
+reproving his disciples for petty ambition, or when solemnly dismissing
+the traitor, or warning Peter of his denials, must not blind us to the
+depth of the emotion which was stirring his own soul. It is only as we
+remember his trouble of heart that it is possible justly to value the
+ministry which in varied ways he rendered to his disciples that night. In
+the discourses reported by John he showed that he realized that the
+approaching separation would sorely try the faith of his followers, and he
+sought to strengthen them by showing his own calmness in view of it, and
+by promising them another who should abide with them spiritually as his
+representative, and continue for them the work which he had begun. He
+therefore urged them to maintain their devotion to him, still to seek and
+find the source of their life and secret of their strength in fellowship
+with him--present, though unseen among them. He sought to convince them
+that his departure was to be for their advantage, that fellowship with him
+spiritually would be far more real and efficacious than the intercourse
+they had already enjoyed. He whose own heart was "exceeding sorrowful even
+unto death" bade his disciples not to let their hearts be troubled nor
+afraid. How long the conversation continued, of when the company left the
+upper chamber, cannot be told. At some time before the arrival at
+Gethsemane Jesus turned to God in prayer for the disciples whom he was
+about to leave to the severe trial of their faith, asking for them that
+realization of eternal life which he had enjoyed and exemplified in his
+own intimate life with his Father. With this his ministry to them closed
+for the time, and, crossing the Kidron, he entered the garden of
+Gethsemane weighed down by the sorrow of his own soul.
+
+
+
+
+VIII
+
+The Shadow of Death
+
+
+
+196. Of the garden of Gethsemane it is only known that it was across the
+Kidron, on the slope of the Mount of Olives. Tradition has long pointed to
+an enclosure some fifty yards beyond the bridge that crosses the ravine on
+the road leading eastward from St. Stephen's gate. Most students feel that
+this is too near the city and the highway for the place of retreat chosen
+by Jesus. Archaeologically and sentimentally the identification of places
+connected with the life of Jesus is of great interest. Practically,
+however, it is easy to over-emphasize the importance of such an
+identification. Granted the fact that in some olive grove on the
+mountain-side, where an oil-press gave a name to the place (Gethsemane),
+Jesus withdrew with his disciples on that last night, and all that is
+important is known. It is of far higher importance to see rightly the
+relation of what took place in that garden to the things which preceded
+and followed it in the life of Jesus. At that time Jesus saw pressed to
+his lips the "cup" from the bitterness of which his whole soul shrank. It
+was not an unlooked-for trial; some time earlier he had sought to cool the
+ardor of the ambition of James and John by telling them that they should
+drink of his cup, and declared that even the Son of Man came not to be
+ministered unto but to minister, and to give his life a ransom for many.
+The fourth gospel, whose representation omits the agony of Gethsemane and
+only reports its victory, tells how Jesus rebuked the violent impulse of
+Peter with the word, "The cup which my Father hath given me to drink shall
+I not drink it?" (John xviii. 11^b); and all the gospels exhibit the
+marvellous quietness of spirit and dignity of self-surrender which
+characterized Jesus throughout his trial and execution. In Gethsemane,
+however, we see the struggle in which that calmness and self-mastery were
+won.
+
+197. It is unbecoming to consider that scene with any vulgar curiosity to
+know what it was that made Jesus so draw back from the drinking of his
+"cup." It is not unfitting, however, to recognize that in his cry, "Abba,
+Father, all things are possible unto thee; remove this cup from me" (Mark
+xiv. 36), an intense longing of his own soul's life had expression. There
+was something in the fate which he saw before him from which his whole
+being shrank. But stronger than this was his fixed desire to do his
+Father's will. Here was supremely illustrated the truth that "he came down
+from heaven, not to do his own will, but the will of him that sent him"
+(John vi. 38). The fullest allowance for the shrinking of the most
+delicately constituted nature from pain and death completely fails to
+account for this dread of Jesus. He was no coward, drawing back from
+sufferings which for simple physical pain were over and again more than
+matched by many of the martyrs to truth who preceded and followed him. He
+himself declared to the sons of Zebedee that they should share a cup in
+kind like unto his, suffering for the kingdom of God, for the salvation
+of the world. Yet there is a difference evident between what others have
+had to bear and the cup from which Jesus shrank. The death which now stood
+before him in the path of obedience had in it a bitterness quite
+unexplained by the pain and disappointment it entailed. That excess of
+bitterness can probably never be understood by us. A hint of its nature
+may be found in the "shame of the cross" which the author of Hebrews (xii.
+2; xiii. 13) emphasizes, and in the "curse" of the cross which made it a
+stumbling block to Paul and his Jewish brethren (Gal. iii. 13; I. Cor. i.
+23). Jesus came from the garden ready to endure the cross in obedience to
+his Father's will; but it was a costly obedience, a complete emptying of
+himself (Phil. ii. 7, 8).
+
+198. The loneliness of Jesus in his struggle is emphasized in the gospels
+of Mark and Matthew. In search of sympathy he had confessed to the
+disciples his trouble of heart, and had taken his three intimates with him
+when he withdrew from the others for prayer, asking them to watch with
+him. They were too heavy of heart and weary of body to stand by in his
+bitter hour, and instead of being in readiness to warn him of the approach
+of the hostile band, he had to awake them to their danger. The fourth
+gospel reports that after the struggle Jesus bore marks of majesty which
+astonished and overawed his foes when he calmly told them that he was the
+one they were seeking. Their fear was overcome, however, when Judas gave
+the appointed sign by kissing his Master (Mark xiv. 45). The thought for
+the disciples' safety which John records (xviii. 8) is another proof that
+the fight had been won, and Jesus had fully resumed the self-emptying
+ministry appointed to him by his Father.
+
+199. The band that arrested Jesus was accompanied by a Roman cohort from
+the garrison of the city, but it was not needed, for the disciples offered
+no appreciable resistance; on the contrary, "they all forsook him and
+fled" (Mark xiv. 50). Having arrested Jesus, the band took him to Annas,
+the actual leader of Jewish affairs, though not at the time the official
+high-priest. He had held that office some time before, but had been
+deposed by the Roman governor of Syria after being in power for nine
+years. His influence continued, however, for although he was never
+reinstated, he seems to have been able to secure the appointment for
+members of his own family during a period of many years. Caiaphas, the
+legal high-priest, was his son-in-law. Annas, as the leader of
+aristocratic opinion in Jerusalem, had doubtless been foremost in the
+secret counsels which led to the decision to get rid of Jesus, hence the
+captive was, as a matter of course, taken first to his house. The trial by
+the Jewish authorities was irregular. There seems to have been an informal
+examination of Jesus and various witnesses, first before Annas, and then
+before Caiaphas and a group of members of the sanhedrin, the outcome of
+which was complete failure to secure evidence against Jesus from their
+false witnesses, and the formulation of a charge of blasphemy in
+consequence of his answer to the high-priest acknowledging himself to be
+the Messiah (Mark xiv. 61-64). The early hours before the day were given
+over to mockery and ill-usage of the captive Jesus. When morning was
+come, the sanhedrin was convened, and he was condemned to death on the
+charge of blasphemy (Mark xv. 1; Luke xxii. 66-71), and then was led in
+bonds to the Roman governor for execution, since the Romans had taken from
+the sanhedrin the authority to execute a death sentence (John xviii. 31).
+Before Pilate the Jews had to name an offence recognized by Roman law; his
+accusers therefore falsified his claim and made him out a political
+Messiah, hostile to Roman rule (Luke xxiii. 1, 2). Pilate soon saw that
+the charge was trumped up, and sought in every way, while keeping the
+good-will of the people, to escape the responsibility of giving sentence
+against Jesus. His first effort was a simple declaration that he found no
+fault in the prisoner (Luke xxiii. 4); then, having heard that he was a
+Galilean, he tried to transfer the case to Herod, who happened to be in
+the city at the time (Luke xxiii. 5-12); he then sought to compromise by
+agreeing to chastise Jesus and then release him (Luke xxiii. 13-16); next
+he offered the people their choice between the innocent Jesus and
+Barabbas, a convicted insurrectionist (Mark xv. 6-15; Luke xxiii. 16-24),
+and the people, instructed by the priests, chose Barabbas, caring nothing
+for a Messiah who would allow himself to be arrested without resistance;
+the fourth gospel tells of Pilate's still further effort, by appealing to
+the people's sympathy, to escape giving sentence, even after he had
+delivered Jesus to the soldiers for the preliminary scourging. Finding the
+Jews ready to urge, at length, a religious charge, Pilate's superstitious
+fear was roused (John xix. 7-12), and he sought again to release him, but
+was finally cowed by the threat of an accusation against him at Rome,
+and, mocking the people by sitting in judgment to condemn Jesus as their
+king, he gave sentence against the man whom he knew to be innocent (John
+xix. 12-16).
+
+200. Some of Jesus' disciples and friends were witnesses of the early
+stages of the informal trial, in particular, John (John xviii. 15) and
+Peter. It was during the progress of the early examination that Peter was
+drawn into his denials by the comments made by the bystanders on his
+connection with the accused. It has been suggested that the house of the
+high-priest where Jesus was tried was built, like other Oriental houses,
+about a court so that the room where Jesus was examined was open to view
+from the court. In this case it is easy to see how Jesus could overhear
+his disciple's strenuous denials of any acquaintance with him, and could
+turn and give him that look which sent him out to weep bitterly (Luke
+xxii. 61, 62). If it be further assumed that Annas and Caiaphas occupied
+different sides of the same high-priestly palace, the double examination
+reported by John would still be within hearing from the one court in which
+the faithless disciple was a fascinated witness of his Master's trial.
+
+201. Humanly speaking, it may be said that the fate of Jesus was sealed
+when the Sadducean leaders came to look on him seriously as a danger to
+the State (John xi. 47-50, note the mention of chief priests). The
+religious opposition was serious, and might have brought trouble, in some
+such way as it seems to have done to John the Baptist (see Matt. xvii.
+10-13; Luke xiii. 31, 32); but it is doubtful whether the governor would
+have given much attention to a charge not urged by the men of influence in
+Jerusalem. The notable thing in connection with the last days of Jesus'
+life is the joint opposition of Sadducean priests and Pharisaic scribes.
+That the populace easily changed their cry from "hosanna" to "crucify him"
+is not surprising. Their hosannas were due to a complete misconception of
+Jesus' aim and purpose; disappointed in him, they would be the earliest to
+cry out against him, especially when the choice lay between him and a
+genuine insurrectionist.
+
+202. Each fresh study of the trial of Jesus gives a fresh impression of
+his greatness. He who but a few hours before was pouring out his soul in
+prayer that his cup might pass, stands forth as the one calm and
+undisturbed actor among all those who took part in the tragic doings of
+that day. His judges and foes were all swayed by passion and self-interest
+and were ready to make travesty of justice, from the leaders of the
+sanhedrin who condemned him on one charge and accused him to the governor
+on another, to the governor himself, who appeared determined to release
+him if he could do it without risk of personal popularity, and who yet, in
+order to avoid accusation at Rome, gave sentence according to the people's
+will. The fickle populace crying "crucify him," the disciples who forsook
+him, the rock-apostle who denied even so much as knowledge of the man,
+show how all the currents of life about him were stirred and full of
+tumult. In all this, of which he was the occasion and centre, he stands
+the supreme example of dignity, self-mastery, and quietness. This is seen
+in his silence in the presence of Annas and Caiaphas, and later before
+Pilate; in his frank avowal of his Messianic claim in reply to the
+high-priest's challenge, and of his kingly rank in answer to the
+governor's question; and in the look of reproof which he turned upon
+Peter. Not that he was without feeling. There is strong sense of outrage
+in his words, "If I have spoken evil, bear witness of the evil, but if
+well, why smitest thou me?" It was not the quietness of stoic
+indifference, but of perfect self-devotion to the Father's will. He
+maintained it from the time of his arrest to the last cry of trust with
+which he committed his spirit to his Father.
+
+203. The scourging over, the mock homage of the soldiers done, he was led
+out beyond the city wall to be crucified. The exact place of the
+crucifixion can be determined as little as that of Gethsemane, though
+there is a tradition from the fourth century, and in addition there are
+many conjectures. Jesus was led, apparently, to the ordinary place of
+criminal execution, and with two others, probably insurrectionary robbers
+like those with whom Barabbas had been associated, he was crucified. Two
+episodes in the journey to the place of crucifixion are recorded,--the
+help which Simon of Cyrene was compelled to give to Jesus in carrying his
+cross (Mark xv. 21), and the word of Jesus to those who, following him,
+bewailed his fate (Luke xxiii. 27-31).
+
+204. Of the cruelty and torture of crucifixion much has been written and
+often. It would be difficult to exaggerate it. The death by the cross was
+a death by hunger and exhaustion in ordinary cases; it was thus torture
+prolonged for many hours. It is noticeable, however, that it is not the
+suffering but the disgrace and shame of the cross that occupied the
+thought of the apostolic days. Indeed, were physical suffering chiefly to
+be considered, it would have to be owned that the fact that Jesus died
+within a few hours released him from the most excruciating pains incident
+to this barbarous form of execution. The later ascetic thought loved, and
+still loves, to dwell on the physical torments of the Lord's death. They
+were severe enough to give us awe; but the biblical writers show a much
+healthier mind, and their thought does not invite comparison between the
+pains endured by the Master and those which some of his martyred followers
+bore with great fortitude. The disgrace of the cross was the uttermost;
+for the Romans it was the death of a slave, for the Jews it was patent
+proof of the curse of God (Deut. xxi. 23). The obedience of Jesus was
+unlimited when he submitted to death (Phil. ii. 8). It is on the shame of
+the cross, and on the sacrifice of himself for the life of the world when
+in obedience to his Father's will he "despised the shame," that the
+thought of the apostolic day laid emphasis. In this experience Jesus found
+himself in truth numbered with the transgressors; he was the object of
+scorn for all them that passed by, they mocked at him, at his works, and
+at his confident trust in God. In this last extremity the darkness of
+Gethsemane again swept over Jesus' soul, when he cried out "My God, my
+God," recalling the words of one of the saints of old in his hour of
+distress (Ps. xxii.). Yet, like him, Jesus kept hold on the certainty of
+deliverance; the darkness passed at length.
+
+205. The evangelists preserve several sayings of Jesus from the cross, the
+records of the different gospels being remarkably diverse. Mark and
+Matthew record the exclamation, "My God, my God _(Eloi, Eloi_), why hast
+thou forsaken me," which the bystander misconstrued as a call for Elijah,
+thinking this pseudo-Messiah was reproaching Elijah for failing to come to
+his help. The same gospels tell of the loud cry with which Jesus died.
+Luke omits the call _Eloi_, and gives in place of the last expiring cry
+the prayer of trust, "Father, into thy hands I commend my spirit" (xxiii.
+46). Earlier, however, this gospel tells of Jesus' word to the penitent
+robber, "To-day shalt thou be with me in Paradise" (xxiii. 43), and of the
+prayer for his foes, that is, for the Jewish people who blindly condemned
+him (xxiii. 34). The oldest manuscripts cause some doubt whether this last
+saying was originally a part of the Gospel of Luke. If it was not it would
+belong in the same class with the story of the sinful woman which we now
+find in John, both being authentic records of the life of Jesus, though
+from some other source than that in which we now find them. The fourth
+gospel gives quite an independent group of sayings. It interprets the
+dying cry as, "It is finished" (xix. 30), and preceding this it gives the
+cry, "I thirst" (xix. 28), which led to the offering of the vinegar of
+which the first two gospels speak. Earlier it tells of the committal of
+Mary to the care of the beloved disciple (xix. 26, 27). Of these seven
+sayings, "Eloi," "I thirst," "Father, into thy hand I commend my spirit,"
+and "It is finished" belong to the last hours of the life of the crucified
+one, after the darkness of which the first three gospels speak had
+overshadowed the land. Of the cause of that darkness they give no hint,
+for Luke's expression cannot mean an eclipse, since an eclipse at Passover
+time, that is, at full moon, is an impossibility. The conjecture that
+dense clouds hid the sun is common, and is as suitable as any other.
+Whatever the cause, the evangelists saw in it a token of nature's awe at
+the death of the Son of God. During the hours of the darkness the waves
+swept over his soul, as the cry "my God" shows to our reverent thought.
+But the last word of trust proves that the dying Jesus was not forsaken,
+and that Calvary, like Gethsemane, was a battle won. The earlier sayings
+all express Jesus' continued spirit of ministry, showing even in his
+bitter pain his accustomed thoughtfulness for others' need.
+
+206. It is futile to speculate on the cause of Jesus' early death. He
+certainly suffered a much shorter time than was ordinarily the case, as
+appears in the fact that at sunset it was necessary to break the legs of
+the robbers so as to hasten death, Jesus having already been some time
+dead. There is something attractive in the theory of Dr. Stroud (The
+Physical Cause of Christ's Death) that Jesus died of rupture of the heart.
+It may have been true, but the evidences on which he based his argument
+are insufficient for proof. To the Jews the death of their victim did not
+give all the satisfaction they desired. In the first place, Pilate
+insisted on mocking them by posting over the head of Jesus the placard,
+"The King of the Jews" (see John xix. 19-22); moreover, their haste had
+brought the crime into close proximity to the feast which they were eager
+to keep from defilement; so that they had still to beg of Pilate that he
+would hasten the death of the victims, that their bodies might not remain
+to desecrate the following Sabbath sanctity (John xix. 31-37); while for
+those who witnessed it the death of Jesus deepened the impression that a
+hideous crime had been committed in the slaughter of an innocent man (Mark
+xv. 39).
+
+207. Among the bystanders few of the disciples of Jesus were to be
+found--they were hiding in fear. Yet some faithful women, and two
+courageous councillors of Jerusalem, were bold enough to make their
+loyalty known. These two men, Joseph of Arimathea and Nicodemus, were
+members of the sanhedrin, but they had had no part in the condemnation of
+Jesus; and after knowing that he was dead, Joseph begged of Pilate the
+body, and he and Nicodemus took Jesus down from the cross and laid him in
+a tomb which Joseph owned near the place of crucifixion, rendering such
+tender ministries as were possible in the closing hours of the day. The
+women who had witnessed his end meanwhile were arranging also to anoint
+the body. They took notice where the two friends had laid him, and then
+went away to rest on the Sabbath day, according to the commandment.
+
+208. To the Jews it was a high day, the first Sabbath in the eight days of
+their holy feast (John xix. 31). They had eagerly guarded their conduct
+that no ceremonial defilement might prevent their sharing in the paschal
+feast. They believed that they had rid their nation of a dangerous
+disturber of its peace, and men whose conscience shrank not from making
+God's house a house of merchandise, who would punish one who ventured to
+cure a mortal disease if it chanced to cross their Sabbath traditions, who
+had condemned to death the holiest man and godliest teacher the world had
+ever seen because he did not square with their heartless formalism,--such
+men hardly had conscience enough to feel repentance or remorse for the
+cowardly injustice and crime with which of their own choice they had
+reddened their hands (Matt, xxvii. 25). They doubtless kept their feast
+with satisfaction. Not a few hearts, however, were heavy with grief and
+disappointed hope. They had believed that Jesus "was he that should redeem
+Israel" (Luke xxiv. 21). Stunned, they could not throw away the faith
+which he had kindled in their hearts. Yet he was dead, and only faintly,
+if at all, did they recall his prediction of suffering and his certainty
+of triumph through it all (John xx. 9). What remained for them was the
+last tender ministry to their dead Lord.
+
+   Outline of Events after the Resurrection
+
+
+   _The day of the resurrection--Sunday_. The visit of the women to the
+   tomb--Matt. xxviii. 1-8; Mark xvi. 1-8; Luke xxiv. 1-12; John xx. 1-10.
+
+   Jesus' first appearance; to Mary--Matt. xxviii. 9 10; [Mark xvi. 9-11];
+   John xx. 11-18.
+
+   The report of the watch--Matt. xxviii. 11-15.
+
+   The appearance to Simon Peter--I. Cor. xv. 5.
+
+   The walk to Emmaus--[Mark xvi 12,13]; Luke xxiv. 13-35.
+
+   The appearance to the ten in the evening--[Mark xvi. 14]; Luke xxiv.
+   36-43; John xx. 19-25; I. Cor. xv. 5.
+
+   _One week later--Sunday_. The appearance to the eleven, with
+   Thomas--John xx. 26-29.
+
+   _Later appearances_. To seven disciples by the sea of Galilee--John
+   xxi. 1-24.
+
+   To a company of disciples in. Galilee--Matt, xxviii. 16-20; [Mark xvi.
+   15-18]; I. Cor. xv. 6.
+
+   The appearance to James--I. Cor. xv. 7.
+
+   To the disciples in Jerusalem, followed by the ascension--Mark xvi. 19,
+   20; Luke xxiv. 44-53; Acts i. 1-12; I. Cor. xv. 7.
+
+
+
+IX
+
+The Resurrection
+
+
+
+209. Christianity as a historic religious movement starts from the
+resurrection of Jesus from the dead. This is very clear in the preaching
+and writings of Paul. The first distinctively Christian feature in his
+address at Athens is his statement that God had designated Jesus to be
+the judge of men by having "raised him from the dead" (Acts xvii. 31), and
+for him the resurrection was the demonstration of the divinity of Christ
+(Rom. i. 4), and the confirmation of the Christian hope (I. Cor. xv.).
+With him the prime qualification for an apostle was that he should have
+seen the risen Lord (I. Cor. ix. 1). The early preaching as recorded in
+Acts shows the same feature, for after repeated testimony to the fact that
+God had raised up Jesus, Peter summed up his address with the declaration,
+"Let all the house of Israel therefore know assuredly, that God hath made
+him both Lord and Christ, this Jesus whom ye crucified" (Acts ii. 36). In
+fact the buoyancy of hope and confidence of faith which gave to the
+despised followers of the Nazarene their strength resulted directly from
+the experiences of the days which followed the deep gloom that settled
+over the disciples when Jesus died.
+
+210. It can but seem strange to us that after Jesus had so often foretold
+his death and the resurrection which should follow it, his disciples were
+thrown into despair by the cross. Joseph of Arimathea and Nicodemus when
+they embalmed his body may not have known of these teachings which Jesus
+gave to the nearer circle of his followers, but it is difficult to believe
+that the women who prepared their spices to anoint his body (Mark xvi. 1)
+had heard nothing of these predictions, and it is certain that the
+apostles who received with incredulity the first news of the resurrection
+were the men whom Jesus had sought to prepare for this glorious victory.
+The disciples do not seem to have finished "questioning among themselves
+what the rising again from the dead should mean" (Mark ix. 10, compare
+Luke xviii. 34) until Jesus himself explained it by his return to them
+after his crucifixion. It was formerly common to conclude from the
+scepticism of the disciples that Jesus could not have told them, as he is
+reported to have done, that he would rise again the third day. It is now
+widely conceded, however, that if he foresaw and foretold his death, he
+surely coupled with it a promise of resurrection, otherwise he must have
+surrendered his own conviction that he was Messiah; for a Messiah taken
+and held captive by death was apparently as foreign to Jesus' thought as
+it was unthinkable for the men of his generation. The inability of the
+disciples to adjust their Messianic ideas to the death of their Master was
+not removed by the rebuke Jesus administered to Peter at Caesarea Philippi;
+their objections were only silenced. It would seem that even when they saw
+his death to be inevitable, they were simply dumb with hope that in some
+way he would come off victor; the cross and the tomb crushed out that
+hope--at least from most of them. If one disciple, his closest friend,
+recalled and believed his words when he saw the empty tomb (John xx. 8),
+others were cast into still deeper sorrow by the report, and could only
+say, "But we hoped that it was he which should redeem Israel" (Luke xxiv.
+21).
+
+211. The light which banished the gloom from the hearts of Jesus'
+followers dawned suddenly. There was no time for gradual readjustment of
+ideas and the springing of hope from a faith which would not die. The
+uniform early tradition is that Jesus showed himself alive to his
+disciples "on the third day," that is, a little over thirty-six hours from
+the time of his death. Not only the gospels, but Paul, who wrote many
+years before our evangelists, testify to this (I. Cor. xv. 4), as does the
+very early observance of the first day of the week as "the Lord's day,"
+and the substitution of "the third day" for "after three days" in the
+gospels which made use of our Gospel of Mark (compare parallels with Mark
+viii. 81; ix. 31; x. 34, and see Holtzmann, NtTh I. 309). Of the events
+which occurred on that third day and after, our earliest account is that
+of Paul. He gives a simple catalogue of the appearances of the risen Lord,
+referring to them as well known, in fact as the familiar subject matter of
+his earliest teaching (I. Cor. xv. 4-8). He gives definite date to none of
+these appearances, indicating only their sequence. He tells of six
+different manifestations, beginning with an appearance to Cephas on the
+third day, then to the twelve, then to a large company of
+disciples,--above five hundred,--then to James, then to all the apostles.
+The sixth in the list is his own experience, which he puts in the same
+class with the appearances of the first Easter morning. Two of these
+instances are found only in Paul's account, the appearance to James and to
+the five hundred brethren, though this last may probably be the same as is
+referred to in the Gospel of Matthew (xxviii. 16-20).
+
+212. The gospel records are much fuller, but they differ from each other
+even more than they do from Paul. Mark is unhappily incomplete, for the
+last twelve verses in that gospel, as we have it, are lacking in the
+oldest manuscripts, and were probably written by a second-century
+Christian named Aristion, as a substitute for the proper end of the gospel
+which seems by some accident to have been lost. These twelve verses are
+clearly compiled from our other gospels. They have value as indicating the
+currency of the complete tradition in the early second century, but they
+contribute nothing to our knowledge of the resurrection. All, then, that
+Mark tells is that the women who came early on the first day of the week
+to anoint the body of Jesus found the tomb open and empty, and saw an
+angel who bade them tell the disciples that the Lord had risen. How the
+record originally continued no one knows, for Matthew and Luke use the
+same general testimony up to the point where Mark breaks off, and then go
+quite different ways. Of the two Matthew is closer to Mark than is Luke.
+The first gospel adds to the record of the second an account of an
+appearance of Jesus to the women as they went to report to the disciples,
+and then tells of the meeting of Jesus with the disciples on a mountain in
+Galilee, and his parting commission to them. It gives no account of the
+ascension. Luke agrees with Mark in general concerning the visit of the
+women to the tomb, the angelic vision, and the report to the disciples. He
+says nothing of an appearance of Jesus to the women on their flight from
+the tomb, but, if xxiv. 12 is genuine (see R.V. margin), he, like John,
+tells of Peter's visit to the sepulchre.
+
+213. Luke further reports the appearances of Jesus to two on their way to
+Emmaus, to Simon, and to the eleven in Jerusalem,--this last being blended
+consciously or unconsciously with the final meeting of Jesus with the
+disciples before his ascension. The genuine text of the gospel (xxiv. 50)
+says nothing of the ascension itself, but clearly implies it. In contrast
+with Matthew it is noticeable that Luke shows no knowledge of any
+appearance of Jesus to his disciples in Galilee. John is quite independent
+of Mark, as well as of Matthew and Luke. He mentions only Mary Magdalene
+in connection with the early visit to the tomb, though perhaps he implies
+the presence of others with her ("we" in xx. 2). He tells of a visit of
+Peter and John to the tomb, of an appearance of Jesus to Mary Magdalene,
+of an appearance to ten of the disciples in the evening, and a week later
+to the eleven, including Thomas. So far this gospel makes no reference to
+appearances in Galilee; but in the appendix (chapter xxi.) there is added
+a manifestation to seven disciples as they were fishing on the Sea of
+Galilee.
+
+214. Criticism which seeks to discredit the gospels, for instance most
+recently Reville in his "Jesus de Nazareth," discovers two separate and
+mutually exclusive lines of tradition,--one telling of appearances in
+Galilee, represented by Mark and the last chapter in John, the other
+telling of appearances in or near Jerusalem, and found in Luke and the
+twentieth chapter of John. It is said that the gospels have sought to
+blend the two cycles, as when Matthew tells of an appearance to the women
+in Jerusalem on their way from the tomb, and when the last chapter of John
+adds to the original gospel a Galilean appearance. Luke, however, who
+makes no reference at all to Galilean manifestations, is taken to prove
+that originally the one cycle knew nothing of the other. This theory
+falls, however, before the uniform tradition of appearances on the third
+day, which must have been in Jerusalem, and the very early testimony of
+Paul to an appearance to above five hundred brethren at once, which could
+not have been in Judea. It need not surprise us that there should have
+been two cycles of tradition, not however mutually exclusive, if Jesus did
+appear both in Jerusalem and in Galilee. The same kind of local interest
+which is supposed to explain the one-sidedness of the synoptic story of
+the public ministry would easily account for one line of tradition which
+reported Galilean appearances, and another which reported those in
+Jerusalem. Luke may have had access to information which furnished him
+only the Jerusalem story. John and Peter, however, must have known the
+wider facts. The very divergences and seeming contradictions of the
+gospels, troublesome as they are, indicate how completely certainty
+regarding the fact of the resurrection removed from the thought of the
+apostolic day nice carefulness concerning the testimony to individual
+manifestations of the risen Lord. Doubtless the first preaching rested, as
+in the case of Paul, on a simple "I have seen the Lord." When later the
+detailed testimony was wanted for written gospels, it had suffered the lot
+common to orally transmitted records, and divergences had sprung up which
+it is no longer possible for us to resolve. They do not, however,
+challenge the fact which lies behind all the varied testimony.
+
+215. A general view of the events of that third day and those which
+followed can be constructed from our gospels and Paul. Early on the first
+day of the week certain women, including Mary Magdalene, Mary the mother
+of James and Joses, Salome, Joanna, and others, came to anoint the body of
+Jesus. On their arrival they found that the stone had been rolled back
+from the tomb. Mary Magdalene saw that the grave was empty and ran to tell
+Peter and John. The others saw also a vision of angels which said that
+Jesus was alive and would see his disciples in Galilee, and ran to report
+this to the disciples. Meanwhile Mary Magdalene returned, following Peter
+and John who ran to see the tomb, and found it empty as she had said. She
+lingered after they left, and Jesus appeared to her, she mistaking him at
+first for the gardener. She then went to tell the disciples that she had
+seen the Lord. These events evidently occurred in the early morning. The
+next incident reported is that of the walk of two disciples, not of the
+twelve, to Emmaus, and the appearance of Jesus to them. At first they did
+not recognize him, not even when he taught them out of the scriptures the
+necessity that the Messiah should die. He was made known when at evening
+he sat down with them to a familiar meal. Either before or after this
+event he had shown himself to Peter. This is the first manifestation
+reported by Paul. If Luke xxiv. 12 is genuine (see R.V. margin), he also
+tells that when the two again reached Jerusalem the apostles received them
+with the news that Peter had seen the Lord. That same evening Jesus
+appeared suddenly among the disciples in their well-guarded upper room.
+His coming was such that he had to convince the disciples that he was not
+simply a disembodied spirit. Luke says that he did this by bidding them
+handle him, and by eating part of a fish before them. According to John,
+Thomas was not with the others at this first meeting with the disciples. A
+week later, presumably in Jerusalem, Jesus again manifested himself to the
+little company, Thomas being with them, and dispelled the doubt of that
+disciple who loved too deeply to indulge a hope which might only
+disappoint. He had but to see in order to believe, and make supreme
+confession of his faith. The next appearance was probably that to the
+seven disciples by the Sea of Galilee, when Peter, who denied thrice, was
+thrice tested concerning his love for his Lord. Then apparently followed
+the meeting on the mountain reported in Matthew, which was probably the
+same as the appearance to the five hundred brethren; then, probably still
+in Galilee, Jesus appeared to his brother James, who from that time on was
+a leader among the disciples. The next manifestation of which record is
+preserved was the final one in Jerusalem, after which Jesus led his
+disciples out as far as Bethany and was separated from them, henceforth to
+be thought of by them as seated at the right hand of God.
+
+216. This construction of the story as given in the New Testament does
+violence to the accounts in one particular. It holds that Matthew's report
+of the meeting of Jesus with the women on their way from the tomb on
+Easter morning is to be identified with his meeting with Mary Magdalene.
+This can be done only if it is supposed that in the transmission of the
+tradition the commission given the women by the angel (Mark xvi. 6f.)
+became blended with the message given to Mary by the Lord (John xx. 17),
+the result being virtually the same for the religious interest of the
+first Christians, while for the historic interest of our days it
+constitutes a discrepancy. The difficulty is less on this supposition than
+on any other. It is highly significant that the account of the most
+indubitable fact in the view of the early Christians is the most difficult
+portion of the gospels for the exact harmonist to deal with. This is not
+of serious moment for the historical student. It is rather a warning
+against theoretical ideas of inspiration.
+
+217. The universal acknowledgment that the early Christians firmly
+believed in the resurrection of their Lord has made the origin of that
+firm conviction a question of primary importance. The simple facts as set
+forth in the New Testament serve abundantly to account for the faith of
+the early church, but they not only involve a large recognition of the
+miraculous, they also contain perplexities for those who do not stumble at
+the supernatural; hence there have been many attempts to find other
+solutions of the problem. Some of the explanations offered may be
+dismissed with a word: for instance, those which, in one form or other,
+renew the old charge found in the first gospel, that the disciples stole
+the body of Jesus, and then declared that he had risen; and those which
+assume that the death of Jesus was apparent only, that he fainted on the
+cross, and then the chill of the night air and of the sepulchre served to
+revive him, so that in the morning he was able to leave the tomb and
+appear to his disciples as one risen from the dead. This apparent-death
+theory involves Jesus in an ugly deception, while the theory that the
+disciples or any group of them removed the body of Jesus and then gave
+currency to the notion that he had risen, builds the greatest ethical and
+religious movement known to history on a lie. A slightly different
+explanation which was very early suggested was that the Jews themselves,
+or perhaps the gardener, had the body removed, and that when Mary found
+the tomb empty she let her faith conclude that his absence must be due to
+his resurrection.
+
+218. This last explanation has in recent times been revived in connection
+with the so-called vision-hypothesis by Renan and Reville. Mary found the
+tomb empty, and being herself of a highly strung nervous nature--she had
+been cured by Jesus of seven devils--by thinking about the empty tomb she
+soon worked herself into an ecstasy in which her eyes seemed to behold
+what her heart desired to see. She communicated her vision to the others,
+and by a sort of nervous contagion, they, too, fell to seeing visions, and
+it is the report of these that we have in the gospels. The
+vision-hypothesis takes with some, Strauss for instance, a different form.
+These deny that the tomb was found empty at all, and regard this story as
+a contribution of the later legend-making spirit. They hold that the
+disciples fled from Jerusalem as soon as the death of Jesus was an assured
+fact, and not until after they found themselves amid the familiar scenes
+of Galilee, did their faith recover from the shock it had received in
+Jerusalem. In Galilee the experiences of their life with Jesus were lived
+over again, and the old confidence in him as Messiah revived. Thus
+thinking about the Lord, their hearts would say, "He cannot have died,"
+and after a while their faith rose to the conviction which declared, "He
+is not dead;" then they passed into an ecstatic mood and visions followed
+which are the germ out of which the gospel stories have grown.
+
+219. These different forms of the vision-hypothesis have been subjected to
+most searching criticism by Keim, who is all the more severe because his
+own thought has so much that is akin to them. There are two objections
+which refute the hypothesis. The first is that the uniform tradition
+which connects the resurrection and the first appearances with the "third
+day" after the crucifixion leaves far too short a time for the recovery of
+faith and the growth of ecstatic feeling which are requisite for these
+visions, even supposing that the disciples' faith had such recuperative
+powers. The second is that once such an ecstatic mood was acquired it
+would be according to experience in analogous cases for the visions to
+continue, if not to increase, as the thought of the risen Lord grew more
+clear and familiar; yet the tradition is uniform that the appearances of
+the risen Christ ceased after, at most, a few weeks. The only later one
+was that which led to the conversion of Paul; and though Paul was a man
+somewhat given to ecstatic experiences (see II. Cor. xii.), he carefully
+distinguishes in his own thought his seeing of the Lord and his heavenly
+visions. In a word, the disciples of Jesus never showed a more healthy,
+normal life than that which gave them strength to found a church of
+believers in the resurrection in the face of persecution and scorn.
+
+220. Keim seeks to avoid the difficulties which his own acute criticism
+disclosed in the ordinary vision-theory, by another which rejects the
+gospel stories as legendary, yet frankly acknowledges that the faith of
+the apostles in the resurrection was based on a miracle. Their certainty
+was so unshakable, so uniform, so abiding, that it can be accounted for
+only by acknowledging that they did actually see the Lord. This seeing,
+however, was not with the eyes of sense, but with the spiritual vision,
+which properly perceives what pertains to the spirit world into which the
+glorified Lord had withdrawn when he died. In his spiritual estate he
+manifested himself to his disciples, by a series of divinely caused and
+therefore essentially objective visions, in which he proved to them
+abundantly that he was alive, was victor over death, and had been exalted
+by God to his right hand. This theory is not in itself offensive to faith.
+It concedes that the belief of the disciples rested on actual disclosures
+of himself to them by the glorified Lord. The difficulty with the theory
+is that it relegates the empty tomb to the limbo of legend, though it is a
+feature of the tradition which is found in all the gospels and clearly
+implied in Paul (I. Cor. xv. 4; compare Rom. vi. 4); it also fails to show
+how this glorified Christ came to be thought of by the disciples as
+_risen_, rather than simply glorified in spirit. This criticism brings us
+back to the necessity of recognizing a resurrection which was in some real
+sense corporeal, difficult as that conception is for us. The gospels
+assert this with great simplicity and delicate reserve. They represent
+Jesus as returning to his disciples with a body which was superior to the
+limitations which hedge our lives about. It may be well described by
+Paul's words, "It is sown a natural body; it is raised a spiritual body."
+Yet the records indicate that when he willed Jesus could offer himself to
+the perception of other senses than sight and hearing--"handle me and see"
+is not an invitation that we expect from a spiritual presence. If,
+however, we have to confess an unsolved mystery here, and still more in
+the record of his eating in the presence of the disciples (Luke xxiv.
+41-43), it is permitted us to own that our knowledge of the possible
+conditions of the fully perfected life are not such as to warrant great
+dogmatism in criticising the account. The empty tomb, the objective
+presence of the risen Jesus, the renewed faith of his followers, and their
+new power are established data for our thought. With these, many of the
+details may be left in mystery, because we have not yet light sufficient
+to reveal to us all that we should like to know.
+
+221. The ascension of the risen Christ to his Father is the presupposition
+of all the New Testament teaching. The Acts, the Epistles, and the
+Apocalypse join in the representation that he is now at the right hand of
+God. In fact it may be said that such a view is involved in the doctrine
+of the resurrection, for the very idea of that victory was that death had
+no more dominion over him. It is a fact, however, that none of our gospels
+in their correct text (see Luke xxiv. 51, R.V. margin) tell of the
+ascension. Luke clearly implies it, and John says that Jesus told Mary to
+tell the disciples that he was about to ascend to his Father and their
+Father. In Luke's later book, however (Acts i. 1-11), he gives a full
+account of a last meeting of Jesus with the disciples, and of
+his ascension to heaven before their eyes. This withdrawal in the cloud
+must be understood as an acted parable; for, in reality, there is no
+reason for thinking that the clouds which hung over Olivet that day were
+any nearer God's presence than the ground on which the disciples stood.
+For them, however, such a disappearance would signify vividly the
+cessation of their earthly intercourse with their Lord, and his return to
+his home with the Father. The word of Jesus to Mary (John xx. 17) may
+fairly be interpreted to mean that Jesus had ascended to the Father on
+the day of the resurrection, and that each of his subsequent
+manifestations of himself were like that which later he granted to Paul
+near Damascus. In fact it is easier to view the matter in this way than to
+conceive of Jesus as sojourning in some hidden place for forty days after
+his resurrection. What the disciples witnessed ten days before Pentecost
+was a withdrawal similar to those which had separated him from them
+frequently during the recent weeks, only now set before their eyes in such
+a way as to tell them that these manifestations had reached an end; they
+must henceforth wait for the other representative of God and Christ, the
+Spirit, given to them at Pentecost.
+
+222. The faith with which the disciples waited for the promised spirit was
+a very different faith from that which Peter confessed for his fellows at
+Caesarea Philippi. It had the same supreme attachment to a personal friend
+who had proved to be God's Anointed; the same readiness to let him lead
+whithersoever he would; the same firm expectation of a restitution of all
+things, in which God should set up his kingdom visibly, with Jesus as the
+King of men. Now, however, their trust was much fuller than before, and
+they looked for a still more glorious kingdom when their friend and Lord
+should come from heaven to assume his reign. They expected Christ to
+return soon in glory, yet his death and victory made them ready to endure
+any persecution for him, certain that, like the sufferings which he
+endured, it would lead to victory. These disciples had no idea that in
+preaching a religion of personal attachment to their Master, in filling
+all men's thoughts with his name, in building all hope on his return, and
+guiding all life by his teaching and spirit, they were cutting their
+moorings from the religion of their fathers. They remained loyal to the
+law, they were constant in the worship; but they had poured new wine into
+the bottles, and in time it proved the inadequacy of the old forms and
+revolutionized the world's religious life.
+
+
+
+
+
+Part III
+
+The Minister
+
+
+
+
+I
+
+The Friend of Men
+
+
+
+223. In nothing does the contrast between Jesus and John the Baptist
+appear more clearly than in their attitude towards common social life.
+John had his training and did his work apart from the homes of men. The
+wilderness was his chosen and fit scene of labor. From this solitude he
+sent forth his summons and warning to his people. They who sought him for
+fuller teaching went after him and found him where he was. They then
+returned to their homes and their work, leaving the prophet with his few
+disciples in their seclusion. With Jesus it was otherwise. His first act,
+after attaching to himself a few followers, was to go into Galilee to the
+town of Cana, and there with them to partake in the festivities of a
+wedding. While it is true that most of his teaching was by the wayside,
+among the hills, or by the sea, it is still a surprise to discover how
+often his ministry found its occasion as he was sitting at table in the
+house of some friend, real or feigned. The genuine friendships of Jesus as
+they appear in the gospels are among the most characteristic features of
+his life--witness the home at Bethany, the women who followed him even to
+the cross, and ministered to him of their substance, and the "beloved
+disciple." Jesus calls attention to this contrast between himself and
+John, reminding the people how some of the scornful pointed the finger at
+himself as "a gluttonous man and a wine-bibber, a friend of publicans and
+sinners." He received his training as a carpenter while John was in his
+wilderness solitude. Men who would probably have stood with admiration
+before John had he visited their synagogue, found Jesus too much one of
+themselves, and would none of him as a prophet (Mark vi. 2, 3).
+
+224. A like contrast sets Jesus apart from the scribes of his day. These
+were revered by the people, in part perhaps because they held the common
+folk in such contempt. Their attitude was frank--"this multitude which
+knoweth not the law is accursed" (John vii. 49). The popular enthusiasm
+for Jesus filled them with scorn, until it began to give them alarm. They
+were glad to be reverenced by the people, to interpret the law for them
+"binding heavy burdens and grievous to be borne;" but showed little
+genuine interest in them. Jesus, on the other hand, not only had the
+reverence of the multitudes, but welcomed them. First his words and his
+works drew them, then he himself enchained their hearts. Outcasts, rich
+and poor, crowded into his company, and found him not only a teacher, a
+prophet of righteousness rebuking their sins and calling to repentance,
+but a friend, who was not ashamed to be seen in their homes, to have them
+among his closest attendants, and to be known as their champion. It was
+when such as these were pressing upon him to hear him that Jesus replied
+to the criticism of the scribes in the three parables of recovered
+treasure which stand among the rarest gems of the Master's teaching (Luke
+xv.).
+
+225. One class only in the community failed of his sympathy,--the
+self-righteous hypocrites, who thought that godliness consisted in
+scrupulous regard for pious ceremonies, and that zeal was most laudable
+when directed to the removal of motes from their brothers' eyes. For these
+Jesus had words of rebuke and burning scorn. It has been common with some
+to emphasize his friendship for the poor as if he chose them for their
+poverty, and the unlettered for their ignorance. Yet Jesus had no faster
+friends than the women who followed from Galilee and ministered to him of
+their substance, and the two sanhedrists, Joseph whose new tomb received
+his body, and Nicodemus whose liberality provided the spices which
+embalmed him; for these, and not the Galilean fishermen, were faithful to
+the last at the cross and at the grave. In no home did Jesus find a fuller
+or more welcome friendship than in Bethany, where all that is told us of
+its conditions suggests the opposite of poverty. The rich young ruler, who
+showed his too great devotion to his possessions, would hardly have sought
+out Jesus with his question, if he was known as the champion of poverty as
+in itself essential to godliness. The demand made of him surprised him,
+and was suited to his special case. Jesus saw clearly the difficulties
+which wealth puts in the way of faith, but he recognized the power of God
+to overcome them, and when Zaccheus turned disciple, the demand for
+complete surrender of possessions was not repeated. On the contrary Jesus
+taught his disciples that even "the unrighteous mammon" should be used to
+win friends (Luke xvi. 9), so ministering unto some of "the least of these
+my brethren" (Matt. xxv. 40). The beatitude in Luke's report of the
+sermon on the mount (Luke vi. 20) was not for the poor as poor simply, but
+for those poor folk lightly esteemed who had spiritual sense enough to
+follow Jesus, while the well-to-do as a class were content with the
+"consolation" already in hand. Jesus' interest was in character, wherever
+it was manifest, whether in the repentance of a chief of the publicans, or
+in the widow woman's gift of "all her living;" whether it appeared in the
+hunger for truth shown by Nicodemus, a teacher of Israel, or in the woman
+that was a sinner who washed his feet with her tears. He was the great
+revealer of the worth of simple humanity, in man, woman, or child. Our
+world has never seen another who so surely penetrated all masks or
+disguising circumstances and found the man himself, and having found him
+loved him.
+
+226. This sympathy for simple manhood was manifested in a genuine interest
+in the common life of men in business, pleasure, or trouble. It is
+significant that the first exercise of his miraculous power should have
+been to relieve the embarrassment of his host at a wedding feast.
+Doubtless we are to understand that the miracle had a deeper purpose than
+simply supplying the needed wine (John ii. 11); but the significant thing
+is that Jesus should choose to manifest his glory in this way. It shows a
+genuine appreciation of social life quite impossible to an ascetic like
+the Baptist. The same appears in the way Jesus allowed his publican
+apostle to introduce him to his former associates, to the great scandal of
+the Pharisees; for a feast at which Jesus and a number of publicans were
+the chief guests accorded not with religion as they understood it. Jesus,
+however, seems to have found it a welcome opportunity to seek some of his
+lost sheep. The illustrations which he used in his teaching were often his
+best introduction to the common heart, for they were drawn from the
+occupations of the people who came to listen; while the aid Jesus gave to
+his disciples in their fishing showed not only his power, but also his
+respect for their work, a respect further proved when he called them to be
+fishers of men.
+
+227. Beyond this interest in life's joy and its occupations was that
+unfailing sympathy with its troubles which drew the multitudes to him. He
+was far more than a healer; he studied to rid the people of the idea that
+he was a mere miracle-monger. He healed them because he loved them, and he
+asked of those who sought his help that they too should feel the personal
+relation into which his power had brought them. This seems to be in part
+the significance of his uniform demand for faith. Doubtless Mary, out of
+whom he had cast seven devils, and Simon the leper, who seems to have
+experienced his power to heal, are only single instances of many who found
+in him far more than at first they sought. No further record remains of
+the paralytic who carried off his bed, but left the burden of his sins
+behind, nor of the woman who loved much because she had been forgiven
+much, nor of the Samaritan whose life he uncovered that he might be able
+to give her the living water. Some who had his help for body or heart may
+have gone away forgetful, after the fashion of men, but in the company of
+those who were bold to bear his name after his resurrection there must
+have been many who could not forget.
+
+228. Jesus' interest in common life was genuine, and he entered into it
+with his heart. The incident of the anointing of his feet as he sat a
+guest in a Pharisee's house shows that he was keenly sensitive to the
+treatment he received at the hands of men. He had nothing to say of the
+slights his host had shown him, until that host began mentally to
+criticise the woman who was ministering to him in her love and penitence.
+Then with quiet dignity Jesus mentioned the several omissions of courtesy
+which he had noticed since he came in, contrasting the woman's attention
+with Simon's neglect (Luke vii. 36-50). One of the saddest things about
+Gethsemane was Jesus' vain pleading with his disciples for sympathy in his
+awful hour. They were too much dazed with awe and fear to lend him their
+hearts' support. He recognized indeed that it was only a weakness of the
+flesh; yet he craved their friendship's help, and repeatedly asked them to
+watch with him, for his soul was exceeding sorrowful. In contrast with
+this disappointment stands the joy with which Jesus heard from Peter the
+confession which proved that the falling off of popular enthusiasm had not
+shaken the loyalty of his chosen companions,--"Blessed art thou, Simon
+Bar-Jonah: for flesh and blood have not revealed it unto thee, but my
+Father which is in heaven" (Matt. xvi. 17). There is the sorrow of
+loneliness as well as rebuke in his complaint, "O faithless generation,
+how long shall I be with you? how long shall I bear with you?" (Mark ix.
+19), and the lamentation over Jerusalem comes from a longing heart (Luke
+xiii. 34).
+
+229. The independence of human sympathy which Jesus often showed is all
+the more glorious for the evidence the gospels give of his longing for
+it. When he put the question to the twelve, "Would ye also go away?" (John
+vi. 67), there is no hint in his manner that their defection with the rest
+would turn him at all from faithfully fulfilling the task appointed to him
+by his Father. In fact only now and then did he allow his own hunger to
+appear. Ordinarily he showed himself as the friend longing to help, but
+not seeking ministry from others; he rather sought to win his disciples to
+unselfishness by showing as well as saying that he came not to be
+ministered unto but to minister. He washed the feet of his disciples to
+rebuke their petty jealousies, but we have no hint that he showed that he
+felt personal neglect. His own heart was full of "sorrow even unto death,"
+but his word was, "Let not your heart be troubled;" he asked in vain for
+the sympathy of his nearest friends in Gethsemane, yet when the band came
+to arrest him he pleaded, "Let these, the disciples, go their way."
+
+
+
+
+II
+
+The Teacher with Authority
+
+
+
+230. To his contemporaries Jesus was primarily a teacher. The name by
+which he is oftenest named in the gospels is Teacher,--translated Master
+in the English versions and the equivalent of Rabbi in the language used
+by Jesus (John i. 38). People thought of him as a rabbi approved of God by
+his power to work miracles (John iii. 2), but it was not the miracles that
+most impressed them. The popular comment was, "He taught them as one
+having authority, and not as the scribes" (Matt. vii. 29). Two leading
+characteristics of the scribes were their pride of learning, and their
+bondage to tradition. In fact the learning of which they were proud was
+knowledge of the body of tradition on whose sanctity they insisted; their
+teaching was scholastic and pedantic, an endless citing of precedents and
+discussion of trifles. To all this Jesus presented a refreshing contrast.
+In commending truth to the people, he was content with a simple "verily,"
+and in defining duty he rested on his unsupported "I say unto you," even
+when his dictum stood opposed to that which had been said to them of old
+time.
+
+231. In this freedom from the bondage of tradition Jesus was not alone.
+John the Baptist's message had been as simple and unsupported by appeal to
+the elders. Jesus and John both revived the method of the older prophets,
+and it is in large measure due to this that the people distinguished them
+clearly from their ordinary teachers, and held them both to be prophets.
+One thing involved in this authoritative method was a frank appeal to the
+conscience of men. So completely had the scribes substituted memory of
+tradition for appeal to the simple sense of right, that they were utterly
+dazed when Jesus undertook to settle questions of Sabbath observance and
+ceremonial cleanliness by asking his hearers to use their religious common
+sense, and consider whether a man is not much better than a sheep, or
+whether a man is not defiled rather by what comes out of his mouth than by
+what enters into it (Matt. xii. 12; Mark vii. 15). Jesus was for his
+generation the great discoverer of the conscience, and for all time the
+champion of its dignity against finespun theory and traditional practice.
+All his teaching has this quality in greater or less degree. It appears
+when by means of the parable of the Good Samaritan he makes the lawyer
+answer his own question (Luke x. 25-37), when he bids the multitude in
+Jerusalem "judge not according to the appearance, but judge righteous
+judgment" (John vii. 24), when he asks his inquisitors in the temple whose
+image and superscription the coin they used in common business bears (Mark
+xii. 16). His whole work in Galilee was proof of his confidence that in
+earnest souls the conscience would be his ally, and that he could impress
+himself on them far more indelibly than any sign from heaven could enforce
+his claim.
+
+232. Jesus was not only independent of the traditions of the scribes, he
+was also very free at times with the letter of the Old Testament. When by
+a word he "made all meats clean" (Mark vii. 19), he set himself against
+the permanent validity of the Levitical ritual. When the Pharisees pleaded
+Moses for their authority in the matter of divorce, Jesus referred them
+back of Moses to the original constitution of mankind (Matt. xix. 3-9).
+His general attitude to the Sabbath was not only opposed to the traditions
+of the scribes, it also disregarded the Old Testament conception of the
+Sabbath as an institution. Yet Jesus took pains to declare that he came
+not to set aside the old but to fulfil it (Matt. v. 17). The contrasts
+which he draws between things said to them of old and his new teachings
+(Matt. v. 21-48) look at first much like a doing away of the old. Jesus
+did not so conceive them. He rather thought of them as fresh statements of
+the idea which underlay the old; they fulfilled the old by realizing more
+fully that which it had set before an earlier generation. He was the most
+radical teacher the men of his day could conceive, but his work was
+clearing rubbish away from the roots of venerable truth that it might bear
+fruit, rather than rooting up the old to put something else in its place.
+
+233. The Old Testament was for Jesus a holy book. His mind was filled with
+its stories and its language. In the teachings which have been preserved
+for us he has made use of writings from all parts of the Jewish
+scriptures--Law, Prophets, and Psalms. The Old Testament furnished him the
+weapons for his own soul's struggle with temptation (Matt. iv. 4, 7, 10),
+it gave him arguments for use against his opponents (Mark xii. 24-27; ii.
+25-27), and it was for him an inexhaustible storehouse of illustration in
+his teaching. When inquirers sought the way of life he pointed them to the
+scriptures (Mark x. 19; see also John v. 39), and declared that the rising
+of one from the dead would not avail for the warning of those who were
+unmoved by Moses and the prophets (Luke xvi. 31). When Jesus' personal
+attitude to the Old Testament is considered it is noticeable that while
+his quotations and allusions cover a wide range, and show very general
+familiarity with the whole book, there appears a decided predominance of
+Deuteronomy, the last part of Isaiah, and the Psalms. It is not difficult
+to see that these books are closer in spirit to his own thought than much
+else in the old writings; his use of the scripture shows that some parts
+appealed to him more than others.
+
+234. Jesus as a teacher was popular and practical rather than systematic
+and theoretical. The freshness of his ideas is proof that he was not
+lacking in thorough and orderly thinking, for his complete departure from
+current conceptions of the kingdom of God indicates perfect mastery of
+ethical and theological truth. It is all the more remarkable, therefore,
+that so much of his profoundest teaching seems to have been almost
+accidental. The most formal discourse preserved to us is the sermon on the
+mount, in which human conduct is regulated by the thought of God as Father
+and Searcher of hearts. For the rest the great ideas of Jesus have
+utterance in response to specific conditions presented to him in his
+ministry. His most radical sayings concerning the Sabbath followed a
+criticism of his disciples for plucking ears of grain as they passed
+through the fields on the Sabbath day (Mark ii. 23-28); his authority to
+forgive sins was announced when a paralytic was brought to him for
+healing (Mark ii. 1-12); so far as the gospels indicate, we should have
+missed Jesus' clearest statement of the significance of his own death but
+for the ambitious request of James and John (Mark x. 35-45). Examples of
+the occasional character of his teaching might be greatly multiplied. He
+did not seek to be the founder of a school; important as his teachings
+were, they take a place in his work second to his personal influence on
+his followers. He desired to win disciples whose faith in him would
+withstand all shocks, rather than to train experts who would pass on his
+ideas to others. His disciples did become experts, for we owe to them the
+vivid presentation we have of the exalted and unique teaching of their
+Master; but they were thus skilful because they surrendered themselves to
+his personal mastery, and learned to know the springs of his own life and
+thought.
+
+235. Nothing in the teaching of Jesus is more remarkable than his
+confidence that men who believed in him would adequately represent him and
+his message to the world. The parable of the Leaven seems to have set
+forth his own method. We owe our gospels to no injunction given by him to
+write down what he said and did. He impressed himself on his followers,
+filled them with a love to himself which made them sensitive to his ideas
+as a photographic plate is to light, teaching them his truth in forms that
+did not at first show any effect on their thought, but were developed into
+strength and clearness by the experiences of the passing years. Christian
+ethics and theology are far more than an orderly presentation of the
+teaching of Jesus; in so far as they are purely Christian they are the
+systematic setting forth of truth involved, though not expressed, in what
+he said and did in his ministry among men. His ideas were radical and
+thoroughly revolutionary. His method, however, had in it all the patience
+of God's working in nature, and the hidden noiseless power of an evolution
+is its characteristic. Hence it was that he chose to teach some things
+exclusively in figure. So great and unfamiliar a truth as the gradual
+development of God's kingdom was unwelcome to the thought of his time. He
+made it, therefore, the theme of many of his parables; and although the
+disciples did not understand what he meant, the picture remained with
+them, and in after years they grew up to his idea.
+
+236. Jesus' use of illustration is one of the most marked features of his
+teaching. In one sense this simply proves him to be a genuine Oriental,
+for to contemplate and present abstract truths in concrete form is
+characteristic of the Semitic mind. In the case of Jesus, however, it
+proves more: the variety and homeliness of his illustrations show how
+completely conversant he was alike with common life and with spiritual
+truth. There is a freedom and ease about his use of figurative language
+which suggests, as nothing else could, his own clear certainty concerning
+the things of which he spoke. The fact, too, that his mind dealt so
+naturally with the highest thoughts has made his illustrations unique for
+profound truth and simple beauty. Nearly the whole range of figurative
+speech is represented in his recorded words, including forms like irony
+and hyperbole, often held to be unnatural to such serious speech as his.
+
+237. Another figure has become almost identified with the name of
+Jesus,--such abundant and incomparable use did he make of it. Parable
+was, however, no invention of his, for the rabbis of his own and later
+times, as well as the sages and prophets who went before them, made use of
+it. As distinguished from other forms of illustration, the parable is a
+picture true to actual human life, used to enforce a religious truth. The
+picture may be drawn in detail, as in the story of the Lost Son (Luke xv.
+11-32), or it may be the concisest narration possible, as in the parable
+of the Leaven (Matt. xiii. 33); but it always retains its character as a
+narrative true to human experience. It is this that gives parable the
+peculiar value it has for religious teaching, since it brings unfamiliar
+truth close home to every-day life. Like all the illustrations used by
+Jesus, the parable was ordinarily chosen as a means of making clear the
+spiritual truth which he was presenting. Illustration never finds place as
+mere ornament in his addresses. His parables, however, were sometimes used
+to baffle the unteachable and critical. Such was the case on the occasion
+in Jesus' life when attention is first called in the gospels to this mode
+of teaching (Mark iv. 1-34). The parable of the Sower would mean little to
+hearers who held the crude and material ideas of the kingdom which
+prevailed among Jesus' contemporaries. It was used as an invitation to
+consider a great truth, and for teachable disciples was full of suggestion
+and meaning; while for the critical curiosity of unfriendly hearers it was
+only a pointless story,--a means adopted by Jesus to save his pearls from
+being trampled under foot, and perhaps also to prevent too early a
+decision against him on the part of his opponents.
+
+238. In nothing is Jesus' ease in handling deepest truth more apparent
+than in his use of irony and hyperbole in his illustrations. In his
+reference to the Pharisees as "ninety and nine just persons which need no
+repentance" (Luke xv. 7), and in his question, "Many good works have I
+shewed you from the Father, for which of these works do you stone me?"
+(John x. 32), the irony is plain, but not any plainer than the rhetorical
+exaggeration of his accusation against the scribes, "You strain out a gnat
+and swallow a camel" (Matt, xxiii. 24), or his declaration that "it is
+easier for a camel to go through a needle's eye than for a rich man to
+enter into the kingdom of God" (Mark x. 25), or his charge, "If a man
+cometh unto me and hateth not his own father and mother ... he cannot be
+my disciple" (Luke xiv. 26). The force of these statements is in their
+hyperbole. Only to an interpretation which regards the letter above the
+spirit can they cause difficulty. In so far as they remove Jesus utterly
+from the pedantic carefulness for words which marked the scribes they are
+among the rare treasures of his teachings. The simple spirit will not busy
+itself about finding something that may be called a needle's eye through
+which a camel can pass by squeezing, nor will it seek a camel which could
+conceivably be swallowed, nor will it stumble at a seeming command to hate
+those for whom God's law, as emphasized indeed by Jesus (Mark vii. 6-13),
+demands peculiar love and honor. The childlike spirit which is heir of
+God's kingdom readily understands this warning against the snare of
+riches, this rebuke of the hypocritical life, and this demand for a love
+for the Master which shall take the first place in the heart.
+
+239. Jesus sometimes used object lessons as well as illustrations, and
+for the same purpose,--to make his thought transparently clear to his
+hearers. The demand for a childlike faith in order to enter the kingdom of
+God was enforced by the presence of a little child whom Jesus set in the
+midst of the circle to whom he was talking (Mark ix. 35-37). The unworthy
+ambitions of the disciples were rebuked by Jesus' taking himself the
+menial place and washing their feet (John xiii. 1-15).
+
+240. The simplicity and homeliness of Jesus' teaching are not more
+remarkable than the alertness of mind which he showed on all occasions.
+The comment of the fourth gospel, "he needed not that any one should bear
+witness concerning man, for he himself knew what was in man" (ii. 25),
+doubtless refers to his supernatural insight, but it also tells of his
+quick perception of what was involved in each situation in which he found
+himself. Whether it was Nicodemus coming to him by night, or the lawyer
+asking, "Who is my neighbor?" or a dissatisfied heir demanding that his
+brother divide the inheritance with him, or a group of Pharisees seeking
+to undermine his power by attributing his cures to the devil, or trying to
+entrap him by a question about tribute, Jesus was never caught unawares.
+His absorption in heavenly truth was not accompanied by any blindness to
+earthly facts. He knew what the men of his day were thinking about, what
+they hoped for, to what follies they gave their hearts, and what sins hid
+God from them. He was eminently a man of the people, thoroughly acquainted
+with all that interested his fellows, and in the most natural, human way.
+Whatever of the supernatural there was in his knowledge did not make it
+unnatural. As he was socially at ease with the best and most cultivated
+of his day, so he was intellectually the master of every situation. This
+appears nowhere more strikingly than in his dealing with his pharisaic
+critics. When they were shocked by his forgiveness of sins, or offended by
+his indifference to the Sabbath tradition, or goaded into blasphemy by his
+growing influence over the people, or troubled by his disciples' disregard
+of the traditional washings, or when later they conspired to entrap him in
+his speech,--from first to last he was so manifestly superior to his
+opponents that they withdrew discomfited, until at length they in madness
+killed, without reason, him against whom they could find no adequate
+charge. His lack of "learning" (John vii. 15) was simply his innocence of
+rabbinic training; he had no diploma from their schools. In keenness of
+argument, however, and invincibleness of reasoning, as well as in the
+clearness of his insight, he was ever their unapproachable superior. His
+reply to the charge of league with Beelzebub is as merciless an exposure
+of feeble malice as can be found in human literature. He was as worthy to
+be Master of his disciples' thinking as he was to be Lord of their hearts.
+
+241. In the teaching of Jesus two topics have the leading place,--the
+Kingdom of God, and Himself. His thought about himself calls for separate
+consideration, but it may be remarked here that as his ministry progressed
+he spoke with increasing frankness about his own claims. It became more
+and more apparent that he sought to be Lord rather than Teacher simply,
+and to impress men with himself rather than with his ideas. Yet his ideas
+were constantly urged on his disciples, and they were summed up in his
+conception of the kingdom of God, or the kingdom of heaven. This was the
+topic, directly or indirectly, of far the greater part of his teaching.
+The phrase was as familiar to his contemporaries as it is common in his
+words; but his understanding of it was radically different from theirs. He
+and they took it to mean the realization on earth of heavenly conditions
+(kingdom of heaven), or of God's actual sovereignty over the world
+(kingdom of God); but of the God whose will was thus to be realized they
+conceived quite differently. Strictly speaking there is nothing novel in
+the idea of God as Father which abounds in the teaching of Jesus. He never
+offers it as novel, but takes it for granted that his hearers are familiar
+with the name. It appears in some earlier writers both in and out of the
+Old Testament. Yet no one of them uses it as constantly, as naturally, and
+as confidently as did Jesus. With him it was the simple equivalent of his
+idea of God, and it was central for his personal religious life as well as
+for his teaching. "My Father" always lies back of references in his
+teaching to "your Father." This is the key to what is novel in Jesus' idea
+of the kingdom of God. His contemporaries thought of God as the covenant
+king of Israel who would in his own time make good his promises, rid his
+people of their foes, set them on high among the nations, establish his
+law in their hearts, and rule over them as their king. The whole
+conception, while in a real sense religious, was concerned more with the
+nation than with individuals, and looked rather for temporal blessings
+than for spiritual good. With Jesus the kingdom is the realization of
+God's fatherly sway over the hearts of his children. It begins when men
+come to own God as their Father, and seek to do his will for the love
+they bear him. It shows development towards its full manifestation when
+men as children of God look on each other as brothers, and govern conduct
+by love which will no more limit itself to friends than God shuts off his
+sunlight from sinners. From this love to God and men it will grow into a
+new order of things in which God's will shall be done as it is in heaven,
+even as from the little leaven the whole lump is leavened. Jesus did not
+set aside the idea of a judgment, but while his fellows commonly made it
+the inauguration, he made it the consummation of the kingdom; they thought
+of it as the day of confusion for apostates and Gentiles, he taught that
+it would be the day of condemnation of all unbrotherliness (Matt. xxv.
+31-46). This central idea--a new order of life in which men have come to
+love and obey God as their Father, and to love and live for men as their
+brothers--attaches to itself naturally all the various phases of the
+teaching of Jesus, including his emphasis on himself; for he made that
+emphasis in order that, as the Way, the Truth, and the Life, he might lead
+men unto the Father.
+
+
+
+
+III
+
+Jesus' Knowledge of Truth
+
+
+
+242. The note of authority in the teaching of Jesus is evidence of his own
+clear knowledge of the things of which he spoke. As if by swift intuition,
+his mind penetrated to the heart of things. In the scriptures he saw the
+underlying truth which should stand till heaven and earth shall pass
+(Matt. v. 18); in the ceremonies of his people's religion he saw so
+clearly the spiritual significance that he did not hesitate to sacrifice
+the passing form (Mark vii. 14-23); such a theological development as the
+pharisaic doctrine of the resurrection he unhesitatingly adopted because
+he saw that it was based on the ultimate significance of the soul's
+fellowship with God (Mark xiii. 24-27); he reduced religion and ethics to
+simplicity by summing up all commandments in one,--Thou shalt love (Matt.
+xxii. 37-40); and at the same time insisted as no other prophet had done
+on the finality of conduct and the necessity of obedience (Matt. vii.
+21-27). His penetration to the heart of an idea was nowhere more clear
+than in his doctrine of the kingdom of God as realized in the filial soul,
+and as involving a judgment which should take cognizance only of
+brotherliness of conduct. It would not be difficult to show that all these
+different aspects of his teaching grew naturally out of his knowledge of
+God as his Father and the Father of all men; they were the fruit,
+therefore, of personal certainty of ultimate and all-dominating truth.
+
+243. If the knowledge of Jesus had been shown only in matters of spiritual
+truth, it would still have marked him as one apart from ordinary men.
+There were other directions, however, in which he surpassed the common
+mind. The fourth gospel declares that "he knew what was in man" (ii. 25),
+and all the evangelists give evidence of such knowledge. Not only the
+designation of Judas as the traitor, and of Peter as the one who should
+deny him, before their weakness and sin had shown themselves, but also
+Jesus' quick reading of the heart of the paralytic who was brought to him
+for healing, and of the woman who washed his feet with her tears (Mark ii.
+5; Luke vii. 47), and his knowledge of the character of Simon and
+Nathanael (John i. 42, 47,) as well as his sure perception of the intent
+of the various questioners whom he met, indicate that he had powers of
+insight unshared by his fellow men.
+
+244. Furthermore, the gospels state explicitly that Jesus predicted his
+own death from a time at least six months before the end (Matt. xvi. 21),
+and they indicate that the idea was not new to him when he first
+communicated it to his disciples (Matt. xvi. 23; Mark ii. 20). He viewed
+his approaching death, moreover, as a necessity (Mark viii. 31-33), yet he
+was no fatalist concerning it. He could still in Gethsemane plead with his
+Father, to whom all things are possible, to open to him some other way of
+accomplishing his work (Mark xiv. 36). The old Testament picture of the
+suffering and dying servant of Jehovah (Isa. liii.) was doubtless
+familiar to Jesus. Although it was not interpreted Messianically by the
+scribes, Jesus probably applied it to himself when thinking of his death;
+yet the predictions of the prophets always provided for a non-fulfilment
+in case Israel should turn unto the Lord in truth (see Ezek. xxxiii.
+10-20). Moreover, the contradiction which Jesus felt between his ideas and
+those cherished by the leaders of his people, whether priests or scribes,
+was so radical that his death might well seem inevitable; yet it was
+possible that his people might repent, and Jerusalem consent to accept him
+as God's anointed. Neither prophecy, nor the actual conditions of his
+life, therefore, would give Jesus any fatalistic certainty of his coming
+death. In Gethsemane his heart pleaded against it, while his will bowed
+still to God in perfect loyalty. It is not for us to explain his
+prediction of death by appealing to the connection which the apostolic
+thought established between the death of Christ and the salvation of men,
+for we are not competent to say that God could not have effected
+redemption in some other way if the repentance of the Jews had, humanly
+speaking, removed from Jesus the necessity of death. All that can be said
+is that he knew the prophetic picture, knew also the hardness of heart
+which had taken possession of the Jews, and knew that he must not swerve
+from his course of obedience to what he saw to be God's will for him.
+Since that obedience brought him into fatal opposition to human prejudice
+and passion, he saw that he must die, and that such a death was one of the
+steps in his establishment of God's kingdom among men. So he went on his
+way ready "not to be ministered unto but to minister, and to give his
+life a ransom for many" (Mark x. 45).
+
+245. With his prediction of his death the gospels usually associate a
+prophecy of his speedy resurrection. As has been already remarked (sect.
+210), it is being generally recognized that if Jesus believed that he was
+the Messiah, he must have associated with the thought of death that of
+victory over death, which for all Jewish minds meant a resurrection from
+the dead. Jesus certainly taught that his death was part of his Messianic
+work, it could not therefore be his end. The prediction of the
+resurrection is the necessary corollary of his expectation of death; and
+it may reverently be believed that his knowledge of it was intimately
+involved with his certainty that it was as Messiah that he was to die.
+
+246. From the time when he began to tell his disciples that he must die,
+Jesus began also to teach that his earthly ministry was not to finish his
+work, but that he should return in glory from heaven to realize fully all
+that was involved in the idea of God's kingdom. His predictions resemble
+in form the representations found in the Book of Daniel and the Book of
+Enoch; and the understanding of them is involved in difficulties like
+those which beset such apocalyptic writings. In general, apocalypses were
+written in times of great distress for God's people, and represented the
+deliverance which should usher in God's kingdom as near at hand. One
+feature of them is a complete lack of perspective in the picture of the
+future. It may be that this fact will in part account for one great
+perplexity in the apocalyptic sayings of Jesus. In the chief of these
+(Mark xiii. and parallels), predictions of the destruction of Jerusalem
+are so mingled with promises of his own second coming and the end of all
+things that many have sought to resolve the difficulty by separating the
+discourse into two different ones,--one a short Jewish apocalypse
+predicting the destruction of Jerusalem and the coming of the Son of Man
+within the life of that generation; the other, Jesus' own prediction of
+the end of all things, concerning which he warns his disciples that they
+be not deceived, but watch diligently and patiently for God's full
+salvation. The difficulties of this discourse as it stands are so great
+that any solution which accounts for all the facts must be welcomed. So
+far as this analysis seeks to remove from the account of Jesus' own words
+the references to a fulfilment of the predictions within the life of that
+generation, it is confronted by other sayings of Jesus (Mark ix. 1) and by
+the problem of the uniform belief of the apostolic age that he would
+speedily return. That belief must have had some ground. What more natural
+than that words of Jesus, rightly or wrongly understood, led to the common
+Christian expectation? Some such analysis may yet establish itself as the
+true solution of the difficulties; it may be, however, that in adopting
+the apocalyptic form of discourse, Jesus also adopted its lack of
+perspective, and spoke coincidently of future events in the progress of
+the kingdom, which, in their complete realization at least, were widely
+separated in time. In such a case it would not be strange if the disciples
+looked for the fulfilment of all of the predictions within the limit
+assigned for the accomplishment of some of them.
+
+247. Whatever the explanation of these difficulties, the gospels clearly
+represent Jesus as predicting his own return in glory to establish his
+kingdom,--a crowning evidence of his claim to supernatural knowledge. It
+is all the more significant, therefore, that it is in connection with his
+prediction of his future coming that he made the most definite declaration
+of his own ignorance: "Of that day or that hour knoweth no one, not even
+the angels in heaven, neither the Son, but the Father" (Mark xiii. 32).
+This confession of the limitation of his knowledge is conclusive. Yet it
+is not isolated. With his undoubted power to read "what was in man," he
+was not independent of ordinary ways of learning facts. When the woman was
+healed who touched the hem of his garment, Jesus knew that his power had
+been exercised, but he discovered the object of his healing by asking,
+"Who touched me?" and calling the woman out from the crowd to acknowledge
+her blessing (Mark v. 30-34); when the centurion urged Jesus to heal his
+boy without taking the trouble to come to his house, Jesus "marvelled" at
+his faith (Matt. viii. 10); when he came to Bethany, assured of his
+Father's answer to his prayer for the raising of Lazarus, he asked as
+simply as any other one in the company, "Where have ye laid him?" (John
+xi. 34). It should not be forgotten that his knowledge of approaching
+death, resurrection, and return in glory did not prevent the earnest
+pleading in Gethsemane, and it may be that his reply to the ambition of
+James and John, it "is not mine to give" (Mark x. 40), is a confession of
+ignorance as well as subordination to his Father.
+
+248. The supernatural knowledge of Jesus, so far as its exercise is
+apparent in the gospels, was concerned with the truths intimately related
+to his religious teaching or his Messianic work. There is no evidence
+that it occupied itself at all with facts of nature or of history
+discovered by others at a later day. When he says of God that "he maketh
+his sun to rise on the evil and the good" (Matt. v. 45), there is no
+evidence that he thought of the earth and its relation to the sun
+differently from his contemporaries; it is probable that his thought
+anticipated Galileo's discovery no more than do his words. Much the same
+may be said with reference to the purely literary or historical questions
+of Old Testament criticism, now so much discussed. If it is proved by just
+interpretation of all the facts that the Pentateuch is only in an ideal
+sense to be attributed to Moses, and that many of the psalms inscribed
+with his name cannot have been written by David, the propriety of Jesus'
+references to what "Moses said" (Mark vii. 10), and the validity of his
+argument for the relative unimportance of the Davidic descent of the
+Messiah, will not suffer. Had Jesus had in mind the ultimate facts
+concerning the literary structure of the Pentateuch, he could not have
+hoped to hold the attention of his hearers upon the religious teaching he
+was seeking to enforce, unless he referred to the early books of the Old
+Testament as written by Moses. Jesus did repeatedly go back of Moses to
+more primitive origins (Mark x. 5, 6; John vii. 22); yet there is no
+likelihood that the literary question was ever present in his thinking.
+This phase of his intellectual life, like that which concerned his
+knowledge of the natural universe, was in all probability one of the
+points in which he was made like unto his brethren, sharing, as matter of
+course, their views on questions that were indifferent for the spiritual
+mission he came to fulfil. If this was the case, his argument from the one
+hundred and tenth Psalm (Mark xii. 35-37) would simply give evidence that
+he accepted the views of his time concerning the Psalm, and proceeded to
+use it to correct other views of his time concerning what was of most
+importance in the doctrine of the Messiah. The last of these was of vital
+importance for his teaching; the first was for this teaching quite as
+indifferent a matter as the relations of the earth and the sun in the
+solar system.
+
+249. A more perplexing difficulty arises from his handling of the cases of
+so-called demoniac possession. He certainly treated these invalids as if
+they were actually under the control of demons: he rebuked, banished, gave
+commands to the demons, and in this way wrought his cures upon the
+possessed. It has already been remarked that the symptoms shown in the
+cases cured by Jesus can be duplicated from cases of hysteria, epilepsy,
+or insanity, which have come under modern medical examination. Three
+questions then arise concerning his treatment of the possessed. 1. Did he
+unquestioningly share the interpretation which his contemporaries put upon
+the symptoms, and simply bring relief by his miraculous power? 2. Did he
+know that those whom he healed were not afflicted by evil spirits, and
+accommodate himself in his cures to their notions? 3. Does he prove by his
+treatment that the unfortunates actually were being tormented by
+diabolical agencies, which he banished by his word? The last of these
+possibilities should not be held to be impossible until much more is known
+than we now know about the mysterious phenomena of abnormal psychical
+states. If this is the explanation of the maladies for Jesus' day,
+however, it should be accepted also as the explanation of similar abnormal
+symptoms when they appear in our modern life, for the old hypothesis of a
+special activity of evil spirits at the time of the incarnation is
+inadequate to account for the fact that in some quarters similar maladies
+have been similarly explained from the earliest times until the present
+day. If, however, he knew his people to be in error in ascribing these
+afflictions to diabolical influence, he need have felt no call to correct
+it. If the disease had been the direct effect of such a delusion, Jesus
+would have encouraged the error by accommodating himself to the popular
+notion. The idea of possession, however, was only an attempt to explain
+very real distress. Jesus desired to cure, not to inform his patients. The
+notion in no way interfered with his turning the thought of those he
+healed towards God, the centre of help and of health. He is not open,
+therefore, to the charge of having failed to free men from the thraldom of
+superstition if he accommodated himself to their belief concerning
+demoniac possession. His cure, and his infusion of true thoughts of God
+into the heart, furnished an antidote to superstition more efficacious
+than any amount of discussion of the truth or falseness of the current
+explanation of the disease. On the other hand, if we are not ready to
+conclude that the action of Jesus has demonstrated the validity of the
+ancient explanation, we may acknowledge that it would do no violence to
+his power, or dignity, or integrity, if it should be held that he did not
+concern himself with an inquiry into the cause of the disease which
+presented itself to him for help, but adopted unquestioningly the
+explanation held by all his contemporaries, even as he used their
+language, dress, manner of life, and in one particular, at least, their
+representation of the life after death (Luke xvi. 22--Abraham's bosom).
+His own confession of ignorance of a large item of religious knowledge
+(Mark xiii. 32) leaves open the possibility that in so minor a matter as
+the explanation of a common disease he simply shared the ideas of his
+time. In this case, when one so afflicted came under his treatment, he
+applied his supernatural power, even as in cases of leprosy or fever, and
+cured the trouble, needing no scientific knowledge of its cause. If
+accommodation or ignorance led Jesus to treat these sick folk as
+possessed, it does not challenge his integrity nor his trustworthiness in
+all the matters which belong properly to his own peculiar work.
+
+250. There is one incident in the gospels which favors the conclusion that
+Jesus definitely adopted the current idea,--the permission granted by him
+to the demons to go from the Gadarene into the herd of swine, and the
+consequent drowning of the herd (Mark v. 11-13). On any theory this
+incident is full of difficulty. Bernhard Weiss (LXt II. 226 ff.) holds
+that Jesus accommodated himself to current views, and that the man, having
+received for the possessing demons permission to go into the swine, was at
+once seized by a final paroxysm, and rushed among the swine, stampeding
+them so that they ran down the hillside into the sea.
+
+251. In recent years the view has been somewhat widely advocated that his
+power over demoniacs was to Jesus himself one of the chief proofs of his
+Messiahship. His words are quoted: "If I, by the Spirit of God, cast out
+demons, then is the kingdom of God come upon you" (Matt. xii. 28); and "I
+beheld Satan falling as lightning from heaven" (Luke x. 18). The first of
+these is in the midst of an _ad hominem_ reply of Jesus to the charge that
+he owed his power to a league with the devil (Matt. xii. 28); and the
+second was his remark when the seventy reported with joy that the demons
+were subject unto them (Luke x. 18). The gospels, however, trace his
+certainty of his Messiahship to quite other causes, primarily to his
+knowledge of himself as God's child, then to the Voice which, coming at
+the baptism, summoned him as God's beloved Son to do the work of the
+Messiah. Throughout his ministry Jesus exhibits a certainty of his mission
+quite independent of external evidences,--"Even if I bear witness of
+myself, my witness is true; for I know whence I came and whither I go"
+(John viii. 14).
+
+
+
+
+IV
+
+Jesus' Conception of Himself
+
+
+
+252. When Jesus called forth the confession of Peter at Caesarea Philippi
+he brought into prominence the question which during the earlier stages of
+the Galilean ministry he had studiously kept in the background. This is no
+indication, however, that he was late in reaching a conclusion for himself
+concerning his relation to the kingdom which he was preaching. From the
+time of his baptism and temptation every manifestation of the inner facts
+of his life shows unhesitating confidence in the reality of his call and
+in his understanding of his mission. This is the case whether the fourth
+gospel or the first three be appealed to for evidence. It is generally
+felt that the Gospel of John presents its sharpest contrast to the
+synoptic gospels in respect of the development of Jesus' self-disclosures.
+A careful consideration of the first three gospels, however, shows that
+the difference is not in Jesus' thought about himself.
+
+253. The first thing which impressed the people during the ministry in
+Galilee was Jesus' assumption of authority, whether in teaching or in
+action (Mark i. 27; Matt. vii. 28, 29). His method of teaching
+distinguished him sharply from the scribes, who were constantly appealing
+to the opinion of the elders to establish the validity of their
+conclusions. Jesus taught with a simple "I say unto you." In this,
+however, he differed not only from the scribes, but also from the
+prophets, to whom in many ways he bore so strong a likeness. They
+proclaimed their messages with the sanction of a "Thus saith the Lord;" he
+did not hesitate to oppose the letter of scripture as well as the
+tradition of the elders with his unsupported word (Matt. v. 38, 39; Mark
+vii. 1-23). His teaching revealed his unhesitating certainty concerning
+spiritual truth, and although he reverenced deeply the Jewish scriptures,
+and knew that his work was the fulfilment of their promises, he used them
+always as one whose superiority to God's earlier messengers was as
+complete as his reverence for them. He was confident that what they
+suggested of truth he was able to declare clearly; he used them as a
+master does his tools.
+
+254. More striking than Jesus' independence in his teaching is the
+calmness of his self-assertion when he was opposed by pharisaic criticism
+and hostility. He preferred to teach the truth of the kingdom, working his
+cures in such a way that men should think about God's goodness rather than
+their healer's significance. Yet coincidently with this method of his
+choice he did not hesitate to reply to pharisaic opposition with
+unqualified self-assertion and exalted personal claim. Even if the
+conflicts which Mark has gathered together at the opening of his gospel
+(ii. 1 to iii. 6) did not all occur as early as he has placed them, the
+nucleus of the group belongs to the early time. Since the people greatly
+reverenced his critics, he felt it unnecessary to guard against arousing
+undue enthusiasm by this frank avowal of his claims. He consequently
+asserted his authority to forgive sins, his special mission to the sick in
+soul whom the scribes shunned as defiling, his right to modify the
+conception of Sabbath observance; even as, later, he warned his critics of
+their fearful danger if they ascribed his good deeds to diabolical power
+(Mark iii. 28-30), and as, after the collapse of popularity, he rebuked
+them for making void the word of God by their tradition (Mark vii. 13).
+His attitude to the scribes in Galilee from the beginning discloses as
+definite Messianic claims as any ascribed by the fourth gospel to this
+early period.
+
+255. These facts of the independence of Jesus in his teaching and his
+self-assertion in response to criticism confirm the impression that his
+answer to John the Baptist (Matt. xi. 2-6) gives the key to his method in
+Galilee. In John's inquiry the question of Jesus' personal relation to the
+kingdom was definitely asked. The answer, "Blessed is he whosoever shall
+find none occasion of stumbling in me," showed plainly that Jesus was in
+no doubt in the matter, although for the time he still preferred to let
+his ministry be the means of leading men to form their conclusions
+concerning him. What he brought into prominence at Caesarea Philippi,
+therefore, was that which had been the familiar subject of his own
+thinking from the time of his baptism.
+
+256. In the ministry subsequent to the confession of Peter the
+self-disclosures of Jesus became more frequent and clear. His predictions
+of his approaching death were at the time the greatest difficulty to his
+disciples; when considered in their significance for his own life,
+however, they prove that his conviction of his Messiahship was as
+independent of current and inherited ideas as was his teaching concerning
+the kingdom. When he came to see that death was the inevitable issue of
+his work, he at once discovered in it a divine necessity; it does not seem
+to have shaken in the least his certainty that he was the Messiah.
+Associated with this conception of his death is the conviction which
+appears in all the later teachings, that in rejecting him his people were
+pronouncing their own doom. Because she would not accept him as her
+deliverer, Jerusalem's "house was left unto her desolate" (Luke xiii. 35).
+His sense of his supreme significance appears most clearly in some of the
+later parables, such as The Marriage of the King's Son (Matt. xxii. 1-14)
+and The Wicked Husbandmen (Matt. xxi. 33-44), which definitely connect the
+condemnation of the chosen people with their rejection of God's Son. Two
+other sayings in the first three gospels express the personal claim of
+Jesus in the most exalted form,--his declaration on the return of the
+seventy: "All things have been delivered unto me of my Father, and no man
+knoweth who the Son is save the Father, and who the Father is save the
+Son, and he to whomsoever the Son willeth to reveal him" (Luke x. 22;
+Matt. xi. 27); and his confession of the limits of his own knowledge: "But
+of that day and hour knoweth no one, not even the angels in heaven,
+neither the Son, but the Father" (Mark xiii. 32). The confession of
+ignorance, by the position given to the Son in the climax which denied
+that any save the Father had a knowledge of the time of the end, is quite
+as extraordinary as the claim to sole qualification to reveal the Father.
+
+257. The similarity of these last two sayings to the discourses in the
+fourth gospel has often been remarked; the likeness is particularly close
+between them and the claims of Jesus recorded in the fifth chapter of
+John. It is interesting to note that in the incident which introduces the
+discourse in that chapter Jesus shows that he preferred, after healing the
+man at the pool, to avoid the attention of the multitudes, precisely as in
+Galilee he sought to check too great popular excitement by withdrawing
+from Capernaum after his first ministry there (Mark i. 35-39), and
+enjoining silence on the leper who had been healed by him (Mark ii. 44).
+When, however, he found himself opposed by the criticism of the Pharisees
+he spoke with unhesitating self-assertion and exalted personal claim, even
+as he did in like situations in Galilee. During his earlier ministry in
+Judea he had not shown this reserve. The cleansing of the temple, although
+it was no more than any prophet sure of his divine commission would have
+done, was a bold challenge to the people to consider who he was who
+ventured thus to criticise the priestly administration of God's house. In
+his subsequent dealings with Nicodemus and the Samaritan woman Jesus
+manifested a like readiness to draw attention to himself. From the time of
+the feeding of the multitudes all four of the gospels represent him as
+asserting his claims, with this difference, however, that in John it is
+the rule rather than the exception to find sayings similar to the two in
+which the self-assertion in the other gospels reaches its highest
+expression. Although the method of Jesus varied at different times and in
+different localities, yet it is evident that he stood before the people
+from the first with the consciousness that he had the right to claim
+their allegiance as no one of the prophets who preceded him would have
+been bold to do.
+
+258. During the course of his ministry Jesus used of himself, or suffered
+others to use with reference to him, many of the titles by which his
+people were accustomed to refer to the Messiah. Thus he was named "the
+Messiah" (Mark viii. 29; xiv. 61; John iv. 26); "the King of the Jews"
+(Mark xv. 2; John i. 49; xviii. 33, 36, 37); "the Son of David" (Mark x.
+47, 48; Matt. xv. 22; xxi. 9, 15); "the Holy One of God" (John vi. 69;
+compare Mark i. 24); "the Prophet" (John vi. 14; vii. 40). It is evident
+that none of these titles was common; they represent, rather, the bold
+venture of more or less intelligent faith on the part of men who were
+impressed by him. There are two names, however, that are more significant
+of Jesus' thought about himself,--"the Son of God" and "the Son of Man."
+
+259. The latter of these titles is unique in the use Jesus made of it.
+Excepting Stephen's speech (Acts vii. 56), it is found in the New
+Testament only in the sayings of Jesus, and its precise significance is
+still a subject of learned debate. The expression is found in the Old
+Testament as a poetical equivalent for Man, usually with emphasis on human
+frailty (Ps. viii. 4; Num. xxiii. 19; Isa. li. 12), though sometimes it
+signifies special dignity (Ps. lxxx. 17). Ezekiel was regularly addressed
+in his visions as Son of Man (Ezek. ii. 1 and often; see also Dan. viii.
+17), probably in contrast with the divine majesty.
+
+260. In one of Daniel's visions (vii. 1-14) the world-kingdoms which had
+oppressed God's people and were to be destroyed were symbolized by beasts
+that came up out of the sea,--a winged lion, a bear, a four-headed winged
+leopard, and a terrible ten-horned beast; in contrast with these the
+kingdom of the saints of the Most High was represented by "one like unto a
+son of man," who came with the clouds of heaven (vii. 13, 14). Here the
+language is obviously poetic, and is used to suggest the unapproachable
+superiority of the kingdom of heaven to the kingdoms of the world. The
+expression "one like unto a son of man" is equivalent, therefore, to "one
+resembling mankind." The vision in Daniel had great influence over the
+author of the so-called Similitudes of Enoch (Book of Enoch, chapters
+xxxvii. to lxxi.). He, however, personified the "one like unto a son of
+man," and gave the title "the Son of Man" to the heavenly man who will
+come at the end of all things, seated on God's throne, to judge the world.
+This author used also the titles "the Elect One" and "the Righteous One"
+(or "the Holy One of God"), but "the Son of Man" is the prevalent name for
+the Messiah in these Similitudes.
+
+261. The facts thus stated do not account for Jesus' use of the
+expression. Many of his sayings undoubtedly suggest a development of the
+Daniel vision resembling that in the Similitudes. This does not prove that
+Jesus or his disciples had read these writings, though it does suggest the
+possibility that they knew them. It is probable, however, that the
+apocalypses gave formulated expression to thoughts that were more widely
+current than those writings ever came to be. The likeness between the
+language of Jesus and that found in the Similitudes may therefore prove no
+more than that the Daniel vision was more or less commonly interpreted of
+a personal Messiah in Jesus' day.
+
+262. Much of the use of the title by Jesus, however, is completely foreign
+to the ideas suggested by Enoch and Daniel. Besides apocalyptic sayings
+like those in Enoch (Mark viii. 38 and often), the name occurs in
+predictions of his sufferings and death (Mark viii. 31 and often), and in
+claims to extraordinary if not essentially divine authority (Mark ii. 10,
+28 and parallels); it is also used sometimes simply as an emphatic "I"
+(Matt. xi. 19 and often). Whatever relation Jesus bore to the Enoch
+writings, therefore, the name "the Son of Man" as he used it was his own
+creation.
+
+263. Students of Aramaic have in recent years asserted that it was not
+customary in the dialect which Jesus spoke to make distinction between
+"the son of man" and "man," since the expression commonly used for "man"
+would be literally translated "son of man." It is asserted, moreover, that
+if our gospels be read substituting "man" for "the Son of Man" wherever it
+appears, it will be found that many supposed Messianic claims become
+general statements of Jesus' conception of the high prerogatives of man,
+while in other places the name stands simply as an emphatic substitute for
+the personal pronoun. Thus, for instance, Jesus is found to assert that
+authority on earth to forgive sins belongs to man (Mark ii. 10), and,
+toward the end of his course, to have taught simply that he himself must
+meet with suffering (Mark viii. 31), and will come on the clouds to judge
+the world (Mark viii. 38). The proportion of cases in which the general
+reference is possible is, however, very small; and even if the
+equivalence of "man" and "son of man" should be established, most of the
+statements of Jesus in which our gospels use the latter expression exhibit
+a conception of himself which challenges attention, transcending that
+which would be tolerated in any other man. The debate concerning the usage
+in the language spoken by Jesus is not yet closed, however, and Dr. Gustaf
+Dalman (WJ I. 191-197) has recently argued that the equivalence of the two
+expressions holds only in poetic passages, precisely as it does in Hebrew,
+and that our gospels represent correctly a distinction observed by Jesus
+when they report him, for instance, as saying in one sentence, "the
+Sabbath was made for man" (Mark ii. 27), and in the next, "the Son of Man
+is lord even of the Sabbath." The antecedent probability is so great that
+the dialect of Jesus' time would be capable of expressing a distinction
+found in the Hebrew of the Old Testament and in the Syriac of the
+second-century version of the New Testament, that Dalman's opinion carries
+much weight.
+
+264. Many of those who look for a distinct significance in the title "the
+Son of Man," find in it a claim by Jesus to be the ideal or typical man,
+in whom humanity has found its highest expression. It thus stands sharply
+in contrast with "the Son of God," which is held to express his claim to
+divinity. So understood, the titles represent truth early recognized by
+the church in its thought about its Lord. Yet it must be acknowledged that
+the conception "the ideal man" is too Hellenic to have been at home in the
+thought of those to whom Jesus addressed his teaching. If the phrase
+suggested anything more to his hearers than the human frailty or the
+human dignity of him who bore it, it probably had a Messianic meaning like
+that found in the Similitudes of Enoch. A hint of this understanding of
+the name appears in the perplexed question reported in John (xii. 34): "We
+have heard out of the law that the Messiah abideth forever; and how sayest
+thou, The Son of Man must be lifted up? who is this Son of Man?" Here the
+difficulty arose because the people identified the Son of Man with the
+Messiah, yet could not conceive how such a Messiah could die. In fact, if
+the conception of the Son of Man which is found in Enoch had obtained any
+general currency among the people, either from that book or independently
+of it, it was so foreign to the earthly condition and manner of life of
+the Galilean prophet, that it would not have occurred to his hearers to
+treat his use of the title as a Messianic claim until after that claim had
+been published in some other and more definite form. Their Son of Man was
+to come with the clouds of heaven, seated on God's throne, to execute
+judgment on all sinners and apostates; the Nazarene fulfilled none of
+these conditions. The name, as used by Jesus, was probably always an
+enigma to the people, at least until he openly declared its Messianic
+significance in his reply to the high-priest's question at his trial (Mark
+xiv. 62), and gave the council the ground it desired for a charge of
+blasphemy against him.
+
+265. What did this title signify to Jesus? His use of it alone can furnish
+answer, and in this the variety is so great that it causes perplexity.
+"The Son of Man came eating and drinking" is his description of his own
+life in contrast with John the Baptist (Matt. xi. 18, 19). "The Son of
+Man hath not where to lay his head" was his reply to one over-zealous
+follower (Matt. viii. 20). Unseemly rivalry among his disciples was
+rebuked by the reminder that "even the Son of Man came not to be
+ministered unto but to minister" (Mark x. 42-45). When it became needful
+to prepare the disciples for his approaching death he taught them that
+"the Son of Man must suffer many things ... and be killed, and after three
+days rise again" (Mark viii. 31). On the other hand, the paralytic's cure
+was made to demonstrate that "the Son of Man hath authority upon the earth
+to forgive sins" (Mark ii. 10). Similarly it is the Son of Man who after
+his exaltation shall come "in the glory of his Father with the holy
+angels" (Mark viii. 38). In these typical cases the title expresses Jesus'
+consciousness of heavenly authority as well as self-sacrificing ministry,
+of coming exaltation as well as present lowliness; and the suffering and
+death which were the common lot of other sons of men were appointed for
+this Son of Man by a divine necessity. The name is, therefore, more than a
+substitute for the personal pronoun; it expresses Jesus' consciousness of
+a mission that set him apart from the rest of men.
+
+266. We do not know how Jesus came to adopt this title. Its association
+with the predictions of his coming glory shows that he knew that in him
+the Daniel vision was to have fulfilment. The predictions of suffering and
+death, however, are completely foreign to that apocalyptic conception,
+being akin rather, as Professor Charles has suggested, to the prophecies
+of the suffering servant in the Book of Isaiah (Book of Enoch, p.
+314-317). Moreover, it may not be fanciful to find in his claims to
+heavenly authority a hint of the thought of the eighth Psalm, "Thou madest
+him to have dominion over the works of thy hands; thou hast put all things
+under his feet" (see Dalman WJ I. 218). Although the name expresses a
+consciousness of dignity, vicarious ministry, and authority, similar to
+thoughts found in Daniel, Isaiah, and the Psalms, it was not deduced from
+these scriptures by any synthesis of diverse ideas. It rather indicates
+that Jesus in his own nature realized a synthesis which no amount of study
+of scripture would ever have suggested. He drew his conception of himself
+from his own self-knowledge, not from his Messianic meditations. On his
+lips, then, "the Son of Man" indicates that he knew himself to be the Man
+whom God had chosen to be Lord over all (compare Dalman as above). The
+lowly estate which contradicted the Daniel vision prevented Jesus' hearers
+from recognizing in the title a Messianic claim; for him, however, it was
+the expression of the very heart of his Messianic consciousness.
+
+267. If Jesus gave expression to his official consciousness when he used
+the name "the Son of Man," the title "the Son of God" may be said to
+express his more personal thought about himself. It is necessary to
+distinguish between the meaning of this title to the contemporaries of
+Jesus and his own conception of it. In the popular thought "the Son of
+God" was the designation of that man whom God would at length raise up and
+crown with dignity and power for the deliverance of his people. This
+meaning followed from the Messianic interpretation of the second Psalm, in
+which the theocratic king is called God's son (Ps. ii. 7). In another
+psalm, which Jesus himself quotes (John x. 34), magistrates and judges are
+called "sons of the Most High" (lxxxii. 6). Another Old Testament use
+casts light on this,--the designation of Israel as God's son, his
+firstborn (Ex. iv. 22; Hos. i. 10), with which may be compared a
+remarkable expression in the so-called Psalms of Solomon (xviii. 4), "Thy
+chastisement was upon us [that is, Israel] as upon a son, firstborn, only
+begotten." In all these passages that which constitutes a man the son of
+God is God's choice of him for a special work, while Israel collectively
+bears the title to suggest God's fatherly love for the people he had taken
+for his own. The Messianic title, therefore, described not a metaphysical,
+but an official or ethical, relation to God. It is certainly in this sense
+that the high-priest asked Jesus "Art thou the Messiah the son of the
+Blessed?" (Mark xiv. 61), and that the crowd about the cross flung their
+taunts at him (Matt, xxvii. 43), and the demoniacs proclaimed their
+knowledge of him (Mark iii. 11; v. 7). The name must be interpreted in
+this sense also in the confession of Nathanael (John i. 49); moreover, it
+was not the coupling of the names "Messiah" and "son of the living God" in
+Peter's confession that gave it its great significance for Jesus. In all
+of these cases there is no evidence that there has been any advance over
+the theocratic significance which made the title "the Son of God" fitting
+for the man chosen by God for the fulfilment of his promises.
+
+268. The case is different with the name by which Jesus was called at his
+baptism (Mark i. 11). The difference here, however, arises not from
+anything in the name as used on this occasion, but from that in Jesus
+which acknowledged and accepted the title. With Jesus the consciousness
+that God was his Father preceded the knowledge that as "his Son" he was to
+undertake the work of the Messiah. The force of the call at the baptism is
+found in the response which his own soul gave to the word "Thou art my
+Son." The nature of that response is seen in his habitual reference to God
+as in a peculiar sense _his_ Father. The name "Father" for God was used by
+him in all his teaching, and there is no evidence that he or any of his
+hearers regarded it as a novelty. Psalm ciii. 13 and Isaiah lxiii. 16
+indicate that the conception was natural to Jewish thinking. The unique
+feature in Jesus' usage is his careful distinction between the general
+references to "your Father" and his constant personal allusions to "my
+Father." Witness the reply to his mother in the temple (Luke ii. 49); his
+word to Peter, "Flesh and blood hath not revealed it unto thee, but my
+Father which is in heaven" (Matt. xvi. 17), his solemn warning, "Not every
+one that saith unto me Lord, Lord, shall enter into the kingdom of heaven,
+but he that doeth the will of my Father which is in heaven" (Matt. vii.
+21), and the promise, "Every one who shall confess me before men ... him
+will I also confess before my Father" (Matt. x. 32). In the fourth gospel
+the same intimate reference is common: so, for example, the temple is "my
+Father's house" (ii. 16), the Sabbath cure is defended because "my Father
+worketh even until now" (v. 17), the cures are done "in My Father's name"
+(x. 25), "I am the vine, and my Father is the husbandman" (xv. 1). This
+mode of expression discloses a consciousness of unique filial relation to
+God which is independent of, even as it was antecedent to, the
+consciousness of official relation.
+
+269. The full name "the Son of God" was seldom applied by Jesus to
+himself, the only recorded instances being found in the fourth gospel (v.
+25; ix. 35?; x. 36; xi. 4). He frequently acquiesced in the use of the
+title by others in addressing him (for example, John i. 49; Matt. xvi. 16;
+xxvi. 63f.; Mark xiv. 61f.; Luke xxii. 70); but for himself he preferred
+the simpler phrase "the Son." This mode of expression occurs often in
+John, and is found also in the two passages, already noticed, in which the
+other gospels give clearest expression to the extraordinary self-assertion
+of Jesus (Matt. xi. 27; Luke x. 22; and Mark xiii. 32). In the first of
+them his claim to be the only one who can adequately reveal God is founded
+on the consciousness that the relation between himself and God is so
+intimate that God alone adequately knows him, whom men were so ready to
+set at nought, and he alone knows God. This relation, in which he and God
+stand together in contrast with all other men, is expressed by the
+unqualified names, "the Father" and "the Son." In the second passage Jesus
+confessed the limitation of his knowledge, but again in such a way as to
+set himself and God in contrast not only with men, but also with "the
+angels in heaven." Such assertions as these indicate that he who, knowing
+his full humanity, chose the title "the Son of Man" to express his
+consciousness that he had been appointed by God to be the Messiah, was yet
+aware in his inner heart that his relation to God was even closer than
+that in which he stood to men.
+
+270. There is no word in John which goes beyond the two self-declarations
+of Jesus which crown the record of the other evangelists, yet in the
+fourth gospel the same claim to unique relation to God is more frequently
+and frankly avowed. The most unqualified assertion of intimacy--"I and the
+Father are one" (x. 30)--states what is clearly implied throughout the
+gospel (so xiv. 6-11; xvi. 25; and particularly xvii. 21, "that they may
+be one, even as we are one"). It has often been said, and truly, that this
+claim to unity with the Father, taken by itself, signifies no more than
+perfect spiritual and ethical harmony with God. Yet when the words are
+considered in their connection, and more particularly when the two supreme
+self-declarations in the synoptic gospels are associated with them, they
+express a sense of relation to God so utterly unique, so strongly
+contrasting the Father and the Son with all others, that we cannot
+conceive of any other man, even the saintliest, taking like words upon his
+lips.
+
+271. These titles in which Jesus gave expression to his official and his
+personal consciousness present clearly the problem which he offers to
+human thought. Jesus stands before us in the gospels as a man aware of
+completest kinship with his brethren, yet conscious at the same time of
+standing nearer to God than he does to men.
+
+272. It is highly significant that the gospel which records most fully the
+claim of Jesus to be more closely related to God than he was to men, most
+fully records also his definite acknowledgment of dependence on his
+Father, and of that Father's supremacy over him and all others. "The Son
+can do nothing of himself" (John v. 19), "I speak not from myself" (xiv.
+10), "my Father is greater than all" (x. 29), "the Father is greater than
+I" (xiv. 28),--these confessions join with the common reference to God as
+"him that sent me" (v. 30 and often) in giving voice to his own spirit of
+reverence. It appears as clearly in his habitual submission to his
+Father's will,--"My meat is to do the will of him that sent me, and to
+accomplish his work" (John iv. 34); "I am come down from heaven, not to do
+mine own will, but the will of him that sent me" (John vi. 38). This
+submission reached its fulness in the prayer of Gethsemane, recorded in
+the earlier gospels,--"Father, all things are possible unto thee; remove
+this cup from me: howbeit not what I will, but what thou wilt" (Mark xiv.
+36). Jesus was a man of prayer; not only in Gethsemane, but also
+throughout his ministry he habitually sought his Father in that communion
+in which the soul of man finds its light and strength for life's duty.
+When he was baptized (Luke iii. 21), after the first flush of success in
+Capernaum (Mark i. 35), before choosing the twelve (Luke vi. 12), before
+the question at Caesarea Philippi (Luke ix. 18), at the transfiguration
+(Luke ix. 29), on the cross (Luke xxiii. 46),--at all the crises of his
+life he turned to God in prayer. Moreover, prayer was his habit, for it
+was after a night of prayer which has no connection with any crisis
+reported for us (Luke xi. 1), that he taught his disciples the Lord's
+prayer in response to their requests. The prayer beside the grave of
+Lazarus (John xi. 41, 42) suggests that his miracles were often, if not
+always (compare Mark ix. 29), preceded by definite prayer to God. His
+habit of prayer was the natural expression of his trust in God. From the
+resistance to the temptations in the wilderness to the last cry, "Father,
+into thy hands I commend my spirit," his life is an example of childlike
+faith in God.
+
+273. Yet throughout his life of obedience and trust Jesus never gave one
+indication that he felt the need of penitence when he came before God. He
+perceived as no one else has ever done the searching inwardness of God's
+law, and demanded of men that they tolerate no lower ambition than to be
+like God, yet he never breathed a sigh of conscious failure, or gave sign
+that he blushed when the eternal light shone into his own soul. He was
+baptized, but without confession of sin. He challenged his enemies to
+convict him of sin (John viii. 46). Such a challenge might have rested on
+a man's certainty that his critics did not know his inner life; but
+hypocrisy has no place in the character of Jesus. The reply to the rich
+young ruler, "Why callest thou me good?" (Mark x. 18), even if it was a
+confession that freedom from past sin was still far less than that
+absolute goodness that God alone possesses, simply sets in stronger light
+his silence concerning personal failure, and his omission in all his
+praying to seek forgiveness. It is probable, however, that that reply
+deals not with the "good" as the "ethically perfect," but as the
+"supremely beneficent," so that Jesus simply reminded the seeker after
+life that God alone is the one to be approached as the Gracious and
+Merciful One by sinful men (see Dalman WJ I. 277). Thus the reply becomes
+a fresh expression of the reverence of Jesus, and still further emphasizes
+his failure to confess his sinfulness.
+
+274. In all this thought about himself Jesus stands before us as a man,
+conscious of his close kinship with his fellows. Like them he hungered and
+thirsted and grew weary, like them he longed for friendship and for
+sympathy, like them he trusted God and prayed to God and learned still to
+trust when his request was denied. He stands before us also as a man
+conscious of being anointed by God for the great work which all the
+prophets had foretold, and of being fully equipped with authority and
+power and the promise of unapproachable dignity. Of deep religious spirit
+and great reverence for the scriptures of his people, he yet used these
+scriptures as a master does his tools, to serve his work rather than to
+instruct him in it. He drew his knowledge from within and from above, and
+proclaimed his own fulfilment of the scriptures when he filled them with
+new meaning. A man always devout, always at prayer, he is never seen, like
+Isaiah, prostrate before the Most High, crying, "I am undone" (Isa. vi.
+5). In his moments of greatest seriousness and most manifest communion
+with heaven he looked to God as his nearest of kin, and felt himself a
+stranger on the earth fulfilling his Father's will. He felt heaven to be
+his home not simply by God's gracious promise, but by the right of
+previous possession. His kinship with men was a condescension, his natural
+fellowship was with God.
+
+275. The miracles with which the gospels have filled the record of Jesus'
+life have caused perplexity to many, and they belong with other mysterious
+things recorded for us in the story of the past or occurring under the
+incredulous observation of our scientific generation. They all pale,
+however, before the unaccountable exception presented to universal human
+experience by this Man of Nazareth. It confronts us when we think of the
+unschooled Jew who, in his thought of God, rose not only above all of his
+generation, but higher than all who had gone before him, or have come
+after, one who built on the foundation of the past a superstructure of
+religion new, and simple, and clearly heavenly. It confronts us when we
+think of this Man who believed that it was given to him to establish the
+kingdom that should fill the whole earth, and who had the boldness and the
+faith to ignore the opposition of all the world's wisdom and of all its
+enthroned power, and to fulfil his task as the woman does who hides her
+leaven in the meal, content to wait for years, or millenniums, until his
+truth shall conquer in the realization of God's will on earth even as it
+is done in heaven. It confronts us when we consider that the Man who has
+shown his brethren what obedience means, who has taught them to pray, who
+has been for all these centuries the Way, the Truth, the Life, by whom
+they come to God, habitually claimed without shadow of abashment or
+slightest hint of conscious presumption, a nature, a relation to God, a
+freedom from sin, that other men according to the measure of their
+godliness would shun as blasphemy. If the personal claim was true, and not
+the blind pretence of vanity, the Jesus of the gospels is the exception to
+the uniform fact of human nature, but he is no longer unaccountable; and
+if his claim was true, his knowledge of the absolute religion, and his
+choice of the irresistible propaganda, are no less extraordinary, but they
+are not unaccountable. Paul, whose life was transformed and his thinking
+revolutionized by his meeting with the risen Jesus, thought on these
+things and believed that "the name which, is above every name" was his by
+right of nature as well as by the reward of obedience (Phil. ii. 5-11).
+John, who leaned on Jesus' breast during his earthly life, and who
+meditated on the meaning of that life through a ministry of many decades,
+came to believe that he whom he had seen with his eyes, heard with his
+ears, handled with his hands, was, indeed, "the Word made flesh" (John i.
+14), through whom the very God revealed his love to men. Through all the
+perplexities of doubt, amidst all the obscurings of irrelevant
+speculations, the hearts of men to-day turn to this Jesus of Nazareth as
+their supreme revelation of God, and find in him "the Master of their
+thinking and the Lord of their lives."
+
+"Lord, to whom shall we go? Thou hast the words of eternal life. And we
+have believed and know that thou art the Holy One of God."
+
+
+
+
+Appendix
+
+Books of Reference on the Life of Jesus
+
+
+
+1. A concise account of the voluminous literature on this subject maybe
+found at the close of the article JESUS CHRIST by Zockler in
+_Schaff-Herzog, Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge_. Of the earlier of
+the modern works it is well to mention David Friedrich Strauss, _Das Leben
+Jesu_ (2 vols. 1835), in which he sought to reduce all the gospel miracles
+to myths. August Neander, _Das Leben Jesu Christi_, 1837, wrote in
+opposition to the attitude taken by Strauss. Both of these works have been
+translated into English. Ernst Renan, _Vie de Jesus_ (1863, 16th ed.
+1879), translated, _The Life of Jesus_ (1863), is a charming, though often
+superficial and patronizing, presentation of the subject. For vivid word
+pictures of scenes in the life of Jesus his book is unsurpassed. Renan's
+inability to appreciate the more serious aspects of the work of Christ
+appears constantly, while his effort to discover romance in the life of
+Jesus is offensive. More important than any of these is Theodor Keim,
+_Geschichte Jesu von Nazara_ (1867-72, 3 vols.), translated, _The History
+of Jesus of Nazara_ (1876-81, 6 vols.). The author rejects the fourth
+gospel and holds that Matthew is the most primitive of the synoptic
+gospels; he does not reject the supernatural as such, but reduces it as
+much as possible by recognizing a legendary element in the gospels. When
+the work is read with these peculiarities in mind, it is one of the most
+stimulating and spiritually illuminating treatments of the subject.
+
+2. Critically more trustworthy, and exegetically very valuable, is
+Bernhard Weiss, _Das Leben Jesu_ (3d ed. 1889, 2 vols.), translated from
+the first ed., _The Life of Christ_ (1883, 3 vols.). It is more helpful
+for correct understanding of details than for a complete view of the Life
+of Jesus. Rivalling Weiss in many ways, yet neither so exact nor so
+trustworthy, though more interesting, is Willibald Beyschlag, _Das Leben
+Jesu_ (3d ed. 1893, 2 vols.). The most important discussion in English is
+Alfred Edersheim, _The Life and Times of Jesus the Messiah_ (1883 and
+later editions, 2 vols.). This is valuable for its illustration of
+conditions in Palestine in the time of Jesus by quotations from the
+rabbinic literature. The material used is enormous, but is not always
+treated with due criticism, and the book should be read with the fact in
+mind that most of the rabbinic writings date from several centuries after
+Christ. Schuerer (see below) should be used wherever possible as a
+counter-balance. Dr. Edersheim follows the gospel story in detail; his
+book is, therefore, a commentary as well as a biography.
+
+3. Albert Reville, _Jesus de Nazareth_ (1897, 2 vols.), aims to bring the
+work of Renan up to date, and to supply some of the lacks which are felt
+in the earlier treatise. The book is pretentious and learned. In some
+parts, as in the treatment of the youth of Jesus, and of the sermon on the
+mount, it is helpfully suggestive. The Jesus whom the author admires,
+however, is the Jesus of Galilee. The journey to Jerusalem was a sad
+mistake, and the assumption of the Messianic role a fall from the high
+ideal maintained in the teaching in Galilee. In criticism M. Reville
+accepts the two document synoptic theory, and assigns the fourth gospel to
+about 140 A.D. He rejects the supernatural, explaining many of the
+miracles as legendary embellishments of actual events.
+
+4. The most important treatment of the subject is the article JESUS CHRIST
+by William Sanday in the _Hastings Bible Dictionary_ (1899). It is of the
+highest value, discussing the subject topically with great clearness and
+with a rare combination of learning and common sense. S. T. Andrews, _The
+Life of Our Lord_ (2d ed. 1892), is a thorough and very useful study of
+the gospels, considering minutely all questions of chronology, harmony,
+and geography. It presents the different views with fairness, and offers
+conservative conclusions. G. H. Gilbert, _The Student's Life of Jesus_
+(1896), is complete in plan and careful in treatment, while being very
+concise. Dr. Gilbert faces the problems of the subject frankly, and his
+treatment is scholarly and reverent. James Stalker, _The Life of Jesus
+Christ_ (1880), is a short work whose value lies in the good conception
+which it gives of the ministry of Jesus viewed as a whole. In simplicity,
+insight, and clearness the book is a classic, though now somewhat out of
+date. _Studies in the Life of Christ_, by A.M. Fairbairn (1882), is of
+great value for the topics considered. The title indicates that the
+treatment is fragmentary. The long treatises of Farrar (1875, 2 vols.) and
+Geikie (1877, 2 vols.) are useful as commentaries on the words and works
+of Jesus. Farrar often interprets most helpfully the essence of an
+incident, and Geikie furnishes a mass of illustrative material from
+rabbinic sources, though with less criticism than even Edersheim has used.
+Neither of these works, however, deals with the fundamental problems of
+the composition of the gospels, nor are they satisfactory on other
+perplexing questions, for example, the miraculous birth.
+
+5. The most important accessory for the study of the life of Jesus is Emil
+Schuerer, _Geschichte des Juedischen Volkes im Zeitalter Jesu Christi_ (2d
+ed. 1886, 1890, 2 vols. A 3d ed. of 2d part in 2 vols., 1898), translated,
+_A History of the Jewish People in the Time of Jesus Christ_ (1885-6, 5
+vols.). The political history of the Jews from 175 B.C. to 135 A.D., and
+the intellectual and religious life of the times in which Jesus lived,
+with the Jewish literature of Palestine and the dispersion, are all
+treated with thoroughness and masterful learning. W. Baldensperger, _Das
+Selbstbewusstsein Jesu im Lichte der messianischen Hoffnungen seiner
+Zeit_ (2d ed. 1892), furnishes in the first part a survey of the Messianic
+hopes of the Jews which is in many respects the most satisfactory account
+that is accessible. The second part discusses the problem of Jesus'
+conception of himself in a reverent and learned way. George Adam Smith,
+_The Historical Geography of the Holy Land_ (1894), is indispensable for
+the study of the physical features of the land as they bear on its
+history, and on the work of Jesus. The maps are the best that have yet
+appeared.
+
+6. Discussions of the Teaching of Jesus in works on Biblical Theology have
+much that is important for the study of Jesus' life. The most significant
+is H. H. Wendt, _Die Lehre Jesu_ (1886, 2 vols.). The second volume has
+been translated _The Teaching of Jesus_ (1892, 2 vols.); the first volume
+of the original work is an elaborate discussion of the sources, and has
+not been done into English. Reference may be made especially to H. J.
+Holtzmann, _Lehrbuch der Neutestamentlichen Theologie_ (1897, 2 vols.),
+and also to G. H. Gilbert, _The Revelation of Jesus_ (1899). Gustaf
+Dalman, _Die Worte Jesu_ (1898), of which the first volume only has
+appeared, is a study of the meaning of the most significant expressions
+used in the gospel records of the teaching of Jesus, made with the aid of
+thorough knowledge of Aramaic usage and of the language of post-canonical
+Jewish literature.
+
+7. A good synopsis or Harmony of the gospels is most useful. The best
+_Harmony is_ that of Stevens and Burton (1894), which exhibits the
+divergencies of the parallel accounts in the gospels as faithfully as the
+agreements. A good synopsis of the Greek text of the first three gospels
+is Huck, _Synapse_ (1892). Robinson's _Greek Harmony of the Gospels_,
+edited by M. B. Biddle, using Tischendorf's text, has also valuable notes
+discussing questions of harmony.
+
+
+
+
+Abbreviations
+
+
+
+AndLOL        Andrews, The Life of Our Lord, 2d ed., 1892.
+BaldSJ        Baldensperger, Das Selbstbewusstsein Jesu, 2d ed., 1892.
+BeysLJ        Beyschlag, Das Leben Jesu, 3d ed., 2 vols., 1893.
+BovonNTTh     Bovon, Theologie du Nouveau Testament, 1892.
+DalmanWJ      Dalman, Die Worte Jesu, I., 1898.
+EdersLJM      Edersheim, The Life and Times of Jesus the Messiah, 2 vols.,
+              1883.
+FairbSLX      Fairbairn, Studies in the Life of Christ, 1882.
+GilbertLJ     Gilbert, The Student's Life of Jesus, 1896.
+GilbertRJ     Gilbert, The Revelation of Jesus, 1899.
+HoltzNtTh     Holtzmann, Neutestamentliche Theologie, 2 vols., 1897.
+KeimJN        Keim, The History of Jesus of Nazara, 6 vols., 1876-81.
+RevilleJN     Reville, Jesus de Nazareth, 2 vols., 1897.
+SandayHastBD  Sanday, the article JESUS CHRIST in the Hastings Bible
+              Dictionary, 1899.
+SchuererJPTX   Schuerer, The History of the Jewish People in the Time of
+              Jesus Christ, 1885-86. Division I. vols. i. and ii.; Division
+              II. vols. i., ii., and iii.
+SmithHGHL     Smith, Historical Geography of the Holy Land, 1894.
+SB            Stevens and Burton, Harmony of the Gospels, 1894.
+WeissLX       Weiss, The Life of Christ, 3 vols., 1883.
+WendtLJ       Wendt, Die Lehre Jesu, 2 vols., 1886.
+WendtTJ       Wendt, The Teaching of Jesus, 2 vols., 1892.
+EnBib         Encyclopedia Biblica, 1899.
+HastBD        Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible, 1898.
+SBD^2         Smith's Dictionary of the Bible, revision of the first volume
+              of the original English edition, 1893.
+
+
+
+
+References
+
+
+
+Part I.--Preparatory
+
+
+I
+
+The Historical Situation
+
+8. Read SandayHastBD II. 604-609. On the Land, its physical
+characteristics, its political divisions, its climate, its roads, and its
+varying civilization, SmithHGHL is unsurpassed. Its identifications of
+disputed localities are cautions. Robinson, _Biblical Researches in
+Palestine_, and Thomson, _The Land and the Book_, give fuller detail
+concerning particular localities, but no such general view as Smith.
+
+9. On Political conditions, SchuererJPTX I. i. and ii. is the fullest and
+most trustworthy treatise. More concise essays are Oscar Holtzmann, _Nt.
+Zeitgeschichte_ (1895), 57-118; S. Mathews, _History of NT Times in
+Palestine_ (1899), 1-158; Riggs, _Maccabean and Roman Periods of Jewish
+History_ (1900), especially Sec.Sec. 206-234, 257-267, 276-282. On the Religious
+Life and Parties in Palestine, SchuererJPTX II. i. and ii.; O. Holtzmann,
+_NtZeitg_, 136-177; Mathews, _NT Times_, see index; Riggs, _Mac. and Rom.
+Periods_, Sec.Sec. 235-256; Muirhead, _The Times of Christ_ (1898), 69-150. In
+addition Wellhausen, _Die Pharisdaeer und die Sadducaeer_ (1874); on the
+_Essenes_, Conybeare in HastBD I. 767-772, also Lightfoot, _Colossians_,
+80-98, 347-419; Wellhausen, _Isr. u. jued. Geschichte_^3 (1897), 258-262;
+on the Samaritans, A. Cowley, in _Expos_. V. i. 161-174; Jew. Quar. Rev.
+VIII. (1896) 562-575.
+
+10. On the Messianic hope, SchuererJPTX II. ii. 126-187; BaldSJ 3-122;
+Muirhead, _Times of Xt._, 112-150; Briggs, _Messiah of the Gospels_
+(1894), 1-40; WendtTJ I. 33-84; Mathews, _NT Times_, 159-169; Riggs, _Mac.
+and Rom. Periods_, Sec.Sec. 251-256.
+
+11. On the language of Palestine see Arnold Meyer, _Jesu Muttersprache_
+(1896); DalmanWJ I. 1-57; SchuererJPTX II. i. 8-10, 47-51; Neubauer,
+_Studia Biblica_, I. 39-74.
+
+12. On Jewish literature dating near the times of Jesus see SchuererJPTX
+II. iii.; BaldSJ. 3-122; EdersLJM I. 31-39; Deane, _Pseudepigrapha_
+(1891); Thomson, _Books which influenced our Lord_, etc. (1891); and
+special editions, such as Alexandre, _Sibylline Oracles_ (1869); Deane,
+_The Wisdom of Solomon_ (1881); Charles, _The Book of Enoch_ (1893), _The
+Apocalypse of Baruch_ (1896), _The Assumption of Moses_ (1897), and _The
+Book of Jubilees_ (1895); Charles and Morfill, _The Secrets of Enoch_
+(1896); Ryle and James, _The Psalms of the Pharisees_ [Psalms of Solomon]
+(1891); Bensly and James, _Fourth Esdras_ (1895); Charles, EnBib I.
+213-250; HastBD I. 109f.; Porter, HastBD I. 110-123; James, EnBib I.
+249-261.
+
+
+II
+
+The Sources
+
+13. On the sources outside the gospels see Anthony, _Introduction to the
+Life of Jesus_, 19-108; KeimJN I. 12-59; BeysLJ I. 59-72; GilbertLJ 74-78;
+Knowling, _Witness of the Epistles_; Stevens, _Pauline Theol_. 204-208;
+Sabatier, _Apostle Paul_, 76-85. On Josephus as a source see also
+SchuererJPTX I. ii. 143-149; RevilleJN I. 272-280. On the individual
+gospels see Burton, _The Purpose and Plan of the Four Gospels_ (Univ.
+Chic. Press, 1900); Bruce, _With Open Face_, 1-61; Weiss, _Introduction to
+N.T._, II. 239-386; Juelicher, _Einleitung i. d. NT_, 189-207. On Matthew,
+Burton Bib. Wld. I. 1898, 37-44, 91-101; on Mark, Swete, _Comm. on Mark_,
+ix-lxxxix; on Luke, Plummer, _Comm. on Luke_, xi-lxx; Mathews, Bib. Wld.
+1895, I. 336-342, 448-455; on John, Burton, Bib. Wld. 1899, I. 16-41,
+102-105; Westcott, _Comm. on John_, v-lxxvii; Rhees in Abbott's _The Bible
+as Literature_, 281-297. On the synoptic question see Sanday SBD^2,
+1217-1243, and Expositor, Feb.-June, 1891; Woods, _Studia Biblica_, II.
+59-104; Salmon, _Introduction_^7, 99-151, 570-581; Stanton in HastBD II.
+234-243; Juelicher, _Einl._ 207-227. A. Wright, _Composition of the Four
+Gospels_ (1890) and _Some NT Problems_ (1898), defends the oral tradition
+theory in a modified form. On possible dislocations in John see Spitta,
+_Urchristentum_, I. 157-204; Bacon, Jour. Bib. Lit. 1894, 64-76; Burton,
+Bib. Wld. 1899, I. 27-35. For the history of opinion see specially H. J.
+Holtzmann, _Einl._^3 340-375. On the Johannine question see Sanday,
+Expositor, Nov. 1891-May 1892; Schuerer, Cont. Rev. Sept. 1891; Watkins
+SBD^2 1739-1764; Burton, Bib. Wld. 1899, I. 16-41; Reynolds in HastBD II.
+694-722; Zahn, _Einl._ II. 445-564 (defends Johannine authorship);
+Juelicher, _Einl._ 238-250 (rejects Johannine authorship). For the history
+of opinion see Watkins, _Bampton Lecture_ for 1890; Holtzmann, _Einl._^3
+433-438. P. Ewald, _Hauptproblem der evang. Frage_, argues the
+authenticity of the fourth gospel from the one-sidedness of the synoptic
+story. See also Jour. Bib. Lit. 1898, I. 87-102.
+
+14. Reville proposes to reconstruct Jos. Ant. xviii. 3. 3 thus: "'At that
+time appeared Jesus, a wise man, who did astonishing things. That is why a
+good number of Jews and also of Greeks attached themselves to him.' Then
+follows some phrase probably signifying that these adherents had committed
+the error of proclaiming him Christ, and then 'denounced by the leading
+men of the nation, this Jesus was condemned by Pilate to die on the cross.
+But those who had loved him before persevered in their sentiment, and
+still to-day there exists a class of people who take from him their name
+Christians.'"
+
+15. On the testimony of Papias (Euseb. _Ch. Hist_. iii. 39. 4) see
+Lightfoot, Cont. Rev. 1875, II. 379 ff., and McGiffert's notes in his
+_Eusebius_, 170 ff.
+
+16. For a collection of probably genuine Agrapha see Ropes, _Die Spruche
+Jesu_, 154-161, and Amer. Jour. Theol. 1897, 758-776; Resch, _Agrapha_,
+gives a much longer list. He is criticised by Ropes. On lost and
+uncanonical gospels see Salmon, _Intr._^7 173-190, 580-591; Kruger, _Early
+Christian Literature_, 50-57. For the recently discovered Gospel of Peter
+see Swete, _The Gospel of Peter_; and on the so-called _Sayings of Jesus_
+found in Egypt in 1896 see Harnack, _Expositor_, V. vi. 321-340, 401-416,
+and essay by Sanday and Lock. _Apocryphal Gospels_ are most conveniently
+found in _Ante-nicene Fathers_, VIII. 361-476.
+
+
+III
+
+The Harmony of the Gospels
+
+17. The Diatessaron of Tatian is translated with notes by Hill, _The
+Earliest Life of Christ_. See also _Ante-nic. Fathers_, IX. 35-138.
+
+18. For the extreme position concerning Doublets see Holtzmann,
+_Hand-commentar zum NT_ I. passim. E. Haupt, Studien u. Kritiken, 1884,
+25, remarks that Jesus must often have repeated his teaching in
+essentially the same form.
+
+
+IV
+
+Chronology
+
+19. For data and discussion of the various problems see Wieseler,
+_Chronological Synopsis_; Lewin, _Fasti Sacra; _ KeimJN II. 379-402;
+AndLOL 1-52; SchuererJPTX I. ii. 30-32, 105-143; O. Holtzmann, _NtZeitg_,
+118-124, 125-127, 131-132; Turner HastBD I. 403-415; Ramsay, _Was Christ
+born at Bethlehem_; and von Soden in EnBib. I. 799-812. For patristic
+opinion concerning the length of Jesus' ministry, see HastBD I. 410. For
+the argument for a one-year ministry, see KeimJN II. 398; O. Holtzmann,
+_NtZeitg_, 131f. For two years, see Wieseler, _Chron. Synop_. 204-220;
+WeissLX I. 389-392; Turner, in HastBD. For three years, see AndLOL
+189-198; note by Robertson in Broadus, _Harmony of the Gospels_, 241-244.
+Compare RevilleJN II. 227-231; Zahn, _Einl._ II. 516f.
+
+
+V
+
+The Early Years
+
+20. On the problem of the Virgin birth see GilbertLJ 79-89; WeissLX I.
+211-233; Swete, _Apos. Creed_, 42-55; Bruce, _Apologetics_, 407-413;
+Ropes, Andover Rev. 1893, 695-712; FairbSLX 30-45; Godet, _Comm. on Luke_,
+Rem. on chaps. I. and II.; BovonNTTh I. 198-217. These maintain
+historicity. The other side: BeysLJ I. 148-174; Meyer, _Comm. on Matt_.,
+Rem. on 1.18; Keim JN II. 38-101; Reville, New World, 1892, 695-723, and
+JN I. 361-408; HoltzmannNtTh I. 409-415. On the early years of
+Jesus see EdersLJM I. 217-254; WeissLX I. 275-293; Hughes, _Manliness of
+Xt_, 35-60; WendtTJ I. 90-96; Stapfer, _Jesus Christ before his Ministry;
+_ FairbSLX 46-63; BeysLJ II. 44-65; RevilleJN I. 409-438.
+
+21. For some of the early legends concerning the birth and childhood of
+Jesus, see the so-called _Protevangelium of James_, the _Gospel of
+Pseudo-Matthew_, and the _Gospel of Thomas_, Ante-nic. Fathers, VIII.
+361-383, 395-398. For Jewish calumnies see Laible, _J. X. im Thalmud_,
+9-39.
+
+22. On the two genealogies see AndLOL 62-68; WeissLX I. 211-221; Godet on
+Luke, iii. 23-38. These refer Luke's genealogy to Marv. Hervey SBD^2
+1145-1148, Plummer on Luke, iii. 23, EdersLJM I. 149, GilbertLJ 81f.,
+with the early fathers (see Plummer), refer both to Joseph. For the view
+that they are unauthentic see Holtzmann, _Hand-comm._ I. 39-41; Bacon in
+HastBD II. 137-141.
+
+23. On the "brethren" of Jesus see Mayor, HastBD I. 320-326;
+AndrewsLOL 111-123. These make the brethren sons of Joseph and
+Mary. Lightfoot, _Galatians_^10, 252-291, regards them as sons of Joseph
+by a former marriage.
+
+
+VI
+
+John the Baptist
+
+24. On the character and work of John the Baptist see KeimJN II. 201-266
+and references in the index under John the Baptist. Keim's is much the
+most satisfactory treatment; it is, moreover, Keim at his best. See also
+Ewald, _Hist, of Israel_, VI. 160-200; WeissLX I. 307-316; FairbSLX 64-79;
+W. A. Stevens, Homil. Rev. 1891, II. 163 ff.; Bebb in HastBD II. 677-680;
+Wellhausen _Isr. u. judische Geschichte_, 342f.; Feather, _Last of the
+Prophets_. Reynolds, _John the Baptist_, obscures its excellencies by a
+vast amount of irrelevant discussion.
+
+25. On the existence of a separate company of disciples of John see Mk.
+ii. 18, Mt. ix. 14, Lk. v. 33; Mk. vi. 29, Mt. xiv. 12; Mt. xi. 2f., Lk.
+vii. 18f.; Lk. xi. 1; Jn. i. 35f.; iii. 25; Ac. xix. 1-3. Consult
+Lightfoot, _Colossians_, 400 ff.; Baldensperger, _Der Prolog des vierten
+Evangeliums_, 93-152.
+
+
+VII
+
+The Messianic Call
+
+26. On the baptism of Jesus see WendtTJ I. 96-101; EdersLJM I. 278-287;
+BaldSJ 219-229. WeissLX I. 316-336 says that the baptism meant for Jesus,
+already conscious of his Messiahship, "the close of his former life and
+the opening of one perfectly new" (322); KeimJN II. 290-299 makes it an
+act of consecration, but eliminates the Voice and Dove; BeysLJ I. 215-231
+thinks that Jesus, conscious of no sin, yet not aware of his Messiahship,
+sought the baptism carrying "the sins and guilt of his people on his
+heart, as if they were his own" (229). Against Beyschlag see E. Haupt in
+Studien u. Kritiken, 1887, 381. Baldensperger shows clearly that the
+Messianic call was a revelation to Jesus, not a conclusion from a course
+of reasoning.
+
+27. On the temptation see WendtTJ I. 101-105; WeissLX I. 337-354; EdersLJM
+I. 299-307; FairbairnSLX 80-98; BaldSJ 230-236; BeysLJ I.
+231-237; KeimJN II. 317-329. All these see in temptation the necessary
+result of the Messianic call at the baptism.
+
+28. The locality of the baptism of Jesus cannot be determined. Tradition
+has fixed on one of the fords of the Jordan near Jericho, see SmithHGHL
+496, note 1. On the probable location of Bethany (Bethabarah) (Jn. i. 28)
+see discussion in AndLOL 146-151; EnBib 548; and especially Smith's note
+as above.
+
+29. On the anointing of Jesus with the Holy Spirit see WeissLX I. 323-336;
+BeysLJ I. 230f. For the influence of the Spirit in the later life of Jesus
+see Mk. i. 12; Mt. iv. 1; Lk. iv. 1; iv. 14, 18, 21; Mk. iii. 29, 30; Mt.
+xii. 28; Jn. iii. 34; compare Ac. i. 2; x. 38. Clearly these refer not to
+the ethical and religious indwelling of the Divine Spirit (comp. Rom. i.
+4), but to the special equipment for official duty. This is the OT sense,
+see Ex. xxxi. 2-5; Jud. iii. 10; I. Sam. xi. 6; Isa. xi. 1f.; xlii. 1;
+lxi. 1; and consult Schultz, _Old Test. Theol._ II. 202f. Jesus seems to
+have needed a like divine equipment, notwithstanding his divine nature.
+See GilbertLJ 121f.
+
+30. How this Messianic anointing is to be related to the doctrine of
+Jesus' essential divine nature cannot be determined with certainty. It
+must not be forgotten, however, that it is a _datum_ for Christology, and
+that it cannot be explained away. It indicates one of the particulars in
+which Jesus was made like unto his brethren. What was involved when the
+Son of God "emptied himself and was made in the likeness of men" (Phil.
+ii. 7) we can only vaguely conceive. Two views of early heretical sects
+seem rightly to have been rejected. The Docetic view, held by some
+Gnostics of the 2d cent., dates the incarnation from the baptism, but
+distinguishes Christ from the human Jesus, who only served as a vehicle
+for the manifestation of the Son of God; the Christ descended on Jesus at
+the baptism, ascending again to heaven from the cross, compare Mt. iii. 16
+and xxvii. 50 in the Greek; see Schaff _Hist. of Xn Church_^2, II. 455f.
+The recently discovered Gospel of Peter presents this view, Gosp. Pet. Sec.
+5. The Nestorian view represents that the baptism was, in a sense, Jesus'
+"birth from above" (Jn. iii. 3, 5); thus the incarnation was first
+complete at the baptism though the Logos had been associated with Jesus
+from the beginning. See Schaff, _Hist, of Xn Church_^2, III. 717 ff.;
+Conybeare, _History of Xmas_, Amer. Jour. Theol. 1899, 1-21.
+
+31. The traditional locality of the temptation is a mountain near Jericho
+called _Quarantana_, see AndLOL 155; the tradition seems to date no
+further back than the crusades. It is, however, probable that the
+"wilderness" (Mt. iv. 1, Mk. i. 12, Lk. iv. 1) is the same wilderness
+mentioned in connection with John's earlier life and work (Mt. iii. 1, Mk.
+i. 4), the region W and NW of the Dead Sea, see SmithHGHL 317. Others
+(Stanley, _Sinai and Palestine_, 308; EdersLJM I. 300, 339 notes) hold
+that the temptation took place in the desert regions SE of the sea of
+Galilee; this is possibly correct, though the record in the gospels
+suggests the wilderness of Judea. On the source of the temptation story
+see WeissLX I. 339 ff.; BeysLJ I. 234; Bacon, Bib. Wld. 1900, I. 18-25.
+
+
+VIII
+
+The First Disciples
+
+32. SandayHastBD II. 612f.; GilbertLJ 144-157; WeissLX I. 355-387; AndLOL
+155-165; EdersLJM I. 336-363; BeysLJ II. 129-148 (assigns here a
+considerable part of the synoptic account of work in Capernaum).
+
+33. _The early confessions_. On the genuineness of the Baptist's testimony
+to "the Lamb of God" see M. Dods in _Expos. Gk. Test_. I .695f.; Westcott,
+_Comm. on John_, 20; EdersLJM 1. 342 ff.; WeissLX 1. 362f. (thinks the
+evangelist added "who taketh away the sin of the world"); Holtzmann,
+_Hand-comm._ IV. 38f. holds that the evangelist has put in the mouth of
+the Baptist a conception which was first current after the death of Jesus.
+On the confessions of Nathanael and the others, see Jour. Bib. Lit. 1898,
+21-30.
+
+34. _Cana_ is probably the modern Khirbet Kana, eight miles N of Nazareth.
+A rival site is Kefr Kenna, three and one-half miles NE from Nazareth. See
+EnBib and HastBD, also AndLOL 162-164.
+
+35. _The miracles of Jesus_ are challenged by modern thought. It is
+customary in reading other documents than the N.T. instantly to relegate
+the miraculous to the domain of legend. Miracles, however, are integral
+parts of the story of Jesus' life, and those who attempt to write that
+life eliminating the supernatural are constrained to recognize that he had
+marvellous power as an exorcist and healer of some forms of nervous
+disease. So E. A. Abbott, _The Spirit on the Waters_, 169-201. Our
+knowledge of nature does not warrant a dogmatic definition of the limits
+of the possible; see James, _The Will to Believe_, vii.-xiii., 299-327.
+The question is confessedly one of adequate evidence. The evidence for the
+supreme miracle--the transcendent character of Jesus--is clear, see Part
+III. chap. iv.; and the miraculous element in the story of his life must
+be considered in view of this supreme miracle. In association with him his
+miracles gain in credibility. In estimating the evidence for them their
+dignity and worthiness is important. What the devout imagination would do
+in embellishing the story of Jesus is exhibited in the apocryphal gospels;
+the miracles of the canonical gospels are of an entirely different type,
+which commends them as authentic. By definition a miracle is an event not
+explicable in terms of ordinary human experience. It is therefore futile
+to attempt to picture the miracles of Jesus in their occurrence, for the
+imagination has no material except that furnished by ordinary experience.
+For our day the miracles are of importance chiefly for the exhibition they
+give of the character of Jesus; they can be studied with this in view
+without regard to the curious question how they happened. Read
+SandayHastBD II. 624-628; and see Fisher, _Grounds of Christian and
+Theistic Belief, _ chaps, iv.--vi., _Supernatural Origin of
+Christianity_^3, chap, xi.; Bruce, _Miraculous Element in the Gospels;
+Apologetics_, 409 ff.; Illingworth, _Divine Immanence_; Rainy, Orr, and
+Dods, _The Supernatural in Christianity_.
+
+
+
+Part II.--The Ministry
+
+
+I
+
+General Survey
+
+36. SandayHastBD II. 609f.; GilbertLJ 136-143; AndLOL 125-137; BeysLJ I.
+256-295.
+
+
+II
+
+The Early Ministry in Judea
+
+37. SandayHastBD II. 612^b-613^b; WeissLX II. 3-53; EdersLJM I. 364-429;
+BeysLJ II. 147-168; GilbertLJ 158-179.
+
+38. On _the chronological significance of John iv_. 35 see AndLOL 183;
+WeissLX II. 40; Wieseler, _Synop_. 212 ff, who find indication that the
+journey was in December. EdersLJM I. 419f.; Turner in HastBD I. 408, find
+indication of early summer. Some treat iv. 35 as a proverb with no
+chronological significance; so Alford, _Comm. on John_.
+
+39. Geographical notes. _Aenon_ near Salim has not been identified. Most
+favor a site in Samaria, seven miles from a place named Salim, which lay
+four miles E of Shechem, see Conder, _Tent Work in Palestine_, II. 57, 58;
+Stevens, Jour. Bib. Lit. 1883, 128-141. But can John have been baptizing
+in Samaria? WeissLX II. 28 says "it is perfectly impossible that he [John]
+can have taken up his station in Samaria." Other suggestions are: some
+place in the Jordan valley (but then why remark on the abundance of water,
+Jn. iii. 23?); near Jerusalem; and in the south of Judea. See AndLOL
+173-175. _Sychar_ is the modern 'Askar, about a mile and three-quarters
+from Nablus (Shechem), and half a mile N of Jacob's well. See SmithHGHL
+367-375.
+
+40. General questions. _Was the temple twice cleansed?_ (see sect. 116).
+Probably not. The two reports (Jn. ii. 13-22; Mk. xi. 15-18 ¶s) are
+similar in respect of Jesus' indignation, its cause, its expression, its
+result, and a consequent challenge of his authority. They differ in the
+time of the event (John assigns to first Passover, synoptics to the last)
+and in a possibly greater sternness in the synoptic account. These
+differences are no greater than appear in other records of identical
+events (compare Mt. viii. 5-13 with Lk. vii. 2-10), while the repetition
+of such an act would probably have been met by serious opposition. If the
+temple was cleansed but once, John indicates the true time. At the
+beginning of the ministry it was a demand that the people follow the new
+leader in the purification of God's house and the establishment of a truer
+worship. At the end it could have had only a vindictive significance,
+since the people had already signified to the clear insight of Jesus that
+they would not accept his leadership. For two distinct cleansings see the
+discussion in AndLOL 169f., 437; EdersLJM I. 373; Plummer on Luke xix.
+45f. For one cleansing at the end see KeimJN V. 113-131. For one cleansing
+at the beginning see WeissLX II. 6 ff.; BeysLJ II. 149 ff.; GilbertLJ 159
+ff.
+
+41. _The journey to Galilee_. Do John (iv. 1-4, 43-45) and Mark (i. 14 =
+Mt. iv. 12; Lk. iv. 14) report the same journey? Both are journeys from
+the south introducing work in Galilee; yet the reasons given for the
+journey are different (compare Jn. iv. 1-3 with Mk. i. 14). If the
+Pharisees had a hand in John's "delivering up" (Mk. i. 14; comp. Jos. Ant.
+xviii. 5. 2), the same hostile movement may have impelled Jesus to leave
+Judea. He may not have heard of John's imprisonment until after his
+departure, or some time before he opened his new ministry in Galilee. See
+GilbertLJ 173f. AndLOL 176-182 argues against the identification.
+
+42. _The nobleman's son_ (Jn. iv. 46-54). Is this a doublet of Mt. viii.
+5-13; Lk. vii. 2-10? John differs from synoptics in the time, the place,
+the disease, the suppliant, his plea, and Jesus' attitude. Matthew and
+Mark differ from each other concerning the bearers of the centurion's
+messages to Jesus. John's account is similar to synoptic superficially,
+but is probably not a doublet. Compare Syro-Phoenician's daughter (Mk. vii.
+29f.). See GilbertLJ 202; Meyer on John iv. 51-54; Plummer on Luke vii.
+10. WeissLX II. 45-51 identifies. Read SandayHastBD II. 613.
+
+
+
+III and IV
+
+The Ministry in Galilee
+
+43. Read SandayHastBD II. 613-630; GilbertLJ 180-283. Consult WeissLX II.
+44 to III. 153; EdersLJM I. 472 to II. 125; BeysLJ II. 140-147,168-294.
+See AndLOL 209-363 for discussion of details, and KeimJN III. 10 to IV.
+346 for an illuminating, though not unprejudiced, topical treatment.
+
+44. Geographical notes. _Capernaum_. The site is not clearly identified,
+two ruins on the NW of Sea of Galilee are rival claimants,--Tell Hum and
+Khan Minyeh. Tell Hum is advocated by Thomson, _Land and Book, Central
+Pal. and Phoenicia_ (1882), 416-420; Khan Minyeh, by SmithHGHL 456, EnBib
+I. 696 ff. Latter is probably correct. See AndLOL 224-237.
+
+_Bethsaida_. The full name is Bethsaida Julias, located at entrance of
+Jordan into the Sea of Galilee. SmithEnBib I. 565f., SmithHGHL
+457f., shows that there is no need of the hypothesis of a second Bethsaida
+to meet the statement in Mk. vi. 45, or that in Jn. i. 44. See also AndLOL
+230-236. Ewing HastBD I. 282f. renews the argument for two Bethsaidas.
+
+_Chorazin_ was probably the modern Kerazeh, about one mile N of Tell Hum,
+and back from the lake. See SmithEnBib I. 751; SmithHGHL 456;
+AndLOL 237f.
+
+45. _The mountain of the sermon on the mount_ (Mt. v. 1; Lk. vi. 12)
+probably refers to the Galilean highlands as distinct from the shore of
+the lake. More definite location is not possible. See AndLOL 268f.;
+EdersLJM I. 524. The traditional site, the Horns of Hattin, is a hill
+lying about seven miles SW from Khan Minyeh, which has near the top a
+level place (Lk. vi. 17) flanked by two low peaks or "horns."
+
+46. _The country of the Gerasenes, Gadarenes, or Gergesenes_. Gadarenes is
+the best attested reading in Mt. viii. 28, Gerasenes in Mk. v. 1 and Lk.
+viii. 26; Gergesenes has only secondary attestation. Gadara is identified
+with Um Keis on the Yarmuk, some six miles SE of the Sea of Galilee. This
+cannot have been the site of the miracle, though it is possible that
+Gadara may have controlled the country round about, including the shores
+of the sea. Gerasa is the name of a city in the highlands of Gilead,
+twenty miles E of Jordan, and thirty-five SE of the Sea of Galilee, and
+it clearly cannot have been the scene of the miracle. Near the E shore of
+the sea Thomson discovered the ruins of a village which now bears the name
+Khersa. The formation of the land in the neighborhood closely suits the
+narrative of the gospels. This is now accepted as the true identification.
+See Thomson _Land and Book, Central Palestine_, 353-355; SBD^2 1097-1100;
+HastBD II. 159f.; AndLOL 296-300. The name "Gadarenes" may indicate that
+Gadara had jurisdiction over the region of Khersa; the names "Gerasenes"
+and "Gergesenes" may be derived directly and independently from Khersa, or
+may be corruptions due to the obscurity of Khersa.
+
+47. _The feeding of the five thousand_ took place on the E of the sea, in
+a desert region, abundant in grass, and mountainous, and located in the
+neighborhood of a place named Bethsaida. Near the ruins of Bethsaida
+Julias is a plain called now Butaiha, "a smooth, grassy place near the sea
+and the mountains," which meets the requirements of the narrative. See
+AndLOL 322f.
+
+48. _The return of Jesus from the regions of Tyre "through Sidon"_ (Mk.
+vii. 31) avoided Galilee, crossing N of Galilee to the territory of Philip
+and "_the Decapolis_." This latter name applies to a group of free Greek
+cities, situated for the most part E of the Jordan. Most of the cities of
+the group were farther S than the Sea of Galilee; some, however, were E
+and NE of that sea, hence Jesus' approach from Caesarea Philippi or
+Damascus could be described as "through Decapolis." See SmithHGHL 593-608;
+En Bib I. 1051 ff.; SchuererJPTX II. i. 94-121.
+
+49. Of _Magadan_ (Mt. xv. 39) or _Dalmanutha_ (Mk. viii. 10) all that is
+known is that they must have been on the W coast of the Sea of Galilee.
+They have never been identified, though there are many conjectures. See
+SBD^2, HastBD, and En Bib.
+
+50. _Caesarea Philippi_ was situated at the easternmost and most important
+of the sources of the Jordan, it is called Panias by Jos. Ant. xv. 10.3,
+now Banias. Probably a sanctuary of the god Pan. Here Herod the Great
+built a temple which he dedicated to Caesar; Philip the Tetrarch enlarged
+the town and called it Caesarea Philippi. See SBD^2; HastBD; EnBib.
+
+51. _The mountain of the transfiguration_. The traditional site, since the
+fourth century, is Tabor in Galilee. Most recent opinion has favored one
+of the shoulders of Hermon, owing to the supposed connection of the event
+with the sojourn near Caesarea Philippi. WeissLX III. 98 points out that
+there is no evidence that Jesus lingered for "six days" (Mk. ix. 2) near
+that town, and that therefore the effort to locate the transfiguration is
+futile. GilbertLJ 274 thinks that Mk. ix. 30 is decisive in favor of a
+place outside Galilee; he therefore holds to the common view that Hermon
+is the true locality. See AndLOL 357f.
+
+52. General questions. _Was Jesus twice rejected at Nazareth?_ (comp. Lk.
+iv. 16-30 with Mk. vi. 1-6^a; Mt. xiii. 54-58). Here are two accounts that
+read like independent traditions of the same event; they agree concerning
+the place, the teaching in the synagogue on the Sabbath, the astonishment
+of the Nazarenes, their scornful question, and Jesus' rejoinder. Luke
+makes no reference to the disciples (Mk. vi. 1) nor to the working of
+miracles (Mk. vi. 5); Matthew and Mark, on the other hand, say nothing of
+an attempt at violence. These differences are no more serious, however,
+than appear in the two accounts of the appeal of the centurion to Jesus
+(Mt. viii. 5-8; Lk. vii. 3-7). Moreover, Lk. iv. 23 indicates a time after
+the ministry in Capernaum had won renown, which agrees with the place
+given the rejection in Mark. The general statement (Lk. iv. 14f.) suggests
+that the visit to Nazareth is given at the beginning as an instance of
+"preaching in their synagogues." The three accounts probably refer to one
+event reported independently. For identification see WeissLX III. 34;
+Plummer on Luke iv. 30; GilbertLJ 254f. For two rejections see Godet's
+supplementary note on Lk. iv. 16-30; Meyer on Mt. xiii. 53-58; EdersLJM I.
+457, note 1; Wieseler, _Synopsis_, 278. BeysLJ I. 270 identifies but
+prefers Luke's date.
+
+53. _Were there two miraculous draughts of fish?_ Lk. v. 1-11 is sometimes
+identified with Jn. xxi. 3-13. So WendtLJ I. 211f., WeissLX II. 57f., and
+Meyer on Luke v. 1-11. Against the identification see Alford, Godet, and
+Plummer on the passage in Luke. The two are alike in scene, the night of
+bootless toil, the great catch at Jesus' word. They differ in personnel,
+antecedent relations of the fishermen with Jesus, the effect of the
+miracle on Peter, and the subsequent teaching of Jesus, as well as in
+time. These differences make identification difficult.
+
+54. _Where in the synoptic story should the journey to the feast in
+Jerusalem_ (Jn. v.) _be placed?_ There is nothing in John's narrative to
+identify the feast, although it is his custom to name the festivals to
+which he refers (Passover, ii. 13, 23; vi. 4; xi. 55; xii. 1; Tabernacles,
+vii. 2; Dedication, x. 22). Even if John wrote "the feast," rather than "a
+feast" (the MSS. vary, A B D and seven other uncials omit the article), it
+would be impossible to decide between Passover and Tabernacles. The
+omission of the article suggests either that the feast was of minor
+importance, or that its identification was of no significance for the
+understanding of the following discourse. Since a year and four months
+probably elapsed between the journey into Galilee (Jn. iv. 35) and the
+next Passover mentioned in John (vi. 4), v. 1 may refer to any one of the
+feasts of the Jewish year. The commonest interpretation prefers Purim, a
+festival of a secular and somewhat hilarious type, which occurred on the
+14th and 15th of Adar, a month before the Passover. It is difficult to
+believe that this feast would have called Jesus to Jerusalem. See WeissLX
+II. 391; GilbertLJ 137-139, 142, 234-235. Against this interpretation see
+EdersLJM II. 765. Edersheim advocates the feast of Wood Gathering on the
+15th of Ab--about our August. On this day all the people were permitted to
+offer wood for the use of the altar in the temple, while during the rest
+of the year the privilege was reserved for special families. See LJM II
+765f.; Westcott, _Comm. on John_, add. note on v. 1, argues for the feast
+of Trumpets, or the new moon of the month Tisri,--about our
+September,--which was celebrated as the beginning of the civil year.
+Others have suggested Pentecost, fifty days after the Passover; the day of
+Atonement--but this was a fast, not a feast; and Tabernacles. The majority
+of those who do not favor Purim prefer the Passover, notwithstanding the
+difficulty of thinking that John would refer to this feast simply as "a
+feast of the Jews." Read AndLOL 193-198, remembering that the question
+must be considered independently of the question of the length of Jesus'
+ministry. The impossibility of determining the feast renders the
+adjustment of this visit to the synoptic story very uncertain. It may be
+that there was some connection between the Sabbath controversy in Galilee
+(Mk. ii. 23-28) and the criticism Jesus aroused in Jerusalem (Jn. v.). If
+so, one of the spring feasts, Passover or Pentecost, would best suit the
+circumstances; but this arrangement is quite uncertain.
+
+55. _Do the five conflicts of Mk. ii. 1 to iii. 6 belong at the early
+place in the ministry of Jesus to which that gospel assigns them_? It is
+commonly held that they do not, and the argument for a two-year ministry
+rests on this assumption (see SandayHastBD II. 613). Holtzmann,
+_Hand-commentar_ I. 9f., remarks that at least for the cure of the
+paralytic and for the call and feast of Levi (Mk. ii. 1, 13, 15) the
+evangelist was confident that he was following the actual order of events;
+note the call of the fifth disciple, Mk. ii. 13, between the call of the
+four, Mk. i. 16-20, and that of the twelve, iii. 16-19. The question about
+fasting may owe its place (Mk. ii. 18-22) to association with the
+criticism of Jesus for eating with publicans (Mk. ii. 16). In like manner
+the second Sabbath conflict (Mk. iii. 1-6) may be attached to the first
+(ii. 23-28) as a result of the identity of subject, for it is noteworthy
+that Mark records only these two Sabbath conflicts; moreover, the plot of
+Herodians and Pharisees to kill Jesus strongly suggests a later time for
+the actual occurrence of this criticism. The first Sabbath question,
+however, may belong early, as Mark has placed it. Weiss, Markusevangelium,
+76, LX II. 232 ff., places these conflicts late. Edersheim, LJM II. 51
+ff., discusses the Sabbath controversies after the feeding of the
+multitudes. RevilleJN II. 229 places the first of them early.
+
+56. _The sermon on the mount._ Luke (vi. 12-19 = Mk. iii. 13-19^a
+indicates the place in the Galilean ministry; Matthew has therefore
+anticipated in assigning it to the beginning. The identity of the two
+sermons (Mt. v. 1 to vii. 27; Lk. vi. 20-49) is shown by the fact that
+each begins with beatitudes, each closes with the parables of the wise and
+foolish builders, each is followed by the cure of a centurian's servant in
+Capernaum (Mt. viii. 5-13; Lk. vii. 1-10), and the teachings which are
+found in each account are given in the same order. Matthew is much fuller
+than Luke, many teachings given in the sermon in Matthew being found in
+later contexts in Luke. Much of the sermon in Matthew, however, evidently
+belonged to the original discourse, and was omitted by Luke, perhaps
+because of less interest to Gentile than to Jewish Christians. The
+following sections are found elsewhere in Luke, and were probably
+associated with the sermon by the first evangelist: Mt. v. 25, 26; Lk.
+xii. 58, 59; Mt. vi. 9-13; Lk. xi. 2-4; Mt. vi. 19-34; Lk. xii. 21-34; xi.
+34-36; xvi. 13; Mt. vii. 7-11; Lk. xi. 9-13; Mt. vii. 13, 14; Lk. xiii.
+24. The first evangelist's habit of grouping may explain also the presence
+in his sermon of teachings which he himself has duplicated later, thus:
+Mt. v. 29, 30 = xviii. 8,9; v. 32 = xix. 9, comp. Mk. x. 11, ix. 43-47,
+Lk. xvi. 18; Mt. vi. 14, 15 = Mk. xi. 25. Matthew vii. 22, 23 has the
+character of the teachings which follow the confession at Caesarea
+Phillipi, and is quite unlike the other early teachings. It may belong to
+the later time, for it was natural for the early Christians to associate
+together teachings which the Lord uttered on widely separated occasions.
+The sermon as originally given may be analyzed as follows: The privileges
+of the heirs of the kingdom of God, Mt. v. 3-13; Lk. vi. 20-26; their
+responsibilities, Mt. v. 13-16; the relation of the new to the old, Mt. v.
+17-19; the text of the discourse, Mt. v. 20; the new conception of
+morality, Mt. v. 21-48; Lk. vi. 27-36; the new practice of religion, Mt.
+vi. 1-8, 16-18; warning against a censorious spirit, Mt. vii. 16-20; Lk.
+vi. 43-46; the wise and foolish builders, Mt. vii. 24-27; Lk. vi. 47-49.
+
+57. _The discourse in parables._ Matthew gives seven parables at this
+point (xiii.), Mark (iv. 1-34) has three, one of them is not given in
+Matthew, Luke (viii. 4-18) gives in this connection but one,--the Sower.
+Many think that the Tares of Matthew (xiii. 24-30, 36-43) is a doublet of
+Mark's Seed growing secretly (iv. 26-29); so Weiss LX II. 209 note,
+against which view see WendtLJ I. 178 f., and Bruce, _Parabolic Teaching
+of Xt_, 119. Matthew has probably made here a group of parables, as in
+chapters v. to vii. he has made a group of other teachings. The
+interpretation of the Tares, and of the Draw-net (xiii. 40-43, 49, 50),
+may indicate that these parables were spoken after Jesus began to teach
+plainly concerning the end of the world (Mk. viii. 31 to ix. 1), Luke
+gives the Mustard Seed and Leaven in another connection (xiii. 18-21), and
+it may be that Matthew has taken them out of their true context to
+associate them with the other parables of his group; yet in popular
+teaching it must be recognized that illustrations are most likely to be
+repeated in different situations. On the parables see Goebel, _The
+Parables of Jesus_ (1890), Bruce, _The Parabolic Teaching of Christ_, 3d
+ed. (1886), Juelicher, _Die Gleichnissreden Jesu_ (2 vols. 1899), and
+the commentaries on the gospels.
+
+58. _The instructions to the twelve_. Mt. ix. 36 to xi. 1. x. 1, 5-14
+corresponds in general with Mk. vi. 7-11; Lk. ix. 1-5. The similarity is
+closer, however, between x. 7-15 and Lk. x. 3-12--the instructions to the
+seventy (see sect. A 68). The rest of Mt. x. (16-42) is paralleled by
+teachings found in the closing discourses in the synoptic gospels, and in
+teachings preserved in the section peculiar to Luke (ix. 51 to xviii. 14.
+See SB sects. 88-92, footnotes). It is probable that here the first
+evangelist has made a group of instructions to disciples gathered from all
+parts of the Lord's teachings; such a collection was of great practical
+value in the early time of persecution.
+
+59. _Did Jesus twice feed the multitudes_? All the gospels record the
+feeding of the five thousand (Mt. xiv. 13-23; Mk. vi. 30-46; Lk. ix.
+10-17; Jn. vi. 1-15), Matthew (xv. 32-38) and Mark (viii. 1-9) give also
+the feeding of the four thousand. The similarities are so great that the
+two accounts would be regarded as doublets if they occurred in different
+gospels. The difficulty with such an identification is chiefly the
+reference which in both Matthew (xvi. 9, 10) and Mark (viii. 19, 20) Jesus
+is said to have made to the two feedings. The evangelists clearly
+distinguished the two. In view of this fact the differences between the
+accounts become important. These concern the occasion of the two miracles,
+the number fed, the nationality of the multitudes (compare Jn. vi. 31 and
+Mk. vii. 31), the number of loaves and of baskets of broken pieces (the
+name for basket is different in the two cases, and is preserved
+consistently in Mk. viii. 19, 20; Mt. xvi. 9, 10). See GilbertLJ 259-262,
+Gould, and Swete, on Mk. viii. 1-9; Meyer, Alford, on Mt. xv. 32-38.
+WeissLX II. 376f., BeysLJ I. 279f., WendtLJ I. 42, Holtzmann _Hand-comm._
+I. 186 ff., identify the accounts. See also SandayHastBD II. 629.
+
+60. _Did Peter twice confess faith in Jesus as Messiah_? Synoptics give
+his confession at Caeesarea Philippi (Mk. viii. 27-30; Mt. xvi. 13-20; Lk.
+ix. 18-21). John, however, gives a confession earlier at Capernaum (vi.
+66-71). WeissLX III. 53 identifies the two, placing that in John at
+Caesarea Philippi, since there is no evidence that all of the long
+discourse of Jn. vi. was spoken in Capernaum the day after the feeding of
+the five thousand. This may be correct, yet the marked recognition which
+Jesus gave to the confession at Caesarea Philippi does not demand that he
+first at that time received a confession of his disciples' faith. The
+confession in Jn. vi. 68, 69 declared that the twelve were not shaken in
+their faith by the recent defection of many disciples. At Caesarea Philippi
+the confession was made after the revulsion of popular feeling had been
+made fully evident, and after the twelve had had time for reaction of
+enthusiasm consequent upon the growing coldness of the multitudes and
+active opposition of the leaders. The confession of Caesarea Philippi holds
+its unique significance, whether or not Jn. vi. 68 is identified with it.
+
+61. _The journey to Tabernacles_ (Jn. vii.). Where in the synoptic story
+should it be placed? Lk. ix. 51 ff. records the final departure from
+Galilee. The journey of Jn. vii. is the last journey from Galilee given in
+John. Yet the two are very different. In John, Jesus went in haste,
+unpremeditatedly, in secret, and unaccompanied, and confronted the people
+with himself unexpectedly during the feast. In Luke (Mk. x. 1 and Mt. xix.
+1 are so general that they give no aid) he advanced deliberately, with
+careful plans, announcing his coming in advance, accompanied by many
+disciples, with whom he went from place to place, arriving in Jerusalem
+long after he had set out. The two journeys cannot be identified. John
+seems to keep Jesus in the south after the Tabernacles, but his account
+does not forbid a return to Galilee between Tabernacles and Dedication (x.
+22). After the hurried visit to Tabernacles, Jesus probably went back to
+Galilee, and gathered his disciples again for the final journey towards
+his cross--for the visit to Jerusalem had given fresh evidence of the kind
+of treatment he must expect in the capital (Jn. vii. 32, 45-52; viii. 59).
+See AndLOL 369-379. Andrews suggests that the feast occurred before the
+withdrawal to Caesarea Philippi (376); this is possible, but it seems more
+natural to place it during the sojourn in Capernaum after the return from
+the north (Mk. ix. 33-50). See SB, sects. 82-85.
+
+62. On the phenomena and interpretation of _Demoniac Possession_ see J. L.
+Nevius, _Demon Possession and allied Themes_; Conybeare, Jew. Quar. Rev.
+VIII. (1896) 576-608, IX. (1896-7) 59-114, 444-470, 581-603; J. Weiss in
+_Reaelencyklopaedie_,^3 Hauck-Herzog, IV. 408-419; Binet, _Alterations of
+Personality_, 325-356; James, _Psychology, _ I. 373-400; and the articles
+on DEMONS in EnBib and HastBD.
+
+
+The Journey through Perea to Jerusalem
+
+63. Read SandayHastBD II. 630-632; see GilbertLJ 298-310: WeissLX III.
+157-223; KeimJN V, 1-64; BeysLJ I. 287-294. II. 333-419; AndLOL 365-420;
+EdersLJM II. 126-360.
+
+64. This journey began sometime between Tabernacles and Dedication
+(October and December) of the last year of Jesus' life, and continued
+until the arrival in Bethany six days before the last Passover.
+
+65. Geographical notes. _Perea_--a part of the domain of Antipas--was the
+Jewish territory E of the Jordan. Its northern limit seems to have been
+marked by Pella (Jos. Wars, iii 3. 3) or Gadara (Wars, iv. 7. 3), and its
+E boundary was marked by Philadelphia (Ant. xx. 1. 1); it extended S to
+the domain of Aretas, king of Arabia. The population was mixed, though
+predominatingly Jewish. Cities of the Decapolis, however, lay within the
+limits of Perea, and introduced Greek life and ideas to the people. On the
+highlands back from the Jordan it was a fertile and well populated land.
+See SmithHGHL 539f.; SchuererJPTX II. i. 2-4.
+
+66. On _Bethany and Jericho_ see BDs and, for the latter, SmithHGHL 266
+ff.
+
+67. _Ephraim_, (John xi. 54) is generally identified with the Ephron of
+II. Chron. xiii. 19 (Jos. Wars, iv. 9. 9). Robinson located it at et
+Taiyibeh, 4 m. NE of Bethel, and 14 from Jerusalem. See HastBD l. 728;
+SBD^2 975.
+
+68. General questions. _The mission of the seventy_. Luke records two
+missions, that of the twelve (ix. 1-6), and that of the seventy (x. 1-24).
+Many regard these as doublets, similar to the two feedings in Mark. So
+WeissLX II. 307 ff., BeysLJ I. 275, WendtLJ I. 84f. In favor of this
+conclusion emphasis is given to the fact that in Jewish thought seventy
+symbolized the nations of the world as twelve symbolized Israel. It is
+suggested that in his search for full records Luke came upon an account of
+the mission of disciples which had already been modified in the interests
+of Gentile Christianity, and failing to recognize its identity with the
+account of the mission furnished by Mark, he added it in his peculiar
+section. The similarity of the instructions given follows from the nature
+of the case. A second sending out of disciples is suitable in view of the
+entrance into a region hitherto unvisited. As Dr. Sanday has remarked, the
+sayings connected by Luke with this mission bear witness to the
+authenticity of the account. There is therefore no need to identify the
+two missions. See particularly SandayHastBD II. 614, also GilbertLJ
+226-230, Plummer's _Comm. on Luke_, 269 ff. Luke probably gives the
+correct place for the thanksgiving, self-declaration, and invitation of
+Jesus, in which the synoptists approach most nearly to the thought of John
+(Lk. x. 21, 22; Mt. xi. 25-30). The return of the seventy (Lk. x. 17-20)
+followed the woes addressed to the unbelieving cities (Lk. x. 13-16; Mt.
+xi. 20-24).
+
+69. _The destination of the seventy_. It is customary to think of them as
+sent to the various cities of Perea (see AndLOL 381-383). Were it not for
+the words "whither he himself was about to come" (Lk. x. I), it would be
+natural to conclude that they were sent E to Gerasa and Philadelphia, and
+S to the regions of the Dead Sea. If John's account is accepted, Jesus
+spent not a little time of the interval between his departure from Galilee
+and his final arrival in Bethany in and near Jerusalem. It may be that
+after the withdrawal from the Dedication he went far into the Perean
+districts. But John x. 40 is against it. The question must be left
+unanswered. The messengers may have visited places in all parts of
+Palestine.
+
+
+VI
+
+The Controversies of the Last Week
+
+70. See GilbertLJ 311-335; WeissLX III. 224-270; AndLOL 421-450; KeimJN V.
+65-275; BeysLJ II. 422-434; EdersLJM II. 363-478; SandayHastBD II 632f.
+
+71. _The supper at Bethany_. John is definite, "six days before the
+passover" (xii. I). Synoptists place it after the day of controversy, on
+the Wednesday preceding the Passover (Mk. xiv. I, 3-9; Mt. xxvi. 2, 6-13).
+John is probably correct. The rebuke of Judas (Jn. xii. 4-8) was probably
+associated in the thought of the disciples with his later treachery;
+consequently the synoptists report the plot of Judas and this supper in
+close connection.
+
+72. _The Messianic entry into Jerusalem_ is regarded by Reville as a
+surrender by Jesus of his lofty Messianic ideal in response to the
+temptation to seek a popular following. Keim with finer insight says,
+"Even if it had certainly been his wish to bring the kingdom of heaven
+near in Jerusalem quietly and gradually, and with a healthy mental
+progress, as in Galilee, yet ... in the face of the irritability of his
+opponents, in the face of the powerful means at their disposal of crushing
+him ... there remained but one chance,--reckless publicity, the conquest
+of the partially prepared nation by means, not of force, but of idea....
+He came staking his life upon the venture, but also believing that God
+must finish his work through life or death" (JN V. 100f.).
+
+73. _The question about the resurrection_ was probably a familiar
+Sadducean problem with which they made merry at the expense of the
+scribes. On the resurrection in Jewish thought see Charles, _Eschatology,
+Hebrew, Jewish, and Christian_, by index. For the scepticism of the
+Sadducees see also Ac. xxiii. 8; Jos. Wars, ii, 8. 14.
+
+74. On the "_great commandment_" see EdersLJM II. 403 ff.
+
+75. The eschatological discourse presents serious exegetical difficulties.
+Many cut the knot by assuming that Mk. xiii. and ||s contain a little
+Jewish apocalypse written shortly before the destruction of Jerusalem,
+which has been blended with genuine predictions of Jesus concerning his
+second coming. See Charles, _Eschatology_, 323-. 329; WendtLJ I. 9-21;
+HoltzmannNtTH I. 325 ff.; and Bruce's criticism in _Expos. Gk. Test_. I.
+287f., also Sanday's note in HastBD II. 635f.
+
+76. On _the relation of proselytes_ to Judaism see SchuererJPTX II. ii.
+291-327. The synagogue in heathen lands drew to itself by its monotheism
+and its pure ethics the finest spirits of paganism. But few of them,
+however, submitted to circumcision, and became thus proselytes. Most of
+them constituted the class of "them that fear God" to whom Paul constantly
+appealed in his apostolic mission. The Greeks of Jn. xii. 20 ff. were
+probably circumcised proselytes.
+
+77. On _Judas_ see Plummer in HastBD II. 796 ff.; EdersLJM II. 471-478;
+WeissLX III. 285-289; AndLOL by index. De Quincey's essay on _Judas
+Iscariot_ is an elaborate defence.
+
+
+VII
+
+The Last Supper
+
+78. GilbertLJ 335-354; WeissLX III. 273-318; EdersLJM II. 479-532; AndLOL
+450-497; KeimJN V. 275-343; BeysLJ II. 434-448; SandayHastBD II. 633-638.
+
+79. _The day of the last supper_. John seems clearly to place it on the
+day before the Passover--13 Nisan. See xiii. I, 29; xviii. 28; xix. 14,
+31, 42. Synoptists as clearly declare that the supper was prepared on the
+"first day of unleavened bread, when they sacrificed the Passover" (Mk.
+xiv. 12; see also Lk. xxii. 15); this is confirmed by the similarity
+between the Passover ritual as tradition has preserved it, and the course
+of events at the supper. Unless interpretation can remove the
+contradiction, John must have the preference. WeissLX III. 273-282, BeysLJ
+II. 390-399, accept John and correct the synoptists by him; thus the
+supper anticipated the Passover. Some hold that John can be interpreted
+harmoniously with synoptists, and be shown to indicate that the supper was
+on the 14th Nisan. So EdersLJM II. 508, 566f., 612f.; AndLOL 452-481;
+GilbertLJ 335-339. Others believe that a true interpretation of synoptists
+shows that in calling the last supper a Passover they correctly represent
+the character, but misapprehend the time, of the meal. For this argument
+see Muirhead, _Times of Xt_, 163-169, and read SandayHastBD II. 633-636
+and his references. The debate is still on, but the advantage seems to be
+with those who assign the supper to the 13th and the crucifixion to the
+14th Nisan.
+
+80. _Did Jesus institute a memorial sacrament_? Read SandayHastBD II.
+636-638, and Thayer, in Jour. Bib. Lit. 1899, 110-131; see also
+McGiffert, _Apostolic Age_, 68 ff. note; HoltzmannNtTh I. 296-304.
+
+81. _The Passover ritual_. The order according to the rabbis was the
+following: the first cup of wine and water was taken by the leader, who
+gave thanks over it, and then it was shared by all (compare Lk. xxii. 17);
+then the head of the company washed his hands--Dr. Edersheim connects with
+this the washing of the disciples' feet, which changed the ceremony from
+an act of distinction into one of humble service; after this the dishes
+were brought on the table, then the leader dipped some of the bitter herbs
+into salt water or vinegar, spoke a blessing, and partook of them, then
+handed them to each of the company; then one of the loaves of unleavened
+bread was broken; after this a second cup was filled, and before it was
+drunk the significance of the Passover was explained by the leader in
+reply to a question by the youngest of the company, after which the first
+part of the Hallel (Ps. cxiii., cxiv.) was sung, and then the cup was
+drunk; then followed the supper itself beginning with "the sop,"--a piece
+of the paschal lamb, a piece of unleavened bread, and bitter herbs,
+wrapped together and dipped in the vinegar,--which was passed around the
+company (compare the sop which Jesus gave to Judas); after the supper came
+a third cup, known as "the cup of blessing" (see I. Cor. x. 16); then
+followed grace after meat; then a fourth cup, in connection with which the
+remainder of the Hallel was sung (Ps. cxv. to cxviii.), followed by
+certain other songs and prayers. See EdersLJM II. 496-512; AndLOL 488-494.
+
+82. _The washing of the disciples' feet_. John (xiii. 1-11) says this
+occurred "during supper" (v. 2), and before the designation of the
+traitor. Luke (xxii. 23-30) tells of a dispute about greatness among the
+disciples. This dispute may have arisen over the assignment of places at
+table (compare Lk. xiv. 7 ff.; Mk. x. 33-45); if so, the reason for the
+lesson in humility is apparent. See AndLOL 482-484; EdersLJM II. 492-503.
+
+83. _Did Jesus twice predict Peter's denials_? Mark (xiv. 26-31) and
+Matthew (xxvi. 30-35) place the prediction after the departure for
+Gethsemane; Luke (xxii. 31-34) and John (xiii. 36-38), during the supper.
+AndLOL 494 ff. thinks Peter was warned twice, EdersLJM. II. 535-537 holds
+to one warning on the way to Gethsemane. Antecedent probability favors
+this view.
+
+84. _Where in John should the institution of the sacrament be placed_?
+Probably after the departure of Judas (Mark xiv. 21f.; Matt. xxvi. 26),
+thus not before xiii. 30. The most likely place is between, verses 32 and
+33. There is no break at this point, and it remains a mystery why John's
+account of the passion omitted this central feature of early Christian
+belief and practice. The omission argues for rather than against apostolic
+authorship, as a forger would not have ventured to disregard the leading
+service of the church in an account of the life of its Lord. See Westcott,
+_Comm. on John_, 188.
+
+85. On the possible _disarrangement of the last discourses_ (xiii. 31 to
+xvi. 33) in our text of John see Spitta, _Urchristentum_, I. 168-193;
+Bacon, Jour. Bib. Lit. 1894, 64-76; Burton, Bib. Wld. 1899 I. 32.
+
+
+VIII
+
+The Shadow of the Cross
+
+86. See GilbertLJ 354-384; AndLOL 497-588; WeissLX III. 319-381; BeysLJ I.
+390-432, II. 448-473; EdersLJM II. 533-620; KeimJN VI. 1-274; SandayHastBD
+II. 632f.
+
+87. On the location of _Gethsemane and Golgotha_ see AndLOL 499f.,
+575-588; and HastBD II. 164, 226f.
+
+88. On the progress of _Jesus' trial by the Jewish authorities, _ see
+AndLOL 505-516; GilbertLJ 359-363. The _legality of the trial_ has been
+carefully discussed by A. T. Innes, _The Trial of Jesus Christ_.
+
+89. On the form and sequence of _Peter's denials_, see Westcott, _Comm.
+on John_, 263-266; AndLOL 516-521.
+
+90. The _Words from the Cross_. Matthew (xxvii. 46) and Mark (xv. 34)
+report one; Luke (xxiii. 34?, 43, 46) adds three, omitting the one found
+in Matthew and Mark; John adds three more (xix. 26f., 28, 30). Luke xxiii.
+34 is bracketed by Westcott and Hort because omitted by a very important
+group of MSS. ([Hebrew: aleph]^aBD*) and some early versions. The saying
+is almost certainly authentic, though it may have been added to Luke by
+some early copyist. See Westcott and Hort, _N.T. in Greek_, II. Appendix,
+68; and Plummer, _Comm. on Luke_, 544f.
+
+
+IX
+
+The Resurrection and Ascension
+
+91. Read SandayHastBD II. 638-643; see KeimJK VI. 274-383, for a still
+valid criticism of the position of RevilleJN II. 428-478; see also WeissLX
+III. 382-409; BeysLJ I. 433-481, II. 474-493; BovonNTTh I. 350-375;
+GilbertLJ 385-405; Loofs, _Die Auferstehungsberichte und ihr Wert_;
+EdersLJM II. 621-652; AndLOL 589-639.
+
+92. The last twelve verses of Mark (xvi. 9-20) are omitted by the oldest
+MSS ([Hebrew: aleph]B) and by the recently discovered Sinaitic Syriac, as
+well as by other versions and fathers. An Armenian MS. has been found
+ascribing the section to one Ariston, or Aristion, a second century elder,
+and this explanation of the origin of the verses is widely accepted. The
+gospel cannot have ended with the words "for they were afraid," but no
+satisfactory explanation of the condition of its text has been found. For
+a recent hypothesis see Rohrbach, _Der Schluss des Markusevangeliums_; on
+Aristion as the author, see Conybeare in Expos. IV. viii. (1893) 241, IV.
+x. 219, V. ii. 401; see also SandayHastBD II. 638f., Bruce, _Expos. Gk.
+Test_. I. 454f. For discussion of textual evidence see Westcott and Hort,
+_NT in Greek_, II. Appendix, 28-51, and Burgon, _The last twelve verses
+of St. Mark_ (a passionate defence).
+
+Luke xxiv. 51 is omitted by [Hebrew: aleph]*D and several old Latin MSS.
+See Plummer and Bruce on the passage.
+
+93. "_After three days_." This formula, which appears often in Mark, is
+altered in parallels in Matthew and Luke to "on the third day" (see
+Concordance). Jesus died on Friday, lay in the tomb over Saturday, and
+rose very early Sunday morning. Thus he spent a part of Friday, and a part
+of Sunday, and all of Saturday in the grave. According to Jewish reckoning
+this was counted three days.
+
+94. _Emmaus_. A village about 60 furlongs from Jerusalem. Cannot have been
+the Emmaus in the Shephelah, 20 m. from Jerusalem. May have been el
+Kubeibeh, 63 furlongs distant on the road from Jerusalem to Lydda. See
+AndLOL 617-619; but also HastBD I. 700.
+
+
+
+
+Part III.--The Minister
+
+
+I
+
+The Friend of Men
+
+95. Head Mathews, _The Social Teachings of Jesus, _ especially 132-174;
+see also Robinson, _The Saviour in the Newer Light_, 343 ff.
+
+
+II
+
+The Teacher with Authority
+
+96. See WendtTJ I. 106-151; Stevens, _Theol. of the N.T._ 1-16; Beyschlag,
+_N.T. Theology, I_. 31-34. In particular on the Parables see references in
+sect. A 56. On the content of Jesus' teaching see WendtTJ 2 vols.;
+Dalman, _Die Worte Jesu; Stevens, Theol. of the N.T._ 17-244; Beyschlag,
+_N.T. Theol_. I. 27-299; Mathews, _Social Teaching of Jesus_; Gilbert,
+_The Revelation of Jesus_; Bruce, _The Kingdom of God_.
+
+
+III
+
+Jesus' Knowledge of Truth
+
+97. Adamson, _The Mind in Christ_; GilbertRJ 169f., 240-242; Schwartzkopf,
+_The Prophecies of Jesus Christ_.
+
+
+IV
+
+Jesus' Conception of Himself
+
+98. BaldSJ 125-282; Stalker, _Christology of Jesus_, HoltzmannNtTh I.
+234-304; WendtTJ II. 122-183; GilbertRJ 167-228; Stevens, _Theol. of the
+N.T._ 41-64, 199-212. On the title "Son of Man" see particularly DalmanWJ
+I. 191-219; Charles, _Eschatology_, 214f. note; against, A. Meyer, _Jesu
+Muttersprache_, 91-101, and others. See also HoltzmannNtTh I.
+246-264. On the name "Son of God," see Dalman WJ I. 219-237; Holtzmann
+NtTh I. 265-278; Stalker, _Christology_, 86-123; Gilbert, as above. On the
+personal religion of Jesus see Burton, Bib. Wld. 1899, II. 394-403. For
+the total impression of the character of Jesus, read Bushnell, _The
+Character of Jesus_.
+
+
+
+
+Indexes
+
+
+
+
+Index of Names and Subjects
+
+
+
+[References are to pages.]
+
+
+AEnon, site of, 288.
+"After three days," 307.
+Agrapha, 36, 149, 281.
+Andrew, of Bethsaida, 92, 94, 118.
+Angels, doctrine of, 10.
+Annas, 191, 193, 194.
+Antipas, 4, 192.
+Apocalypse, 17f., 122, 124, 241.
+Apocryphal gospels, 37, 281, 282.
+Archelaus, 4, 5.
+Aristion, author of Mark xvi. 9-20, 204f., 306f.
+Assumption of Moses, 75
+
+Baptism of John, see _John the Baptist_.
+Baptism of Jesus, 83-86, 283f.
+Barabbas, 174, 192.
+Bethany beyond Jordan, 92, 284.
+Bethany, supper at, 169, 301.
+Bethsaida, site of, 290.
+Books of reference, 273-277.
+Brethren of Jesus, 63f., 283.
+
+Caesarea Philippi;, 4, 291.
+  confession at, see _Peter_.
+Caiaphas, 191, 193, 194.
+Cana of Galilee, 95, 222, 286.
+Cananeans or Zealots, party of, 11, 74.
+Capernaum, site of, 290.
+Census under Quirinius, 11, 52-55.
+Chorazin, site of, 290.
+
+Dalmanutha, 291.
+Dalmanutha, Books of, 17f., 241, 254f.
+Decapolis, the, 140, 291.
+Dedication, feast of, 150, 154.
+Demoniac possession, 131-133, 245-248, 299.
+Devout, the, 13, 17.
+Diatessaron of Tatian, 38, 47, 281.
+Doublets, 44, 281.
+Draughts of fish, miraculous, 293.
+
+Emmaus, site of, 307.
+Enoch, Book of, 241, 256-258.
+Ephraim, site of, 300.
+Essenes, manner of living, 11-12;
+  their hope of Messiah, 16;
+  their settlement, 73;
+  relation to John the Baptist, 73, 77.
+
+Five thousand, the feeding of, 135f., 291.
+
+Gadarenes, country of, 247, 290f.
+Genealogies of Jesus, 282.
+Gethsemane, 177, 186, 188f., 265, 305.
+Golgotha, 305.
+
+Herod the Great, 3;
+  began to rebuild temple, 49;
+  census during his reign, 54.
+Herod Antipas, 4, 192.
+Herodians, 14, 173.
+
+James, brother of John, 92, 94, 118.
+Jesus, language of, 19, 62, 279;
+  date of birth, 52-56;
+  the miraculous conception, 58-61;
+  growth, physical, intellectual, moral, and spiritual, 61-66;
+  his brothers and sisters, 64;
+  visit to Jerusalem in his twelfth year, 66-68;
+  life in Nazareth, 68f.;
+  his baptism, 83-86;
+  his temptation, 86-91;
+  his first disciples, 92-95;
+  at Cana, 95;
+  his social friendliness, 96, 219f.;
+  the cleansing of the temple, 108-110;
+  talk with Nicodemus, 111;
+  the woman of Samaria, 112;
+  cure of nobleman's son, 113;
+  in retirement in Galilee, 113f.;
+  call of four disciples, 118;
+  popular enthusiasm and pharisaic opposition, 119-121;
+  his withdrawals and injunctions of silence, 122 ff.;
+  blasphemy of the Pharisees, 124;
+  the reply to John's message, 125;
+  his twofold aim in Galilee, 126;
+  his method, 127;
+  the sermon on the mount, 127f.;
+  the parables, 128f., 231f., 296f.;
+  instruction of the twelve, 130, 297;
+  his mighty works, 131f.;
+  his personal influence, 133;
+  the feeding of the five thousand, 135f.;
+  the revulsion in popular feeling, 136;
+  the controversy about hand washing, 139;
+  the withdrawal to the north, 138;
+  the demand for a sign, 139;
+  disciples warned against the Pharisees, 139;
+  the question at Caesarea Philippi, 141f.;
+  commendation of Peter, 143;
+  announcement of approaching death, 144;
+  rebuke of Peter, 145;
+  the transfiguration, 146f.;
+  the epileptic boy, 147;
+  rebuke of worldly ambition, 147f.;
+  Jesus and his brethren, 148;
+  at the feast of Tabernacles, 148;
+  return to Galilee, 150;
+  final departure from Galilee, 154;
+  the mission of the seventy, 158;
+  visit to the feast of Dedication, 159;
+  in Perea, 160;
+  the summons to Bethany, 161f.;
+  official determination to get rid of him, 161;
+  at Ephraim, 162;
+  question about divorce, 154;
+  blessing little children, 154;
+  the rich young ruler, 154;
+  request of Salome, 163;
+  Bartimeus, 163;
+  Zacchaeus, 163;
+  anointing at Bethany, 169;
+  the Messianic entry, 170f.;
+  the barren fig-tree, 172;
+  the questions of the leaders, 173f.;
+  counter question, 175;
+  denunciation of scribes, 175;
+  the widow's mites, 176;
+  visit of the Greeks. 176f.;
+  the eschatological discourse, 178;
+  bargain of Judas, 169, 178f.;
+  the last supper, 181-184;
+  dispute and foot washing, 184;
+  withdrawal of Judas, 184;
+  prediction of Peter's denials, 185;
+  discourse and prayer, 185-187;
+  Gethsemane, 188-190;
+  betrayal and arrest, 190f.;
+  trial by Jews, 191f.;
+  trial by Pilate, 192-194;
+  crucifixion, 195-198;
+  burial of Jesus, 199;
+  the resurrection, 201-210;
+  the ascension, 214f.;
+  Jesus' attitude to common life, 219-223;
+  his hunger for sympathy, 223;
+  Jesus as a teacher, 226f.;
+  his attitude to Old Testament, 227-229;
+  his confidence in men, 230f.;
+  his use of illustration, 231-233;
+  his alertness of mind, 234;
+  his leading ideas, 235 ff.;
+  his supernatural knowledge, 239-244;
+  his confession of ignorance, 243;
+  his kinship with men, 244f.;
+  treatment of demoniac possession, 245-248;
+  his certainty of his Messianic call, 249-254;
+  his adoption of Messianic titles, 254-264;
+  his consciousness of dependence on God, 264-266;
+  the problem of Jesus, 267-269.
+John, Gospel of, 32-36, 40f., 181, 280, 305.
+John the Baptist, 70-81;
+  notice by Josephus, 71f., 279f.;
+  his idea of the kingdom of God, 73;
+  his relation to current thought, 73-76;
+  his baptism, 77f., 83;
+  baptism of Jesus, 82-84;
+  the embassy from the priests, 92;
+  testimony--"the Lamb of God," 93, 286;
+  baptizing at AEnon, 112;
+  his self-effacing witness to Jesus, 79, 112;
+  hostility of the Pharisees, 113, 289;
+  arrest by Antipas, 71f., 113;
+  his message to Jesus, 125;
+  death in prison, 134f.; his significance, 79-81, 226;
+  the disciples of John, 112, 283;
+  literature about John, 283.
+John, son of Zebedee, 36, 92, 94, 118, 193,269.
+John of Gischals, 121.
+Joseph of Arimathea, 182, 199.
+Josephus, 22;
+  notice of John the Baptist, 71, 279f.
+Judas of Galilee, 11, 121.
+Judas the betrayer, 169, 181, 302;
+  the bargain, 178;
+  his selection as an apostle, 179;
+  his criticism of Mary at Bethany, 179;
+  his kiss, 190;
+  his remorse, 179.
+Judea, province of, 6f.
+
+Kingdom of God, 68, 86, 90, 173, 190, 231, 232, 235 ff., 238, 241.
+
+Language used by Jesus, 19, 62, 279.
+Last supper, the, 181-187, 303-305.
+Lawyers, see _Scribes_.
+Length of Jesus' ministry, 45-49.
+Literature of the Jews, 18f., 279.
+"Logia," ascribed to Matthew, 32, 42, 158.
+Luke, Gospel of, 26f., 31f., 280.
+
+Mark, Gospel of, 25f., 27, 29, 32, 40, 42, 280, 294f.;
+  last twelve verses of, 204f., 306f.
+Mary Magdalene, 134, 208.
+Mary, the mother of Jesus, 59;
+  had other children, 60, 63f., 283.
+Matthew, Gospel of, 23 ff., 27, 30f., 32, 280.
+Messianic entry into Jerusalem, 170, 301f.
+Messianic hope, the, 16-18, 87, 175, 279.
+Miracles of Jesus, 96, 267, 286f.
+Miraculous birth, the, 57-61, 232.
+Mission of the twelve, 130, 297.
+Mission of the seventy, 158, 300f.
+
+Nathanael, of Cana, 92, 94, 286.
+Nazareth, the view from, 65f.
+  rejection at, 292.
+Nicodemus, 111, 199.
+
+Papias, 22, 29, 34, 47, 102, 281.
+Parables of Jesus, 128f., 231f., 296f.
+Passover, the, 181, 187, 304.
+Paul, 21, 36, 201, 206, 268.
+Pentateuch, Jesus' references to, 244.
+Perea, 104, 153f., 158, 299f.
+Peter, 29, 34, 92, 94, 118, 185, 193, 305, 306;
+  confession of, 136, 142 ff., 297f.
+Pharisees, the, 8-10;
+  attitude to John the Baptist, 82, 113, 289;
+  their blasphemy, 124, 156;
+  question about divorce, 154;
+  about tribute, 173;
+  about the great commandment, 174, 302.
+Philip of Bethsaida, 92, 94, 176.
+Philip the tetrarch, 4.
+Pliny the younger, 21.
+Pontius Pilate, 5, 192, 195.
+Priests, the, 7f., 107;
+  and the temple market, 108.
+Proselytes, 78, 176, 302.
+Psalms, Jesus' use of the, 244.
+Psalms of Solomon, 18, 261.
+Publicans, 6, 72, 222.
+
+Quirinius, census under, 52-55.
+
+Religion of Jesus, 264 ff., 308.
+Resurrection, pharisaic doctrine of, 10, 241;
+  Sadducean rejection of 10, 174.
+
+Sadducees, the, 8, 16, 82;
+  the question about the resurrection, 174, 303;
+  attitude towards Jesus, 193.
+Samaria, 6f.
+  Jesus' journey through, 112.
+Samaritans, how regarded, 14.
+Sanhedrin, the great, at Jerusalem, 7, 13, 192.
+Scribes, their business, 9;
+  power in the sanhedrin, 13;
+  their influence over the religious life, 14;
+  their hope of a Messiah, 16;
+  their washings, 78;
+  chief of them at Jerusalem, 107;
+  their pride of learning and their bondage to tradition, 228.
+Sermon on the mount, 127, 290, 295f.
+Signs, essential marks of the Messiah, 95, 131.
+Soldiers in Palestine, 6, 72, 191.
+Son of Man, the, 124f., 130f., 254-260, 308.
+Son of God, the, 260-264, 308.
+Star of the wise men, 56.
+Suetonius, 21.
+Sychar, site of, 288.
+Synagogue, the, 14.
+Synoptic gospels, 28.
+Synoptic problem, 27-32, 279f.
+
+Tabernacles, feast of, 148, 150, 298f.
+Tacitus, 3, 21, 54.
+Tatian, 23, 38, 47, 281.
+Taxes, Roman, in Judea, 6.
+Temple at Jerusalem, 107;
+  market in 107;
+  cleansing of, 107, 288f.
+Temptation of Jesus, 86-91, 145, 284;
+  locality of, 285;
+  source of the record, 90, 285.
+Tertullian, 45, 53.
+Thomas, 208.
+Tiberius, 1, 21, 50.
+Traditions of the elders, 9, 15f., 68, 74, 139.
+Transfiguration, the, 146f., 292.
+Trial of Jesus, the, 191-195, 305.
+
+Words from the cross, 196 ff., 306.
+
+Zealots, the, 11, 74, 122, 124.
+
+
+
+
+Index of Scripture References
+
+
+
+Ex.
+
+iv. 22                 261
+xix. 10                 78
+xxiv. 1-11             183
+
+
+
+Lev.
+
+xii. 8                  61
+xxiii. 5-11             47
+
+
+
+Num.
+
+xxiii. 19              254
+
+
+
+Deut.
+
+vi. 4-9                 62
+viii. 3                 88
+xviii. 15               92
+xxi. 23                196
+
+
+
+I. Sam.
+
+ii. 26                  61
+
+
+
+I. Kings.
+
+xvii. 1                 72
+
+
+
+II. Kings.
+
+i. 8
+xvii. 24-41             14
+
+
+
+Ps.
+
+ii. 7                  261
+viii. 4                254
+xxii.                  196
+lxxx. 17               254
+lxxxii. 6              261
+ciii. 13               262
+cxiii., cxiv.          304
+cxv. to cxviii.        185, 304
+
+
+
+Isa.
+
+i. 16                   76
+vi. 5                  267
+xi. 2                   85
+xxxv. 5f.              126
+xlii. 1                 85
+li. 2                  254
+liii.                   96, 239
+liii. 7                 93
+lviii.                  76
+lxi. 1f.                45, 85, 126
+lxiii. 16              262
+
+
+
+Jer.
+
+xxxi. 31-34            111, 183
+
+
+
+Ezek.
+
+ii. 1                  254
+xxxiii. 10-20          240
+xxxvi. 25-27           111
+
+
+Dan.
+
+vi. 10                 107
+vii. 1-14              254
+vii. 13f.              255
+viii. 17               254
+
+
+Hos.
+
+i. 10                  261
+
+
+Joel.
+
+ii. 1-14                76
+
+
+Micah.
+
+vi. 8                   76
+
+
+Matt.
+
+i. 1 to iv. 17          23
+ii. 1, 2                52
+iii. 7                  74
+iii. 9                  78
+iii. 10-12              82
+iii. 11                 77
+iii. 14                 82
+iii. 15                 83
+iii. 16                285
+iv. 4, 7, 10           228
+iv. 7                   89
+iv. 8                   90
+iv. 10                  90, 145
+iv. 12                 101, 102, 106, 289
+iv. 12-17               24, 39, 115
+iv. 12 to xviii. 35    102
+iv. 13                 106
+iv. 13-16              115
+iv. 17                 118
+iv. 18-22              106, 115
+iv. 18 to xvi. 20       24
+iv. 23                 115
+iv. 23-25              115
+v. 1                   290
+v. 3-12                296
+v. 13-16               296
+v. 17                   83, 228
+v. 17-19               296
+v. 18                  238
+v. 20                  296
+v. 21-48               228, 296
+v. 25f.                295
+v. 29f.                295
+v. 32                  295
+v. 38, 39              250
+v. 45                  244
+vi. 1-6                 84
+vi. 1-18                64, 296
+vi. 2-4                176
+vi. 9-15                 4, 117, 295
+vi. 19-34              103, 295
+vi. 24                 179
+vi. 25-34               42
+vii. 1-6               296
+vii. 7-11              117, 295
+vii. 13f.              295
+vii. 15-21             296
+vii. 21                262
+vii. 21-27             238
+vii. 22f.              295
+vii. 24-27             296
+vii. 28, 29            226, 249
+viii. 2-4              115
+viii. 5                  7
+viii. 5, 8              43
+viii. 5-13              41, 115, 288, 289
+viii. 10               243
+viii. 10-12             24
+viii. 14-17            115
+viii. 18, 23-27        116
+viii. 19-22            153
+viii. 20               259
+viii. 28-34            116
+ix. 1, 18-26           116
+ix. 2-8                115
+ix. 9-13               115
+ix. 14-17              115
+ix. 27-34              116
+ix. 35                 116
+ix. 36 to xi. 1        116, 118, 297
+x. 1, 5-15             297
+x. 5f.                 130
+x. 7-15                297
+x. 16-42               297
+x. 32                  262
+xi. 2-6                251
+xi. 2-19                41, 116
+xi. 4-6                131
+xi. 11                  80
+xi. 18f.               259
+xi. 19                  96, 220, 256
+xi. 20-24              301
+xi. 20-30              153
+xi. 25-30              300
+xi. 27                 252, 263
+xi. 28-30              160
+xii. 1-8               115
+xii. 9-14              115
+xii. 12                227
+xii. 15-21             115
+xii. 22-45             116, 156
+xii. 28                 85, 248
+xii. 46-50             116
+xii. 50                145
+xiii. 1-53             116, 296
+xiii. 24-30            296
+xiii. 31-33             44, 17
+xiii. 40-43, 49, 50    296
+xiii. 54-58            116, 292
+xiii. 55                61, 63
+xiv. 1-12              116
+xiv. 1 to xxviii. 20    28
+xiv. 13-23              39, 116, 297
+xiv. 19                 46
+xiv. 21-36             116
+xv. 1                   43
+xv. 1-20               116
+xv. 13f.               150
+xv. 21-28              116
+xv. 21-31              140
+xv. 22                 254
+xv. 24                 130
+xv. 29-31              117
+xv. 32-38              117, 297
+xv. 39                 291
+xv. 39 to xvi. 12       17
+xvi. 9f.               297
+xvi. 13-20              94, 117, 298
+xvi. 16                263
+xvi. 16ff.             142
+xvi. 17                142, 224, 262
+xvi. 21                118, 239
+xvi. 21-28             117
+xvi. 21 to xxviii. 20   24
+xvi. 23                239
+xvii. 1-13             117
+xvii. 10-13            193
+xvii. 14-20            117
+xvi. 22-23             117
+xvii. 24-27            117, 139
+xviii. 1-35            117, 148
+xviii. 4               220
+xviii. 12-14            44
+xix. 1f.                39, 153, 154, 298
+xix. 1 to xx. 34       104
+xix. 3-9               228
+xix. 3-12              153
+xix. 13-15             153
+xix. 16 to xx. 16      153
+xx. 17-19              153
+xx. 20-28              153
+xx. 29-34              153
+xxi. 1-11              166
+xxi. 1 to xxvii. 66    104
+xxi. 1 to xxviii. 20    39
+xxi. 4f.               170
+xxi. 9-15              254
+xxi. 14-16             172
+xxi. 17                166
+xxi. 18-19, 12-17      166
+xxi. 20-23             166
+xxi. 23-27             166
+xxi. 28 to xxii. 14    166, 173
+xxi. 33-46              25, 252
+xxii. 1-14             252
+xxii. 15-22            166
+xxii. 23-33            166
+xxii. 34-46            166, 238
+xxii. 41-46            166
+xxiii. 1-39            166
+xxiii. 2                13
+xxiii. 24              233
+xxiii. 37-39            34, 106
+xxiv. 1 to xxvi. 2     167
+xxiv. 6-13             166
+xxv.                   178
+xxv. 37-46             237
+xxv. 40                221
+xxvi. 1f.              147
+xxvi. 2, 6-13          301
+xxvi. 3-5, 14-16       167
+xxvi. 11-13            167
+xxvi. 20               181
+xxvi. 25               200
+xxvi. 26               305
+xxvi. 30, 36-46        167
+xxvi. 30-35            305
+xxvi. 47-56            167
+xxvi. 57 to xxvii. 10  167
+xxvi. 63f.             263
+xxvii. 11-31           167
+xxvii. 32-56           167
+xxvii. 43              261
+xxvii. 46              197, 306
+xxvii. 50              285
+xxvii. 57               34
+xxvii. 57-61           167
+xxvii. 62-66           167
+xxviii. 1-8            201
+xxviii. 9, 10          201
+xxviii. 11-15          201
+xxviii. 16-20          201, 204
+xxviii. 18-20           25
+
+
+Mark.
+
+i. 1-13                 26
+i. 3                    79
+i. 4                    77
+i. 7f.                  93
+i. 10                   84
+i. 11                   68, 84, 261
+i. 14                  101, 102, 106, 289
+i. 14f.                 39, 115
+i. 14 to ix. 50         26, 102
+i. 16-20               115
+i. 21-34               115
+i. 24                  254
+i. 27                  249
+i. 35                  265
+i. 35-39               253
+i. 35-45               115
+ii. 1-12                47, 115, 230, 294
+ii. 1-17                48
+ii. 1 to iii. 6         47, 48, 250, 204f.
+ii. 5                  239
+ii. 6f.                121
+ii. 10                  28, 256, 259
+ii. 10, 28 and ||s     256
+ii. 12                  25
+ii. 13-17               47, 115, 294
+ii. 15-17               96
+ii. 16                  47, 121
+ii. 18-22               26, 47, 115
+ii. 20                 239
+ii. 23                  47
+ii. 23-28              115, 229, 294f.
+ii. 25-27              228
+ii. 27                 257
+ii. 44                 253
+iii. 1-6                26, 115, 295
+iii. 7-12              115
+iii. 11                261
+iii. 13-19             115, 295
+iii. 17, 41             25
+iii. 19-30              40, 42, 116
+iii. 21, 31-35          59, 97
+iii. 22                 34, 121
+iii. 22-30             156
+iii. 28-30             251
+iii. 31-35              59, 97, 116
+iv. 1-34               116, 232, 296
+iv. 3                   64
+iv. 12                 129
+iv. 13                 129
+iv. 26-29              296
+iv. 35-41              116
+v. 1                   290
+v. 1-20                116
+v. 7                   261
+v. 11-13               139
+v. 21-43               116
+v. 30-34               243
+v. 41                   20
+vi. 1-6                 43, 116, 292
+vi. 2f.                220
+vi. 6b                 116
+vi. 7-11               297
+vi. 7-13               116, 147
+vi. 14-29              116
+vi. 15                 290
+vi. 30-34               47
+vi. 30-46               39, 40, 116, 297
+vi. 39                  46
+vi. 47-56              116
+vii. 1                  34
+vii. 1-23, 48           48, 116, 121, 139, 250
+vii. 6-13              233
+vii. 8-13               10
+vii. 10                244
+vii. 13                251
+vii. 14-23             238
+vii. 15                227
+vii. 19                130, 228
+vii. 24-30             116
+vii. 27                140
+vii. 29f.              289
+vii. 31                291
+vii. 31-37             117, 297
+vii. 34                 20
+vii. 37                 25
+viii. 1f.              141
+viii. 1-9              117, 297
+viii. 10               291
+viii. 10-21            117
+viii. 11                96
+vii. 11-13             139
+viii. 14f.             139
+viii. 19f.             297
+viii. 22-26            117
+viii. 27-30            117, 141, 298
+viii. 29               254
+viii. 31               168 ,20, 256, 259
+viii. 31-33             87, 239
+viii. 31-ix. 1         117, 296
+viii. 32f.              93
+viii. 34f.             147
+viii. 34 to ix. 1      146
+viii. 38               256, 259
+ix. 1                  242
+ix. 2                  292
+ix. 2-13               117
+ix. 6                   28
+ix. 9                  147
+ix. 10                 203
+ix. 14-29              117, 147
+ix. 19                 224
+ix. 29                 265
+ix. 30-32              117, 147
+ix. 31                 204
+ix. 33-50              117, 299
+ix. 35-37              234
+ix. 43-47              295
+x. 1                     9, 104, 153, 154, 298
+x. 1 to xvi. 8          26
+x. 2-12                153, 154, 298
+x. 5f.                 244
+x. 11                  153, 154, 160
+x. 13-16               104
+x. 17-31               153, 155, 160
+x. 18                  226
+x. 19                  229
+x. 25                  233
+x. 32-34               147, 153, 155, 162
+x. 35-45               153, 155, 163, 165, 184, 230, 304
+x. 40                  243
+x. 42-45               259
+x. 45                  241
+x. 46                  162
+x. 46-52               153
+x. 47f.                254
+x. 48                  163
+xi. 1-11               166
+xi. 1 to xv. 47        104
+xi. 1 to xvi. 8 [20]    39
+xi. 2f.                 34
+xi. 2-5                112
+xi. 8-10               162
+xi. 9f.                170
+xi. 12-14, 15-18       166
+xi. 12-14, 20-25       172
+xi. 14-36               42
+xi. 15-19               43, 288
+xi. 17                 108
+xi. 19                 166
+xi. 20-27              166
+xi. 25                 295
+xi. 27-33              166
+xi. 29-33              173
+xii. 1-12              166
+xii. 13-17             166, 173
+xii. 16                227
+xii. 18-27             166, 174
+xii. 24-27             228
+xii. 27                186
+xii. 28-34             166, 174
+xii. 35-37             166, 245
+xii. 38-40             166
+xii. 41-44             166
+xiii. and ||s          178, 241, 302
+xiii. 1-37             167
+xiii. 24-27            238
+xiii. 32               243, 247, 252, 263
+xiv. 1f., 10f.         167
+xiv. 3                 169
+xiv. 3-9               166, 301
+xiv. 3-11              169
+xiv. 8                 169
+xiv. 12                303
+xiv. 12-16             112
+xiv. 12-26             167
+xiv. 14                 34
+xiv. 17                181
+xiv. 18-21             184
+xiv. 20                185
+xiv. 21                180
+xiv. 26, 32-42         167
+xiv. 26-31             305
+xiv. 33f.              186
+xiv. 34                145
+xiv. 36                 20, 189, 239, 265
+xiv. 43-52             167
+xiv. 45                190
+xiv. 50                182
+xiv. 53 to xv. 1       190
+xiv. 61                167
+xiv. 61f.              254, 261
+xiv. 61-64             263
+xiv. 62                191
+xiv. 66-72              85, 258
+xv. 1                  192
+xv. 1-20               167
+xv. 2                  254
+xv. 6-15               192
+xv. 21                 182, 195
+xv. 21-41              167
+xv. 22                 305
+xv. 34                  20, 197, 306
+xv. 42                 182
+xv. 42-47              167
+xv. 43                  34
+xv. 46                 182
+xvi. 1                 202
+xvi. 1-8               201
+xvi. 6f.               209
+xvi. [9-20]            204f., 306
+xvi. [9-11]            201
+xvi. [12f.]            201
+xvi. [14]              201
+xvi. [15-18]           201
+xvi. [19f.]             201
+
+
+
+Luke.
+
+
+i. 1-4                  26, 42
+i. 3                    41
+i. 5                    52
+i. 36                   82
+i. 46-55                60
+i. 68-79                68-79
+i. 80                   61
+ii. 1f.                 52
+ii. 8                   56
+ii. 19-51               59
+ii. 24                  61
+ii. 40-52               61
+ii. 41                  62, 107
+ii. 48                  97
+ii. 49                  67, 262
+ii. 52                  63, 69
+iii. 1f.                45, 49, 52
+iii. 13f.               74
+iii. 15                 94
+iii. 21                 64, 82, 85, 265
+iii. 23                 52
+iv. 5                   90
+iv. 13                  87, 146
+iv. 14                 101, 102, 289
+iv. 14, 15              39, 115, 292
+iv. 14 to ix. 50        26, 102
+iv. 16                  62
+iv. 16-19               63
+iv. 16-30               43, 116, 292
+iv. 23                 292
+iv. 31                 106, 115
+iv. 31-41              115
+iv. 42-44              115
+v. 1-11                115, 293
+v. 4-11                 43
+v. 12-16               115
+v. 17                   34
+v. 17-26               115
+v. 24                   28
+v. 27-32               115
+v. 33-39               115
+vi. 1-5                115
+vi. 6-11               115
+vi. 12                  84, 265, 290
+vi. 12-19              115, 295
+vi. 17                 290
+vi. 20                 222
+vi. 20 to vii. 1       115, 295
+vi. 20-26              296
+vi. 27-42              296
+vi. 43-46              296
+vi. 47-49              296
+vii. 1-10               41, 115, 288, 289
+vii. 2-5                 7
+vii. 7                  43
+vii. 11-17              42, 116
+vii. 18-35              41, 116
+vii. 36-50              42, 116, 224
+vii. 47                239
+viii. 1-3              116
+viii. 4-18             116, 296
+viii. 19-21            116
+viii. 22-25            116
+viii. 26               290
+viii. 26-39            116
+viii. 40-56            116
+ix. 1-6                116, 297, 300
+ix. 7-9                116
+ix. 10-17               39, 116, 297
+ix. 11                 135
+ix. 18                 265
+ix. 18-21              117, 298
+ix. 22-27              117
+ix. 28f.                84, 146
+ix. 28-36              117
+ix. 29                 265
+ix. 31                 146
+ix. 37-42              117
+ix. 43-45              117
+ix. 46-50              117
+ix. 51                  39, 157
+ix. 51f.               158, 298
+ix. 51-62              153
+ix. 51 to xviii.        40, 42, 104, 154, 156
+ix. 51 to xix. 27       26
+ix. 57-62              156
+x. 1                   158, 301
+x. 3-12                297
+x. 1-24                153, 300
+x. 13-16               301
+x. 17-20               301
+x. 17-24               160
+x. 18                  248
+x. 22                  252, 263, 300
+x. 25-37                34, 153, 159, 227
+x. 28-37               159
+x. 38-42                34, 111, 153
+xi. 1                   42, 265
+xi. 1-4                 42, 295
+xi. 1-13               117
+xi. 9-13               295
+xi. 14-36               40, 116, 156
+xi. 34-36              295
+xi. 37-52              156
+xi. 37-54              154, 164
+xii. 1-12              156
+xii. 1-59              154, 164, 165
+xii. 13-21             117
+xii. 22-31              42
+xii. 22-34             103, 516, 295
+xii. 49-53             165
+xii. 58f.              295
+xiii. 1-9              154, 161, 164
+xiii. 10-17            117
+xiii. 18-21             44, 117, 296
+xiii. 22               157
+xiii. 22-30            153, 164
+xiii. 24               295
+xiii. 31f.             171, 193
+xiii. 31-35            153, 168
+xiii. 32                 5
+xiii. 34f.              34, 106, 224
+xiii. 35               252
+xiv. 1-24              117
+xiv. 7ff.              304
+xiv. 15-24             161
+xiv. 25-35             154, 156, 164, 165
+xiv. 26                233
+xv.  1f.                96
+xv. 1 to xvi. 31       117
+xv. 4-7                 44
+xv. 7                  233
+xv. 11-32              232
+xvi. 13                295
+xvi. 22                247
+xvi. 31                229
+xvii. 1-4              117
+xvii. 11               157
+xvii. 11-19            153
+xvii. 20-37            154
+xviii. 1-8             154, 164
+xviii. 9-14            154, 159
+xviii. 15-17           153
+xviii. 15 to xix. 28   104
+xviii. 18-30           153
+xviii.  31-34          153
+xviii.  34             203
+xviii.  35-43          153
+xviii. 35 to xix. 28   155, 164
+xix. 1-10              154
+xix. 11-28             154, 163
+xix. 28 to xxiv. 53     27
+xix. 29-44             166
+xix. 29 to xxiii. 56   104
+xix. 29 to xxiii. 53    39
+xix. 37-40             162
+xix. 39                170
+xix. 41-44             170
+xix. 45f.              289
+xix. 45-47f.           166
+xix. 47                172
+xx. 1                  166
+xx. 1-8                166
+xx. 9-19               166
+xx. 20-26              166
+xx. 27-40              166
+xx. 41-44              166
+xx. 45-47              166
+xxi. 1-4               166
+xxi. 5-38              167
+xxii. 37-38            166
+xxii. 1-6              167
+xxii. 7-30             167
+xxii. 14               181
+xxii. 15               181, 183, 303
+xxii. 17               304
+xxii. 17-20            185
+xxii. 19               184
+xxii. 23-30            304
+xxii. 28                87
+xxii. 31-34            185, 305
+xxii. 39-46            167
+xxii. 47-53            167
+xxii. 54-71            167
+xxii. 61f.             193
+xxii. 66-71            192
+xxii. 70               263
+xxiii. 1f.             192
+xxiii. 1-25            167
+xxiii. 4               192
+xxiii. 5-12            192
+xxiii. 13-16           192
+xxiii. 16-24           192
+xxiii. 26-49           167
+xxiii. 27-31           195
+xxiii. 34              197, 306, 307
+xxiii. 43              197, 306
+xxiii. 46               64, 197, 265, 306
+xxiii. 50-56           167
+xxiii. 56              182
+xxiv. 1-12             201
+xxiv. 12               205
+xxiv. 13-35            201
+xxiv. 21               200, 203
+xxiv. 36-43            201
+xxiv. 41-43            213
+xxiv. 44-53            201
+xxiv. 50               205
+xxiv. 51               214, 307
+
+
+
+John.
+
+
+i. 14                   58, 269
+1. 19 to iv. 42         40, 101
+i. 25                   78
+i. 26f.                 93
+i. 28                   92, 284
+i. 29                   93
+i. 29-36                80
+i. 30-34                93
+i. 31                   82
+i. 32-34                84
+i. 35f.                 93
+i. 38                   20, 226
+i. 40f., 43-45          92
+i. 41-45               142
+i. 42-47               239
+i. 44                  290
+i. 49                   94, 142, 254, 261, 263
+i. 51                   95
+ii. 3-5                 97
+ii. 11                 222
+ii. 12                  97
+ii. 13                  46
+ii. 13-22               43, 106, 288
+ii. 16                 262
+ii. 20                  49
+ii. 22                  96
+ii. 23 to iii. 15      106
+ii. 25                  68, 141, 234, 239
+iii. 2                 226
+iii. 16-21,30-36        32
+iii. 22-30             106
+iii. 24                 46, 101
+iii. 23                288
+iii. 24,35             113
+iii. 30                 80
+iii. 34                 85, 86
+iv. 1-3                113
+iv. 1-3, 44            112
+iv. 1-4                289
+iv. 1-42               106
+iv. 1-45               102
+iv. 21-24              109
+iv. 25                  14
+iv. 26                 254
+iv. 30                  95
+iv. 34                 265
+iv. 35                 107, 288, 293
+iv. 42                  40
+iv. 43-45               39, 106, 286
+iv. 46-54              102, 106, 115, 289
+v. 1                    40, 48, 293
+v. 1-9                  32
+v. 1-47                102, 115
+v. 17                  262
+v. 19                  264
+v. 25                  263
+v. 30                  265
+v. 39                  229
+vi. 1-15                39, 116
+vi. 1-71               102
+vi. 4                   46, 138, 293
+vi. 14                  25
+vi. 14f.               119
+vi. 15                  89, 120, 135, 170
+vi. 16-21              116
+vi. 22-71              116
+vi. 30-32               87
+vi. 38                 189, 265
+vi. 64                 178, 180
+vi. 66                 136
+vi. 67                 225
+vi. 67-71              298
+vi. 68                  81, 123
+vi. 68f.               142
+vi. 69                 254
+vii. 1-10               39, 298
+vii. 1-52              117
+vii. 1 to viii. 59     103, 149
+vii. 2                 138
+vii. 2-5               148
+vii. 5                  64
+vii. 10                150
+vii. 15                235
+vii. 22                244
+vii. 23                 32
+vii. 24                227
+vii. 25,32             160
+vii. 31                 95
+vii. 32                299
+vii. 36                149
+vii. 40                254
+vii. 45-52             299
+vii. 49                 13, 220
+vii. 50-52             111
+vii. 53 to viii. 11     37, 117, 149, 157
+viii. 12-59            117
+viii. 14               248
+viii. 15               157
+viii. 46                83, 266
+viii. 59               160, 299
+ix. 1 to x. 39         153
+ix. 1 to xi. 57        104
+ix. 10                 158, 159
+ix. 35                 263
+ix. 35-38              156
+x. 11-18               159
+x. 18                   89
+x. 21                  159
+x. 22                  150, 155, 298
+x. 22, 40-42            58
+x. 24-39               159
+x. 25                  161, 262
+x. 29                  265
+x. 30                  264
+x. 31-39               160
+x. 32                  233
+x. 34                  261
+x. 36                  263
+x. 39                  156
+x. 40                  154, 155, 301
+x. 40-42               153, 160
+xi. 1-7                155
+xi. 1-46               153, 161
+xi. 4                  263
+xi. 6                  161
+xi. 34                 243, 258
+xi. 41f.               161, 265
+xi. 47-50              193
+xi. 47-54              153, 161
+xi. 54                 155, 162, 300
+xi. 55 to xii. 11      166
+xi. 55 to xix. 42      104
+xii. 1                  46, 102, 163, 301
+xii. 1 to xxi. 25       39
+xii. 2                 169
+xii. 4-8               301
+xii. 6                 178
+xii. 7                 169
+xii. 12f.              170
+xii. 12-19             166
+xii. 20-36             166, 176, 302
+xii. 23-36             168
+xii. 36^b(-50)         166
+xii. 37-43              32
+xiii. 1                181, 303
+xiii. 1-15             234, 304
+xiii. 1-30             167
+xiii. 21-30            184
+xiii. 23-26            185
+xiii. 29               178, 303
+xiii. 31 to xvi. 33     32, 167, 305
+xiii. 32f.             305
+xiii. 36-38            305
+xiv. 6-11              264
+xiv. 10                161, 265
+xiv. 28                265
+xiv. 30f.               32
+xv.                     32, 167, 305
+xv. 1                  262
+xvi.                    32, 167, 305
+xvi. 25                264
+xvii. 1-26             167
+xvii. 21               264
+xviii. 1               167
+xviii. 1-12            167
+xviii. 8               190
+xviii. 11^b            189
+xviii. 12-27           167
+xviii. 15              193
+xviii. 28              182, 303
+xviii. 28 to xix. 16   167
+xviii. 31              192
+xviii. 33, 36f.        254
+xix. 7-12              192
+xix. 12-16             193
+xix. 14                606
+xix. 16-37             167
+xix. 19-22             198
+xix. 25                 97
+xix. 26                 97
+xix. 26f.              197, 306
+xix. 28                197, 306
+xix. 30                197, 306
+xix. 31                182, 199, 303
+xix. 31-37             198
+xix. 38                 34
+xix. 38-42             167
+xix. 39                111
+xix. 42                303
+xx. 1-10               201
+xx. 2                  206
+xx. 5-8                 43
+xx. 8                  203
+xx. 9                  200
+xx. 9f., 24f.           93, 94
+xx. 14-18              201
+xx. 17                 209, 214
+xx 19-25               201
+xx. 21                  23
+xx. 26-29              201
+xx. 30                  49
+xx. 30f.               32, 107
+xxi.                   206
+xxi. 2                  92
+xxi. 1-24              201
+xxi. 3-14              293
+xxi. 25                 39
+
+
+
+Acts.
+
+
+i. 1-11                214
+i. 1-12                201
+i. 14                   97
+ii. 36                 202
+v. 36                   89
+v. 37                   53
+vii. 56                254
+xvii. 31               202
+xix. 1-7                80
+xx. 35                  36
+xxi. 38                 89
+xxiii. 8               302
+
+
+
+Rom.
+
+
+i. 3                    21
+i. 4                   202
+v. 19                   21
+ix. 5                   21
+xv. 3                   21
+
+
+
+I. Cor.
+
+
+i. 23                  190
+v. 7                   183
+ix. 1                  202
+x. 16                  304
+xv.                    202
+xv. 3-8                 21, 105, 204
+xv. 4                  204, 213
+xv. 5                  201
+xv. 6                  201
+xv. 6f.                162
+xv. 7                  201
+
+
+
+II. Cor.
+
+
+v. 21                   83
+viii. 9                 21
+x. l                    21
+xii.                   212
+
+
+
+Gal.
+
+
+iii. 13                190
+
+
+
+Phil.
+
+
+ii. 5-11                21, 269
+ii. 7f.                190, 285
+ii. 8                  196
+
+
+
+II. Tim.
+
+
+iii. 15                 63
+
+
+
+Heb.
+
+
+ii. 17                  61
+ii. 17f.                64
+ii. 18                  87
+iv. 15                  61, 63, 67
+v. 7                   147
+v. 7-9                  87
+vii. 26                 57
+xii. 2                 190
+xii. 13                190
+
+
+
+I. Pet.
+
+
+ii. 22                  83
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's The Life of Jesus of Nazareth, by Rush Rhees
+
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