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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text diff --git a/13228-0.txt b/13228-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..a835664 --- /dev/null +++ b/13228-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,9622 @@ +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 13228 *** + +[Transcriber's note: Superscripted letters and numbers have been marked +with a preceding caret (^).] + + + + +The Life of Jesus of Nazareth + +_A Study_ + +By + +Rush Rhees + +1902 + + + + +_Copyright, 1900,_ +By Charles Scribner's Sons + + + + +To + +C. W. McC. + +In Recognition of Wise Counsel, Generous Help and Loving Appreciation + + + + +"_I would preach ... the need to the world of the faith +in a Christ, the claim that Jesus is the Christ, and the demand +for an intelligent faith, which indeed shall transcend but shall +not despise knowledge, or neglect to have a knowledge to +transcend._"--John Patterson Coyle + + + + +Preface + + + +The aim of this book is to help thoughtful readers of the gospels to +discern more clearly the features of him whom those writings inimitably +portray. It is avowedly a study rather than a story, and as a companion to +the reading of the gospels it seeks to answer some of the questions which +are raised by a sympathetic consideration of those narratives. These +answers are offered in an unargumentative way, even where the questions +are still in debate among scholars. This method has been adopted because +technical discussion would be of interest to but few of those whom the +book hopes to serve. On some of the questions a non-committal attitude is +taken in the belief that for the understanding of the life of Jesus it is +of little importance which way the decision finally goes. Less attention +has been given to questions of geography and archæology than to those +which have a more vital biographical significance. + +A word concerning the point of view adopted. The church has inherited a +rich treasure of doctrine concerning its Lord, the result of patient study +and, frequently, of heated controversy. It is customary to approach the +gospels with this interpretation of Christ as a premise, and such a study +has some unquestionable advantages. With the apostles and evangelists, +however, the recognition of the divine nature of Jesus was a conclusion +from their acquaintance with him. The Man of Nazareth was for them +primarily a man, and they so regarded him until he showed them that he was +more. Their knowledge of him progressed in the natural way from the human +to the divine. The gospels, particularly the first three, are marvels of +simplicity and objectivity. Their authors clearly regarded Jesus as the +Man from heaven; yet in their thinking they were dominated by the +influence of a personal Lord rather than by the force of an accepted +doctrine. It is with no lack of reverence for the importance and truth of +the divinity of Christ that this book essays to bring the Man Jesus before +the mind in the reading of the gospels. The incarnation means that God +chose to reveal the divine through a human life, rather than through a +series of propositions which formulate truth (Heb. i. 1-4). The most +perennially refreshing influence for Christian life and thought is +personal discipleship to that Revealer who is able to-day as of old to +exhibit in his humanity those qualities which compel the recognition of +God manifest in the flesh. + +An Appendix is added to furnish references to the wide literature of the +subject for the aid of those who wish to study it more extensively and +technically; also to discuss some questions of detail which could not be +considered in the text. This appendix will indicate the extent of my +indebtedness to others. I would acknowledge special obligation to +Professor Ernest D. Burton, of the University of Chicago, for generous +help and permission to use material found in his "Notes on the Life of +Jesus;" to Professor Shailer Mathews, also of Chicago, for very valuable +criticisms; to my colleague, Professor Charles Rufus Brown, for most +serviceable assistance; and to the editors of this series for helpful +suggestions and criticism during the making of the book. An unmeasured +debt is due to another who has sat at my side during the writing of these +pages, and has given constant inspiration, most discerning criticism, and +practical aid. + +The Newton Theological Institution, April, 1900. + + + + +Contents + + + +Part I + +Preparatory + + + +I + +The Historical Situation + +Sections 1-19. Pages 1-20 + + Section 1. The Roman estimate of Judea. 2, 3. Herod the Great and his + sons. 4. Roman procurators in Palestine. 5. Taxes. 6. The army. 7. + Administration of justice. 8. The Sadducees. 9,10. The Pharisees. 11. + The Zealots. 12. The Essenes. 13. The Devout. 14. Herodians and + Samaritans. 15. The synagogue. 16. Life under the law. 17. The + Messianic hope. 18. Contemporary literature. 19. Language of Palestine. + + +II + +Sources of Our Knowledge of Jesus + +Sections 20-35. Pages 21-37 + + Section 20. The testimony of Paul. 21. Secular history. 22. The written + gospels. 23. Characteristics of the first gospel. 24. Of the second. + 25. Of the third. 26-30. The synoptic problem. 31-32. The Johannine + problem. 34. The two narrative sources. 35. Agrapha and Apocrypha. + + +III + +The Harmony of the Gospels + +Sections 36-44. Pages 38-14 + + Section 36. The value of four gospels. 37. Tatian's Diatessaron. 38. + Agreement of the gospels concerning the chief events. 39. The principal + problems. 40. Relation of Mark and John. 41, 42. Matthew and Luke. 43. + Doublets. 44. The degree of certainty attainable. + + +IV + +The Chronology + +Sections 45-57. Pages 45-56 + + Sections 45-48. The length of Jesus' public ministry. 49. Date of the + first Passover. 50. Date of the crucifixion. 51-56. Date of the + nativity. 57. Summary. + + +V + +The Early Years of Jesus + +Sections 58-71. Pages 57-69 + + Section 58. Apocryphal stories. 59. Silence of the New Testament + outside the gospels. 60-62. The miraculous birth. 63. The childhood of + Jesus. 64. Home. 65. Religion, Education. 66. Growth. 67. Religious + development. 68. The view from Nazareth. 69 The first visit to + Jerusalem. 70-71. The carpenter of Nazareth. + + +VI + +John the Baptist + +Sections 72-84. Pages 70-81 + + Section 72. The gospel picture. 73. Notice by Josephus. 74. + Characteristics of the prophet 75-78. John's relation to the Essenes; + the Pharisees; the Zealots; the Apocalyptists. 79. John and the + Prophets. 80-82. Origin of his baptism. 83. His greatness. 84. His + limitations and self-effacement. + + +VII + +The Messianic Call + +Sections 85-96. Pages 82-91 + + Sections 85, 86. John and Jesus. 87. The baptism of Jesus. 88, 89. The + Messianic call. 90. The gift of the Spirit. 91-94. The temptation. 95. + Source of the narrative. 96. The issue. + + +VIII + +The First Disciples + +Sections 97-105. Pages 92-97 + + Section 97. John at Bethany beyond Jordan. 98. The deputation from the + priests. 99. John's first testimony. 100. The first disciples. 101. The + early Messianic confessions. 102. The visit to Cana. 103. The miracles + as disclosures of the character of Jesus. 104. Jesus and his mother. + 105. Removal to Capernaum. + + + +Part II + +The Ministry + + +I + +General Survey of the Ministry + +Sections 106-112. Pages 101-105 + + Section 106. The early Judean ministry. 107. Withdrawal to Galilee; a + new beginning. 108. The ministry in Galilee a unit. 109. Best studied + topically. 110. The last journey to Jerusalem. 111. The last week. 112. + The resurrection and ascension. + + +II + +The Early Judean Ministry + +Sections 113-124. Pages 106-114 + + Outline of events in the Early Judean ministry. Section 113. The + opening ministry at Jerusalem. 114. The record incomplete. 115. The + cleansing of the temple. 116. Relation to synoptic account. 117. Jesus' + reply to the challenge of his authority. 118. The reserve of Jesus. + 119. Discourse with Nicodemus. 120. Measure of success in Jerusalem. + 121. The Baptist's last testimony. 122. The arrest of John. 123. The + second sign at Cana. 124. Summary. + + +III + +The Ministry in Galilee--Its Aim and Method + +Sections 125-149. Pages 115-137 + + Outline of events in the Galilean ministry. Section 125. General view. + 126, 127. Development of popular enthusiasm. 128. Pharisaic opposition. + 129, 130. Jesus and the Messianic hope. 131. Injunctions of silence. + 132-135. Jesus' twofold aim in Galilee. 136, 137. Character of the + teaching of this period: the sermon on the mount. 138. The parables. + 139. The instructions for the mission of the twelve. 140. Jesus' tone + of authority. 141. His mighty works. 142-144. Demoniac possession. 145. + Jesus' personal influence. 146. The feeding of the five thousand. 147, + 148. Revulsion of popular feeling. 149. Results of the work in Galilee. + + +IV + +The Ministry in Galilee--The New Lesson + +Sections 150-165. Pages 138-152 + + Section 150. The changed ministry. 151. The question of tradition. 152. + Further pharisaic opposition. 153. Jesus in PhÅ“nicia. 154. Confirmation + of the disciples' faith. 155. The question at Cæsarea Philippi. 156. + The corner-stone of the Church. 157-159. The new lesson. 160. The + transfiguration. 161. Cure of the epileptic boy. 162. The feast of + Tabernacles. 163. Story of Jesus and the adulteress. 164. The new note + in Jesus' teaching. 165. Summary of the Galilean ministry. + + +V + +The Journey through Perea to Jerusalem + +Sections 166-176. Pages 153-165 + + Outline of events. Section 166. The Perean ministry. 167. Account in + John. 168, 169. Account in Luke. 170. The mission of the seventy. 171. + The feast of Dedication. 172. Withdrawal beyond Jordan. 173. The + raising of Lazarus. 174. Ephraim and Jericho. 175,176. Summary. + + +VI + +The Final Controversies in Jerusalem + +Sections 177-188. Pages 166-180 + + Outline of events in the last week of Jesus' life. Section 177. The + cross in apostolic preaching. 178. The anointing in Bethany. 179. The + Messianic entry. 180. The barren fig-tree. 181. The Monday of Passion + week. 182-186. The controversies of Tuesday. 187. Judas. 188. + Wednesday, the day of seclusion. + + +VII + +The Last Supper + +Sections 189-195. Pages 181-187 + + Section 189. Preparations. 190,191. Date of the supper. 192. The lesson + of humility. 193. The new covenant. 194. The supper and the Passover. + 195. Farewell words of admonition and comfort; the intercessory prayer. + + +VIII + +The Shadow of Death + +Sections 196-208. Pages 188-200 + + Sections 196, 197. Gethsemane. 198. The betrayal. 199. The trial. 200. + Peter's denials. 201. The rejection of Jesus. 202. The greatness of + Jesus. 203, 204. The crucifixion. 205. The words from the cross. 206. + The death of Jesus. 207. The burial. 208. The Sabbath rest. + + +IX + +The Resurrection + +Sections 209-222. Pages 201-216 + + Section 209. The primary Christian fact. 210. The incredulity of the + disciples. 211-216. The appearances of the risen Lord. 217-220. Efforts + to explain the belief in the resurrection. 221. The ascension. 222. The + new faith of the disciples. + + + +Part III + +The Minister + + +I + +The Friend of Men + +Sections 223-229. Pages 219-225 + + Section 223. The contrast between Jesus' attitude and John's towards + common social life. 224. Contrast with the scribes. 225, 226. His + interest in simple manhood. 227. Regard for human need. 228, 229. + Sensitiveness to human sympathy. + + +II + +The Teacher with Authority + +Sections 230-241. Pages 226-237 + + Section 230. Contrast between Jesus and the scribes. 231. His appeal to + the conscience. His attitude to the Old Testament. 234. His teaching + occasional. 235. The patience of his method. 236. His use of + illustration. 237. Parable. 238. Irony and hyperbole. 239. Object + lessons. 240. Jesus' intellectual superiority. 241. His chief theme, + the kingdom of God. + + +III + +Jesus' Knowledge of Truth + +Sections 242-251. Pages 238-248 + + Sections 242, 243. Jesus' supernatural knowledge. 244. His predictions + of his death. 245. Of his resurrection. 246. His apocalyptic + predictions. 247, 248. Limitation of his knowledge. 249, 250. Jesus and + demoniac possession. 251. His certainty of his own mission. + + +IV + +Jesus' Conception of Himself + +Sections 252-275. Pages 249-269. + + Section 252. Jesus' confidence in his calling. 253. His independence in + teaching. 254. His self-assertions in response to pharisaic criticism. + 255. His desire to beget faith in himself. 256,257. His extraordinary + personal claim. 258. His acceptance of Messianic titles. 259-266. The + Son of Man. 267-269. The Son of God. 270, 271. His consciousness of + oneness with God. 272. His confession of dependence; his habit of + prayer. 273. No confession of sin. 274, 275. The Word made flesh. + + +Appendix + +Index of Names and Subjects + +Index of Biblical References + +Map of Palestine + + + + +Part I + + +Preparatory + + + + +I + +The Historical Situation + + + +1. When Tacitus, the Roman historian, records the attempt of Nero to +charge the Christians with the burning of Rome, he has patience for no +more than the cursory remark that the sect originated with a Jew who had +been put to death in Judea during the reign of Tiberius. This province was +small and despised, and Tacitus could account for the influence of the +sect which sprang thence only by the fact that all that was infamous and +abominable flowed into Rome. The Roman's scornful judgment failed to grasp +the nature and power of the movement whose unpopularity invited Nero's +lying accusation, yet it emphasizes the significance of him who did "not +strive, nor cry, nor cause his voice to be heard in the street," whose +influence, nevertheless, was working as leaven throughout the empire. + +2. Palestine was not under immediate Roman rule when Jesus was born. Herod +the Great was drawing near the close of the long reign during which, owing +to his skill in securing Roman favor, he had tyrannized over his unwilling +people. His claim was that of an adventurer who had power to succeed, even +as his method had been that of a suspicious tyrant, who murdered right and +left, lest one of the many with better right than he should rise to +dispute with him his throne. When Herod died, his kingdom was divided +into three parts, and Rome asserted a fuller sovereignty, allowing none of +his sons to take his royal title. Herod's successors ruled with a measure +of independence, however, and followed many of their father's ways, though +none of them had his ability. The best of them was Philip, who had the +territory farthest from Jerusalem, and least related to Jewish life. He +ruled over Iturea and Trachonitis, the country to the north and east of +the Sea of Galilee, having his capital at Cæsarea Philippi, a city built +and named by him on the site of an older town near the sources of the +Jordan. He also rebuilt the city of Bethsaida, at the point where the +Jordan flows into the Sea of Galilee, calling it Julias, after the +daughter of Augustus. Philip enters the story of the life of Jesus only as +the ruler of these towns and the intervening region, and as husband of +Salome, the daughter of Herodias. Living far from Jerusalem and the Jewish +people, he abandoned even the show of Judaism which characterized his +father, and lived as a frank heathen in his heathen capital. + +3. The other two who inherited Herod's dominion were brothers, Archelaus +and Antipas, sons of Malthace, one of Herod's many wives. Archelaus had +been designated king by Herod, with Judea, Samaria, and Idumea as his +kingdom; but the emperor allowed him only the territory, with the title +ethnarch. Antipas was named a tetrarch by Herod, and his territory was +Galilee and the land east of the Jordan to the southward of the Sea of +Galilee, called Perea. Antipas was the Herod under whose sway Jesus lived +in Galilee, and who executed John the Baptist. He was a man of passionate +temper, with the pride and love of luxury of his father. Having Jews to +govern, he held, as his father had done, to a show of Judaism, though at +heart he was as much of a pagan as Philip. He, too, loved building, and +Tiberias on the Sea of Galilee was built by him for his capital. His +unscrupulous tyranny and his gross disregard of common righteousness +appear in his relations with John the Baptist and with Herodias, his +paramour. Jesus described him well as "that fox" (Luke xiii. 32), for he +was sly, and worked often by indirection. While his father had energy and +ability which command a sort of admiration, Antipas was not only bad but +weak. + +4. Both Philip and Antipas reigned until after the death of Jesus, Philip +dying in A.D. 34, and Antipas being deposed several years later, probably +in 39. Archelaus had a much shorter rule, for he was deposed in A.D. 6, +having been accused by the Jews of unbearable barbarity and tyranny,--a +charge in which Antipas and Philip joined. The territory of Archelaus was +then made an imperial province of the second grade, ruled by a procurator +appointed from among the Roman knights. In provinces under an imperial +legate (propraetor) the procurator was an officer for the administration +of the revenues; in provinces of the rank of Judea he was, however, the +representative of the emperor in all the prerogatives of government, +having command of the army, and being the final resort in legal procedure, +as well as supervising the collection of the customs and taxes. Very +little is known of the procurators appointed after the deposition of +Archelaus, until Tiberius sent Pontius Pilate in A.D. 26. He held office +until he was deposed in 36. Josephus gives several examples of his wanton +disregard of Jewish prejudice, and of his extreme cruelty. His conduct at +the trial of Jesus was remarkably gentle and judicial in comparison with +other acts recorded of his government; yet the fear of trial at Rome, +which finally induced him to give Jesus over to be crucified, was +thoroughly characteristic; in fact, his downfall resulted from a complaint +lodged against him by certain Samaritans whom he had cruelly punished for +a Messianic uprising. + +5. There were two sorts of Roman taxes in Judea: direct, which were +collected by salaried officials; and customs, which were farmed out to the +highest bidder. The direct taxes consisted of a land tax and a poll tax, +in the collection of which the procurator made use of the local Jewish +courts; the customs consisted of various duties assessed on exports, and +they were gathered by representatives of men who had bought the right to +collect these dues. The chiefs as well as their underlings are called +publicans in our New Testament, although the name strictly applies only to +the chiefs. These tax-gatherers, small and great, were everywhere despised +and execrated, because, in addition to their subserviency to a hated +government, they had a reputation, usually deserved, for all sorts of +extortion. Because of this evil repute they were commonly drawn from the +unscrupulous among the people, so that the frequent coupling of publicans +and sinners in the gospels probably rested on fact as much as on +prejudice. + +6. In Samaria and Judea soldiers were under the command of the procurator; +they took orders from the tetrarch, in Galilee and Perea. The garrison of +Jerusalem consisted of one Roman cohort--from five to six hundred +men--which was reinforced at the time of the principal feasts. These and +the other forces at the disposal of the procurator were probably recruited +from the country itself, largely from among the Samaritans. The centurion +of Capernaum (Matt. viii. 5; Luke vii. 2-5) was an officer in the army of +Antipas, who, however, doubtless organized his army on the Roman pattern, +with officers who had had their training with the imperial forces. + +7. The administration of justice in Samaria and Judea was theoretically in +the hands of the procurator; practically, however, it was left with the +Jewish courts, either the local councils or the great sanhedrin at +Jerusalem. This last body consisted of seventy-one "elders." Its president +was the high-priest, and its members were drawn in large degree from the +most prominent representatives of the priestly aristocracy. The scribes, +however, had a controlling influence because of the reverence in which the +multitude held them. The sanhedrin of Jerusalem had jurisdiction only +within the province of Judea, where it tried all kinds of offences; its +judgment was final, except in capital cases, when it had to yield to the +procurator, who alone could sentence to death. It had great influence also +in Galilee, and among Jews everywhere, but this was due to the regard all +Jews had for the holy city. It was, in fact, a sort of Jewish senate, +which took cognizance of everything that seemed to affect the Jewish +interests. In Galilee and Perea, Antipas held in his hands the judicial as +well as the military and financial administration. + +8. To the majority of the priests religion had become chiefly a form. +They represented the worldly party among the Jews. Since the days of the +priest-princes who ruled in Jerusalem after the return from the exile, +they had constituted the Jewish aristocracy, and held most of the wealth +of the people. It was to their interest to maintain the ritual and the +traditional customs, and they were proud of their Jewish heritage; of +genuine interest in religion, however, they had little. This secular +priestly party was called the Sadducees, probably from Zadok, the +high-priest in Solomon's time. What theology the Sadducees had was for the +most part reactionary and negative. They were opposed to the more earnest +spirit and new thought of the scribes, and naturally produced some +champions who argued for their theological position; but the mass of them +cared for other things. + +9. The leaders of the popular thought, on the other hand, were chiefly +noted for their religious zeal and theological acumen. They represented +the outgrowth of that spirit which in the Maccabean time had risked all to +defend the sanctity of the temple and the right of God's people to worship +him according to his law. They were known as Pharisees, because, as the +name ("separated") indicates, they insisted on the separation of the +people of God from all the defilements and snares of the heathen life +round about them. The Pharisees constituted a fraternity devoted to the +scrupulous observance of law and tradition in all the concerns of daily +life. They were specialists in religion, and were the ideal +representatives of Judaism. Their distinguishing characteristic was +reverence for the law; their religion was the religion of a book. By +punctilious obedience of the law man might hope to gain a record of merit +which should stand to his credit and secure his reward when God should +finally judge the world. Because life furnished many situations not dealt +with in the written law, there was need of its authoritative +interpretation, in order that ignorance might not cause a man to +transgress. These interpretations constituted an oral law which +practically superseded the written code, and they were handed down from +generation to generation as "the traditions of the fathers." The existence +of this oral law made necessary a company of scribes and lawyers whose +business it was to know the traditions and transmit them to their pupils. +These scribes were the teachers of Israel, the leaders of the Pharisees, +and the most highly revered class in the community. Pharisaism at its +beginning was intensely earnest, but in the time of Jesus the earnest +spirit had died out in zealous formalism. This was the inevitable result +of their virtual substitution of the written law for the living God. Their +excessive reverence had banished God from practical relation to the daily +life. They held that he had declared his will once for all in the law. His +name was scrupulously revered, his worship was cultivated with minutest +care, his judgment was anticipated with dread; but he himself, like an +Oriental monarch, was kept far from common life in an isolation suitable +to his awful holiness. By a natural consequence conscience gave place to +scrupulous regard for tradition in the religion of the scribes. The chief +question with them was not, Is this right? but, What say the elders? The +soul's sensitiveness of response to God's will and God's truth was lost in +a maze of traditions which awoke no spontaneous Amen in the moral nature, +consequently there was frequent substitution of reputation for character. +The Pharisees could make void the command, Honor thy father, by an +ingenious application of the principle of dedication of property to God +(Mark vii. 8-13), and thus under the guise of scrupulous regard for law +discovered ways for legal disregard of law. Their theory of religion gave +abundant room for a piety which made broad its phylacteries and lengthened +its prayers, while neglecting judgment, mercy, and the love of God. + +10. Yet the earnest and true development in Jewish thinking was found +among the Pharisees. The early hope of Israel was almost exclusively +national. In the later books of the Old Testament, in connection with an +enlarged sense of the importance of the individual, the doctrine of a +personal resurrection to share the blessings of the Messiah's kingdom +began to appear. It had its clear development and definite adoption as +part of the faith of Judaism, however, under the influence of the +Pharisees. Along with this increased emphasis on the worth of the +individual came a large development of the doctrine of angels and spirits. +Towards both of these doctrines the Sadducees took a reactionary position. +Politically the Pharisees were theocratic in theory, but opportunists in +practice, accommodating themselves to the existing state of things so long +as the _de facto_ government did not interfere with the religious life of +the people. They looked for a kingdom in which God should be evidently the +king of his people; but they believed that his sovereignty was to be +realized through the law, hence their sole interest was in the obedience +of God's people to that law as interpreted by the traditions. + +11. The theocratic spirit was more aggressive in a party which originated +in the later years of Herod the Great, and found a reckless leader in +Judas of Galilee, who started a revolt when the governor of Syria +undertook to make a census of the Jews after the deposition of Archelaus. +This party bore the name Cananeans or Zealots. They regarded with +passionate resentment the subjection of God's people to a foreign power, +and waited eagerly for an opportune time to take the sword and set up the +kingdom of God; it was with them that the final war against Rome began. +They were found in largest numbers in Galilee, where the scholasticism of +the scribes was not so dominating an influence as in Judea. Dr. Edersheim +has called them the nationalist party. In matters belonging strictly to +the religious life they followed the Pharisees, only holding a more +material conception of the hope of Israel. + +12. Another development in Jewish religious life carried separatist +doctrines to the extreme. Its representatives were called Essenes, though +what the significance of the name was is no longer clear. Although they +were allied with the Pharisees in doctrine, they show in some particulars +the influence of Hellenistic Judaism. This is suggested not only by the +attention which Philo and Josephus give to them, but also by certain of +their views, which were very like the doctrines of the Pythagoreans. They +carried the pharisaic demand for separateness to the extreme of +asceticism. While they were found in nearly every town in Palestine, some +of them even practising marriage, the largest group of them lived a +celibate, monastic life near the shores of the Dead Sea. This community +was recruited by the initiation of converts, who only after a novitiate of +three years were admitted to full membership in the order. They were +characterized by an extreme scrupulousness concerning ceremonial purity, +their meals were regarded as sacrifices, and were prepared by members of +the order, who were looked upon as priests, nor were any allowed to +partake of the food until they had first bathed themselves. Their regular +garments were all white, and were regarded as vestments for use at the +sacrificial meals,--other clothing being assumed as they went out to their +work. They were industrious agriculturists, their life was communistic, +and they were renowned for their uprightness. They revered Moses as highly +as did the scribes; yet they were opposed to animal sacrifices, and, +although they sent gifts to the temple, were apparently excluded from its +worship. Their kinship with the Pythagoreans appears in that they +addressed an invocation to the sun at its rising, and conducted all their +natural functions with scrupulous modesty, "that they might not offend the +brightness of God" (Jos. Wars, ii. 8, 9). Their rejection of bloody +sacrifices, and their view that the soul is imprisoned in the body and at +death is freed for a better life, besides many features of their life that +are genuinely Jewish, such as their regard for ceremonial purity, also +show similarity to the Pythagoreans. It has always been a matter of +perplexity that these ascetics find no mention in the New Testament. They +seem to have lived a life too much apart, and to have had little sympathy +with the ideals of Jesus, or even of John the Baptist. + +13. The common people followed the lead of the Pharisees, though afar +off. They accepted the teaching concerning tradition, as well as that +concerning the resurrection, conforming their lives to the prescriptions +of the scribes more or less strictly, according as they were more or loss +ruled by religious considerations. It was in consequence of their hold on +the people that the scribes in the sanhedrin were able often to dictate a +policy to the Sadducean majority. Jesus voiced the popular opinion when he +said that "the scribes sit in Moses' seat" (Matt, xxiii. 2). Their leaders +despised "this multitude which knoweth not the law" (John vii. 49), yet +delighted to legislate for them, binding heavy burdens and grievous to be +borne. Many of the people were doubtless too intent on work and gain to be +very regardful of the _minutiæ_ of conduct as ordained by the scribes; +many more were too simple-minded to follow the theories of the rabbis +concerning the aloofness of God from the life of men. These last +reverenced the scribes, followed their directions, in the main, for the +conduct of life, yet lived in fellowship with God as their fathers had, +trusting in his faithfulness, and hoping in his mercy. They are +represented in the New Testament by such as Simeon and Anna, Zachariah and +Elizabeth, Joseph and Mary, and the majority of those who heard and heeded +John's call to repentance. They were Israel's remnant of pure and +undefiled religion, and constituted what there was of good soil among the +people for the reception of the seed sown by John's successor. They had no +name, for they did not constitute a party; for convenience they may be +called the Devout. + +14. Two other classes among the people are mentioned in the gospels,--the +Herodians and the Samaritans. The Herodians do not appear outside the New +Testament, and seem to have been hardly more than a group of men in whom +the secular spirit was dominant, who thought it best for their interests +and for the people's to champion the claims of the Herodian family. They +were probably more akin to the Pharisees than to the Sadducees, for the +latter were hostile to the Herodian claims, from the first; yet in spirit +they seem more like to the worldly aristocracy than to the pious scribes. +The Samaritans lived in the land, a people despising and despised. Their +territory separated Galilee from Judea, and they were a constant source of +irritation to the Jews. The hatred was inherited from the days of Ezra, +when the zealous Jews refused to allow any intercourse with the +inhabitants of Samaria. These Samaritans were spurned as of impure blood +and mixed religion (II. Kings xvii. 24-41). The severe attitude adopted +towards them by Ezra and Nehemiah led to the building of a temple on Mount +Gerizim, and the establishment of a worship which sought to rival that of +Jerusalem in all particulars. Very little is known of the tenets of the +Samaritans in the time of Jesus beyond their belief that Gerizim was the +place which, according to the law, God chose for his temple, and that a +Messiah should come to settle all questions of dispute (John iv. 25). + +15. Although the religious life of the Jews centred ideally in the temple, +it found its practical expression in the synagogue. This in itself is +evidence of the relative influence of priests and scribes. There was no +confessed rivalry. The Pharisee was most insistent on the sanctity of the +temple and the importance of its ritual. Yet with the growing sense of the +religious significance of the individual as distinct from the nation, +there arose of necessity a practical need for a system of worship possible +for the great majority of the people, who could at best visit Jerusalem +but once or twice a year. The synagogue seems to have been a development +of the exile, when there was no temple and no sacrifice. It was the +characteristic institution of Judaism as a religion of the law, furnishing +in every place opportunity for prayer and study. The elders of each +community seem ordinarily to have been in control of its synagogue, and to +have had authority to exclude from its fellowship persons who had come +under the ban. In addition to these officials there was a ruler of the +synagogue, who had the direction of all that concerned the worship; a +_chazzan_, or minister, who had the care of the sacred books, administered +discipline, and instructed the children in reading the scripture; and two +or more receivers of alms. The Sabbath services consisted of prayers, and +reading of the scriptures--both law and prophets,--and an address or +sermon. It was in the sermon that the people learned to know the +"traditions of the elders," whether as applications of the law to the +daily life, or as legendary embellishments of Hebrew history and prophecy. +The preacher might be any one whom the ruler of the synagague recognized +as worthy to address the congregation. + +16. The religious life which centred in the synagogue found daily +expression in the observance of the law and the traditions. In the measure +of its control by the scribes it was concerned chiefly with the Sabbath, +with the various ablutions needful to the maintenance of ceremonial +purity, with the distinctions between clean and unclean food, with the +times and ways of fasting, and with the wearing of fringes and +phylacteries. These lifeless ceremonies seem to our day wearisome and +petty in the extreme. It is probable, however, that the growth of the +various traditions had been so gradual that, as has been aptly said, the +whole usage seemed no more unreasonable to the Jews than the etiquette of +polite society does to its devotees. The evil was not so much in the +minuteness of the regulations as in the external and superficial notion of +religion which they induced. + +17. Optimism was the mood of Israel's prophets from the earliest times. +Every generation looked for the dawning of a day which should banish all +ill and realize the dreams inspired by the covenant in which God had +chosen Israel for his own. In proportion as the rabbinic formalism held +control of the hearts of the people, the Messianic hope lost its warmth +and vigor. Yet the scribes did not abandon the prophetic optimism; they +held to the letter of the hope, but as its fulfilment was for them +dependent on perfect obedience to the law, oral and written, their +interest was diverted to the traditions, and their strength was given to +legal disputations. Of the rest of the people, the Sadducees naturally +gave little thought to the promise of future deliverance, they were too +absorbed with regard for present concerns. Nor is there any evidence that +the Essenes, with all their reputed knowledge of the future, cherished the +hope of a Messiah. The other elements among the people who owned the +general leadership of the scribes looked eagerly for the coming time when +God should bring to pass what he had promised through the prophets. While +some expected God himself to come in judgment, and gave no thought to an +Anointed one who should represent the Most High to the people, the +majority looked for a Son of David to sit upon his father's throne. Even +so, however, there were wide differences in the nature of the hope which +was set on the coming of this Son of David. The Zealots were looking for a +victory, which should set Israel on high over all his foes. To the rest of +the people, however, the method of the consummation was not so clear, and +they were ready to leave God to work out his purpose in his own way, +longing meanwhile for the fulfilment of his promise. One class in +particular gave themselves to visionary representations of the promised +redemption. They differed from the Zealots in that they saw with unwelcome +clearness the futility of physical attack upon their enemies; but their +faith was strong, and at the moment when outward conditions seemed most +disheartening they looked for a revelation of God's power from heaven, +destroying all sinners in his wrath, and delivering and comforting his +people, giving them their lot in a veritable Canaan situated in a renewed +earth. Such visions are recorded in the Book of Daniel and the Revelation +of John. They are found in many other apocalypses not included in our +Bible, and indicate how persistently the minds of the people turned +towards the promises spoken by the prophets, and meditated on their +fulfilment. The Devout were midway between the Zealots and the +Apocalyptists. The songs of Zachariah and Mary and the thanksgiving of +Simeon express their faith. They hoped for a kingdom as tangible as the +Zealots sought, yet they preferred to _wait_ for the consolation of +Israel. They believed that God was still in his heaven, that he was not +disregardful of his people, and that in his own time he would raise up +unto them their king. They looked for a Son of David, yet his reign was to +be as remarkable for its purification of his own people as for its +victories over their foes. These victories indeed were to be largely +spiritual, for their Messiah was to conquer in the strength of the Spirit +of God and "by the word of his mouth." Such as these were ready for a +ministry like John's, and not unready for the new ideal which Jesus was +about to offer them, though their highest spiritualization of the +Messianic hope was but a shadow of the reality which Jesus asked them to +accept. + +18. This last conception of the Messiah is found in a group of psalms +written in the first century before Christ, during the early days of the +Roman interference in Judea. These Psalms of Solomon, as they are called, +are pharisaic in point of view, yet they are not rabbinic in their ideas. +Their feeling is too deep, and their reliance on God too immediate; they +fitly follow the psalms of the Old Testament, though afar off. Of another +type of contemporary literature, Apocalypse, at least two representatives +besides the Book of Daniel have come down to us from the time of Jesus or +earlier,--the so-called Book of Enoch, and the fragment known as the +Assumption of Moses. These writings have peculiar interest, because they +are probably the source of quotations found in the Epistle of Jude; +moreover, some sayings of Jesus reported in the gospels, and in particular +his chosen title, The Son of Man, are strikingly similar to expressions +found in Enoch. Can Jesus have read these books? The psalms of the Devout +were the kind of literature to pass rapidly from heart to heart, until all +who sympathized with their hope and faith had heard or seen them. The case +was different with the apocalypses. They are more elaborate and +enigmatical, and may have been only slightly known. Yet, as Jesus was +familiar with the canonical Book of Daniel, although it was not read in +the synagogue service in his time, it is possible that he may also have +read or heard other books which had not won recognition as canonical. If, +however, he knew nothing of them, the similarity between the apocalypses +and some of Jesus' ideas and expressions becomes all the more significant; +for it shows that these writings gave utterance to thoughts and feelings +shared by men who never read them, which were, therefore, no isolated +fancies, but characteristic of the religion of many of the people. With +these ideas Jesus was familiar; whether he ever read the books must remain +a question. + +19. This literature exists for us only in translations made in the days of +the early church. Most of these books were originally written in Hebrew, +the language of the Old Testament, or in Aramaic, the language of +Palestine in the time of Jesus. Traces of this language as spoken by Jesus +have been preserved in the gospels,--the name _Rabbi; Abba_, translated +Father; _Talitha cumi_, addressed to the daughter of Jairus; _Ephphatha_, +to the deaf man of Bethsaida; and the cry from the cross, _Eloi, Eloi, +lama sabachthani_ (John i. 38; Mark xiv. 36; v. 41; vii. 34; xv. 34). It +is altogether probable that in his common dealings with men and in his +teachings Jesus used this language. Greek was the language of the +government and of trade, and in a measure the Jews were a bilingual +people. Jesus may thus have had some knowledge of Greek, but it is +unlikely that he ever used it to any extent either in Galilee, or Judea, +or in the regions of Tyre and Sidon. + + + + +II + +Sources of Our Knowledge Of Jesus + + + +20. The earliest existing record of events in the life of Jesus is given +to us in the epistles of Paul. His account of the appearances of the Lord +after his death and resurrection (I. Cor. xv. 3-8) was written within +thirty years of these events. The date of the testimony, however, is much +earlier, since Paul refers to the experience which transformed his own +life, and so carries us back to within a few years of the crucifixion. +Other facts from Jesus' life may be gathered from Paul, as his descent +from Abraham and David (Rom. i. 3; ix. 5); his life of obedience (Rom. v. +19; xv. 3; Phil. ii. 5-11); his poverty (II. Cor. viii. 9); his meekness +and gentleness (II. Cor. x. 1); other New Testament writings outside of +our gospels add somewhat to this restricted but very clear testimony. + +21. Secular history knows little of the obscure Galilean. The testimony of +Tacitus is that the Christians "derived their name and origin from one +Christ, who in the reign of Tiberius had suffered death by the sentence of +the procurator, Pontius Pilate" (Annals, xv. 44). Suetonius makes an +obscure and seemingly ill-informed allusion to Christ in the reason he +assigns for the edict of Claudius expelling the Jews from Rome (Vit. +Claud. 25). The younger Pliny in the second century had learned that the +numerous Christian community in Bithynia was accustomed to honor Christ +as God; but he shows no knowledge of the life of Jesus beyond what must be +inferred concerning one who caused men "to bind themselves with an oath +not to enter into any wickedness, or commit thefts, robberies, or +adulteries, or falsify their word, or repudiate trusts committed to them" +(Epistles X. 96). This secular ignorance is not surprising; but the +silence of Josephus is. He mentions Jesus in but one clearly genuine +passage, when telling of the martyrdom of James, the "brother of Jesus, +who is called the Christ" (Ant. xx. 9. 1). Of John the Baptist, however, +he has a very appreciative notice (Ant, xviii. 5. 2), and it cannot be +that he was ignorant of Jesus. His appreciation of John suggests that he +could not have mentioned Jesus more fully without some approval of his +life and teaching. This would be a condemnation of his own people, whom he +desired to commend to Gentile regard; and he seems to have taken the +cowardly course of silence concerning a matter more noteworthy, even for +that generation, than much else of which he writes very fully. + +22. The reason for the lack of written Christian records of Jesus' life +from the earliest time seems to be, not that the apostles had a small +sense of the importance of his earthly ministry, but that the early +generation preferred what at a later time was called the "living voice" +(Papias in Euseb. Ch. Hist. iii. 39). The impression made by Jesus was +supremely personal; he wrote nothing, did not command his disciples to +write anything, preferring to influence men's minds by personal power, +appointing them, in turn, to represent him to men as he had represented +the Father to them (John xx. 21). But the time came when the first +witnesses were passing away, and they were not many who could say, "I saw +him." Our gospels are the result of the natural desire to preserve the +apostolic testimony for a generation that could no longer hear the +apostolic voice; and they are precisely what such a sense of need would +produce,--vivid pictures of Jesus, agreeing in general features, differing +more or less in details, reflecting individual feeling for the Master, and +written not simply to inform men but to convince them of that Master's +claims. One evidence of the reality of the gospel pictures is the fact +that we so seldom feel the individual characteristics of each gospel. This +is especially true of the first three, which, to the vividness of their +picture, add a remarkable similarity of detail. Tatian, in the second +century, felt it necessary to make a continuous narrative for the use of +the church by interweaving the four gospels into one, and he has had many +successors down to our day; but the fact that unity of impression has +practically resulted from the four pictures without recourse to such an +interweaving, invites consideration of the characteristics of these +remarkable documents. + +23. The first gospel impresses the careful reader with three things: (1) A +clear sense of the development of Jesus' ministry. The author introduces +his narrative by an account of the birth of Jesus, of the ministry of John +the Baptist, and of Jesus' baptism and temptation and withdrawal into +Galilee (i. 1 to iv. 17). He then depicts the public ministry by grouping +together, first, teachings of Jesus concerning the law of the kingdom of +heaven, then a series of great miracles confirming the new doctrine, then +the expansion of the ministry and deepening hostility of the Pharisees, +leading to the teaching by parables, and the final withdrawal from Galilee +to the north. This ministry resulted in the chilling of popular enthusiasm +which had been strong at the beginning, but in the winning of a few hearts +to Jesus' own ideals of the kingdom of God (iv. 18 to xvi. 20). From this +point the evangelist leads us to Jerusalem, where rejection culminates, +the sterner teachings of Jesus are massed, and his victory in seeming +defeat is exhibited (xvi. 21 to xxviii. 20). (2) The evangelist's interest +is not satisfied by this clear, strong, picture; he wishes to convince men +that Jesus is Israel's Messiah, hence, throughout, he indicates the +fulfilment of prophecy. The things in which he sees the fulfilment are +striking, for, with but one or two exceptions, they are features of the +life of Jesus objectionable to Jewish feeling. This fact, taken in +connection with the emphasis which the gospel gives to the death of Jesus +at the hands of the Jews, and to the resurrection as God's seal of +approval of him whom his people rejected, forms a forcible argument to +prove the Messiahship of Jesus, not simply in spite of his rejection by +the Jews, but by appeal to that rejection as leading to God's signal +vindication of the crucified one. (3) This evangelist, while proving that +Jesus is the Messiah promised to Israel, recognizes clearly the freedom of +the new faith from the exclusiveness of Jewish feeling. The choice of +Galilee for the Messianic ministry (iv. 12-17), the comment of Jesus on +the faith of the centurion (viii. 10-12), the rebuke of Israel in the +parable of the Wicked Husbandmen (xxi. 33-46), and especially the last +commission of the risen Lord (xxviii. 18-20), show that this gospel sought +to convince men of Jewish feeling not only that Jesus is Messiah, but also +that as Messiah he came to bring salvation to all the world. + +24. The second gospel is much simpler in construction than the first, +while presenting essentially the same picture of the ministry as is found +in Matthew. To its simplicity it adds a vividness of narration which +commends Mark's account as probably representing most nearly the actual +course of the life of Jesus. While it reports fewer incidents and +teachings than either of the others, a comparison with Matthew and Luke +shows a preference in Mark for Jesus' deeds, though addresses are not +wanting; and, while shorter as a whole, for matters which he reports +Mark's record is most rich in detail, most dramatic in presentation, and +actually longer than the parallel accounts in the other gospels. The whole +narrative is animated in style (note the oft-repeated "immediately") and +full of graphic traits. The story of Jesus seems to be reproduced from a +memory which retains fresh personal impressions of events as they +occurred. Hence the frequent comments on the effect of Jesus' ministry, +such as "We never saw it on this fashion" (ii. 12), or "He hath done all +things well" (vii. 37), and the introduction into the narrative of Aramaic +words,--_Boanerges_ (iii. 17), _Talitha, cumi_ (v. 41), and the like, +which immediately have to be translated. The gospel discloses no +artificial plan, the chief word of transition is "and." While some of the +incidents recorded, such as the second Sabbath controversy (iii. 1-6) and +the question about fasting (ii. 18-22), may owe their place to association +in memory with an event of like character, the book impresses us as a +collection of annals fresh from the living memory, which present the +actual Jesus teaching and healing, and going on his way to the cross and +resurrection. After the briefest possible reference to the ministry of +John the Baptist and the baptism and temptation of Jesus (i. 1-13), this +gospel proceeds to set forth the ministry in Galilee (i. 14 to ix. 50). +The narrative then follows Jesus to Jerusalem, by way of Perea, and closes +with his victory through death and resurrection (x. 1 to xvi. 8). + +25. The third gospel is more nearly a biography than any of its +companions. It opens with a preface stating that after a study of many +earlier attempts to record the life of Jesus the author has undertaken to +present as complete an account as possible of that life from the +beginning. The book is addressed to one Theophilus, doubtless a Greek +Christian, and its chief aim is practical,--to confirm conviction +concerning matters of faith (i. 1-4). The author's interest in the +completeness of his account appears in the fact that it begins with +incidents antecedent to the birth of John the Baptist and Jesus. Moreover, +to his desire for completeness we owe much of the story of Jesus, +otherwise unrecorded for us. Like the first two gospels, Luke represents +the ministry of Jesus as inaugurated in Galilee, and carried on there +until the approach of the tragedy at Jerusalem (iv. 14 to ix. 50). It is +in connection with the journey to Jerusalem (ix. 51 to xix. 27) that he +inserts most of that which is peculiar to his gospel. His account of the +rejection at Jerusalem, the crucifixion, and resurrection, follows in the +main the same lines as Matthew and Mark; but he gained his knowledge of +many particulars from different sources (xix. 28 to xxiv. 53). It is +characteristic of Luke to name Jesus "Lord" more often than either of his +predecessors. With this exalted conception is coupled a noticeable +emphasis on Jesus' ministry of compassion; here more than in any other +gospel he is pictured as the friend of sinners. Moreover, we owe chiefly +to Luke our knowledge of him as a man of prayer and as subject to repeated +temptation. An artificial exaltation of Christ, such as is often +attributed to the later apostolic thought, would tend to reduce, not +multiply, such evidences of human dependence on God. This fact increases +our confidence in the accuracy of Luke's picture. The gospel is very full +of comfort to those under the pressure of poverty, and of rebuke to +unbelieving wealth, though the parable of the Unjust Steward and story of +Zacchæus show that it does not exalt poverty for its own sake. If our +first gospel pictures Jesus as the fulfilment of God's promises to his +people, and Mark, as the man of power at work before our very eyes, +astonishing the multitude while winning the few, Luke sets before us the +Lord ministering with divine compassion to men subject to like temptations +with himself, though, unlike them, he knew no sin. + +26. The first three gospels, differing as they do in point of view and +aim, present essentially one picture of the ministry of Jesus; for they +agree concerning the locality and progress of his Messianic work, and the +form and contents of his teaching, showing, in fact, verbal identity in +many parts of their narrative. For this reason they are commonly known as +the Synoptic Gospels. Yet these gospels exhibit differences as remarkable +as their likenesses. They differ perplexingly in the order in which they +arrange some of the events in Jesus' life. Which of them should be given +preference in constructing a harmonious picture of his ministry? They +often agree to the letter in their report of deeds or words of Jesus, yet +from beginning to end remarkable verbal differences stand side by side +with remarkable verbal identities. Some of the identities of language +suggest irresistibly that the evangelists have used, at least in part, the +same previously existing written record. One of the clearest evidences of +this is found in the introduction, at the same place in the parallel +accounts, of the parenthesis "then saith he to the sick of the palsy" +which interrupts the words of Jesus in the cure of the paralytic (Mark ii. +10; Matt. ix. 6; Luke v. 24). When the three gospels are carefully +compared it appears that Mark contains very little that is not found in +Matthew and Luke, and that, with one or two exceptions, Luke presents in +Mark's order the matter that he has in common with the second gospel. The +same is also true of the relation between the latter part of the Gospel of +Matthew (Matt. xiv. 1 to the end) and the parallel portion of Mark; while +the comparison of Matthew's arrangement of his earlier half with Mark +suggests that the order in the first gospel has been determined by other +than chronological considerations. In a sense, therefore, we may say that +the Gospel of Mark reveals the chronological framework on which all three +of these gospels are constructed. Comparison discloses further the +interesting fact that the matter which Matthew and Luke have in common, +after subtracting their parallels to Mark, consists almost entirely of +teachings and addresses. Each gospel, however, has some matter peculiar to +itself. + +27. In considering the problem presented by these facts, it is well to +remember that no one of these gospels contains within itself any statement +concerning the identity of its author. We are indebted to tradition for +the names by which we know them, and no one of them makes any claim to +apostolic origin. The earliest reference in Christian literature which may +be applied to our gospels comes from Papias, a Christian of Asia Minor in +the second century. He reports that an earlier teacher had said, "Mark, +having become the interpreter of Peter, wrote down accurately, though not, +indeed, in order, whatsoever he remembered of the things said or done by +Christ, for he neither heard the Lord nor followed him, but afterward, as +I said, he followed Peter, who adapted his teachings to the needs of his +hearers, but with no intention of giving a connected account of the Lord's +discourses. So that Mark committed no error when he thus wrote some things +as he remembered them, for he was careful of one thing, not to omit any of +the things which he had heard and not to state any of them falsely.... +Matthew wrote the oracles [of the Lord] in the Hebrew language [Aramaic], +and every one interpreted them as he was able" (Euseb. Ch. Hist. iii. 39). +The result of many years' study by scholars of all shades of opinion is +the very general conclusion that the writing which Papias attributed to +Mark was essentially what we have in our second gospel. + +28. It is almost as universally acknowledged that the work ascribed by the +second century elder to the apostle Matthew cannot be our first gospel; +for its language has not the characteristics which other translations from +Hebrew or Aramaic lead us to expect, while the completeness of its +narrative exceeds what is suggested by the words of Papias. If, however, +the matter which Matthew and Luke have in such rich measure in addition to +Mark's narrative be considered, the likeness between this and the writing +attributed by Papias to the apostle Matthew is noteworthy. The conclusion +is now very general, that that apostolic writing is in large measure +preserved in the discourses in our first and third gospels. The relation +of our gospels to the two books mentioned by Papias may be conceived, +then, somewhat as follows: The earliest gospel writing of which we know +anything was a collection of the teachings of Jesus made by the apostle +Matthew, in which he collected with simple narrative introductions, those +sayings of the Lord which from the beginning had passed from mouth to +mouth in the circle of the disciples. At a later time Mark wrote down the +account of the ministry of Jesus which Peter had been accustomed to relate +in his apostolic preaching. The work of the apostle Matthew, while much +richer in the sayings of Jesus, lacked the completeness that characterizes +a narrative; hence it occurred to some early disciple to blend together +these two primitive gospel records, adding such other items of knowledge +as came to his hand from oral tradition or written memoranda. As his aim +was practical rather than historical, he added such editorial comments as +would make of the new gospel an argument for the Messiahship of Jesus, as +we have seen. Since the most precious element in this new gospel was the +apostolic record of the teachings of the Lord, the name of Matthew and not +of his literary successor, was given to the book. + +29. The third gospel is ascribed, by a probably trustworthy tradition, to +Luke, the companion of Paul. The author himself says that he made use of +such earlier records as were accessible, among which the chief seem to +have been the writings of Mark and the apostle Matthew. To Luke's +industry, however, we owe our knowledge of many incidents and teachings +from the life of Jesus which were not contained in these two records, and +with which we could ill afford to part. Some of these he doubtless found +in written form, and some he gathered from oral testimony. His close +agreement with Mark in the arrangement of his narrative suggests that he +found no clear evidence of a ministry of wider extent in time and place. +He therefore used Mark as his narrative framework, and of the rich +materials which he had gathered made a gospel, the completest of any +written up to his time. + +30. Such in the main is the conclusion of modern study of our first three +gospels; it explains the general identity of their picture of Jesus and of +their report of his teaching; it leaves room for those individual +characteristics which give them so much of their charm; and it traces the +materials of the gospels far back of the writings as we have them, +bringing us nearer to the events which they describe. The dates of these +documents can be only approximately known. It is probable that the +"logia" collected by the apostle Matthew were written not later than 60 to +65 A.D., while the Gospel of Mark dates from before the fall of Jerusalem +in 70. Our first gospel must have been made between 70 and 100, and the +Gospel of Luke may be dated about the year 80,--all within sixty or +seventy years after the death of Jesus. + +31. The fourth gospel gives us a picture of Jesus in striking contrast to +that of the other three. These present chiefly the works of the Master and +his teachings concerning the kingdom of God and human conduct, leaving the +truth concerning the teacher himself to be inferred. John opens the heart +of Jesus and makes him disclose his thought about himself in a remarkable +series of teachings of which he is the prime topic. This gospel is +avowedly an argument (xx. 30, 31); its selection of material is +confessedly partial; its aim is to confirm the faith of Christians in the +heavenly nature and saving power of their Lord; and its method is that of +appeal to testimony, to signs, and to his own self-disclosures. The +opening verses of the gospel have a somewhat abstract theological +character; the body of the book, however, consists of a succession of +incidents and teachings which follow each other in unstudied fashion like +a collection of annals. This impression is not compromised by the +recognition, at some points, of accidental displacements, like that which +has placed xiv. 30, 31 before xv. and xvi., or that which has left a long +gap between vii. 23 and the incident of v. 1-9, to which it refers. The +theme of the gospel is the self-disclosure of Jesus. This seems to have +determined the evangelist's choice of material, and, as the gospel is an +argument, he does not hesitate to mingle his own comments with his report +of Jesus' words, for example (iii. 16-21, 30-36; xii. 37-43). The book is +characterized by a vividness of detail which indicates a clear memory of +personal experience. While it is evident that the author has the most +exalted conception of the nature of his Lord, this seems to have been the +result of loving meditation on a friend who had early won the mastery over +his heart and life, and who through long years of contemplation had forced +upon his disciple's mind the conviction of his transcendent nature. The +book discloses a profoundly objective attitude; the Christ whom John +portrays is not the creature of his speculations, but the Master who has +entered into his experience as a living influence and has compelled +recognition of his significance. The Son of God is for John the human +Jesus who, though named at the outset the Word--the Logos,--is the Word +who was made flesh, that men through him might become the sons of God. + +32. The contrast which the Gospel of John presents to the other three +concerns not only the teaching of Jesus, but the scene of his ministry and +its historic development as well. Whatever may be the final judgment +concerning the fourth gospel, it is manifestly constructed as a simple +collection of incidents following each other in what was meant to appear a +chronological sequence. It has been seen that the biographical framework +of the first three gospels is principally Mark's report of Peter's +narrative. Now it is a fact that in portions of Matthew and Luke, derived +elsewhere than from Mark, there are various allusions most easily +understood if it be assumed that Jesus visited Jerusalem before his +appearance there at the end of his ministry. Such, for instance, are the +parable of the Good Samaritan (Luke x. 25-37), the story of the visit to +Mary and Martha (Luke x. 38-42), and the lamentation of Jesus over +Jerusalem (Luke xiii. 34, 35; Matt, xxiii. 37-39). All three gospels, +moreover, agree in attributing to emissaries from Jerusalem much of the +hostility manifested against Jesus in his Galilean ministry (Luke v. 17; +Mark iii. 22; Matt. xv. 1; Mark vii. 1), and presuppose such an +acquaintance of Jesus with households in and near Jerusalem as is not easy +to explain if he never visited Judea before his passion (Mark xi. 2, 3; +xiv. 14; xv. 43 and parallels; compare especially Matt, xxvii. 57; John +xix. 38). These all suggest that the narrative of Mark does not tell the +whole story, a conclusion quite in accordance with the account of his work +given by Papias. It has been assumed that Peter was a Galilean, a man of +family living in Capernaum. It is not impossible that on some of the +earlier visits of Jesus to Jerusalem he did not accompany his Master, and +in reporting the things which he knew he naturally confined himself to his +own experiences. If this can explain the predominance of Galilean +incidents in the ministry as depicted in Mark, it will explain the +predominance of Galilee in the first three gospels, and the contradiction +between John and the three is reduced to a divergence between two accounts +of Jesus' ministry written from two different points of view. + +33. The question of the trustworthiness of the fourth gospel is greatly +simplified by the consideration of the one-sidedness of Mark's +representation. It is further relieved by the fact that a ministry by +Jesus in Jerusalem must have been one of constant self-assertion, for +Jerusalem represented at its highest those aspects of thought and practice +which were fundamentally opposed to all that Jesus did and taught. +Whenever in Galilee, in the ministry pictured by the first three gospels, +Jesus came in contact with the spirit and feeling characteristic of +Jerusalem, we find him meeting it by unqualified assertion of his own +independence and exalted claim to authority, altogether similar to that +emphasis of his own significance and importance which is the chief +characteristic of his teachings in the fourth gospel. If it be remembered +that that gospel was avowedly an argument written to commend to others the +reverent conclusion concerning the Lord reached by a disciple whose +thought had dwelt for long years on the marvel of that life, and if we +recognize that for such an argument the author would select the instances +and teachings most telling for his own purpose, and would do this as +naturally as the magnet draws to itself iron filings which are mingled +with a pile of sand, the exclusively personal character of the teachings +of Jesus in this gospel need cause little perplexity. Nor need it seem +surprising that the words of Jesus as reported in John share the +peculiarities of style which mark the work of the evangelist in the +prologue to the gospel and in his epistles. His purpose was not primarily +biographical but argumentative, and he has set forth the picture of his +Lord as it rose before his own heart, his memory of events being +interwoven with contemplation on the significance of that life with which +his had been so blessedly associated. In a gospel written avowedly to +produce in others a conviction like his own, the evangelist would not have +been sensible of any obligation to draw sharp lines between his +recollection of his Lord's words and his own contemplations upon them and +upon their significance for his life. If these considerations be kept in +mind we may accept the uniform tradition of antiquity, confirmed by the +plain intimation of the gospel itself, that it is essentially the work of +John, the son of Zebedee, written near the close of his life in Ephesus, +in the last decade of the first century. + +34. We have in our gospel records, therefore, two authorities for the +general course of the ministry of Jesus,--Mark and John. Even if the +fourth gospel should be proved not to be the work of John, its picture of +the ministry of Jesus must be recognized as coming from some apostolic +source. A forger would hardly have invited the rejection of his work by +inventing a narrative which seems to contradict at so many points the +tradition of the other gospels. The first and third gospels furnish us +from various sources rich additions to Mark's narrative, and it is to +these two with the fourth that we turn chiefly for the teachings of Jesus. +Each gospel should be read, therefore, remembering its incompleteness, +remembering also the particular purpose and individual enthusiasm for +Jesus which produced it. + +35. A word may be due to two other claimants to recognition as original +records from the life of Jesus. One class is represented by that word of +the Lord which Paul quoted to the Ephesian elders at Miletus (Acts xx. +35). Scattered here and there in writings of the apostolic and succeeding +ages are other sayings attributed to Jesus which cannot be found in our +gospels. A few of these so-called Agrapha seem worthy of him, and are +recognized as probably genuine. The most important of them is the story of +the woman taken in adultery (John vii. 53 to viii. 11), which, though not +a part of the gospel of John, doubtless gives a true incident from Jesus' +life. They represent the "many other" things which John and the other +gospels have omitted, but their small number proves that our gospels have +preserved for us practically all that was known of Jesus after the first +witnesses fell asleep. It is certainly surprising that so little exists to +supplement the story of the gospels, for they are manifestly fragmentary, +and leave much of Jesus' public life without any record. The other class +of claimants is of a quite different character,--the so-called Apocryphal +Gospels. These consist chiefly of legends connected with the birth and +early years of Jesus, and with his death and resurrection. They are for +the most part crude tales that have entirely mistaken the real character +of him whom they seek to exalt, and need only to be read to be rejected. + + + + +III + +The Harmony of the Gospels + + + +36. The church early appreciated the value and the difficulty of having +four different pictures of the life and teachings of the Lord. Irenæus at +the close of the second century felt it to be as essential that there +should be four gospels as that there should be "four zones of the world, +four principal winds, and four faces of the cherubim" (Against Heresies +III. ii. 8). + +37. Before Irenæus, however, another had sought to obviate the difficulty +of having four records which seem at some points to disagree, by making a +combination of the gospels, to which he gave the title "Diatessaron." +Tatian, the author of this work, was converted from paganism about 152 +A.D., and prepared his unified gospel, probably for the use of the Syrian +churches, sometime after 172. His work is one of the treasures of the +early Christian literature recovered for us within the last +quarter-century. It seems to have won great popularity in the Syrian +churches, having practically displaced the canonical gospels for nearly +three centuries, when, owing to its supposed heretical tendency, it was +suppressed by the determined effort of the church authorities. It is a +continuous record of Jesus' ministry, beginning with the first six verses +of the Gospel of John, passing then to the early chapters of Luke. It +closes with an account of the resurrection interwoven from all four +gospels, concluding with John xxi. 25. The arrangement follows generally +the order of Matthew, additional matter from the other gospels being +inserted at places which approved themselves to Tatian's judgment. Some +portions--in particular the genealogies of Jesus--were omitted altogether, +in accordance with views held by the compiler. + +38. From Tatian's time to the present there have been repeated attempts to +construct a harmonious representation of events and teachings in the +ministry of Jesus, generally by setting the parallel accounts side by +side, following such a succession of events as seemed most probable. Our +evangelists cared little, if they thought at all, about the requirements +of strict biography, and they have left us records not easy to arrange on +any one chronological scheme. Concerning the chief events, however, the +gospels agree. All four report, for instance, the beginning of the work in +Galilee (Matt. iv. 12, 17; Mark i. 14, 15; Luke iv. 14, 15; John iv. +43-45); the feeding of the five thousand when Jesus' popularity in Galilee +passed its climax (Matt. xiv. 13-23; Mark vi. 30-46; Luke ix. 10-17; John +vi. 1-15); the departure from Galilee for the final visit to Jerusalem +(Matt. xix. 1, 2; Mark x. 1; Luke ix. 51; John vii. 1-10); and the week of +suffering and victory at the end (Matt. xxi. 1 to xxviii. 20; Mark xi. 1 +to xvi. 8 [20]; Luke xix. 29 to xxiv. 53; John xii. 1 to xxi. 25). + +39. These facts are enough to give us a clear and unified impression of +the course of Jesus' ministry. When, however, we seek to fill in the +details given in the different gospels, difficulties at once arise. Thus, +first, what shall be done with the long section which John introduces (i. +19 to iv. 42) before Jesus' withdrawal into Galilee? The other gospels +make that withdrawal the beginning of his public work. A second difficulty +arises from the unnamed feast of John v. 1. By one or another scholar this +feast has been identified with almost every Jewish festival known to us. +Another problem is furnished by the long section in Luke which is so +nearly peculiar to his gospel (ix. 51 to xviii. 14). If the section had no +parallels in the other gospels we might easily conclude that it all +belongs to a time subsequent to the final departure for Jerusalem; but it +contains at least one incident from the earlier ministry in Galilee (Luke +xi. 14-36; compare Mark iii. 19-30), and many teachings of Jesus given by +Matthew in an earlier connection appear here in Luke. Furthermore, the +section has to be adjusted to that portion of the Gospel of John which +deals with the same period and yet reports none of the same details. + +40. If Mark has furnished the narrative framework adopted in the main by +the first and third gospels, the problem of the order of events in Jesus' +life becomes a question of the chronological value of Mark, and of the +estimate to be placed on the narrative of John. If the fourth gospel is +held to be of apostolic origin and trustworthy, the task of the harmonist +is chiefly that of combining these two records of Mark and John. The +testimony of the Baptist, with which the fourth gospel opens, must have +been given some time after he had baptized Jesus, and the ministry which +preceded Jesus' return to Galilee (i. 19 to iv. 42) belongs to a period +ignored by the other gospels. The first three gospels contain indications +that Jesus must have visited Judea before the close of his life. They give +no hint, however, of the time or circumstances of such earlier Judean +labor. In giving the emphasis they do to the work in Galilee, they present +a one-sided picture. When, therefore, we find in John a narrative of work +in Judea, confirmed by hints in the other gospels, we may justly assume +that the arrangement which fills out the ministry of Jesus by inserting at +the proper places in Mark's record the events found in John is essentially +true. + +41. The consideration of the one-sidedness of Mark's narrative simplifies +the problem of harmony, but it does not solve all of the perplexities. +Matthew and Luke have much matter, some of it narrative, which Mark has +not, and for which he suggests no place. Where shall we put, for instance, +the cure of the centurion's servant (Matt. viii. 5-13; Luke vii. 1-10), or +John the Baptist's last message (Matt. xi. 2-19; Luke vii. 18-35)? It +would simplify matters if we could take Luke's statement that he had +"traced the course of all things accurately from the first" (Luke i. 3), +as indicating that he had arrived at exact certainty concerning the order +of events of Jesus' life. It is probable, however, that his statement was +simply a claim that he had carefully gathered material for a record of the +whole life of Jesus, from the annunciation of his birth to his ascension. +While we may believe that some trustworthy tradition led him to give the +place he has to many of the incidents which he adds to Mark's story, it +seems impossible to follow him in all respects; for instance, in severing +the account of the blasphemy of the Pharisees (xi. 14-36) from the place +which it holds in Mark (iii. 19-30). + +42. Still more uncertainty exists concerning the historic connection of +teachings of Jesus to which Matthew and Luke give different settings; for +example, the Lord's Prayer (Matt. vi. 9-15; Luke xi. 1-4), and the +exhortations against anxiety (Matt. vi. 25-34; Luke xii. 22-31). We have +seen that much of the teaching common to these gospels is probably derived +from the collection of the "oracles" of the Lord made by the apostle +Matthew. Everything that we can infer concerning such a collection of +oracles indicates that, while some of the teachings may have been +connected with particular historic situations (compare Luke xi. 1), many +would altogether lack such introductory words. A later example of what +such a collection may have been has come to light recently in the +so-called "Sayings of Jesus," discovered in Egypt and published in 1897. +In these the occasion for the teaching has been quite lost; the sole +interest centres in the fact that Jesus is supposed to have said the +things recorded. If Matthew's book contained such "logia" or "oracles," it +is probable that the original connection in which most of them were spoken +was a matter of no concern to the apostle, and consequently has been lost +This in no way compromises the genuineness of these sayings of Jesus. The +treatment of Luke ix. 51 to xviii. 14 is much simplified by this +consideration. To Luke's industry (i. 1-4) we owe the preservation of some +events and very many teachings which no other evangelist has recorded. +Some of this new material (for instance, vii. 11-17, 36-50) he has +assigned a place in the midst of Mark's narrative. Most of it, however, +he has gathered together in what seems to be a sort of appendix, which he +has inserted between the close of the ministry in Galilee and the final +arrival in Judea. For many of the teachings it is now impossible to assign +a time or place. That this is so will cause no surprise or difficulty if +we remember that in the earliest days the report of what Jesus said and +did circulated in the form of oral tradition only. It was the knowledge +that first-hand witnesses were passing away that led to the writing of the +gospels. During the period of oral tradition many teachings of the Lord +were doubtless kept clearly and accurately in memory after the historic +situations which led to their first utterance were quite forgotten. + +43. This fact helps to explain another perplexity in our gospel +narratives. A comparison of the two accounts of the cure of the +centurion's servant reveals differences of detail most perplexing, if we +ask for minute agreement in records of the same events. When we see that +of two accounts evidently reporting the same incident, one can say that +the centurion himself sought Jesus and asked the cure of his servant +(Matt. viii. 5, 8), while the other makes him declare himself unworthy to +come in person to the Lord (Luke vii. 7), the question arises whether +other accounts, similar in the main but differing in detail, should not be +identified as independent records of one event. Were there two cleansings +of the temple (John ii. 13-22; Mark xi. 15-19), two miraculous draughts of +fishes (Luke v. 4-11; John xxi. 5-8), two rejections at Nazareth (Mark vi. +1-6; Luke iv. 16-30), two parables of the Leaven, of the Mustard Seed +(Matt. xiii. 31-33; Luke xiii. 18-21), and of the Lost Sheep (Matt, xviii. +12-14; Luke xv. 4-7)? Such similar records are often called doublets, and +the question of identity or distinctness can be answered only after a +special study of each case. It is important to notice that a given +teaching, particularly if it took the form of an illustration, would +naturally be used by Jesus on many different occasions. When, on the other +hand, we find two accounts of specific doings of Jesus similar in detail +it is needful to recognize that definite historic situations do not so +often repeat themselves as do occasions for similar or identical +teachings. + +44. All these considerations show that while the general order of events +in the life of Jesus may be determined with a good degree of probability, +we must be content to remain uncertain concerning the place to be given to +many incidents and to more teachings. Such uncertainty is of small +concern, since our unharmonized gospels have not failed during all these +centuries to produce one fair picture, to the total impression of which +each teaching and deed make definite contribution quite independently of +our ability to give to each its particular place in relation to the whole. +The degree of certainty attainable justifies, however, a continued +interest in the old study of harmony, because of the more comprehensive +idea it gives of the ministry depicted in the partial narratives of our +several gospels. + + + + +IV + +The Chronology + + + +45. The length of the public ministry of Jesus was one of the earliest +questions which arose in the study of the four gospels. In the second and +third centuries it was not uncommon to find the answer in the passage from +Isaiah (lxi. 1, 2), which Jesus declared was fulfilled in himself. "The +acceptable year of the Lord" was taken to indicate that the ministry +covered little more than a year. The fact that the first three gospels +mention but one Passover (that at the end), and but one journey to +Jerusalem, seems at first to be favorable to this conclusion, and to make +peculiarly significant the care taken by Luke to give the exact date for +the opening of Jesus' ministry (iii. 1, 2). In fact, the second century +Gnostics, relying apparently on Luke, assigned both the ministry and death +of Jesus to the fifteenth year of Tiberius Cæsar,--an interpretation which +may have given rise to the widely spread, early tradition, found, for +example, in Tertullian (Ante-nicene Fathers, in. 160), which placed the +death of Jesus in A.D. 29, during the consulship of L. Rubellius Geminus +and C. Fufius Geminus. + +46. The theory that the ministry of Jesus extended over but little more +than one year is beset, however, by difficulties that seem insuperable. +The first is presented by the three Passovers distinctly mentioned in the +Gospel of John (ii. 13; vi. 4; xii. 1). The last of these is plainly +identical with the one named in the other gospels. The second gives the +time of year for the feeding of the five thousand, and agrees with the +mention of "the green grass" in the account of Mark and Matthew (Mark vi. +39; Matt. xiv. 19). John's first Passover falls in a section which demands +a place before Mark i. 14 (compare John iii. 24). Hence it must be shown +that this first Passover is chronologically out of order in the Gospel of +John, or the one year ministry advocated by the second century Gnostics, +by Clement of Alexandria, by Origen, and of late years by Keim and others, +is seen to be impossible. The fact that at this Passover Jesus cleansed +the temple, and that the other gospels assign such a cleansing to the +close of the ministry, suggests the possibility that John has set it at +the opening of his narrative for reasons connected with his argument. This +interpretation falls, however, before the perfect simplicity of structure +of John's narrative. The transitions from incident to incident in this +gospel are those of simple succession, and indicate, on the writer's part, +no suspicion that he was contradicting notions concerning the ministry of +Jesus familiar to his contemporaries. Whatever the conclusion reached +concerning the authorship of the gospel, the fact that it gained currency +very early as apostolic would seem to prove that its conception of the +length of Jesus' ministry was not opposed to the recognized apostolic +testimony. It is safe to conclude, therefore, that time must be allowed in +Jesus' ministry for at least three Passover seasons. + +47. With this conclusion most modern discussions of the question rest, and +it is possible that it may finally win common consent. The order of +Mark's narrative, however, challenges it. This gospel records near the +beginning (ii. 23) a controversy with the Pharisees occasioned by the fact +that Jesus' disciples plucked and ate the ripening grain as they passed on +a Sabbath day through the fields. As Mark places much later (vi. 30-34) +the feeding of the five thousand, which occurred at a Passover, that is +the beginning of the harvest (Lev. xxiii. 5-11), his order suggests the +necessity of including two harvest seasons in the ministry in Galilee, and +consequently four Passovers in the public life of Jesus. Two +considerations are urged against this conclusion. (1) Papias in his +reference to the Gospel of Mark criticises the order of the gospel; (2) +Mark ii. 1 to iii. 6 contains a group of five conflicts with the critics +of Jesus, which represents a massing of opposition that seems unlikely at +the outset of his Galilean work. The remark of Papias must remain obscure +until his standard of comparison is known. Some suggest that he knew +John's order and preferred it, others that he agreed with that adopted by +Tatian in his Diatessaron. Mark is in accord with neither of these. No +one, however, knows what order Papias preferred. The early conflict group +does appear like a collection drawn from different parts of the ministry. +Yet the nucleus of the group--the cure of the paralytic (ii. 1-12) and the +call of Levi (ii. 13-17)--is clearly in its right place in Mark (see +Holtzmann, Hand-commentar, I. 10). The question about fasting (ii. 18-22) +may have been asked much later, and its present place may be due to +association in tradition with the criticism of Jesus' fellowship with +publicans (ii. 16). In like manner the cure of the withered hand (iii. +1-6) may have become artificially grouped with the incident of the +cornfields. It is possible, also, that both Sabbath controversies owe +their early place in the gospel to traditional association with the early +conflicts (ii. 1-17). If so, the plucking of the grain actually occurred +some weeks after the feeding of the five thousand, and probably after the +controversy about tradition (vii. 1-23), with which, according to Mark, +Jesus' activity in Galilee practically closed. It is not clear, however, +what principle of association drew forward to the early group the Sabbath +conflict, and left in its place the controversy about tradition. It is +thus possible that the incident of the cornfields belongs also to the +early nucleus of the group; and in this case the longer ministry, +including four Passovers, must be accepted. The decision of the question +is not of vital importance, but it affects the determination of the +sequence of events in Jesus' life. Whatever the explanation of the remark +of Papias, the more the gospels are studied the more does Mark's order of +events commend itself in general as representing the probable fact. Many +students have inferred the three year ministry from the Gospel of John +alone, identifying the unnamed feast in John v. 1 with a Passover. But +John's allusion to that feast is so indefinite that the length of Jesus' +ministry must be determined quite independently of it. + +48. So long a ministry as three years presents some difficulties, for all +that is told us in the four gospels would cover but a small fraction of +this time. John's statement (xx. 30) that he omitted many things from +Jesus' life in making his book is evidently true of all the evangelists, +and long gaps, such as are evident in the fourth gospel, must be assumed +in the other three. Recalling the character of the gospels as pictures of +Jesus rather than narratives of his life, we may easily acknowledge the +incompleteness of our record of the three years of ministry, and wonder +the more at the vividness of impression produced with such economy of +material. This meagreness of material is not decisive for the shorter +rather than the longer ministry, for it is evident that to effect such a +change in conviction and feeling as Jesus wrought in the minds of the +ardent Galileans who were his disciples, required time. Three years are +better suited to effect this change than two. + +49. Closely related to the question of the length of Jesus' ministry is +another: Can definite dates be given for the chief events in his life? For +the year of the opening of his public activity the gospels furnish two +independent testimonies: the remark of the Jews on the occasion of Jesus' +first visit to Jerusalem, "Forty and six years was this temple in +building" (John ii. 20), and Luke's careful dating of the appearance of +John the Baptist, "in the fifteenth year of Tiberius Cæsar" (iii. 1, 2). +John ii. 20 leads to the conclusion that the first Passover fell in the +spring of A.D. 26 or 27, since we learn from Josephus (Ant. xv. 11. 1) +that Herod began to rebuild the temple in the eighteenth year of his +reign, which closed in the spring of B.C. 19. Luke iii. 1 gives a date +contradictory to the one just found, if the fifteenth year of Tiberius is +to be counted from the death of his predecessor, for Augustus died August +19, A.D. 14. Reckoned from this time the opening of John's work falls in +the year A.D. 28, and the first Passover of Jesus' ministry could not be +earlier than the spring of 29. This is at least two years later than is +indicated by the statement in John. The remark in John is, however, so +incidental and so lacking in significance for his argument that its +definiteness can be explained only as due to a clear historic +reminiscence; but it does not follow that Luke has erred in the date given +by him. Although Augustus did not die until A.D. 14, there is evidence +that Tiberius was associated with him in authority over the army and the +provinces not later than January, A.D. 12. One who lived and wrote in the +reign of Titus may possibly have applied to the reign of Tiberius a mode +of reckoning customary in the case of Titus, as Professor Ramsay has shown +(Was Christ born at Bethlehem, 202). If this is the fact, Luke reckoned +from the co-regency of Tiberius; hence the fifteenth year would be A.D. 25 +or 26, according as the co-regency began before or after the first of +January, A.D. 12. This would place the first Passover of Jesus' ministry +in the spring of 26 or 27, in agreement with the hint found in John. + +50. If the public ministry of Jesus began with the spring of 26 or 27, the +close of three years of activity would, come at the Passover of 29 or 30. +The former of these dates agrees with the early Christian tradition +already mentioned. But before accepting that traditional date another +matter must be considered. Jesus was crucified on the Friday at the +opening of the feast of the Passover. Whether it was the day of the +sacrifice of the Passover (14 Nisan) or the day following (15 Nisan), is +not essential for the present question. As the Jewish month began with the +first appearance of the new moon, it is evident that, in the year of +Jesus' death, the month of Nisan must have begun on a day that would make +the 14th or the 15th fall on Friday. Now it can be shown that in the year +30 the 14th of Nisan was Thursday (April 6) or Friday (April 7), for at +best only approximate certainty is attainable. The tradition which assigns +the passion to 29, generally names March 25 as the day of the month. This +date is impossible, because it does not coincide with the full moon of +that month. The choice of March 25 by a late tradition may be explained by +the fact that it was commonly regarded as the date of the spring equinox, +the turning of the year towards its renewing. Mr. Turner has shown +(HastBD. I. 415) that another date found in an early document cannot be so +explained. Epiphanius was familiar with copies of the Acts of Pilate, +which gave March 18 as the date of the crucifixion; and it is remarkable +that this date coincides with the full moon, and also falls on Friday. +Such a combination gives unusual weight to the tradition, particularly as +there is no ready way to account for its rise, as in the case of March 25. +From this supplementary tradition the year 29 gains in probability as the +year of the passion. Without attempting to arrive at a final +conclusion,--a task which must be left for chronological specialists,--it +is safe to assume that Jesus died at the Passover of A.D. 29 or 30. + +51. Concluding that Jesus' active ministry fell within the years A.D. 26 +to 30, is it possible to determine the date of his birth? Four hints are +furnished by the gospels: he was born before the death of Herod (Matt. ii. +1; Luke i. 5); he was about thirty years of age at his baptism (Luke iii. +23); he was born during a census conducted in Judea in accordance with +the decree of Augustus at a time when Quirinius was in authority in Syria +(Luke ii. 1, 2); after his birth wise men from the East were led to visit +him by observing "his star" (Matt. ii. 1, 2). From these facts it follows +that the birth of Jesus cannot be placed later than B.C. 4, since Herod +died about the first of April in that year (Jos. Ant. xvii. 6. 4; 8. 1, +4). The awkwardness of having to find a date _Before Christ_ for the birth +of Jesus is due to the miscalculation of the monk, Dionysius the Little, +who in the sixth century introduced our modern reckoning from "the year of +our Lord." + +52. But is it impossible to determine the time of Jesus' birth more +exactly? Luke (ii. 1, 2) offers what seems to be more definite +information, but his reference to the decree of Augustus and the enrolment +under Quirinius are among the most seriously challenged statements in the +gospels. It has been said (1) that history knows of no edict of Augustus +ordering a general enrolment of "the world;" (2) that a Roman census could +not have been taken in Palestine before the death of Herod; (3) that if +such an enrolment had been taken it would have been unnecessary for Joseph +and Mary to journey from Nazareth to Bethlehem; (4) that the census taken +when Quirinius was governor of Syria is definitely assigned by Josephus to +the year after the deposition of Archelaus, A.D. 6 (Ant. xviii. 1. 1; see +also Acts v. 37); (5) that if Luke's reference to this census as the +"first" be appealed to, it must be replied that Quirinius was not governor +of Syria at any time during the lifetime of Herod. This array of +difficulties is impressive, and has persuaded many conservative students +to concede that in his reference to the census Luke has fallen into error. +Some recent discoveries in Egypt, however, have furnished new information +concerning the imperial administration of that province. Inferring that a +policy adopted in Egypt may have prevailed also in Syria, Professor Ramsay +has recently put forth a strong argument for Luke's accuracy in respect of +this census (Was Christ born at Bethlehem, 95-248). That argument may be +condensed as follows: We have evidence of a system of Roman enrolments in +Egypt taken every fourteen years, and already traced back to the time of +Augustus, the earliest document so far recovered belonging, apparently, to +the census of A.D. 20. It is at least possible that this system of +Egyptian enrolments may have been part of an imperial policy, of which all +other trace is lost excepting the statement of Luke. It is significant +that the date of the census referred to by Josephus (A.D. 6) fits exactly +the fourteen-year cycle which obtained in Egypt. If the census of A.D. 6 +was preceded by an earlier one its date would be B.C. 8; that is, it would +be actually taken in B.C. 7, in order to secure the full acts for B.C. 8. + +53. The statement of Tertullian (Against Marcion, iv. 19) that a census +had been taken in Judea under Augustus by Sentius Saturninus, who was +governor of Syria about 9 to 7 B.C., certainly comes from some source +independent of the gospels, and tends to confirm Luke's account of a +census before the death of Herod. That a Roman census might have been +taken in Palestine during Herod's life is seen from the fact that in A.D. +36 Vitellius, the governor of Syria, had to send Roman forces into +Cilicia Trachæa to assist Archelaus, the king of that country, to quell a +revolt caused by native resistance to a census taken after the Roman +fashion (Tacitus, Ann. vi. 41). Herod would almost certainly resent as a +mark of subjection the order to enrol his people; and the fact that he was +in disfavor with Augustus during the governorship of Saturninus (Josephus, +Ant. xvi. 9. 1-3), suggests to Professor Ramsay that he may have sought to +avoid obedience to the imperial will in the matter of the census. If after +some delay Herod was forced to obey, the enrolment may have been taken in +the year 7-6. Since it is probable that the Romans would allow Herod to +give the census as distinctly Jewish a character as possible, it is easy +to credit the order that all Jews should be registered, so far as +possible, in their ancestral homes. Hence the journey of Joseph to +Bethlehem; and if Mary wished to have her child also registered as from +David's line, her removal with Joseph to Bethlehem is explained. Such a +delay in the taking of the census would have postponed it until after the +recall of Saturninus. The statement of Tertullian may therefore indicate +simply that he knew that a census was taken in Syria by Saturninus. + +54. The successor of Saturninus was Varus, who held the governorship until +after the death of Herod. How then does Luke refer to the enrolment as +taken when Quirinius was in authority? It has for a long time been known +that this man was in Syria before he was there as legate of the emperor in +A.D. 6. There seems to be evidence that Quirinius was in the East about +the year B.C. 6, putting down a rebellion on the borders of Cilicia, a +district joined with Syria into one province under the early empire. +Varus was at this time governor, but Quirinius might easily have been +looked upon as representing for the time the power of the Roman arms. If +Herod was forced to yield to the imperial wish by the presence in Syria of +this renowned captain, the statement of Luke is confirmed, and the census +at which Jesus was born was taken, according to a Jewish fashion, during +the life of Herod, but under compulsion of Rome exacted by Quirinius, +while he was in command of the Roman forces in the province of +Syria-Cilicia. This gives as a probable date for the birth of Jesus B.C. +6, which accords well with the hints previously considered, inasmuch as it +is earlier than the death of Herod, and, if born in B.C. 6, Jesus would +have been thirty-two at his baptism in A.D. 26. + +55. The account given in Matthew of "the star" which drew the wise men to +Judea gives no sure help in determining the date of the birth of Jesus, +but it is at least suggestive that in the spring and autumn of B.C. 7 +there occurred a remarkable conjunction of the planets Jupiter and Saturn. +This was first noticed by Kepler in consequence of a similar conjunction +observed by him in A.D. 1603. Men much influenced by astrology must have +been impressed by such a celestial phenomenon, but that it furnishes an +explanation of the star of the wise men is not clear. If it does, it +confirms the date otherwise probable for the nativity, that is, not far +from B.C. 6. + +56. Can we go further and determine the time of year or the month and day +of the nativity? It should be borne in mind that our Christmas festival +was not observed earlier than the fourth century, and that the evidence +is well-nigh conclusive that December 25th was finally selected for the +Nativity in order to hallow a much earlier and widely spread pagan +festival coincident with the winter solstice. If anything exists to +suggest the time of year it is Luke's mention of "shepherds in the field +keeping watch by night over their flock" (ii. 8). This seems to indicate +that it must have been the summer season. In winter the flocks would be +folded, not pastured, by night. + +57. It therefore seems probable that Jesus was born in the summer of B.C. +6; that he was baptized in A.D. 26; that the first Passover of his +ministry was in the spring of 26 or 27; and that he was crucified in the +spring of 29 or 30. + + + + +V + +The Early Years of Jesus + +Matt. i. 1 to ii. 23; Luke i. 5 to ii. 52; iii. 23-38 + + + +58. It is surprising that within a century of the life of the apostles, +Christian imagination could have so completely mistaken the real greatness +of Jesus as to let its thirst for wonder fill his early years with scenes +in which his conduct is as unlovely as it is shocking. That he who in +manhood was "holy, harmless, undefiled, separate from sinners" (Heb. vii. +26), could in youth, in a fit of ill-temper, strike a companion with death +and then meet remonstrance by cursing his accusers with blindness (Gospel +of Thomas, 4, 5); that he could mock his teachers and spitefully resent +their control (Pseudo-Matthew, 30, 31); that it could be thought worthy of +him to exhibit his superiority to common human conditions by carrying +water in his mantle when his pitcher had been broken (same, 33), or by +making clay birds in play on the Sabbath and causing them to fly when he +was rebuked for naughtiness (same, 27);--these and many like legends +exhibit incredible blindness to the real glory of the Lord. Yet such +things abound in the early attempts of the pious imagination to write the +story of the youth of Jesus, and the account of the nativity and its +antecedents fares as ill, being pitifully trivial where it is not +revolting. + +59. How completely foreign all this is to the apostolic thought and +feeling is clear when we notice that excepting the first two chapters of +Matthew and Luke the New Testament tells us nothing whatever of the years +which preceded John the Baptist's ministry in the wilderness. The gospels +are books of testimony to what men had seen and heard (John i. 14); and +the epistles are practical interpretations of the same in its bearing on +religious life and hope. The apostles found no difficulty in recognizing +the divinity and sinlessness of their Lord without inquiring how he came +into the world or how he spent his early years; it was what he showed +himself to be, not how he came to be, that formed their conception of him. +Yet the early chapters of Matthew and Luke should not be classed with the +later legends. Notwithstanding the attempts of Keim to associate the +narratives of the infancy in the canonical and apocryphal gospels, a great +gulf separates them: on the one side there is a reverent and beautiful +reserve, on the other indelicate, unlovely, and trivial audacity. + +60. The gospel narratives have, however, perplexities of their own, for +the two accounts agree only in the main features,--the miraculous birth in +Bethlehem in the days of Herod, Mary being the mother and Joseph the +foster-father, and Nazareth the subsequent residence. In further details +they are quite different, and at first sight seem contradictory. Moreover, +while Matthew sheds a halo of glory over the birth of Jesus, Luke draws a +picture of humble circumstances and obscurity. These differences, taken +with the silence of the rest of the New Testament concerning a miraculous +birth, constitute a real difficulty. To many it seems strange that the +disciples and the brethren of Jesus did not refer to these things if they +knew them to be true. But it must not be overlooked that any familiar +reference to the circumstances of the birth of Jesus which are narrated in +the gospels would have invited from the Jews simply a challenge of the +honor of his home. Moreover, as the knowledge of these wonders did not +keep Mary from misunderstanding her son (Luke ii. 19, 51; compare Mark in. +21, 31-35), the publication of them could hardly have helped greatly the +belief of others. The fact that Mary was so perplexed by the course of +Jesus in his ministry makes it probable that even until quite late in her +life she "kept these things and pondered them in her heart." + +61. No parts of the New Testament are challenged so widely and so +confidently as these narratives of the infancy. But if they are not to be +credited with essential truth it is necessary to show what ideas cherished +in the apostolic church could have led to their invention. That John and +Paul maintain the divinity of their Lord, yet give no hint that this +involved a miraculous birth, shows that these stories are no necessary +outgrowth of that doctrine. The early Christians whether Jewish or Gentile +would not naturally choose to give pictorial form to their belief in their +Lord's divinity by the story of an incarnation. The heathen myths +concerning sons of the gods were in all their associations revolting to +Christian feeling, and, while the Jewish mind was ready to see divine +influence at work in the birth of great men in Israel (as Isaac, and +Samson, and Samuel), the whole tendency of later Judaism was hostile to +any such idea as actual incarnation. Some would explain the story of the +miraculous birth as a conclusion drawn by the Christian consciousness +from the doctrine of the sinlessness of Jesus. Yet neither Paul nor John, +who are both clear concerning the doctrine, give any idea that a +miraculous birth was essential for a sinless being. Some appeal to the +eagerness of the early Christians to exalt the virginity of Mary, This is +certainly the animus of many apocryphal legends. But the feeling is as +foreign to Jewish sentiment and New Testament teaching as it is +contradictory to the evidence in the gospels that Mary had other children +born after Jesus. + +62. Moreover, the songs of Mary (Luke i. 46-55) and Zachariah (Luke i. +68--79) bear in themselves the evidence of origin before the doctrine of +the cross had transformed the Christian idea of the Messiah. That +transformed idea abounds in the Epistles and the Acts, and it is difficult +to conceive how these songs (if they were later inventions) could have +been left free of any trace of specifically Christian ideas. A Jewish +Christian would almost certainly have made them more Christian than they +are; a Gentile Christian could not have made them so strongly and +naturally Jewish as they are; while a non-Christian Jew would never have +invented them. Taken with the evidence in Ignatius (Ad Eph. xviii., xix.) +of the very early currency of the belief in a miraculous birth, they +confirm the impression that it is easier to accept the evidence offered +for the miracle than to account for the origin of the stories as legends. +The idea of a miraculous birth is very foreign to modern thought; it +becomes credible only as the transcendent nature of Jesus is recognized on +other grounds. It may not be said that the incarnation required a +miraculous conception, yet it may be acknowledged that a miraculous +conception is a most suitable method for a divine incarnation. + +63. These gospel stories are chiefly significant for us in that they show +that he in whom his disciples came to recognize a divine nature began his +earthly life in the utter helplessness and dependence of infancy, and grew +through boyhood and youth to manhood with such naturalness that his +neighbors, dull concerning the things of the spirit, could not credit his +exalted claims. He is shown as one in all points like unto his brethren +(Heb. ii. 17). Two statements in Luke (ii. 40, 52) describe the growth of +the divine child as simply as that of his forerunner (Luke i. 80), or that +of the prophet of old (I. Sam. ii. 26). The clear impression of these +statements is that Jesus had a normal growth from infancy to manhood, +while the whole course of the later life as set before us in the gospels +confirms the scripture doctrine that his normal growth was free from sin +(Heb. iv. 15). + +64. The knowledge of the probable conditions of his childhood is as +satisfying as the apocryphal stories are revolting. The lofty Jewish +conception of home and its relations is worthy of Jesus. The circumstances +of the home in Nazareth were humble (Matt. xiii. 55; Luke ii. 24; compare +Lev. xii. 8). Probably the house was not unlike those seen to-day, of but +one room, or at most two or three,--the tools of trade mingling with the +meagre furnishings for home-life. We should not think it a home of penury; +doubtless the circumstances of Joseph were like those of his neighbors. In +one respect this home was rich. The wife and mother had an exalted place +in the Jewish life, notwithstanding the trivial opinions of some +supercilious rabbis; and what the gospel tells of the chivalry of Joseph +renders it certain that love reigned in his home, making it fit for the +growth of the holy child. + +65. Religion held sway in all the phases of Jewish life. With some it was +a religion of ceremony,--of prayers and fastings, tithes and boastful +alms, fringes and phylacteries. But Joseph and Mary belonged to the +simpler folk, who, while they reverenced the scribes as teachers, knew not +enough of their subtlety to have substituted barren rites for sincere love +for the God of their fathers and childlike trust in his mercy. Jesus knew +not only home life at its fairest, but religion at its best. A father's +most sacred duty was the teaching of his child in the religion of his +people (Deut. vi. 4-9), and then, as ever since, the son learned at his +mother's side to know and love her God, to pray to him, and to know the +scriptures. No story more thrilling and full of interest, no prospect more +rich and full of glowing hope, could be found to satisfy the child's +spirit of wonder than the story of Israel's past and God's promises for +the future. Religious culture was not confined to the home, however. The +temple at Jerusalem was the ideal centre of religious life for this +Nazareth household (Luke ii. 41) as for all the people, yet practically +worship and instruction were cultivated chiefly by the synagogue (Luke iv. +16); there God was present in his Holy Word. Week after week the boy Jesus +heard the scripture in its original Hebrew form, followed by translation +into Aramaic, and received instruction from it for daily conduct. The +synagogue probably influenced the boy's intellectual life even more +directly. In the time of Jesus schools had been established in all the +important towns, and were apparently under the control of the synagogue. +To such a school he may have been sent from about six years of age to be +taught the scriptures (compare II. Tim. iii. 15), together with the +reading (Luke iv. 16-19), and perhaps the writing, of the Hebrew language. +Of his school experience we know nothing beyond the fact that he grew in +"wisdom and in stature and in favor with God and man" (Luke ii. 52),--a +sufficient contradiction of the repulsive legends of the apocryphal +gospels. + +66. The physical growth incident to Jesus' development from boyhood to +manhood is a familiar thought. The intellectual unfolding which belongs to +this development is readily recognized. Not so commonly acknowledged, but +none the less clearly essential to the gospel picture, is the gradual +unfolding of the child's moral life under circumstances and stimulus +similar to those with which other children meet (Heb. iv. 15). The man +Jesus was known as the carpenter (Matt. xiii. 55). The learning of such a +trade would contribute much to the boy's mastery of his own powers. Far +more discipline would come from his fellowship with brothers and sisters +who did not understand his ways nor appreciate the deepest realities of +his life. Without robbing boyhood days of their naturalness and reality, +we may be sure that long before Jesus knew how and why he differed from +his fellows he felt more or less clearly that they were not like him. The +resulting sense of isolation was a school for self-mastery, lest isolation +foster any such pride or unloveliness as that with which later legend +dared to stain the picture of the Lord's youth. Four brothers of Jesus +are named by Mark (vi. 3),--James, and Joses, and Judas, and Simon,--the +gospel adds also that he had sisters living at a later time in Nazareth. +They were all subject with him to the same home influences, and apparently +were not unresponsive to them. The similarity of thought and feeling +between the sermon on the mount and the Epistle of James is not readily +explained by the influence of master over disciple, since the days of +James's discipleship began after the resurrection of Jesus. In any case +there is no reason to think that the companions of Jesus' home were +uncommonly irritating or in any way irreligious, only Jesus was not +altogether like them (John vii. 5), and the fact of difference was a moral +discipline, which among other things led to that moral growth by which +innocence passed into positive goodness. If the home was such a school of +discipline, its neighbors, less earnest and less favored with spiritual +training, furnished more abundant occasion for self-mastery and growth. +The very fact that in his later years Jesus was no desert preacher, like +John, but social, and socially sought for, indicates that he did not win +his manhood's perfection in solitude, but in fellowship with common life +and in victory over the trials and temptations incident to it (Heb. ii. +17, 18). + +67. Yet he must have been familiar with the life which is in secret (Matt. +vi. 1-18). He who in his later years was a man of much prayer, who began +(Luke iii. 21) and closed (Luke xxiii. 46) his public life with prayer, as +a boy was certainly familiar not only with the prayers of home and +synagogue, but also with quiet, personal resort to the presence of God. It +would be unjust to think of any abnormal religious precocity. Jesus was +the best example the world has seen of perfect spiritual health, but we +must believe that he came early to know God and to live much with him. + +68. It is instructive in connection with this inwardness of Jesus' life to +recall the rich familiarity with the whole world of nature which appears +in his parables and other teachings. The prospect which met his eye if he +sought escape from the distractions of home and village life, has been +described by Renan: "The view from the town is limited; but if we ascend a +little to the plateau swept by a perpetual breeze, which stands above the +highest houses, the landscape is magnificent. On the west stretch the fine +outlines of Carmel, terminating in an abrupt spur which seems to run down +sheer to the sea. Next, one sees the double summit which towers above +Megiddo; the mountains of the country of Shechem, with their holy places +of the patriarchal period; the hills of Gilboa, the small picturesque +group to which is attached the graceful or terrible recollections of +Shunem and of Endor; and Tabor, with its beautiful rounded form, which +antiquity compared to a bosom. Through a gap between the mountains of +Shunem and Tabor are visible the valley of the Jordan and the high plains +of Perea, which form a continuous line from the eastern side. On the +north, the mountains of Safed, stretching towards the sea, conceal St. +Jean d'Acre, but leave the Gulf of Khaifa in sight. Such was the horizon, +of Jesus. This enchanted circle, cradle of the kingdom of God, was for +years his world. Indeed, during his whole life he went but little beyond +the familiar bounds of his childhood. For yonder, northwards, one can +almost see, on the flank of Hermon, Cæsarea-Philippi, his farthest point +of advance into the Gentile world; and to the south the less smiling +aspect of these Samaritan hills foreshadows the dreariness of Judea +beyond, parched as by a burning wind of desolation and death." In the +midst of such scenes we are to understand that, with the physical growth, +and opening of mind, and moral discipline which filled the early years of +Jesus, there came also the gradual spiritual unfolding in which the boy +rose step by step to the fuller knowledge of God and himself. + +69. That unfolding is pictured in an early stage in the story given us +from the youth of Jesus. It was customary for a Jewish boy not long after +passing his twelfth year to come under full adult obligation to the law. +The visit to Jerusalem was probably in preparation for such assumption of +obligation by Jesus. All his earlier training had filled his mind with the +sacredness of the Holy City and the glory of the temple. It is easy to +feel with what joy he would first look upon Zion from the shoulder of the +Mount of Olives, as he came over it on his journey from Galilee; to +conceive how the temple and the ritual would fill him with awe in his +readiness not to criticise, but to idealize everything he saw, and to +think only of the significance given by it all to the scripture; to +imagine how eagerly he would talk in the temple court with the learned men +of his people about the law and the promises with which in home and school +his youth had been made familiar. Nor is it difficult to appreciate his +surprise, when Joseph and Mary, only after long searching for him, at last +found him in the temple, for he felt that it was the most natural place +in which he could be found. In his wondering question to Mary, "Did not +you know that I must be in my Father's house?" (Luke ii. 49), there is a +premonition of his later consciousness of peculiarly intimate relation to +God. The question was, however, a sincere inquiry. It was no precocious +rebuke of Mary's anxiety. The knowledge of himself as Son of God was only +dawning within him, and was not yet full and clear. This is shown by his +immediate obedience and his subjection to his parents in Nazareth through +many years. It is safe, in the interpretation of the acts and words of +Jesus, to banish utterly as inconceivable anything that savors of the +theatrical. We must believe that he was always true to himself, and that +the subjection which he rendered to Joseph and Mary sprang from a real +sense of childhood's dependence, and was not a show of obedience for any +edifying end however high. + +70. That question "Did not you know?" is the only hint we possess of +Jesus' inner life before John's call to repentance rang through the land. +Meanwhile the carpenter's son became himself the carpenter. Joseph seems +to have died before the opening of Jesus' ministry. For Jesus as the +eldest son, this death made those years far other than a time of spiritual +retreat; responsibility for the home and the pressing duties of trade must +have filled most of the hours of his days. This is a welcome thought to +our healthiest sentiment, and true also to the earliest Christian feeling +(Heb. iv. 15). John the Baptist had his training in the wilderness, but +Jesus came from familiar intercourse with men, was welcomed in their +homes (John ii. 2), knew their life in its homely ongoing, and was the +friend of all sorts and conditions of men. After that visit to Jerusalem, +a few more years may have been spent in school, for, whether from school +instruction, or synagogue preaching, or simple daily experience, the young +man came to know the traditions of the elders and also to know that +observance of them is a mockery of the righteousness which God requires. +Yet he seems to have felt so fully in harmony with God as to be conscious +of nothing new in the fresh and vital conceptions of righteousness which +he found in the law and prophets. We may be certain that much of his +thought was given to Israel's hope of redemption, and that with the +prophets of old and the singer much nearer his own day (Ps. of Sol. xvii. +23), he longed that God, according to his promise, would raise up unto his +people, their King, the Son of David. + +71. He must also have read often from that other book open before him as +he walked upon the hills of Nazareth. The beauty of the grass and of the +lilies was surely not a new discovery to him after he began to preach the +coming kingdom, nor is it likely that he waited until after his baptism to +form his habit of spending the night in prayer upon the mountain. We may +be equally sure that he did not first learn to love men and women and long +for their good after he received the call, "Thou art my beloved son" (Mark +i. 11). He who in later life read hearts clearly (John ii. 25) doubtless +gained that skill, as well as the knowledge of human sin and need, early +in his intercourse with his friends and neighbors in Nazareth; while a +clear conviction that God's kingdom consists in his sovereignty over +loyal hearts must have filled much of his thought about the promised good +which God would bring to Israel in due time. Thus we may think that in +quietness and homely industry, in secret life with God and open love for +men, in study of history and prophecy, in longing for the actual sway of +God in human life, Jesus lived his life, did his work, and grew in "wisdom +and in stature and in favor with God and man" (Luke ii. 52). + + + + +VI + +John The Baptist + +Matt. iii. 1-17; iv. 12; xiv. 1-12; Mark i. 1-14; vi. 14-29; Luke i. 5-25, +57-80; iii. 1-22; ix. 7-9; John i. 19-37; iii. 22-30. + + + +72. The first reappearance of Jesus in the gospel story, after the temple +scene in his twelfth year, is on the banks of the Jordan seeking baptism +from the new prophet. One of the silent evidences of the greatness of +Jesus is the fact that so great a character as John the Baptist stands in +our thought simply as accessory to his life. For that the prophet of the +wilderness was great has been the opinion of all who have been willing to +seek him in his retirement. One reason for the common neglect of John is +doubtless the meagreness of information about him. But though details are +few, the picture of him is drawn in clearest lines: a rugged son of the +wilderness scorning the gentler things of life, threatening his people +with coming wrath and calling to repentance while yet there was time; a +preacher of practical righteousness heeded by publicans and harlots but +scorned by the elders of his people; a bold and fearless spirit, yet +subdued in the presence of another who did not strive, nor cry, nor cause +his voice to be heard in the streets. When the people thought to find in +John the promised Messiah, with unparalleled self-effacement he pointed +them to his rival and rejoiced in that rival's growing success. Side by +side they worked for a time; then the picture fails, but for a hint of a +royal audience, with a fearless rebuke of royal disgrace and sin; a prison +life, with its pathetic shaking of confidence in the early certainties; a +long and forced inaction, and the question put by a wavering faith, with +its patient and affectionate reply; then a lewd orgy, a king's oath, a +girl's demands, a martyr's release, the disciples' lamentation and their +report to that other who, though seeming a rival, was known to appreciate +best the greatness of this prophet. Such is the picture in the gospels. + +73. John, unlike his greater successor, has a highly appreciative notice +from Josephus: "Now some of the Jews thought that the destruction of +Herod's army came from God, and that very justly, as a punishment for what +he did against John, who was called the Baptist. For Herod had had him put +to death though he was a good man, and commanded the Jews to exercise +virtue, both as to justice towards one another, and piety towards God, and +so to come to baptism; for baptism would be acceptable to God, if they +made use of it not in order to expiate some sin, but for the purification +of the body, provided that the soul was thoroughly purified beforehand by +righteousness. Now, as many flocked to him, for they were greatly moved by +hearing his words, Herod, fearing that the great influence, John had over +the people might lead to some rebellion (for the people seemed likely to +do anything he should advise), thought it far best, by putting him to +death, to prevent any mischief he might cause, and not bring himself into +difficulties by sparing a man who might make him repent of his leniency +when it should be too late. Accordingly he was sent a prisoner, in +consequence of Herod's suspicious temper, to Machaerus, the fortress +before mentioned, and was there put to death. So the Jews had the opinion +that the destruction of this army [by Aretas] was sent as a punishment +upon Herod and was the mark of God's displeasure at him" (Ant. xviii. 5. +2). This section is commonly accepted as trustworthy. Superficially +different from the gospel record and assigning quite another cause for +John's imprisonment and death, it correctly describes his character and +his influence with the people, and leaves abundant room for a more +intimately personal motive on the part of Antipas for the imprisonment of +John. If the jealousy of Herodias was the actual reason for John's arrest, +it is highly probable that another cause would be named to the world, and +a likelier one than that given by Josephus could not be found. + +74. The first problem that offers itself in the study of this man is the +man himself. Whence did he come? Everything about him is surprising. He +appears as a dweller in the desert, an ascetic, holding aloof from common +life and content with the scanty fare the wilderness could offer; yet he +was keenly appreciative of his people's needs, and he knew their +sins,--the particular ones that beset Pharisees, publicans, soldiers. If a +recluse in habit, he was far from such in thought; he was therefore no +seeker for his own soul's peace in his desert life. His dress was +strikingly suggestive of the old prophet of judgment on national +infidelity (I. Kings xvii. 1; II. Kings i, 8), the Elijah whom John would +not claim to be. His message was commanding, with its double word "Repent" +and "The kingdom is near." His idea of the kingdom was definite, though +not at all developed; it signified to him God's dominion, inaugurated by a +divine judgment which should mean good for the penitent and utter +destruction for the ungodly; hence the prophet's call to repentance. His +ministry was one of grace, but the time was drawing near when the Greater +One would appear to complete by a swift judgment the work which his +forerunner was beginning. That Greater One would hew down the fruitless +tree, winnow the wheat from the chaff on the threshing floor, baptize the +penitent with divine power, and the wicked with the fire of judgment, +since his was to be a ministry of judgment, not of grace. + +75. Whence, then, came this strange prophet? Near the desert region where +he spent his youth and where he first proclaimed his message of repentance +and judgment was the chief settlement of that strange company of Jews +known as Essenes. It has long been customary to think that during his +early years John was associated with these fellow-dwellers in the desert, +if he did not actually join the order. He certainly may have learned from +them many things. Their sympathy with his ascetic life and with his +thorough moral earnestness would make them attractive to him, but he was +far too original a man to get from them more than some suggestions to be +worked out in his own fashion. The simplicity of his teaching of +repentance and the disregard of ceremonial in his preaching separate him +from these monks. John may have known his desert companions, may have +appreciated some things in their discipline, but he remained independent +of their guidance. + +76. The leaders of religious life and thought in his day were +unquestionably the Pharisees. The controlling idea with them, and +consequently with the people, was the sanctity of God's law. They were +conscious of the sinfulness of the people, and their demand for repentance +was constant. It is a rabbinic commonplace that the delay of the Messiah's +coming is due to lack of repentance in Israel. But near as this conception +is to John's, we need but to recall his words to the Pharisees (Matt. iii. +7) to realize how clearly he saw through the hollowness of their religious +pretence. With the quibbles of the scribes concerning small and great +commandments, Sabbaths and hand-washings, John shows no affinity. He may +have learned some things from these "sitters in Moses' seat," but he was +not of them. + +77. John's message announced the near approach of the kingdom of God. It +is probable that many of those who sought his baptism were ardent +nationalists,--eager to take a hand in realizing that consummation. +Josephus indicates that it was Herod's fear lest John should lead these +Zealots to revolt that furnished the ostensible cause of his death. But +similar as were the interests of John and these nationalists, the distance +between them was great. The prophet's replies to the publicans and to the +soldiers, which contain not a word of rebuke for the hated callings (Luke +iii. 13, 14), show how fundamentally he differed from the Zealots. + +78. But there was another branch of the Pharisees than that which quibbled +over Sabbath laws, traditions, and tithes, or that which itched to grasp +the sword; they were men who saw visions and dreamed dreams like those of +Daniel and the Revelation, and in their visions saw God bringing +deliverance to his people by swift and sudden judgment. There are some +marked likenesses between this type of thought and that of John,--the +impending judgment, the word of warning, the coming blessing, were all in +John; but one need only compare John's words with such an apocalypse as +the Assumption of Moses, probably written in Palestine during John's life +in the desert, to discover that the two messages do not move in the same +circle of thought at all; there is something practical, something severely +heart-searching, something at home in every-day life, about John's +announcement of the coming kingdom that is quite absent from the visions +of his contemporaries. John had not, like some of these seers, a coddling +sympathy for people steeped in sin. He traced their troubles to their own +doors, and would not let ceremonies pass in place of "fruits meet for +repentance." He came from the desert with rebuke and warning on his lips; +with no word against the hated Romans, but many against hypocritical +claimants to the privileges of Abraham; no apology for his message nor +artificial device of dream or ancient name to secure a hearing, but the +old-fashioned prophetic method of declaration of truth "whether men will +hear or whether they will forbear." "All was sharp and cutting, imperious +earnestness about final questions, unsparing overthrow of all fictitious +shams in individual as in national life. There are no theories of the law, +no new good works, no belief in the old, but simply and solely a prophetic +clutch at men's consciences, a mighty accusation, a crushing summons to +contrite repentance and speedy sanctification" (KeimJN. II. 228). We look +in vain for a parallel in any of John's contemporaries, except in that one +before whom he bowed, saying, "I have need to be baptized of thee." + +79. John had, however, predecessors whose work he revived. In Isaiah's +words, "Wash you, make you clean" (Isa. i 16), one recognizes the type +which reappeared in John. The great prophetic conception of the Day of the +Lord--the day of wrath and salvation (Joel ii. 1-14)--is revived in John, +free from all the fantastic accompaniments which his contemporaries loved. +The invitations to repentance and new fidelity which abound in Isaiah, +Ezekiel, Hosea, and Joel; the summons to simple righteousness, which rang +from the lips of Micah (vi. 8), and of the great prophet of the exile +(Isa. lviii.), these tell us where John went to school and how well he +learned his lesson. It is hard for us to realize how great a novelty such +simplicity was in John's day, or how much originality it required to +attain to this discipleship of the prophets. From the time when the +curtain rises on the later history of Israel in the days of the Maccabean +struggle to the coming of that "voice crying in the wilderness," Israel +had listened in vain for a prophet who could speak God's will with +authority. The last thing that people expected when John came was such a +simple message. He was not the creature of his time, but a revival of the +older type; yet, as in the days of Elijah God had kept him seven thousand +in Israel that had not bowed the knee to Baal, so, in the later time, not +all were bereft of living faith. These devout souls furnished the soil +which could produce a life like John's, gifted and chosen by God to +restore and advance the older and more genuine religion. + +80. If John was thus a revival of the older prophetic order, a second +question arises: Whence came his baptism, and what did it signify? The +gospels describe it as a "baptism of repentance for the remission of sins" +(Mark i. 4). John's declaration that his greater successor should baptize +with the Holy Spirit and fire (Matt. iii. 11) shows that he viewed his +baptism as a symbol, rather than as a means, of remission of sin. But it +was more than a sign of repentance, it was a confession of loyalty to the +kingdom which John's successor was to establish. It had thus a twofold +significance: (_a_) confession of and turning from the old life of sin, +and (_b_) consecration to the coming kingdom. Whence, then, came this +ordinance? Not from the Essenes, for, unlike John's baptism, the bath +required by these Jewish ascetics was an oft-repeated act. Further, John's +rite had a far deeper religious significance than the Essene washings. +These performed their ablutions to secure ritual cleanness as exemplary +disciples of the Mosaic ideal. The searching of heart which preceded +John's baptism, and the radical change of life it demanded, seem foreign +to Essenism. The baptism of John, considered as a ceremony of consecration +for the coming kingdom, was parallel rather to the initiatory oaths of the +Essene brotherhood than to their ablutions. Their custom may have served +to suggest to John a different application of the familiar sacred use of +the bath; indeed John could hardly have been uninfluenced by the usage of +his contemporaries; yet in this, as in his thought, he was not a product +of their school. + +81. John's baptism was equally independent of the pharisaic influence. The +scribes made much of "divers washings," but not with any such significance +as would furnish to John his baptism of repentance and of radical change +of life. That he was not following a pharisaic leading appears in the +question put to him by the Pharisees, "Why, then, baptizest thou?" (John +i. 25). They saw something unique in the ceremony as he conducted it. + +82. Many have held that he derived his baptism from the method of +admitting proselytes into the Jewish fellowship. It is clear, at least, +that the later ritual prescribed a ceremonial bath as well as circumcision +and sacrifice for all who came into Judaism from the Gentiles, and it is +difficult to conceive of a time when a ceremonial bath would not seem +indispensable, since Jews regarded all Gentile life as defiling. While +such an origin for John's baptism would give peculiar force to his rebuke +of Jewish confidence in the merits of Abraham (Matt. iii. 9), it is more +likely, as Keim has shown (JN. II. 243 and note), that in this as in his +other thought John learned of his predecessors rather than his +contemporaries. Before the giving of the older covenant from Sinai, it is +said that Moses was required "to sanctify the people and bid them wash +their garments" (Ex. xix. 10). John was proclaiming the establishment of a +new covenant, as the prophets had promised. That the people should prepare +for this by a similar bath of sanctification seems most natural. John +appeared with a revival of the older and simpler religious ideas of +Israel's past, deriving his rite as well as his thought from the springs +of his people's religious life. + +83. This revival of the prophetic past had nothing scholastic or +antiquarian about it. John was a disciple, not an imitator, of the great +men of Israel; his message was not learned from Isaiah or any other, +though he was educated by studying them. What he declared, he declared as +truth immediately seen by his own soul, the essence of his power being a +revival, not in letter but in spirit, of the old, direct cry, "Thus saith +the Lord." Inasmuch as John's day was otherwise hopelessly in bondage to +tradition and the study of the letter, by so much is his greatness +enhanced in bringing again God's direct message to the human conscience. +John's greatness was that of a pioneer. The Friend of publicans and +sinners also spoke a simple speech to human hearts; he built on and +advanced from the old prophets, but it was John who was appointed to +prepare the people for the new life, "to make ready the way of the Lord" +(Mark i. 3). The clearness of his perception of truth is not the least of +his claims to greatness. His knowledge of the simplicity of God's +requirements in contrast with the hopeless maze of pharisaic traditions, +and his insight into the characters with whom he had to deal, whether the +sinless Jesus or the hypocritical Pharisees, show a man marvellously +gifted by God who made good use of his gift. This greatness appears in +superlative degree in the self-effacement of him who possessed these +powers. Greatness always knows itself more or less fully. It was not +self-ignorance that led John to claim to be but a voice, nor was it mock +humility. The confession of his unworthiness in comparison with the +mightier one who should follow is unmistakably sincere, as is the +completed joy of this friend of the bridegroom rejoicing greatly because +of the bridegroom's voice, even when the bridegroom's presence meant the +recedence of the friend into ever deepening obscurity (John iii. 30). + +84. But John had marked limitations. He knew well the righteousness of +God; he knew, and, in effect, proclaimed God's readiness to forgive them +that would turn from their wicked ways; he knew the simplicity as well as +the exceeding breadth of the divine commandment; but beyond one flash of +insight (John i. 29-36), which did not avail to remould his thought, he +did not know the yearning love of God which seeks to save. It is not +strange that he did not. Some of the prophets had more knowledge of it +than he, his own favorite Isaiah knew more of it than he, but it was not +the thought of John's day. The wonder is that the Baptist so far freed +himself from current thought; yet he did not belong to the new order. He +thundered as from Sinai. The simplest child that has learned from the +heart its "Our Father" has reached a higher knowledge and entered a higher +privilege (Matt. xi. 11). John's self-effacement, wonderful as it was, +fell short of discipleship to his greater successor; in fact, at a much +later time there was still a circle of disciples of the Baptist who kept +themselves separate from the church (Acts xix. 1-7). He was doubtless too +strenuous a man readily to become a follower. He could yield his place +with unapproachable grace, but he remained the prophet of the wilderness +still. He seemed to belong consciously to the old order, and, by the very +circumstances ordained of God who sent him, he could not be of those who, +sitting at Jesus' feet, learned to surrender to him their preconceptions +and hopes, and in heart, if not in word, to say, "To whom shall we go, +thou hast the words of eternal life?" (John vi. 68). + + + + +VII + +The Messianic Call + +Matt. iii. 13 TO iv. 11; Mark i. 9-13; Luke iii. 21, 22; iv. 1-13; John i. +30-34 + + + +85. In the circle about John all classes of the people were represented: +Pharisees and Sadducees, jealous of innovation and apprehensive of popular +excitement; publicans and soldiers, interested in the new preacher or +touched in conscience; outcasts who came in penitence, and devout souls in +consecration. The wonder of the new message was carried throughout the +land and brought great multitudes to the Jordan. Jesus in Nazareth heard +it, and recognized in John a revival of the long-silent prophetic voice. +The summons appealed to his loyalty to God's truth, and after the +multitudes had been baptized (Luke iii. 21) he too sought the prophet of +the wilderness. + +86. The connection which Luke mentions (i. 36) between the families of +Jesus and John had not led to any intimacy between the two young men. John +certainly did not know of his kinsman's mission (John i. 31), nor was his +conception of the Messiah such that he would look for its fulfilment in +one like Jesus (Matt. iii. 10-12). One thing, however, was clear as soon +as they met,--John recognized in Jesus one holier than himself (Matt. iii. +14). With a prophet's spiritual insight he read the character of Jesus +at a glance, and although that character did not prove him to be the +Messiah, it prepared John for the revelation which was soon to follow. + +87. The reply of Jesus to the unwillingness of John to give him baptism +(Matt. iii. 15) was an expression of firm purpose to do God's will; the +absence of any confession of sin is therefore all the more noticeable. In +all generations the holiest men have been those most conscious of +imperfection, and in John's message and baptism confession and repentance +were primary demands; yet Jesus felt no need for repentance, and asked for +baptism with no word of confession. But for the fact that the total +impression of his life begat in his disciples the conviction that "he did +no sin" (I. Pet. ii. 22; compare John viii. 46; II. Cor. v. 21), this +silence of Jesus would offend the religious sense. Jesus, however, had no +air of self-sufficiency, he came to make surrender and "to fulfil +all-righteousness" (Matt. iii. 15). It was the positive aspect of John's +baptism that drew him to the Jordan. John was preaching the coming of +God's kingdom. The place held by the doctrine of that kingdom in the later +teaching of Jesus makes it all but certain that his thought had been +filled with it for many years. In his reading of the prophets Jesus +undoubtedly emphasized the spiritual phases of their promises, but it is +not likely that he had done much criticising of the ideas held by his +contemporaries before he came to John. As already remarked he seems to +have been quicker to discover his affinity with the older truth than to be +conscious of the novelty of his own ways of apprehending it (Matt. v. 17). +When, then, Jesus heard John's call for consecration to the approaching +kingdom he recognized the voice of duty, and he sought the baptism that he +might do all that he could to "make ready the way of the Lord." + +88. This act of consecration on Jesus' part was one of personal obedience. +There were no crowds present (Luke iii. 21), and his thoughts were full of +prayer. It was an experience which concerned his innermost life with God, +and it called him to communion with heaven like that in which he sought +for wisdom before choosing his apostles (Luke vi. 12), and for strength in +view of his approaching death (Luke ix. 28, 29). His outward declaration +of loyalty to the coming kingdom was thus not an act of righteousness "to +be seen of men," but one of personal devotion to him who is and who sees +in secret (Matt. vi. 1, 6). As the transfiguration followed the prayer on +Hermon, so this initial consecration was answered from heaven. A part of +the answer was evident to John, for he saw a visible token of the gift of +the divine Spirit which was granted to Jesus for the conduct of the work +he had to do, and he recognized in Jesus the greater successor for whom he +was simply making preparation (Mark i. 10; John i. 32-34). To Jesus there +came also with the gift of the Spirit a definite word from heaven, "Thou +art my beloved Son, in thee I am well pleased" (Mark i. 11). The language +in Mark and Luke, and the silence of the Baptist concerning the voice from +heaven (John i. 32-34), indicate that the word came to Jesus alone, and +was his summons to undertake the work of setting up that kingdom to which +he had just pledged his loyalty. The expression "My beloved Son" had clear +Messianic significance for Jesus' contemporaries (comp. Mark xiv. 62), +and the message can have signified for him nothing less than a Messianic +call. It implied more than that child-relation to God which was the +fundamental fact in his religious life from the beginning: it had an +official meaning. + +89. For Jesus the sense of being God's child was normally human, and in +his ministry he invited all men to a similar consciousness of sonship. Yet +his early years must have brought to him a realization that he was +different from his fellows. That in him which made a confession at the +baptism unnatural and which led to John's word, "I have need to be +baptized by thee," was ready to echo assent when God said, "Thou art my +Son." He accepted the call and the new office and mission which it +implied, and he must have recognized that it was for this moment that all +the past of his life had been making preparation. + +90. The gift of the Spirit to Jesus, which furnished to John the proof +that the Greater One had appeared, was not an arbitrary sign. The old +prophetic thought (Isa. xi. 2; xlii. 1; lxi. 1) as well as a later popular +expectation (Ps. of Sol. xvii. 42) provided for such an anointing of the +Messiah; and in the actual conduct of his life Jesus was constantly under +the leading of this Spirit (see Matt. xii. 28 and John iii. 34). The +temptation which followed the baptism, and in which he faced the +difficulties in his new task, was the first result of the Spirit's +control. Its later influence is not so clearly marked in the gospels, but +they imply that as the older servants of God were guided and strengthened +by him, so his Son also was aided,--with this difference, however, that he +possessed completely the heavenly gift (John iii. 34). Jesus' uniform +confession of dependence on God confirms this teaching of the gift of the +divine Spirit; and his uniform consciousness of complete power and +authority confirms the testimony that he had the Spirit "without measure." + +91. The temptation to which the Spirit "drove" Jesus after his baptism +gives proof that the call to assume the Messianic office came to him +unexpectedly; for the three temptations with which his long struggle ended +were echoes of the voice which he had heard at the Jordan, and subtle +insinuations of doubt of its meaning. Some withdrawal to contemplate the +significance of his appointment to a Messianic work was a mental and +spiritual necessity. As has often been said, if the gospels had not +recorded the temptation, we should have had to assume one. Jesus being the +man he was, could not have thought that his call was a summons to an +entire change in his ideals and his thoughts about God and duty. Yet he +must have been conscious of the wide differences between his conceptions +of God's kingdom and the popular expectation. Those differences, by the +measure of the definiteness of the popular thought and the ardor of the +popular hope, were the proof of the difficulty of his task. The call meant +that the Messiah could be such as he was; it meant that the kingdom could +be and must be a dominion of God primarily in the hearts of men and +consequently in their world; it meant that his work must be religious +rather than political, and gracious rather than judicial. These essentials +of the work which he could do contradicted at nearly every point the +expectations of his people. How could he succeed in the face of such +opposition? His long meditation during forty days doubtless showed him the +difficulty of his task in all its baldness, yet it did not shake his +certainty that the call had come to him from God, nor his faith that what +God had called him to do he could accomplish. + +92. The gospels show no hesitation in calling the experience of these days +a temptation, nor had the Christian feeling of the first century any +difficulty in thinking of its Lord as actually suffering temptation (Heb. +ii. 18; iv. 15). A temptation to be real cannot be hypothetical; evil must +actually present itself as attractive to the tempted soul. A suggestion of +evil that takes no hold concretely of the heart is no temptation, nor is +the resistance of it any victory. The sinlessness of him who sought +baptism with no confession on his lips nor sense of penitence in his heart +offers no barrier to his experience of genuine temptation, unless we think +him incapable of sin, and therefore not "like unto his brethren." Not only +do the gospels repeatedly refer to his temptations (Luke iv. 13; Mark +viii. 31-33; Luke xxii. 28; compare Heb. v. 7-9), but they also depict +clearly the reality of these initial testings. The account as given in +Matthew and Luke represents the experience with which the forty days' +struggle culminated. The absorption of Jesus' mind had been so complete +that he had neglected the needs of his body, and when he turned to think +of earthly things he was pressed by hunger. A popular notion at a later +time, and probably also in Jesus' day, was that the Messiah would be able +to feed his people as Moses had given them manna in the wilderness (John +vi. 30-32; see EdersLJM. I. 176). He had just been endowed with the +divine Spirit for the work before him; it was therefore no fantastic idea +when the suggestion came that he should use his power to supply his own +needs in the desert. Nor was the temptation without attractiveness; his +own physical nature urged its need, and Jesus was no ascetic who found +discomfort a way of holiness. The evil in the suggestion was that it asked +him to use his newly given powers for the supply of his own needs, as if +doubting that God would care for him as for any other of his children. +There was more than distrust of God suggested; the temptation came with a +hint of another doubt,--"_If_ thou art God's Son." A miracle would prove +to himself his appointment and his power. The suggested doubt of his call +he passed unnoticed; distrust of God he repudiated instantly, falling back +on his faith in the God he had served these many years (Deut. viii. 3). +His victory is remarkable because his spirit conquered unhesitatingly +after a long ecstasy which would naturally have induced a reaction and a +surrender for the moment to the demand of lower needs. + +93. This firmness of trust opened the way for another evil suggestion. In +the work before him as God's Anointed many difficulties were on either +side and across his path. He knew his people, their prejudices, and their +hardness of heart; and he knew how far he was from their ideal of a +Messiah. He knew also the watchful jealousy of Rome. Others before him, +like Judas of Galilee, had tried the Messianic rôle and had failed. He, +however, was confident of his divine call: should he not, therefore, press +forward with his work, heedless of all danger and regardless of the +dictates of prudence,--as heedless as if, trusting God's promised care, +he should cast himself down from a pinnacle of the temple to the rocks in +Kidron below? A fanatic would have yielded to such a temptation. Many +another than Jesus did so,--Theudas (Acts v. 36), the Egyptian (Acts xxi. +38); and Bar Cochba (Dio Cassius, lxix. 12-14; Euseb. Ch. Hist. iv. 6). +Jesus, however, showed his perfect mental health, repudiating the +temptation by declaring that while man may trust God's care, he must not +presumptuously put it to the test (Matt. iv. 7). The after life of Jesus +was a clear commentary on this reply. He constantly sought to avoid +situations which would compromise his mission or cut short his work (see +John vi. 15), and when at the end he suffered the death prepared for him +by his people's hatred, it was because his hour had come and he could say, +"I lay down my life of myself" (John x. 18). His marvellous control of +enthusiasm and his self-mastery in all circumstances separate Jesus from +all ecstatics and fanatics. Yet presumption must have seemed the easier +course, and could readily wear the mask of trust. He was tempted, yet +without sin. + +94. As the refusal to doubt led to the temptation to presume, so the +determination to be prudent opened the way for a third assault upon his +perfect loyalty to God. The world he was to seek to save was swayed by +passions; his own people were longing for a Messiah, but they must have +their kind of a Messiah. If he would acknowledge this actual supremacy of +evil and self-will in the world, the opposition of passion and prejudice +might be avoided. If he would own the evil inevitable for the time, and +accommodate his work to it, he might then be free to lead men to higher +and more spiritual views of God's kingdom. His knowledge of his people's +grossness of heart and materialism of hope made a real temptation of the +suggestion that he should not openly oppose but should accommodate himself +to them. Jesus did not underestimate the opposition of "the kingdoms of +the world," but he truly estimated God's intolerance of any rivalry (Matt. +iv. 10), and he was true to God and to his own soul. Again, in this as in +the preceding temptations, Jesus conquered the evil suggestions by +appropriating to himself truth spoken by God's servants to Israel. Tempted +in all points like his brethren, he resisted as any one of them could have +resisted, and won a victory possible, ideally considered, to any other of +the children of men. + +95. It is not idle curiosity which inquires whence the evangelists got +this story of the temptation of Jesus. Even if the whole transaction took +place on the plane of outer sensuous life, and Jesus was bodily carried to +Jerusalem and to the mountain-top, there is no probability that any +witnesses were at hand who could tell the tale. But the fact that in any +case the vision of the kingdoms of the world in a moment of time (Luke iv. +5) could have been spiritual only, since no mountain, however high (Matt. +iv. 8), could give, physically, that wide sweep of view, suggests that the +whole account tells in pictorial language an intensely real, inner +experience of Jesus. This in no respect reduces the truthfulness of the +narratives. Temptation never becomes temptation till it passes to that +inner scene of action and debate. Since Jesus shows in all his teaching a +natural use of parabolic language to set forth spiritual truth, the +inference is almost inevitable that the gospels have in like manner +adopted the language of vivid picture as alone adequate to depict the +essential reality of his inner struggle. In any case the narrative could +have come from no other source than himself. How he came to tell it we do +not know. On one of the days of private converse with his disciples after +the confession at Cæsarea Philippi he may have given them this account of +his own experience, in order to help his loyal Galileans to understand +more fully his work and the way of it, and to prepare them for that +disappointment of their expectations which they were so slow to +acknowledge as possible. + +96. From this struggle in the wilderness Jesus came forth with the clear +conviction that he was God's Anointed, and in all his after life no +hesitation appeared. The kingdom which he undertook to establish was that +dominion of simple righteousness which he had learned to know and love in +the years of quiet life in Nazareth. He set out to do his work fearlessly, +but prudently, seeking to win men in his Father's way to acknowledge that +Father's sovereignty. There is no evidence that, beyond such firm +conviction and purpose, he had any fixed plan for the work he was to do, +nor that he saw clearly as yet how his earthly career would end. The third +temptation, however, shows that he was not unprepared for seeming defeat. +The struggle had been long and serious,--for the three temptations of the +end are doubtless typical of the whole of the forty days,--and the victory +was great and final. With the light of victory as well as the marks of +warfare on his face, he took his way back towards Galilee. + + + + +VIII + +The First Disciples + +John i. 19 TO ii. 12 + + + +97. After the withdrawal of Jesus into the wilderness, John the Baptist +continued his ministry of preaching and baptizing, moving northward up the +Jordan valley to Bethany, on the eastern side of the river, near one of +the fords below the Sea of Galilee (John i. 28). Here Galilee, doubtless, +contributed more to his audience than Judea. It is certain that some from +the borders of the lake were at this time among his constant attendants: +Andrew and Simon of Bethsaida, John the son of Zebedee, and perhaps his +brother James, probably also Philip of Bethsaida and Nathanael of Cana +(John i. 40, 41, 43-45; compare xxi. 2). + +98. The leaders in Jerusalem, becoming apprehensive whither this work +would lead, sent an embassy to question John. They chose for this mission +priests and Levites of pharisaic leaning as most influential among the +people. The impression John and his message were making on the popular +mind is seen in the questions put to him, "Art thou the Messiah?" +"Elijah?" "The prophet?" (see Deut. xviii. 15), and in the challenge, +"Why, then, baptizest thou?" when John disclaimed the right to any of +these names. John's reply is the echo of his earlier proclamation of the +one mightier than he who should baptize with the Spirit (Mark i. 7, 8), +only now he added that this one was present among them (John i. 26, 27). + +99. This interview occurred several weeks after Jesus' baptism, for upon +the next day John saw Jesus (John i. 29), now returned from the +temptation, and pointed him out to a group of disciples. Something in +Jesus' face or in his bearing, as he came from his temptation, must have +impressed John even more than at their first meeting; for he was led to +think of a prophetic word for the most part ignored by the Messianic +thought of his day, "He was brought as a lamb to the slaughter" (Isa. +liii. 7). As he looked on Jesus the mysterious oracle was illuminated for +him, and he cried, "Behold the lamb of God which taketh away the sin of +the world." Once again on the next day the same thought rushed to his lips +when, with two disciples, he saw Jesus passing by (John i. 35, 36). Then +as Jesus left John's neighborhood and took up again the round of ordinary +life, John seems to have reverted to his more ordinary Messianic thought, +his momentary insight into highest truth standing as a thing apart in his +life. Such a moment's insight, caused by extraordinary circumstances, no +more requires that John should retain the high thought constantly than +does Peter's confession of Christ at Cæsarea Philippi exclude his later +rebuke of his Lord (Mark viii. 32, 33), or his denials (Mark xiv. 66-72). + +100. The disciples who heard these testimonies from John understood them +to be Messianic (John i. 30-34), though their later consternation, when +the cross seemed to shatter their hopes (John xx. 9, 10, 24, 25), shows +that they did not comprehend their deeper meaning. Two of these disciples +at once attached themselves to Jesus, and one of them, Andrew of +Bethsaida, was so impressed by the new master that, having sought out his +brother Simon, he declared that they had found the Messiah. The other of +these earliest followers was John the son of Zebedee, and it is possible +that he also found his brother and introduced James from the very first +into the circle of the disciples. Jesus was about to take his departure +for Galilee, and on the next day, as he was leaving, added Philip of +Bethsaida to the little company of followers. Philip, impressed as Andrew +had been, brought Nathanael of Cana to Jesus. The undefined something +about Jesus which drew noble hearts irresistibly to himself, and his +marvellous knowledge of this new comer, produced the same effect in +Nathanael, as was seen earlier in Andrew and Philip, and he acknowledged +the new master as "Son of God, King of Israel" (John i. 49). + +101. These early confessions in the fourth gospel present a difficulty in +view of Jesus' warm approval of Peter's acknowledgment of him at Cæsarea +Philippi (Matt. xvi. 13-20). Jesus saw in that confession a distinct +advance in the disciples' thought and faith. Yet the religious feeling +which early questioned whether the Baptist even were not the Messiah (Luke +iii. 15) would almost certainly have concluded that John's greater +successor must be God's anointed. The very fact that men's thoughts about +the Messiah were varied and complex made them ready for some modifications +of their preconceptions. One with such subtle personal power as Jesus had +exercised was almost sure to be hailed by some with enthusiasm as the +looked-for representative of God. In fact, it is probable that at any +time in the early days of his ministry Jesus could have been proclaimed +Messiah, provided he had accepted the people's terms. Such a confession +would have been merely the outcome of enthusiasm. The people, even the +disciples, did not know Jesus. They all had high hopes and somewhat fixed +ideas about the Messiah, nearly every one of which was destined to rude +shock. How little they knew him Jesus realized (John i. 51), and his +self-mastery is manifest in his attitude to this early enthusiasm. He was +no visionary; he had a great work to do and a long lesson to teach, and he +was patient enough to teach it little by little. He did not rebuke the +ill-informed faith of a Nathanael, but sought gradually to supplant the +old thought of the Messiah and of the kingdom by new truth, and to bind +men's affections to himself for his own sake and the truth's sake, not +simply for the idea which he impersonated to them. + +102. The visit to Cana seems to have found a place in the fourth gospel, +because there the new disciples discovered in their master miraculous +powers which were to them a sign that he was in truth God's anointed. It +is probable that at the time of this miracle the disciples thought only of +the power and the marvel, yet the sharp contrast between John's ascetic +habit and Jesus' use of his divine resources to relieve embarrassment at a +wedding feast must have impressed every man among them. Their minds, +however, were as yet too full of Messianic hopes to leave much room for +reflection. They were content to have a sign, for in the view of Jesus' +contemporaries signs were essential marks of the Messiah (John vi. 30; +vii. 31; Mark viii. 11). They did their reflecting later (John ii. 22). + +103. Miracles are as great a stumbling-block to modern thought as they +were a help to the contemporaries of Jesus. The study of Jesus' life +cannot ignore this fact, nor make little of it. It is fair to insist, +however, that the question is one of evidence, not of metaphysical +possibility. Men are wisely slow to-day to claim that they can tell what +are the limits of the possible. If the question is one of evidence, it is +in an important sense true that the evidence for miracle in the life of +Jesus is appreciable only when that life is viewed in its completeness. +The miracles attributed to Jesus may be studied, however, for the +disclosure which they give of his character, and of his relation to common +human need. So it is with this first sign at Cana. Jesus had just heard +the call to be Messiah, and in his lonely struggle in the wilderness had +given a loyal answer to that call, and had set out to do his Father's +business in his Father's way. He who by the Jordan still carried the marks +of struggle, so that the Baptist saw in him the suffering Saviour of +Isaiah liii., now returned to the ordinary daily life in Galilee, and as a +guest at a wedding feast he commenced that ministry of simple human +friendliness (Matt. xi. 19; compare Mark ii. 15-17; Luke xv. 1, 2), which +set him in sharp contrast alike with John's asceticism and with the +ritualism and pedantry of the Pharisees. + +104. His human friendliness is all the more worthy of note, inasmuch as on +his return to Cana Jesus did not take up again the old relations of life +as they existed before his baptism. This is clear from his reply to his +mother when she reported the scarcity of wine (John ii. 3-5). While it is +true that the title by which Jesus addressed Mary was neither +disrespectful nor unkind (John xix. 26), the reply itself was a warning +that now he was no longer hers in the old sense. A new mission had been +given him, which henceforth would determine all his conduct, and in that +mission she could not now share. Here is one of the many indications +(compare Mark iii. 21, 31-35; Luke ii. 48) that Mary did not understand +her son nor his work until much later (John xix. 25; Acts i. 14). That +with such a clear sense of his new and serious mission Jesus' first +official act was one of kindly relief for social embarrassment is most +significant. He chose to show his divine authority to his new disciples in +a way that brought joy to a festal company. Little as the disciples were +likely to appreciate it at the time, it was beautifully indicative of the +simplicity and everyday lovableness of Jesus' idea of the earnest service +of God. + +105. With the disciples thus strengthened in faith, and the mother not +separated from him though unable to know his deepest thoughts, and the +brethren who could not yet nor later understand their kinsman and his +work, Jesus went down to Capernaum (John ii. 12), which proved thenceforth +to be the centre of his greatest work and teaching. There for a time, how +long cannot be known, he continued in quiet fellowship with his new +friends, until the approach of the Passover drew him to Jerusalem to make +formal opening of his Messianic work in that centre of his people's +religious life. + + + + + + +Part II + +The Ministry + + + + +I + +General Survey of the Ministry + + + +106. The attempt to arrange an orderly account of the way in which Jesus +set about the work to which he was called at his baptism is met at the +outset by a problem. The vivid and familiar words of Mark (i. 14), +seconded by the representation in both Matthew (iv. 12) and Luke (iv. 14), +indicate the imprisonment of John as the occasion, and Galilee as the +scene of the inauguration of Jesus' public ministry. The fourth gospel, on +the other hand, tells of a work of Jesus and his disciples in Judea prior +to the imprisonment of John (in. 24), and makes this work follow at some +interval after the inauguration of the Messianic ministry in Jerusalem. +The minuteness of detail of time and place in the early chapters of John +(i. 19 to iv. 43), together with the vividness of their narrative, give +them strong claim to credence. They thus record a ministry earlier than +that narrated in the other gospels, proving that the actual inauguration +of Jesus' work occurred in Jerusalem at a Passover season previous to the +imprisonment of John. This is known as the Early Judean Ministry. + +107. The fact that Peter was wont to tell the story of Jesus' life in such +a way as to lead Mark to set the opening of the ministry after the close +of John's activity, indicates that that beginning of work in Galilee +seemed to the disciples to be in a way the actual inauguration of Jesus' +constructive and successful work. Peter cannot have been ignorant of the +labors in Judea, though he may not himself have accompanied Jesus to the +Passover. A new stage in the life of Jesus began, therefore, with his +withdrawal to Galilee. + +108. The story of the Galilean ministry is given chiefly by the first +three gospels, John contributing but two incidents to the period covered +by that ministry,--a second miracle at Cana (iv. 46-54), and a visit to +Judea (v. 1-47),--and relating more fully the story of the feeding of the +multitudes (vi. 1-71). The journey from Judea through Samaria (John iv. +1-45) should be identified with the removal to Galilee which stands at the +beginning of Mark's record (i. 14; Matt. iv. 12; Luke iv. 14). Mark's +account of the Galilean activity of Jesus (i. 14 to ix. 50) is one of such +simple and steady progress that the whole period must be considered as a +unit. + +109. In the use which Matthew (iv. 12 to xviii. 35) and Luke (iv. 14 to +ix. 50) make of Mark's record this unity is emphasized. Their treatment of +the matter which they add, however, makes it best to study the period +topically rather than attempt to follow closely a chronological sequence. +As it is probable that the early writing ascribed by Papias to the apostle +Matthew failed to preserve in many cases any record of the time and place +of the teachings of Jesus, so is it certain that the first and third +evangelists have distributed quite differently the material which they +seem to have derived from that apostolic document. Mention need only be +made of the exhortation against anxiety which Matthew places in the +sermon on the mount (vi. 19-34), and which Luke has given after the close +of the Galilean activity (xii. 22-34). It is possible to form some +judgment of the general relations of such discourses from the character of +their contents, but in the absence of positive statement by the +evangelists it is hopeless to seek to give them a more definite historical +setting. A topical study can consider them as contributions to the period +to which they belong, while a chronological study would be lost in +uncertain conjectures. A topical study may, however, disclose the fact +that sequence of time was identical with development of method. This is, +in general, the case with the Galilean ministry. The new lesson which +Jesus began to teach after the confession at Cæsarea Philippi marked the +supreme turning point in his whole public activity. Before that crisis the +work of Jesus was a constructive preparation for the question which called +forth Peter's confession. Subsequently his work was that of making ready +for the end, which from that time on he foretold. As has been stated, the +Galilean ministry is the story of the first three gospels, except for two +incidents and a discourse added by John. The visit to the feast of +Tabernacles (John vii. 1 to viii. 59) stands on the border between the +work in Galilee and that which followed. It was one of Jesus' many +attempts to win Jerusalem, and is evidence that the author of the fourth +gospel--either because of special interest in the capital, or because of +superior knowledge of the work of his Master in Judea--gave emphasis to a +side of the life of Jesus which the other gospels have neglected. + +110. With the close of the constructive ministry in Galilee, the account +of Mark (x. 1; compare Matt xix. 1; Luke ix. 51) turns towards Jerusalem +and the cross. The journey was not direct, but traversed Perea, the domain +of Antipas beyond Jordan, and was accompanied by continued ministry of +teaching and healing (Mark x. 1-52; Matt. xix. 1 to xx. 34). It is at this +point that Luke has inserted the long section peculiar to his gospel (ix. +51 to xviii. 14), becoming again parallel with Mark as Jesus drew near to +Jerusalem (xviii. 15 to xix. 28; compare Mark x. 13-52). Much of that +which Luke adds gives evidence that in all probability it should be placed +before the change in method at Cæsarea Philippi, while much of it +undoubtedly belongs to the last months of Jesus' life. Since the last +journey to Jerusalem is reported with considerable fulness, it is natural +in a study of Jesus' life to treat that journey by itself. At this point +John contributes important additions to the record (ix. 1 to xi. 57) +showing that the journey was not continuous, but was interrupted by +several more or less hurried visits to the capital, renewed efforts of +Jesus to win the city. + +111. With the final arrival in Jerusalem the four gospels come together in +a record of the last days and the crucifixion (Mark xi. 1 to xv. 47; Matt, +xxi 1 to xxvii. 66; Luke xix. 29 to xxiii. 56; John xi. 55 to xix. 42). +The evangelists, in their accounts of the last week, seem to have had +access to completer and more varied information than for any other part of +the ministry. This causes some difficulties in constructing an ordered +conception of the events, yet it greatly adds to the fulness of our +knowledge. It is easier, therefore, to consider the period in three +parts,--the final controversies in Jerusalem, the Last Supper, and the +betrayal, trial, and crucifixion. + +112. In a sense the resurrection and ascension form the conclusion of the +final visit to Jerusalem, and should be treated with the last week. In a +larger sense, however, they form the culmination of the whole ministry, +and therefore constitute a final stage in the study of Jesus' life. At +this point the record of the gospels is supplemented by the first chapter +of the Acts and by Paul's concise report of the appearances of the risen +Christ (I. Cor. xv. 3-8). The various accounts exhibit perplexing +independence of each other. In total impression, however, they agree, and +show that the tragedy, by which the enemies of Jesus thought to end his +career, was turned into signal triumph. + + Outline of Events in the Early Judean Ministry + + + The first Passover of the public ministry: Cleansing of the + temple--John ii. 13-22. + + Early results in Jerusalem: Discourse with Nicodemus--John ii. 23 to + iii. 15. + + Withdrawal into rural parts of Judea to preach and baptize--John in. + 22-30; iv. 1, 2. + + Imprisonment of John the Baptist--Matt. iv. 12; Mark i. 14. + + Withdrawal from Judea through Samaria--John iv. 1-42. + + Unlooked-for welcome in Galilee--John iv. 43-45. + + ? Second sign at Cana: Cure of the Nobleman's son--John iv. 46-54 (see + sect. A 41). + + [Retirement at Nazareth, the disciples resuming their accustomed + calling. Inferred from Matt. iv. 13; Luke iv. 31; Matt. iv. 18-22 and + ∥s.] + + Events marked ? should possibly be given a different place; ∥s stands + for "parallel accounts;" for sections marked A--as A 41--see Appendix. + + + + +II + +The Early Ministry in Judea + + + +113. We owe to the fourth gospel our knowledge of the fact that Jesus +began his general ministry in Jerusalem. The silence of the other records +concerning this beginning cannot discredit the testimony of John. For +these other records themselves indicate in various ways that Jesus had +repeatedly sought to win Jerusalem before his final visit at the end of +his life (compare Luke xiii. 34; Matt. xxiii. 37). Moreover, the fourth +gospel is confirmed by the probability, rising almost to necessity, that +such a mission as Jesus conceived his to be must seek first to win the +leaders of his people. The temple at Jerusalem was the centre of worship, +drawing all Jews sooner or later to itself--even as Jesus in early youth +was accustomed to go thither at the time of feasts (Luke ii. 41). +Worshippers of God throughout the world prayed with their faces towards +Jerusalem (Dan. vi. 10). Moreover, at Jerusalem the chief of the scribes, +as well as the chief of the priests, were to be found. Compared with +Jerusalem all other places were provincial and of small influence. A +Messiah, who had not from the outset given up hope of winning the capital, +cannot have long delayed his effort to find a following there. + +114. Arriving at Jerusalem at the Passover season, in the early spring, +Jesus remained in Judea until the following December (John iv. 35). +Evidently the record which John gives of these months is most fragmentary, +and from his own statement (xx. 30, 31) it seems highly probable that it +is one sided, emphasizing those events and teachings in which Jesus +disclosed more or less clearly his claim to be the Messiah. Doubtless the +full record would show a much closer similarity between this early work in +Judea and that later conducted in Galilee than a comparison of John with +the other gospels would suggest; yet it is evident that Jesus opened his +ministry in Jerusalem with an unrestrained frankness that is not found +later in Galilee. + +115. It is a mistake to think of the cleansing of the temple as a distinct +Messianic manifesto. The market in the temple was a licensed affront to +spiritual religion. It found its excuse for being in the requirement that +worshippers offer to the priests for sacrifice animals levitically clean +and acceptable, and that gifts for the temple treasury be made in no coin +other than the sacred "shekel of the sanctuary." The chief priests +appreciated the convenience which worshippers coming from a distance would +find if they could obtain all the means of worship within the temple +enclosure itself. The hierarchy or its representatives seem also to have +appreciated the opportunity to charge good prices for the accommodation so +afforded. The result was the intrusion of the spirit of the market-place, +with all its disputes and haggling, into the place set apart for worship. +In fact, the only part of the temple open to Gentiles who might wish to +worship Israel's God was filled with distraction, unseemly strife, and +extortion (compare Mark xi. 17). Such despite done the sanctity of God's +house must have outraged the pious sense of many a devout Israelite. There +is no doubt of what an Isaiah or a Micah would have said and done in such +a situation. This is exactly what Jesus did. His act was the assumption of +a full prophetic authority. In itself considered it was nothing more. In +his expulsion of the traders he had the conscience of the people for his +ally. There is no need to think of any use of miraculous power. His moral +earnestness, coupled with the underlying consciousness on the part of the +traders themselves that they had no business in God's house, readily +explains the confusion and departure of the intruders. Even those who +challenged Jesus' conduct did not venture to defend the presence of the +market in the temple. They only demanded that Jesus show his warrant for +disturbing a condition of things authorized by the priests. + +116. The temple cleansing is recorded in the other gospels at the end of +Jesus' ministry, just before the hostility of the Jews culminated in his +condemnation and death. Inasmuch as these gospels give no account of a +ministry by Jesus in Jerusalem before the last week of his life, it is +easy to see how this event came to be associated by them with the only +Jerusalem sojourn which they record. The definite place given to the event +in John, together with the seeming necessity that Jesus should condemn +such authorized affront to the very idea of worship, mark this cleansing +as the inaugural act of Jesus' ministry of spiritual religion, rather than +as a final stern rebuke closing his effort to win his people. Against the +conclusion commonly held that Jesus cleansed the temple both at the +opening and at the close of his course is the extreme improbability that +the traders would have been caught twice in the same way. The event fits +in closely with the story of the last week, because it actually led to the +beginning of opposition in Jerusalem to the prophet from Galilee. At the +first the opposition was doubtless of a scornful sort. Later it grew in +bitterness when it saw how Jesus was able to arouse a popular enthusiasm +that seemed to threaten the stability of existing conditions. + +117. The reply of Jesus to the challenge of his authority for his +high-handed act shows that he offered it to the people as an invitation; +he would lead them to a higher idea and practice of worship (compare John +iv. 21-24). When they demanded the warrant for his act, he saw that they +were not ready to follow him, and could not appreciate the only warrant he +needed for his course. He cleansed the temple because they were destroying +it as a place where men could worship God in spirit. In reply to the +challenge, he who later taught the Samaritan woman that the worship of God +is not dependent on any place however sacred, answered that they might +finish their work and destroy the temple as a house of God, yet he would +speedily re-establish a true means of approach to the Most High for the +souls of men. He clothed his reply in a figurative dress, as he was often +wont to do in his teaching,--"Destroy this temple, and in three days I +will raise it up." To his unsympathetic hearers it must have been +completely enigmatic. Even the disciples did not catch its meaning until +after the resurrection had taught them that in their Master a new chapter +in God's dealing with men had begun. + +118. The unreadiness of the Jewish leaders to receive the only kind of +message he had to offer produced in Jesus a decided reserve. He did not +lack a certain kind of success in Jerusalem. His cures of the sick won him +many followers who seemed ready to believe almost anything of him. But the +attitude taken by the leaders made it evident that Jesus must make +disciples who should understand in some measure at least his idea of God's +kingdom, and, understanding, must be ready to be loyal to it through good +report and evil. For the position taken by the leaders of the people had +an ominous significance. It could mean but one thing for +Jesus,--unrelenting conflict. If they could not be won, they who would so +legalize the desecration of God's house would not hesitate at any extreme +in opposing his messenger. This possibility confronted Jesus at the very +outset; therefore he held the popular enthusiasm in check, knowing that +as yet it had little of that kind of faith which could endure seeming +defeat. + +119. One of those who were drawn to him, however, gave Jesus opportunity +to lay aside his reserve and speak clearly of the truth lie came to +publish. He was a member of the Jewish sanhedrin, a rabbi apparently held +in high regard in Jerusalem. While his associates were dismissing the +claims of Jesus with a wave of the hand, Nicodemus sought out the new +teacher by night, and showed his desire to learn what Jesus held to be +truth concerning God's kingdom. Jesus first reminded the teacher of Israel +of the old doctrine of the prophets, that Israel must find a new heart +before God's kingdom can come (Jer. xxxi. 31-34; Ezek. xxxvi. 25-27), and +then declared that the heavenly truth which God now would reveal to men is +that all can have the needed new life as freely as the plague-stricken +Israelites found relief when Moses lifted up the brazen serpent. This +conversation serves to introduce the evangelist's interpretation of Jesus +as the only begotten Son of God sent in love to redeem the world (John +iii. 16-21). + +120. John's record suggests that Jesus left Jerusalem shortly after the +conversation with Nicodemus. His work there was not without success, for +Nicodemus seems to have been henceforth his loyal advocate (compare John +vii. 50-52; xix. 39); and it may be that at the time of this sojourn he +won the hearts of his friends in Bethany, for the first picture the +gospels give of this household seems to presuppose a somewhat intimate +relation of Jesus to the family (Luke x. 38-42). It would be idle to +speculate whether it was at this time or later that he became acquainted +with Joseph of Arimathea, or the friends who during the last week of his +life showed him hospitality (Mark xi. 2-6; xiv. 12-16). + +121. For a time after his withdrawal from Jerusalem he lingered in Judea, +carrying on a simple ministry of preparation like that of John the +Baptist. In this way the summer and early autumn seem to have passed, +Jesus growing more popular as a prophet than John himself had been. The +fact that Jesus' disciples administered baptism in connection with his +work roused the jealousy of some of John's followers, and attracted again +the attention of Jerusalem to the new activity of the bold disturber of +the temple market. John's disciples complained to him of Jesus' rivalry, +and received his self-effacing confession, "He must increase, I must +decrease." The Pharisees, on the other hand, made Jesus feel that further +work in Judea was for the time unwise, and he withdrew into Galilee for +retirement, since "a prophet has no honor in his own country" (John iv. +1-3, 44). Baffled in his first effort to win his people, this journey back +from the region of the holy city must have been one of no little sadness +for Jesus. Some urgency for haste led him by the direct road through +despised Samaria. A seemingly chance conversation with a woman at Jacob's +well, where he was resting at noonday, gave him an opportunity for +ministry which was more ingenuously received than any which he had been +able to render in Judea; and to this woman he declared himself even more +plainly than to Nicodemus, and preached to her that spiritual idea of +worship which he had sought to enforce by cleansing Jerusalem's temple. +Samaria was so isolated from all Jewish interest that Jesus felt no need +for reserve in this "strange" land. The few days spent there must have +been peculiarly welcome to his heart, fresh from rejection in Judea. + +122. One reason why he wished to hasten from Judea seems to have been his +knowledge of the hostile movement which was making against John the +Baptist. Either before or soon after Jesus started for Galilee Herod had +arrested John, ostensibly as a measure of public safety owing to John's +undue popularity (Jos. Ant. xviii. 5. 2). Herod may have been encouraged +to take this step by the hostility of the Pharisees to the plain-spoken +prophet of the desert (see John iv. 1-3). The fourth gospel leaves its +readers to infer that the imprisonment took place somewhere about this +time (compare iii. 24 and v. 35), while the other gospels unite in giving +this arrest as the occasion for Jesus' withdrawal into Galilee. + +123. Arrived in Galilee, Jesus seems to have returned to his home at +Nazareth, while his disciples went back to their customary occupations, +until he summoned them again to join him in a new ministry (see sect. +125). John assigns to this time the cure of a nobleman's son. The father +sought out Jesus at Cana, having left his son sick at Capernaum. At first +Jesus apparently repelled his approach, even as he had dealt with seekers +after marvels at Jerusalem; but on hearing the father's cry of need and +trust, he at once spoke the word of healing. This event is in so many ways +a duplicate of the cure of a centurion's servant recorded in Matthew and +Luke, that to many it seems but another version of the same incident. +Considering the variations in the story reported by Matthew and Luke, it +is clearly not possible to prove that John tells of a different case. Yet +the simple fact of similarity of some details in two events should not +exclude the possibility of their still being quite distinct. The reception +which Jesus gave the two requests for help is very different, and the case +reported in John is in keeping with the attitude of Jesus before he began +his new ministry in Galilee. On his arrival in Galilee he wished to avoid +a mere wonder faith begotten of the enthusiasm he excited in Jerusalem, +yet this wish yielded at once when a genuine need sought relief at his +hands. + +124. The apparent result of this first activity in Judea was +disappointment and failure. He had won no considerable following in the +capital. He had definitely excited the jealousy and opposition of the +leading men of his nation. Even such popular enthusiasm as had followed +his mighty works was of a sort that Jesus could not encourage. The +situation in Judea had at length become so nearly untenable that he +decided to withdraw into seclusion in Galilee, where, as a prophet, he +could be "without honor." He had gone to Jerusalem eager to begin there, +where God should have had readiest service, the ministry of the kingdom of +God. Challenge, cold criticism, and superficial faith were the results. A +new beginning must be made on other lines in other places. Meanwhile Jesus +retired to his home and his followers to theirs. + + Outline of Events in the Galilean Ministry (Chapters III. And IV.) + + + The imprisonment of John and the withdrawal of Jesus into + Galilee--Matt. iv. 12-17; Mark i. 14, 15; Luke iv. 14, 15. + + Removal from Nazareth to Capernaum--Matt. iv. 13-16; Luke iv. 31. + + The call of Simon and Andrew, James and John--Matt. iv. 18-22; Mark i. + 16-20; Luke v. 1-11. + + First work in Capernaum--Matt. viii. 14-17; Mark i. 21-34; Luke iv. + 31-41. + + First circuit of Galilee--Matt. iv. 23; viii. 2-4; Mark i. 35-45; Luke + iv. 42-44; v. 12-16. + + Cure of a paralytic in Capernaum--Matt. ix. 2-8; Mark ii. 1-12; Luke v. + 17-26. + + The call of Matthew--Matt. ix. 9-13; Mark ii. 13-17; Luke v. 27-32. + + ? The question about fasting--Matt ix. 14-17; Mark ii. 18-22; Luke v. + 33-39 (see sects. 47; A 54). + + ? Sabbath cure at Jerusalem at the unnamed feast--John v. 1-47 (see + sect. A 53). + + ? The Sabbath controversy in the Galilean grain fields--Matt. xii. 1-8; + Mark ii. 23-28; Luke vi. 1-5 (see sects. 47; A 54). + + ? Another Sabbath controversy: cure of a withered hand--Matt. xii. + 9-14; Mark iii. 1-6; Luke vi. 6-11 (see sects. 47; A 54). + + Jesus followed by multitudes from all parts--Matt. iv. 23-25; xii. + 15-21; Mark iii. 7-12; Luke vi. 17-19. + + The choosing of the twelve--Matt. x. 2-4; Mark iii. 13-19; Luke vi. + 12-19. + + The sermon on the mount--Matt. v. 1 to viii. 1; Luke vi. 20 to vii. 1 + (see sect. A 55). + + The cure of a centurion's servant--Matt. viii. 5-13; Luke vii. 1-10; + John iv. 46-54. + + The restoration of the widow's son at Nain--Luke vii. 11-17. + + The message from John in prison--Matt. xi. 2-19; Luke vii. 18-35. + + The anointing of Jesus by a sinful woman--Luke vii. 36-50. + + The companions of Jesus on his second circuit of Galilee--Luke viii. + 1-3. + + Cure of a demoniac in Capernaum and blasphemy by the Pharisees--Matt. + xii. 22-45; Mark iii. 19^a-30; Luke xi. 14-36. + + The true kindred of Jesus--Matt. xii. 46-50; Mark iii. 31-35; Luke + viii. 19-21. + + The parables by the sea--Matt. xiii. 1-53; Mark iv. 1-34; Luke viii. + 4-18 (see sect. A 56). + + The tempest stilled--Matt. viii. 18, 23-27; Mark iv. 35-41; Luke viii. + 22-25. + + Cure of the Gadarene demoniac--Matt. viii. 28-34; Mark v. 1-20; Luke + viii. 26-39. + + The restoration of the daughter of Jairus and cure of an invalid + woman--Matt. ix. 1, 18-26; Mark v. 21-43; Luke viii. 40-56. + + Cure of blind and dumb--Matt. ix. 27-34. + + Rejection at Nazareth--Matt. xiii. 54-58; Mark vi. 1-6^a; Luke iv. + 16-30 (see sect. A 52). + + Third circuit of Galilee--Matt. ix. 35; Mark vi. 6^b. + + The mission of the twelve--Matt. ix. 36 to xi. 1; Mark vi. 7-13; Luke + ix. 1-6 (see sect. A 57). + + The death of John the Baptist--Matt. xiv. 1-12; Mark vi. 14-29; Luke + ix. 7-9. + + Withdrawal of Jesus across the sea and feeding of the five + thousand--Matt. xiv. 13-23; Mark vi. 30-46; Luke ix. 10-17; John vi. + 1-15. + + Return to Capernaum, Jesus walking on the water--Matt. xiv. 24-36; Mark + vi. 47-56; John vi. 16-21. + + Teaching about the Bread of Life in the synagogue at Capernaum--John + vi. 22-71 (see sect. A 59). + + Controversy concerning tradition: handwashing, etc.--Matt. xv. 1-20; + Mark vii. 1-23. + + Withdrawal to regions of Tyre and Sidon: the SyrophÅ“nician woman's + daughter--Matt. xv. 21-28; Mark vii. 24-30. + + Return through Decapolis--Matt. xv. 29-31; Mark vii. 31-37. + + ? The feeding of the four thousand--Matt. xv. 32-38; Mark viii. 1-9 + (see sect. A 58). + + Pharisaic challenge in Galilee, and warning against the leaven of the + Pharisees--Matt xv. 39 to xvi. 12; Mark viii. 10-21. + + Cure of blind man near Bethsaida--Mark viii. 22-26. + + Peter's confession of Jesus as Christ near Cæsarea Philippi--Matt. xvi. + 13-20; Mark viii. 27-30; Luke ix. 18-21. + + The new lesson, that the Christ must die--Matt. xvi. 21-28; Mark viii. + 31 to ix. 1; Luke ix. 22-27. + + The transfiguration--Matt. xvii. 1-13; Mark ix. 2-13; Luke ix. 28-36. + + Cure of the epileptic boy--Matt. xvii. 14-20; Mark ix. 14-29; Luke ix. + 37-43^a. + + Second prediction of approaching death and resurrection--Matt. xvii. + 22, 23; Mark ix. 30-32; Luke ix. 43^b-45. + + Return to Capernaum: the temple tax--Matt. xvii. 24-27; Mark ix. 33^a. + + Teachings concerning humility and forgiveness--Matt. xviii. 1-35; Mark + ix. 33-50; Luke ix. 46-50. + + Visit of Jesus to Jerusalem at the feast of Tabernacles--John vii. + 1-52; viii. 12-59 (see sect. A 60). + + ? The woman taken in adultery--John vii. 53 to viii. 11 (see sect. + 163). + + The following probably belong to the Galilean ministry before the + confession at Cæsarea Philippi (see sect. 168):-- + + The disciples taught to pray--Matt. vi. 9-15; vii. 7-11; Luke xi. 1-13. + + The cure of an infirm woman on the Sabbath--Luke xiii. 10-17. + + Two parables: mustard-seed and leaven--Matt. xiii. 31-33; Luke xiii. + 18-21 (see sect. A 56). + + The parable of the rich fool--Luke xii. 13-21. + + Cure on a Sabbath and teaching at a Pharisee's table--Luke xiv. 1-24. + + Five parables--Luke xv. 1 to xvi. 31. + + Certain disconnected teachings--Luke xvii. 1-4. + + + + +III + +The Ministry In Galilee--its Aim And Method + + + +125. The work of Jesus in Galilee, which is the principal theme of the +first three gospels, began with a removal from Nazareth to Capernaum, and +the calling of four fishermen to be his constant followers. The ready +obedience which Simon and Andrew and James and John gave to this call is +an interesting evidence that they did not first come to know Jesus at the +time of this summons. The narrative presupposes some such earlier +association as is reported in John, followed by a temporary return to +their old homes and occupations, while Jesus sought seclusion after his +work in Judea. The first evangelist has most vividly indicated the +development of the Galilean ministry, directing attention to two points of +beginning,--the beginning of Jesus' preaching of the kingdom (Matt. iv. +17) and the beginning of his predictions of his own sufferings and death +(xvi. 21). Between these two beginnings lies the ministry of Jesus to the +enthusiastic multitudes, the second of them marking his choice of a more +restricted audience and a less popular message. Within the first of these +periods two events mark epochs,--the mission of the twelve (Matt. ix. 36; +x. I) to preach the coming kingdom of God and to multiply Jesus' ministry +of healing, and the feeding of the five thousand when the popular +enthusiasm reached its climax (John vi. 14, 15). These events fall not +far apart, and mark two different phases of the same stage of development +in his work. The first is emphasized by Matthew, the second by John; both +help to a clearer understanding of the narrative which Mark has furnished +to the other gospels for their story of the Galilean ministry. The table +at the head of this chapter indicates in outline the probable succession +of events in the Galilean period. The order adopted is that of Mark, +supplemented by the other gospels. Luke's additions are inserted in his +order where there is not some reason for believing that he himself +disregarded the exact sequence of events. Thus the rejection at Nazareth +is placed late, as in Mark. Much of the material in the long section +peculiar to Luke is assigned in general to this Galilean period, since all +knowledge of its precise location in time and place has been lost for us, +as it not unlikely was for Luke. Although Matthew is the gospel giving the +clearest general view of the Galilean work, it shows the greatest +disarrangement of details, and aids but little in determining the sequence +of events. The material from that gospel is assigned place in accordance +with such hints as are discoverable in parallel or associated parts of +Mark or Luke. Of John's contributions one--the feeding of the +multitudes--is clearly located by its identity with a narrative found in +all the other gospels. The visit to Jerusalem at the unnamed feast can be +only tentatively placed. + +126. Viewing this gospel story as a whole, the parallel development of +popular enthusiasm and official hostility at once attracts attention. +Jesus' first cures in the synagogue at Capernaum roused the interest and +wonder of the multitudes to such an extent that he felt constrained to +withdraw to other towns. On his return to Capernaum he was so beset with +crowds that the friends of the paralytic could get at him only by breaking +up the roof. It was when Jesus found himself followed by multitudes from +all parts of the land that he selected twelve of his disciples "that they +might be with him and that he might send them forth to preach," and +addressed to them in the hearing of the multitudes the exacting, although +unspeakably winsome teaching of the sermon on the mount. This condition of +things continued even after Herod had killed John the Baptist, for when +Jesus, having heard of John's fate, sought retirement with his disciples +across the sea of Galilee, he was robbed of his seclusion by throngs who +flocked to him to be healed and to hear of the kingdom of God. + +127. The popular enthusiasm was not indifferent to the question who this +new teacher might be. At first Jesus impressed the people by his +authoritative teaching and cures. After the raising of the widow's son at +Nain the popular feeling found a more definite declaration,--"a great +prophet has risen up among us." The cure of a demoniac in Capernaum raised +the further incredulous query, "Can this be the Son of David?" The notion +that he might be the Messiah seems to have gained acceptance more and more +as Jesus' popularity grew, for at the time of the feeding of the +multitudes the enthusiasm burst into a flame of determination to force him +to undertake the work for which he was so eminently fitted, but from which +for some inexplicable reason he seemed to shrink (John vi. 15). + +128. Parallel with the growth of popular enthusiasm, and in part because +of it, the religious leaders early assumed and consistently maintained an +attitude of opposition. The gospels connect the critics of Jesus now and +again with the Pharisees of the capital--the Galilean Pharisees being +represented as more or less friendly. At the first appearance of Jesus in +Capernaum even the Sabbath cure in the synagogue passed unchallenged; but +on the return from his first excursion to other towns, Jesus found critics +in his audience (Luke connects them directly with Jerusalem). From time to +time such censors as these objected to the forgiveness by Jesus of the +sins of the paralytic (Mark ii. 6, 7), criticised his social relations +with outcasts like the publicans (Mark ii. 16), took offence at his +carelessness of the Sabbath tradition in his instruction of his disciples +(Mark ii. 24), and sought to turn the tide of rising popular enthusiasm by +ascribing his power to cure to a league with the devil (Mark iii. 22). +Baffled in one charge, they would turn to another, until, after the +feeding of the multitudes, Jesus showed his complete disregard of all they +held most dear, replying to a criticism of his disciples for carelessness +of the ritual of hand-washing by an authoritative setting aside of the +whole body of their traditions, as well as of the Levitical ceremonial of +clean and unclean meats (Mark vii. 1-23). + +129. The wonder is, not that popular enthusiasm for Jesus was great, but +that it was so hesitating in its judgment about him. The province which +provided a following to Judas of Galilee a generation earlier than the +public ministry of Jesus, and which under John of Gischala furnished the +chief support to the revolt against Rome a generation later, could have +been excited to uncontrollable passion by the simple idea that a leader +was present who could be made to head a movement for Jewish liberty. But +there was something about Jesus which made it impossible to think of him +as such a Messiah. He was much more moved by sin lurking within than by +wrong inflicted from without. He looked for God's kingdom, as did the +Zealots, but he looked for it within the heart more than in outward +circumstances. Even the dreamers among the people, who were as unready as +Jesus for any uprising against Rome, and who waited for God to show his +own hand in judgment, found in Jesus--come to seek and to save that which +was lost--something so contradictory of their idea of the celestial judge +that they could not easily think of him as a Messiah. Jesus was a puzzle +to the people. They were sure that he was a prophet; but if at any time +some were tempted to query, "Can this be the Son of David?" the +incredulous folk expected ever a negative reply. + +130. This was as Jesus wished it to be. An unreasoning enthusiasm could +only hinder his work. When his early cures in Capernaum stirred the ardent +feelings of the multitudes, he took occasion to withdraw to other towns +and allow popular feeling to cool. When later he found himself pressed +upon by crowds from all quarters of the land, by the sermon on the mount +he set them thinking on strange and highly spiritual things, far removed +from the thoughts of Zealots and apocalyptic dreamers. + +131. The manifest contradiction of popular Messianic ideas which Jesus +presented in his own person usually served to check undue ardor as long +as he was present. But when some demoniac proclaimed the high station of +Jesus, and thus seemed to the people to give supernatural testimony; or +when some one in need sought him apart from the multitudes, Jesus +frequently enjoined silence. These injunctions of silence are enigmas +until they are viewed as a part of Jesus' effort to keep control of +popular feeling. In his absence the people might dwell on his power and +easily come to imagine him to be what he was not and could not be. Jesus +was able by these means to restrain unthinking enthusiasm until the +multitudes whom he fed on the east side of the sea determined to force him +to do their will as a Messiah. Then he refused to follow where they +called, and that happened which would doubtless have happened at an +earlier time but for Jesus' caution,--the popular enthusiasm subsided, and +his active work with the common people was at an end. But he had held off +this crisis until there were a few who did not follow the popular +defection, but rather clung to him from whom they had heard the words of +eternal life (John vi. 68). + +132. Jesus' caution brings to light one aspect of his aim in the Galilean +ministry,--he sought to win acceptance for the truth he proclaimed. His +message as reported in the synoptic gospels was the near approach of the +kingdom of God. Any such proclamation was sure of eager hearing. At first +he seems to have been content to gather and interest the multitudes by +this preaching and the works which accompanied it. But he early took +occasion to state his ideas in the hearing of the multitudes, and in terms +so simple, so concerned with every-day life, so exacting as respects +conduct, and so lacking in the customary glowing picture of the future, +that the people could not mistake such a teacher for a simple fulfiller of +their ideas. In this early sermon in effect, and later with increasing +plainness, he set forth his doctrine of a kingdom of heaven coming not +with observation, present actually among a people who knew it not, like a +seed growing secretly in the earth, or leaven quietly leavening a lump of +meal. By word and deed, in sermon and by parable, he insisted on this +simple and every-day conception of God's rule among men. With Pharisee, +Zealot, and dreamer, he held that "the best is yet to be," yet all three +classes found their most cherished ideals set at nought by the new +champion of the soul's inner life in fellowship with the living God. In +all his teaching there was a claim of authority and a manifest +independence which indicate certainty on his part concerning his own +mission. Yet so completely is the personal question retired for the time, +that in his rebuke of the blasphemy of the Pharisees he took pains to +declare that it was not because they had spoken against the Son of Man, +that they were in danger, but because they had spoken against the Spirit +of God, whose presence was manifest in his works. He wished, primarily, to +win disciples to the kingdom of God. + +133. Yet Jesus was not indifferent in Galilee to what the people thought +about himself. The question at Cæsarea Philippi shows more fully the aim +of his ministry. During all the period of the preaching of the kingdom he +never hesitated to assert himself whenever need for such self-assertion +arose. This was evident in his dealing with his pharisaic critics. He +rarely argued with them, and always assumed a tone of authority which was +above challenge, asserting that the Son of Man had authority to forgive +sins, was lord of the Sabbath, was greater than the temple or Jonah or +Solomon. Moreover, in his positive teaching of the new truth he assumed +such an authoritative tone that any who thought upon it could but remark +the extraordinary claim involved in his simple "I say unto you." He wished +also to win disciples to himself. + +134. The key to the ministry in Galilee is furnished in Jesus' answer to +the message from John the Baptist. John in prison had heard of the works +of his successor. Jesus did so much that promised a fulfilment of the +Messianic hope, yet left so much undone, contradicting in so many ways the +current idea of a Messiah by his studied avoidance of any demonstration, +that the older prophet felt a momentary doubt of the correctness of his +earlier conviction. It is in no way strange that he experienced a reaction +from that exalted moment of insight when he pointed out Jesus as the Lamb +of God, particularly after his restless activity had been caged within the +walls of his prison. Jesus showed that he did not count it strange, by his +treatment of John's quesestion and by his words about John after the +messengers had gone. Yet in his reply he gently suggested that the +question already had its answer if John would but look rightly for it. He +simply referred to the things that were being done before the eyes of all, +and asked John to form from them a conclusion concerning him who did them. +One aid he offered to the imprisoned prophet,--a word from the Book of +Isaiah (xxxv. 5f., lxi. 1f.),--and added a blessing for such as "should +find nothing to stumble at in him." Here Jesus emphasized his works, and +allowed his message to speak for itself; but he frankly indicated that he +expected people to pass from wonder at his ministry to an opinion about +himself. At Cæsarea Philippi he showed to his disciples that this opinion +about himself was the significant thing in his eyes. Throughout the +ministry in Galilee, therefore, this twofold aim appears. Jesus would +first divert attention from himself to his message, in order that he might +win disciples to the kingdom of God as he conceived it. Having so attached +them to his idea of the kingdom, he desired to be recognized as that +kingdom's prince, the Messiah promised by God for his people. He retired +behind his message in order that men might be drawn to the truth which he +held dear, knowing that thus they would find themselves led captive to +himself in a willing devotion. + +135. This aim explains his retirement when popularity pressed, his +exacting teaching about the spirituality of the kingdom of God, and his +injunctions of silence. He wished to be known, to be thought about, to be +accepted as God's anointed, but he would have this only by a genuine +surrender to his leadership. His disciples must own him master and follow +him, however much he might disappoint their misconceptions. This aim, too, +explains his frank self-assertions and exalted personal claims in +opposition to official criticism. He would not be false to his own sense +of masterhood, nor allow people to think him bold when his critics were +away, and cowardly in their presence. Therefore, when needful, he invited +attention to himself as greater than the temple or as lord of the +Sabbath. This kind of self-assertion, however, served his purpose as well +as his customary self-retirement, for it forced people to face the +contradiction which he offered to the accepted religious ideas of their +leaders. + +136. The method which Jesus chose has already been repeatedly +indicated,--teaching and preaching on the one hand, and works of +helpfulness to men on the other. The character of the teaching of this +period is shown in three discourses,--the Sermon on the Mount, the +Discourse in Parables, and the Instructions to the Twelve. The sermon on +the mount is given in different forms in Matthew and Luke, that in Matthew +being evidently the more complete, even after deduction has been made of +those parts which Luke has assigned with high probability to a later time. +This address was spoken to the disciples of Jesus found among the +multitudes who flocked to him from all quarters. It opened with words of +congratulation for those who, characterized by qualities often despised, +were yet heirs of God's kingdom. The thought then passed to the +responsibility of such heirs of the kingdom for the help of a needy world. +Next, since much in the words and works of Jesus hitherto might have +suggested to men that he was indifferent to the older religion of his +people, he carefully explained that he came, not to set aside the old, but +to realize the spiritual idea for which it stood, by establishing a more +exacting standard of righteousness. This more exacting righteousness Jesus +illustrated by a series of restatements of the older law, and then by a +group of criticisms of current religious practice. The sermon closed with +warnings against complacent censoriousness in judging other men's +failures, and a solemn declaration of the vital seriousness of "these +sayings of mine." The righteousness required by this new law is not only +more exacting but unspeakably worthier than the old, being more simply +manifested in common life, and demanding more intimate filial fellowship +with the living God. + +137. The teachings included in the sermon by the first gospel, but placed +later by Luke, supplement the sermon by bidding God's child to lead a +trustful life, knowing that the heavenly Father cares for him. That Luke +has omitted much which from Matthew's account clearly belonged to the +original sermon may be explained by the fact that Gentile readers did not +share the interest which Jesus' hearers had, and which the readers of the +first gospel had, in the relation of the new gospel to the older law. +Hence the restatement of older commands and the criticism of current +practice was omitted. Similar to the teachings which the first gospel has +included in the sermon, are many which Luke has preserved in the section +peculiar to himself. It is not unlikely that they belong also to the +Galilean ministry. They urge the same sincere, reverent life in the sight +of God, the same trust in the heavenly Father, the same certainty of his +love and care; and they do not have that peculiar note of impending +judgment which entered into the teachings of Jesus after the confession at +Cæsarea Philippi. + +138. In the story of Mark, which is reproduced in the first and third +gospels, the use of parable was first introduced in a way to attract the +attention of the disciples, after pharisaic opposition to Jesus had become +somewhat bitter and there was need of checking a too speedy culmination +of opposition. He chose at that time a form of parable which was enigmatic +to his disciples, and could but further puzzle hearers who had no sympathy +with him and his message. Mark (iv. 12) states that this perplexity was in +accordance with the purpose of Jesus. But it is equally clear that Jesus +meant to teach the teachable as well as to perplex the critical by these +illustrations, for in explaining the Sower he suggested that the disciples +should have understood it without explanation (Mark iv. 13). Many of +Jesus' parables, however, had no such enigmatic character, but were +intended simply to help his hearers to understand him. He made use of this +kind of teaching from first to last. The pictures of the wise and foolish +builders with which the sermon on the mount concludes show that it was not +the use of illustration which surprised the disciples in the parables +associated with the Sower, but his use of such puzzling illustrations. +Some of the parables of Luke's peculiar section may belong to the Galilean +ministry, and even to the earlier stages of it. These have none of the +enigmatic character; the parables of the last days of Jesus' life also +seem to have been simple and clear to his hearers. The Oriental mind +prefers the concrete to the abstract, and its teachers have ever made +large use of illustration. Jesus stands unique, not in that he used +parables, but in the simplicity and effective beauty of those which he +used. These illustrations, whether Jesus intended them for the moment to +enlighten or to confound, served always to set forth concretely some truth +concerning the relation of men to God, or concerning his kingdom and their +relation to it. The form of teaching was welcome to his hearers, and +served as one of the attractions to draw men to him. + +139. The first gospel assigns another extended discourse to this Galilean +period,--the Instructions to the Twelve. The mission of the twelve formed +a new departure as Jesus saw the Galilean crisis approaching. He sought +thereby to multiply his own work, and commissioned his disciples to heal +and preach as he was doing. The restriction of their field to Israel +(Matt. x. 5, 6) simply applied to them the rule he adopted for himself +during the Galilean period (Matt. xv. 24). Comparison with the accounts in +Mark and Luke, as well as the character of the instructions found in +Matthew, show that here the first evangelist has followed his habit of +gathering together teachings on the same general theme from different +periods in Jesus' life. Much in the tenth chapter of Matthew indicates +clearly that the ministry of Jesus had already passed the period of +popularity, and that his disciples could now look for little but scorn and +persecution. This was the situation at the end of Jesus' public life, and +parallel sayings are found in the record of the last week in Jerusalem. + +140. When the teaching of the sermon and the parables is compared with +Jesus' self-assertion in his replies to pharisaic criticism and blasphemy, +the difference is striking. Ordinarily he avoided calling attention to +himself, wishing men to form their opinion of him after they had learned +to know him as he was. Yet when one looks beneath the surface of his +teaching, the tone of authority which astonished the multitudes is +identical with the calm self-confidence which replied to pharisaic +censure: "The Son of Man hath authority on the earth to forgive sins." + +141. Jesus drew the multitudes after him not only by his teachings, but +also by his mighty works. He certainly was for his contemporaries a +wonder-worker and healer of disease, and, in order to appreciate the +impression which he made, the miracles recorded in the gospels must be +allowed to reveal what they can of his character. The mighty works which +enchained attention in Galilee were chiefly cures of disease, with +occasional exhibitions of power over physical nature,--such as the +stilling of the tempest and the feeding of the five thousand. The +significant thing about them is their uniform beneficence of purpose and +simplicity of method. Nothing of the spectacular attached itself to them. +Jesus repeatedly refused to the critical Pharisees a sign from heaven. +This was not because he disregarded the importance of signs for his +generation,--witness his appeal to his works in the reply to John (Matt. +xi. 4-6); but he felt that in his customary ministry to the needy +multitudes he had furnished signs in abundance, for his deeds both gave +evidence of heavenly power and revealed the character of the Father who +had sent him. + +142. One of the commonest of the ailments cured by Jesus is described in +the gospels as demoniac possession, the popular idea being that evil +spirits were accustomed to take up their abode in men, speaking with their +tongues and acting through their bodies, at the same time afflicting them +with various physical diseases. Six specific cures of such possession are +recorded in the story of the Galilean ministry, besides general references +to the cure of many that were possessed. Of these specific cases the +Gadarene demoniac shows symptoms of violent insanity; the boy cured near +Cæsarea Philippi, those of epilepsy; in other cases the disease was more +local, showing itself in deafness, or blindness, or both. In the cures +recorded Jesus addressed the possessed with a command to the invading +demon to depart. He was ordinarily greeted, either before or after such a +command, with a loud outcry, often accompanied with a recognition of him +as God's Holy One. + +143. The record of such maladies and their cure is not confined to the New +Testament. The evil spirit which came upon King Saul is a similar case, +and Josephus tells of Jewish exorcists who cured possessed persons by the +use of incantations handed down from King Solomon. The early Christian +fathers frequently argued the truth of Christianity from the way in which +demons departed at the command of Christian exorcists, while in the middle +ages and down to modern times belief in demoniac possession has been +common, particularly among some of the more superstitious of the peasantry +in Europe. Moreover, from missionaries in China and other eastern lands it +is learned that diseases closely resembling the cases of possession +recorded in the New Testament are frequently met with, and are often cured +by native Christian ministers. + +144. The similarity of the symptoms of so-called possession to recognized +mental and physical derangements such as insanity, epilepsy, and hysteria, +suggests the conclusion that possession should be classed with other +ailments due to ill adjustment of the relations of the mental and physical +life. If this conclusion is valid, the idea of actual possession by evil +spirits becomes only an ancient effort to interpret the mysterious +symptoms in accordance with wide-spread primitive beliefs. This +explanation would doubtless be generally adopted were it not that it seems +to compromise either the integrity or the knowledge of Jesus. The gospels +plainly represent him as treating the supposed demoniac influence as real, +addressing in his cures not the invalid, but the invading demon. If he did +this knowing that the whole view was a superstition, was he true to his +mission to release mankind from its bondage to evil and sin? If he shared +the superstition of his time, had he the complete knowledge necessary to +make him the deliverer he claimed to be? These questions are serious and +difficult, but they form a part of the general problem of the extent of +Jesus' knowledge, and can be more intelligently discussed in connection +with that whole problem (sects. 249-251). It is reasonable to demand, +however, that any conclusion reached concerning the nature of possession +in the time of Jesus must be considered valid for similar manifestations +of disease in our own day. + +145. What astonished people in Jesus' cures was not so much that he healed +the sick as that he did it with such evidence of personal authority. His +cures and his teachings alike served to attract attention to himself and +to invite question as to who he could be. Yet a far more powerful means to +the end he had in view was the subtle, unobtrusive, personal influence +which without their knowledge knit the hearts of a few to himself. In +reality both his teaching and his cures were only means of +self-disclosure. His permanent work during this Galilean period was the +winning of personal friends. His chief agency in accomplishing his work +was what Renan somewhat too romantically has called his "charm." It was +that in him which drew to his side and kept with him the fishermen of +Galilee and the publican of Capernaum, during months of constant +disappointment of their preconceived religious ideas and Messianic hopes; +it was that which won the confidence of the woman who was a sinner, and +the constant devotion of Mary Magdalene and Susanna and the others who +followed him "and ministered to him of their substance." The outstanding +wonder of early Christianity is the complete transformation not only of +life but of established religious ideas by the personal impress of Jesus +on a Peter, a John, and a Paul. The secret of the new element of the +Christian religion--salvation through personal attachment to Jesus +Christ--is simply this personal power of the man of Nazareth. The +multitudes followed because they saw wonderful works or heard wonderful +words; many because they hoped at length to find in the new prophet the +champion of their hopes in deliverance from Roman bondage. But these +sooner or later fell away, disappointed in their desire to use the new +leader for their own ends. It was only because from out the multitudes +there were a few who could answer, "To whom shall we go? thou hast the +words of eternal life," when Jesus asked, "Will ye also go away?" that the +work in Galilee did not end in complete failure. These few had felt his +personal power, and they became the nucleus of a new religion of love to a +personal Saviour. + +146. The test of the personal attachment of the few came shortly after the +execution of John the Baptist by Antipas. Word of this tragedy was +brought to Jesus by John's disciples about the time that he and the twelve +returned to Capernaum from their tour of preaching. At the suggestion of +Jesus they withdrew to the eastern side of the lake in search of rest. It +is not unlikely that the little company also wished to avoid for the time +the territory of the tyrant who had just put John to death, for Jesus was +not yet ready for the crisis of his own life. Such a desire for seclusion +would be intensified by the continued impetuous enthusiasm of the +multitudes who flocked about him again in Capernaum. In fact, so insistent +was their interest in Jesus that they would not allow him the quiet he +sought, but followed around the lake in great numbers when they learned +that he had taken ship for the other side. He who came not to be +ministered unto but to minister could not repel the crowds who came to +him, and he at once "welcomed them, and spake to them of the kingdom of +God, and them that had need of healing he healed" (Luke ix. 11). The day +having passed in this ministry, he multiplied the small store of bread and +fish brought by his disciples in order to feed the weary people. This work +of power seemed to some among the multitudes to be the last thing needed +to prove that Jesus was to be their promised deliverer, and they "were +about to come and take him by force and make him king" (John vi. 15), when +he withdrew from them and spent the night in prayer. + +147. This sudden determination on the part of the multitudes to force the +hand of Jesus was probably due to the prevalence of an idea, found also in +the later rabbinic writers, that the Messiah should feed his people as +Moses had provided them manna in the desert. The rebuff which Jesus +quietly gave them did not cool their ardor, until on the following day, in +the synagogue in Capernaum, he plainly taught them that they had quite +missed the significance of his miracle. They thought of loaves and +material sustenance. He would have had them find in these a sign that he +could also supply their spirits' need, and he insisted that this, and this +alone, was his actual mission. From the first the popular enthusiasm had +had to ignore many contradictions of its cherished notions. But his power +and the indescribable force of his personality had served hitherto to hold +them to a hope that he would soon discard the perplexing rôle which he had +chosen for the time to assume, and take up avowedly the proper work of the +Messiah. This last refusal to accept what seemed to them to be his evident +duty caused a revulsion in the popular feeling, and "many of his disciples +turned back and walked no more with him" (John vi. 66). The time of +sifting had come. Jesus had known that such a rash determination to make +him king was possible to the Galilean multitudes, and that whenever it +should come it must be followed by a disillusionment. Now the open +ministry had run its course. As the multitudes were turning back and +walking no more with him, he turned to the twelve with the question, "Will +ye also go away?" and found that with them his method had borne fruit. +They clung to him in spite of disillusionment, for in him they had found +what was better than their preconceptions. + +148. It is the fourth gospel that shows clearly the critical significance +of this event. The others tell nothing of the sudden determination of the +multitude, nor of the revulsion of feeling that followed Jesus' refusal to +yield to their will. Yet these other gospels indicate in their narratives +that from this time on Jesus avoided the scenes of his former labors, and +show that when from time to time he returned to the neighborhood of +Capernaum he was met by such a spirit of hostility that he withdrew again +immediately to regions where he and his disciples could have time for +quiet intercourse. + +149. The months of toil in Galilee show results hardly more significant +than the grain of mustard seed or the little leaven. Popular enthusiasm +had risen, increased, reached its climax, and waned. Official opposition +had early been aroused, and had continued with a steadily deepened +intensity. The wonderful teaching with authority, and the signs wrought on +them that were sick, had been as seed sown by the wayside or in thorny or +in stony ground, except for the little handful of hearers who had felt the +personal power of Jesus and had surrendered to it, ready henceforth to +follow where he should lead, whether or not it should be in a path of +their choice. These, however, were the proof that those months had been a +time of rewarded toil. + + + + +IV + +The Ministry in Galilee--The New Lesson + + + +150. With the crisis in Capernaum the ministry in Galilee may be said in +one sense to have come to an end. Yet Jesus did not immediately go up to +Jerusalem. Once and again he was found in or near Capernaum, while the +time between these visits was spent in regions to the north and northwest. +In fact, the disciples were far from ready for the trial their loyalty was +to meet before they had seen the end of the opposition to their Lord. The +time intervening between the collapse of popularity and Jesus' final +departure from Galilee may well be thought of, then, as a time of further +discipline of the faith of his followers and of added instruction +concerning the truth for which their Master stood. The length of this +supplementary period in Galilee is not definitely known. It extended from +the Passover to about the feast of Tabernacles (April to October, see John +vi. 4 and vii. 2). The record of what Jesus did and said in this time is +meagre, only enough being reported to show that it was a time of repeated +withdrawals from Galilee and of private instruction for the disciples. + +151. The disciples were trained in faith by further exhibitions of the +complete break between their Master and the leaders of the people. This +break appeared most clearly, soon after the feeding of the multitudes, in +his reply to a criticism of the disciples for disregard of pharisaic +traditions concerning hand-washing (Mark vii. 1-23). The critics insisted +on the sacredness of their traditions. Jesus in reply scored them for +disregard for the plain demands of God's law, and with a word freed men +from bondage to the whole ritual of ceremonial cleanness and uncleanness +(Mark vii. 19), thus attacking Judaism in its citadel. + +152. It was immediately after this that he withdrew with his disciples to +the regions of Tyre. On his return a little later to the west side of the +sea of Galilee he was met by hostile Pharisees with a demand for a sign +(Mark viii. 11-13), and after refusing to satisfy the unbelieving +challenge,--signs in plenty having been before their eyes since the +opening of his work among them,--he and his disciples withdrew again from +Galilee towards Cæsarea Philippi. As they went on their way, Jesus +distinctly warned them against the influence of their leaders, religious +and political (Mark viii. 14f.). So far as our records tell us Jesus was +but once again in Capernaum. Then he was met with the demand that he pay +the temple tax (Matt. xvii. 24-27). This tax was usually collected just +before the Passover. As this last visit to Capernaum was probably not far +from the feast of Tabernacles, Jesus seems to have been in arrears. This +may have been due to his absence from Capernaum at the time of the +collection. The prompt answer of Peter may indicate that he knew that in +other years Jesus had paid this tax, as it is altogether probable that he +did. The question, however, implies official suspicion that Jesus was +seeking to evade payment, and exhibits further the straining of the +relations between him and the Jewish leaders. The conversation of Jesus +with Peter served to show his clear consciousness of superiority, and was +a further summons to the disciples to choose between him and his +opponents. + +153. Within the limits of the Holy Land the faith of the disciples had +been constantly tested by the increasing opposition between their master +and their old leaders. When the little company withdrew to Gentile +regions, however, Jesus had regard for their Jewish feeling. The time +would come when he would send them forth to make disciples of all the +nations. For the present he made it his business to nurture their faith in +him, and when appealed to for help by one of these foreigners, he refused +to "take the children's bread and cast it to the dogs" (Mark vii. 27). +Jesus had assumed a different attitude to the Samaritans before the +opening of his work in Galilee, and in general had shown ready sympathy +for all in distress. In fact it seems as if he welcomed the SyrophÅ“nician +woman's great faith with a feeling of relief from a restriction that he +had felt it wise to adopt for his work in PhÅ“nicia. It appears from his +later attitude in the Gentile regions of the Decapolis (Mark vii. 31-37; +Matt. xv. 21-31) that, having once shown his regard for the limitations of +his disciples' faith in the case of the SyrophÅ“nician, he felt no longer +obliged to check his natural readiness to help the needy who sought him +out. Although in one instance, for reasons no longer known to us, Jesus +charged a man whom he had cured to keep it secret (Mark vii. 32-37), in +general his work in these heathen regions seems, after the visit to +PhÅ“nicia, to have been quite unrestrained, and to have produced the same +enthusiasm that had earlier brought the multitudes to him in Galilee (Mark +viii. 1f.). + +154. This continued activity of healing must have served greatly to +strengthen the determination of the disciples to cling to Jesus, let the +leaders say what they would. We can only conjecture what various teachings +filled the days, and what personal fellowship the disciples had with him +who spake as never man spake. There was need for advance in the faith of +these loyal friends. Their enthusiastic declaration when the multitudes +turned away could easily have been followed by reaction. Each new +exhibition of the irrevocableness of the break between Jesus and the +leaders was a severe test of their loyalty. These weeks of withdrawal were +doubtless filled, therefore, with new proofs that Jesus had the words of +eternal life. + +155. Before he put to his disciples the crucial question, he who knew what +was in man (John ii. 25) was confident that they were ready for it. It was +after the rebuff in Galilee, when the unbelieving Pharisees had again +demanded a sign of his authority, and after he had definitely warned the +disciples against the influence of their leaders, that Jesus led his +little company far to the north towards the slopes of Hermon. There, near +the recently built Cæsarea Philippi, Jesus plainly asked his disciples +what the people thought of him (Mark viii. 27-30). We have seen how +gradually sentiment in Galilee concerning the new teacher crystallized +until, from thinking him a prophet, the people, first timidly, then +boldly, concluded that such a teacher and worker of signs must be the +promised king. We have seen also how the popular estimate changed when +Jesus refused to be guided by the popular will. Now, after the lapse of a +few weeks, in answer to his inquiry concerning the common opinion of him, +he is told that the people look on him as a prophet, in whom the spirit of +the men of old had been revived; but not a whisper remains of the former +readiness to hail him as the Messiah. It was in the face of such a +definite revulsion in the popular feeling, in the face, too, of the +increasing hostility of all the great in the nation, that Peter answered +for the twelve that they believed Jesus to be the Messiah, God's appointed +Deliverer of his people (Matt. xvi. 16 ff.). In form this confession was +no more than Nathanael had rendered on his first meeting with Jesus (John +i. 49), and was practically the same as the report made by Andrew to Simon +his brother, and by Philip to Nathanael (John i. 41, 45). In both idea and +expression the reply to Jesus' question, "Will ye also go away?" (John vi. +68, 69), was virtually equivalent to this later confession of Peter. Yet +Jesus found in Peter's answer at Cæsarea Philippi something so significant +and remarkable that he declared that the faith that could answer thus +could spring only from a heavenly source (Matt. xvi. 17). The early +confessions were in fact no more than expressions of more or less +intelligent expectation that Jesus would fulfil the confessor's hopes. The +confession at Capernaum followed one of Jesus' mightiest exhibitions of +power, and was given before the disciples had had time to consider the +extent of the defection from their Master. Here at Cæsarea Philippi, +however, the word was spoken immediately after an acknowledgment that the +people had no more thought of finding in Jesus their Messiah. It was +spoken after the disciples had had repeated evidence of the determined +hostility of the leaders to Jesus. All the disappointment he had given to +their cherished ideas was emphasized by the isolation in which the little +company now found itself. One after another their ideas of how a Messiah +should act and what he should be had received contradiction in what Jesus +was and did. Yet after the weeks of withdrawal from Galilee, Peter could +only in effect assert anew what he had declared at Capernaum,--that Jesus +had the words of eternal life. It was a faith chastened by perplexity, and +taught at length to follow the Lord let him lead where he would. It was an +actual surrender to his mastery over thought and life. Here at length +Jesus had won what he had been seeking during all his work in Galilee,--a +corner-stone on which to build up the new community of the kingdom of God. +Peter was the first to confess openly to this simple surrender to the full +mastery of Jesus. He was the first stone in the foundation of the new +"building of God." + +156. In his commendation of Peter Jesus revealed the secret of his method +in the work which, because of this confession, he could now proceed to do +more rapidly. He cuts loose utterly from the method of the scribes. He, +the new teacher, commits to them no body of teaching which they are to +give to others as the key to eternal life. The salvation they are to +preach is a salvation by personal attachment; that is, by faith. The rock +on which he will build his church is personal attachment, faith that is +ready to leave all and follow him. Peter, not the substance of his +confession, was its corner-stone, but Peter, as the first clear confessor +of a faith that is ready to leave all, a faith whose very nature it is to +be contagious, and associate with itself others of "like precious faith." +His faith was as yet meagre, as he showed at once; but it was genuine, the +surrender of his heart to his Lord's guidance and control. This was the +distinctive mark of the new religious life inaugurated by Jesus of +Nazareth. + +157. If anything were needed to prove that the idea that he was the +Messiah was no new thought to Jesus, it could be found in the new lesson +which he at once began to teach his disciples. The confession of Peter +indicated to him simply that the first stage in his work had been +accomplished. He immediately began to prepare the disciples for the end +which for some time past he had seen to be inevitable. He taught them more +than that his death was inevitable; he declared that it was divinely +necessary that he should be put to death as a result of the hostility of +the Jews to him ("the Son of Man must suffer"). All the contradictions +which he had offered to the Messianic ideas of his disciples paled into +insignificance beside this one. When they saw how he failed to meet the +hopes that were commonly held, they needed only to urge themselves to +patience, expecting that in time he would cast off the strange mask and +take to himself his power and reign. But it was too much for the late +confessed and very genuine faith of Peter to hear that the Messiah must +die. So unthinkable was the idea, that he assumed that Jesus had become +unduly discouraged by the relentlessness of the opposition which had +driven him first out of Judea and later out of Galilee. Accordingly Peter +sought to turn his Master's mind to a brighter prospect, asserting that +his forebodings could not be true. It is hard for us to conceive the chill +of heart which must have followed the glow of his confession when he heard +the stern rebuke of Jesus, who found in Peter's later words the voice of +the Evil One, as before in his confession he had recognized the Spirit of +God. + +158. The sternness of Jesus' rebuke escapes extravagance only in view of +the fact that the words of Peter had greatly affected Jesus himself. At +the outset of his public life he had faced the difficulty of doing the +Messiah's work in his Father's way, and had withstood the temptation to +accommodate himself to the ideas of his world, declaring allegiance to God +alone (Matt. iv. 10). Yet once and again in the course of his ministry he +showed that this allegiance cost him much. Luke reports a saying in which +Jesus confessed that, in view of this prospect of death which Peter was +opposing so eagerly, he was greatly "straitened" (xii. 50), and at the +near approach of the end "his soul was exceeding sorrowful" (Mark xiv. +34). It should never be forgotten that Jesus was a Jew, and heir to all +the Messianic ideas of his people. In these, glory, not rejection and +death, was to be the Messiah's portion. That he was always superior to +current expectations is no sign that he did not feel their force. They +quite mistake who find the bitterness of Jesus' "cup" simply in his +physical shrinking from suffering. The temptation was ever with him to +find some other way to the goal of his work than that which led through +death. What Peter said hid a force greater than any word of the +disciple's. It voiced the crucial temptation of Jesus' life. The answer +addressed to Peter showed that his words had drawn the thought of Jesus +away from the disciple to that earlier temptation which was never absent +from him more than "for a season" (Luke iv. 13). + +159. Jesus was not content with a mere rebuke of his impulsive disciple. +In his first announcement of his death as necessary he had also declared +that it would not be a tragedy, but would be followed by a resurrection. +This the disciples could not appreciate, as they found the idea of the +Messiah's death unthinkable. Jesus, however, saw in it the general law, +that life must ever win its goal by disregard of itself, and called his +disciples also to walk in the path of self-sacrifice. In order that the +new lesson might not quite overwhelm the yet feeble faith of these +followers, Jesus assured them that after his death and resurrection he +would come as Messianic Judge and fulfil the hopes which his prediction of +death seemed to blot out utterly (Mark viii. 34 to ix. 1). + +160. That this new lesson was a difficult one for master as well as +disciple seems to be shown by the experience which came a few days later +to Jesus and his three closest friends. He had withdrawn with them to a +"high mountain" for prayer (Luke ix. 28f.). While he prayed the light of +heaven came into his face, and his disciples were granted a vision of him +in celestial glory, conversing with Moses and Elijah, representatives of +Old Testament law and prophecy. The theme of the discourse was that death +which had so troubled the disciples, and which then and later weighed +heavily on Jesus' own spirit (Luke ix. 31). At the conclusion of the +vision came a divine injunction to hear him who now was superseding law +and prophets. The effect of the transfiguration can only be inferred. It +doubtless brought strengthening to Jesus for his difficult task (compare +Heb. v. 7), and at least a silencing of remonstrance when he spoke again +to his disciples of his approaching death. This he did while the little +company was making its way back towards Capernaum (Mark ix. 30-32), and +repeatedly later before the end came (Mark x. 32-34; Matt. xxvi. 1f.). + +161. On Jesus' return from the mountain, he was met by the despairing plea +of a father and healed his epileptic son, out of whom the disciples were +unable to cast the demon (Mark ix. 14-29; compare vi. 7, 13). It may have +been the shock which the new lesson had given the disciples that accounted +for the reproof of their lack of faith. The new evidence of Jesus' power, +coupled with this reproof, seems to have restored their confidence in him. +Perhaps, too, there was something contagious about the spirit of hope with +which the three came from their vision of the Master's glory. For, +although they were not free to tell what they had seen (Mark ix. 9), they +could not have concealed the fact that their faith had received great +encouragement. Whatever the cause, hope revived for the disciples, for on +the way back to Capernaum a dispute arose among them concerning personal +precedence in the kingdom which their Master should soon set up. In this +rapid reaction from unbelief to faith the disciples seem to have forgotten +the lesson of self-denial recently given them (Mark viii. 34, 35). In +Peter's confession the corner-stone of the church was laid; but the +superstructure was yet far out of sight. Although his own soul, taking its +way down into the valley of shadows, might rightly have asked for sympathy +and complained of its lack, Jesus simply set a little child in the midst +of them, and taught them again the first lessons of faith,--gentle +humility and trust. Thereby he rebuked the spirit of rivalry and asked of +his disciples a generous, unselfish, and forgiving spirit (Matt, xviii. +1-35). + +162. It was possibly at this time, certainly near the end of the Galilean +ministry, that Jesus was approached by his own brethren, who urged him to +try to win the capital. Their attitude was not one of indifference, though +clearly not one of actual faith in his claim (John vii. 2-5). They seem to +have felt that Jesus had not made adequate effort to secure a following in +Jerusalem, and that he could not hope for success in his work if he +continued to confine his attention to Galilee. Jesus knew conditions in +Jerusalem far better than they did, and had no idea as yet of resuming a +general ministry there. He therefore dismissed the suggestion, and left +his brethren to go up to the feast disappointed in their desire that he +make a demonstration at that time. Yet Jesus still yearned over Jerusalem. +He knew in what organized opposition a general demonstration would result. +There were some, however, in the capital who had real faith in him. His +repeated efforts to win Jerusalem mean nothing if we do not recognize that +he hoped against hope that many of the people might yet turn and let him +lead them. With some such purpose, therefore, he went up a little later +without ostentation, and quietly appeared in the temple teaching. The +effect of this unannounced arrival was that the opposition was not ready +for him. The multitude was compelled to form an opinion of him for itself, +and he had opportunity to make his own impression for a time, +independently of official suggestion as to what ought to be thought of +him. This course resulted in a division of sentiment among the people, so +much so that when the leaders, both secular and religious, sought to +compass his arrest, the officers sent to take Jesus were themselves +entranced by his teaching. In spite of the wish of the leaders Jesus +continued to teach, and many of the people began to think of him with +favor. When, however, he tried to lead them on to become "disciples +indeed," they took offence, and showed that they were not ready yet to +follow him. This effort to "gather the children of Jerusalem" resulted in +new proof that they preferred his death to his message (John vii. 2 to +viii. 59). + +163. Interesting evidence of the fact that "Jesus did many other signs +which are not written" in our accepted gospels is found in the story of +his dealing with an adulteress whom the Pharisees brought to him for +judgment (John vii. 53 to viii. 11). This narrative had no secure place in +any of the gospels in the earliest days, yet was so highly regarded that +men would not let it go. Hence in the manuscripts which contain it, it is +found in various places. Some give it in Luke after chapter xxi., some at +the end of the Gospel of John, one placing it after John vii. 36. Many +considerations combine to prove that it was no part of the Gospel of John, +but as many show that it preserves a true incident in the ministry of +Jesus. In scene it belongs to the temple, therefore in time to one of the +Jerusalem visits. To which of those visits it should he assigned is not +now discoverable. The ancient copyists who assigned it to this feast of +Tabernacles, chose as well as later students can. If the incident belongs +to this visit, it illustrates the patience and the keen insight of Jesus +in his effort to win self-satisfied Jerusalem. + +164. John is silent concerning the doings of Jesus after the feast of +Tabernacles. In x. 22 he notes that Jesus was at Jerusalem at the feast of +Dedication, which followed two months later. It seems probable that after +his hurried and private journey to the feast of Tabernacles (John vii. 10) +he returned to Galilee and gathered to himself again the little company of +his loyal followers, preparatory to that final journey to Jerusalem which +should bring the end foreseen, unless, perchance, Israel should yet repent +and turn unto the Lord. As the shadow deepened over his own life, and the +persistency of the unbelief of his people appeared more and more clearly, +the teachings of Jesus took on a new note of tragedy which was not +characteristic of the earlier preaching in Galilee. Even when his topic +was similar and his treatment of it not unlike some earlier discourse, +there appeared in it here and there a warning of impending judgment. This +is seen as early as the reply to the criticism of the disciples for +disregard of traditions (Matt. xv. 13f.). Many discourses in the section +peculiar to Luke show by the presence of this note of doom that they +belong to this later time rather than to the Galilean period proper. (See +the table prefixed to Chapter V.) + +165. Two years had nearly passed since Jesus withdrew from Judea to start +his ministry anew in a different region and following a different method. +The fruit of that ministry was small, but significant. His proclamation of +the coming kingdom and his call to a deeper righteousness, coupled as they +were with his works of heavenly power, had won at first an enthusiastic +following. Realizing that an uncontrolled enthusiasm would thwart his +purpose to introduce a kingdom of the spirit, Jesus had kept his Messianic +claim in the background, seeking first to win disciples to the kingdom +that he was proclaiming. Yet emphasize his message as he would, he could +not conceal his personal significance. In fact he wished by winning +disciples to his doctrine of the kingdom to attach followers to himself, +the bearer of the words of eternal life. The great development of popular +enthusiasm did not deceive him, nor did he hesitate, when the multitude +would force him to do its will, to show clearly how far he was from being +a fulfiller of their desires. By successive disappointments of the popular +ideas he sifted his followers until a few were ready to follow him +whithersoever he might lead. With these he allowed time for the fact of +his unpopularity to appear, giving them opportunity to consider the +relentless hostility of their national leaders to the teacher from +Galilee. Then when the time was ripe he drew from the loyal few their +declaration that they would follow him in spite of disappointments and +unpopularity, their confession that he had come to be to them more than +their cherished preconceptions, that he had won the mastery over their +thought and life. He began then to prepare them for the end he had long +foreseen, and at length, after giving them time for that perplexing +mystery to find place in their hearts, he was ready to move on toward the +crisis which he knew his public appearance in Jerusalem would precipitate. +Before setting out on this journey his desire still to seek to win +Jerusalem, if perchance it would repent, led him to visit the capital +unannounced at the feast of Tabernacles. This taught him that, however +ready some might be superficially to believe in him, he could as yet win +in Jerusalem only hatred and plots against his life, and he returned to +his faithful friends in Galilee. + + Outline of Events in the Journey through Perea to Jerusalem + + + The final departure from Galilee--Matt. xix. 1, 2; viii. 19-22; Mark x. + 1; Luke ix. 51-62. + + The mission of the seventy--Matt. xi. 20-30; Luke x. 1-24. + + The visit to the feast of Dedication--John ix. 1 to x. 39. + + Possibly at this time: The parable of the Good Samaritan--Luke x. + 25-37. The visit to Mary and Martha--Luke x. 38-42. + + Return to Perea--John x. 40-42. + + The visit to Bethany and the raising of Lazarus--John xi. 1-46. + + The withdrawal to Ephraim--John xi. 47-54. + + Events connected with the last journey to Jerusalem, which cannot be + more definitely located: + + The question whether few are saved--Luke xiii. 22-30. + + Reply to the warning against Herod, probably near the close--Luke xiii. + 31-35. + + The cure of ten lepers--Luke xvii. 11-19. + + The question of the Pharisees concerning divorce--Matt. xix. 3-12; Mark + x. 2-12. + + The blessing of little children--Matt. xix. 13-15; Mark x. 13-16; Luke + xviii. 15-17. + + The question of the rich young ruler--Matt. xix. 16 to xx. 16; Mark x. + 17-31; Luke xviii. 18-30. + + The third prediction of death and resurrection--Matt xx. 17-19; Mark x. + 32-34; Luke xviii. 31-34. + + The ambitious request of the sons of Zebedee--Matt. xx. 20-28; Mark x. + 35-45. + + The last stage, Jericho to Jerusalem: + + The blind men near Jericho--Matt. xx. 29-34; Mark x. 46-52; Luke xviii. + 35-43. + + The visit to Zacchæus--Luke xix. 1-10. + + The parable of the pounds (minæ)--Luke xix. 11-28. Events and + discourses found in Luke ix. 51 to xviii. 14, which probably belong + after the confession of Peter, and very likely to some stage of the + journey to Jerusalem: + + Woes against the Pharisees, uttered at a Pharisee's table--Luke xi. + 37-54. + + Warnings against the spirit of pharisaism--Luke xii. 1-59. + + Comment on the slaughter of Galileans by Pilate--Luke xiii. 1-9. + + Discourse on counting the cost of discipleship--Luke xiv. 25-35. + + Discourse on the coming of the kingdom--Luke xvii. 20-37. + + Parable of the Unjust Judge--Luke xviii. 1-8. + + Parable of the Pharisee and the Publican--Luke xviii. 9-14. + + + + +V + +The Journey through Perea to Jerusalem + + + +166. The fourth gospel says that after the visit to Jerusalem at the feast +of Dedication Jesus withdrew beyond Jordan to the place where John at the +first was baptizing (x. 40). Matthew and Mark also say that at the close +of the ministry in Galilee Jesus departed and came into the borders of +Judea and beyond Jordan, and that in this new region the multitudes again +flocked to him, and he resumed his ministry of teaching (Matt. xix. 1f.; +Mark x. 1). What he did and taught at this time is not shown at all by +John, and only in scant fashion by the other two. They tell of a +discussion with the Pharisees concerning divorce (Mark x. 2-12); of the +welcome extended by Jesus to certain little children (Mark x. 13-16); of +the disappointment of a rich young ruler, who wished to learn from Jesus +the way of life, but loved better his great possessions (Mark x. 17-31); +of a further manifestation of the unlovely spirit of rivalry among the +disciples in the request of James and John for the best places in the +kingdom (Mark x. 35-45),--a request following in the records directly +after another prediction by Jesus of his death and resurrection (Mark x. +32-34). Then, after a visit to Jericho (Luke xviii. 35 to xix. 28), these +records come into coincidence with John in the account of the Messianic +entry into Jerusalem just before the last Passover. + +167. The fourth gospel tells in addition of a considerable activity of +Jesus in and near Jerusalem during this period. In making the journey +beyond Jordan start from Jerusalem (x. 40), John shows that Jesus must +have returned to the capital after his withdrawal from the feast of +Tabernacles. When and how this took place is not indicated. Later, after +his retirement from the feast of Dedication Jesus hastened at the summons +of his friends from beyond Jordan to Bethany when Lazarus died (xi. 1-7). +From Bethany he went not to the other side of Jordan again, but to Ephraim +(xi. 54), a town on the border between Judea and Samaria, and from there +he started towards Jerusalem when the Passover drew near. This record of +John has, as Dr. Sanday has recently remarked (HastBD II. 630), so many +marks of verisimilitude that it must be accepted as a true tradition. It +demands thus that in our conception of the last journey from Galilee room +be found for several excursions to Jerusalem or its neighborhood. One of +these at least--to the feast of Dedication (x. 22)--represents another +effort to "gather the children of Jerusalem." While not without success, +for at least the blind man restored by Jesus gave him the full faith he +sought (ix. 35-38), it showed with fuller clearness the determined +hostility to Jesus of the influential class (x. 39). + +168. It has been customary to find in the long section peculiar to Luke +(ix. 51 to xviii. 14) a fuller account of the Perean ministry, as it has +been called. For it opens with a final departure from Galilee, and comes +at its close into parallelism with the record of Matthew and Mark. Yet +some parts of this section in Luke belong in the earlier Galilean +ministry. The blasphemy of the Pharisees (xi. 14-36) is clearly identical +with the incident recorded in Mark iii. 22-30, and Matt. xii. 22-45; while +several incidents and discourses (see outline prefixed to Chapter III.) +bear so plainly the marks of the ministry before the revulsion of popular +favor, that it is easiest to think of them as actually belonging to the +earlier time, but assigned by Luke to this peculiar section because he +found no clear place offered for them in the record of Mark. Not a little, +however, of what Luke records here manifestly belongs to the time when +Jesus referred openly to his rejection by the Jewish people. The note of +tragedy characteristic of later discourses appears in the replies of Jesus +to certain would-be disciples (ix. 57-62), and in his warning that his +followers count the cost of discipleship (xiv. 25-35). The woes spoken at +a Pharisee's table (xi. 37-52), the warning to the disciples against +pharisaism (xii. 1-12), and the encouragement of the "little flock" (xii. +22-34), with many other paragraphs from this part of the gospel (see +outline at the head of this chapter), evidently were spoken at the time +of the approaching end. Some narratives reflect the neighborhood of +Jerusalem, and naturally corroborate the indications in the fourth gospel +that Jesus was repeatedly at the capital during this time. The parable of +the good Samaritan, for instance, must have been spoken in Judea, else why +choose the road from Jerusalem to Jericho for the illustration? The visit +to Mary and Martha shows Jesus at Bethany, and the parable of the Pharisee +and the Publican, naming the temple as the place of prayer, belongs +naturally to Judea. + +169. The effort to find the definite progress of events in this part of +Luke has not been successful. There are three hints of movement towards +Jerusalem,--the introductory mention of the departure from Galilee (ix. +51); a statement that Jesus went on his way through cities and villages, +journeying on unto Jerusalem (xiii. 22); and again a reference to passing +through the midst of Samaria and Galilee on the way to Jerusalem (xvii. +11). The attempt to make the third of these belong actually to the last +stages of the final journey seems artificial. Confessedly the expression +"through the midst of Samaria and Galilee" is obscure. It is much easier +to understand, however, if the journey so described is identified with the +visit to Samaria with which the departure from Galilee opened. It seems +probable that Luke found these records of events and teachings in Jesus' +life, and was unable to learn exactly their connection in time and place, +so placed them after the close of the Galilean story and before the +account of the passion, much as later some copyist found the story of the +adulteress (John vii. 53 to viii. 11), and, certain that it was a true +incident, gave it a place in connection with the visit to the feast of +Tabernacles (perhaps influenced by John viii. 15). It must always be +remembered that the earliest apostolic writing--Matthew's Logia--probably +consisted of just such disconnected records (see sects. 28, 42), and that, +as Jülicher (Einleitung i. d. NT. 235) has said, the early church was not +interested in _when_ Jesus said or did anything. Its interest was in +_what_ he said and did. + +170. The time of the departure from Galilee for Jerusalem may be set with +much probability not long before the feast of the Dedication in December; +for at that feast Jesus was again in Jerusalem, and from it he returned to +Perea (John x. 22, 40-42). He started southward through Samaria (Luke ix. +51 ff.), and probably in connection with the early stages of the journey +he sent out the seventy "into every city and place whither he himself was +about to come" (Luke x. 1). It is not unlikely that, after the sending out +of these heralds, he went with a few disciples to make one more effort to +turn the heart of Jerusalem to himself (John ix., x.). It is impossible to +determine whither the seventy were sent. The "towns and cities" whither +Jesus was about to come may have included some from all portions of the +land, not excepting Judea. The matter must be left in considerable +obscurity. This, however, may be said, that the reasons offered for +holding that the story of the sending out of the seventy is only a +"doublet" of the mission of the twelve are not conclusive (see sect. A +68). The connection in Luke of the woes against Capernaum, Bethsaida, and +Chorazin with the instruction of the seventy is very natural, and marks +this mission as belonging to the close of the Galilean period, while the +mission of the twelve belongs to the height of Jesus' popularity. + +171. Our knowledge of Jesus' visit to the feast of Dedication is due to +John's interest in the cure at about that time of one born blind (John +ix., x.). The prejudice of the sanhedrists who excommunicated the man for +his loyalty to Jesus led him in indignation to contrast their method of +caring for God's "sheep" with his own love and sympathy and genuine +ministry to their needs. He saw clearly that his course must end in death, +unless a great change should come over his enemies; yet, as the Good +Shepherd, he was ready to lay down his life for the sheep, rather than +leave them to the heartlessness of leaders who cared only for themselves +(x. 11-18). The critics of Jesus could not, or would not, understand his +charge against them, and accused him of madness for his extraordinary +claims. There were some, however, who could not credit the notion that +Jesus had a devil (John x. 21). It is possible that it was at this time +that the lawyer questioned him about the breadth of interpretation to be +given to the word "neighbor" in the law of love, and was answered by the +parable of the Good Samaritan (Luke x. 25-37). Possibly the parable of the +Pharisee and the Publican (Luke xviii. 9-14) belongs also to this time. In +general, however, the visit proved anew that Jerusalem was in no mood to +accept Jesus (John x. 24-39). His enemies sought to draw from him a +declaration of his claim to be the Messiah, and Jesus appealed to his +works, asserting that only their incorrigible prejudice prevented their +recognizing his claims. He added that his Father, with whom he was ever in +perfect accord, had drawn some faithful followers to him, and thereupon, +angered by his claim to close kinship with God, they appealed to the rough +logic of violence (John x. 31-39; compare viii. 59). + +172. After this added attempt to win Jerusalem Jesus withdrew to the +region beyond Jordan, where John had carried on his ministry to the eager +multitudes. Here he anew attracted great attention, causing people to +contrast his ministry with the less remarkable work of John, and to +acknowledge that John's testimony to him was true (John x. 40-42). +Possibly it was in this place that the seventy found Jesus when they +returned to report the success of their mission (Luke x. 17-24), for the +thanksgiving which Jesus rendered for the faith of the common people in +contrast with the unbelief of the "wise and prudent" might well express +his feeling after the fresh evidence he had at the feast of Dedication +that Jerusalem would none of his mission. The invitation to all the heavy +laden to take his yoke illustrates, though under another figure, his claim +to be the Good Shepherd (Matt. xi. 28-30). We have no means of knowing how +much more of what the gospels assign to the last journey to Jerusalem +should be put in connection with this sojourn across the Jordan. The +multitudes that came to him there may have included the Pharisees who +questioned him about divorce (Mark x. 2-12), and the young ruler who loved +his great possessions (Mark x. 17-31), as well as the parents who eagerly +sought the Lord's blessing for their children (Mark x. 13-16). Some parts +of Luke's narrative seem to belong still later in this journey, yet such a +section as the reply of Jesus to the report of Pilate's slaughter of the +Galileans (xiii. 1-9), or the parable of the Great Supper (xiv. 15-24), is +suitable to any stage of it. + +173. This sojourn on the other side of Jordan was brought to a close by +the summons to come to the aid of his friends in Bethany (John xi.). It is +not strange that the disciples feared his return to Judea, nor that Jesus +did not hesitate when he recognized the call of duty as well as of +friendship. In no recorded miracle of Jesus is his power more signally set +forth, yet here more clearly than anywhere else he is represented as +dependent on his Father in his exercise of that power. The words of Jesus +at the grave (John xi. 41, 42) show that he was confident of the +resurrection of Lazarus, because he had prayed and was sure he was heard. +It may be that his delay after hearing of the sickness of his friend (xi. +6) was a time of waiting for answer, and that this explains his confidence +of safety when the time came for him to expose himself again to the +hostility of Judea. Jesus indicated not only that on this occasion he had +help from above in doing his miracles, but that it was the rule in his +life to seek such help and guidance (xi. 42). In fact, at a later time he +ascribed all his works to the Father abiding in him (John xiv. 10; compare +x. 25). The effect of the resurrection of Lazarus was such as to intensify +the determination of the leaders in Jerusalem--both Pharisees and +Sadducees--to get rid of Jesus as dangerous to the quiet of the nation +(John xi. 47-54). In this it simply served to fix a determination already +present (John vii. 25, 32; viii. 59; x. 31, 39). The miracle does not +appear in John as the cause of the apprehension of Jesus, but rather as +one influence leading to it. It was indeed the total contradiction between +Jesus and all current and cherished ideas that led to his condemnation; +the raising of Lazarus only showed that he was becoming dangerously +popular, and made the priestly leaders feel the necessity of haste. The +silence of the first three gospels concerning this event is truly +perplexing, yet it is not any more difficult of explanation, as Beyschlag +(LJ I. 495) has shown, than the silence of all four evangelists concerning +the appearance of the risen Jesus to James, or to the five hundred +brethren (I. Cor. xv. 6, 7). Room must be allowed in our conception of the +life of Jesus for many things of which no record remains, all the more, +therefore, for incidents to which but one of the gospels is witness. +Moreover, after the collapse of popularity in Galilee, the great +enthusiasm of the multitudes over Jesus when he entered Jerusalem (Luke +xix. 37-40; Mark xi. 8-10) is most easily understood if he had made some +such manifestation of power as the restoration of Lazarus. + +174. After the visit to Bethany Jesus withdrew to a little town named +Ephraim, on the border between Judea and Samaria, and spent some time +there in seclusion with his disciples (John xi. 54), doubtless +strengthening his personal hold on them preparatory to the shock their +faith was about to receive. Of the length of this sojourn nothing is told +us, nor of the road by which Jesus left Ephraim for Jerusalem (John xii. +1). The first three gospels show that he began his final approach to the +Holy City at Jericho (Mark x. 46). It may be that he descended from +Ephraim direct to Jericho some days before the Passover, rejoining there +some of the people who had been impressed by his recent ministry in the +region "where John at the first was baptizing." It is natural to suppose +that it was on this journey to Jericho that he warned his disciples again +of the fate which he saw before him in Jerusalem (Mark x. 32-34), and +quite probably it was at this time that he rebuked the crude ambition of +the sons of Zebedee by reminding them that his disciples must be more +ambitious to serve than to rule, since even "the Son of Man came not to be +ministered unto but to minister, and to give his life a ransom for many" +(Mark x. 35-45). At Jericho he was at once crowded upon by enthusiastic +multitudes. The feeling they had for him may perhaps be inferred from the +cry of blind Bartimeus, "Thou son of David, have mercy on me" (Mark x. +48). This enthusiasm received a shock when Jesus chose to be guest in +Jericho of a chief of the publicans, a shock which Jesus probably intended +to give, for much the same reason that led him afterwards on his way up to +Jerusalem to teach his followers in the parable of the pounds that they +must be ready for long delay in his actual assumption of his kingly right +(Luke xix. 11-28). Finally, six days before the Passover, he and his +disciples left Jericho and went up to Bethany preparatory to his final +appearance in Jerusalem (John xii. 1). + +175. The interval between the final departure from Galilee and the public +entry into Jerusalem was given to three different tasks: the renewed +proclamation of the coming of the kingdom, further efforts to win +acceptance in Jerusalem, if perchance she might learn to know the things +that belonged to her peace; and continued training of the disciples, +specially needed because of the ill-considered enthusiasm with which they +were inclined to view the probable issue of this journey to Jerusalem. The +first of these tasks was conducted as the earlier work in Galilee had +been, both by teaching and healing, in which Jesus used his disciples even +more extensively than before. It proved that here as in Galilee the common +people were ready to hear him gladly, until he showed too radical a +disappointment of their hopes. In this new ministry to the people Jesus +spoke very frankly of the seriousness of the opposition which the leaders +of the people were manifesting, and of the need that those who would be +his disciples should count the cost of their allegiance (Luke xiii. 22-30; +xiv. 25-35; xii. 1-59). He did not hesitate to administer the most +scathing rebuke to the Pharisees for the superficiality and hypocrisy of +their religious life and teaching (Luke xi. 37-54),--a rebuke which is +emphasized by the parable in which, on another occasion, he taught God's +preference for a contrite sinner over a complacent saint (Luke xviii. +9-14). When reminded of Pilate's outrage upon certain Galilean +worshippers, he used the calamity to warn his hearers that personal +godliness was the only protection which could secure them against a more +serious outbreak of the hostility of the Roman power (Luke xiii. 1-9); and +it was probably in reply to such an appeal as accompanied this report of +Pilate's cruelty that Jesus spoke the parable of the Unjust Judge (Luke +xviii. 1-8), teaching that God's love may be trusted to be no less +regardful of his people's cry than a selfish man's love of ease would be. + +176. The second of these tasks must not be held to be perfunctory, even +though each new effort for Jerusalem proved that genuine acceptance of its +saviour was increasingly improbable. As the denunciations of the older +prophets ever left open a way of escape _if _ Israel would return and seek +the Lord, so the anticipation of rejection and death which filled the +heart of Jesus does not banish a like _if_ from his own thought of +Jerusalem in his repeated efforts to "gather her children." The +combination of the new popular enthusiasm and the fresh proofs of the +hopelessness of winning Jerusalem made more important the third task,--the +founding of the faith of the disciples on the rock of personal certainty, +from which the rising floods of hatred and seeming ruin for the Master's +cause could not sweep it. It was for them that much of his instruction of +the multitudes was doubtless primarily intended; they needed above all +others to count the cost of discipleship (Luke xiv. 25-35), and the +warnings against the spirit of Pharisaism (Luke xii.) were addressed +principally to them, even as it was to them that Jesus confessed the +"straitening" of his own soul in view of the "fire which he had come to +cast upon the earth" (Luke xii. 49-53),--a confession which had another +expression when he found it needful to rebuke the personal ambition of the +sons of Zebedee (Mark x. 35-45). As for Jesus himself, the popular +enthusiasm had not deceived him, nor the obdurate unbelief of Jerusalem +daunted him, nor his disciples' misconception of his kingdom disheartened +him; he still steadfastly set his face to go to Jerusalem. + + Outline of Events in the Last Week of Jesus' Life + + + _Saturday_ (?). The anointing in Bethany six days before the + Passover--Matt. xxvi. 6-13; Mark xiv. 3-9; John xi. 55 to xii. 11. + + _Sunday_ (?). The Messianic entry--Matt. xxi. 1-11; Mark xi. 1-11; Luke + six. 29-44; John xii. 12-19. + + _Monday_ (?). Visit to the temple: the cursing of the barren + fig-tree--Matt. xxi. 18-19, 12-17; Mark xi. 12-14, 15-18; Luke xix. 45, + 47, 48. + + Return to Bethany for the night--Matt. xxi. 17; Mark xi. 19; Luke xxi. + 37, 38. + + _Tuesday_ (?). Visit to the temple: the fig-tree found withered--Matt, + xxi 20-23; Mark xi. 20-27; Luke xx. 1. + + Challenge of Jesus' authority--Matt. xxi. 23-27; Mark xi. 27-33; Luke + xx. 1-8. + + Three parables against the religious leaders--Matt. xxi. 28 to xxii. + 14; Mark xii. 1-12; Luke xx. 9-19. + + The question about tribute--Matt. xxii. 15-22; Mark xii. 13-17; Luke + xx. 20-26. + + The question of the Sadducees about the resurrection--Matt. xxii. + 23-33; Mark xii. 18-27; Luke xx. 27-40. + + The question of the Pharisees about the great commandment--Matt. xxii. + 34-40; Mark xii. 28-34. + + Jesus' counter-question about David's son and Lord--Matt. xxii. 41-46; + Mark xii. 35-37; Luke xx. 41-44. + + Jesus' denunciation of the scribes and Pharisees--Matt, xxiii. 1-39; + Mark xii. 38-40; Luke xx. 45-47. + + The widow's two mites--Mark xii. 41-44; Luke xxi. 1-4. + + The visit of the Greeks--John xii. 20-36^a. + + Final departure from the temple--John xii. 36^b (-50). + + Discourse concerning the destruction of Jerusalem and the end of the + world--Matt. xxiv. 1 to xxvi. 2; Mark xiii. 1-37; Luke xxi. 5-38. + + Plot of Judas to betray Jesus--Matt. xxvi. 3-5, 14-16; Mark xiv. 1, 2, + 10, 11; Luke xxii. 1-6. + + _Wednesday_. Retirement at Bethany. (?) + + _Thursday_. The Last Supper--Matt. xxvi. 17-30; Mark xiv. 12-26; Luke + xxii. 7-30; John xiii. 1-30. + + The farewell words of admonition and comfort--John xiii. 31 to xvi. 33. + + The intercessory prayer--John xvii. 1-26. + + _Friday_. The agony in Gethsemane--Matt. xxvi. 30, 36-46; Mark xiv. 26, + 32-42; Luke xxii. 39-46; John xviii. 1. + + The betrayal and arrest--Matt xxvi. 47-56; Mark xiv. 43-52; Luke xxii. + 47-53; John xviii. 1-12. + + Trial before the high-priests and sanhedrin--Matt. xxvi. 57 to xxvii. + 10; Mark xiv. 53 to xv. 1^a; Luke xxii. 54-71; John xviii. 12-27. + + Trial before Pilate--Matt, xxvii. 11-31; Mark xv. 1-20; Luke xxiii. + 1-25; John xviii. 28 to xix. 16^a. + + The crucifixion--Matt, xxvii. 32-56; Mark xv. 21-41; Luke xxiii. 26-49; + John xix. 16-37. + + The burial--Matt, xxvii. 57-61; Mark xv. 42-47; Luke xxiii. 50-56; John + xix. 38-42. + + _Saturday_. The Sabbath rest--Luke xxiii. 56^b. + + The watch at the tomb--Matt, xxvii. 62-66. + + + + +VI + +The Final Controversies in Jerusalem + + + +177. The early Christians were greatly interested in the teachings of +Jesus and in his deeds, but they thought oftenest of the victory which by +his resurrection he won out of seeming defeat. This is proved by the fact +that of the first two gospels over one third, of Luke over one fifth, and +of the fourth gospel nearly one half are devoted to the story of the +passion and resurrection. This preponderance is not strange in view of the +shock which the death of Jesus caused his disciples, and the new life +which the resurrection brought to their hearts. The resurrection was the +fundamental theme of apostolic preaching, the supreme evidence that Jesus +was the Messiah. Hence the cross early became the object of exultant +Christian joy and boasting; and in this the church entered actually into +the Lord's own thought, for through the cross he looked for his exaltation +and glory (Mark viii. 31; John xii. 23-36). From the time of the +confession at Cæsarea Philippi, he had had his death avowedly in view, and +had repeatedly checked the ambitious and unthinking enthusiasm of his +disciples by reminding them of what he must receive at the hands of the +leaders of the people. The few months preceding his final appearance in +Jerusalem had been devoted to the journey to the cross. This explains the +note of tragedy which appears in his teachings at this period. The people +had shown that they would none of his ministry. In this they had written +their national and religious death warrant, and as he approached Jerusalem +for the final crisis he declared, though with almost breaking heart, "Your +house is left unto you desolate" (Luke xiii. 31-35). Each new effort of +Jesus to turn aside the impending judgment of his people by winning their +acceptance of himself and his message resulted in a new certainty of his +ultimate rejection, and thus in confirmation of the early recognized +necessity, that, if he continued the work God had given him to do, he +should suffer many things, and die at the hands of his own people. + +178. The last chapter in his public ministry began with his arrival at +Bethany six days before the Passover. It is probable that the caravan with +which Jesus was travelling reached Bethany not far from the sunset which +marked the beginning of the Sabbath preceding the feast. Jesus had friends +there who gladly gave him entertainment, and the Sabbath was doubtless +spent quietly in this retreat. The holy day closed with the setting sun, +and then his hosts were able to show him the special attention which they +desired. The general cordiality of welcome expressed itself in a feast +given in the house of one Simon, a leper who had probably experienced the +power of Jesus to heal. He may have been a relative also of Lazarus, for +Martha assisted in the entertainment, and Lazarus was one of the guests of +honor (Mark xiv. 3; John xii. 2). During the feast, Mary, the sister of +Lazarus, poured forth on the head and feet of Jesus a box of the rarest +perfume. This act of costly adoration seemed extravagant to some, +particularly to one of Jesus' disciples, who complained that the money +could have been better spent. This criticism of one who had not counted +cost in her service was rebuked by Jesus, who defended and commended Mary; +for in the act he recognized her fear that he might not be long with her +(Mark xiv. 8; John xii. 7). It is probable that this rebuke, with the +clear reference to his approaching death, led Judas to decide to abandon +the apparently waning cause of his Master, and bargain with the leaders in +Jerusalem to betray him (Mark xiv. 3-11). + +179. The day following the supper at Bethany--that is, the first day of +the week--witnessed the welcome of Jesus to Jerusalem by the jubilant +multitudes. His mode of entering the city affords a marked contrast to +his treatment of the determination to make him king after he had fed the +multitudes in Galilee (John vi. 15). In some respects the circumstances +were similar. A multitude of the visitors to the feast, hearing that Jesus +was at Bethany on his way to Jerusalem, went out to meet him with a +welcome that showed their enthusiastic confidence that at last he would +assume Messianic power and redeem Israel (John xii. 12, 13). Jesus was now +ready for a popular demonstration, for the rulers were unwilling longer to +tolerate his work and his teaching. He had never hesitated to assert his +superiority to official criticism, and at length the hour had come to +proclaim the full significance of his independence. In fact it was for +this that some months before he had set his face steadfastly to go to +Jerusalem. When, therefore, the crowd from Jerusalem appeared, Jesus took +the initiative in a genuine Messianic demonstration. He sent two of his +disciples to a place near by to borrow an ass's colt, on which he might +ride into the city, fulfilling Zechariah's prophecy of the "king that +cometh meek, and riding upon an ass" (see Matt. xxi. 4, 5). At this, the +enthusiasm of his followers, and of those who had come to meet him, became +unbounded, and without rebuke from Jesus they proceeded towards Jerusalem +crying, "Hosanna; Blessed _is_ he that cometh in the name of the Lord" +(Mark xi. 9, 10). Notwithstanding the remonstrances of certain Pharisees +among the multitude (Luke xix. 39), Jesus accepted the hosannas, for they +served to emphasize the claim which he now wished, without reserve or +ambiguity, to make in Jerusalem. The time for reserve had passed. The +mass of the people with their leaders had shown clearly that for his +truth, and himself as bearer of it, they had no liking; while the few had +become attached to him sufficiently to warrant the supreme test of their +faith. He could not continue longer his efforts to win the people, for +both Galilee and Judea were closed to him. Even if he had been content, +without contradicting popular ideas, to work wonders and proclaim promises +of coming good, he could with difficulty have continued this work, for +Herod had already been regarding him with suspicion (Luke xiii. 31). He +had run his course and must measure strength with the hostile forces in +Jerusalem. For the last encounter he assumed the aggressive, and entered +the city as its promised deliverer, the Prince of Peace. The very method +of his Messianic proclamation was a challenge of current Jewish ideas, for +they were not looking for so meek and peaceful a leader as Zechariah had +conceived; this entrance emphasized the old contradiction between Jesus +and his people's expectations. He accepted the popular welcome with full +knowledge of the transitoriness of the present enthusiasm. As he advanced +he saw in thought the fate to which the city and people were blindly +hurrying, and his day of popular triumph was a day of tears (Luke xix. +41-44). The city was stirred when the prophet of Nazareth thus entered it; +but he simply went into the temple, looked about with heavy heart, and, as +it was late, returned to Bethany with the twelve for the night. + +180. On the following day Jesus furnished to his disciples a parable in +action illustrating the fate awaiting the nation; for it is only as a +parable that the curse of the barren fig-tree can be understood. The idea +that Jesus showed resentment at disappointment of his hunger when he found +no figs on the tree out of season is too petty for consideration. He was +drawn to it by the early foliage, for it was not yet the season for either +fruit or leaves. One is tempted to believe, as Dr. Bruce has suggested, +that he had small expectation of finding fruit, and that even before he +reached the tree with its early leaves he felt a likeness between it and +the nation of hypocrites whose fate was so clear in his mind. The +withering of the fig-tree set his disciples thinking; and Jesus showed +that it was an object lesson, promising that the disciples, by the +exercise of but a little faith, could do more, even remove +mountains,--such mountains of difficulty as the opposition of the whole +Jewish nation would offer to the success of their work in their Master's +name. + +181. The curse upon the barren fig-tree was spoken as Jesus was going from +Bethany to Jerusalem on the morning after his Messianic entry, that is, on +Monday, and it was Tuesday when the disciples found it withered away (Mark +xi. 12-14, 20-25). On Monday Jesus entered into the temple and taught and +healed (Luke xix. 47; Matt. xxi. 14-16). It is at this point that Mark +inserts the cleansing of the temple which John shows to belong rather to +Jesus' first public visit to Jerusalem. The place which this incident +holds in the first three gospels has already been explained by the fact +that it furnished one cause for the official hostility to Jesus, and that +Mark's story included no earlier visit to the holy city (sect. 116; see A +39). + +182. Tuesday, the last day of public activity, exhibits Jesus in four +different lights, according as he had to do with his critics, with the +devout widow, with the inquiring Greeks, and with his own disciples. The +opposition to him expressed itself, after the general challenge of his +authority, in three questions put in succession by Pharisees and +Herodians, by Sadducees, and by a scribe, more earnest than most, whom the +Pharisees put forward after they had seen how Jesus silenced the +Sadducees. Jesus met the opening challenge by a question about John's +baptism (Mark xi. 29-33) which completely destroyed the complacency of his +critics, putting them on the defensive. This was more than a clever +stroke, they could not know what his authority was unless they had a quick +sense for spiritual things. His question would have served to bring this +to the surface if they had possessed it. Their reply showed them incapable +of receiving a real answer to their question. It also gave him opportunity +to say in three significant parables (Matt. xxi. 28 to xxii. 14) what +their spiritual blindness signified for them and their nation, giving thus +a turn to the interview not at all to their minds. As Jesus' rebuke was +spoken in the hearing of the people, a determined effort was at once made +to discredit him in the popular mind. The question (Mark xii. 13-17) with +which the Pharisees and Herodians hoped to ensnare him was most subtle, +for the popular feeling was as sensitive to the mark of subserviency which +the payment of tribute kept ever before them as the Roman authorities were +to the slightest suspicion of revolt against their sway. In none of his +words had Jesus so clearly asserted the simple other-worldliness of his +doctrine of the kingdom of God as in his answer to the question about +tribute. For him loyalty to the actual earthly sovereign was quite +compatible with loyalty to God, the lower obligation was in fact a summons +to be scrupulous also to render to God his due,--a duty in which this +nation was sadly delinquent. The reply gave no ground for an accusation +before the governor; but the popular feeling against Rome was so strong +that it is not unlikely that it contributed somewhat to the readiness of +the multitude a few days later to prefer Barabbas to Jesus. + +183. A second assault was made by some Sadducees who put to him a crude +question about the relations of a seven-times married woman in the +resurrection (Mark xii. 18-27). If this question was asked with the +expectation of making Jesus ridiculous in the sight of the people it was a +marked failure, for his reply was so simple and straightforward that he +won the admiration even of some of the Pharisees. The most significant +feature of it was his argument from God's reference to himself as God of +Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob; for in that he taught that the fact of +fellowship with God implies that God's servants share with him a life that +death cannot vanquish. The skill with which Jesus met these two questions +interested some of his hearers and showed to his opponents that they must +put forward their ablest champions to cope with him. The next test was +more purely academic in character,--as to what class of commands is +greatest in the law (Mark xii. 28-34). For the pharisaic scholars this was +a favorite problem. For Jesus, however, the question contained no problem, +since all the law is summed up in the two commandments of love. His +contemporaries were not without power to see the truth of his +generalization, and their champion in this last attack was moved with +admiration for the fineness and sufficiency of Jesus' answer. + +184. All of the assaults served only to show freshly the clearness and +profoundness of his thought; his critics were quite discomfited in their +effort to entangle him. They had done with him, but he had still a word +for them. The business of these scribes was the study of the scriptures. +They furnished the people with authoritative statements of truth. One of +the common-places of the current thought was that the Messiah should be +David's son. Jesus did not deny the truth of this view, yet he showed them +how partial their ideas were by quoting a word of scripture in which the +Messiah is shown as David's Lord. If they had been open-minded they might +have inferred from this that perhaps the man before them was not so +impossible a Messiah as they thought. This last question closed the +colloquy; there awaited yet, however, Jesus' calm, scathing arraignment of +the hypocrisy of these religious leaders. There was no longer any need for +prudence and every reason for a clear indication of the difference between +himself and the scribes in motive, in teaching, and in character. The +final conflict was on, and Jesus freely spoke his mind concerning their +whole life of piety without godliness. Never have sharper words of +reproach fallen from human lips than these which Jesus directed against +the scribes and Pharisees; they are burdened with indignation for the +misleading of the people, with rebuke for the misrepresentation of God's +truth, and with scorn for their hollow pretence of righteousness. Through +it all breathes a note of sorrow for the city whose house was now left to +her desolate. The change of scene which introduces the widow offering her +gift in the temple treasury heightens the significance of the +controversies through which Jesus had just passed. In his comment on the +worth of her two mites we hear again the preacher of the sermon on the +mount, and are assured that it is indeed from him that the severe rebukes +which have fallen on the scribes have come. There is again a reference to +the insight of him who sees in secret, and who judges as he sees; while +allusion is not lacking to the others whose larger gifts attracted a wider +attention. The whole scene is like a commentary on Matt. vi. 2-4. + +185. Still a different side of Jesus' life appears when the Greeks seek +him in the temple. They were probably proselytes from some of the Greek +cities about the Mediterranean where the synagogue offered to the +earnest-minded a welcome relief from the foolishness and corruption of +what was left of religion in the heathen world. Having visited Jerusalem +for the feast, they heard on every hand about the new teacher. They were +not so bound to rabbinic traditions as the Jews themselves, they had been +drawn by the finer features of Judaism,--its high morality and its noble +idea of God. What they heard of Jesus might well attract them, and they +sought out Philip, a disciple with a Greek name, to request an interview +with his Master. The evangelist who has preserved the incident (John xii. +20-36) evidently introduced it because of what it showed of Jesus' inner +life; hence we have no report of the conversation between him and his +visitors. The effect of their seeking him was marked, however, for it +offered sharp contrast to the rejection which he already felt in his +dealings with the people who but two days before had hailed him as +Messiah. This foreign interest in him did not suggest a new avenue for +Messianic work, it only brought before his mind the influence which was to +be his in the world which these inquirers represented, and immediately +with the thought of his glorification came that of the means thereto,--the +cross whose shadow was already darkening his path. Excepting Gethsemane, +no more solemn moment in Jesus' life is reported for us. A glimpse is +given into the inner currents of his soul, and the storm which tossed them +is seen. It is in marked contrast to the calmness of his controversy with +the leaders, and to the gentleness of his commendation of the widow. The +agitation passed almost at once, but it left Jesus in a mood which he had +not shown before on that day; in it his own thoughts had their way, and +the doctrine of the grain of wheat dying to appear in larger life, of the +Son of Man lifted up to draw all men unto him, had utterance, greatly to +the perplexity of his hearers. It seems to have been one of the few times +when Jesus spoke for his own soul's relief. + +186. In all the earlier events of the day the disciples of Jesus appear +but little. He is occupied with others, accepting the challenge of the +leaders, and completing his testimony to the truth they refused to hear. +The quieter hours of the later part of the day gave time for further words +with his friends. The comment on the widow's gift was meant for them, and +the uncovering of his own soul when the Greeks sought him was in their +presence. After he had left the temple and the city he gave himself to +them more exclusively. His disciples were perplexed by what they saw and +felt, for the temper of the people toward their Master could not be +mistaken. Yet they were sure of him. The leaders among them, therefore, +asked him privately to tell them when the catastrophe should come, to +which during the day he had made repeated reference. The conversation +which followed is reported for us in the discourse on the destruction of +Jerusalem and the end of the world (Mark xiii. and parallels), in which +Jesus taught his disciples to expect trouble in their ministry, as he was +meeting trouble in his; and to be ready for complete disappointment of +their inherited hopes for the glory of their holy city. He also taught +them to expect that his work would shortly be carried to perfection, and +to live in expectancy of his coming to complete all that he was now +seeming to leave undone. This lesson of patience and expectancy is +enforced in a group of parables preserved for us in Matthew (chap. xxv.), +closing with the remarkable picture of the end of all things when the +Master should return in glory as judge of all to make final announcement +of the simplicity of God's requirement of righteousness, as it had been +exhibited in the life which by the despite of men was now drawing to its +close. + +187. The bargain made by Judas to betray his Lord has always been +difficult to understand. The man must have had fine possibilities or Jesus +would not have chosen him for an apostle, nor would the little company +have made him its treasurer (John xii. 6; xiii. 29). The fact that Jesus +early discovered his character (John vi. 64) does not compel us to think +that his selection as an apostle was not perfectly sincere; the man must +have seemed to be still savable and worthy thus to be associated with the +eleven others who were Jesus' nearest companions. It has often been +noticed that he was probably the only Judean among the twelve, for +Kerioth, his home, was a town in southern Judea. The effort has frequently +been made to redeem his reputation by attributing his betrayal to some +high motive--such as a desire to force his Master to use his Messianic +power, and confound his opponents by escaping from their hands and setting +up the hoped-for kingdom. But the remorse of Judas, in which De Quincey +finds support for this theory of the betrayal, must be more simply and +sadly understood. It is more likely that the traitor illustrates Jesus' +words: "No man can serve two masters; for either he will hate the one and +love the other; or else he will hold to the one and despise the other. Ye +cannot serve God and mammon" (Matt. vi. 24). The beginning of his fall may +have been his disappointment when Jesus showed clearly that he would not +establish a kingdom conformed to the popular ideas. As the enthusiasm +which drew him to Jesus cooled, personal greed, with something of +resentment at the cause of his disappointment, seem to have taken +possession of him, and they led him on until the stinging rebuke which +Jesus administered to the criticism of Mary at Bethany prompted the man to +seek a bargain with the authorities which should insure him at least some +profit in the general wreck of his hopes. His remorse after he saw in its +bald hideousness what he had done was psychologically inevitable. Although +Jesus was aware of Judas' character from the beginning (John vi. 64), he +that came to seek and to save that which was lost was no fatalist; and +this knowledge was doubtless--like that which he had of the fate hanging +over Jerusalem--subject to the possibility that repentance might change +what was otherwise a certain destiny. As the event turned he could only +say, "Good were it for that man if he had not been born" (Mark xiv. 21). + +188. With this the curtain falls on the public ministry of Jesus. The +gospels suggest a day of quiet retirement following these controversies +and warnings, with their fresh demonstration of the irreconcilable +hostility of people of all classes to him and his work. After the +seclusion of that day, he returned to give final proof of complete +obedience to his Father's will. + + + + +VII + +The Last Supper + + + +189. On Thursday Jesus and his disciples returned to Jerusalem for the +last time. Knowing the temper of the leaders, and the danger of arrest at +any time, Jesus was particularly eager to eat the Passover with his +disciples (Luke xxii. 15), and he sent two of them--Luke names them as +Peter and John--to prepare for the supper. In a way which would give no +information to such a one as Judas, he directed them carefully how to find +the house where a friend would provide them the upper room that was needed +for an undisturbed meeting of the little band, and the two went on in +advance to make ready. When the hour was come Jesus with the others went +to the appointed place and sat down for the supper (Mark xiv. 17; Luke +xxii. 14; Matt. xxvi. 20). + +190. The gospels all report the last evening which the little company +spent together. There is a perplexing divergence, however, between John +and the others concerning the relation of this supper to the feast of the +Passover. In their introduction of the story, Mark and his companion +gospels indicate that the supper which Jesus ate was the Passover meal +itself. John, on the other hand, declares that it was "before the feast of +the Passover" (xiii. 1) that Jesus took this meal with his disciples. +John's account is consistent throughout, for he states that on the next +day the desire of the Jews to "eat the Passover" forbade them to enter the +house of the governor lest they should incur defilement (xviii. 28). The +other gospels, moreover, hint in several ways that the day of Jesus' death +could not have been the day after the Passover; that is, the first day of +the feast of unleavened bread. Dr. Sanday has recently enumerated these +afresh, remarking that "the Synoptists make the Sanhedrin say beforehand +that they will not arrest Jesus 'on the feast day,' and then actually +arrest him on that day; that not only the guards, but one of the disciples +(Mark xiv. 47), carries arms, which on the feast day was not allowed; that +the trial was also held on the feast day, which would be unlawful; that +the feast day would not be called simply Preparation (see Mark xv. 42, and +compare John xix. 31); that the phrase 'coming from the field' (Mark xv. +21 [Greek]) means properly 'coming from work;' that Joseph of Arimathea is +represented as buying a linen cloth (Mark xv. 46) and the women as +preparing spices and ointments (Luke xxiii. 56), all of which would be +contrary to law and custom" (HastBD ii. 634). In these particulars the +first three gospels seem to confirm the representation of the fourth that +the day of the last supper was earlier than the regular Jewish Passover. +On the other hand, a strong argument, though one that has not commended +itself to other specialists in Jewish archæology, has been put forth by +Dr. Edersheim (LJM ii. 567f.) to prove that John also indicates that the +last supper was eaten at the time of the regular Passover. In the present +condition of our knowledge certainty is impossible. If John does differ +from the others, his testimony has the greatest weight. While not +conclusive, it has some significance that Paul identified Christ with the +sacrifice of the passover (I. Cor. v. 7), a statement which may indicate +that he held that Jesus died about the time of the killing of the paschal +lamb. If John be taken to prove that the last supper occurred a day before +the regular Passover, Jesus must have felt that the anticipation was +necessary in order to avoid the publicity and consequent danger of a +celebration at the same time with all the rest of the city. + +191. Whatever the conclusion concerning the date of the last supper, and +consequently of the crucifixion, the last meal of Jesus with his disciples +was for that little company the equivalent of the Passover supper. Luke +states that the desire of Jesus had looked specially to eating this feast +with his disciples (xxii. 15). The reason must be found in his certainty +of the very near end, and in his wish to make the meal a preparation for +the bitter experiences which were overhanging him and them. + +192. It is customary to connect as occasion and consequence the dispute +concerning precedence which Luke reports (xxii. 24-30), and the rebuke +which Jesus administered by washing the disciples' feet (John xiii. 1-20). +The jealousies of the disciples may have arisen over the allotment of +seats at the table, as Dr. Edersheim has most fully shown (LJM ii. +492-503); such a controversy would be the natural sequel of earlier +disputes concerning greatness, and particularly of the request of James +and John for the best places in the coming kingdom (Mark x. 35-45), and +would lead as naturally to the distress of heart with which Jesus declared +that one of the disciples should betray him, and that another of them +should deny him. The narrative in Mark favors the withdrawal of Judas +before the new rite was appointed. This must seem to be the probability in +the case, for the presence of Judas would be most incongruous at such a +memorial service. John's mention of his departure before the announcement +of Peter's approaching fall confirms this interpretation of Mark (Mark +xiv. 18-21; John xiii. 21-30). + +193. The paschal memories furnished to Jesus an opportunity to establish +for his disciples an institution which should symbolize the new covenant +which he was soon to seal with his blood. Jesus regarded this new covenant +as that which was promised by the prophets, especially Jeremiah (xxxi. +31-34), and his thought, like that of the prophets, goes back to the story +of the covenant established at Sinai (Ex. xxiv. 1-11). In this way he gave +to his disciples a conception of his death, which later, if not +immediately, would help them to regard it as a necessary part of his work +as Messiah. They were now oppressed by the evident certainty that the near +future would bring their Master to death; he accordingly gave them a +sacred reminder of himself and of his death as an essential part of his +self-giving "for them;" for whatever the conclusion concerning the +disputed text of Luke (xxii. 19), the institutional character of the act +and words of Jesus is clear. As Holtzmann remarks (NtTh i. 304): "The +words 'this do in remembrance of me' were perhaps not spoken; all the more +certainly do they of themselves express what lay in the situation and made +itself felt with incontestable conclusiveness." + +194. Several hints in the records seem to connect the meal in various +details with what is known of ancient custom in the celebration of the +Passover. The hymn with which according to Mark and Matthew the supper +closed is easily identified with the last part (Psalms cxv. to cxviii.) of +the so called _Hallel_, which was sung at the close of the Passover meal. +The mention of two cups in the familiar text of Luke (xxii. 17-20) agrees +with the repeated cups of the Passover ritual; so also do the sop and the +dipping of it with which Jesus indicated to John who the traitor was (John +xiii. 23-26; Mark xiv. 20). If it could be proved that the customs +recorded in the Talmud correctly represent the usage in Jesus' time it +would be of extreme interest to seek to connect what is told us of the +last supper with that Passover ritual as Dr. Edersheim has done (LJM ii. +490-512). The antiquity of the rabbinic record is so uncertain, however, +that it is only useful as showing what possibly may have been the case. +All that can be asserted is that the rabbinic ritual probably originated +long before it was recorded, and that as the last supper was a meal which +Jesus and his disciples celebrated as a Passover, it is probable that some +such ritual was more or less closely followed. + +195. Luke and John give the fullest reports of what was said at the table. +All the gospels tell of Peter's declaration of superior loyalty and the +prediction of his threefold denial; Luke, however, adds that in connection +with it Jesus assured Peter of his restoration, and charged him to +strengthen his brethren (Luke xxii. 31-34). John alone gives the long and +full discourse of admonition and comfort, followed by Jesus' prayer for +his disciples (xiii. 31 to xvii. 26). It is evident from the words of +Jesus as he entered the garden of Gethsemane (Mark xiv. 33, 34), as from +those which had escaped him when the Greeks sought him the last day in the +temple (John xii. 27), that his own heart was greatly troubled during the +supper by the apparent defeat which was now close at hand. His quietness +and self-possession during the supper, particularly when tenderly +reproving his disciples for petty ambition, or when solemnly dismissing +the traitor, or warning Peter of his denials, must not blind us to the +depth of the emotion which was stirring his own soul. It is only as we +remember his trouble of heart that it is possible justly to value the +ministry which in varied ways he rendered to his disciples that night. In +the discourses reported by John he showed that he realized that the +approaching separation would sorely try the faith of his followers, and he +sought to strengthen them by showing his own calmness in view of it, and +by promising them another who should abide with them spiritually as his +representative, and continue for them the work which he had begun. He +therefore urged them to maintain their devotion to him, still to seek and +find the source of their life and secret of their strength in fellowship +with him--present, though unseen among them. He sought to convince them +that his departure was to be for their advantage, that fellowship with him +spiritually would be far more real and efficacious than the intercourse +they had already enjoyed. He whose own heart was "exceeding sorrowful even +unto death" bade his disciples not to let their hearts be troubled nor +afraid. How long the conversation continued, of when the company left the +upper chamber, cannot be told. At some time before the arrival at +Gethsemane Jesus turned to God in prayer for the disciples whom he was +about to leave to the severe trial of their faith, asking for them that +realization of eternal life which he had enjoyed and exemplified in his +own intimate life with his Father. With this his ministry to them closed +for the time, and, crossing the Kidron, he entered the garden of +Gethsemane weighed down by the sorrow of his own soul. + + + + +VIII + +The Shadow of Death + + + +196. Of the garden of Gethsemane it is only known that it was across the +Kidron, on the slope of the Mount of Olives. Tradition has long pointed to +an enclosure some fifty yards beyond the bridge that crosses the ravine on +the road leading eastward from St. Stephen's gate. Most students feel that +this is too near the city and the highway for the place of retreat chosen +by Jesus. Archæologically and sentimentally the identification of places +connected with the life of Jesus is of great interest. Practically, +however, it is easy to over-emphasize the importance of such an +identification. Granted the fact that in some olive grove on the +mountain-side, where an oil-press gave a name to the place (Gethsemane), +Jesus withdrew with his disciples on that last night, and all that is +important is known. It is of far higher importance to see rightly the +relation of what took place in that garden to the things which preceded +and followed it in the life of Jesus. At that time Jesus saw pressed to +his lips the "cup" from the bitterness of which his whole soul shrank. It +was not an unlooked-for trial; some time earlier he had sought to cool the +ardor of the ambition of James and John by telling them that they should +drink of his cup, and declared that even the Son of Man came not to be +ministered unto but to minister, and to give his life a ransom for many. +The fourth gospel, whose representation omits the agony of Gethsemane and +only reports its victory, tells how Jesus rebuked the violent impulse of +Peter with the word, "The cup which my Father hath given me to drink shall +I not drink it?" (John xviii. 11^b); and all the gospels exhibit the +marvellous quietness of spirit and dignity of self-surrender which +characterized Jesus throughout his trial and execution. In Gethsemane, +however, we see the struggle in which that calmness and self-mastery were +won. + +197. It is unbecoming to consider that scene with any vulgar curiosity to +know what it was that made Jesus so draw back from the drinking of his +"cup." It is not unfitting, however, to recognize that in his cry, "Abba, +Father, all things are possible unto thee; remove this cup from me" (Mark +xiv. 36), an intense longing of his own soul's life had expression. There +was something in the fate which he saw before him from which his whole +being shrank. But stronger than this was his fixed desire to do his +Father's will. Here was supremely illustrated the truth that "he came down +from heaven, not to do his own will, but the will of him that sent him" +(John vi. 38). The fullest allowance for the shrinking of the most +delicately constituted nature from pain and death completely fails to +account for this dread of Jesus. He was no coward, drawing back from +sufferings which for simple physical pain were over and again more than +matched by many of the martyrs to truth who preceded and followed him. He +himself declared to the sons of Zebedee that they should share a cup in +kind like unto his, suffering for the kingdom of God, for the salvation +of the world. Yet there is a difference evident between what others have +had to bear and the cup from which Jesus shrank. The death which now stood +before him in the path of obedience had in it a bitterness quite +unexplained by the pain and disappointment it entailed. That excess of +bitterness can probably never be understood by us. A hint of its nature +may be found in the "shame of the cross" which the author of Hebrews (xii. +2; xiii. 13) emphasizes, and in the "curse" of the cross which made it a +stumbling block to Paul and his Jewish brethren (Gal. iii. 13; I. Cor. i. +23). Jesus came from the garden ready to endure the cross in obedience to +his Father's will; but it was a costly obedience, a complete emptying of +himself (Phil. ii. 7, 8). + +198. The loneliness of Jesus in his struggle is emphasized in the gospels +of Mark and Matthew. In search of sympathy he had confessed to the +disciples his trouble of heart, and had taken his three intimates with him +when he withdrew from the others for prayer, asking them to watch with +him. They were too heavy of heart and weary of body to stand by in his +bitter hour, and instead of being in readiness to warn him of the approach +of the hostile band, he had to awake them to their danger. The fourth +gospel reports that after the struggle Jesus bore marks of majesty which +astonished and overawed his foes when he calmly told them that he was the +one they were seeking. Their fear was overcome, however, when Judas gave +the appointed sign by kissing his Master (Mark xiv. 45). The thought for +the disciples' safety which John records (xviii. 8) is another proof that +the fight had been won, and Jesus had fully resumed the self-emptying +ministry appointed to him by his Father. + +199. The band that arrested Jesus was accompanied by a Roman cohort from +the garrison of the city, but it was not needed, for the disciples offered +no appreciable resistance; on the contrary, "they all forsook him and +fled" (Mark xiv. 50). Having arrested Jesus, the band took him to Annas, +the actual leader of Jewish affairs, though not at the time the official +high-priest. He had held that office some time before, but had been +deposed by the Roman governor of Syria after being in power for nine +years. His influence continued, however, for although he was never +reinstated, he seems to have been able to secure the appointment for +members of his own family during a period of many years. Caiaphas, the +legal high-priest, was his son-in-law. Annas, as the leader of +aristocratic opinion in Jerusalem, had doubtless been foremost in the +secret counsels which led to the decision to get rid of Jesus, hence the +captive was, as a matter of course, taken first to his house. The trial by +the Jewish authorities was irregular. There seems to have been an informal +examination of Jesus and various witnesses, first before Annas, and then +before Caiaphas and a group of members of the sanhedrin, the outcome of +which was complete failure to secure evidence against Jesus from their +false witnesses, and the formulation of a charge of blasphemy in +consequence of his answer to the high-priest acknowledging himself to be +the Messiah (Mark xiv. 61-64). The early hours before the day were given +over to mockery and ill-usage of the captive Jesus. When morning was +come, the sanhedrin was convened, and he was condemned to death on the +charge of blasphemy (Mark xv. 1; Luke xxii. 66-71), and then was led in +bonds to the Roman governor for execution, since the Romans had taken from +the sanhedrin the authority to execute a death sentence (John xviii. 31). +Before Pilate the Jews had to name an offence recognized by Roman law; his +accusers therefore falsified his claim and made him out a political +Messiah, hostile to Roman rule (Luke xxiii. 1, 2). Pilate soon saw that +the charge was trumped up, and sought in every way, while keeping the +good-will of the people, to escape the responsibility of giving sentence +against Jesus. His first effort was a simple declaration that he found no +fault in the prisoner (Luke xxiii. 4); then, having heard that he was a +Galilean, he tried to transfer the case to Herod, who happened to be in +the city at the time (Luke xxiii. 5-12); he then sought to compromise by +agreeing to chastise Jesus and then release him (Luke xxiii. 13-16); next +he offered the people their choice between the innocent Jesus and +Barabbas, a convicted insurrectionist (Mark xv. 6-15; Luke xxiii. 16-24), +and the people, instructed by the priests, chose Barabbas, caring nothing +for a Messiah who would allow himself to be arrested without resistance; +the fourth gospel tells of Pilate's still further effort, by appealing to +the people's sympathy, to escape giving sentence, even after he had +delivered Jesus to the soldiers for the preliminary scourging. Finding the +Jews ready to urge, at length, a religious charge, Pilate's superstitious +fear was roused (John xix. 7-12), and he sought again to release him, but +was finally cowed by the threat of an accusation against him at Rome, +and, mocking the people by sitting in judgment to condemn Jesus as their +king, he gave sentence against the man whom he knew to be innocent (John +xix. 12-16). + +200. Some of Jesus' disciples and friends were witnesses of the early +stages of the informal trial, in particular, John (John xviii. 15) and +Peter. It was during the progress of the early examination that Peter was +drawn into his denials by the comments made by the bystanders on his +connection with the accused. It has been suggested that the house of the +high-priest where Jesus was tried was built, like other Oriental houses, +about a court so that the room where Jesus was examined was open to view +from the court. In this case it is easy to see how Jesus could overhear +his disciple's strenuous denials of any acquaintance with him, and could +turn and give him that look which sent him out to weep bitterly (Luke +xxii. 61, 62). If it be further assumed that Annas and Caiaphas occupied +different sides of the same high-priestly palace, the double examination +reported by John would still be within hearing from the one court in which +the faithless disciple was a fascinated witness of his Master's trial. + +201. Humanly speaking, it may be said that the fate of Jesus was sealed +when the Sadducean leaders came to look on him seriously as a danger to +the State (John xi. 47-50, note the mention of chief priests). The +religious opposition was serious, and might have brought trouble, in some +such way as it seems to have done to John the Baptist (see Matt. xvii. +10-13; Luke xiii. 31, 32); but it is doubtful whether the governor would +have given much attention to a charge not urged by the men of influence in +Jerusalem. The notable thing in connection with the last days of Jesus' +life is the joint opposition of Sadducean priests and Pharisaic scribes. +That the populace easily changed their cry from "hosanna" to "crucify him" +is not surprising. Their hosannas were due to a complete misconception of +Jesus' aim and purpose; disappointed in him, they would be the earliest to +cry out against him, especially when the choice lay between him and a +genuine insurrectionist. + +202. Each fresh study of the trial of Jesus gives a fresh impression of +his greatness. He who but a few hours before was pouring out his soul in +prayer that his cup might pass, stands forth as the one calm and +undisturbed actor among all those who took part in the tragic doings of +that day. His judges and foes were all swayed by passion and self-interest +and were ready to make travesty of justice, from the leaders of the +sanhedrin who condemned him on one charge and accused him to the governor +on another, to the governor himself, who appeared determined to release +him if he could do it without risk of personal popularity, and who yet, in +order to avoid accusation at Rome, gave sentence according to the people's +will. The fickle populace crying "crucify him," the disciples who forsook +him, the rock-apostle who denied even so much as knowledge of the man, +show how all the currents of life about him were stirred and full of +tumult. In all this, of which he was the occasion and centre, he stands +the supreme example of dignity, self-mastery, and quietness. This is seen +in his silence in the presence of Annas and Caiaphas, and later before +Pilate; in his frank avowal of his Messianic claim in reply to the +high-priest's challenge, and of his kingly rank in answer to the +governor's question; and in the look of reproof which he turned upon +Peter. Not that he was without feeling. There is strong sense of outrage +in his words, "If I have spoken evil, bear witness of the evil, but if +well, why smitest thou me?" It was not the quietness of stoic +indifference, but of perfect self-devotion to the Father's will. He +maintained it from the time of his arrest to the last cry of trust with +which he committed his spirit to his Father. + +203. The scourging over, the mock homage of the soldiers done, he was led +out beyond the city wall to be crucified. The exact place of the +crucifixion can be determined as little as that of Gethsemane, though +there is a tradition from the fourth century, and in addition there are +many conjectures. Jesus was led, apparently, to the ordinary place of +criminal execution, and with two others, probably insurrectionary robbers +like those with whom Barabbas had been associated, he was crucified. Two +episodes in the journey to the place of crucifixion are recorded,--the +help which Simon of Cyrene was compelled to give to Jesus in carrying his +cross (Mark xv. 21), and the word of Jesus to those who, following him, +bewailed his fate (Luke xxiii. 27-31). + +204. Of the cruelty and torture of crucifixion much has been written and +often. It would be difficult to exaggerate it. The death by the cross was +a death by hunger and exhaustion in ordinary cases; it was thus torture +prolonged for many hours. It is noticeable, however, that it is not the +suffering but the disgrace and shame of the cross that occupied the +thought of the apostolic days. Indeed, were physical suffering chiefly to +be considered, it would have to be owned that the fact that Jesus died +within a few hours released him from the most excruciating pains incident +to this barbarous form of execution. The later ascetic thought loved, and +still loves, to dwell on the physical torments of the Lord's death. They +were severe enough to give us awe; but the biblical writers show a much +healthier mind, and their thought does not invite comparison between the +pains endured by the Master and those which some of his martyred followers +bore with great fortitude. The disgrace of the cross was the uttermost; +for the Romans it was the death of a slave, for the Jews it was patent +proof of the curse of God (Deut. xxi. 23). The obedience of Jesus was +unlimited when he submitted to death (Phil. ii. 8). It is on the shame of +the cross, and on the sacrifice of himself for the life of the world when +in obedience to his Father's will he "despised the shame," that the +thought of the apostolic day laid emphasis. In this experience Jesus found +himself in truth numbered with the transgressors; he was the object of +scorn for all them that passed by, they mocked at him, at his works, and +at his confident trust in God. In this last extremity the darkness of +Gethsemane again swept over Jesus' soul, when he cried out "My God, my +God," recalling the words of one of the saints of old in his hour of +distress (Ps. xxii.). Yet, like him, Jesus kept hold on the certainty of +deliverance; the darkness passed at length. + +205. The evangelists preserve several sayings of Jesus from the cross, the +records of the different gospels being remarkably diverse. Mark and +Matthew record the exclamation, "My God, my God _(Eloi, Eloi_), why hast +thou forsaken me," which the bystander misconstrued as a call for Elijah, +thinking this pseudo-Messiah was reproaching Elijah for failing to come to +his help. The same gospels tell of the loud cry with which Jesus died. +Luke omits the call _Eloi_, and gives in place of the last expiring cry +the prayer of trust, "Father, into thy hands I commend my spirit" (xxiii. +46). Earlier, however, this gospel tells of Jesus' word to the penitent +robber, "To-day shalt thou be with me in Paradise" (xxiii. 43), and of the +prayer for his foes, that is, for the Jewish people who blindly condemned +him (xxiii. 34). The oldest manuscripts cause some doubt whether this last +saying was originally a part of the Gospel of Luke. If it was not it would +belong in the same class with the story of the sinful woman which we now +find in John, both being authentic records of the life of Jesus, though +from some other source than that in which we now find them. The fourth +gospel gives quite an independent group of sayings. It interprets the +dying cry as, "It is finished" (xix. 30), and preceding this it gives the +cry, "I thirst" (xix. 28), which led to the offering of the vinegar of +which the first two gospels speak. Earlier it tells of the committal of +Mary to the care of the beloved disciple (xix. 26, 27). Of these seven +sayings, "Eloi," "I thirst," "Father, into thy hand I commend my spirit," +and "It is finished" belong to the last hours of the life of the crucified +one, after the darkness of which the first three gospels speak had +overshadowed the land. Of the cause of that darkness they give no hint, +for Luke's expression cannot mean an eclipse, since an eclipse at Passover +time, that is, at full moon, is an impossibility. The conjecture that +dense clouds hid the sun is common, and is as suitable as any other. +Whatever the cause, the evangelists saw in it a token of nature's awe at +the death of the Son of God. During the hours of the darkness the waves +swept over his soul, as the cry "my God" shows to our reverent thought. +But the last word of trust proves that the dying Jesus was not forsaken, +and that Calvary, like Gethsemane, was a battle won. The earlier sayings +all express Jesus' continued spirit of ministry, showing even in his +bitter pain his accustomed thoughtfulness for others' need. + +206. It is futile to speculate on the cause of Jesus' early death. He +certainly suffered a much shorter time than was ordinarily the case, as +appears in the fact that at sunset it was necessary to break the legs of +the robbers so as to hasten death, Jesus having already been some time +dead. There is something attractive in the theory of Dr. Stroud (The +Physical Cause of Christ's Death) that Jesus died of rupture of the heart. +It may have been true, but the evidences on which he based his argument +are insufficient for proof. To the Jews the death of their victim did not +give all the satisfaction they desired. In the first place, Pilate +insisted on mocking them by posting over the head of Jesus the placard, +"The King of the Jews" (see John xix. 19-22); moreover, their haste had +brought the crime into close proximity to the feast which they were eager +to keep from defilement; so that they had still to beg of Pilate that he +would hasten the death of the victims, that their bodies might not remain +to desecrate the following Sabbath sanctity (John xix. 31-37); while for +those who witnessed it the death of Jesus deepened the impression that a +hideous crime had been committed in the slaughter of an innocent man (Mark +xv. 39). + +207. Among the bystanders few of the disciples of Jesus were to be +found--they were hiding in fear. Yet some faithful women, and two +courageous councillors of Jerusalem, were bold enough to make their +loyalty known. These two men, Joseph of Arimathea and Nicodemus, were +members of the sanhedrin, but they had had no part in the condemnation of +Jesus; and after knowing that he was dead, Joseph begged of Pilate the +body, and he and Nicodemus took Jesus down from the cross and laid him in +a tomb which Joseph owned near the place of crucifixion, rendering such +tender ministries as were possible in the closing hours of the day. The +women who had witnessed his end meanwhile were arranging also to anoint +the body. They took notice where the two friends had laid him, and then +went away to rest on the Sabbath day, according to the commandment. + +208. To the Jews it was a high day, the first Sabbath in the eight days of +their holy feast (John xix. 31). They had eagerly guarded their conduct +that no ceremonial defilement might prevent their sharing in the paschal +feast. They believed that they had rid their nation of a dangerous +disturber of its peace, and men whose conscience shrank not from making +God's house a house of merchandise, who would punish one who ventured to +cure a mortal disease if it chanced to cross their Sabbath traditions, who +had condemned to death the holiest man and godliest teacher the world had +ever seen because he did not square with their heartless formalism,--such +men hardly had conscience enough to feel repentance or remorse for the +cowardly injustice and crime with which of their own choice they had +reddened their hands (Matt, xxvii. 25). They doubtless kept their feast +with satisfaction. Not a few hearts, however, were heavy with grief and +disappointed hope. They had believed that Jesus "was he that should redeem +Israel" (Luke xxiv. 21). Stunned, they could not throw away the faith +which he had kindled in their hearts. Yet he was dead, and only faintly, +if at all, did they recall his prediction of suffering and his certainty +of triumph through it all (John xx. 9). What remained for them was the +last tender ministry to their dead Lord. + + Outline of Events after the Resurrection + + + _The day of the resurrection--Sunday_. The visit of the women to the + tomb--Matt. xxviii. 1-8; Mark xvi. 1-8; Luke xxiv. 1-12; John xx. 1-10. + + Jesus' first appearance; to Mary--Matt. xxviii. 9 10; [Mark xvi. 9-11]; + John xx. 11-18. + + The report of the watch--Matt. xxviii. 11-15. + + The appearance to Simon Peter--I. Cor. xv. 5. + + The walk to Emmaus--[Mark xvi 12,13]; Luke xxiv. 13-35. + + The appearance to the ten in the evening--[Mark xvi. 14]; Luke xxiv. + 36-43; John xx. 19-25; I. Cor. xv. 5. + + _One week later--Sunday_. The appearance to the eleven, with + Thomas--John xx. 26-29. + + _Later appearances_. To seven disciples by the sea of Galilee--John + xxi. 1-24. + + To a company of disciples in. Galilee--Matt, xxviii. 16-20; [Mark xvi. + 15-18]; I. Cor. xv. 6. + + The appearance to James--I. Cor. xv. 7. + + To the disciples in Jerusalem, followed by the ascension--Mark xvi. 19, + 20; Luke xxiv. 44-53; Acts i. 1-12; I. Cor. xv. 7. + + + +IX + +The Resurrection + + + +209. Christianity as a historic religious movement starts from the +resurrection of Jesus from the dead. This is very clear in the preaching +and writings of Paul. The first distinctively Christian feature in his +address at Athens is his statement that God had designated Jesus to be +the judge of men by having "raised him from the dead" (Acts xvii. 31), and +for him the resurrection was the demonstration of the divinity of Christ +(Rom. i. 4), and the confirmation of the Christian hope (I. Cor. xv.). +With him the prime qualification for an apostle was that he should have +seen the risen Lord (I. Cor. ix. 1). The early preaching as recorded in +Acts shows the same feature, for after repeated testimony to the fact that +God had raised up Jesus, Peter summed up his address with the declaration, +"Let all the house of Israel therefore know assuredly, that God hath made +him both Lord and Christ, this Jesus whom ye crucified" (Acts ii. 36). In +fact the buoyancy of hope and confidence of faith which gave to the +despised followers of the Nazarene their strength resulted directly from +the experiences of the days which followed the deep gloom that settled +over the disciples when Jesus died. + +210. It can but seem strange to us that after Jesus had so often foretold +his death and the resurrection which should follow it, his disciples were +thrown into despair by the cross. Joseph of Arimathea and Nicodemus when +they embalmed his body may not have known of these teachings which Jesus +gave to the nearer circle of his followers, but it is difficult to believe +that the women who prepared their spices to anoint his body (Mark xvi. 1) +had heard nothing of these predictions, and it is certain that the +apostles who received with incredulity the first news of the resurrection +were the men whom Jesus had sought to prepare for this glorious victory. +The disciples do not seem to have finished "questioning among themselves +what the rising again from the dead should mean" (Mark ix. 10, compare +Luke xviii. 34) until Jesus himself explained it by his return to them +after his crucifixion. It was formerly common to conclude from the +scepticism of the disciples that Jesus could not have told them, as he is +reported to have done, that he would rise again the third day. It is now +widely conceded, however, that if he foresaw and foretold his death, he +surely coupled with it a promise of resurrection, otherwise he must have +surrendered his own conviction that he was Messiah; for a Messiah taken +and held captive by death was apparently as foreign to Jesus' thought as +it was unthinkable for the men of his generation. The inability of the +disciples to adjust their Messianic ideas to the death of their Master was +not removed by the rebuke Jesus administered to Peter at Cæsarea Philippi; +their objections were only silenced. It would seem that even when they saw +his death to be inevitable, they were simply dumb with hope that in some +way he would come off victor; the cross and the tomb crushed out that +hope--at least from most of them. If one disciple, his closest friend, +recalled and believed his words when he saw the empty tomb (John xx. 8), +others were cast into still deeper sorrow by the report, and could only +say, "But we hoped that it was he which should redeem Israel" (Luke xxiv. +21). + +211. The light which banished the gloom from the hearts of Jesus' +followers dawned suddenly. There was no time for gradual readjustment of +ideas and the springing of hope from a faith which would not die. The +uniform early tradition is that Jesus showed himself alive to his +disciples "on the third day," that is, a little over thirty-six hours from +the time of his death. Not only the gospels, but Paul, who wrote many +years before our evangelists, testify to this (I. Cor. xv. 4), as does the +very early observance of the first day of the week as "the Lord's day," +and the substitution of "the third day" for "after three days" in the +gospels which made use of our Gospel of Mark (compare parallels with Mark +viii. 81; ix. 31; x. 34, and see Holtzmann, NtTh I. 309). Of the events +which occurred on that third day and after, our earliest account is that +of Paul. He gives a simple catalogue of the appearances of the risen Lord, +referring to them as well known, in fact as the familiar subject matter of +his earliest teaching (I. Cor. xv. 4-8). He gives definite date to none of +these appearances, indicating only their sequence. He tells of six +different manifestations, beginning with an appearance to Cephas on the +third day, then to the twelve, then to a large company of +disciples,--above five hundred,--then to James, then to all the apostles. +The sixth in the list is his own experience, which he puts in the same +class with the appearances of the first Easter morning. Two of these +instances are found only in Paul's account, the appearance to James and to +the five hundred brethren, though this last may probably be the same as is +referred to in the Gospel of Matthew (xxviii. 16-20). + +212. The gospel records are much fuller, but they differ from each other +even more than they do from Paul. Mark is unhappily incomplete, for the +last twelve verses in that gospel, as we have it, are lacking in the +oldest manuscripts, and were probably written by a second-century +Christian named Aristion, as a substitute for the proper end of the gospel +which seems by some accident to have been lost. These twelve verses are +clearly compiled from our other gospels. They have value as indicating the +currency of the complete tradition in the early second century, but they +contribute nothing to our knowledge of the resurrection. All, then, that +Mark tells is that the women who came early on the first day of the week +to anoint the body of Jesus found the tomb open and empty, and saw an +angel who bade them tell the disciples that the Lord had risen. How the +record originally continued no one knows, for Matthew and Luke use the +same general testimony up to the point where Mark breaks off, and then go +quite different ways. Of the two Matthew is closer to Mark than is Luke. +The first gospel adds to the record of the second an account of an +appearance of Jesus to the women as they went to report to the disciples, +and then tells of the meeting of Jesus with the disciples on a mountain in +Galilee, and his parting commission to them. It gives no account of the +ascension. Luke agrees with Mark in general concerning the visit of the +women to the tomb, the angelic vision, and the report to the disciples. He +says nothing of an appearance of Jesus to the women on their flight from +the tomb, but, if xxiv. 12 is genuine (see R.V. margin), he, like John, +tells of Peter's visit to the sepulchre. + +213. Luke further reports the appearances of Jesus to two on their way to +Emmaus, to Simon, and to the eleven in Jerusalem,--this last being blended +consciously or unconsciously with the final meeting of Jesus with the +disciples before his ascension. The genuine text of the gospel (xxiv. 50) +says nothing of the ascension itself, but clearly implies it. In contrast +with Matthew it is noticeable that Luke shows no knowledge of any +appearance of Jesus to his disciples in Galilee. John is quite independent +of Mark, as well as of Matthew and Luke. He mentions only Mary Magdalene +in connection with the early visit to the tomb, though perhaps he implies +the presence of others with her ("we" in xx. 2). He tells of a visit of +Peter and John to the tomb, of an appearance of Jesus to Mary Magdalene, +of an appearance to ten of the disciples in the evening, and a week later +to the eleven, including Thomas. So far this gospel makes no reference to +appearances in Galilee; but in the appendix (chapter xxi.) there is added +a manifestation to seven disciples as they were fishing on the Sea of +Galilee. + +214. Criticism which seeks to discredit the gospels, for instance most +recently Réville in his "Jésus de Nazareth," discovers two separate and +mutually exclusive lines of tradition,--one telling of appearances in +Galilee, represented by Mark and the last chapter in John, the other +telling of appearances in or near Jerusalem, and found in Luke and the +twentieth chapter of John. It is said that the gospels have sought to +blend the two cycles, as when Matthew tells of an appearance to the women +in Jerusalem on their way from the tomb, and when the last chapter of John +adds to the original gospel a Galilean appearance. Luke, however, who +makes no reference at all to Galilean manifestations, is taken to prove +that originally the one cycle knew nothing of the other. This theory +falls, however, before the uniform tradition of appearances on the third +day, which must have been in Jerusalem, and the very early testimony of +Paul to an appearance to above five hundred brethren at once, which could +not have been in Judea. It need not surprise us that there should have +been two cycles of tradition, not however mutually exclusive, if Jesus did +appear both in Jerusalem and in Galilee. The same kind of local interest +which is supposed to explain the one-sidedness of the synoptic story of +the public ministry would easily account for one line of tradition which +reported Galilean appearances, and another which reported those in +Jerusalem. Luke may have had access to information which furnished him +only the Jerusalem story. John and Peter, however, must have known the +wider facts. The very divergences and seeming contradictions of the +gospels, troublesome as they are, indicate how completely certainty +regarding the fact of the resurrection removed from the thought of the +apostolic day nice carefulness concerning the testimony to individual +manifestations of the risen Lord. Doubtless the first preaching rested, as +in the case of Paul, on a simple "I have seen the Lord." When later the +detailed testimony was wanted for written gospels, it had suffered the lot +common to orally transmitted records, and divergences had sprung up which +it is no longer possible for us to resolve. They do not, however, +challenge the fact which lies behind all the varied testimony. + +215. A general view of the events of that third day and those which +followed can be constructed from our gospels and Paul. Early on the first +day of the week certain women, including Mary Magdalene, Mary the mother +of James and Joses, Salome, Joanna, and others, came to anoint the body of +Jesus. On their arrival they found that the stone had been rolled back +from the tomb. Mary Magdalene saw that the grave was empty and ran to tell +Peter and John. The others saw also a vision of angels which said that +Jesus was alive and would see his disciples in Galilee, and ran to report +this to the disciples. Meanwhile Mary Magdalene returned, following Peter +and John who ran to see the tomb, and found it empty as she had said. She +lingered after they left, and Jesus appeared to her, she mistaking him at +first for the gardener. She then went to tell the disciples that she had +seen the Lord. These events evidently occurred in the early morning. The +next incident reported is that of the walk of two disciples, not of the +twelve, to Emmaus, and the appearance of Jesus to them. At first they did +not recognize him, not even when he taught them out of the scriptures the +necessity that the Messiah should die. He was made known when at evening +he sat down with them to a familiar meal. Either before or after this +event he had shown himself to Peter. This is the first manifestation +reported by Paul. If Luke xxiv. 12 is genuine (see R.V. margin), he also +tells that when the two again reached Jerusalem the apostles received them +with the news that Peter had seen the Lord. That same evening Jesus +appeared suddenly among the disciples in their well-guarded upper room. +His coming was such that he had to convince the disciples that he was not +simply a disembodied spirit. Luke says that he did this by bidding them +handle him, and by eating part of a fish before them. According to John, +Thomas was not with the others at this first meeting with the disciples. A +week later, presumably in Jerusalem, Jesus again manifested himself to the +little company, Thomas being with them, and dispelled the doubt of that +disciple who loved too deeply to indulge a hope which might only +disappoint. He had but to see in order to believe, and make supreme +confession of his faith. The next appearance was probably that to the +seven disciples by the Sea of Galilee, when Peter, who denied thrice, was +thrice tested concerning his love for his Lord. Then apparently followed +the meeting on the mountain reported in Matthew, which was probably the +same as the appearance to the five hundred brethren; then, probably still +in Galilee, Jesus appeared to his brother James, who from that time on was +a leader among the disciples. The next manifestation of which record is +preserved was the final one in Jerusalem, after which Jesus led his +disciples out as far as Bethany and was separated from them, henceforth to +be thought of by them as seated at the right hand of God. + +216. This construction of the story as given in the New Testament does +violence to the accounts in one particular. It holds that Matthew's report +of the meeting of Jesus with the women on their way from the tomb on +Easter morning is to be identified with his meeting with Mary Magdalene. +This can be done only if it is supposed that in the transmission of the +tradition the commission given the women by the angel (Mark xvi. 6f.) +became blended with the message given to Mary by the Lord (John xx. 17), +the result being virtually the same for the religious interest of the +first Christians, while for the historic interest of our days it +constitutes a discrepancy. The difficulty is less on this supposition than +on any other. It is highly significant that the account of the most +indubitable fact in the view of the early Christians is the most difficult +portion of the gospels for the exact harmonist to deal with. This is not +of serious moment for the historical student. It is rather a warning +against theoretical ideas of inspiration. + +217. The universal acknowledgment that the early Christians firmly +believed in the resurrection of their Lord has made the origin of that +firm conviction a question of primary importance. The simple facts as set +forth in the New Testament serve abundantly to account for the faith of +the early church, but they not only involve a large recognition of the +miraculous, they also contain perplexities for those who do not stumble at +the supernatural; hence there have been many attempts to find other +solutions of the problem. Some of the explanations offered may be +dismissed with a word: for instance, those which, in one form or other, +renew the old charge found in the first gospel, that the disciples stole +the body of Jesus, and then declared that he had risen; and those which +assume that the death of Jesus was apparent only, that he fainted on the +cross, and then the chill of the night air and of the sepulchre served to +revive him, so that in the morning he was able to leave the tomb and +appear to his disciples as one risen from the dead. This apparent-death +theory involves Jesus in an ugly deception, while the theory that the +disciples or any group of them removed the body of Jesus and then gave +currency to the notion that he had risen, builds the greatest ethical and +religious movement known to history on a lie. A slightly different +explanation which was very early suggested was that the Jews themselves, +or perhaps the gardener, had the body removed, and that when Mary found +the tomb empty she let her faith conclude that his absence must be due to +his resurrection. + +218. This last explanation has in recent times been revived in connection +with the so-called vision-hypothesis by Renan and Réville. Mary found the +tomb empty, and being herself of a highly strung nervous nature--she had +been cured by Jesus of seven devils--by thinking about the empty tomb she +soon worked herself into an ecstasy in which her eyes seemed to behold +what her heart desired to see. She communicated her vision to the others, +and by a sort of nervous contagion, they, too, fell to seeing visions, and +it is the report of these that we have in the gospels. The +vision-hypothesis takes with some, Strauss for instance, a different form. +These deny that the tomb was found empty at all, and regard this story as +a contribution of the later legend-making spirit. They hold that the +disciples fled from Jerusalem as soon as the death of Jesus was an assured +fact, and not until after they found themselves amid the familiar scenes +of Galilee, did their faith recover from the shock it had received in +Jerusalem. In Galilee the experiences of their life with Jesus were lived +over again, and the old confidence in him as Messiah revived. Thus +thinking about the Lord, their hearts would say, "He cannot have died," +and after a while their faith rose to the conviction which declared, "He +is not dead;" then they passed into an ecstatic mood and visions followed +which are the germ out of which the gospel stories have grown. + +219. These different forms of the vision-hypothesis have been subjected to +most searching criticism by Keim, who is all the more severe because his +own thought has so much that is akin to them. There are two objections +which refute the hypothesis. The first is that the uniform tradition +which connects the resurrection and the first appearances with the "third +day" after the crucifixion leaves far too short a time for the recovery of +faith and the growth of ecstatic feeling which are requisite for these +visions, even supposing that the disciples' faith had such recuperative +powers. The second is that once such an ecstatic mood was acquired it +would be according to experience in analogous cases for the visions to +continue, if not to increase, as the thought of the risen Lord grew more +clear and familiar; yet the tradition is uniform that the appearances of +the risen Christ ceased after, at most, a few weeks. The only later one +was that which led to the conversion of Paul; and though Paul was a man +somewhat given to ecstatic experiences (see II. Cor. xii.), he carefully +distinguishes in his own thought his seeing of the Lord and his heavenly +visions. In a word, the disciples of Jesus never showed a more healthy, +normal life than that which gave them strength to found a church of +believers in the resurrection in the face of persecution and scorn. + +220. Keim seeks to avoid the difficulties which his own acute criticism +disclosed in the ordinary vision-theory, by another which rejects the +gospel stories as legendary, yet frankly acknowledges that the faith of +the apostles in the resurrection was based on a miracle. Their certainty +was so unshakable, so uniform, so abiding, that it can be accounted for +only by acknowledging that they did actually see the Lord. This seeing, +however, was not with the eyes of sense, but with the spiritual vision, +which properly perceives what pertains to the spirit world into which the +glorified Lord had withdrawn when he died. In his spiritual estate he +manifested himself to his disciples, by a series of divinely caused and +therefore essentially objective visions, in which he proved to them +abundantly that he was alive, was victor over death, and had been exalted +by God to his right hand. This theory is not in itself offensive to faith. +It concedes that the belief of the disciples rested on actual disclosures +of himself to them by the glorified Lord. The difficulty with the theory +is that it relegates the empty tomb to the limbo of legend, though it is a +feature of the tradition which is found in all the gospels and clearly +implied in Paul (I. Cor. xv. 4; compare Rom. vi. 4); it also fails to show +how this glorified Christ came to be thought of by the disciples as +_risen_, rather than simply glorified in spirit. This criticism brings us +back to the necessity of recognizing a resurrection which was in some real +sense corporeal, difficult as that conception is for us. The gospels +assert this with great simplicity and delicate reserve. They represent +Jesus as returning to his disciples with a body which was superior to the +limitations which hedge our lives about. It may be well described by +Paul's words, "It is sown a natural body; it is raised a spiritual body." +Yet the records indicate that when he willed Jesus could offer himself to +the perception of other senses than sight and hearing--"handle me and see" +is not an invitation that we expect from a spiritual presence. If, +however, we have to confess an unsolved mystery here, and still more in +the record of his eating in the presence of the disciples (Luke xxiv. +41-43), it is permitted us to own that our knowledge of the possible +conditions of the fully perfected life are not such as to warrant great +dogmatism in criticising the account. The empty tomb, the objective +presence of the risen Jesus, the renewed faith of his followers, and their +new power are established data for our thought. With these, many of the +details may be left in mystery, because we have not yet light sufficient +to reveal to us all that we should like to know. + +221. The ascension of the risen Christ to his Father is the presupposition +of all the New Testament teaching. The Acts, the Epistles, and the +Apocalypse join in the representation that he is now at the right hand of +God. In fact it may be said that such a view is involved in the doctrine +of the resurrection, for the very idea of that victory was that death had +no more dominion over him. It is a fact, however, that none of our gospels +in their correct text (see Luke xxiv. 51, R.V. margin) tell of the +ascension. Luke clearly implies it, and John says that Jesus told Mary to +tell the disciples that he was about to ascend to his Father and their +Father. In Luke's later book, however (Acts i. 1-11), he gives a full +account of a last meeting of Jesus with the disciples, and of +his ascension to heaven before their eyes. This withdrawal in the cloud +must be understood as an acted parable; for, in reality, there is no +reason for thinking that the clouds which hung over Olivet that day were +any nearer God's presence than the ground on which the disciples stood. +For them, however, such a disappearance would signify vividly the +cessation of their earthly intercourse with their Lord, and his return to +his home with the Father. The word of Jesus to Mary (John xx. 17) may +fairly be interpreted to mean that Jesus had ascended to the Father on +the day of the resurrection, and that each of his subsequent +manifestations of himself were like that which later he granted to Paul +near Damascus. In fact it is easier to view the matter in this way than to +conceive of Jesus as sojourning in some hidden place for forty days after +his resurrection. What the disciples witnessed ten days before Pentecost +was a withdrawal similar to those which had separated him from them +frequently during the recent weeks, only now set before their eyes in such +a way as to tell them that these manifestations had reached an end; they +must henceforth wait for the other representative of God and Christ, the +Spirit, given to them at Pentecost. + +222. The faith with which the disciples waited for the promised spirit was +a very different faith from that which Peter confessed for his fellows at +Cæsarea Philippi. It had the same supreme attachment to a personal friend +who had proved to be God's Anointed; the same readiness to let him lead +whithersoever he would; the same firm expectation of a restitution of all +things, in which God should set up his kingdom visibly, with Jesus as the +King of men. Now, however, their trust was much fuller than before, and +they looked for a still more glorious kingdom when their friend and Lord +should come from heaven to assume his reign. They expected Christ to +return soon in glory, yet his death and victory made them ready to endure +any persecution for him, certain that, like the sufferings which he +endured, it would lead to victory. These disciples had no idea that in +preaching a religion of personal attachment to their Master, in filling +all men's thoughts with his name, in building all hope on his return, and +guiding all life by his teaching and spirit, they were cutting their +moorings from the religion of their fathers. They remained loyal to the +law, they were constant in the worship; but they had poured new wine into +the bottles, and in time it proved the inadequacy of the old forms and +revolutionized the world's religious life. + + + + + +Part III + +The Minister + + + + +I + +The Friend of Men + + + +223. In nothing does the contrast between Jesus and John the Baptist +appear more clearly than in their attitude towards common social life. +John had his training and did his work apart from the homes of men. The +wilderness was his chosen and fit scene of labor. From this solitude he +sent forth his summons and warning to his people. They who sought him for +fuller teaching went after him and found him where he was. They then +returned to their homes and their work, leaving the prophet with his few +disciples in their seclusion. With Jesus it was otherwise. His first act, +after attaching to himself a few followers, was to go into Galilee to the +town of Cana, and there with them to partake in the festivities of a +wedding. While it is true that most of his teaching was by the wayside, +among the hills, or by the sea, it is still a surprise to discover how +often his ministry found its occasion as he was sitting at table in the +house of some friend, real or feigned. The genuine friendships of Jesus as +they appear in the gospels are among the most characteristic features of +his life--witness the home at Bethany, the women who followed him even to +the cross, and ministered to him of their substance, and the "beloved +disciple." Jesus calls attention to this contrast between himself and +John, reminding the people how some of the scornful pointed the finger at +himself as "a gluttonous man and a wine-bibber, a friend of publicans and +sinners." He received his training as a carpenter while John was in his +wilderness solitude. Men who would probably have stood with admiration +before John had he visited their synagogue, found Jesus too much one of +themselves, and would none of him as a prophet (Mark vi. 2, 3). + +224. A like contrast sets Jesus apart from the scribes of his day. These +were revered by the people, in part perhaps because they held the common +folk in such contempt. Their attitude was frank--"this multitude which +knoweth not the law is accursed" (John vii. 49). The popular enthusiasm +for Jesus filled them with scorn, until it began to give them alarm. They +were glad to be reverenced by the people, to interpret the law for them +"binding heavy burdens and grievous to be borne;" but showed little +genuine interest in them. Jesus, on the other hand, not only had the +reverence of the multitudes, but welcomed them. First his words and his +works drew them, then he himself enchained their hearts. Outcasts, rich +and poor, crowded into his company, and found him not only a teacher, a +prophet of righteousness rebuking their sins and calling to repentance, +but a friend, who was not ashamed to be seen in their homes, to have them +among his closest attendants, and to be known as their champion. It was +when such as these were pressing upon him to hear him that Jesus replied +to the criticism of the scribes in the three parables of recovered +treasure which stand among the rarest gems of the Master's teaching (Luke +xv.). + +225. One class only in the community failed of his sympathy,--the +self-righteous hypocrites, who thought that godliness consisted in +scrupulous regard for pious ceremonies, and that zeal was most laudable +when directed to the removal of motes from their brothers' eyes. For these +Jesus had words of rebuke and burning scorn. It has been common with some +to emphasize his friendship for the poor as if he chose them for their +poverty, and the unlettered for their ignorance. Yet Jesus had no faster +friends than the women who followed from Galilee and ministered to him of +their substance, and the two sanhedrists, Joseph whose new tomb received +his body, and Nicodemus whose liberality provided the spices which +embalmed him; for these, and not the Galilean fishermen, were faithful to +the last at the cross and at the grave. In no home did Jesus find a fuller +or more welcome friendship than in Bethany, where all that is told us of +its conditions suggests the opposite of poverty. The rich young ruler, who +showed his too great devotion to his possessions, would hardly have sought +out Jesus with his question, if he was known as the champion of poverty as +in itself essential to godliness. The demand made of him surprised him, +and was suited to his special case. Jesus saw clearly the difficulties +which wealth puts in the way of faith, but he recognized the power of God +to overcome them, and when Zaccheus turned disciple, the demand for +complete surrender of possessions was not repeated. On the contrary Jesus +taught his disciples that even "the unrighteous mammon" should be used to +win friends (Luke xvi. 9), so ministering unto some of "the least of these +my brethren" (Matt. xxv. 40). The beatitude in Luke's report of the +sermon on the mount (Luke vi. 20) was not for the poor as poor simply, but +for those poor folk lightly esteemed who had spiritual sense enough to +follow Jesus, while the well-to-do as a class were content with the +"consolation" already in hand. Jesus' interest was in character, wherever +it was manifest, whether in the repentance of a chief of the publicans, or +in the widow woman's gift of "all her living;" whether it appeared in the +hunger for truth shown by Nicodemus, a teacher of Israel, or in the woman +that was a sinner who washed his feet with her tears. He was the great +revealer of the worth of simple humanity, in man, woman, or child. Our +world has never seen another who so surely penetrated all masks or +disguising circumstances and found the man himself, and having found him +loved him. + +226. This sympathy for simple manhood was manifested in a genuine interest +in the common life of men in business, pleasure, or trouble. It is +significant that the first exercise of his miraculous power should have +been to relieve the embarrassment of his host at a wedding feast. +Doubtless we are to understand that the miracle had a deeper purpose than +simply supplying the needed wine (John ii. 11); but the significant thing +is that Jesus should choose to manifest his glory in this way. It shows a +genuine appreciation of social life quite impossible to an ascetic like +the Baptist. The same appears in the way Jesus allowed his publican +apostle to introduce him to his former associates, to the great scandal of +the Pharisees; for a feast at which Jesus and a number of publicans were +the chief guests accorded not with religion as they understood it. Jesus, +however, seems to have found it a welcome opportunity to seek some of his +lost sheep. The illustrations which he used in his teaching were often his +best introduction to the common heart, for they were drawn from the +occupations of the people who came to listen; while the aid Jesus gave to +his disciples in their fishing showed not only his power, but also his +respect for their work, a respect further proved when he called them to be +fishers of men. + +227. Beyond this interest in life's joy and its occupations was that +unfailing sympathy with its troubles which drew the multitudes to him. He +was far more than a healer; he studied to rid the people of the idea that +he was a mere miracle-monger. He healed them because he loved them, and he +asked of those who sought his help that they too should feel the personal +relation into which his power had brought them. This seems to be in part +the significance of his uniform demand for faith. Doubtless Mary, out of +whom he had cast seven devils, and Simon the leper, who seems to have +experienced his power to heal, are only single instances of many who found +in him far more than at first they sought. No further record remains of +the paralytic who carried off his bed, but left the burden of his sins +behind, nor of the woman who loved much because she had been forgiven +much, nor of the Samaritan whose life he uncovered that he might be able +to give her the living water. Some who had his help for body or heart may +have gone away forgetful, after the fashion of men, but in the company of +those who were bold to bear his name after his resurrection there must +have been many who could not forget. + +228. Jesus' interest in common life was genuine, and he entered into it +with his heart. The incident of the anointing of his feet as he sat a +guest in a Pharisee's house shows that he was keenly sensitive to the +treatment he received at the hands of men. He had nothing to say of the +slights his host had shown him, until that host began mentally to +criticise the woman who was ministering to him in her love and penitence. +Then with quiet dignity Jesus mentioned the several omissions of courtesy +which he had noticed since he came in, contrasting the woman's attention +with Simon's neglect (Luke vii. 36-50). One of the saddest things about +Gethsemane was Jesus' vain pleading with his disciples for sympathy in his +awful hour. They were too much dazed with awe and fear to lend him their +hearts' support. He recognized indeed that it was only a weakness of the +flesh; yet he craved their friendship's help, and repeatedly asked them to +watch with him, for his soul was exceeding sorrowful. In contrast with +this disappointment stands the joy with which Jesus heard from Peter the +confession which proved that the falling off of popular enthusiasm had not +shaken the loyalty of his chosen companions,--"Blessed art thou, Simon +Bar-Jonah: for flesh and blood have not revealed it unto thee, but my +Father which is in heaven" (Matt. xvi. 17). There is the sorrow of +loneliness as well as rebuke in his complaint, "O faithless generation, +how long shall I be with you? how long shall I bear with you?" (Mark ix. +19), and the lamentation over Jerusalem comes from a longing heart (Luke +xiii. 34). + +229. The independence of human sympathy which Jesus often showed is all +the more glorious for the evidence the gospels give of his longing for +it. When he put the question to the twelve, "Would ye also go away?" (John +vi. 67), there is no hint in his manner that their defection with the rest +would turn him at all from faithfully fulfilling the task appointed to him +by his Father. In fact only now and then did he allow his own hunger to +appear. Ordinarily he showed himself as the friend longing to help, but +not seeking ministry from others; he rather sought to win his disciples to +unselfishness by showing as well as saying that he came not to be +ministered unto but to minister. He washed the feet of his disciples to +rebuke their petty jealousies, but we have no hint that he showed that he +felt personal neglect. His own heart was full of "sorrow even unto death," +but his word was, "Let not your heart be troubled;" he asked in vain for +the sympathy of his nearest friends in Gethsemane, yet when the band came +to arrest him he pleaded, "Let these, the disciples, go their way." + + + + +II + +The Teacher with Authority + + + +230. To his contemporaries Jesus was primarily a teacher. The name by +which he is oftenest named in the gospels is Teacher,--translated Master +in the English versions and the equivalent of Rabbi in the language used +by Jesus (John i. 38). People thought of him as a rabbi approved of God by +his power to work miracles (John iii. 2), but it was not the miracles that +most impressed them. The popular comment was, "He taught them as one +having authority, and not as the scribes" (Matt. vii. 29). Two leading +characteristics of the scribes were their pride of learning, and their +bondage to tradition. In fact the learning of which they were proud was +knowledge of the body of tradition on whose sanctity they insisted; their +teaching was scholastic and pedantic, an endless citing of precedents and +discussion of trifles. To all this Jesus presented a refreshing contrast. +In commending truth to the people, he was content with a simple "verily," +and in defining duty he rested on his unsupported "I say unto you," even +when his dictum stood opposed to that which had been said to them of old +time. + +231. In this freedom from the bondage of tradition Jesus was not alone. +John the Baptist's message had been as simple and unsupported by appeal to +the elders. Jesus and John both revived the method of the older prophets, +and it is in large measure due to this that the people distinguished them +clearly from their ordinary teachers, and held them both to be prophets. +One thing involved in this authoritative method was a frank appeal to the +conscience of men. So completely had the scribes substituted memory of +tradition for appeal to the simple sense of right, that they were utterly +dazed when Jesus undertook to settle questions of Sabbath observance and +ceremonial cleanliness by asking his hearers to use their religious common +sense, and consider whether a man is not much better than a sheep, or +whether a man is not defiled rather by what comes out of his mouth than by +what enters into it (Matt. xii. 12; Mark vii. 15). Jesus was for his +generation the great discoverer of the conscience, and for all time the +champion of its dignity against finespun theory and traditional practice. +All his teaching has this quality in greater or less degree. It appears +when by means of the parable of the Good Samaritan he makes the lawyer +answer his own question (Luke x. 25-37), when he bids the multitude in +Jerusalem "judge not according to the appearance, but judge righteous +judgment" (John vii. 24), when he asks his inquisitors in the temple whose +image and superscription the coin they used in common business bears (Mark +xii. 16). His whole work in Galilee was proof of his confidence that in +earnest souls the conscience would be his ally, and that he could impress +himself on them far more indelibly than any sign from heaven could enforce +his claim. + +232. Jesus was not only independent of the traditions of the scribes, he +was also very free at times with the letter of the Old Testament. When by +a word he "made all meats clean" (Mark vii. 19), he set himself against +the permanent validity of the Levitical ritual. When the Pharisees pleaded +Moses for their authority in the matter of divorce, Jesus referred them +back of Moses to the original constitution of mankind (Matt. xix. 3-9). +His general attitude to the Sabbath was not only opposed to the traditions +of the scribes, it also disregarded the Old Testament conception of the +Sabbath as an institution. Yet Jesus took pains to declare that he came +not to set aside the old but to fulfil it (Matt. v. 17). The contrasts +which he draws between things said to them of old and his new teachings +(Matt. v. 21-48) look at first much like a doing away of the old. Jesus +did not so conceive them. He rather thought of them as fresh statements of +the idea which underlay the old; they fulfilled the old by realizing more +fully that which it had set before an earlier generation. He was the most +radical teacher the men of his day could conceive, but his work was +clearing rubbish away from the roots of venerable truth that it might bear +fruit, rather than rooting up the old to put something else in its place. + +233. The Old Testament was for Jesus a holy book. His mind was filled with +its stories and its language. In the teachings which have been preserved +for us he has made use of writings from all parts of the Jewish +scriptures--Law, Prophets, and Psalms. The Old Testament furnished him the +weapons for his own soul's struggle with temptation (Matt. iv. 4, 7, 10), +it gave him arguments for use against his opponents (Mark xii. 24-27; ii. +25-27), and it was for him an inexhaustible storehouse of illustration in +his teaching. When inquirers sought the way of life he pointed them to the +scriptures (Mark x. 19; see also John v. 39), and declared that the rising +of one from the dead would not avail for the warning of those who were +unmoved by Moses and the prophets (Luke xvi. 31). When Jesus' personal +attitude to the Old Testament is considered it is noticeable that while +his quotations and allusions cover a wide range, and show very general +familiarity with the whole book, there appears a decided predominance of +Deuteronomy, the last part of Isaiah, and the Psalms. It is not difficult +to see that these books are closer in spirit to his own thought than much +else in the old writings; his use of the scripture shows that some parts +appealed to him more than others. + +234. Jesus as a teacher was popular and practical rather than systematic +and theoretical. The freshness of his ideas is proof that he was not +lacking in thorough and orderly thinking, for his complete departure from +current conceptions of the kingdom of God indicates perfect mastery of +ethical and theological truth. It is all the more remarkable, therefore, +that so much of his profoundest teaching seems to have been almost +accidental. The most formal discourse preserved to us is the sermon on the +mount, in which human conduct is regulated by the thought of God as Father +and Searcher of hearts. For the rest the great ideas of Jesus have +utterance in response to specific conditions presented to him in his +ministry. His most radical sayings concerning the Sabbath followed a +criticism of his disciples for plucking ears of grain as they passed +through the fields on the Sabbath day (Mark ii. 23-28); his authority to +forgive sins was announced when a paralytic was brought to him for +healing (Mark ii. 1-12); so far as the gospels indicate, we should have +missed Jesus' clearest statement of the significance of his own death but +for the ambitious request of James and John (Mark x. 35-45). Examples of +the occasional character of his teaching might be greatly multiplied. He +did not seek to be the founder of a school; important as his teachings +were, they take a place in his work second to his personal influence on +his followers. He desired to win disciples whose faith in him would +withstand all shocks, rather than to train experts who would pass on his +ideas to others. His disciples did become experts, for we owe to them the +vivid presentation we have of the exalted and unique teaching of their +Master; but they were thus skilful because they surrendered themselves to +his personal mastery, and learned to know the springs of his own life and +thought. + +235. Nothing in the teaching of Jesus is more remarkable than his +confidence that men who believed in him would adequately represent him and +his message to the world. The parable of the Leaven seems to have set +forth his own method. We owe our gospels to no injunction given by him to +write down what he said and did. He impressed himself on his followers, +filled them with a love to himself which made them sensitive to his ideas +as a photographic plate is to light, teaching them his truth in forms that +did not at first show any effect on their thought, but were developed into +strength and clearness by the experiences of the passing years. Christian +ethics and theology are far more than an orderly presentation of the +teaching of Jesus; in so far as they are purely Christian they are the +systematic setting forth of truth involved, though not expressed, in what +he said and did in his ministry among men. His ideas were radical and +thoroughly revolutionary. His method, however, had in it all the patience +of God's working in nature, and the hidden noiseless power of an evolution +is its characteristic. Hence it was that he chose to teach some things +exclusively in figure. So great and unfamiliar a truth as the gradual +development of God's kingdom was unwelcome to the thought of his time. He +made it, therefore, the theme of many of his parables; and although the +disciples did not understand what he meant, the picture remained with +them, and in after years they grew up to his idea. + +236. Jesus' use of illustration is one of the most marked features of his +teaching. In one sense this simply proves him to be a genuine Oriental, +for to contemplate and present abstract truths in concrete form is +characteristic of the Semitic mind. In the case of Jesus, however, it +proves more: the variety and homeliness of his illustrations show how +completely conversant he was alike with common life and with spiritual +truth. There is a freedom and ease about his use of figurative language +which suggests, as nothing else could, his own clear certainty concerning +the things of which he spoke. The fact, too, that his mind dealt so +naturally with the highest thoughts has made his illustrations unique for +profound truth and simple beauty. Nearly the whole range of figurative +speech is represented in his recorded words, including forms like irony +and hyperbole, often held to be unnatural to such serious speech as his. + +237. Another figure has become almost identified with the name of +Jesus,--such abundant and incomparable use did he make of it. Parable +was, however, no invention of his, for the rabbis of his own and later +times, as well as the sages and prophets who went before them, made use of +it. As distinguished from other forms of illustration, the parable is a +picture true to actual human life, used to enforce a religious truth. The +picture may be drawn in detail, as in the story of the Lost Son (Luke xv. +11-32), or it may be the concisest narration possible, as in the parable +of the Leaven (Matt. xiii. 33); but it always retains its character as a +narrative true to human experience. It is this that gives parable the +peculiar value it has for religious teaching, since it brings unfamiliar +truth close home to every-day life. Like all the illustrations used by +Jesus, the parable was ordinarily chosen as a means of making clear the +spiritual truth which he was presenting. Illustration never finds place as +mere ornament in his addresses. His parables, however, were sometimes used +to baffle the unteachable and critical. Such was the case on the occasion +in Jesus' life when attention is first called in the gospels to this mode +of teaching (Mark iv. 1-34). The parable of the Sower would mean little to +hearers who held the crude and material ideas of the kingdom which +prevailed among Jesus' contemporaries. It was used as an invitation to +consider a great truth, and for teachable disciples was full of suggestion +and meaning; while for the critical curiosity of unfriendly hearers it was +only a pointless story,--a means adopted by Jesus to save his pearls from +being trampled under foot, and perhaps also to prevent too early a +decision against him on the part of his opponents. + +238. In nothing is Jesus' ease in handling deepest truth more apparent +than in his use of irony and hyperbole in his illustrations. In his +reference to the Pharisees as "ninety and nine just persons which need no +repentance" (Luke xv. 7), and in his question, "Many good works have I +shewed you from the Father, for which of these works do you stone me?" +(John x. 32), the irony is plain, but not any plainer than the rhetorical +exaggeration of his accusation against the scribes, "You strain out a gnat +and swallow a camel" (Matt, xxiii. 24), or his declaration that "it is +easier for a camel to go through a needle's eye than for a rich man to +enter into the kingdom of God" (Mark x. 25), or his charge, "If a man +cometh unto me and hateth not his own father and mother ... he cannot be +my disciple" (Luke xiv. 26). The force of these statements is in their +hyperbole. Only to an interpretation which regards the letter above the +spirit can they cause difficulty. In so far as they remove Jesus utterly +from the pedantic carefulness for words which marked the scribes they are +among the rare treasures of his teachings. The simple spirit will not busy +itself about finding something that may be called a needle's eye through +which a camel can pass by squeezing, nor will it seek a camel which could +conceivably be swallowed, nor will it stumble at a seeming command to hate +those for whom God's law, as emphasized indeed by Jesus (Mark vii. 6-13), +demands peculiar love and honor. The childlike spirit which is heir of +God's kingdom readily understands this warning against the snare of +riches, this rebuke of the hypocritical life, and this demand for a love +for the Master which shall take the first place in the heart. + +239. Jesus sometimes used object lessons as well as illustrations, and +for the same purpose,--to make his thought transparently clear to his +hearers. The demand for a childlike faith in order to enter the kingdom of +God was enforced by the presence of a little child whom Jesus set in the +midst of the circle to whom he was talking (Mark ix. 35-37). The unworthy +ambitions of the disciples were rebuked by Jesus' taking himself the +menial place and washing their feet (John xiii. 1-15). + +240. The simplicity and homeliness of Jesus' teaching are not more +remarkable than the alertness of mind which he showed on all occasions. +The comment of the fourth gospel, "he needed not that any one should bear +witness concerning man, for he himself knew what was in man" (ii. 25), +doubtless refers to his supernatural insight, but it also tells of his +quick perception of what was involved in each situation in which he found +himself. Whether it was Nicodemus coming to him by night, or the lawyer +asking, "Who is my neighbor?" or a dissatisfied heir demanding that his +brother divide the inheritance with him, or a group of Pharisees seeking +to undermine his power by attributing his cures to the devil, or trying to +entrap him by a question about tribute, Jesus was never caught unawares. +His absorption in heavenly truth was not accompanied by any blindness to +earthly facts. He knew what the men of his day were thinking about, what +they hoped for, to what follies they gave their hearts, and what sins hid +God from them. He was eminently a man of the people, thoroughly acquainted +with all that interested his fellows, and in the most natural, human way. +Whatever of the supernatural there was in his knowledge did not make it +unnatural. As he was socially at ease with the best and most cultivated +of his day, so he was intellectually the master of every situation. This +appears nowhere more strikingly than in his dealing with his pharisaic +critics. When they were shocked by his forgiveness of sins, or offended by +his indifference to the Sabbath tradition, or goaded into blasphemy by his +growing influence over the people, or troubled by his disciples' disregard +of the traditional washings, or when later they conspired to entrap him in +his speech,--from first to last he was so manifestly superior to his +opponents that they withdrew discomfited, until at length they in madness +killed, without reason, him against whom they could find no adequate +charge. His lack of "learning" (John vii. 15) was simply his innocence of +rabbinic training; he had no diploma from their schools. In keenness of +argument, however, and invincibleness of reasoning, as well as in the +clearness of his insight, he was ever their unapproachable superior. His +reply to the charge of league with Beelzebub is as merciless an exposure +of feeble malice as can be found in human literature. He was as worthy to +be Master of his disciples' thinking as he was to be Lord of their hearts. + +241. In the teaching of Jesus two topics have the leading place,--the +Kingdom of God, and Himself. His thought about himself calls for separate +consideration, but it may be remarked here that as his ministry progressed +he spoke with increasing frankness about his own claims. It became more +and more apparent that he sought to be Lord rather than Teacher simply, +and to impress men with himself rather than with his ideas. Yet his ideas +were constantly urged on his disciples, and they were summed up in his +conception of the kingdom of God, or the kingdom of heaven. This was the +topic, directly or indirectly, of far the greater part of his teaching. +The phrase was as familiar to his contemporaries as it is common in his +words; but his understanding of it was radically different from theirs. He +and they took it to mean the realization on earth of heavenly conditions +(kingdom of heaven), or of God's actual sovereignty over the world +(kingdom of God); but of the God whose will was thus to be realized they +conceived quite differently. Strictly speaking there is nothing novel in +the idea of God as Father which abounds in the teaching of Jesus. He never +offers it as novel, but takes it for granted that his hearers are familiar +with the name. It appears in some earlier writers both in and out of the +Old Testament. Yet no one of them uses it as constantly, as naturally, and +as confidently as did Jesus. With him it was the simple equivalent of his +idea of God, and it was central for his personal religious life as well as +for his teaching. "My Father" always lies back of references in his +teaching to "your Father." This is the key to what is novel in Jesus' idea +of the kingdom of God. His contemporaries thought of God as the covenant +king of Israel who would in his own time make good his promises, rid his +people of their foes, set them on high among the nations, establish his +law in their hearts, and rule over them as their king. The whole +conception, while in a real sense religious, was concerned more with the +nation than with individuals, and looked rather for temporal blessings +than for spiritual good. With Jesus the kingdom is the realization of +God's fatherly sway over the hearts of his children. It begins when men +come to own God as their Father, and seek to do his will for the love +they bear him. It shows development towards its full manifestation when +men as children of God look on each other as brothers, and govern conduct +by love which will no more limit itself to friends than God shuts off his +sunlight from sinners. From this love to God and men it will grow into a +new order of things in which God's will shall be done as it is in heaven, +even as from the little leaven the whole lump is leavened. Jesus did not +set aside the idea of a judgment, but while his fellows commonly made it +the inauguration, he made it the consummation of the kingdom; they thought +of it as the day of confusion for apostates and Gentiles, he taught that +it would be the day of condemnation of all unbrotherliness (Matt. xxv. +31-46). This central idea--a new order of life in which men have come to +love and obey God as their Father, and to love and live for men as their +brothers--attaches to itself naturally all the various phases of the +teaching of Jesus, including his emphasis on himself; for he made that +emphasis in order that, as the Way, the Truth, and the Life, he might lead +men unto the Father. + + + + +III + +Jesus' Knowledge of Truth + + + +242. The note of authority in the teaching of Jesus is evidence of his own +clear knowledge of the things of which he spoke. As if by swift intuition, +his mind penetrated to the heart of things. In the scriptures he saw the +underlying truth which should stand till heaven and earth shall pass +(Matt. v. 18); in the ceremonies of his people's religion he saw so +clearly the spiritual significance that he did not hesitate to sacrifice +the passing form (Mark vii. 14-23); such a theological development as the +pharisaic doctrine of the resurrection he unhesitatingly adopted because +he saw that it was based on the ultimate significance of the soul's +fellowship with God (Mark xiii. 24-27); he reduced religion and ethics to +simplicity by summing up all commandments in one,--Thou shalt love (Matt. +xxii. 37-40); and at the same time insisted as no other prophet had done +on the finality of conduct and the necessity of obedience (Matt. vii. +21-27). His penetration to the heart of an idea was nowhere more clear +than in his doctrine of the kingdom of God as realized in the filial soul, +and as involving a judgment which should take cognizance only of +brotherliness of conduct. It would not be difficult to show that all these +different aspects of his teaching grew naturally out of his knowledge of +God as his Father and the Father of all men; they were the fruit, +therefore, of personal certainty of ultimate and all-dominating truth. + +243. If the knowledge of Jesus had been shown only in matters of spiritual +truth, it would still have marked him as one apart from ordinary men. +There were other directions, however, in which he surpassed the common +mind. The fourth gospel declares that "he knew what was in man" (ii. 25), +and all the evangelists give evidence of such knowledge. Not only the +designation of Judas as the traitor, and of Peter as the one who should +deny him, before their weakness and sin had shown themselves, but also +Jesus' quick reading of the heart of the paralytic who was brought to him +for healing, and of the woman who washed his feet with her tears (Mark ii. +5; Luke vii. 47), and his knowledge of the character of Simon and +Nathanael (John i. 42, 47,) as well as his sure perception of the intent +of the various questioners whom he met, indicate that he had powers of +insight unshared by his fellow men. + +244. Furthermore, the gospels state explicitly that Jesus predicted his +own death from a time at least six months before the end (Matt. xvi. 21), +and they indicate that the idea was not new to him when he first +communicated it to his disciples (Matt. xvi. 23; Mark ii. 20). He viewed +his approaching death, moreover, as a necessity (Mark viii. 31-33), yet he +was no fatalist concerning it. He could still in Gethsemane plead with his +Father, to whom all things are possible, to open to him some other way of +accomplishing his work (Mark xiv. 36). The old Testament picture of the +suffering and dying servant of Jehovah (Isa. liii.) was doubtless +familiar to Jesus. Although it was not interpreted Messianically by the +scribes, Jesus probably applied it to himself when thinking of his death; +yet the predictions of the prophets always provided for a non-fulfilment +in case Israel should turn unto the Lord in truth (see Ezek. xxxiii. +10-20). Moreover, the contradiction which Jesus felt between his ideas and +those cherished by the leaders of his people, whether priests or scribes, +was so radical that his death might well seem inevitable; yet it was +possible that his people might repent, and Jerusalem consent to accept him +as God's anointed. Neither prophecy, nor the actual conditions of his +life, therefore, would give Jesus any fatalistic certainty of his coming +death. In Gethsemane his heart pleaded against it, while his will bowed +still to God in perfect loyalty. It is not for us to explain his +prediction of death by appealing to the connection which the apostolic +thought established between the death of Christ and the salvation of men, +for we are not competent to say that God could not have effected +redemption in some other way if the repentance of the Jews had, humanly +speaking, removed from Jesus the necessity of death. All that can be said +is that he knew the prophetic picture, knew also the hardness of heart +which had taken possession of the Jews, and knew that he must not swerve +from his course of obedience to what he saw to be God's will for him. +Since that obedience brought him into fatal opposition to human prejudice +and passion, he saw that he must die, and that such a death was one of the +steps in his establishment of God's kingdom among men. So he went on his +way ready "not to be ministered unto but to minister, and to give his +life a ransom for many" (Mark x. 45). + +245. With his prediction of his death the gospels usually associate a +prophecy of his speedy resurrection. As has been already remarked (sect. +210), it is being generally recognized that if Jesus believed that he was +the Messiah, he must have associated with the thought of death that of +victory over death, which for all Jewish minds meant a resurrection from +the dead. Jesus certainly taught that his death was part of his Messianic +work, it could not therefore be his end. The prediction of the +resurrection is the necessary corollary of his expectation of death; and +it may reverently be believed that his knowledge of it was intimately +involved with his certainty that it was as Messiah that he was to die. + +246. From the time when he began to tell his disciples that he must die, +Jesus began also to teach that his earthly ministry was not to finish his +work, but that he should return in glory from heaven to realize fully all +that was involved in the idea of God's kingdom. His predictions resemble +in form the representations found in the Book of Daniel and the Book of +Enoch; and the understanding of them is involved in difficulties like +those which beset such apocalyptic writings. In general, apocalypses were +written in times of great distress for God's people, and represented the +deliverance which should usher in God's kingdom as near at hand. One +feature of them is a complete lack of perspective in the picture of the +future. It may be that this fact will in part account for one great +perplexity in the apocalyptic sayings of Jesus. In the chief of these +(Mark xiii. and parallels), predictions of the destruction of Jerusalem +are so mingled with promises of his own second coming and the end of all +things that many have sought to resolve the difficulty by separating the +discourse into two different ones,--one a short Jewish apocalypse +predicting the destruction of Jerusalem and the coming of the Son of Man +within the life of that generation; the other, Jesus' own prediction of +the end of all things, concerning which he warns his disciples that they +be not deceived, but watch diligently and patiently for God's full +salvation. The difficulties of this discourse as it stands are so great +that any solution which accounts for all the facts must be welcomed. So +far as this analysis seeks to remove from the account of Jesus' own words +the references to a fulfilment of the predictions within the life of that +generation, it is confronted by other sayings of Jesus (Mark ix. 1) and by +the problem of the uniform belief of the apostolic age that he would +speedily return. That belief must have had some ground. What more natural +than that words of Jesus, rightly or wrongly understood, led to the common +Christian expectation? Some such analysis may yet establish itself as the +true solution of the difficulties; it may be, however, that in adopting +the apocalyptic form of discourse, Jesus also adopted its lack of +perspective, and spoke coincidently of future events in the progress of +the kingdom, which, in their complete realization at least, were widely +separated in time. In such a case it would not be strange if the disciples +looked for the fulfilment of all of the predictions within the limit +assigned for the accomplishment of some of them. + +247. Whatever the explanation of these difficulties, the gospels clearly +represent Jesus as predicting his own return in glory to establish his +kingdom,--a crowning evidence of his claim to supernatural knowledge. It +is all the more significant, therefore, that it is in connection with his +prediction of his future coming that he made the most definite declaration +of his own ignorance: "Of that day or that hour knoweth no one, not even +the angels in heaven, neither the Son, but the Father" (Mark xiii. 32). +This confession of the limitation of his knowledge is conclusive. Yet it +is not isolated. With his undoubted power to read "what was in man," he +was not independent of ordinary ways of learning facts. When the woman was +healed who touched the hem of his garment, Jesus knew that his power had +been exercised, but he discovered the object of his healing by asking, +"Who touched me?" and calling the woman out from the crowd to acknowledge +her blessing (Mark v. 30-34); when the centurion urged Jesus to heal his +boy without taking the trouble to come to his house, Jesus "marvelled" at +his faith (Matt. viii. 10); when he came to Bethany, assured of his +Father's answer to his prayer for the raising of Lazarus, he asked as +simply as any other one in the company, "Where have ye laid him?" (John +xi. 34). It should not be forgotten that his knowledge of approaching +death, resurrection, and return in glory did not prevent the earnest +pleading in Gethsemane, and it may be that his reply to the ambition of +James and John, it "is not mine to give" (Mark x. 40), is a confession of +ignorance as well as subordination to his Father. + +248. The supernatural knowledge of Jesus, so far as its exercise is +apparent in the gospels, was concerned with the truths intimately related +to his religious teaching or his Messianic work. There is no evidence +that it occupied itself at all with facts of nature or of history +discovered by others at a later day. When he says of God that "he maketh +his sun to rise on the evil and the good" (Matt. v. 45), there is no +evidence that he thought of the earth and its relation to the sun +differently from his contemporaries; it is probable that his thought +anticipated Galileo's discovery no more than do his words. Much the same +may be said with reference to the purely literary or historical questions +of Old Testament criticism, now so much discussed. If it is proved by just +interpretation of all the facts that the Pentateuch is only in an ideal +sense to be attributed to Moses, and that many of the psalms inscribed +with his name cannot have been written by David, the propriety of Jesus' +references to what "Moses said" (Mark vii. 10), and the validity of his +argument for the relative unimportance of the Davidic descent of the +Messiah, will not suffer. Had Jesus had in mind the ultimate facts +concerning the literary structure of the Pentateuch, he could not have +hoped to hold the attention of his hearers upon the religious teaching he +was seeking to enforce, unless he referred to the early books of the Old +Testament as written by Moses. Jesus did repeatedly go back of Moses to +more primitive origins (Mark x. 5, 6; John vii. 22); yet there is no +likelihood that the literary question was ever present in his thinking. +This phase of his intellectual life, like that which concerned his +knowledge of the natural universe, was in all probability one of the +points in which he was made like unto his brethren, sharing, as matter of +course, their views on questions that were indifferent for the spiritual +mission he came to fulfil. If this was the case, his argument from the one +hundred and tenth Psalm (Mark xii. 35-37) would simply give evidence that +he accepted the views of his time concerning the Psalm, and proceeded to +use it to correct other views of his time concerning what was of most +importance in the doctrine of the Messiah. The last of these was of vital +importance for his teaching; the first was for this teaching quite as +indifferent a matter as the relations of the earth and the sun in the +solar system. + +249. A more perplexing difficulty arises from his handling of the cases of +so-called demoniac possession. He certainly treated these invalids as if +they were actually under the control of demons: he rebuked, banished, gave +commands to the demons, and in this way wrought his cures upon the +possessed. It has already been remarked that the symptoms shown in the +cases cured by Jesus can be duplicated from cases of hysteria, epilepsy, +or insanity, which have come under modern medical examination. Three +questions then arise concerning his treatment of the possessed. 1. Did he +unquestioningly share the interpretation which his contemporaries put upon +the symptoms, and simply bring relief by his miraculous power? 2. Did he +know that those whom he healed were not afflicted by evil spirits, and +accommodate himself in his cures to their notions? 3. Does he prove by his +treatment that the unfortunates actually were being tormented by +diabolical agencies, which he banished by his word? The last of these +possibilities should not be held to be impossible until much more is known +than we now know about the mysterious phenomena of abnormal psychical +states. If this is the explanation of the maladies for Jesus' day, +however, it should be accepted also as the explanation of similar abnormal +symptoms when they appear in our modern life, for the old hypothesis of a +special activity of evil spirits at the time of the incarnation is +inadequate to account for the fact that in some quarters similar maladies +have been similarly explained from the earliest times until the present +day. If, however, he knew his people to be in error in ascribing these +afflictions to diabolical influence, he need have felt no call to correct +it. If the disease had been the direct effect of such a delusion, Jesus +would have encouraged the error by accommodating himself to the popular +notion. The idea of possession, however, was only an attempt to explain +very real distress. Jesus desired to cure, not to inform his patients. The +notion in no way interfered with his turning the thought of those he +healed towards God, the centre of help and of health. He is not open, +therefore, to the charge of having failed to free men from the thraldom of +superstition if he accommodated himself to their belief concerning +demoniac possession. His cure, and his infusion of true thoughts of God +into the heart, furnished an antidote to superstition more efficacious +than any amount of discussion of the truth or falseness of the current +explanation of the disease. On the other hand, if we are not ready to +conclude that the action of Jesus has demonstrated the validity of the +ancient explanation, we may acknowledge that it would do no violence to +his power, or dignity, or integrity, if it should be held that he did not +concern himself with an inquiry into the cause of the disease which +presented itself to him for help, but adopted unquestioningly the +explanation held by all his contemporaries, even as he used their +language, dress, manner of life, and in one particular, at least, their +representation of the life after death (Luke xvi. 22--Abraham's bosom). +His own confession of ignorance of a large item of religious knowledge +(Mark xiii. 32) leaves open the possibility that in so minor a matter as +the explanation of a common disease he simply shared the ideas of his +time. In this case, when one so afflicted came under his treatment, he +applied his supernatural power, even as in cases of leprosy or fever, and +cured the trouble, needing no scientific knowledge of its cause. If +accommodation or ignorance led Jesus to treat these sick folk as +possessed, it does not challenge his integrity nor his trustworthiness in +all the matters which belong properly to his own peculiar work. + +250. There is one incident in the gospels which favors the conclusion that +Jesus definitely adopted the current idea,--the permission granted by him +to the demons to go from the Gadarene into the herd of swine, and the +consequent drowning of the herd (Mark v. 11-13). On any theory this +incident is full of difficulty. Bernhard Weiss (LXt II. 226 ff.) holds +that Jesus accommodated himself to current views, and that the man, having +received for the possessing demons permission to go into the swine, was at +once seized by a final paroxysm, and rushed among the swine, stampeding +them so that they ran down the hillside into the sea. + +251. In recent years the view has been somewhat widely advocated that his +power over demoniacs was to Jesus himself one of the chief proofs of his +Messiahship. His words are quoted: "If I, by the Spirit of God, cast out +demons, then is the kingdom of God come upon you" (Matt. xii. 28); and "I +beheld Satan falling as lightning from heaven" (Luke x. 18). The first of +these is in the midst of an _ad hominem_ reply of Jesus to the charge that +he owed his power to a league with the devil (Matt. xii. 28); and the +second was his remark when the seventy reported with joy that the demons +were subject unto them (Luke x. 18). The gospels, however, trace his +certainty of his Messiahship to quite other causes, primarily to his +knowledge of himself as God's child, then to the Voice which, coming at +the baptism, summoned him as God's beloved Son to do the work of the +Messiah. Throughout his ministry Jesus exhibits a certainty of his mission +quite independent of external evidences,--"Even if I bear witness of +myself, my witness is true; for I know whence I came and whither I go" +(John viii. 14). + + + + +IV + +Jesus' Conception of Himself + + + +252. When Jesus called forth the confession of Peter at Cæsarea Philippi +he brought into prominence the question which during the earlier stages of +the Galilean ministry he had studiously kept in the background. This is no +indication, however, that he was late in reaching a conclusion for himself +concerning his relation to the kingdom which he was preaching. From the +time of his baptism and temptation every manifestation of the inner facts +of his life shows unhesitating confidence in the reality of his call and +in his understanding of his mission. This is the case whether the fourth +gospel or the first three be appealed to for evidence. It is generally +felt that the Gospel of John presents its sharpest contrast to the +synoptic gospels in respect of the development of Jesus' self-disclosures. +A careful consideration of the first three gospels, however, shows that +the difference is not in Jesus' thought about himself. + +253. The first thing which impressed the people during the ministry in +Galilee was Jesus' assumption of authority, whether in teaching or in +action (Mark i. 27; Matt. vii. 28, 29). His method of teaching +distinguished him sharply from the scribes, who were constantly appealing +to the opinion of the elders to establish the validity of their +conclusions. Jesus taught with a simple "I say unto you." In this, +however, he differed not only from the scribes, but also from the +prophets, to whom in many ways he bore so strong a likeness. They +proclaimed their messages with the sanction of a "Thus saith the Lord;" he +did not hesitate to oppose the letter of scripture as well as the +tradition of the elders with his unsupported word (Matt. v. 38, 39; Mark +vii. 1-23). His teaching revealed his unhesitating certainty concerning +spiritual truth, and although he reverenced deeply the Jewish scriptures, +and knew that his work was the fulfilment of their promises, he used them +always as one whose superiority to God's earlier messengers was as +complete as his reverence for them. He was confident that what they +suggested of truth he was able to declare clearly; he used them as a +master does his tools. + +254. More striking than Jesus' independence in his teaching is the +calmness of his self-assertion when he was opposed by pharisaic criticism +and hostility. He preferred to teach the truth of the kingdom, working his +cures in such a way that men should think about God's goodness rather than +their healer's significance. Yet coincidently with this method of his +choice he did not hesitate to reply to pharisaic opposition with +unqualified self-assertion and exalted personal claim. Even if the +conflicts which Mark has gathered together at the opening of his gospel +(ii. 1 to iii. 6) did not all occur as early as he has placed them, the +nucleus of the group belongs to the early time. Since the people greatly +reverenced his critics, he felt it unnecessary to guard against arousing +undue enthusiasm by this frank avowal of his claims. He consequently +asserted his authority to forgive sins, his special mission to the sick in +soul whom the scribes shunned as defiling, his right to modify the +conception of Sabbath observance; even as, later, he warned his critics of +their fearful danger if they ascribed his good deeds to diabolical power +(Mark iii. 28-30), and as, after the collapse of popularity, he rebuked +them for making void the word of God by their tradition (Mark vii. 13). +His attitude to the scribes in Galilee from the beginning discloses as +definite Messianic claims as any ascribed by the fourth gospel to this +early period. + +255. These facts of the independence of Jesus in his teaching and his +self-assertion in response to criticism confirm the impression that his +answer to John the Baptist (Matt. xi. 2-6) gives the key to his method in +Galilee. In John's inquiry the question of Jesus' personal relation to the +kingdom was definitely asked. The answer, "Blessed is he whosoever shall +find none occasion of stumbling in me," showed plainly that Jesus was in +no doubt in the matter, although for the time he still preferred to let +his ministry be the means of leading men to form their conclusions +concerning him. What he brought into prominence at Cæsarea Philippi, +therefore, was that which had been the familiar subject of his own +thinking from the time of his baptism. + +256. In the ministry subsequent to the confession of Peter the +self-disclosures of Jesus became more frequent and clear. His predictions +of his approaching death were at the time the greatest difficulty to his +disciples; when considered in their significance for his own life, +however, they prove that his conviction of his Messiahship was as +independent of current and inherited ideas as was his teaching concerning +the kingdom. When he came to see that death was the inevitable issue of +his work, he at once discovered in it a divine necessity; it does not seem +to have shaken in the least his certainty that he was the Messiah. +Associated with this conception of his death is the conviction which +appears in all the later teachings, that in rejecting him his people were +pronouncing their own doom. Because she would not accept him as her +deliverer, Jerusalem's "house was left unto her desolate" (Luke xiii. 35). +His sense of his supreme significance appears most clearly in some of the +later parables, such as The Marriage of the King's Son (Matt. xxii. 1-14) +and The Wicked Husbandmen (Matt. xxi. 33-44), which definitely connect the +condemnation of the chosen people with their rejection of God's Son. Two +other sayings in the first three gospels express the personal claim of +Jesus in the most exalted form,--his declaration on the return of the +seventy: "All things have been delivered unto me of my Father, and no man +knoweth who the Son is save the Father, and who the Father is save the +Son, and he to whomsoever the Son willeth to reveal him" (Luke x. 22; +Matt. xi. 27); and his confession of the limits of his own knowledge: "But +of that day and hour knoweth no one, not even the angels in heaven, +neither the Son, but the Father" (Mark xiii. 32). The confession of +ignorance, by the position given to the Son in the climax which denied +that any save the Father had a knowledge of the time of the end, is quite +as extraordinary as the claim to sole qualification to reveal the Father. + +257. The similarity of these last two sayings to the discourses in the +fourth gospel has often been remarked; the likeness is particularly close +between them and the claims of Jesus recorded in the fifth chapter of +John. It is interesting to note that in the incident which introduces the +discourse in that chapter Jesus shows that he preferred, after healing the +man at the pool, to avoid the attention of the multitudes, precisely as in +Galilee he sought to check too great popular excitement by withdrawing +from Capernaum after his first ministry there (Mark i. 35-39), and +enjoining silence on the leper who had been healed by him (Mark ii. 44). +When, however, he found himself opposed by the criticism of the Pharisees +he spoke with unhesitating self-assertion and exalted personal claim, even +as he did in like situations in Galilee. During his earlier ministry in +Judea he had not shown this reserve. The cleansing of the temple, although +it was no more than any prophet sure of his divine commission would have +done, was a bold challenge to the people to consider who he was who +ventured thus to criticise the priestly administration of God's house. In +his subsequent dealings with Nicodemus and the Samaritan woman Jesus +manifested a like readiness to draw attention to himself. From the time of +the feeding of the multitudes all four of the gospels represent him as +asserting his claims, with this difference, however, that in John it is +the rule rather than the exception to find sayings similar to the two in +which the self-assertion in the other gospels reaches its highest +expression. Although the method of Jesus varied at different times and in +different localities, yet it is evident that he stood before the people +from the first with the consciousness that he had the right to claim +their allegiance as no one of the prophets who preceded him would have +been bold to do. + +258. During the course of his ministry Jesus used of himself, or suffered +others to use with reference to him, many of the titles by which his +people were accustomed to refer to the Messiah. Thus he was named "the +Messiah" (Mark viii. 29; xiv. 61; John iv. 26); "the King of the Jews" +(Mark xv. 2; John i. 49; xviii. 33, 36, 37); "the Son of David" (Mark x. +47, 48; Matt. xv. 22; xxi. 9, 15); "the Holy One of God" (John vi. 69; +compare Mark i. 24); "the Prophet" (John vi. 14; vii. 40). It is evident +that none of these titles was common; they represent, rather, the bold +venture of more or less intelligent faith on the part of men who were +impressed by him. There are two names, however, that are more significant +of Jesus' thought about himself,--"the Son of God" and "the Son of Man." + +259. The latter of these titles is unique in the use Jesus made of it. +Excepting Stephen's speech (Acts vii. 56), it is found in the New +Testament only in the sayings of Jesus, and its precise significance is +still a subject of learned debate. The expression is found in the Old +Testament as a poetical equivalent for Man, usually with emphasis on human +frailty (Ps. viii. 4; Num. xxiii. 19; Isa. li. 12), though sometimes it +signifies special dignity (Ps. lxxx. 17). Ezekiel was regularly addressed +in his visions as Son of Man (Ezek. ii. 1 and often; see also Dan. viii. +17), probably in contrast with the divine majesty. + +260. In one of Daniel's visions (vii. 1-14) the world-kingdoms which had +oppressed God's people and were to be destroyed were symbolized by beasts +that came up out of the sea,--a winged lion, a bear, a four-headed winged +leopard, and a terrible ten-horned beast; in contrast with these the +kingdom of the saints of the Most High was represented by "one like unto a +son of man," who came with the clouds of heaven (vii. 13, 14). Here the +language is obviously poetic, and is used to suggest the unapproachable +superiority of the kingdom of heaven to the kingdoms of the world. The +expression "one like unto a son of man" is equivalent, therefore, to "one +resembling mankind." The vision in Daniel had great influence over the +author of the so-called Similitudes of Enoch (Book of Enoch, chapters +xxxvii. to lxxi.). He, however, personified the "one like unto a son of +man," and gave the title "the Son of Man" to the heavenly man who will +come at the end of all things, seated on God's throne, to judge the world. +This author used also the titles "the Elect One" and "the Righteous One" +(or "the Holy One of God"), but "the Son of Man" is the prevalent name for +the Messiah in these Similitudes. + +261. The facts thus stated do not account for Jesus' use of the +expression. Many of his sayings undoubtedly suggest a development of the +Daniel vision resembling that in the Similitudes. This does not prove that +Jesus or his disciples had read these writings, though it does suggest the +possibility that they knew them. It is probable, however, that the +apocalypses gave formulated expression to thoughts that were more widely +current than those writings ever came to be. The likeness between the +language of Jesus and that found in the Similitudes may therefore prove no +more than that the Daniel vision was more or less commonly interpreted of +a personal Messiah in Jesus' day. + +262. Much of the use of the title by Jesus, however, is completely foreign +to the ideas suggested by Enoch and Daniel. Besides apocalyptic sayings +like those in Enoch (Mark viii. 38 and often), the name occurs in +predictions of his sufferings and death (Mark viii. 31 and often), and in +claims to extraordinary if not essentially divine authority (Mark ii. 10, +28 and parallels); it is also used sometimes simply as an emphatic "I" +(Matt. xi. 19 and often). Whatever relation Jesus bore to the Enoch +writings, therefore, the name "the Son of Man" as he used it was his own +creation. + +263. Students of Aramaic have in recent years asserted that it was not +customary in the dialect which Jesus spoke to make distinction between +"the son of man" and "man," since the expression commonly used for "man" +would be literally translated "son of man." It is asserted, moreover, that +if our gospels be read substituting "man" for "the Son of Man" wherever it +appears, it will be found that many supposed Messianic claims become +general statements of Jesus' conception of the high prerogatives of man, +while in other places the name stands simply as an emphatic substitute for +the personal pronoun. Thus, for instance, Jesus is found to assert that +authority on earth to forgive sins belongs to man (Mark ii. 10), and, +toward the end of his course, to have taught simply that he himself must +meet with suffering (Mark viii. 31), and will come on the clouds to judge +the world (Mark viii. 38). The proportion of cases in which the general +reference is possible is, however, very small; and even if the +equivalence of "man" and "son of man" should be established, most of the +statements of Jesus in which our gospels use the latter expression exhibit +a conception of himself which challenges attention, transcending that +which would be tolerated in any other man. The debate concerning the usage +in the language spoken by Jesus is not yet closed, however, and Dr. Gustaf +Dalman (WJ I. 191-197) has recently argued that the equivalence of the two +expressions holds only in poetic passages, precisely as it does in Hebrew, +and that our gospels represent correctly a distinction observed by Jesus +when they report him, for instance, as saying in one sentence, "the +Sabbath was made for man" (Mark ii. 27), and in the next, "the Son of Man +is lord even of the Sabbath." The antecedent probability is so great that +the dialect of Jesus' time would be capable of expressing a distinction +found in the Hebrew of the Old Testament and in the Syriac of the +second-century version of the New Testament, that Dalman's opinion carries +much weight. + +264. Many of those who look for a distinct significance in the title "the +Son of Man," find in it a claim by Jesus to be the ideal or typical man, +in whom humanity has found its highest expression. It thus stands sharply +in contrast with "the Son of God," which is held to express his claim to +divinity. So understood, the titles represent truth early recognized by +the church in its thought about its Lord. Yet it must be acknowledged that +the conception "the ideal man" is too Hellenic to have been at home in the +thought of those to whom Jesus addressed his teaching. If the phrase +suggested anything more to his hearers than the human frailty or the +human dignity of him who bore it, it probably had a Messianic meaning like +that found in the Similitudes of Enoch. A hint of this understanding of +the name appears in the perplexed question reported in John (xii. 34): "We +have heard out of the law that the Messiah abideth forever; and how sayest +thou, The Son of Man must be lifted up? who is this Son of Man?" Here the +difficulty arose because the people identified the Son of Man with the +Messiah, yet could not conceive how such a Messiah could die. In fact, if +the conception of the Son of Man which is found in Enoch had obtained any +general currency among the people, either from that book or independently +of it, it was so foreign to the earthly condition and manner of life of +the Galilean prophet, that it would not have occurred to his hearers to +treat his use of the title as a Messianic claim until after that claim had +been published in some other and more definite form. Their Son of Man was +to come with the clouds of heaven, seated on God's throne, to execute +judgment on all sinners and apostates; the Nazarene fulfilled none of +these conditions. The name, as used by Jesus, was probably always an +enigma to the people, at least until he openly declared its Messianic +significance in his reply to the high-priest's question at his trial (Mark +xiv. 62), and gave the council the ground it desired for a charge of +blasphemy against him. + +265. What did this title signify to Jesus? His use of it alone can furnish +answer, and in this the variety is so great that it causes perplexity. +"The Son of Man came eating and drinking" is his description of his own +life in contrast with John the Baptist (Matt. xi. 18, 19). "The Son of +Man hath not where to lay his head" was his reply to one over-zealous +follower (Matt. viii. 20). Unseemly rivalry among his disciples was +rebuked by the reminder that "even the Son of Man came not to be +ministered unto but to minister" (Mark x. 42-45). When it became needful +to prepare the disciples for his approaching death he taught them that +"the Son of Man must suffer many things ... and be killed, and after three +days rise again" (Mark viii. 31). On the other hand, the paralytic's cure +was made to demonstrate that "the Son of Man hath authority upon the earth +to forgive sins" (Mark ii. 10). Similarly it is the Son of Man who after +his exaltation shall come "in the glory of his Father with the holy +angels" (Mark viii. 38). In these typical cases the title expresses Jesus' +consciousness of heavenly authority as well as self-sacrificing ministry, +of coming exaltation as well as present lowliness; and the suffering and +death which were the common lot of other sons of men were appointed for +this Son of Man by a divine necessity. The name is, therefore, more than a +substitute for the personal pronoun; it expresses Jesus' consciousness of +a mission that set him apart from the rest of men. + +266. We do not know how Jesus came to adopt this title. Its association +with the predictions of his coming glory shows that he knew that in him +the Daniel vision was to have fulfilment. The predictions of suffering and +death, however, are completely foreign to that apocalyptic conception, +being akin rather, as Professor Charles has suggested, to the prophecies +of the suffering servant in the Book of Isaiah (Book of Enoch, p. +314-317). Moreover, it may not be fanciful to find in his claims to +heavenly authority a hint of the thought of the eighth Psalm, "Thou madest +him to have dominion over the works of thy hands; thou hast put all things +under his feet" (see Dalman WJ I. 218). Although the name expresses a +consciousness of dignity, vicarious ministry, and authority, similar to +thoughts found in Daniel, Isaiah, and the Psalms, it was not deduced from +these scriptures by any synthesis of diverse ideas. It rather indicates +that Jesus in his own nature realized a synthesis which no amount of study +of scripture would ever have suggested. He drew his conception of himself +from his own self-knowledge, not from his Messianic meditations. On his +lips, then, "the Son of Man" indicates that he knew himself to be the Man +whom God had chosen to be Lord over all (compare Dalman as above). The +lowly estate which contradicted the Daniel vision prevented Jesus' hearers +from recognizing in the title a Messianic claim; for him, however, it was +the expression of the very heart of his Messianic consciousness. + +267. If Jesus gave expression to his official consciousness when he used +the name "the Son of Man," the title "the Son of God" may be said to +express his more personal thought about himself. It is necessary to +distinguish between the meaning of this title to the contemporaries of +Jesus and his own conception of it. In the popular thought "the Son of +God" was the designation of that man whom God would at length raise up and +crown with dignity and power for the deliverance of his people. This +meaning followed from the Messianic interpretation of the second Psalm, in +which the theocratic king is called God's son (Ps. ii. 7). In another +psalm, which Jesus himself quotes (John x. 34), magistrates and judges are +called "sons of the Most High" (lxxxii. 6). Another Old Testament use +casts light on this,--the designation of Israel as God's son, his +firstborn (Ex. iv. 22; Hos. i. 10), with which may be compared a +remarkable expression in the so-called Psalms of Solomon (xviii. 4), "Thy +chastisement was upon us [that is, Israel] as upon a son, firstborn, only +begotten." In all these passages that which constitutes a man the son of +God is God's choice of him for a special work, while Israel collectively +bears the title to suggest God's fatherly love for the people he had taken +for his own. The Messianic title, therefore, described not a metaphysical, +but an official or ethical, relation to God. It is certainly in this sense +that the high-priest asked Jesus "Art thou the Messiah the son of the +Blessed?" (Mark xiv. 61), and that the crowd about the cross flung their +taunts at him (Matt, xxvii. 43), and the demoniacs proclaimed their +knowledge of him (Mark iii. 11; v. 7). The name must be interpreted in +this sense also in the confession of Nathanael (John i. 49); moreover, it +was not the coupling of the names "Messiah" and "son of the living God" in +Peter's confession that gave it its great significance for Jesus. In all +of these cases there is no evidence that there has been any advance over +the theocratic significance which made the title "the Son of God" fitting +for the man chosen by God for the fulfilment of his promises. + +268. The case is different with the name by which Jesus was called at his +baptism (Mark i. 11). The difference here, however, arises not from +anything in the name as used on this occasion, but from that in Jesus +which acknowledged and accepted the title. With Jesus the consciousness +that God was his Father preceded the knowledge that as "his Son" he was to +undertake the work of the Messiah. The force of the call at the baptism is +found in the response which his own soul gave to the word "Thou art my +Son." The nature of that response is seen in his habitual reference to God +as in a peculiar sense _his_ Father. The name "Father" for God was used by +him in all his teaching, and there is no evidence that he or any of his +hearers regarded it as a novelty. Psalm ciii. 13 and Isaiah lxiii. 16 +indicate that the conception was natural to Jewish thinking. The unique +feature in Jesus' usage is his careful distinction between the general +references to "your Father" and his constant personal allusions to "my +Father." Witness the reply to his mother in the temple (Luke ii. 49); his +word to Peter, "Flesh and blood hath not revealed it unto thee, but my +Father which is in heaven" (Matt. xvi. 17), his solemn warning, "Not every +one that saith unto me Lord, Lord, shall enter into the kingdom of heaven, +but he that doeth the will of my Father which is in heaven" (Matt. vii. +21), and the promise, "Every one who shall confess me before men ... him +will I also confess before my Father" (Matt. x. 32). In the fourth gospel +the same intimate reference is common: so, for example, the temple is "my +Father's house" (ii. 16), the Sabbath cure is defended because "my Father +worketh even until now" (v. 17), the cures are done "in My Father's name" +(x. 25), "I am the vine, and my Father is the husbandman" (xv. 1). This +mode of expression discloses a consciousness of unique filial relation to +God which is independent of, even as it was antecedent to, the +consciousness of official relation. + +269. The full name "the Son of God" was seldom applied by Jesus to +himself, the only recorded instances being found in the fourth gospel (v. +25; ix. 35?; x. 36; xi. 4). He frequently acquiesced in the use of the +title by others in addressing him (for example, John i. 49; Matt. xvi. 16; +xxvi. 63f.; Mark xiv. 61f.; Luke xxii. 70); but for himself he preferred +the simpler phrase "the Son." This mode of expression occurs often in +John, and is found also in the two passages, already noticed, in which the +other gospels give clearest expression to the extraordinary self-assertion +of Jesus (Matt. xi. 27; Luke x. 22; and Mark xiii. 32). In the first of +them his claim to be the only one who can adequately reveal God is founded +on the consciousness that the relation between himself and God is so +intimate that God alone adequately knows him, whom men were so ready to +set at nought, and he alone knows God. This relation, in which he and God +stand together in contrast with all other men, is expressed by the +unqualified names, "the Father" and "the Son." In the second passage Jesus +confessed the limitation of his knowledge, but again in such a way as to +set himself and God in contrast not only with men, but also with "the +angels in heaven." Such assertions as these indicate that he who, knowing +his full humanity, chose the title "the Son of Man" to express his +consciousness that he had been appointed by God to be the Messiah, was yet +aware in his inner heart that his relation to God was even closer than +that in which he stood to men. + +270. There is no word in John which goes beyond the two self-declarations +of Jesus which crown the record of the other evangelists, yet in the +fourth gospel the same claim to unique relation to God is more frequently +and frankly avowed. The most unqualified assertion of intimacy--"I and the +Father are one" (x. 30)--states what is clearly implied throughout the +gospel (so xiv. 6-11; xvi. 25; and particularly xvii. 21, "that they may +be one, even as we are one"). It has often been said, and truly, that this +claim to unity with the Father, taken by itself, signifies no more than +perfect spiritual and ethical harmony with God. Yet when the words are +considered in their connection, and more particularly when the two supreme +self-declarations in the synoptic gospels are associated with them, they +express a sense of relation to God so utterly unique, so strongly +contrasting the Father and the Son with all others, that we cannot +conceive of any other man, even the saintliest, taking like words upon his +lips. + +271. These titles in which Jesus gave expression to his official and his +personal consciousness present clearly the problem which he offers to +human thought. Jesus stands before us in the gospels as a man aware of +completest kinship with his brethren, yet conscious at the same time of +standing nearer to God than he does to men. + +272. It is highly significant that the gospel which records most fully the +claim of Jesus to be more closely related to God than he was to men, most +fully records also his definite acknowledgment of dependence on his +Father, and of that Father's supremacy over him and all others. "The Son +can do nothing of himself" (John v. 19), "I speak not from myself" (xiv. +10), "my Father is greater than all" (x. 29), "the Father is greater than +I" (xiv. 28),--these confessions join with the common reference to God as +"him that sent me" (v. 30 and often) in giving voice to his own spirit of +reverence. It appears as clearly in his habitual submission to his +Father's will,--"My meat is to do the will of him that sent me, and to +accomplish his work" (John iv. 34); "I am come down from heaven, not to do +mine own will, but the will of him that sent me" (John vi. 38). This +submission reached its fulness in the prayer of Gethsemane, recorded in +the earlier gospels,--"Father, all things are possible unto thee; remove +this cup from me: howbeit not what I will, but what thou wilt" (Mark xiv. +36). Jesus was a man of prayer; not only in Gethsemane, but also +throughout his ministry he habitually sought his Father in that communion +in which the soul of man finds its light and strength for life's duty. +When he was baptized (Luke iii. 21), after the first flush of success in +Capernaum (Mark i. 35), before choosing the twelve (Luke vi. 12), before +the question at Cæsarea Philippi (Luke ix. 18), at the transfiguration +(Luke ix. 29), on the cross (Luke xxiii. 46),--at all the crises of his +life he turned to God in prayer. Moreover, prayer was his habit, for it +was after a night of prayer which has no connection with any crisis +reported for us (Luke xi. 1), that he taught his disciples the Lord's +prayer in response to their requests. The prayer beside the grave of +Lazarus (John xi. 41, 42) suggests that his miracles were often, if not +always (compare Mark ix. 29), preceded by definite prayer to God. His +habit of prayer was the natural expression of his trust in God. From the +resistance to the temptations in the wilderness to the last cry, "Father, +into thy hands I commend my spirit," his life is an example of childlike +faith in God. + +273. Yet throughout his life of obedience and trust Jesus never gave one +indication that he felt the need of penitence when he came before God. He +perceived as no one else has ever done the searching inwardness of God's +law, and demanded of men that they tolerate no lower ambition than to be +like God, yet he never breathed a sigh of conscious failure, or gave sign +that he blushed when the eternal light shone into his own soul. He was +baptized, but without confession of sin. He challenged his enemies to +convict him of sin (John viii. 46). Such a challenge might have rested on +a man's certainty that his critics did not know his inner life; but +hypocrisy has no place in the character of Jesus. The reply to the rich +young ruler, "Why callest thou me good?" (Mark x. 18), even if it was a +confession that freedom from past sin was still far less than that +absolute goodness that God alone possesses, simply sets in stronger light +his silence concerning personal failure, and his omission in all his +praying to seek forgiveness. It is probable, however, that that reply +deals not with the "good" as the "ethically perfect," but as the +"supremely beneficent," so that Jesus simply reminded the seeker after +life that God alone is the one to be approached as the Gracious and +Merciful One by sinful men (see Dalman WJ I. 277). Thus the reply becomes +a fresh expression of the reverence of Jesus, and still further emphasizes +his failure to confess his sinfulness. + +274. In all this thought about himself Jesus stands before us as a man, +conscious of his close kinship with his fellows. Like them he hungered and +thirsted and grew weary, like them he longed for friendship and for +sympathy, like them he trusted God and prayed to God and learned still to +trust when his request was denied. He stands before us also as a man +conscious of being anointed by God for the great work which all the +prophets had foretold, and of being fully equipped with authority and +power and the promise of unapproachable dignity. Of deep religious spirit +and great reverence for the scriptures of his people, he yet used these +scriptures as a master does his tools, to serve his work rather than to +instruct him in it. He drew his knowledge from within and from above, and +proclaimed his own fulfilment of the scriptures when he filled them with +new meaning. A man always devout, always at prayer, he is never seen, like +Isaiah, prostrate before the Most High, crying, "I am undone" (Isa. vi. +5). In his moments of greatest seriousness and most manifest communion +with heaven he looked to God as his nearest of kin, and felt himself a +stranger on the earth fulfilling his Father's will. He felt heaven to be +his home not simply by God's gracious promise, but by the right of +previous possession. His kinship with men was a condescension, his natural +fellowship was with God. + +275. The miracles with which the gospels have filled the record of Jesus' +life have caused perplexity to many, and they belong with other mysterious +things recorded for us in the story of the past or occurring under the +incredulous observation of our scientific generation. They all pale, +however, before the unaccountable exception presented to universal human +experience by this Man of Nazareth. It confronts us when we think of the +unschooled Jew who, in his thought of God, rose not only above all of his +generation, but higher than all who had gone before him, or have come +after, one who built on the foundation of the past a superstructure of +religion new, and simple, and clearly heavenly. It confronts us when we +think of this Man who believed that it was given to him to establish the +kingdom that should fill the whole earth, and who had the boldness and the +faith to ignore the opposition of all the world's wisdom and of all its +enthroned power, and to fulfil his task as the woman does who hides her +leaven in the meal, content to wait for years, or millenniums, until his +truth shall conquer in the realization of God's will on earth even as it +is done in heaven. It confronts us when we consider that the Man who has +shown his brethren what obedience means, who has taught them to pray, who +has been for all these centuries the Way, the Truth, the Life, by whom +they come to God, habitually claimed without shadow of abashment or +slightest hint of conscious presumption, a nature, a relation to God, a +freedom from sin, that other men according to the measure of their +godliness would shun as blasphemy. If the personal claim was true, and not +the blind pretence of vanity, the Jesus of the gospels is the exception to +the uniform fact of human nature, but he is no longer unaccountable; and +if his claim was true, his knowledge of the absolute religion, and his +choice of the irresistible propaganda, are no less extraordinary, but they +are not unaccountable. Paul, whose life was transformed and his thinking +revolutionized by his meeting with the risen Jesus, thought on these +things and believed that "the name which, is above every name" was his by +right of nature as well as by the reward of obedience (Phil. ii. 5-11). +John, who leaned on Jesus' breast during his earthly life, and who +meditated on the meaning of that life through a ministry of many decades, +came to believe that he whom he had seen with his eyes, heard with his +ears, handled with his hands, was, indeed, "the Word made flesh" (John i. +14), through whom the very God revealed his love to men. Through all the +perplexities of doubt, amidst all the obscurings of irrelevant +speculations, the hearts of men to-day turn to this Jesus of Nazareth as +their supreme revelation of God, and find in him "the Master of their +thinking and the Lord of their lives." + +"Lord, to whom shall we go? Thou hast the words of eternal life. And we +have believed and know that thou art the Holy One of God." + + + + +Appendix + +Books of Reference on the Life of Jesus + + + +1. A concise account of the voluminous literature on this subject maybe +found at the close of the article JESUS CHRIST by Zockler in +_Schaff-Herzog, Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge_. Of the earlier of +the modern works it is well to mention David Friedrich Strauss, _Das Leben +Jesu_ (2 vols. 1835), in which he sought to reduce all the gospel miracles +to myths. August Neander, _Das Leben Jesu Christi_, 1837, wrote in +opposition to the attitude taken by Strauss. Both of these works have been +translated into English. Ernst Renan, _Vie de Jésus_ (1863, 16th ed. +1879), translated, _The Life of Jesus_ (1863), is a charming, though often +superficial and patronizing, presentation of the subject. For vivid word +pictures of scenes in the life of Jesus his book is unsurpassed. Renan's +inability to appreciate the more serious aspects of the work of Christ +appears constantly, while his effort to discover romance in the life of +Jesus is offensive. More important than any of these is Theodor Keim, +_Geschichte Jesu von Nazara_ (1867-72, 3 vols.), translated, _The History +of Jesus of Nazara_ (1876-81, 6 vols.). The author rejects the fourth +gospel and holds that Matthew is the most primitive of the synoptic +gospels; he does not reject the supernatural as such, but reduces it as +much as possible by recognizing a legendary element in the gospels. When +the work is read with these peculiarities in mind, it is one of the most +stimulating and spiritually illuminating treatments of the subject. + +2. Critically more trustworthy, and exegetically very valuable, is +Bernhard Weiss, _Das Leben Jesu_ (3d ed. 1889, 2 vols.), translated from +the first ed., _The Life of Christ_ (1883, 3 vols.). It is more helpful +for correct understanding of details than for a complete view of the Life +of Jesus. Rivalling Weiss in many ways, yet neither so exact nor so +trustworthy, though more interesting, is Willibald Beyschlag, _Das Leben +Jesu_ (3d ed. 1893, 2 vols.). The most important discussion in English is +Alfred Edersheim, _The Life and Times of Jesus the Messiah_ (1883 and +later editions, 2 vols.). This is valuable for its illustration of +conditions in Palestine in the time of Jesus by quotations from the +rabbinic literature. The material used is enormous, but is not always +treated with due criticism, and the book should be read with the fact in +mind that most of the rabbinic writings date from several centuries after +Christ. Schürer (see below) should be used wherever possible as a +counter-balance. Dr. Edersheim follows the gospel story in detail; his +book is, therefore, a commentary as well as a biography. + +3. Albert Réville, _Jesus de Nazareth_ (1897, 2 vols.), aims to bring the +work of Renan up to date, and to supply some of the lacks which are felt +in the earlier treatise. The book is pretentious and learned. In some +parts, as in the treatment of the youth of Jesus, and of the sermon on the +mount, it is helpfully suggestive. The Jesus whom the author admires, +however, is the Jesus of Galilee. The journey to Jerusalem was a sad +mistake, and the assumption of the Messianic rôle a fall from the high +ideal maintained in the teaching in Galilee. In criticism M. Réville +accepts the two document synoptic theory, and assigns the fourth gospel to +about 140 A.D. He rejects the supernatural, explaining many of the +miracles as legendary embellishments of actual events. + +4. The most important treatment of the subject is the article JESUS CHRIST +by William Sanday in the _Hastings Bible Dictionary_ (1899). It is of the +highest value, discussing the subject topically with great clearness and +with a rare combination of learning and common sense. S. T. Andrews, _The +Life of Our Lord_ (2d ed. 1892), is a thorough and very useful study of +the gospels, considering minutely all questions of chronology, harmony, +and geography. It presents the different views with fairness, and offers +conservative conclusions. G. H. Gilbert, _The Student's Life of Jesus_ +(1896), is complete in plan and careful in treatment, while being very +concise. Dr. Gilbert faces the problems of the subject frankly, and his +treatment is scholarly and reverent. James Stalker, _The Life of Jesus +Christ_ (1880), is a short work whose value lies in the good conception +which it gives of the ministry of Jesus viewed as a whole. In simplicity, +insight, and clearness the book is a classic, though now somewhat out of +date. _Studies in the Life of Christ_, by A.M. Fairbairn (1882), is of +great value for the topics considered. The title indicates that the +treatment is fragmentary. The long treatises of Farrar (1875, 2 vols.) and +Geikie (1877, 2 vols.) are useful as commentaries on the words and works +of Jesus. Farrar often interprets most helpfully the essence of an +incident, and Geikie furnishes a mass of illustrative material from +rabbinic sources, though with less criticism than even Edersheim has used. +Neither of these works, however, deals with the fundamental problems of +the composition of the gospels, nor are they satisfactory on other +perplexing questions, for example, the miraculous birth. + +5. The most important accessory for the study of the life of Jesus is Emil +Schürer, _Geschichte des Jüdischen Volkes im Zeitalter Jesu Christi_ (2d +ed. 1886, 1890, 2 vols. A 3d ed. of 2d part in 2 vols., 1898), translated, +_A History of the Jewish People in the Time of Jesus Christ_ (1885-6, 5 +vols.). The political history of the Jews from 175 B.C. to 135 A.D., and +the intellectual and religious life of the times in which Jesus lived, +with the Jewish literature of Palestine and the dispersion, are all +treated with thoroughness and masterful learning. W. Baldensperger, _Das +Selbstbewusstsein Jesu im Lichte der messianischen Hoffnungen seiner +Zeit_ (2d ed. 1892), furnishes in the first part a survey of the Messianic +hopes of the Jews which is in many respects the most satisfactory account +that is accessible. The second part discusses the problem of Jesus' +conception of himself in a reverent and learned way. George Adam Smith, +_The Historical Geography of the Holy Land_ (1894), is indispensable for +the study of the physical features of the land as they bear on its +history, and on the work of Jesus. The maps are the best that have yet +appeared. + +6. Discussions of the Teaching of Jesus in works on Biblical Theology have +much that is important for the study of Jesus' life. The most significant +is H. H. Wendt, _Die Lehre Jesu_ (1886, 2 vols.). The second volume has +been translated _The Teaching of Jesus_ (1892, 2 vols.); the first volume +of the original work is an elaborate discussion of the sources, and has +not been done into English. Reference may be made especially to H. J. +Holtzmann, _Lehrbuch der Neutestamentlichen Theologie_ (1897, 2 vols.), +and also to G. H. Gilbert, _The Revelation of Jesus_ (1899). Gustaf +Dalman, _Die Worte Jesu_ (1898), of which the first volume only has +appeared, is a study of the meaning of the most significant expressions +used in the gospel records of the teaching of Jesus, made with the aid of +thorough knowledge of Aramaic usage and of the language of post-canonical +Jewish literature. + +7. A good synopsis or Harmony of the gospels is most useful. The best +_Harmony is_ that of Stevens and Burton (1894), which exhibits the +divergencies of the parallel accounts in the gospels as faithfully as the +agreements. A good synopsis of the Greek text of the first three gospels +is Huck, _Synapse_ (1892). Robinson's _Greek Harmony of the Gospels_, +edited by M. B. Biddle, using Tischendorf's text, has also valuable notes +discussing questions of harmony. + + + + +Abbreviations + + + +AndLOL Andrews, The Life of Our Lord, 2d ed., 1892. +BaldSJ Baldensperger, Das Selbstbewusstsein Jesu, 2d ed., 1892. +BeysLJ Beyschlag, Das Leben Jesu, 3d ed., 2 vols., 1893. +BovonNTTh Bovon, Théologie du Nouveau Testament, 1892. +DalmanWJ Dalman, Die Worte Jesu, I., 1898. +EdersLJM Edersheim, The Life and Times of Jesus the Messiah, 2 vols., + 1883. +FairbSLX Fairbairn, Studies in the Life of Christ, 1882. +GilbertLJ Gilbert, The Student's Life of Jesus, 1896. +GilbertRJ Gilbert, The Revelation of Jesus, 1899. +HoltzNtTh Holtzmann, Neutestamentliche Theologie, 2 vols., 1897. +KeimJN Keim, The History of Jesus of Nazara, 6 vols., 1876-81. +RévilleJN Réville, Jésus de Nazareth, 2 vols., 1897. +SandayHastBD Sanday, the article JESUS CHRIST in the Hastings Bible + Dictionary, 1899. +SchürerJPTX Schürer, The History of the Jewish People in the Time of + Jesus Christ, 1885-86. Division I. vols. i. and ii.; Division + II. vols. i., ii., and iii. +SmithHGHL Smith, Historical Geography of the Holy Land, 1894. +SB Stevens and Burton, Harmony of the Gospels, 1894. +WeissLX Weiss, The Life of Christ, 3 vols., 1883. +WendtLJ Wendt, Die Lehre Jesu, 2 vols., 1886. +WendtTJ Wendt, The Teaching of Jesus, 2 vols., 1892. +EnBib Encyclopedia Biblica, 1899. +HastBD Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible, 1898. +SBD^2 Smith's Dictionary of the Bible, revision of the first volume + of the original English edition, 1893. + + + + +References + + + +Part I.--Preparatory + + +I + +The Historical Situation + +8. Read SandayHastBD II. 604-609. On the Land, its physical +characteristics, its political divisions, its climate, its roads, and its +varying civilization, SmithHGHL is unsurpassed. Its identifications of +disputed localities are cautions. Robinson, _Biblical Researches in +Palestine_, and Thomson, _The Land and the Book_, give fuller detail +concerning particular localities, but no such general view as Smith. + +9. On Political conditions, SchürerJPTX I. i. and ii. is the fullest and +most trustworthy treatise. More concise essays are Oscar Holtzmann, _Nt. +Zeitgeschichte_ (1895), 57-118; S. Mathews, _History of NT Times in +Palestine_ (1899), 1-158; Riggs, _Maccabean and Roman Periods of Jewish +History_ (1900), especially §§ 206-234, 257-267, 276-282. On the Religious +Life and Parties in Palestine, SchürerJPTX II. i. and ii.; O. Holtzmann, +_NtZeitg_, 136-177; Mathews, _NT Times_, see index; Riggs, _Mac. and Rom. +Periods_, §§ 235-256; Muirhead, _The Times of Christ_ (1898), 69-150. In +addition Wellhausen, _Die Pharisdäer und die Sadducäer_ (1874); on the +_Essenes_, Conybeare in HastBD I. 767-772, also Lightfoot, _Colossians_, +80-98, 347-419; Wellhausen, _Isr. u. jüd. Geschichte_^3 (1897), 258-262; +on the Samaritans, A. Cowley, in _Expos_. V. i. 161-174; Jew. Quar. Rev. +VIII. (1896) 562-575. + +10. On the Messianic hope, SchürerJPTX II. ii. 126-187; BaldSJ 3-122; +Muirhead, _Times of Xt._, 112-150; Briggs, _Messiah of the Gospels_ +(1894), 1-40; WendtTJ I. 33-84; Mathews, _NT Times_, 159-169; Riggs, _Mac. +and Rom. Periods_, §§ 251-256. + +11. On the language of Palestine see Arnold Meyer, _Jesu Muttersprache_ +(1896); DalmanWJ I. 1-57; SchürerJPTX II. i. 8-10, 47-51; Neubauer, +_Studia Biblica_, I. 39-74. + +12. On Jewish literature dating near the times of Jesus see SchürerJPTX +II. iii.; BaldSJ. 3-122; EdersLJM I. 31-39; Deane, _Pseudepigrapha_ +(1891); Thomson, _Books which influenced our Lord_, etc. (1891); and +special editions, such as Alexandre, _Sibylline Oracles_ (1869); Deane, +_The Wisdom of Solomon_ (1881); Charles, _The Book of Enoch_ (1893), _The +Apocalypse of Baruch_ (1896), _The Assumption of Moses_ (1897), and _The +Book of Jubilees_ (1895); Charles and Morfill, _The Secrets of Enoch_ +(1896); Ryle and James, _The Psalms of the Pharisees_ [Psalms of Solomon] +(1891); Bensly and James, _Fourth Esdras_ (1895); Charles, EnBib I. +213-250; HastBD I. 109f.; Porter, HastBD I. 110-123; James, EnBib I. +249-261. + + +II + +The Sources + +13. On the sources outside the gospels see Anthony, _Introduction to the +Life of Jesus_, 19-108; KeimJN I. 12-59; BeysLJ I. 59-72; GilbertLJ 74-78; +Knowling, _Witness of the Epistles_; Stevens, _Pauline Theol_. 204-208; +Sabatier, _Apostle Paul_, 76-85. On Josephus as a source see also +SchürerJPTX I. ii. 143-149; RévilleJN I. 272-280. On the individual +gospels see Burton, _The Purpose and Plan of the Four Gospels_ (Univ. +Chic. Press, 1900); Bruce, _With Open Face_, 1-61; Weiss, _Introduction to +N.T._, II. 239-386; Jülicher, _Einleitung i. d. NT_, 189-207. On Matthew, +Burton Bib. Wld. I. 1898, 37-44, 91-101; on Mark, Swete, _Comm. on Mark_, +ix-lxxxix; on Luke, Plummer, _Comm. on Luke_, xi-lxx; Mathews, Bib. Wld. +1895, I. 336-342, 448-455; on John, Burton, Bib. Wld. 1899, I. 16-41, +102-105; Westcott, _Comm. on John_, v-lxxvii; Rhees in Abbott's _The Bible +as Literature_, 281-297. On the synoptic question see Sanday SBD^2, +1217-1243, and Expositor, Feb.-June, 1891; Woods, _Studia Biblica_, II. +59-104; Salmon, _Introduction_^7, 99-151, 570-581; Stanton in HastBD II. +234-243; Jülicher, _Einl._ 207-227. A. Wright, _Composition of the Four +Gospels_ (1890) and _Some NT Problems_ (1898), defends the oral tradition +theory in a modified form. On possible dislocations in John see Spitta, +_Urchristentum_, I. 157-204; Bacon, Jour. Bib. Lit. 1894, 64-76; Burton, +Bib. Wld. 1899, I. 27-35. For the history of opinion see specially H. J. +Holtzmann, _Einl._^3 340-375. On the Johannine question see Sanday, +Expositor, Nov. 1891-May 1892; Schürer, Cont. Rev. Sept. 1891; Watkins +SBD^2 1739-1764; Burton, Bib. Wld. 1899, I. 16-41; Reynolds in HastBD II. +694-722; Zahn, _Einl._ II. 445-564 (defends Johannine authorship); +Jülicher, _Einl._ 238-250 (rejects Johannine authorship). For the history +of opinion see Watkins, _Bampton Lecture_ for 1890; Holtzmann, _Einl._^3 +433-438. P. Ewald, _Hauptproblem der evang. Frage_, argues the +authenticity of the fourth gospel from the one-sidedness of the synoptic +story. See also Jour. Bib. Lit. 1898, I. 87-102. + +14. Réville proposes to reconstruct Jos. Ant. xviii. 3. 3 thus: "'At that +time appeared Jesus, a wise man, who did astonishing things. That is why a +good number of Jews and also of Greeks attached themselves to him.' Then +follows some phrase probably signifying that these adherents had committed +the error of proclaiming him Christ, and then 'denounced by the leading +men of the nation, this Jesus was condemned by Pilate to die on the cross. +But those who had loved him before persevered in their sentiment, and +still to-day there exists a class of people who take from him their name +Christians.'" + +15. On the testimony of Papias (Euseb. _Ch. Hist_. iii. 39. 4) see +Lightfoot, Cont. Rev. 1875, II. 379 ff., and McGiffert's notes in his +_Eusebius_, 170 ff. + +16. For a collection of probably genuine Agrapha see Ropes, _Die Spruche +Jesu_, 154-161, and Amer. Jour. Theol. 1897, 758-776; Resch, _Agrapha_, +gives a much longer list. He is criticised by Ropes. On lost and +uncanonical gospels see Salmon, _Intr._^7 173-190, 580-591; Kruger, _Early +Christian Literature_, 50-57. For the recently discovered Gospel of Peter +see Swete, _The Gospel of Peter_; and on the so-called _Sayings of Jesus_ +found in Egypt in 1896 see Harnack, _Expositor_, V. vi. 321-340, 401-416, +and essay by Sanday and Lock. _Apocryphal Gospels_ are most conveniently +found in _Ante-nicene Fathers_, VIII. 361-476. + + +III + +The Harmony of the Gospels + +17. The Diatessaron of Tatian is translated with notes by Hill, _The +Earliest Life of Christ_. See also _Ante-nic. Fathers_, IX. 35-138. + +18. For the extreme position concerning Doublets see Holtzmann, +_Hand-commentar zum NT_ I. passim. E. Haupt, Studien u. Kritiken, 1884, +25, remarks that Jesus must often have repeated his teaching in +essentially the same form. + + +IV + +Chronology + +19. For data and discussion of the various problems see Wieseler, +_Chronological Synopsis_; Lewin, _Fasti Sacra; _ KeimJN II. 379-402; +AndLOL 1-52; SchürerJPTX I. ii. 30-32, 105-143; O. Holtzmann, _NtZeitg_, +118-124, 125-127, 131-132; Turner HastBD I. 403-415; Ramsay, _Was Christ +born at Bethlehem_; and von Soden in EnBib. I. 799-812. For patristic +opinion concerning the length of Jesus' ministry, see HastBD I. 410. For +the argument for a one-year ministry, see KeimJN II. 398; O. Holtzmann, +_NtZeitg_, 131f. For two years, see Wieseler, _Chron. Synop_. 204-220; +WeissLX I. 389-392; Turner, in HastBD. For three years, see AndLOL +189-198; note by Robertson in Broadus, _Harmony of the Gospels_, 241-244. +Compare RévilleJN II. 227-231; Zahn, _Einl._ II. 516f. + + +V + +The Early Years + +20. On the problem of the Virgin birth see GilbertLJ 79-89; WeissLX I. +211-233; Swete, _Apos. Creed_, 42-55; Bruce, _Apologetics_, 407-413; +Ropes, Andover Rev. 1893, 695-712; FairbSLX 30-45; Godet, _Comm. on Luke_, +Rem. on chaps. I. and II.; BovonNTTh I. 198-217. These maintain +historicity. The other side: BeysLJ I. 148-174; Meyer, _Comm. on Matt_., +Rem. on 1.18; Keim JN II. 38-101; Réville, New World, 1892, 695-723, and +JN I. 361-408; HoltzmannNtTh I. 409-415. On the early years of +Jesus see EdersLJM I. 217-254; WeissLX I. 275-293; Hughes, _Manliness of +Xt_, 35-60; WendtTJ I. 90-96; Stapfer, _Jesus Christ before his Ministry; +_ FairbSLX 46-63; BeysLJ II. 44-65; RévilleJN I. 409-438. + +21. For some of the early legends concerning the birth and childhood of +Jesus, see the so-called _Protevangelium of James_, the _Gospel of +Pseudo-Matthew_, and the _Gospel of Thomas_, Ante-nic. Fathers, VIII. +361-383, 395-398. For Jewish calumnies see Laible, _J. X. im Thalmud_, +9-39. + +22. On the two genealogies see AndLOL 62-68; WeissLX I. 211-221; Godet on +Luke, iii. 23-38. These refer Luke's genealogy to Marv. Hervey SBD^2 +1145-1148, Plummer on Luke, iii. 23, EdersLJM I. 149, GilbertLJ 81f., +with the early fathers (see Plummer), refer both to Joseph. For the view +that they are unauthentic see Holtzmann, _Hand-comm._ I. 39-41; Bacon in +HastBD II. 137-141. + +23. On the "brethren" of Jesus see Mayor, HastBD I. 320-326; +AndrewsLOL 111-123. These make the brethren sons of Joseph and +Mary. Lightfoot, _Galatians_^10, 252-291, regards them as sons of Joseph +by a former marriage. + + +VI + +John the Baptist + +24. On the character and work of John the Baptist see KeimJN II. 201-266 +and references in the index under John the Baptist. Keim's is much the +most satisfactory treatment; it is, moreover, Keim at his best. See also +Ewald, _Hist, of Israel_, VI. 160-200; WeissLX I. 307-316; FairbSLX 64-79; +W. A. Stevens, Homil. Rev. 1891, II. 163 ff.; Bebb in HastBD II. 677-680; +Wellhausen _Isr. u. judische Geschichte_, 342f.; Feather, _Last of the +Prophets_. Reynolds, _John the Baptist_, obscures its excellencies by a +vast amount of irrelevant discussion. + +25. On the existence of a separate company of disciples of John see Mk. +ii. 18, Mt. ix. 14, Lk. v. 33; Mk. vi. 29, Mt. xiv. 12; Mt. xi. 2f., Lk. +vii. 18f.; Lk. xi. 1; Jn. i. 35f.; iii. 25; Ac. xix. 1-3. Consult +Lightfoot, _Colossians_, 400 ff.; Baldensperger, _Der Prolog des vierten +Evangeliums_, 93-152. + + +VII + +The Messianic Call + +26. On the baptism of Jesus see WendtTJ I. 96-101; EdersLJM I. 278-287; +BaldSJ 219-229. WeissLX I. 316-336 says that the baptism meant for Jesus, +already conscious of his Messiahship, "the close of his former life and +the opening of one perfectly new" (322); KeimJN II. 290-299 makes it an +act of consecration, but eliminates the Voice and Dove; BeysLJ I. 215-231 +thinks that Jesus, conscious of no sin, yet not aware of his Messiahship, +sought the baptism carrying "the sins and guilt of his people on his +heart, as if they were his own" (229). Against Beyschlag see E. Haupt in +Studien u. Kritiken, 1887, 381. Baldensperger shows clearly that the +Messianic call was a revelation to Jesus, not a conclusion from a course +of reasoning. + +27. On the temptation see WendtTJ I. 101-105; WeissLX I. 337-354; EdersLJM +I. 299-307; FairbairnSLX 80-98; BaldSJ 230-236; BeysLJ I. +231-237; KeimJN II. 317-329. All these see in temptation the necessary +result of the Messianic call at the baptism. + +28. The locality of the baptism of Jesus cannot be determined. Tradition +has fixed on one of the fords of the Jordan near Jericho, see SmithHGHL +496, note 1. On the probable location of Bethany (Bethabarah) (Jn. i. 28) +see discussion in AndLOL 146-151; EnBib 548; and especially Smith's note +as above. + +29. On the anointing of Jesus with the Holy Spirit see WeissLX I. 323-336; +BeysLJ I. 230f. For the influence of the Spirit in the later life of Jesus +see Mk. i. 12; Mt. iv. 1; Lk. iv. 1; iv. 14, 18, 21; Mk. iii. 29, 30; Mt. +xii. 28; Jn. iii. 34; compare Ac. i. 2; x. 38. Clearly these refer not to +the ethical and religious indwelling of the Divine Spirit (comp. Rom. i. +4), but to the special equipment for official duty. This is the OT sense, +see Ex. xxxi. 2-5; Jud. iii. 10; I. Sam. xi. 6; Isa. xi. 1f.; xlii. 1; +lxi. 1; and consult Schultz, _Old Test. Theol._ II. 202f. Jesus seems to +have needed a like divine equipment, notwithstanding his divine nature. +See GilbertLJ 121f. + +30. How this Messianic anointing is to be related to the doctrine of +Jesus' essential divine nature cannot be determined with certainty. It +must not be forgotten, however, that it is a _datum_ for Christology, and +that it cannot be explained away. It indicates one of the particulars in +which Jesus was made like unto his brethren. What was involved when the +Son of God "emptied himself and was made in the likeness of men" (Phil. +ii. 7) we can only vaguely conceive. Two views of early heretical sects +seem rightly to have been rejected. The Docetic view, held by some +Gnostics of the 2d cent., dates the incarnation from the baptism, but +distinguishes Christ from the human Jesus, who only served as a vehicle +for the manifestation of the Son of God; the Christ descended on Jesus at +the baptism, ascending again to heaven from the cross, compare Mt. iii. 16 +and xxvii. 50 in the Greek; see Schaff _Hist. of Xn Church_^2, II. 455f. +The recently discovered Gospel of Peter presents this view, Gosp. Pet. § +5. The Nestorian view represents that the baptism was, in a sense, Jesus' +"birth from above" (Jn. iii. 3, 5); thus the incarnation was first +complete at the baptism though the Logos had been associated with Jesus +from the beginning. See Schaff, _Hist, of Xn Church_^2, III. 717 ff.; +Conybeare, _History of Xmas_, Amer. Jour. Theol. 1899, 1-21. + +31. The traditional locality of the temptation is a mountain near Jericho +called _Quarantana_, see AndLOL 155; the tradition seems to date no +further back than the crusades. It is, however, probable that the +"wilderness" (Mt. iv. 1, Mk. i. 12, Lk. iv. 1) is the same wilderness +mentioned in connection with John's earlier life and work (Mt. iii. 1, Mk. +i. 4), the region W and NW of the Dead Sea, see SmithHGHL 317. Others +(Stanley, _Sinai and Palestine_, 308; EdersLJM I. 300, 339 notes) hold +that the temptation took place in the desert regions SE of the sea of +Galilee; this is possibly correct, though the record in the gospels +suggests the wilderness of Judea. On the source of the temptation story +see WeissLX I. 339 ff.; BeysLJ I. 234; Bacon, Bib. Wld. 1900, I. 18-25. + + +VIII + +The First Disciples + +32. SandayHastBD II. 612f.; GilbertLJ 144-157; WeissLX I. 355-387; AndLOL +155-165; EdersLJM I. 336-363; BeysLJ II. 129-148 (assigns here a +considerable part of the synoptic account of work in Capernaum). + +33. _The early confessions_. On the genuineness of the Baptist's testimony +to "the Lamb of God" see M. Dods in _Expos. Gk. Test_. I .695f.; Westcott, +_Comm. on John_, 20; EdersLJM 1. 342 ff.; WeissLX 1. 362f. (thinks the +evangelist added "who taketh away the sin of the world"); Holtzmann, +_Hand-comm._ IV. 38f. holds that the evangelist has put in the mouth of +the Baptist a conception which was first current after the death of Jesus. +On the confessions of Nathanael and the others, see Jour. Bib. Lit. 1898, +21-30. + +34. _Cana_ is probably the modern Khirbet Kana, eight miles N of Nazareth. +A rival site is Kefr Kenna, three and one-half miles NE from Nazareth. See +EnBib and HastBD, also AndLOL 162-164. + +35. _The miracles of Jesus_ are challenged by modern thought. It is +customary in reading other documents than the N.T. instantly to relegate +the miraculous to the domain of legend. Miracles, however, are integral +parts of the story of Jesus' life, and those who attempt to write that +life eliminating the supernatural are constrained to recognize that he had +marvellous power as an exorcist and healer of some forms of nervous +disease. So E. A. Abbott, _The Spirit on the Waters_, 169-201. Our +knowledge of nature does not warrant a dogmatic definition of the limits +of the possible; see James, _The Will to Believe_, vii.-xiii., 299-327. +The question is confessedly one of adequate evidence. The evidence for the +supreme miracle--the transcendent character of Jesus--is clear, see Part +III. chap. iv.; and the miraculous element in the story of his life must +be considered in view of this supreme miracle. In association with him his +miracles gain in credibility. In estimating the evidence for them their +dignity and worthiness is important. What the devout imagination would do +in embellishing the story of Jesus is exhibited in the apocryphal gospels; +the miracles of the canonical gospels are of an entirely different type, +which commends them as authentic. By definition a miracle is an event not +explicable in terms of ordinary human experience. It is therefore futile +to attempt to picture the miracles of Jesus in their occurrence, for the +imagination has no material except that furnished by ordinary experience. +For our day the miracles are of importance chiefly for the exhibition they +give of the character of Jesus; they can be studied with this in view +without regard to the curious question how they happened. Read +SandayHastBD II. 624-628; and see Fisher, _Grounds of Christian and +Theistic Belief, _ chaps, iv.--vi., _Supernatural Origin of +Christianity_^3, chap, xi.; Bruce, _Miraculous Element in the Gospels; +Apologetics_, 409 ff.; Illingworth, _Divine Immanence_; Rainy, Orr, and +Dods, _The Supernatural in Christianity_. + + + +Part II.--The Ministry + + +I + +General Survey + +36. SandayHastBD II. 609f.; GilbertLJ 136-143; AndLOL 125-137; BeysLJ I. +256-295. + + +II + +The Early Ministry in Judea + +37. SandayHastBD II. 612^b-613^b; WeissLX II. 3-53; EdersLJM I. 364-429; +BeysLJ II. 147-168; GilbertLJ 158-179. + +38. On _the chronological significance of John iv_. 35 see AndLOL 183; +WeissLX II. 40; Wieseler, _Synop_. 212 ff, who find indication that the +journey was in December. EdersLJM I. 419f.; Turner in HastBD I. 408, find +indication of early summer. Some treat iv. 35 as a proverb with no +chronological significance; so Alford, _Comm. on John_. + +39. Geographical notes. _Aenon_ near Salim has not been identified. Most +favor a site in Samaria, seven miles from a place named Salim, which lay +four miles E of Shechem, see Conder, _Tent Work in Palestine_, II. 57, 58; +Stevens, Jour. Bib. Lit. 1883, 128-141. But can John have been baptizing +in Samaria? WeissLX II. 28 says "it is perfectly impossible that he [John] +can have taken up his station in Samaria." Other suggestions are: some +place in the Jordan valley (but then why remark on the abundance of water, +Jn. iii. 23?); near Jerusalem; and in the south of Judea. See AndLOL +173-175. _Sychar_ is the modern 'Askar, about a mile and three-quarters +from Nablus (Shechem), and half a mile N of Jacob's well. See SmithHGHL +367-375. + +40. General questions. _Was the temple twice cleansed?_ (see sect. 116). +Probably not. The two reports (Jn. ii. 13-22; Mk. xi. 15-18 ¶s) are +similar in respect of Jesus' indignation, its cause, its expression, its +result, and a consequent challenge of his authority. They differ in the +time of the event (John assigns to first Passover, synoptics to the last) +and in a possibly greater sternness in the synoptic account. These +differences are no greater than appear in other records of identical +events (compare Mt. viii. 5-13 with Lk. vii. 2-10), while the repetition +of such an act would probably have been met by serious opposition. If the +temple was cleansed but once, John indicates the true time. At the +beginning of the ministry it was a demand that the people follow the new +leader in the purification of God's house and the establishment of a truer +worship. At the end it could have had only a vindictive significance, +since the people had already signified to the clear insight of Jesus that +they would not accept his leadership. For two distinct cleansings see the +discussion in AndLOL 169f., 437; EdersLJM I. 373; Plummer on Luke xix. +45f. For one cleansing at the end see KeimJN V. 113-131. For one cleansing +at the beginning see WeissLX II. 6 ff.; BeysLJ II. 149 ff.; GilbertLJ 159 +ff. + +41. _The journey to Galilee_. Do John (iv. 1-4, 43-45) and Mark (i. 14 = +Mt. iv. 12; Lk. iv. 14) report the same journey? Both are journeys from +the south introducing work in Galilee; yet the reasons given for the +journey are different (compare Jn. iv. 1-3 with Mk. i. 14). If the +Pharisees had a hand in John's "delivering up" (Mk. i. 14; comp. Jos. Ant. +xviii. 5. 2), the same hostile movement may have impelled Jesus to leave +Judea. He may not have heard of John's imprisonment until after his +departure, or some time before he opened his new ministry in Galilee. See +GilbertLJ 173f. AndLOL 176-182 argues against the identification. + +42. _The nobleman's son_ (Jn. iv. 46-54). Is this a doublet of Mt. viii. +5-13; Lk. vii. 2-10? John differs from synoptics in the time, the place, +the disease, the suppliant, his plea, and Jesus' attitude. Matthew and +Mark differ from each other concerning the bearers of the centurion's +messages to Jesus. John's account is similar to synoptic superficially, +but is probably not a doublet. Compare Syro-PhÅ“nician's daughter (Mk. vii. +29f.). See GilbertLJ 202; Meyer on John iv. 51-54; Plummer on Luke vii. +10. WeissLX II. 45-51 identifies. Read SandayHastBD II. 613. + + + +III and IV + +The Ministry in Galilee + +43. Read SandayHastBD II. 613-630; GilbertLJ 180-283. Consult WeissLX II. +44 to III. 153; EdersLJM I. 472 to II. 125; BeysLJ II. 140-147,168-294. +See AndLOL 209-363 for discussion of details, and KeimJN III. 10 to IV. +346 for an illuminating, though not unprejudiced, topical treatment. + +44. Geographical notes. _Capernaum_. The site is not clearly identified, +two ruins on the NW of Sea of Galilee are rival claimants,--Tell Hum and +Khan Minyeh. Tell Hum is advocated by Thomson, _Land and Book, Central +Pal. and PhÅ“nicia_ (1882), 416-420; Khan Minyeh, by SmithHGHL 456, EnBib +I. 696 ff. Latter is probably correct. See AndLOL 224-237. + +_Bethsaida_. The full name is Bethsaida Julias, located at entrance of +Jordan into the Sea of Galilee. SmithEnBib I. 565f., SmithHGHL +457f., shows that there is no need of the hypothesis of a second Bethsaida +to meet the statement in Mk. vi. 45, or that in Jn. i. 44. See also AndLOL +230-236. Ewing HastBD I. 282f. renews the argument for two Bethsaidas. + +_Chorazin_ was probably the modern Kerazeh, about one mile N of Tell Hum, +and back from the lake. See SmithEnBib I. 751; SmithHGHL 456; +AndLOL 237f. + +45. _The mountain of the sermon on the mount_ (Mt. v. 1; Lk. vi. 12) +probably refers to the Galilean highlands as distinct from the shore of +the lake. More definite location is not possible. See AndLOL 268f.; +EdersLJM I. 524. The traditional site, the Horns of Hattin, is a hill +lying about seven miles SW from Khan Minyeh, which has near the top a +level place (Lk. vi. 17) flanked by two low peaks or "horns." + +46. _The country of the Gerasenes, Gadarenes, or Gergesenes_. Gadarenes is +the best attested reading in Mt. viii. 28, Gerasenes in Mk. v. 1 and Lk. +viii. 26; Gergesenes has only secondary attestation. Gadara is identified +with Um Keis on the Yarmuk, some six miles SE of the Sea of Galilee. This +cannot have been the site of the miracle, though it is possible that +Gadara may have controlled the country round about, including the shores +of the sea. Gerasa is the name of a city in the highlands of Gilead, +twenty miles E of Jordan, and thirty-five SE of the Sea of Galilee, and +it clearly cannot have been the scene of the miracle. Near the E shore of +the sea Thomson discovered the ruins of a village which now bears the name +Khersa. The formation of the land in the neighborhood closely suits the +narrative of the gospels. This is now accepted as the true identification. +See Thomson _Land and Book, Central Palestine_, 353-355; SBD^2 1097-1100; +HastBD II. 159f.; AndLOL 296-300. The name "Gadarenes" may indicate that +Gadara had jurisdiction over the region of Khersa; the names "Gerasenes" +and "Gergesenes" may be derived directly and independently from Khersa, or +may be corruptions due to the obscurity of Khersa. + +47. _The feeding of the five thousand_ took place on the E of the sea, in +a desert region, abundant in grass, and mountainous, and located in the +neighborhood of a place named Bethsaida. Near the ruins of Bethsaida +Julias is a plain called now Butaiha, "a smooth, grassy place near the sea +and the mountains," which meets the requirements of the narrative. See +AndLOL 322f. + +48. _The return of Jesus from the regions of Tyre "through Sidon"_ (Mk. +vii. 31) avoided Galilee, crossing N of Galilee to the territory of Philip +and "_the Decapolis_." This latter name applies to a group of free Greek +cities, situated for the most part E of the Jordan. Most of the cities of +the group were farther S than the Sea of Galilee; some, however, were E +and NE of that sea, hence Jesus' approach from Cæsarea Philippi or +Damascus could be described as "through Decapolis." See SmithHGHL 593-608; +En Bib I. 1051 ff.; SchürerJPTX II. i. 94-121. + +49. Of _Magadan_ (Mt. xv. 39) or _Dalmanutha_ (Mk. viii. 10) all that is +known is that they must have been on the W coast of the Sea of Galilee. +They have never been identified, though there are many conjectures. See +SBD^2, HastBD, and En Bib. + +50. _Cæsarea Philippi_ was situated at the easternmost and most important +of the sources of the Jordan, it is called Panias by Jos. Ant. xv. 10.3, +now Banias. Probably a sanctuary of the god Pan. Here Herod the Great +built a temple which he dedicated to Cæsar; Philip the Tetrarch enlarged +the town and called it Cæsarea Philippi. See SBD^2; HastBD; EnBib. + +51. _The mountain of the transfiguration_. The traditional site, since the +fourth century, is Tabor in Galilee. Most recent opinion has favored one +of the shoulders of Hermon, owing to the supposed connection of the event +with the sojourn near Cæsarea Philippi. WeissLX III. 98 points out that +there is no evidence that Jesus lingered for "six days" (Mk. ix. 2) near +that town, and that therefore the effort to locate the transfiguration is +futile. GilbertLJ 274 thinks that Mk. ix. 30 is decisive in favor of a +place outside Galilee; he therefore holds to the common view that Hermon +is the true locality. See AndLOL 357f. + +52. General questions. _Was Jesus twice rejected at Nazareth?_ (comp. Lk. +iv. 16-30 with Mk. vi. 1-6^a; Mt. xiii. 54-58). Here are two accounts that +read like independent traditions of the same event; they agree concerning +the place, the teaching in the synagogue on the Sabbath, the astonishment +of the Nazarenes, their scornful question, and Jesus' rejoinder. Luke +makes no reference to the disciples (Mk. vi. 1) nor to the working of +miracles (Mk. vi. 5); Matthew and Mark, on the other hand, say nothing of +an attempt at violence. These differences are no more serious, however, +than appear in the two accounts of the appeal of the centurion to Jesus +(Mt. viii. 5-8; Lk. vii. 3-7). Moreover, Lk. iv. 23 indicates a time after +the ministry in Capernaum had won renown, which agrees with the place +given the rejection in Mark. The general statement (Lk. iv. 14f.) suggests +that the visit to Nazareth is given at the beginning as an instance of +"preaching in their synagogues." The three accounts probably refer to one +event reported independently. For identification see WeissLX III. 34; +Plummer on Luke iv. 30; GilbertLJ 254f. For two rejections see Godet's +supplementary note on Lk. iv. 16-30; Meyer on Mt. xiii. 53-58; EdersLJM I. +457, note 1; Wieseler, _Synopsis_, 278. BeysLJ I. 270 identifies but +prefers Luke's date. + +53. _Were there two miraculous draughts of fish?_ Lk. v. 1-11 is sometimes +identified with Jn. xxi. 3-13. So WendtLJ I. 211f., WeissLX II. 57f., and +Meyer on Luke v. 1-11. Against the identification see Alford, Godet, and +Plummer on the passage in Luke. The two are alike in scene, the night of +bootless toil, the great catch at Jesus' word. They differ in personnel, +antecedent relations of the fishermen with Jesus, the effect of the +miracle on Peter, and the subsequent teaching of Jesus, as well as in +time. These differences make identification difficult. + +54. _Where in the synoptic story should the journey to the feast in +Jerusalem_ (Jn. v.) _be placed?_ There is nothing in John's narrative to +identify the feast, although it is his custom to name the festivals to +which he refers (Passover, ii. 13, 23; vi. 4; xi. 55; xii. 1; Tabernacles, +vii. 2; Dedication, x. 22). Even if John wrote "the feast," rather than "a +feast" (the MSS. vary, A B D and seven other uncials omit the article), it +would be impossible to decide between Passover and Tabernacles. The +omission of the article suggests either that the feast was of minor +importance, or that its identification was of no significance for the +understanding of the following discourse. Since a year and four months +probably elapsed between the journey into Galilee (Jn. iv. 35) and the +next Passover mentioned in John (vi. 4), v. 1 may refer to any one of the +feasts of the Jewish year. The commonest interpretation prefers Purim, a +festival of a secular and somewhat hilarious type, which occurred on the +14th and 15th of Adar, a month before the Passover. It is difficult to +believe that this feast would have called Jesus to Jerusalem. See WeissLX +II. 391; GilbertLJ 137-139, 142, 234-235. Against this interpretation see +EdersLJM II. 765. Edersheim advocates the feast of Wood Gathering on the +15th of Ab--about our August. On this day all the people were permitted to +offer wood for the use of the altar in the temple, while during the rest +of the year the privilege was reserved for special families. See LJM II +765f.; Westcott, _Comm. on John_, add. note on v. 1, argues for the feast +of Trumpets, or the new moon of the month Tisri,--about our +September,--which was celebrated as the beginning of the civil year. +Others have suggested Pentecost, fifty days after the Passover; the day of +Atonement--but this was a fast, not a feast; and Tabernacles. The majority +of those who do not favor Purim prefer the Passover, notwithstanding the +difficulty of thinking that John would refer to this feast simply as "a +feast of the Jews." Read AndLOL 193-198, remembering that the question +must be considered independently of the question of the length of Jesus' +ministry. The impossibility of determining the feast renders the +adjustment of this visit to the synoptic story very uncertain. It may be +that there was some connection between the Sabbath controversy in Galilee +(Mk. ii. 23-28) and the criticism Jesus aroused in Jerusalem (Jn. v.). If +so, one of the spring feasts, Passover or Pentecost, would best suit the +circumstances; but this arrangement is quite uncertain. + +55. _Do the five conflicts of Mk. ii. 1 to iii. 6 belong at the early +place in the ministry of Jesus to which that gospel assigns them_? It is +commonly held that they do not, and the argument for a two-year ministry +rests on this assumption (see SandayHastBD II. 613). Holtzmann, +_Hand-commentar_ I. 9f., remarks that at least for the cure of the +paralytic and for the call and feast of Levi (Mk. ii. 1, 13, 15) the +evangelist was confident that he was following the actual order of events; +note the call of the fifth disciple, Mk. ii. 13, between the call of the +four, Mk. i. 16-20, and that of the twelve, iii. 16-19. The question about +fasting may owe its place (Mk. ii. 18-22) to association with the +criticism of Jesus for eating with publicans (Mk. ii. 16). In like manner +the second Sabbath conflict (Mk. iii. 1-6) may be attached to the first +(ii. 23-28) as a result of the identity of subject, for it is noteworthy +that Mark records only these two Sabbath conflicts; moreover, the plot of +Herodians and Pharisees to kill Jesus strongly suggests a later time for +the actual occurrence of this criticism. The first Sabbath question, +however, may belong early, as Mark has placed it. Weiss, Markusevangelium, +76, LX II. 232 ff., places these conflicts late. Edersheim, LJM II. 51 +ff., discusses the Sabbath controversies after the feeding of the +multitudes. RévilleJN II. 229 places the first of them early. + +56. _The sermon on the mount._ Luke (vi. 12-19 = Mk. iii. +13-19^a indicates the place in the Galilean ministry; Matthew +has therefore anticipated in assigning it to the beginning. The identity +of the two sermons (Mt. v. 1 to vii. 27; Lk. vi. 20-49) is shown by the +fact that each begins with beatitudes, each closes with the parables of +the wise and foolish builders, each is followed by the cure of a +centurian's servant in Capernaum (Mt. viii. 5-13; Lk. vii. 1-10), and the +teachings which are found in each account are given in the same order. +Matthew is much fuller than Luke, many teachings given in the sermon in +Matthew being found in later contexts in Luke. Much of the sermon in +Matthew, however, evidently belonged to the original discourse, and was +omitted by Luke, perhaps because of less interest to Gentile than to +Jewish Christians. The following sections are found elsewhere in Luke, and +were probably associated with the sermon by the first evangelist: Mt. v. +25, 26; Lk. xii. 58, 59; Mt. vi. 9-13; Lk. xi. 2-4; Mt. vi. 19-34; Lk. +xii. 21-34; xi. 34-36; xvi. 13; Mt. vii. 7-11; Lk. xi. 9-13; Mt. vii. 13, +14; Lk. xiii. 24. The first evangelist's habit of grouping may explain +also the presence in his sermon of teachings which he himself has +duplicated later, thus: Mt. v. 29, 30 = xviii. 8,9; v. 32 = xix. 9, comp. +Mk. x. 11, ix. 43-47, Lk. xvi. 18; Mt. vi. 14, 15 = Mk. xi. 25. Matthew +vii. 22, 23 has the character of the teachings which follow the confession +at Cæsarea Phillipi, and is quite unlike the other early teachings. It may +belong to the later time, for it was natural for the early Christians to +associate together teachings which the Lord uttered on widely separated +occasions. The sermon as originally given may be analyzed as follows: The +privileges of the heirs of the kingdom of God, Mt. v. 3-13; Lk. vi. 20-26; +their responsibilities, Mt. v. 13-16; the relation of the new to the old, +Mt. v. 17-19; the text of the discourse, Mt. v. 20; the new conception of +morality, Mt. v. 21-48; Lk. vi. 27-36; the new practice of religion, Mt. +vi. 1-8, 16-18; warning against a censorious spirit, Mt. vii. 16-20; Lk. +vi. 43-46; the wise and foolish builders, Mt. vii. 24-27; Lk. vi. 47-49. + +57. _The discourse in parables._ Matthew gives seven parables at this +point (xiii.), Mark (iv. 1-34) has three, one of them is not given in +Matthew, Luke (viii. 4-18) gives in this connection but one,--the Sower. +Many think that the Tares of Matthew (xiii. 24-30, 36-43) is a doublet of +Mark's Seed growing secretly (iv. 26-29); so Weiss LX II. 209 note, +against which view see WendtLJ I. 178 f., and Bruce, _Parabolic Teaching +of Xt_, 119. Matthew has probably made here a group of parables, as in +chapters v. to vii. he has made a group of other teachings. The +interpretation of the Tares, and of the Draw-net (xiii. 40-43, 49, 50), +may indicate that these parables were spoken after Jesus began to teach +plainly concerning the end of the world (Mk. viii. 31 to ix. 1), Luke +gives the Mustard Seed and Leaven in another connection (xiii. 18-21), and +it may be that Matthew has taken them out of their true context to +associate them with the other parables of his group; yet in popular +teaching it must be recognized that illustrations are most likely to be +repeated in different situations. On the parables see Goebel, _The +Parables of Jesus_ (1890), Bruce, _The Parabolic Teaching of Christ_, 3d +ed. (1886), Jülicher, _Die Gleichnissreden Jesu_ (2 vols. 1899), and the +commentaries on the gospels. + +58. _The instructions to the twelve_. Mt. ix. 36 to xi. 1. x. 1, 5-14 +corresponds in general with Mk. vi. 7-11; Lk. ix. 1-5. The similarity is +closer, however, between x. 7-15 and Lk. x. 3-12--the instructions to the +seventy (see sect. A 68). The rest of Mt. x. (16-42) is paralleled by +teachings found in the closing discourses in the synoptic gospels, and in +teachings preserved in the section peculiar to Luke (ix. 51 to xviii. 14. +See SB sects. 88-92, footnotes). It is probable that here the first +evangelist has made a group of instructions to disciples gathered from all +parts of the Lord's teachings; such a collection was of great practical +value in the early time of persecution. + +59. _Did Jesus twice feed the multitudes_? All the gospels record the +feeding of the five thousand (Mt. xiv. 13-23; Mk. vi. 30-46; Lk. ix. +10-17; Jn. vi. 1-15), Matthew (xv. 32-38) and Mark (viii. 1-9) give also +the feeding of the four thousand. The similarities are so great that the +two accounts would be regarded as doublets if they occurred in different +gospels. The difficulty with such an identification is chiefly the +reference which in both Matthew (xvi. 9, 10) and Mark (viii. 19, 20) Jesus +is said to have made to the two feedings. The evangelists clearly +distinguished the two. In view of this fact the differences between the +accounts become important. These concern the occasion of the two miracles, +the number fed, the nationality of the multitudes (compare Jn. vi. 31 and +Mk. vii. 31), the number of loaves and of baskets of broken pieces (the +name for basket is different in the two cases, and is preserved +consistently in Mk. viii. 19, 20; Mt. xvi. 9, 10). See GilbertLJ 259-262, +Gould, and Swete, on Mk. viii. 1-9; Meyer, Alford, on Mt. xv. 32-38. +WeissLX II. 376f., BeysLJ I. 279f., WendtLJ I. 42, Holtzmann _Hand-comm._ +I. 186 ff., identify the accounts. See also SandayHastBD II. 629. + +60. _Did Peter twice confess faith in Jesus as Messiah_? Synoptics give +his confession at Cæesarea Philippi (Mk. viii. 27-30; Mt. xvi. 13-20; Lk. +ix. 18-21). John, however, gives a confession earlier at Capernaum (vi. +66-71). WeissLX III. 53 identifies the two, placing that in John at +Cæsarea Philippi, since there is no evidence that all of the long +discourse of Jn. vi. was spoken in Capernaum the day after the feeding of +the five thousand. This may be correct, yet the marked recognition which +Jesus gave to the confession at Cæsarea Philippi does not demand that he +first at that time received a confession of his disciples' faith. The +confession in Jn. vi. 68, 69 declared that the twelve were not shaken in +their faith by the recent defection of many disciples. At Cæsarea Philippi +the confession was made after the revulsion of popular feeling had been +made fully evident, and after the twelve had had time for reaction of +enthusiasm consequent upon the growing coldness of the multitudes and +active opposition of the leaders. The confession of Cæsarea Philippi holds +its unique significance, whether or not Jn. vi. 68 is identified with it. + +61. _The journey to Tabernacles_ (Jn. vii.). Where in the synoptic story +should it be placed? Lk. ix. 51 ff. records the final departure from +Galilee. The journey of Jn. vii. is the last journey from Galilee given in +John. Yet the two are very different. In John, Jesus went in haste, +unpremeditatedly, in secret, and unaccompanied, and confronted the people +with himself unexpectedly during the feast. In Luke (Mk. x. 1 and Mt. xix. +1 are so general that they give no aid) he advanced deliberately, with +careful plans, announcing his coming in advance, accompanied by many +disciples, with whom he went from place to place, arriving in Jerusalem +long after he had set out. The two journeys cannot be identified. John +seems to keep Jesus in the south after the Tabernacles, but his account +does not forbid a return to Galilee between Tabernacles and Dedication (x. +22). After the hurried visit to Tabernacles, Jesus probably went back to +Galilee, and gathered his disciples again for the final journey towards +his cross--for the visit to Jerusalem had given fresh evidence of the kind +of treatment he must expect in the capital (Jn. vii. 32, 45-52; viii. 59). +See AndLOL 369-379. Andrews suggests that the feast occurred before the +withdrawal to Cæsarea Philippi (376); this is possible, but it seems more +natural to place it during the sojourn in Capernaum after the return from +the north (Mk. ix. 33-50). See SB, sects. 82-85. + +62. On the phenomena and interpretation of _Demoniac Possession_ see J. L. +Nevius, _Demon Possession and allied Themes_; Conybeare, Jew. Quar. Rev. +VIII. (1896) 576-608, IX. (1896-7) 59-114, 444-470, 581-603; J. Weiss in +_Reälencyklopädie_,^3 Hauck-Herzog, IV. 408-419; Binet, _Alterations of +Personality_, 325-356; James, _Psychology, _ I. 373-400; and the articles +on DEMONS in EnBib and HastBD. + + +The Journey through Perea to Jerusalem + +63. Read SandayHastBD II. 630-632; see GilbertLJ 298-310: WeissLX III. +157-223; KeimJN V, 1-64; BeysLJ I. 287-294. II. 333-419; AndLOL 365-420; +EdersLJM II. 126-360. + +64. This journey began sometime between Tabernacles and Dedication +(October and December) of the last year of Jesus' life, and continued +until the arrival in Bethany six days before the last Passover. + +65. Geographical notes. _Perea_--a part of the domain of Antipas--was the +Jewish territory E of the Jordan. Its northern limit seems to have been +marked by Pella (Jos. Wars, iii 3. 3) or Gadara (Wars, iv. 7. 3), and its +E boundary was marked by Philadelphia (Ant. xx. 1. 1); it extended S to +the domain of Aretas, king of Arabia. The population was mixed, though +predominatingly Jewish. Cities of the Decapolis, however, lay within the +limits of Perea, and introduced Greek life and ideas to the people. On the +highlands back from the Jordan it was a fertile and well populated land. +See SmithHGHL 539f.; SchürerJPTX II. i. 2-4. + +66. On _Bethany and Jericho_ see BDs and, for the latter, SmithHGHL 266 +ff. + +67. _Ephraim_, (John xi. 54) is generally identified with the Ephron of +II. Chron. xiii. 19 (Jos. Wars, iv. 9. 9). Robinson located it at et +Taiyibeh, 4 m. NE of Bethel, and 14 from Jerusalem. See HastBD l. 728; +SBD^2 975. + +68. General questions. _The mission of the seventy_. Luke records two +missions, that of the twelve (ix. 1-6), and that of the seventy (x. 1-24). +Many regard these as doublets, similar to the two feedings in Mark. So +WeissLX II. 307 ff., BeysLJ I. 275, WendtLJ I. 84f. In favor of this +conclusion emphasis is given to the fact that in Jewish thought seventy +symbolized the nations of the world as twelve symbolized Israel. It is +suggested that in his search for full records Luke came upon an account of +the mission of disciples which had already been modified in the interests +of Gentile Christianity, and failing to recognize its identity with the +account of the mission furnished by Mark, he added it in his peculiar +section. The similarity of the instructions given follows from the nature +of the case. A second sending out of disciples is suitable in view of the +entrance into a region hitherto unvisited. As Dr. Sanday has remarked, the +sayings connected by Luke with this mission bear witness to the +authenticity of the account. There is therefore no need to identify the +two missions. See particularly SandayHastBD II. 614, also GilbertLJ +226-230, Plummer's _Comm. on Luke_, 269 ff. Luke probably gives the +correct place for the thanksgiving, self-declaration, and invitation of +Jesus, in which the synoptists approach most nearly to the thought of John +(Lk. x. 21, 22; Mt. xi. 25-30). The return of the seventy (Lk. x. 17-20) +followed the woes addressed to the unbelieving cities (Lk. x. 13-16; Mt. +xi. 20-24). + +69. _The destination of the seventy_. It is customary to think of them as +sent to the various cities of Perea (see AndLOL 381-383). Were it not for +the words "whither he himself was about to come" (Lk. x. I), it would be +natural to conclude that they were sent E to Gerasa and Philadelphia, and +S to the regions of the Dead Sea. If John's account is accepted, Jesus +spent not a little time of the interval between his departure from Galilee +and his final arrival in Bethany in and near Jerusalem. It may be that +after the withdrawal from the Dedication he went far into the Perean +districts. But John x. 40 is against it. The question must be left +unanswered. The messengers may have visited places in all parts of +Palestine. + + +VI + +The Controversies of the Last Week + +70. See GilbertLJ 311-335; WeissLX III. 224-270; AndLOL 421-450; KeimJN V. +65-275; BeysLJ II. 422-434; EdersLJM II. 363-478; SandayHastBD II 632f. + +71. _The supper at Bethany_. John is definite, "six days before the +passover" (xii. I). Synoptists place it after the day of controversy, on +the Wednesday preceding the Passover (Mk. xiv. I, 3-9; Mt. xxvi. 2, 6-13). +John is probably correct. The rebuke of Judas (Jn. xii. 4-8) was probably +associated in the thought of the disciples with his later treachery; +consequently the synoptists report the plot of Judas and this supper in +close connection. + +72. _The Messianic entry into Jerusalem_ is regarded by Réville as a +surrender by Jesus of his lofty Messianic ideal in response to the +temptation to seek a popular following. Keim with finer insight says, +"Even if it had certainly been his wish to bring the kingdom of heaven +near in Jerusalem quietly and gradually, and with a healthy mental +progress, as in Galilee, yet ... in the face of the irritability of his +opponents, in the face of the powerful means at their disposal of crushing +him ... there remained but one chance,--reckless publicity, the conquest +of the partially prepared nation by means, not of force, but of idea.... +He came staking his life upon the venture, but also believing that God +must finish his work through life or death" (JN V. 100f.). + +73. _The question about the resurrection_ was probably a familiar +Sadducean problem with which they made merry at the expense of the +scribes. On the resurrection in Jewish thought see Charles, _Eschatology, +Hebrew, Jewish, and Christian_, by index. For the scepticism of the +Sadducees see also Ac. xxiii. 8; Jos. Wars, ii, 8. 14. + +74. On the "_great commandment_" see EdersLJM II. 403 ff. + +75. The eschatological discourse presents serious exegetical difficulties. +Many cut the knot by assuming that Mk. xiii. and ∥s contain a little +Jewish apocalypse written shortly before the destruction of Jerusalem, +which has been blended with genuine predictions of Jesus concerning his +second coming. See Charles, _Eschatology_, 323-. 329; WendtLJ I. 9-21; +HoltzmannNtTH I. 325 ff.; and Bruce's criticism in _Expos. Gk. Test_. I. +287f., also Sanday's note in HastBD II. 635f. + +76. On _the relation of proselytes_ to Judaism see SchürerJPTX II. ii. +291-327. The synagogue in heathen lands drew to itself by its monotheism +and its pure ethics the finest spirits of paganism. But few of them, +however, submitted to circumcision, and became thus proselytes. Most of +them constituted the class of "them that fear God" to whom Paul constantly +appealed in his apostolic mission. The Greeks of Jn. xii. 20 ff. were +probably circumcised proselytes. + +77. On _Judas_ see Plummer in HastBD II. 796 ff.; EdersLJM II. 471-478; +WeissLX III. 285-289; AndLOL by index. De Quincey's essay on _Judas +Iscariot_ is an elaborate defence. + + +VII + +The Last Supper + +78. GilbertLJ 335-354; WeissLX III. 273-318; EdersLJM II. 479-532; AndLOL +450-497; KeimJN V. 275-343; BeysLJ II. 434-448; SandayHastBD II. 633-638. + +79. _The day of the last supper_. John seems clearly to place it on the +day before the Passover--13 Nisan. See xiii. I, 29; xviii. 28; xix. 14, +31, 42. Synoptists as clearly declare that the supper was prepared on the +"first day of unleavened bread, when they sacrificed the Passover" (Mk. +xiv. 12; see also Lk. xxii. 15); this is confirmed by the similarity +between the Passover ritual as tradition has preserved it, and the course +of events at the supper. Unless interpretation can remove the +contradiction, John must have the preference. WeissLX III. 273-282, BeysLJ +II. 390-399, accept John and correct the synoptists by him; thus the +supper anticipated the Passover. Some hold that John can be interpreted +harmoniously with synoptists, and be shown to indicate that the supper was +on the 14th Nisan. So EdersLJM II. 508, 566f., 612f.; AndLOL 452-481; +GilbertLJ 335-339. Others believe that a true interpretation of synoptists +shows that in calling the last supper a Passover they correctly represent +the character, but misapprehend the time, of the meal. For this argument +see Muirhead, _Times of Xt_, 163-169, and read SandayHastBD II. 633-636 +and his references. The debate is still on, but the advantage seems to be +with those who assign the supper to the 13th and the crucifixion to the +14th Nisan. + +80. _Did Jesus institute a memorial sacrament_? Read SandayHastBD II. +636-638, and Thayer, in Jour. Bib. Lit. 1899, 110-131; see also +McGiffert, _Apostolic Age_, 68 ff. note; HoltzmannNtTh I. 296-304. + +81. _The Passover ritual_. The order according to the rabbis was the +following: the first cup of wine and water was taken by the leader, who +gave thanks over it, and then it was shared by all (compare Lk. xxii. 17); +then the head of the company washed his hands--Dr. Edersheim connects with +this the washing of the disciples' feet, which changed the ceremony from +an act of distinction into one of humble service; after this the dishes +were brought on the table, then the leader dipped some of the bitter herbs +into salt water or vinegar, spoke a blessing, and partook of them, then +handed them to each of the company; then one of the loaves of unleavened +bread was broken; after this a second cup was filled, and before it was +drunk the significance of the Passover was explained by the leader in +reply to a question by the youngest of the company, after which the first +part of the Hallel (Ps. cxiii., cxiv.) was sung, and then the cup was +drunk; then followed the supper itself beginning with "the sop,"--a piece +of the paschal lamb, a piece of unleavened bread, and bitter herbs, +wrapped together and dipped in the vinegar,--which was passed around the +company (compare the sop which Jesus gave to Judas); after the supper came +a third cup, known as "the cup of blessing" (see I. Cor. x. 16); then +followed grace after meat; then a fourth cup, in connection with which the +remainder of the Hallel was sung (Ps. cxv. to cxviii.), followed by +certain other songs and prayers. See EdersLJM II. 496-512; AndLOL 488-494. + +82. _The washing of the disciples' feet_. John (xiii. 1-11) says this +occurred "during supper" (v. 2), and before the designation of the +traitor. Luke (xxii. 23-30) tells of a dispute about greatness among the +disciples. This dispute may have arisen over the assignment of places at +table (compare Lk. xiv. 7 ff.; Mk. x. 33-45); if so, the reason for the +lesson in humility is apparent. See AndLOL 482-484; EdersLJM II. 492-503. + +83. _Did Jesus twice predict Peter's denials_? Mark (xiv. 26-31) and +Matthew (xxvi. 30-35) place the prediction after the departure for +Gethsemane; Luke (xxii. 31-34) and John (xiii. 36-38), during the supper. +AndLOL 494 ff. thinks Peter was warned twice, EdersLJM. II. 535-537 holds +to one warning on the way to Gethsemane. Antecedent probability favors +this view. + +84. _Where in John should the institution of the sacrament be placed_? +Probably after the departure of Judas (Mark xiv. 21f.; Matt. xxvi. 26), +thus not before xiii. 30. The most likely place is between, verses 32 and +33. There is no break at this point, and it remains a mystery why John's +account of the passion omitted this central feature of early Christian +belief and practice. The omission argues for rather than against apostolic +authorship, as a forger would not have ventured to disregard the leading +service of the church in an account of the life of its Lord. See Westcott, +_Comm. on John_, 188. + +85. On the possible _disarrangement of the last discourses_ (xiii. 31 to +xvi. 33) in our text of John see Spitta, _Urchristentum_, I. 168-193; +Bacon, Jour. Bib. Lit. 1894, 64-76; Burton, Bib. Wld. 1899 I. 32. + + +VIII + +The Shadow of the Cross + +86. See GilbertLJ 354-384; AndLOL 497-588; WeissLX III. 319-381; BeysLJ I. +390-432, II. 448-473; EdersLJM II. 533-620; KeimJN VI. 1-274; SandayHastBD +II. 632f. + +87. On the location of _Gethsemane and Golgotha_ see AndLOL 499f., +575-588; and HastBD II. 164, 226f. + +88. On the progress of _Jesus' trial by the Jewish authorities, _ see +AndLOL 505-516; GilbertLJ 359-363. The _legality of the trial_ has been +carefully discussed by A. T. Innes, _The Trial of Jesus Christ_. + +89. On the form and sequence of _Peter's denials_, see Westcott, _Comm. +on John_, 263-266; AndLOL 516-521. + +90. The _Words from the Cross_. Matthew (xxvii. 46) and Mark (xv. 34) +report one; Luke (xxiii. 34?, 43, 46) adds three, omitting the one found +in Matthew and Mark; John adds three more (xix. 26f., 28, 30). Luke xxiii. +34 is bracketed by Westcott and Hort because omitted by a very important +group of MSS. ([Hebrew: aleph]^aBD*) and some early versions. The saying +is almost certainly authentic, though it may have been added to Luke by +some early copyist. See Westcott and Hort, _N.T. in Greek_, II. Appendix, +68; and Plummer, _Comm. on Luke_, 544f. + + +IX + +The Resurrection and Ascension + +91. Read SandayHastBD II. 638-643; see KeimJK VI. 274-383, for a still +valid criticism of the position of RévilleJN II. 428-478; see also WeissLX +III. 382-409; BeysLJ I. 433-481, II. 474-493; BovonNTTh I. 350-375; +GilbertLJ 385-405; Loofs, _Die Auferstehungsberichte und ihr Wert_; +EdersLJM II. 621-652; AndLOL 589-639. + +92. The last twelve verses of Mark (xvi. 9-20) are omitted by the oldest +MSS ([Hebrew: aleph]B) and by the recently discovered Sinaitic Syriac, as +well as by other versions and fathers. An Armenian MS. has been found +ascribing the section to one Ariston, or Aristion, a second century elder, +and this explanation of the origin of the verses is widely accepted. The +gospel cannot have ended with the words "for they were afraid," but no +satisfactory explanation of the condition of its text has been found. For +a recent hypothesis see Rohrbach, _Der Schluss des Markusevangeliums_; on +Aristion as the author, see Conybeare in Expos. IV. viii. (1893) 241, IV. +x. 219, V. ii. 401; see also SandayHastBD II. 638f., Bruce, _Expos. Gk. +Test_. I. 454f. For discussion of textual evidence see Westcott and Hort, +_NT in Greek_, II. Appendix, 28-51, and Burgon, _The last twelve verses +of St. Mark_ (a passionate defence). + +Luke xxiv. 51 is omitted by [Hebrew: aleph]*D and several old Latin MSS. +See Plummer and Bruce on the passage. + +93. "_After three days_." This formula, which appears often in Mark, is +altered in parallels in Matthew and Luke to "on the third day" (see +Concordance). Jesus died on Friday, lay in the tomb over Saturday, and +rose very early Sunday morning. Thus he spent a part of Friday, and a part +of Sunday, and all of Saturday in the grave. According to Jewish reckoning +this was counted three days. + +94. _Emmaus_. A village about 60 furlongs from Jerusalem. Cannot have been +the Emmaus in the Shephelah, 20 m. from Jerusalem. May have been el +Kubeibeh, 63 furlongs distant on the road from Jerusalem to Lydda. See +AndLOL 617-619; but also HastBD I. 700. + + + + +Part III.--The Minister + + +I + +The Friend of Men + +95. Head Mathews, _The Social Teachings of Jesus, _ especially 132-174; +see also Robinson, _The Saviour in the Newer Light_, 343 ff. + + +II + +The Teacher with Authority + +96. See WendtTJ I. 106-151; Stevens, _Theol. of the N.T._ 1-16; Beyschlag, +_N.T. Theology, I_. 31-34. In particular on the Parables see references in +sect. A 56. On the content of Jesus' teaching see WendtTJ 2 vols.; +Dalman, _Die Worte Jesu; Stevens, Theol. of the N.T._ 17-244; Beyschlag, +_N.T. Theol_. I. 27-299; Mathews, _Social Teaching of Jesus_; Gilbert, +_The Revelation of Jesus_; Bruce, _The Kingdom of God_. + + +III + +Jesus' Knowledge of Truth + +97. Adamson, _The Mind in Christ_; GilbertRJ 169f., 240-242; Schwartzkopf, +_The Prophecies of Jesus Christ_. + + +IV + +Jesus' Conception of Himself + +98. BaldSJ 125-282; Stalker, _Christology of Jesus_, HoltzmannNtTh I. +234-304; WendtTJ II. 122-183; GilbertRJ 167-228; Stevens, _Theol. of the +N.T._ 41-64, 199-212. On the title "Son of Man" see particularly DalmanWJ +I. 191-219; Charles, _Eschatology_, 214f. note; against, A. Meyer, _Jesu +Muttersprache_, 91-101, and others. See also HoltzmannNtTh I. +246-264. On the name "Son of God," see Dalman WJ I. 219-237; Holtzmann +NtTh I. 265-278; Stalker, _Christology_, 86-123; Gilbert, as above. On the +personal religion of Jesus see Burton, Bib. Wld. 1899, II. 394-403. For +the total impression of the character of Jesus, read Bushnell, _The +Character of Jesus_. + + + + +Indexes + + + + +Index of Names and Subjects + + + +[References are to pages.] + + +Ænon, site of, 288. +"After three days," 307. +Agrapha, 36, 149, 281. +Andrew, of Bethsaida, 92, 94, 118. +Angels, doctrine of, 10. +Annas, 191, 193, 194. +Antipas, 4, 192. +Apocalypse, 17f., 122, 124, 241. +Apocryphal gospels, 37, 281, 282. +Archelaus, 4, 5. +Aristion, author of Mark xvi. 9-20, 204f., 306f. +Assumption of Moses, 75 + +Baptism of John, see _John the Baptist_. +Baptism of Jesus, 83-86, 283f. +Barabbas, 174, 192. +Bethany beyond Jordan, 92, 284. +Bethany, supper at, 169, 301. +Bethsaida, site of, 290. +Books of reference, 273-277. +Brethren of Jesus, 63f., 283. + +Cæsarea Philippi;, 4, 291. + confession at, see _Peter_. +Caiaphas, 191, 193, 194. +Cana of Galilee, 95, 222, 286. +Cananeans or Zealots, party of, 11, 74. +Capernaum, site of, 290. +Census under Quirinius, 11, 52-55. +Chorazin, site of, 290. + +Dalmanutha, 291. +Dalmanutha, Books of, 17f., 241, 254f. +Decapolis, the, 140, 291. +Dedication, feast of, 150, 154. +Demoniac possession, 131-133, 245-248, 299. +Devout, the, 13, 17. +Diatessaron of Tatian, 38, 47, 281. +Doublets, 44, 281. +Draughts of fish, miraculous, 293. + +Emmaus, site of, 307. +Enoch, Book of, 241, 256-258. +Ephraim, site of, 300. +Essenes, manner of living, 11-12; + their hope of Messiah, 16; + their settlement, 73; + relation to John the Baptist, 73, 77. + +Five thousand, the feeding of, 135f., 291. + +Gadarenes, country of, 247, 290f. +Genealogies of Jesus, 282. +Gethsemane, 177, 186, 188f., 265, 305. +Golgotha, 305. + +Herod the Great, 3; + began to rebuild temple, 49; + census during his reign, 54. +Herod Antipas, 4, 192. +Herodians, 14, 173. + +James, brother of John, 92, 94, 118. +Jesus, language of, 19, 62, 279; + date of birth, 52-56; + the miraculous conception, 58-61; + growth, physical, intellectual, moral, and spiritual, 61-66; + his brothers and sisters, 64; + visit to Jerusalem in his twelfth year, 66-68; + life in Nazareth, 68f.; + his baptism, 83-86; + his temptation, 86-91; + his first disciples, 92-95; + at Cana, 95; + his social friendliness, 96, 219f.; + the cleansing of the temple, 108-110; + talk with Nicodemus, 111; + the woman of Samaria, 112; + cure of nobleman's son, 113; + in retirement in Galilee, 113f.; + call of four disciples, 118; + popular enthusiasm and pharisaic opposition, 119-121; + his withdrawals and injunctions of silence, 122 ff.; + blasphemy of the Pharisees, 124; + the reply to John's message, 125; + his twofold aim in Galilee, 126; + his method, 127; + the sermon on the mount, 127f.; + the parables, 128f., 231f., 296f.; + instruction of the twelve, 130, 297; + his mighty works, 131f.; + his personal influence, 133; + the feeding of the five thousand, 135f.; + the revulsion in popular feeling, 136; + the controversy about hand washing, 139; + the withdrawal to the north, 138; + the demand for a sign, 139; + disciples warned against the Pharisees, 139; + the question at Cæsarea Philippi, 141f.; + commendation of Peter, 143; + announcement of approaching death, 144; + rebuke of Peter, 145; + the transfiguration, 146f.; + the epileptic boy, 147; + rebuke of worldly ambition, 147f.; + Jesus and his brethren, 148; + at the feast of Tabernacles, 148; + return to Galilee, 150; + final departure from Galilee, 154; + the mission of the seventy, 158; + visit to the feast of Dedication, 159; + in Perea, 160; + the summons to Bethany, 161f.; + official determination to get rid of him, 161; + at Ephraim, 162; + question about divorce, 154; + blessing little children, 154; + the rich young ruler, 154; + request of Salome, 163; + Bartimeus, 163; + Zacchæus, 163; + anointing at Bethany, 169; + the Messianic entry, 170f.; + the barren fig-tree, 172; + the questions of the leaders, 173f.; + counter question, 175; + denunciation of scribes, 175; + the widow's mites, 176; + visit of the Greeks. 176f.; + the eschatological discourse, 178; + bargain of Judas, 169, 178f.; + the last supper, 181-184; + dispute and foot washing, 184; + withdrawal of Judas, 184; + prediction of Peter's denials, 185; + discourse and prayer, 185-187; + Gethsemane, 188-190; + betrayal and arrest, 190f.; + trial by Jews, 191f.; + trial by Pilate, 192-194; + crucifixion, 195-198; + burial of Jesus, 199; + the resurrection, 201-210; + the ascension, 214f.; + Jesus' attitude to common life, 219-223; + his hunger for sympathy, 223; + Jesus as a teacher, 226f.; + his attitude to Old Testament, 227-229; + his confidence in men, 230f.; + his use of illustration, 231-233; + his alertness of mind, 234; + his leading ideas, 235 ff.; + his supernatural knowledge, 239-244; + his confession of ignorance, 243; + his kinship with men, 244f.; + treatment of demoniac possession, 245-248; + his certainty of his Messianic call, 249-254; + his adoption of Messianic titles, 254-264; + his consciousness of dependence on God, 264-266; + the problem of Jesus, 267-269. +John, Gospel of, 32-36, 40f., 181, 280, 305. +John the Baptist, 70-81; + notice by Josephus, 71f., 279f.; + his idea of the kingdom of God, 73; + his relation to current thought, 73-76; + his baptism, 77f., 83; + baptism of Jesus, 82-84; + the embassy from the priests, 92; + testimony--"the Lamb of God," 93, 286; + baptizing at Ænon, 112; + his self-effacing witness to Jesus, 79, 112; + hostility of the Pharisees, 113, 289; + arrest by Antipas, 71f., 113; + his message to Jesus, 125; + death in prison, 134f.; his significance, 79-81, 226; + the disciples of John, 112, 283; + literature about John, 283. +John, son of Zebedee, 36, 92, 94, 118, 193,269. +John of Gischals, 121. +Joseph of Arimathea, 182, 199. +Josephus, 22; + notice of John the Baptist, 71, 279f. +Judas of Galilee, 11, 121. +Judas the betrayer, 169, 181, 302; + the bargain, 178; + his selection as an apostle, 179; + his criticism of Mary at Bethany, 179; + his kiss, 190; + his remorse, 179. +Judea, province of, 6f. + +Kingdom of God, 68, 86, 90, 173, 190, 231, 232, 235 ff., 238, 241. + +Language used by Jesus, 19, 62, 279. +Last supper, the, 181-187, 303-305. +Lawyers, see _Scribes_. +Length of Jesus' ministry, 45-49. +Literature of the Jews, 18f., 279. +"Logia," ascribed to Matthew, 32, 42, 158. +Luke, Gospel of, 26f., 31f., 280. + +Mark, Gospel of, 25f., 27, 29, 32, 40, 42, 280, 294f.; + last twelve verses of, 204f., 306f. +Mary Magdalene, 134, 208. +Mary, the mother of Jesus, 59; + had other children, 60, 63f., 283. +Matthew, Gospel of, 23 ff., 27, 30f., 32, 280. +Messianic entry into Jerusalem, 170, 301f. +Messianic hope, the, 16-18, 87, 175, 279. +Miracles of Jesus, 96, 267, 286f. +Miraculous birth, the, 57-61, 232. +Mission of the twelve, 130, 297. +Mission of the seventy, 158, 300f. + +Nathanael, of Cana, 92, 94, 286. +Nazareth, the view from, 65f. + rejection at, 292. +Nicodemus, 111, 199. + +Papias, 22, 29, 34, 47, 102, 281. +Parables of Jesus, 128f., 231f., 296f. +Passover, the, 181, 187, 304. +Paul, 21, 36, 201, 206, 268. +Pentateuch, Jesus' references to, 244. +Perea, 104, 153f., 158, 299f. +Peter, 29, 34, 92, 94, 118, 185, 193, 305, 306; + confession of, 136, 142 ff., 297f. +Pharisees, the, 8-10; + attitude to John the Baptist, 82, 113, 289; + their blasphemy, 124, 156; + question about divorce, 154; + about tribute, 173; + about the great commandment, 174, 302. +Philip of Bethsaida, 92, 94, 176. +Philip the tetrarch, 4. +Pliny the younger, 21. +Pontius Pilate, 5, 192, 195. +Priests, the, 7f., 107; + and the temple market, 108. +Proselytes, 78, 176, 302. +Psalms, Jesus' use of the, 244. +Psalms of Solomon, 18, 261. +Publicans, 6, 72, 222. + +Quirinius, census under, 52-55. + +Religion of Jesus, 264 ff., 308. +Resurrection, pharisaic doctrine of, 10, 241; + Sadducean rejection of 10, 174. + +Sadducees, the, 8, 16, 82; + the question about the resurrection, 174, 303; + attitude towards Jesus, 193. +Samaria, 6f. + Jesus' journey through, 112. +Samaritans, how regarded, 14. +Sanhedrin, the great, at Jerusalem, 7, 13, 192. +Scribes, their business, 9; + power in the sanhedrin, 13; + their influence over the religious life, 14; + their hope of a Messiah, 16; + their washings, 78; + chief of them at Jerusalem, 107; + their pride of learning and their bondage to tradition, 228. +Sermon on the mount, 127, 290, 295f. +Signs, essential marks of the Messiah, 95, 131. +Soldiers in Palestine, 6, 72, 191. +Son of Man, the, 124f., 130f., 254-260, 308. +Son of God, the, 260-264, 308. +Star of the wise men, 56. +Suetonius, 21. +Sychar, site of, 288. +Synagogue, the, 14. +Synoptic gospels, 28. +Synoptic problem, 27-32, 279f. + +Tabernacles, feast of, 148, 150, 298f. +Tacitus, 3, 21, 54. +Tatian, 23, 38, 47, 281. +Taxes, Roman, in Judea, 6. +Temple at Jerusalem, 107; + market in 107; + cleansing of, 107, 288f. +Temptation of Jesus, 86-91, 145, 284; + locality of, 285; + source of the record, 90, 285. +Tertullian, 45, 53. +Thomas, 208. +Tiberius, 1, 21, 50. +Traditions of the elders, 9, 15f., 68, 74, 139. +Transfiguration, the, 146f., 292. +Trial of Jesus, the, 191-195, 305. + +Words from the cross, 196 ff., 306. + +Zealots, the, 11, 74, 122, 124. + + + + +Index of Scripture References + + + +Ex. + +iv. 22 261 +xix. 10 78 +xxiv. 1-11 183 + + + +Lev. + +xii. 8 61 +xxiii. 5-11 47 + + + +Num. + +xxiii. 19 254 + + + +Deut. + +vi. 4-9 62 +viii. 3 88 +xviii. 15 92 +xxi. 23 196 + + + +I. Sam. + +ii. 26 61 + + + +I. Kings. + +xvii. 1 72 + + + +II. Kings. + +i. 8 +xvii. 24-41 14 + + + +Ps. + +ii. 7 261 +viii. 4 254 +xxii. 196 +lxxx. 17 254 +lxxxii. 6 261 +ciii. 13 262 +cxiii., cxiv. 304 +cxv. to cxviii. 185, 304 + + + +Isa. + +i. 16 76 +vi. 5 267 +xi. 2 85 +xxxv. 5f. 126 +xlii. 1 85 +li. 2 254 +liii. 96, 239 +liii. 7 93 +lviii. 76 +lxi. 1f. 45, 85, 126 +lxiii. 16 262 + + + +Jer. + +xxxi. 31-34 111, 183 + + + +Ezek. + +ii. 1 254 +xxxiii. 10-20 240 +xxxvi. 25-27 111 + + +Dan. + +vi. 10 107 +vii. 1-14 254 +vii. 13f. 255 +viii. 17 254 + + +Hos. + +i. 10 261 + + +Joel. + +ii. 1-14 76 + + +Micah. + +vi. 8 76 + + +Matt. + +i. 1 to iv. 17 23 +ii. 1, 2 52 +iii. 7 74 +iii. 9 78 +iii. 10-12 82 +iii. 11 77 +iii. 14 82 +iii. 15 83 +iii. 16 285 +iv. 4, 7, 10 228 +iv. 7 89 +iv. 8 90 +iv. 10 90, 145 +iv. 12 101, 102, 106, 289 +iv. 12-17 24, 39, 115 +iv. 12 to xviii. 35 102 +iv. 13 106 +iv. 13-16 115 +iv. 17 118 +iv. 18-22 106, 115 +iv. 18 to xvi. 20 24 +iv. 23 115 +iv. 23-25 115 +v. 1 290 +v. 3-12 296 +v. 13-16 296 +v. 17 83, 228 +v. 17-19 296 +v. 18 238 +v. 20 296 +v. 21-48 228, 296 +v. 25f. 295 +v. 29f. 295 +v. 32 295 +v. 38, 39 250 +v. 45 244 +vi. 1-6 84 +vi. 1-18 64, 296 +vi. 2-4 176 +vi. 9-15 4, 117, 295 +vi. 19-34 103, 295 +vi. 24 179 +vi. 25-34 42 +vii. 1-6 296 +vii. 7-11 117, 295 +vii. 13f. 295 +vii. 15-21 296 +vii. 21 262 +vii. 21-27 238 +vii. 22f. 295 +vii. 24-27 296 +vii. 28, 29 226, 249 +viii. 2-4 115 +viii. 5 7 +viii. 5, 8 43 +viii. 5-13 41, 115, 288, 289 +viii. 10 243 +viii. 10-12 24 +viii. 14-17 115 +viii. 18, 23-27 116 +viii. 19-22 153 +viii. 20 259 +viii. 28-34 116 +ix. 1, 18-26 116 +ix. 2-8 115 +ix. 9-13 115 +ix. 14-17 115 +ix. 27-34 116 +ix. 35 116 +ix. 36 to xi. 1 116, 118, 297 +x. 1, 5-15 297 +x. 5f. 130 +x. 7-15 297 +x. 16-42 297 +x. 32 262 +xi. 2-6 251 +xi. 2-19 41, 116 +xi. 4-6 131 +xi. 11 80 +xi. 18f. 259 +xi. 19 96, 220, 256 +xi. 20-24 301 +xi. 20-30 153 +xi. 25-30 300 +xi. 27 252, 263 +xi. 28-30 160 +xii. 1-8 115 +xii. 9-14 115 +xii. 12 227 +xii. 15-21 115 +xii. 22-45 116, 156 +xii. 28 85, 248 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Cor. + + +i. 23 190 +v. 7 183 +ix. 1 202 +x. 16 304 +xv. 202 +xv. 3-8 21, 105, 204 +xv. 4 204, 213 +xv. 5 201 +xv. 6 201 +xv. 6f. 162 +xv. 7 201 + + + +II. Cor. + + +v. 21 83 +viii. 9 21 +x. l 21 +xii. 212 + + + +Gal. + + +iii. 13 190 + + + +Phil. + + +ii. 5-11 21, 269 +ii. 7f. 190, 285 +ii. 8 196 + + + +II. Tim. + + +iii. 15 63 + + + +Heb. + + +ii. 17 61 +ii. 17f. 64 +ii. 18 87 +iv. 15 61, 63, 67 +v. 7 147 +v. 7-9 87 +vii. 26 57 +xii. 2 190 +xii. 13 190 + + + +I. Pet. + + +ii. 22 83 + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's The Life of Jesus of Nazareth, by Rush Rhees + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 13228 *** diff --git a/13228-h/13228-h.htm b/13228-h/13228-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..61274dd --- /dev/null +++ b/13228-h/13228-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,9838 @@ +<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8" ?> +<!DOCTYPE html + PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> +<html> +<head> +<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=UTF-8" /> +<title>The Life of Jesus of Nazareth, by Rush Rhees</title> +<style type="text/css" title="Default"> + <!-- + + body { + font-family: Verdana, Arial, sans-serif; + margin: 5%; + } + + h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6 { + text-align: center; + font-weight: bold; + } + + h1,h2,h3,h4 { + font-variant: small-caps + } + + h1.title { margin-top: 5em; } + + .smallcaps { font-variant: small-caps } + + a { text-decoration: none; } + a:hover { background-color: #ffffcc } + + div.chapter { + margin-top: 4em; + padding: 5px; + } + + div.part { + margin-top: 5em; + } + + hr { + height: 1px; + width: 80%; + } + + hr.full { + height: 5px; + width: 100%; + } + + p.byline { + text-align: center; + font-variant: small-caps; + } + + .poem, .letter { + margin-left:10%; + margin-right:10%; + text-align: left; + } + + .letter { + padding-bottom: 2em; + padding-top: 2em; + border-top-width: 1px; + border-top-style: solid; + border-top-color: #333333; + } + + .versenum { + display: block; + position: absolute; + left: 1%; + right: 2%; + font-weight: bold; + } + + abbr, acronym { + cursor: help; + border: none; + } + + cite { + font-variant: small-caps; + font-style: normal; + } + + del { display: none; } + + ins { text-decoration: none; } + + #tp, #verso, #dedication { + text-align: center; + margin-top: 3em; + } + + #dedication { + margin-left: 20%; + margin-right: 20%; + } + + #dedication .sig { + text-align: right; + font-style: italic; + } + + #dedication .place { + text-align: left; + font-style: italic; + } + + #frontispiece { + text-align: center; + } + + #frontispiece>img { + display: block; + margin: auto; + } + + #toc ol { + list-style-type: upper-roman; + } + + #toc ul, #indexes ul { + list-style-type: none; + } + + #toc ul li:hover { + list-style-type: disc; + } + +--> +</style> + +</head> +<body> +<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 13228 ***</div> + +<div id="tp"> + +<h1 class="title"><a class="newpage" name="pageiii" id="pageiii" title="iii"></a>The Life of Jesus of Nazareth</h1> + +<h2 class="subtitle"><i>A Study</i></h2> + +<p class="byline">By</p> + +<h2 class="author">Rush Rhees</h2> + +<h3>1902</h3> +</div> + + +<div id="verso"> +<div><a class="newpage" name="pageiv" id="pageiv" title="iv"></a><i>Copyright, 1900,</i></div> +<div>By Charles Scribner's Sons</div> +</div> + + +<div id="dedication"> +<h2><a id="v"></a>To</h2> + +<p>C. W. McC.</p> + +<p>In Recognition of Wise Counsel, Generous Help and Loving Appreciation</p> +</div> + + +<div id="epigraph"> +<blockquote><p><a class="newpage" name="pagevi" id="pagevi" title="vi"></a>"<i>I would preach ... the need to the world of the faith +in a Christ, the claim that Jesus is the Christ, and the demand +for an intelligent faith, which indeed shall transcend but shall +not despise knowledge, or neglect to have a knowledge to +transcend.</i>"--<cite>John Patterson Coyle</cite></p></blockquote> +</div> + + +<div id="preface"> +<h2><a class="newpage" name="pagevii" id="pagevii" title="vii"></a>Preface</h2> + + + +<p>The aim of this book is to help thoughtful readers of the gospels to +discern more clearly the features of him whom those writings inimitably +portray. It is avowedly a study rather than a story, and as a companion to +the reading of the gospels it seeks to answer some of the questions which +are raised by a sympathetic consideration of those narratives. These +answers are offered in an unargumentative way, even where the questions +are still in debate among scholars. This method has been adopted because +technical discussion would be of interest to but few of those whom the +book hopes to serve. On some of the questions a non-committal attitude is +taken in the belief that for the understanding of the life of Jesus it is +of little importance which way the decision finally goes. Less attention +has been given to questions of geography and archæology than to those +which have a more vital biographical significance.</p> + +<p>A word concerning the point of view adopted. The church has inherited a +rich treasure of doctrine concerning its Lord, the result of patient study +and, frequently, of heated controversy. It is customary to approach the +gospels with this interpretation of Christ as a premise, and such a study +has some unquestionable advantages. <a class="newpage" name="pageviii" id="pageviii" title="viii"></a>With the apostles and evangelists, +however, the recognition of the divine nature of Jesus was a conclusion +from their acquaintance with him. The Man of Nazareth was for them +primarily a man, and they so regarded him until he showed them that he was +more. Their knowledge of him progressed in the natural way from the human +to the divine. The gospels, particularly the first three, are marvels of +simplicity and objectivity. Their authors clearly regarded Jesus as the +Man from heaven; yet in their thinking they were dominated by the +influence of a personal Lord rather than by the force of an accepted +doctrine. It is with no lack of reverence for the importance and truth of +the divinity of Christ that this book essays to bring the Man Jesus before +the mind in the reading of the gospels. The incarnation means that God +chose to reveal the divine through a human life, rather than through a +series of propositions which formulate truth (Heb. i. 1-4). The most +perennially refreshing influence for Christian life and thought is +personal discipleship to that Revealer who is able to-day as of old to +exhibit in his humanity those qualities which compel the recognition of +God manifest in the flesh.</p> + +<p>An <a href="#appendix">Appendix</a> is added to furnish references to the wide literature of the +subject for the aid of those who wish to study it more extensively and +technically; also to discuss some questions of detail which could not be +considered in the text. This appendix will indicate the extent of my +indebtedness to others. I would acknowledge special obligation to +Professor Ernest D. Burton, <a class="newpage" name="pageix" id="pageix" title="ix"></a>of the University of Chicago, for generous +help and permission to use material found in his "Notes on the Life of +Jesus;" to Professor Shailer Mathews, also of Chicago, for very valuable +criticisms; to my colleague, Professor Charles Rufus Brown, for most +serviceable assistance; and to the editors of this series for helpful +suggestions and criticism during the making of the book. An unmeasured +debt is due to another who has sat at my side during the writing of these +pages, and has given constant inspiration, most discerning criticism, and +practical aid.</p> + +<p><cite>The Newton Theological Institution</cite>, April, 1900.</p> +</div> + + +<div id="toc"> +<p><a class="newpage" name="pagex" id="pagex" title="x"></a></p> +<h2><a class="newpage" name="pagexi" id="pagexi" title="xi"></a>Contents</h2> + + + +<h3>Part I</h3> + +<h4><a href="#p01">Preparatory</a></h4> + + +<ol> +<li> + +<a href="#p01-01">The Historical Situation</a> + +Sections <a href="#s001">1</a>-<a href="#s019">19.</a> Pages <a href="#page001">1</a>-<a href="#page020">20</a> + +<ul> + <li>Section <a href="#s001">1.</a> The Roman estimate of Judea.</li> <li><a href="#s002">2</a>, <a href="#s003">3.</a> Herod the Great and his + sons.</li> <li><a href="#s004">4.</a> Roman procurators in Palestine.</li> <li><a href="#s005">5.</a> Taxes.</li> <li><a href="#s006">6.</a> The army.</li> <li><a href="#s007">7.</a> + Administration of justice.</li> <li><a href="#s008">8.</a> The Sadducees.</li> <li><a href="#s009">9</a>, <a href="#s010">10.</a> The Pharisees.</li> <li><a href="#s011">11.</a> + The Zealots.</li> <li><a href="#s012">12.</a> The Essenes.</li> <li><a href="#s013">13.</a> The Devout.</li> <li><a href="#s014">14.</a> Herodians and + Samaritans.</li> <li><a href="#s015">15.</a> The synagogue.</li> <li><a href="#s016">16.</a> Life under the law.</li> <li><a href="#s017">17.</a> The + Messianic hope.</li> <li><a href="#s018">18.</a> Contemporary literature.</li> <li><a href="#s019">19.</a> Language of Palestine.</li> +</ul></li> + + + + +<li><a href="#p01-02">Sources of Our Knowledge of Jesus</a> + +Sections <a href="#s020">20</a>-<a href="#s035">35</a>. Pages <a href="#page021">21</a>-<a href="#page037">37.</a> + +<ul> + <li>Section <a href="#s020">20.</a> The testimony of Paul.</li> <li><a href="#s021">21.</a> Secular history.</li> <li><a href="#s022">22.</a> The written + gospels.</li> <li><a href="#s023">23.</a> Characteristics of the first gospel.</li> <li><a href="#s024">24.</a> Of the second.</li> + <li><a href="#s025">25.</a> Of the third. 26-30. The synoptic problem. 31-32. The Johannine + problem.</li> <li><a href="#s034">34.</a> The two narrative sources.</li> <li><a href="#s035">35.</a> Agrapha and Apocrypha.</li> +</ul></li> + + + + +<li><a class="newpage" name="pagexii" id="pagexii" title="xii"></a><a href="#p01-03">The Harmony of the Gospels</a> + +Sections <a href="#s036">36</a>-<a href="#s044">44</a>. Pages <a href="#page038">38</a>-<a href="#page014">14</a> + +<ul> + <li>Section <a href="#s036">36.</a> The value of four gospels.</li> <li><a href="#s037">37.</a> Tatian's Diatessaron. 38. + Agreement of the gospels concerning the chief events.</li> <li><a href="#s039">39.</a> The principal + problems.</li> <li><a href="#s040">40.</a> Relation of Mark and John. </li><li><a href="#s041">41</a>, <a href="#s042">42.</a> Matthew and Luke. 43. + Doublets.</li> <li><a href="#s044">44.</a> The degree of certainty attainable.</li> +</ul></li> + + + + +<li><a href="#p01-04">The Chronology</a> + +Sections <a href="#s045">45</a>-<a href="#s057">57</a>. Pages <a href="#page045">45</a>-<a href="#page056">56</a> + +<ul> +<li> Sections <a href="#s045">45</a>-<a href="#s048">48</a>. The length of Jesus' public ministry.</li> <li><a href="#s049">49.</a> Date of the + first Passover.</li> <li><a href="#s050">50.</a> Date of the crucifixion. 51-56. Date of the + nativity.</li> <li><a href="#s057">57.</a> Summary.</li> +</ul></li> + + + + +<li><a href="#p01-05">The Early Years of Jesus</a> + +Sections <a href="#s058">58</a>-<a href="#s071">71</a>. Pages <a href="#page057">57</a>-<a href="#page069">69</a> + +<ul> + <li>Section <a href="#s058">58.</a> Apocryphal stories.</li> <li><a href="#s059">59.</a> Silence of the New Testament + outside the gospels. 60-62. The miraculous birth.</li> <li><a href="#s063">63.</a> The childhood of + Jesus.</li> <li><a href="#s064">64.</a> Home.</li> <li><a href="#s065">65.</a> Religion, Education.</li> <li><a href="#s066">66.</a> Growth.</li> <li><a href="#s067">67.</a> Religious + development.</li> <li><a href="#s068">68.</a> The view from Nazareth. 69 The first visit to + Jerusalem. 70-71. The carpenter of Nazareth.</li> +</ul></li> + + + + +<li><a href="#p01-06">John the Baptist</a> + +Sections <a href="#s072">72</a>-<a href="#s084">84</a>. Pages <a href="#page070">70</a>-<a href="#page081">81</a> + +<ul> + <li>Section <a href="#s072">72.</a> The gospel picture.</li> <li><a href="#s073">73.</a> Notice by Josephus. 74. + Characteristics of the prophet 75-78. John's relation to the Essenes; + the Pharisees; the Zealots; the Apocalyptists.</li> <li><a href="#s079">79.</a> John and the + Prophets. 80-82. Origin of his baptism.</li> <li><a href="#s083">83.</a> His greatness.</li> <li><a href="#s084">84.</a> His + limitations and self-effacement.</li> +</ul></li> + + + + +<li><a class="newpage" name="pagexiii" id="pagexiii" title="xiii"></a><a href="#p01-07">The Messianic Call</a> + +Sections <a href="#s085">85</a>-<a href="#s096">96</a>. Pages <a href="#page082">82</a>-<a href="#page091">91</a> + +<ul> +<li> Sections </li><li><a href="#s085">85</a>, <a href="#s086">86.</a> John and Jesus.</li> <li><a href="#s087">87.</a> The baptism of Jesus. </li><li><a href="#s088">88</a>, <a href="#s089">89.</a> The + Messianic call.</li> <li><a href="#s090">90.</a> The gift of the Spirit. 91-94. The temptation. 95. + Source of the narrative.</li> <li><a href="#s096">96.</a> The issue.</li> +</ul></li> + + + + +<li><a href="#p01-08">The First Disciples</a> + +Sections <a href="#s097">97</a>-<a href="#s105">105</a>. Pages <a href="#page092">92</a>-<a href="#page097">97</a> + +<ul> + <li>Section <a href="#s097">97.</a> John at Bethany beyond Jordan.</li> <li><a href="#s098">98.</a> The deputation from the + priests.</li> <li><a href="#s099">99.</a> John's first testimony.</li> <li><a href="#s100">100.</a> The first disciples.</li> <li><a href="#s101">101.</a> The + early Messianic confessions.</li> <li><a href="#s102">102.</a> The visit to Cana.</li> <li><a href="#s103">103.</a> The miracles + as disclosures of the character of Jesus.</li> <li><a href="#s104">104.</a> Jesus and his mother.</li> + <li><a href="#s105">105.</a> Removal to Capernaum.</li> +</ul></li> +</ol> + + +<h3>Part II</h3> + +<h4><a href="#p02">The Ministry</a></h4> + + + +<ol> +<li><a href="#p02-01">General Survey of the Ministry</a> + +Sections <a href="#s106">106</a>-<a href="#s112">112</a>. Pages <a href="#page101">101</a>-<a href="#page105">105</a> + +<ul> + <li>Section <a href="#s106">106.</a> The early Judean ministry.</li> <li><a href="#s107">107.</a> Withdrawal to Galilee; a + new beginning.</li> <li><a href="#s108">108.</a> The ministry in Galilee a unit.</li> <li><a href="#s109">109.</a> Best studied + topically.</li> <li><a href="#s110">110.</a> The last journey to Jerusalem.</li> <li><a href="#s111">111.</a> The last week. 112. + The resurrection and ascension.</li> +</ul></li> + + + + +<li><a class="newpage" name="pagexiv" id="pagexiv" title="xiv"></a><a href="#p02-02">The Early Judean Ministry</a> + +Sections <a href="#s113">113</a>-<a href="#s124">124</a>. Pages <a href="#page106">106</a>-<a href="#page114">114</a> + +<ul> + <li>Outline of events in the Early Judean ministry.</li> <li>Section <a href="#s113">113.</a> The + opening ministry at Jerusalem.</li> <li><a href="#s114">114.</a> The record incomplete.</li> <li><a href="#s115">115.</a> The + cleansing of the temple.</li> <li><a href="#s116">116.</a> Relation to synoptic account.</li> <li><a href="#s117">117.</a> Jesus' + reply to the challenge of his authority.</li> <li><a href="#s118">118.</a> The reserve of Jesus.</li> + <li><a href="#s119">119.</a> Discourse with Nicodemus.</li> <li><a href="#s120">120.</a> Measure of success in Jerusalem.</li> + <li><a href="#s121">121.</a> The Baptist's last testimony.</li> <li><a href="#s122">122.</a> The arrest of John.</li> <li><a href="#s123">123.</a> The + second sign at Cana.</li> <li><a href="#s124">124.</a> Summary.</li> +</ul></li> + + + + +<li><a href="#p02-03">The Ministry in Galilee--Its Aim and Method</a> + +Sections <a href="#s125">125</a>-<a href="#s149">149</a>. Pages <a href="#page115">115</a>-<a href="#page137">137</a> + +<ul> + <li>Outline of events in the Galilean ministry.</li> <li>Section <a href="#s125">125.</a> General view. + </li><li><a href="#s126">126</a>, <a href="#s127">127.</a> Development of popular enthusiasm.</li> <li><a href="#s128">128.</a> Pharisaic opposition. + </li><li><a href="#s129">129</a>, <a href="#s130">130.</a> Jesus and the Messianic hope.</li> <li><a href="#s131">131.</a> Injunctions of silence. + 132-135. Jesus' twofold aim in Galilee. </li><li><a href="#s136">136</a>, <a href="#s137">137.</a> Character of the + teaching of this period: the sermon on the mount.</li> <li><a href="#s138">138.</a> The parables.</li> + <li><a href="#s139">139.</a> The instructions for the mission of the twelve.</li> <li><a href="#s140">140.</a> Jesus' tone + of authority.</li> <li><a href="#s141">141.</a> His mighty works. 142-144. Demoniac possession. 145. + Jesus' personal influence.</li> <li><a href="#s146">146.</a> The feeding of the five thousand. 147,</li> + <li><a href="#s148">148.</a> Revulsion of popular feeling.</li> <li><a href="#s149">149.</a> Results of the work in Galilee.</li> +</ul></li> + + + + +<li><a href="#p02-04">The Ministry in Galilee--The New Lesson</a> + +Sections <a href="#s150">150</a>-<a href="#s165">165</a>. Pages <a href="#page138">138</a>-<a href="#page152">152</a> + +<ul> + <li>Section <a href="#s150">150.</a> The changed ministry.</li> <li><a href="#s151">151.</a> The question of tradition. 152. + Further pharisaic opposition.</li> <li><a href="#s153">153.</a> Jesus in Phœnicia.</li> <li><a href="#s154">154.</a> Confirmation + of the disciples' faith.</li> <li><a href="#s155">155.</a> <a class="newpage" name="pagexv" id="pagexv" title="xv"></a>The question at Cæsarea Philippi. 156. + The corner-stone of the Church. 157-159. The new lesson.</li> <li><a href="#s160">160.</a> The + transfiguration.</li> <li><a href="#s161">161.</a> Cure of the epileptic boy.</li> <li><a href="#s162">162.</a> The feast of + Tabernacles.</li> <li><a href="#s163">163.</a> Story of Jesus and the adulteress.</li> <li><a href="#s164">164.</a> The new note + in Jesus' teaching.</li> <li><a href="#s165">165.</a> Summary of the Galilean ministry.</li> +</ul></li> + + + + +<li><a href="#p02-05">The Journey through Perea to Jerusalem</a> + +Sections <a href="#s166">166</a>-<a href="#s176">176</a>. Pages <a href="#page153">153</a>-<a href="#page165">165</a> + +<ul> + <li>Outline of events.</li> <li>Section <a href="#s166">166.</a> The Perean ministry.</li> <li><a href="#s167">167.</a> Account in + John. </li><li><a href="#s168">168</a>, <a href="#s169">169.</a> Account in Luke.</li> <li><a href="#s170">170.</a> The mission of the seventy. 171. + The feast of Dedication.</li> <li><a href="#s172">172.</a> Withdrawal beyond Jordan.</li> <li><a href="#s173">173.</a> The + raising of Lazarus.</li> <li><a href="#s174">174.</a> Ephraim and Jericho. 175,176. Summary.</li> +</ul></li> + + + + +<li><a href="#p02-06">The Final Controversies in Jerusalem</a> + +Sections <a href="#s177">177</a>-<a href="#s188">188</a>. Pages <a href="#page166">166</a>-<a href="#page180">180</a> + +<ul> + <li>Outline of events in the last week of Jesus' life.</li> <li>Section <a href="#s177">177.</a> The + cross in apostolic preaching.</li> <li><a href="#s178">178.</a> The anointing in Bethany.</li> <li><a href="#s179">179.</a> The + Messianic entry.</li> <li><a href="#s180">180.</a> The barren fig-tree.</li> <li><a href="#s181">181.</a> The Monday of Passion + week. 182-186. The controversies of Tuesday.</li> <li><a href="#s187">187.</a> Judas. 188. + Wednesday, the day of seclusion.</li> +</ul></li> + + + + +<li><a href="#p02-07">The Last Supper</a> + +Sections <a href="#s189">189</a>-<a href="#s195">195</a>. Pages <a href="#page181">181</a>-<a href="#page187">187</a> + +<ul> + <li>Section <a href="#s189">189.</a> Preparations. 190,191. Date of the supper.</li> <li><a href="#s192">192.</a> The lesson + of humility.</li> <li><a href="#s193">193.</a> The new covenant.</li> <li><a href="#s194">194.</a> The supper and the Passover.</li> + <li><a href="#s195">195.</a> Farewell words of admonition and comfort; the intercessory prayer.</li> +</ul></li> + + + + +<li><a class="newpage" name="pagexvi" id="pagexvi" title="xvi"></a><a href="#p02-08">The Shadow of Death</a> + +Sections <a href="#s196">196</a>-<a href="#s208">208</a>. Pages <a href="#page188">188</a>-<a href="#page200">200</a> + +<ul> + <li>Sections <a href="#s196">196</a>, <a href="#s197">197.</a> Gethsemane.</li> <li><a href="#s198">198.</a> The betrayal.</li> <li><a href="#s199">199.</a> The trial. 200. + Peter's denials.</li> <li><a href="#s201">201.</a> The rejection of Jesus.</li> <li><a href="#s202">202.</a> The greatness of + Jesus. </li><li><a href="#s203">203</a>, <a href="#s204">204.</a> The crucifixion.</li> <li><a href="#s205">205.</a> The words from the cross. 206. + The death of Jesus.</li> <li><a href="#s207">207.</a> The burial.</li> <li><a href="#s208">208.</a> The Sabbath rest.</li> +</ul></li> + + + + +<li><a href="#p02-09">The Resurrection</a> + +Sections <a href="#s209">209</a>-<a href="#s222">222</a>. Pages <a href="#page201">201</a>-<a href="#page216">216</a> + +<ul> + <li>Section <a href="#s209">209.</a> The primary Christian fact.</li> <li><a href="#s210">210.</a> The incredulity of the + disciples. 211-216. The appearances of the risen Lord. 217-220. Efforts + to explain the belief in the resurrection.</li> <li><a href="#s221">221.</a> The ascension.</li> <li><a href="#s222">222.</a> The + new faith of the disciples.</li> +</ul></li> +</ol> + + +<h3>Part III</h3> + +<h4><a href="#p03">The Minister</a></h4> + + + +<ol> +<li><a href="#p03-01">The Friend of Men</a> + +Sections <a href="#s223">223</a>-<a href="#s229">229</a>. Pages <a href="#page219">219</a>-<a href="#page225">225</a> + +<ul> + <li>Section <a href="#s223">223.</a> The contrast between Jesus' attitude and John's towards + common social life.</li> <li><a href="#s224">224.</a> Contrast with the scribes. </li><li><a href="#s225">225</a>, <a href="#s226">226.</a> His + interest in simple manhood.</li> <li><a href="#s227">227.</a> Regard for human need. 228, 229. + Sensitiveness to human sympathy.</li> +</ul></li> + + + + +<li><a href="#p03-02">The Teacher with Authority</a> + +Sections <a href="#s230">230</a>-<a href="#s241">241</a>. Pages <a href="#page226">226</a>-<a href="#page237">237</a> + +<ul> + <li>Section <a href="#s230">230.</a> Contrast between Jesus and the scribes.</li> <li><a href="#s231">231.</a> His appeal to + the conscience. His attitude to the Old <a class="newpage" name="pagexvii" id="pagexvii" title="xvii"></a>Testament.</li> <li><a href="#s234">234.</a> His teaching + occasional.</li> <li><a href="#s235">235.</a> The patience of his method.</li> <li><a href="#s236">236.</a> His use of + illustration.</li> <li><a href="#s237">237.</a> Parable.</li> <li><a href="#s238">238.</a> Irony and hyperbole.</li> <li><a href="#s239">239.</a> Object + lessons.</li> <li><a href="#s240">240.</a> Jesus' intellectual superiority.</li> <li><a href="#s241">241.</a> His chief theme, + the kingdom of God.</li> +</ul></li> + + + + +<li><a href="#p03-03">Jesus' Knowledge of Truth</a> + +Sections <a href="#s242">242</a>-<a href="#s251">251</a>. Pages <a href="#page238">238</a>-<a href="#page248">248</a> + +<ul> + <li>Sections <a href="#s242">242</a>, <a href="#s243">243.</a> Jesus' supernatural knowledge.</li> <li><a href="#s244">244.</a> His predictions + of his death.</li> <li><a href="#s245">245.</a> Of his resurrection.</li> <li><a href="#s246">246.</a> His apocalyptic + predictions. </li><li><a href="#s247">247</a>, <a href="#s248">248.</a> Limitation of his knowledge. </li><li><a href="#s249">249</a>, <a href="#s250">250.</a> Jesus and + demoniac possession.</li> <li><a href="#s251">251.</a> His certainty of his own mission.</li> +</ul></li> + + + + +<li><a href="#p03-04">Jesus' Conception of Himself</a> + +Sections <a href="#s252">252</a>-<a href="#s275">275</a>. Pages <a href="#page249">249</a>-<a href="#page269">269</a>. + +<ul> + <li>Section <a href="#s252">252.</a> Jesus' confidence in his calling.</li> <li><a href="#s253">253.</a> His independence in + teaching.</li> <li><a href="#s254">254.</a> His self-assertions in response to pharisaic criticism.</li> + <li><a href="#s255">255.</a> His desire to beget faith in himself. 256,257. His extraordinary + personal claim.</li> <li><a href="#s258">258.</a> His acceptance of Messianic titles. 259-266. The + Son of Man. 267-269. The Son of God. </li><li><a href="#s270">270</a>, <a href="#s271">271.</a> His consciousness of + oneness with God.</li> <li><a href="#s272">272.</a> His confession of dependence; his habit of + prayer.</li> <li><a href="#s273">273.</a> No confession of sin. </li><li><a href="#s274">274</a>, <a href="#s275">275.</a> The Word made flesh.</li> +</ul></li> +</ol> + +<p><a href="#appendix">Appendix</a></p> + +<p><a href="#index1">Index of Names and Subjects</a></p> + +<p><a href="#index2">Index of Biblical References</a></p> + +<p><a href="images/map.jpg">Map of Palestine</a></p> +<p><a class="newpage" name="pagexviii" id="pagexviii" title="xviii"></a></p> +</div> + + +<div class="part" id="p01"> +<h2><a class="newpage" name="page001" id="page001" title="1"></a>Part I</h2> + + +<h3>Preparatory</h3> +<p><a class="newpage" name="page002" id="page002" title="2"></a></p> + + +<div class="chapter" id="p01-01"> +<h2><a class="newpage" name="page003" id="page003" title="3"></a>I</h2> + +<h3>The Historical Situation</h3> + + + +<div class="section" id="s001"><p><span class="versenum">1.</span> When Tacitus, the Roman historian, records the attempt of Nero to +charge the Christians with the burning of Rome, he has patience for no +more than the cursory remark that the sect originated with a Jew who had +been put to death in Judea during the reign of Tiberius. This province was +small and despised, and Tacitus could account for the influence of the +sect which sprang thence only by the fact that all that was infamous and +abominable flowed into Rome. The Roman's scornful judgment failed to grasp +the nature and power of the movement whose unpopularity invited Nero's +lying accusation, yet it emphasizes the significance of him who did "not +strive, nor cry, nor cause his voice to be heard in the street," whose +influence, nevertheless, was working as leaven throughout the empire.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s002"><p><span class="versenum">2.</span> Palestine was not under immediate Roman rule when Jesus was born. Herod +the Great was drawing near the close of the long reign during which, owing +to his skill in securing Roman favor, he had tyrannized over his unwilling +people. His claim was that of an adventurer who had power to succeed, even +as his method had been that of a suspicious tyrant, who murdered right and +left, lest one of the many with better right than he should rise to +dispute with him <a class="newpage" name="page004" id="page004" title="4"></a>his throne. When Herod died, his kingdom was divided +into three parts, and Rome asserted a fuller sovereignty, allowing none of +his sons to take his royal title. Herod's successors ruled with a measure +of independence, however, and followed many of their father's ways, though +none of them had his ability. The best of them was Philip, who had the +territory farthest from Jerusalem, and least related to Jewish life. He +ruled over Iturea and Trachonitis, the country to the north and east of +the Sea of Galilee, having his capital at Cæsarea Philippi, a city built +and named by him on the site of an older town near the sources of the +Jordan. He also rebuilt the city of Bethsaida, at the point where the +Jordan flows into the Sea of Galilee, calling it Julias, after the +daughter of Augustus. Philip enters the story of the life of Jesus only as +the ruler of these towns and the intervening region, and as husband of +Salome, the daughter of Herodias. Living far from Jerusalem and the Jewish +people, he abandoned even the show of Judaism which characterized his +father, and lived as a frank heathen in his heathen capital.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s003"><p><span class="versenum">3.</span> The other two who inherited Herod's dominion were brothers, Archelaus +and Antipas, sons of Malthace, one of Herod's many wives. Archelaus had +been designated king by Herod, with Judea, Samaria, and Idumea as his +kingdom; but the emperor allowed him only the territory, with the title +ethnarch. Antipas was named a tetrarch by Herod, and his territory was +Galilee and the land east of the Jordan to the southward of the Sea of +Galilee, called Perea. Antipas was the Herod under whose sway Jesus lived +in Galilee, and who executed John the Baptist. He was a man of pas<a class="newpage" name="page005" id="page005" title="5"></a>sionate +temper, with the pride and love of luxury of his father. Having Jews to +govern, he held, as his father had done, to a show of Judaism, though at +heart he was as much of a pagan as Philip. He, too, loved building, and +Tiberias on the Sea of Galilee was built by him for his capital. His +unscrupulous tyranny and his gross disregard of common righteousness +appear in his relations with John the Baptist and with Herodias, his +paramour. Jesus described him well as "that fox" (Luke xiii. 32), for he +was sly, and worked often by indirection. While his father had energy and +ability which command a sort of admiration, Antipas was not only bad but +weak.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s004"><p><span class="versenum">4.</span> Both Philip and Antipas reigned until after the death of Jesus, Philip +dying in A.D. 34, and Antipas being deposed several years later, probably +in 39. Archelaus had a much shorter rule, for he was deposed in A.D. 6, +having been accused by the Jews of unbearable barbarity and tyranny,--a +charge in which Antipas and Philip joined. The territory of Archelaus was +then made an imperial province of the second grade, ruled by a procurator +appointed from among the Roman knights. In provinces under an imperial +legate (propraetor) the procurator was an officer for the administration +of the revenues; in provinces of the rank of Judea he was, however, the +representative of the emperor in all the prerogatives of government, +having command of the army, and being the final resort in legal procedure, +as well as supervising the collection of the customs and taxes. Very +little is known of the procurators appointed after the deposition of +Archelaus, until Tiberius sent Pontius Pilate in A.D. 26. He held office +until he was deposed in 36. <a class="newpage" name="page006" id="page006" title="6"></a>Josephus gives several examples of his wanton +disregard of Jewish prejudice, and of his extreme cruelty. His conduct at +the trial of Jesus was remarkably gentle and judicial in comparison with +other acts recorded of his government; yet the fear of trial at Rome, +which finally induced him to give Jesus over to be crucified, was +thoroughly characteristic; in fact, his downfall resulted from a complaint +lodged against him by certain Samaritans whom he had cruelly punished for +a Messianic uprising.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s005"><p><span class="versenum">5.</span> There were two sorts of Roman taxes in Judea: direct, which were +collected by salaried officials; and customs, which were farmed out to the +highest bidder. The direct taxes consisted of a land tax and a poll tax, +in the collection of which the procurator made use of the local Jewish +courts; the customs consisted of various duties assessed on exports, and +they were gathered by representatives of men who had bought the right to +collect these dues. The chiefs as well as their underlings are called +publicans in our New Testament, although the name strictly applies only to +the chiefs. These tax-gatherers, small and great, were everywhere despised +and execrated, because, in addition to their subserviency to a hated +government, they had a reputation, usually deserved, for all sorts of +extortion. Because of this evil repute they were commonly drawn from the +unscrupulous among the people, so that the frequent coupling of publicans +and sinners in the gospels probably rested on fact as much as on +prejudice.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s006"><p><span class="versenum">6.</span> In Samaria and Judea soldiers were under the command of the procurator; +they took orders from the tetrarch, in Galilee and Perea. The garrison of +Jeru<a class="newpage" name="page007" id="page007" title="7"></a>salem consisted of one Roman cohort--from five to six hundred +men--which was reinforced at the time of the principal feasts. These and +the other forces at the disposal of the procurator were probably recruited +from the country itself, largely from among the Samaritans. The centurion +of Capernaum (Matt. viii. 5; Luke vii. 2-5) was an officer in the army of +Antipas, who, however, doubtless organized his army on the Roman pattern, +with officers who had had their training with the imperial forces.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s007"><p><span class="versenum">7.</span> The administration of justice in Samaria and Judea was theoretically in +the hands of the procurator; practically, however, it was left with the +Jewish courts, either the local councils or the great sanhedrin at +Jerusalem. This last body consisted of seventy-one "elders." Its president +was the high-priest, and its members were drawn in large degree from the +most prominent representatives of the priestly aristocracy. The scribes, +however, had a controlling influence because of the reverence in which the +multitude held them. The sanhedrin of Jerusalem had jurisdiction only +within the province of Judea, where it tried all kinds of offences; its +judgment was final, except in capital cases, when it had to yield to the +procurator, who alone could sentence to death. It had great influence also +in Galilee, and among Jews everywhere, but this was due to the regard all +Jews had for the holy city. It was, in fact, a sort of Jewish senate, +which took cognizance of everything that seemed to affect the Jewish +interests. In Galilee and Perea, Antipas held in his hands the judicial as +well as the military and financial administration.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s008"><p><a class="newpage" name="page008" id="page008" title="8"></a><span class="versenum">8.</span> To the majority of the priests religion had become chiefly a form. +They represented the worldly party among the Jews. Since the days of the +priest-princes who ruled in Jerusalem after the return from the exile, +they had constituted the Jewish aristocracy, and held most of the wealth +of the people. It was to their interest to maintain the ritual and the +traditional customs, and they were proud of their Jewish heritage; of +genuine interest in religion, however, they had little. This secular +priestly party was called the Sadducees, probably from Zadok, the +high-priest in Solomon's time. What theology the Sadducees had was for the +most part reactionary and negative. They were opposed to the more earnest +spirit and new thought of the scribes, and naturally produced some +champions who argued for their theological position; but the mass of them +cared for other things.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s009"><p><span class="versenum">9.</span> The leaders of the popular thought, on the other hand, were chiefly +noted for their religious zeal and theological acumen. They represented +the outgrowth of that spirit which in the Maccabean time had risked all to +defend the sanctity of the temple and the right of God's people to worship +him according to his law. They were known as Pharisees, because, as the +name ("separated") indicates, they insisted on the separation of the +people of God from all the defilements and snares of the heathen life +round about them. The Pharisees constituted a fraternity devoted to the +scrupulous observance of law and tradition in all the concerns of daily +life. They were specialists in religion, and were the ideal +representatives of Judaism. Their distinguishing characteristic was +reverence for the law; <a class="newpage" name="page009" id="page009" title="9"></a>their religion was the religion of a book. By +punctilious obedience of the law man might hope to gain a record of merit +which should stand to his credit and secure his reward when God should +finally judge the world. Because life furnished many situations not dealt +with in the written law, there was need of its authoritative +interpretation, in order that ignorance might not cause a man to +transgress. These interpretations constituted an oral law which +practically superseded the written code, and they were handed down from +generation to generation as "the traditions of the fathers." The existence +of this oral law made necessary a company of scribes and lawyers whose +business it was to know the traditions and transmit them to their pupils. +These scribes were the teachers of Israel, the leaders of the Pharisees, +and the most highly revered class in the community. Pharisaism at its +beginning was intensely earnest, but in the time of Jesus the earnest +spirit had died out in zealous formalism. This was the inevitable result +of their virtual substitution of the written law for the living God. Their +excessive reverence had banished God from practical relation to the daily +life. They held that he had declared his will once for all in the law. His +name was scrupulously revered, his worship was cultivated with minutest +care, his judgment was anticipated with dread; but he himself, like an +Oriental monarch, was kept far from common life in an isolation suitable +to his awful holiness. By a natural consequence conscience gave place to +scrupulous regard for tradition in the religion of the scribes. The chief +question with them was not, Is this right? but, What say the elders? The +soul's sensitiveness of response to God's will and God's truth was lost in +a <a class="newpage" name="page010" id="page010" title="10"></a>maze of traditions which awoke no spontaneous Amen in the moral nature, +consequently there was frequent substitution of reputation for character. +The Pharisees could make void the command, Honor thy father, by an +ingenious application of the principle of dedication of property to God +(Mark vii. 8-13), and thus under the guise of scrupulous regard for law +discovered ways for legal disregard of law. Their theory of religion gave +abundant room for a piety which made broad its phylacteries and lengthened +its prayers, while neglecting judgment, mercy, and the love of God.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s010"><p><span class="versenum">10.</span> Yet the earnest and true development in Jewish thinking was found +among the Pharisees. The early hope of Israel was almost exclusively +national. In the later books of the Old Testament, in connection with an +enlarged sense of the importance of the individual, the doctrine of a +personal resurrection to share the blessings of the Messiah's kingdom +began to appear. It had its clear development and definite adoption as +part of the faith of Judaism, however, under the influence of the +Pharisees. Along with this increased emphasis on the worth of the +individual came a large development of the doctrine of angels and spirits. +Towards both of these doctrines the Sadducees took a reactionary position. +Politically the Pharisees were theocratic in theory, but opportunists in +practice, accommodating themselves to the existing state of things so long +as the <i>de facto</i> government did not interfere with the religious life of +the people. They looked for a kingdom in which God should be evidently the +king of his people; but they believed that his sovereignty was to be +realized through the law, hence their sole interest was in the obedi<a class="newpage" name="page011" id="page011" title="11"></a>ence +of God's people to that law as interpreted by the traditions.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s011"><p><span class="versenum">11.</span> The theocratic spirit was more aggressive in a party which originated +in the later years of Herod the Great, and found a reckless leader in +Judas of Galilee, who started a revolt when the governor of Syria +undertook to make a census of the Jews after the deposition of Archelaus. +This party bore the name Cananeans or Zealots. They regarded with +passionate resentment the subjection of God's people to a foreign power, +and waited eagerly for an opportune time to take the sword and set up the +kingdom of God; it was with them that the final war against Rome began. +They were found in largest numbers in Galilee, where the scholasticism of +the scribes was not so dominating an influence as in Judea. Dr. Edersheim +has called them the nationalist party. In matters belonging strictly to +the religious life they followed the Pharisees, only holding a more +material conception of the hope of Israel.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s012"><p><span class="versenum">12.</span> Another development in Jewish religious life carried separatist +doctrines to the extreme. Its representatives were called Essenes, though +what the significance of the name was is no longer clear. Although they +were allied with the Pharisees in doctrine, they show in some particulars +the influence of Hellenistic Judaism. This is suggested not only by the +attention which Philo and Josephus give to them, but also by certain of +their views, which were very like the doctrines of the Pythagoreans. They +carried the pharisaic demand for separateness to the extreme of +asceticism. While they were found in nearly every town in Palestine, some +of them even practising marriage, the largest group of them lived a +celibate, <a class="newpage" name="page012" id="page012" title="12"></a>monastic life near the shores of the Dead Sea. This community +was recruited by the initiation of converts, who only after a novitiate of +three years were admitted to full membership in the order. They were +characterized by an extreme scrupulousness concerning ceremonial purity, +their meals were regarded as sacrifices, and were prepared by members of +the order, who were looked upon as priests, nor were any allowed to +partake of the food until they had first bathed themselves. Their regular +garments were all white, and were regarded as vestments for use at the +sacrificial meals,--other clothing being assumed as they went out to their +work. They were industrious agriculturists, their life was communistic, +and they were renowned for their uprightness. They revered Moses as highly +as did the scribes; yet they were opposed to animal sacrifices, and, +although they sent gifts to the temple, were apparently excluded from its +worship. Their kinship with the Pythagoreans appears in that they +addressed an invocation to the sun at its rising, and conducted all their +natural functions with scrupulous modesty, "that they might not offend the +brightness of God" (Jos. Wars, ii. 8, 9). Their rejection of bloody +sacrifices, and their view that the soul is imprisoned in the body and at +death is freed for a better life, besides many features of their life that +are genuinely Jewish, such as their regard for ceremonial purity, also +show similarity to the Pythagoreans. It has always been a matter of +perplexity that these ascetics find no mention in the New Testament. They +seem to have lived a life too much apart, and to have had little sympathy +with the ideals of Jesus, or even of John the Baptist.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s013"><p><a class="newpage" name="page013" id="page013" title="13"></a><span class="versenum">13.</span> The common people followed the lead of the Pharisees, though afar +off. They accepted the teaching concerning tradition, as well as that +concerning the resurrection, conforming their lives to the prescriptions +of the scribes more or less strictly, according as they were more or loss +ruled by religious considerations. It was in consequence of their hold on +the people that the scribes in the sanhedrin were able often to dictate a +policy to the Sadducean majority. Jesus voiced the popular opinion when he +said that "the scribes sit in Moses' seat" (Matt, xxiii. 2). Their leaders +despised "this multitude which knoweth not the law" (John vii. 49), yet +delighted to legislate for them, binding heavy burdens and grievous to be +borne. Many of the people were doubtless too intent on work and gain to be +very regardful of the <i>minutiæ</i> of conduct as ordained by the scribes; +many more were too simple-minded to follow the theories of the rabbis +concerning the aloofness of God from the life of men. These last +reverenced the scribes, followed their directions, in the main, for the +conduct of life, yet lived in fellowship with God as their fathers had, +trusting in his faithfulness, and hoping in his mercy. They are +represented in the New Testament by such as Simeon and Anna, Zachariah and +Elizabeth, Joseph and Mary, and the majority of those who heard and heeded +John's call to repentance. They were Israel's remnant of pure and +undefiled religion, and constituted what there was of good soil among the +people for the reception of the seed sown by John's successor. They had no +name, for they did not constitute a party; for convenience they may be +called the Devout.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s014"><p><a class="newpage" name="page014" id="page014" title="14"></a><span class="versenum">14.</span> Two other classes among the people are mentioned in the gospels,--the +Herodians and the Samaritans. The Herodians do not appear outside the New +Testament, and seem to have been hardly more than a group of men in whom +the secular spirit was dominant, who thought it best for their interests +and for the people's to champion the claims of the Herodian family. They +were probably more akin to the Pharisees than to the Sadducees, for the +latter were hostile to the Herodian claims, from the first; yet in spirit +they seem more like to the worldly aristocracy than to the pious scribes. +The Samaritans lived in the land, a people despising and despised. Their +territory separated Galilee from Judea, and they were a constant source of +irritation to the Jews. The hatred was inherited from the days of Ezra, +when the zealous Jews refused to allow any intercourse with the +inhabitants of Samaria. These Samaritans were spurned as of impure blood +and mixed religion (II. Kings xvii. 24-41). The severe attitude adopted +towards them by Ezra and Nehemiah led to the building of a temple on Mount +Gerizim, and the establishment of a worship which sought to rival that of +Jerusalem in all particulars. Very little is known of the tenets of the +Samaritans in the time of Jesus beyond their belief that Gerizim was the +place which, according to the law, God chose for his temple, and that a +Messiah should come to settle all questions of dispute (John iv. 25).</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s015"><p><span class="versenum">15.</span> Although the religious life of the Jews centred ideally in the temple, +it found its practical expression in the synagogue. This in itself is +evidence of the relative influence of priests and scribes. There was no +confessed rivalry. The Pharisee was most insist<a class="newpage" name="page015" id="page015" title="15"></a>ent on the sanctity of the +temple and the importance of its ritual. Yet with the growing sense of the +religious significance of the individual as distinct from the nation, +there arose of necessity a practical need for a system of worship possible +for the great majority of the people, who could at best visit Jerusalem +but once or twice a year. The synagogue seems to have been a development +of the exile, when there was no temple and no sacrifice. It was the +characteristic institution of Judaism as a religion of the law, furnishing +in every place opportunity for prayer and study. The elders of each +community seem ordinarily to have been in control of its synagogue, and to +have had authority to exclude from its fellowship persons who had come +under the ban. In addition to these officials there was a ruler of the +synagogue, who had the direction of all that concerned the worship; a +<i>chazzan</i>, or minister, who had the care of the sacred books, administered +discipline, and instructed the children in reading the scripture; and two +or more receivers of alms. The Sabbath services consisted of prayers, and +reading of the scriptures--both law and prophets,--and an address or +sermon. It was in the sermon that the people learned to know the +"traditions of the elders," whether as applications of the law to the +daily life, or as legendary embellishments of Hebrew history and prophecy. +The preacher might be any one whom the ruler of the synagague recognized +as worthy to address the congregation.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s016"><p><span class="versenum">16.</span> The religious life which centred in the synagogue found daily +expression in the observance of the law and the traditions. In the measure +of its control by the scribes it was concerned chiefly with the Sab<a class="newpage" name="page016" id="page016" title="16"></a>bath, +with the various ablutions needful to the maintenance of ceremonial +purity, with the distinctions between clean and unclean food, with the +times and ways of fasting, and with the wearing of fringes and +phylacteries. These lifeless ceremonies seem to our day wearisome and +petty in the extreme. It is probable, however, that the growth of the +various traditions had been so gradual that, as has been aptly said, the +whole usage seemed no more unreasonable to the Jews than the etiquette of +polite society does to its devotees. The evil was not so much in the +minuteness of the regulations as in the external and superficial notion of +religion which they induced.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s017"><p><span class="versenum">17.</span> Optimism was the mood of Israel's prophets from the earliest times. +Every generation looked for the dawning of a day which should banish all +ill and realize the dreams inspired by the covenant in which God had +chosen Israel for his own. In proportion as the rabbinic formalism held +control of the hearts of the people, the Messianic hope lost its warmth +and vigor. Yet the scribes did not abandon the prophetic optimism; they +held to the letter of the hope, but as its fulfilment was for them +dependent on perfect obedience to the law, oral and written, their +interest was diverted to the traditions, and their strength was given to +legal disputations. Of the rest of the people, the Sadducees naturally +gave little thought to the promise of future deliverance, they were too +absorbed with regard for present concerns. Nor is there any evidence that +the Essenes, with all their reputed knowledge of the future, cherished the +hope of a Messiah. The other elements among the people who owned the +general leadership <a class="newpage" name="page017" id="page017" title="17"></a>of the scribes looked eagerly for the coming time when +God should bring to pass what he had promised through the prophets. While +some expected God himself to come in judgment, and gave no thought to an +Anointed one who should represent the Most High to the people, the +majority looked for a Son of David to sit upon his father's throne. Even +so, however, there were wide differences in the nature of the hope which +was set on the coming of this Son of David. The Zealots were looking for a +victory, which should set Israel on high over all his foes. To the rest of +the people, however, the method of the consummation was not so clear, and +they were ready to leave God to work out his purpose in his own way, +longing meanwhile for the fulfilment of his promise. One class in +particular gave themselves to visionary representations of the promised +redemption. They differed from the Zealots in that they saw with unwelcome +clearness the futility of physical attack upon their enemies; but their +faith was strong, and at the moment when outward conditions seemed most +disheartening they looked for a revelation of God's power from heaven, +destroying all sinners in his wrath, and delivering and comforting his +people, giving them their lot in a veritable Canaan situated in a renewed +earth. Such visions are recorded in the Book of Daniel and the Revelation +of John. They are found in many other apocalypses not included in our +Bible, and indicate how persistently the minds of the people turned +towards the promises spoken by the prophets, and meditated on their +fulfilment. The Devout were midway between the Zealots and the +Apocalyptists. The songs of Zach<a class="newpage" name="page018" id="page018" title="18"></a>ariah and Mary and the thanksgiving of +Simeon express their faith. They hoped for a kingdom as tangible as the +Zealots sought, yet they preferred to <i>wait</i> for the consolation of +Israel. They believed that God was still in his heaven, that he was not +disregardful of his people, and that in his own time he would raise up +unto them their king. They looked for a Son of David, yet his reign was to +be as remarkable for its purification of his own people as for its +victories over their foes. These victories indeed were to be largely +spiritual, for their Messiah was to conquer in the strength of the Spirit +of God and "by the word of his mouth." Such as these were ready for a +ministry like John's, and not unready for the new ideal which Jesus was +about to offer them, though their highest spiritualization of the +Messianic hope was but a shadow of the reality which Jesus asked them to +accept.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s018"><p><span class="versenum">18.</span> This last conception of the Messiah is found in a group of psalms +written in the first century before Christ, during the early days of the +Roman interference in Judea. These Psalms of Solomon, as they are called, +are pharisaic in point of view, yet they are not rabbinic in their ideas. +Their feeling is too deep, and their reliance on God too immediate; they +fitly follow the psalms of the Old Testament, though afar off. Of another +type of contemporary literature, Apocalypse, at least two representatives +besides the Book of Daniel have come down to us from the time of Jesus or +earlier,--the so-called Book of Enoch, and the fragment known as the +Assumption of Moses. These writings have peculiar interest, because they +are probably the source of quotations found in the Epistle of <a class="newpage" name="page019" id="page019" title="19"></a>Jude; +moreover, some sayings of Jesus reported in the gospels, and in particular +his chosen title, The Son of Man, are strikingly similar to expressions +found in Enoch. Can Jesus have read these books? The psalms of the Devout +were the kind of literature to pass rapidly from heart to heart, until all +who sympathized with their hope and faith had heard or seen them. The case +was different with the apocalypses. They are more elaborate and +enigmatical, and may have been only slightly known. Yet, as Jesus was +familiar with the canonical Book of Daniel, although it was not read in +the synagogue service in his time, it is possible that he may also have +read or heard other books which had not won recognition as canonical. If, +however, he knew nothing of them, the similarity between the apocalypses +and some of Jesus' ideas and expressions becomes all the more significant; +for it shows that these writings gave utterance to thoughts and feelings +shared by men who never read them, which were, therefore, no isolated +fancies, but characteristic of the religion of many of the people. With +these ideas Jesus was familiar; whether he ever read the books must remain +a question.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s019"><p><span class="versenum">19.</span> This literature exists for us only in translations made in the days of +the early church. Most of these books were originally written in Hebrew, +the language of the Old Testament, or in Aramaic, the language of +Palestine in the time of Jesus. Traces of this language as spoken by Jesus +have been preserved in the gospels,--the name <i>Rabbi; Abba</i>, translated +Father; <i>Talitha cumi</i>, addressed to the daughter of Jairus; <i>Ephphatha</i>, +to the deaf man of Bethsaida; and the cry from the cross, <i>Eloi, Eloi, +lama sabachthani</i> <a class="newpage" name="page020" id="page020" title="20"></a>(John i. 38; Mark xiv. 36; v. 41; vii. 34; xv. 34). It +is altogether probable that in his common dealings with men and in his +teachings Jesus used this language. Greek was the language of the +government and of trade, and in a measure the Jews were a bilingual +people. Jesus may thus have had some knowledge of Greek, but it is +unlikely that he ever used it to any extent either in Galilee, or Judea, +or in the regions of Tyre and Sidon.</p></div> +</div> + + +<div class="chapter" id="p01-02"> +<h2><a class="newpage" name="page021" id="page021" title="21"></a>II</h2> + +<h3>Sources of Our Knowledge Of Jesus</h3> + + + +<div class="section" id="s020"><p><span class="versenum">20.</span> The earliest existing record of events in the life of Jesus is given +to us in the epistles of Paul. His account of the appearances of the Lord +after his death and resurrection (I. Cor. xv. 3-8) was written within +thirty years of these events. The date of the testimony, however, is much +earlier, since Paul refers to the experience which transformed his own +life, and so carries us back to within a few years of the crucifixion. +Other facts from Jesus' life may be gathered from Paul, as his descent +from Abraham and David (Rom. i. 3; ix. 5); his life of obedience (Rom. v. +19; xv. 3; Phil. ii. 5-11); his poverty (II. Cor. viii. 9); his meekness +and gentleness (II. Cor. x. 1); other New Testament writings outside of +our gospels add somewhat to this restricted but very clear testimony.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s021"><p><span class="versenum">21.</span> Secular history knows little of the obscure Galilean. The testimony of +Tacitus is that the Christians "derived their name and origin from one +Christ, who in the reign of Tiberius had suffered death by the sentence of +the procurator, Pontius Pilate" (Annals, xv. 44). Suetonius makes an +obscure and seemingly ill-informed allusion to Christ in the reason he +assigns for the edict of Claudius expelling the Jews from Rome (Vit. +Claud. 25). The younger Pliny in the second century had learned that the +<a class="newpage" name="page022" id="page022" title="22"></a>numerous Christian community in Bithynia was accustomed to honor Christ +as God; but he shows no knowledge of the life of Jesus beyond what must be +inferred concerning one who caused men "to bind themselves with an oath +not to enter into any wickedness, or commit thefts, robberies, or +adulteries, or falsify their word, or repudiate trusts committed to them" +(Epistles X. 96). This secular ignorance is not surprising; but the +silence of Josephus is. He mentions Jesus in but one clearly genuine +passage, when telling of the martyrdom of James, the "brother of Jesus, +who is called the Christ" (Ant. xx. 9. 1). Of John the Baptist, however, +he has a very appreciative notice (Ant, xviii. 5. 2), and it cannot be +that he was ignorant of Jesus. His appreciation of John suggests that he +could not have mentioned Jesus more fully without some approval of his +life and teaching. This would be a condemnation of his own people, whom he +desired to commend to Gentile regard; and he seems to have taken the +cowardly course of silence concerning a matter more noteworthy, even for +that generation, than much else of which he writes very fully.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s022"><p><span class="versenum">22.</span> The reason for the lack of written Christian records of Jesus' life +from the earliest time seems to be, not that the apostles had a small +sense of the importance of his earthly ministry, but that the early +generation preferred what at a later time was called the "living voice" +(Papias in Euseb. Ch. Hist. iii. 39). The impression made by Jesus was +supremely personal; he wrote nothing, did not command his disciples to +write anything, preferring to influence men's minds by personal power, +appointing them, in turn, to represent <a class="newpage" name="page023" id="page023" title="23"></a>him to men as he had represented +the Father to them (John xx. 21). But the time came when the first +witnesses were passing away, and they were not many who could say, "I saw +him." Our gospels are the result of the natural desire to preserve the +apostolic testimony for a generation that could no longer hear the +apostolic voice; and they are precisely what such a sense of need would +produce,--vivid pictures of Jesus, agreeing in general features, differing +more or less in details, reflecting individual feeling for the Master, and +written not simply to inform men but to convince them of that Master's +claims. One evidence of the reality of the gospel pictures is the fact +that we so seldom feel the individual characteristics of each gospel. This +is especially true of the first three, which, to the vividness of their +picture, add a remarkable similarity of detail. Tatian, in the second +century, felt it necessary to make a continuous narrative for the use of +the church by interweaving the four gospels into one, and he has had many +successors down to our day; but the fact that unity of impression has +practically resulted from the four pictures without recourse to such an +interweaving, invites consideration of the characteristics of these +remarkable documents.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s023"><p><span class="versenum">23.</span> The first gospel impresses the careful reader with three things: (1) A +clear sense of the development of Jesus' ministry. The author introduces +his narrative by an account of the birth of Jesus, of the ministry of John +the Baptist, and of Jesus' baptism and temptation and withdrawal into +Galilee (i. 1 to iv. 17). He then depicts the public ministry by grouping +together, first, teachings of Jesus concerning <a class="newpage" name="page024" id="page024" title="24"></a>the law of the kingdom of +heaven, then a series of great miracles confirming the new doctrine, then +the expansion of the ministry and deepening hostility of the Pharisees, +leading to the teaching by parables, and the final withdrawal from Galilee +to the north. This ministry resulted in the chilling of popular enthusiasm +which had been strong at the beginning, but in the winning of a few hearts +to Jesus' own ideals of the kingdom of God (iv. 18 to xvi. 20). From this +point the evangelist leads us to Jerusalem, where rejection culminates, +the sterner teachings of Jesus are massed, and his victory in seeming +defeat is exhibited (xvi. 21 to xxviii. 20). (2) The evangelist's interest +is not satisfied by this clear, strong, picture; he wishes to convince men +that Jesus is Israel's Messiah, hence, throughout, he indicates the +fulfilment of prophecy. The things in which he sees the fulfilment are +striking, for, with but one or two exceptions, they are features of the +life of Jesus objectionable to Jewish feeling. This fact, taken in +connection with the emphasis which the gospel gives to the death of Jesus +at the hands of the Jews, and to the resurrection as God's seal of +approval of him whom his people rejected, forms a forcible argument to +prove the Messiahship of Jesus, not simply in spite of his rejection by +the Jews, but by appeal to that rejection as leading to God's signal +vindication of the crucified one. (3) This evangelist, while proving that +Jesus is the Messiah promised to Israel, recognizes clearly the freedom of +the new faith from the exclusiveness of Jewish feeling. The choice of +Galilee for the Messianic ministry (iv. 12-17), the comment of Jesus on +the faith of the centurion (viii. 10-12), the rebuke of Israel in the +<a class="newpage" name="page025" id="page025" title="25"></a>parable of the Wicked Husbandmen (xxi. 33-46), and especially the last +commission of the risen Lord (xxviii. 18-20), show that this gospel sought +to convince men of Jewish feeling not only that Jesus is Messiah, but also +that as Messiah he came to bring salvation to all the world.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s024"><p><span class="versenum">24.</span> The second gospel is much simpler in construction than the first, +while presenting essentially the same picture of the ministry as is found +in Matthew. To its simplicity it adds a vividness of narration which +commends Mark's account as probably representing most nearly the actual +course of the life of Jesus. While it reports fewer incidents and +teachings than either of the others, a comparison with Matthew and Luke +shows a preference in Mark for Jesus' deeds, though addresses are not +wanting; and, while shorter as a whole, for matters which he reports +Mark's record is most rich in detail, most dramatic in presentation, and +actually longer than the parallel accounts in the other gospels. The whole +narrative is animated in style (note the oft-repeated "immediately") and +full of graphic traits. The story of Jesus seems to be reproduced from a +memory which retains fresh personal impressions of events as they +occurred. Hence the frequent comments on the effect of Jesus' ministry, +such as "We never saw it on this fashion" (ii. 12), or "He hath done all +things well" (vii. 37), and the introduction into the narrative of Aramaic +words,--<i>Boanerges</i> (iii. 17), <i>Talitha, cumi</i> (v. 41), and the like, +which immediately have to be translated. The gospel discloses no +artificial plan, the chief word of transition is "and." While some of the +incidents recorded, such as the second Sabbath controversy <a class="newpage" name="page026" id="page026" title="26"></a>(iii. 1-6) and +the question about fasting (ii. 18-22), may owe their place to association +in memory with an event of like character, the book impresses us as a +collection of annals fresh from the living memory, which present the +actual Jesus teaching and healing, and going on his way to the cross and +resurrection. After the briefest possible reference to the ministry of +John the Baptist and the baptism and temptation of Jesus (i. 1-13), this +gospel proceeds to set forth the ministry in Galilee (i. 14 to ix. 50). +The narrative then follows Jesus to Jerusalem, by way of Perea, and closes +with his victory through death and resurrection (x. 1 to xvi. 8).</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s025"><p><span class="versenum">25.</span> The third gospel is more nearly a biography than any of its +companions. It opens with a preface stating that after a study of many +earlier attempts to record the life of Jesus the author has undertaken to +present as complete an account as possible of that life from the +beginning. The book is addressed to one Theophilus, doubtless a Greek +Christian, and its chief aim is practical,--to confirm conviction +concerning matters of faith (i. 1-4). The author's interest in the +completeness of his account appears in the fact that it begins with +incidents antecedent to the birth of John the Baptist and Jesus. Moreover, +to his desire for completeness we owe much of the story of Jesus, +otherwise unrecorded for us. Like the first two gospels, Luke represents +the ministry of Jesus as inaugurated in Galilee, and carried on there +until the approach of the tragedy at Jerusalem (iv. 14 to ix. 50). It is +in connection with the journey to Jerusalem (ix. 51 to xix. 27) that he +inserts most of that which is peculiar to his gospel. His account of the +rejection at Jeru<a class="newpage" name="page027" id="page027" title="27"></a>salem, the crucifixion, and resurrection, follows in the +main the same lines as Matthew and Mark; but he gained his knowledge of +many particulars from different sources (xix. 28 to xxiv. 53). It is +characteristic of Luke to name Jesus "Lord" more often than either of his +predecessors. With this exalted conception is coupled a noticeable +emphasis on Jesus' ministry of compassion; here more than in any other +gospel he is pictured as the friend of sinners. Moreover, we owe chiefly +to Luke our knowledge of him as a man of prayer and as subject to repeated +temptation. An artificial exaltation of Christ, such as is often +attributed to the later apostolic thought, would tend to reduce, not +multiply, such evidences of human dependence on God. This fact increases +our confidence in the accuracy of Luke's picture. The gospel is very full +of comfort to those under the pressure of poverty, and of rebuke to +unbelieving wealth, though the parable of the Unjust Steward and story of +Zacchæus show that it does not exalt poverty for its own sake. If our +first gospel pictures Jesus as the fulfilment of God's promises to his +people, and Mark, as the man of power at work before our very eyes, +astonishing the multitude while winning the few, Luke sets before us the +Lord ministering with divine compassion to men subject to like temptations +with himself, though, unlike them, he knew no sin.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s026"><p><span class="versenum">26.</span> The first three gospels, differing as they do in point of view and +aim, present essentially one picture of the ministry of Jesus; for they +agree concerning the locality and progress of his Messianic work, and the +form and contents of his teaching, showing, in <a class="newpage" name="page028" id="page028" title="28"></a>fact, verbal identity in +many parts of their narrative. For this reason they are commonly known as +the Synoptic Gospels. Yet these gospels exhibit differences as remarkable +as their likenesses. They differ perplexingly in the order in which they +arrange some of the events in Jesus' life. Which of them should be given +preference in constructing a harmonious picture of his ministry? They +often agree to the letter in their report of deeds or words of Jesus, yet +from beginning to end remarkable verbal differences stand side by side +with remarkable verbal identities. Some of the identities of language +suggest irresistibly that the evangelists have used, at least in part, the +same previously existing written record. One of the clearest evidences of +this is found in the introduction, at the same place in the parallel +accounts, of the parenthesis "then saith he to the sick of the palsy" +which interrupts the words of Jesus in the cure of the paralytic (Mark ii. +10; Matt. ix. 6; Luke v. 24). When the three gospels are carefully +compared it appears that Mark contains very little that is not found in +Matthew and Luke, and that, with one or two exceptions, Luke presents in +Mark's order the matter that he has in common with the second gospel. The +same is also true of the relation between the latter part of the Gospel of +Matthew (Matt. xiv. 1 to the end) and the parallel portion of Mark; while +the comparison of Matthew's arrangement of his earlier half with Mark +suggests that the order in the first gospel has been determined by other +than chronological considerations. In a sense, therefore, we may say that +the Gospel of Mark reveals the chronological framework on which all three +of these gospels are constructed. <a class="newpage" name="page029" id="page029" title="28"></a>Comparison discloses further the +interesting fact that the matter which Matthew and Luke have in common, +after subtracting their parallels to Mark, consists almost entirely of +teachings and addresses. Each gospel, however, has some matter peculiar to +itself.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s027"><p><span class="versenum">27.</span> In considering the problem presented by these facts, it is well to +remember that no one of these gospels contains within itself any statement +concerning the identity of its author. We are indebted to tradition for +the names by which we know them, and no one of them makes any claim to +apostolic origin. The earliest reference in Christian literature which may +be applied to our gospels comes from Papias, a Christian of Asia Minor in +the second century. He reports that an earlier teacher had said, "Mark, +having become the interpreter of Peter, wrote down accurately, though not, +indeed, in order, whatsoever he remembered of the things said or done by +Christ, for he neither heard the Lord nor followed him, but afterward, as +I said, he followed Peter, who adapted his teachings to the needs of his +hearers, but with no intention of giving a connected account of the Lord's +discourses. So that Mark committed no error when he thus wrote some things +as he remembered them, for he was careful of one thing, not to omit any of +the things which he had heard and not to state any of them falsely.... +Matthew wrote the oracles [of the Lord] in the Hebrew language [Aramaic], +and every one interpreted them as he was able" (Euseb. Ch. Hist. iii. 39). +The result of many years' study by scholars of all shades of opinion is +the very general conclusion that the writing which Papias attributed <a class="newpage" name="page030" id="page030" title="30"></a>to +Mark was essentially what we have in our second gospel.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s028"><p><span class="versenum">28.</span> It is almost as universally acknowledged that the work ascribed by the +second century elder to the apostle Matthew cannot be our first gospel; +for its language has not the characteristics which other translations from +Hebrew or Aramaic lead us to expect, while the completeness of its +narrative exceeds what is suggested by the words of Papias. If, however, +the matter which Matthew and Luke have in such rich measure in addition to +Mark's narrative be considered, the likeness between this and the writing +attributed by Papias to the apostle Matthew is noteworthy. The conclusion +is now very general, that that apostolic writing is in large measure +preserved in the discourses in our first and third gospels. The relation +of our gospels to the two books mentioned by Papias may be conceived, +then, somewhat as follows: The earliest gospel writing of which we know +anything was a collection of the teachings of Jesus made by the apostle +Matthew, in which he collected with simple narrative introductions, those +sayings of the Lord which from the beginning had passed from mouth to +mouth in the circle of the disciples. At a later time Mark wrote down the +account of the ministry of Jesus which Peter had been accustomed to relate +in his apostolic preaching. The work of the apostle Matthew, while much +richer in the sayings of Jesus, lacked the completeness that characterizes +a narrative; hence it occurred to some early disciple to blend together +these two primitive gospel records, adding such other items of knowledge +as came to his hand from oral tradition or written memoranda. As his <a class="newpage" name="page031" id="page031" title="31"></a>aim +was practical rather than historical, he added such editorial comments as +would make of the new gospel an argument for the Messiahship of Jesus, as +we have seen. Since the most precious element in this new gospel was the +apostolic record of the teachings of the Lord, the name of Matthew and not +of his literary successor, was given to the book.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s029"><p><span class="versenum">29.</span> The third gospel is ascribed, by a probably trustworthy tradition, to +Luke, the companion of Paul. The author himself says that he made use of +such earlier records as were accessible, among which the chief seem to +have been the writings of Mark and the apostle Matthew. To Luke's +industry, however, we owe our knowledge of many incidents and teachings +from the life of Jesus which were not contained in these two records, and +with which we could ill afford to part. Some of these he doubtless found +in written form, and some he gathered from oral testimony. His close +agreement with Mark in the arrangement of his narrative suggests that he +found no clear evidence of a ministry of wider extent in time and place. +He therefore used Mark as his narrative framework, and of the rich +materials which he had gathered made a gospel, the completest of any +written up to his time.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s030"><p><span class="versenum">30.</span> Such in the main is the conclusion of modern study of our first three +gospels; it explains the general identity of their picture of Jesus and of +their report of his teaching; it leaves room for those individual +characteristics which give them so much of their charm; and it traces the +materials of the gospels far back of the writings as we have them, +bringing us nearer to the events which they describe. The dates of these +<a class="newpage" name="page032" id="page032" title="32"></a>documents can be only approximately known. It is probable that the +"logia" collected by the apostle Matthew were written not later than 60 to +65 A.D., while the Gospel of Mark dates from before the fall of Jerusalem +in 70. Our first gospel must have been made between 70 and 100, and the +Gospel of Luke may be dated about the year 80,--all within sixty or +seventy years after the death of Jesus.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s031"><p><span class="versenum">31.</span> The fourth gospel gives us a picture of Jesus in striking contrast to +that of the other three. These present chiefly the works of the Master and +his teachings concerning the kingdom of God and human conduct, leaving the +truth concerning the teacher himself to be inferred. John opens the heart +of Jesus and makes him disclose his thought about himself in a remarkable +series of teachings of which he is the prime topic. This gospel is +avowedly an argument (xx. 30, 31); its selection of material is +confessedly partial; its aim is to confirm the faith of Christians in the +heavenly nature and saving power of their Lord; and its method is that of +appeal to testimony, to signs, and to his own self-disclosures. The +opening verses of the gospel have a somewhat abstract theological +character; the body of the book, however, consists of a succession of +incidents and teachings which follow each other in unstudied fashion like +a collection of annals. This impression is not compromised by the +recognition, at some points, of accidental displacements, like that which +has placed xiv. 30, 31 before xv. and xvi., or that which has left a long +gap between vii. 23 and the incident of v. 1-9, to which it refers. The +theme of the gospel is the self-disclosure of Jesus. This seems to have +determined the evangelist's choice of material, <a class="newpage" name="page033" id="page033" title="33"></a>and, as the gospel is an +argument, he does not hesitate to mingle his own comments with his report +of Jesus' words, for example (iii. 16-21, 30-36; xii. 37-43). The book is +characterized by a vividness of detail which indicates a clear memory of +personal experience. While it is evident that the author has the most +exalted conception of the nature of his Lord, this seems to have been the +result of loving meditation on a friend who had early won the mastery over +his heart and life, and who through long years of contemplation had forced +upon his disciple's mind the conviction of his transcendent nature. The +book discloses a profoundly objective attitude; the Christ whom John +portrays is not the creature of his speculations, but the Master who has +entered into his experience as a living influence and has compelled +recognition of his significance. The Son of God is for John the human +Jesus who, though named at the outset the Word--the Logos,--is the Word +who was made flesh, that men through him might become the sons of God.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s032"><p><span class="versenum">32.</span> The contrast which the Gospel of John presents to the other three +concerns not only the teaching of Jesus, but the scene of his ministry and +its historic development as well. Whatever may be the final judgment +concerning the fourth gospel, it is manifestly constructed as a simple +collection of incidents following each other in what was meant to appear a +chronological sequence. It has been seen that the biographical framework +of the first three gospels is principally Mark's report of Peter's +narrative. Now it is a fact that in portions of Matthew and Luke, derived +elsewhere than from Mark, there are various allusions most easily +understood if it be assumed that Jesus <a class="newpage" name="page034" id="page034" title="34"></a>visited Jerusalem before his +appearance there at the end of his ministry. Such, for instance, are the +parable of the Good Samaritan (Luke x. 25-37), the story of the visit to +Mary and Martha (Luke x. 38-42), and the lamentation of Jesus over +Jerusalem (Luke xiii. 34, 35; Matt, xxiii. 37-39). All three gospels, +moreover, agree in attributing to emissaries from Jerusalem much of the +hostility manifested against Jesus in his Galilean ministry (Luke v. 17; +Mark iii. 22; Matt. xv. 1; Mark vii. 1), and presuppose such an +acquaintance of Jesus with households in and near Jerusalem as is not easy +to explain if he never visited Judea before his passion (Mark xi. 2, 3; +xiv. 14; xv. 43 and parallels; compare especially Matt, xxvii. 57; John +xix. 38). These all suggest that the narrative of Mark does not tell the +whole story, a conclusion quite in accordance with the account of his work +given by Papias. It has been assumed that Peter was a Galilean, a man of +family living in Capernaum. It is not impossible that on some of the +earlier visits of Jesus to Jerusalem he did not accompany his Master, and +in reporting the things which he knew he naturally confined himself to his +own experiences. If this can explain the predominance of Galilean +incidents in the ministry as depicted in Mark, it will explain the +predominance of Galilee in the first three gospels, and the contradiction +between John and the three is reduced to a divergence between two accounts +of Jesus' ministry written from two different points of view.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s033"><p><span class="versenum">33.</span> The question of the trustworthiness of the fourth gospel is greatly +simplified by the consideration of the one-sidedness of Mark's +representation. It is further relieved by the fact that a ministry by +Jesus in <a class="newpage" name="page035" id="page035" title="35"></a>Jerusalem must have been one of constant self-assertion, for +Jerusalem represented at its highest those aspects of thought and practice +which were fundamentally opposed to all that Jesus did and taught. +Whenever in Galilee, in the ministry pictured by the first three gospels, +Jesus came in contact with the spirit and feeling characteristic of +Jerusalem, we find him meeting it by unqualified assertion of his own +independence and exalted claim to authority, altogether similar to that +emphasis of his own significance and importance which is the chief +characteristic of his teachings in the fourth gospel. If it be remembered +that that gospel was avowedly an argument written to commend to others the +reverent conclusion concerning the Lord reached by a disciple whose +thought had dwelt for long years on the marvel of that life, and if we +recognize that for such an argument the author would select the instances +and teachings most telling for his own purpose, and would do this as +naturally as the magnet draws to itself iron filings which are mingled +with a pile of sand, the exclusively personal character of the teachings +of Jesus in this gospel need cause little perplexity. Nor need it seem +surprising that the words of Jesus as reported in John share the +peculiarities of style which mark the work of the evangelist in the +prologue to the gospel and in his epistles. His purpose was not primarily +biographical but argumentative, and he has set forth the picture of his +Lord as it rose before his own heart, his memory of events being +interwoven with contemplation on the significance of that life with which +his had been so blessedly associated. In a gospel written avowedly to +produce in others a conviction like his own, the evangelist would not have +<a class="newpage" name="page036" id="page036" title="36"></a>been sensible of any obligation to draw sharp lines between his +recollection of his Lord's words and his own contemplations upon them and +upon their significance for his life. If these considerations be kept in +mind we may accept the uniform tradition of antiquity, confirmed by the +plain intimation of the gospel itself, that it is essentially the work of +John, the son of Zebedee, written near the close of his life in Ephesus, +in the last decade of the first century.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s034"><p><span class="versenum">34.</span> We have in our gospel records, therefore, two authorities for the +general course of the ministry of Jesus,--Mark and John. Even if the +fourth gospel should be proved not to be the work of John, its picture of +the ministry of Jesus must be recognized as coming from some apostolic +source. A forger would hardly have invited the rejection of his work by +inventing a narrative which seems to contradict at so many points the +tradition of the other gospels. The first and third gospels furnish us +from various sources rich additions to Mark's narrative, and it is to +these two with the fourth that we turn chiefly for the teachings of Jesus. +Each gospel should be read, therefore, remembering its incompleteness, +remembering also the particular purpose and individual enthusiasm for +Jesus which produced it.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s035"><p><span class="versenum">35.</span> A word may be due to two other claimants to recognition as original +records from the life of Jesus. One class is represented by that word of +the Lord which Paul quoted to the Ephesian elders at Miletus (Acts xx. +35). Scattered here and there in writings of the apostolic and succeeding +ages are other sayings attributed to Jesus which cannot be found in our +gospels. A few of these so-called Agrapha seem worthy <a class="newpage" name="page037" id="page037" title="37"></a>of him, and are +recognized as probably genuine. The most important of them is the story of +the woman taken in adultery (John vii. 53 to viii. 11), which, though not +a part of the gospel of John, doubtless gives a true incident from Jesus' +life. They represent the "many other" things which John and the other +gospels have omitted, but their small number proves that our gospels have +preserved for us practically all that was known of Jesus after the first +witnesses fell asleep. It is certainly surprising that so little exists to +supplement the story of the gospels, for they are manifestly fragmentary, +and leave much of Jesus' public life without any record. The other class +of claimants is of a quite different character,--the so-called Apocryphal +Gospels. These consist chiefly of legends connected with the birth and +early years of Jesus, and with his death and resurrection. They are for +the most part crude tales that have entirely mistaken the real character +of him whom they seek to exalt, and need only to be read to be rejected.</p></div> +</div> + + +<div class="chapter" id="p01-03"> +<h2><a class="newpage" name="page038" id="page038" title="38"></a>III</h2> + +<h3>The Harmony of the Gospels</h3> + + + +<div class="section" id="s036"><p><span class="versenum">36.</span> The church early appreciated the value and the difficulty of having +four different pictures of the life and teachings of the Lord. Irenæus at +the close of the second century felt it to be as essential that there +should be four gospels as that there should be "four zones of the world, +four principal winds, and four faces of the cherubim" (Against Heresies +III. ii. 8).</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s037"><p><span class="versenum">37.</span> Before Irenæus, however, another had sought to obviate the difficulty +of having four records which seem at some points to disagree, by making a +combination of the gospels, to which he gave the title "Diatessaron." +Tatian, the author of this work, was converted from paganism about 152 +A.D., and prepared his unified gospel, probably for the use of the Syrian +churches, sometime after 172. His work is one of the treasures of the +early Christian literature recovered for us within the last +quarter-century. It seems to have won great popularity in the Syrian +churches, having practically displaced the canonical gospels for nearly +three centuries, when, owing to its supposed heretical tendency, it was +suppressed by the determined effort of the church authorities. It is a +continuous record of Jesus' ministry, beginning with the first six verses +of the Gospel of John, passing then to the early chapters <a class="newpage" name="page039" id="page039" title="39"></a>of Luke. It +closes with an account of the resurrection interwoven from all four +gospels, concluding with John xxi. 25. The arrangement follows generally +the order of Matthew, additional matter from the other gospels being +inserted at places which approved themselves to Tatian's judgment. Some +portions--in particular the genealogies of Jesus--were omitted altogether, +in accordance with views held by the compiler.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s038"><p><span class="versenum">38.</span> From Tatian's time to the present there have been repeated attempts to +construct a harmonious representation of events and teachings in the +ministry of Jesus, generally by setting the parallel accounts side by +side, following such a succession of events as seemed most probable. Our +evangelists cared little, if they thought at all, about the requirements +of strict biography, and they have left us records not easy to arrange on +any one chronological scheme. Concerning the chief events, however, the +gospels agree. All four report, for instance, the beginning of the work in +Galilee (Matt. iv. 12, 17; Mark i. 14, 15; Luke iv. 14, 15; John iv. +43-45); the feeding of the five thousand when Jesus' popularity in Galilee +passed its climax (Matt. xiv. 13-23; Mark vi. 30-46; Luke ix. 10-17; John +vi. 1-15); the departure from Galilee for the final visit to Jerusalem +(Matt. xix. 1, 2; Mark x. 1; Luke ix. 51; John vii. 1-10); and the week of +suffering and victory at the end (Matt. xxi. 1 to xxviii. 20; Mark xi. 1 +to xvi. 8 [20]; Luke xix. 29 to xxiv. 53; John xii. 1 to xxi. 25).</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s039"><p><span class="versenum">39.</span> These facts are enough to give us a clear and unified impression of +the course of Jesus' ministry. When, however, we seek to fill in the +details given <a class="newpage" name="page040" id="page040" title="40"></a>in the different gospels, difficulties at once arise. Thus, +first, what shall be done with the long section which John introduces (i. +19 to iv. 42) before Jesus' withdrawal into Galilee? The other gospels +make that withdrawal the beginning of his public work. A second difficulty +arises from the unnamed feast of John v. 1. By one or another scholar this +feast has been identified with almost every Jewish festival known to us. +Another problem is furnished by the long section in Luke which is so +nearly peculiar to his gospel (ix. 51 to xviii. 14). If the section had no +parallels in the other gospels we might easily conclude that it all +belongs to a time subsequent to the final departure for Jerusalem; but it +contains at least one incident from the earlier ministry in Galilee (Luke +xi. 14-36; compare Mark iii. 19-30), and many teachings of Jesus given by +Matthew in an earlier connection appear here in Luke. Furthermore, the +section has to be adjusted to that portion of the Gospel of John which +deals with the same period and yet reports none of the same details.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s040"><p><span class="versenum">40.</span> If Mark has furnished the narrative framework adopted in the main by +the first and third gospels, the problem of the order of events in Jesus' +life becomes a question of the chronological value of Mark, and of the +estimate to be placed on the narrative of John. If the fourth gospel is +held to be of apostolic origin and trustworthy, the task of the harmonist +is chiefly that of combining these two records of Mark and John. The +testimony of the Baptist, with which the fourth gospel opens, must have +been given some time after he had baptized Jesus, and the ministry which +preceded Jesus' return to Galilee (i. 19 to iv. 42) be<a class="newpage" name="page041" id="page041" title="41"></a>longs to a period +ignored by the other gospels. The first three gospels contain indications +that Jesus must have visited Judea before the close of his life. They give +no hint, however, of the time or circumstances of such earlier Judean +labor. In giving the emphasis they do to the work in Galilee, they present +a one-sided picture. When, therefore, we find in John a narrative of work +in Judea, confirmed by hints in the other gospels, we may justly assume +that the arrangement which fills out the ministry of Jesus by inserting at +the proper places in Mark's record the events found in John is essentially +true.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s041"><p><span class="versenum">41.</span> The consideration of the one-sidedness of Mark's narrative simplifies +the problem of harmony, but it does not solve all of the perplexities. +Matthew and Luke have much matter, some of it narrative, which Mark has +not, and for which he suggests no place. Where shall we put, for instance, +the cure of the centurion's servant (Matt. viii. 5-13; Luke vii. 1-10), or +John the Baptist's last message (Matt. xi. 2-19; Luke vii. 18-35)? It +would simplify matters if we could take Luke's statement that he had +"traced the course of all things accurately from the first" (Luke i. 3), +as indicating that he had arrived at exact certainty concerning the order +of events of Jesus' life. It is probable, however, that his statement was +simply a claim that he had carefully gathered material for a record of the +whole life of Jesus, from the annunciation of his birth to his ascension. +While we may believe that some trustworthy tradition led him to give the +place he has to many of the incidents which he adds to Mark's story, it +seems impossible to follow him in all respects; for instance, in severing +the account of the blasphemy <a class="newpage" name="page042" id="page042" title="42"></a>of the Pharisees (xi. 14-36) from the place +which it holds in Mark (iii. 19-30).</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s042"><p><span class="versenum">42.</span> Still more uncertainty exists concerning the historic connection of +teachings of Jesus to which Matthew and Luke give different settings; for +example, the Lord's Prayer (Matt. vi. 9-15; Luke xi. 1-4), and the +exhortations against anxiety (Matt. vi. 25-34; Luke xii. 22-31). We have +seen that much of the teaching common to these gospels is probably derived +from the collection of the "oracles" of the Lord made by the apostle +Matthew. Everything that we can infer concerning such a collection of +oracles indicates that, while some of the teachings may have been +connected with particular historic situations (compare Luke xi. 1), many +would altogether lack such introductory words. A later example of what +such a collection may have been has come to light recently in the +so-called "Sayings of Jesus," discovered in Egypt and published in 1897. +In these the occasion for the teaching has been quite lost; the sole +interest centres in the fact that Jesus is supposed to have said the +things recorded. If Matthew's book contained such "logia" or "oracles," it +is probable that the original connection in which most of them were spoken +was a matter of no concern to the apostle, and consequently has been lost +This in no way compromises the genuineness of these sayings of Jesus. The +treatment of Luke ix. 51 to xviii. 14 is much simplified by this +consideration. To Luke's industry (i. 1-4) we owe the preservation of some +events and very many teachings which no other evangelist has recorded. +Some of this new material (for instance, vii. 11-17, 36-50) he has +assigned a place in the midst of Mark's narrative. <a class="newpage" name="page043" id="page043" title="43"></a>Most of it, however, +he has gathered together in what seems to be a sort of appendix, which he +has inserted between the close of the ministry in Galilee and the final +arrival in Judea. For many of the teachings it is now impossible to assign +a time or place. That this is so will cause no surprise or difficulty if +we remember that in the earliest days the report of what Jesus said and +did circulated in the form of oral tradition only. It was the knowledge +that first-hand witnesses were passing away that led to the writing of the +gospels. During the period of oral tradition many teachings of the Lord +were doubtless kept clearly and accurately in memory after the historic +situations which led to their first utterance were quite forgotten.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s043"><p><span class="versenum">43.</span> This fact helps to explain another perplexity in our gospel +narratives. A comparison of the two accounts of the cure of the +centurion's servant reveals differences of detail most perplexing, if we +ask for minute agreement in records of the same events. When we see that +of two accounts evidently reporting the same incident, one can say that +the centurion himself sought Jesus and asked the cure of his servant +(Matt. viii. 5, 8), while the other makes him declare himself unworthy to +come in person to the Lord (Luke vii. 7), the question arises whether +other accounts, similar in the main but differing in detail, should not be +identified as independent records of one event. Were there two cleansings +of the temple (John ii. 13-22; Mark xi. 15-19), two miraculous draughts of +fishes (Luke v. 4-11; John xxi. 5-8), two rejections at Nazareth (Mark vi. +1-6; Luke iv. 16-30), two parables of the Leaven, of the Mustard <a class="newpage" name="page044" id="page044" title="44"></a>Seed +(Matt. xiii. 31-33; Luke xiii. 18-21), and of the Lost Sheep (Matt, xviii. +12-14; Luke xv. 4-7)? Such similar records are often called doublets, and +the question of identity or distinctness can be answered only after a +special study of each case. It is important to notice that a given +teaching, particularly if it took the form of an illustration, would +naturally be used by Jesus on many different occasions. When, on the other +hand, we find two accounts of specific doings of Jesus similar in detail +it is needful to recognize that definite historic situations do not so +often repeat themselves as do occasions for similar or identical +teachings.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s044"><p><span class="versenum">44.</span> All these considerations show that while the general order of events +in the life of Jesus may be determined with a good degree of probability, +we must be content to remain uncertain concerning the place to be given to +many incidents and to more teachings. Such uncertainty is of small +concern, since our unharmonized gospels have not failed during all these +centuries to produce one fair picture, to the total impression of which +each teaching and deed make definite contribution quite independently of +our ability to give to each its particular place in relation to the whole. +The degree of certainty attainable justifies, however, a continued +interest in the old study of harmony, because of the more comprehensive +idea it gives of the ministry depicted in the partial narratives of our +several gospels.</p></div> +</div> + + +<div class="chapter" id="p01-04"> +<h2>IV</h2> + +<h3><a class="newpage" name="page045" id="page045" title="45"></a>The Chronology</h3> + + + +<div class="section" id="s045"><p><span class="versenum">45.</span> The length of the public ministry of Jesus was one of the earliest +questions which arose in the study of the four gospels. In the second and +third centuries it was not uncommon to find the answer in the passage from +Isaiah (lxi. 1, 2), which Jesus declared was fulfilled in himself. "The +acceptable year of the Lord" was taken to indicate that the ministry +covered little more than a year. The fact that the first three gospels +mention but one Passover (that at the end), and but one journey to +Jerusalem, seems at first to be favorable to this conclusion, and to make +peculiarly significant the care taken by Luke to give the exact date for +the opening of Jesus' ministry (iii. 1, 2). In fact, the second century +Gnostics, relying apparently on Luke, assigned both the ministry and death +of Jesus to the fifteenth year of Tiberius Cæsar,--an interpretation which +may have given rise to the widely spread, early tradition, found, for +example, in Tertullian (Ante-nicene Fathers, in. 160), which placed the +death of Jesus in A.D. 29, during the consulship of L. Rubellius Geminus +and C. Fufius Geminus.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s046"><p><span class="versenum">46.</span> The theory that the ministry of Jesus extended over but little more +than one year is beset, however, by difficulties that seem insuperable. +The first is presented by the three Passovers distinctly mentioned in <a class="newpage" name="page046" id="page046" title="46"></a>the +Gospel of John (ii. 13; vi. 4; xii. 1). The last of these is plainly +identical with the one named in the other gospels. The second gives the +time of year for the feeding of the five thousand, and agrees with the +mention of "the green grass" in the account of Mark and Matthew (Mark vi. +39; Matt. xiv. 19). John's first Passover falls in a section which demands +a place before Mark i. 14 (compare John iii. 24). Hence it must be shown +that this first Passover is chronologically out of order in the Gospel of +John, or the one year ministry advocated by the second century Gnostics, +by Clement of Alexandria, by Origen, and of late years by Keim and others, +is seen to be impossible. The fact that at this Passover Jesus cleansed +the temple, and that the other gospels assign such a cleansing to the +close of the ministry, suggests the possibility that John has set it at +the opening of his narrative for reasons connected with his argument. This +interpretation falls, however, before the perfect simplicity of structure +of John's narrative. The transitions from incident to incident in this +gospel are those of simple succession, and indicate, on the writer's part, +no suspicion that he was contradicting notions concerning the ministry of +Jesus familiar to his contemporaries. Whatever the conclusion reached +concerning the authorship of the gospel, the fact that it gained currency +very early as apostolic would seem to prove that its conception of the +length of Jesus' ministry was not opposed to the recognized apostolic +testimony. It is safe to conclude, therefore, that time must be allowed in +Jesus' ministry for at least three Passover seasons.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s047"><p><span class="versenum">47.</span> With this conclusion most modern discussions of the question rest, and +it is possible that it may <a class="newpage" name="page047" id="page047" title="47"></a>finally win common consent. The order of +Mark's narrative, however, challenges it. This gospel records near the +beginning (ii. 23) a controversy with the Pharisees occasioned by the fact +that Jesus' disciples plucked and ate the ripening grain as they passed on +a Sabbath day through the fields. As Mark places much later (vi. 30-34) +the feeding of the five thousand, which occurred at a Passover, that is +the beginning of the harvest (Lev. xxiii. 5-11), his order suggests the +necessity of including two harvest seasons in the ministry in Galilee, and +consequently four Passovers in the public life of Jesus. Two +considerations are urged against this conclusion. (1) Papias in his +reference to the Gospel of Mark criticises the order of the gospel; (2) +Mark ii. 1 to iii. 6 contains a group of five conflicts with the critics +of Jesus, which represents a massing of opposition that seems unlikely at +the outset of his Galilean work. The remark of Papias must remain obscure +until his standard of comparison is known. Some suggest that he knew +John's order and preferred it, others that he agreed with that adopted by +Tatian in his Diatessaron. Mark is in accord with neither of these. No +one, however, knows what order Papias preferred. The early conflict group +does appear like a collection drawn from different parts of the ministry. +Yet the nucleus of the group--the cure of the paralytic (ii. 1-12) and the +call of Levi (ii. 13-17)--is clearly in its right place in Mark (see +Holtzmann, Hand-commentar, I. 10). The question about fasting (ii. 18-22) +may have been asked much later, and its present place may be due to +association in tradition with the criticism of Jesus' fellowship with +publicans (ii. 16). <a class="newpage" name="page048" id="page048" title="48"></a>In like manner the cure of the withered hand (iii. +1-6) may have become artificially grouped with the incident of the +cornfields. It is possible, also, that both Sabbath controversies owe +their early place in the gospel to traditional association with the early +conflicts (ii. 1-17). If so, the plucking of the grain actually occurred +some weeks after the feeding of the five thousand, and probably after the +controversy about tradition (vii. 1-23), with which, according to Mark, +Jesus' activity in Galilee practically closed. It is not clear, however, +what principle of association drew forward to the early group the Sabbath +conflict, and left in its place the controversy about tradition. It is +thus possible that the incident of the cornfields belongs also to the +early nucleus of the group; and in this case the longer ministry, +including four Passovers, must be accepted. The decision of the question +is not of vital importance, but it affects the determination of the +sequence of events in Jesus' life. Whatever the explanation of the remark +of Papias, the more the gospels are studied the more does Mark's order of +events commend itself in general as representing the probable fact. Many +students have inferred the three year ministry from the Gospel of John +alone, identifying the unnamed feast in John v. 1 with a Passover. But +John's allusion to that feast is so indefinite that the length of Jesus' +ministry must be determined quite independently of it.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s048"><p><span class="versenum">48.</span> So long a ministry as three years presents some difficulties, for all +that is told us in the four gospels would cover but a small fraction of +this time. John's statement (xx. 30) that he omitted many things from +Jesus' life in making his book is evidently true of all <a class="newpage" name="page049" id="page049" title="49"></a>the evangelists, +and long gaps, such as are evident in the fourth gospel, must be assumed +in the other three. Recalling the character of the gospels as pictures of +Jesus rather than narratives of his life, we may easily acknowledge the +incompleteness of our record of the three years of ministry, and wonder +the more at the vividness of impression produced with such economy of +material. This meagreness of material is not decisive for the shorter +rather than the longer ministry, for it is evident that to effect such a +change in conviction and feeling as Jesus wrought in the minds of the +ardent Galileans who were his disciples, required time. Three years are +better suited to effect this change than two.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s049"><p><span class="versenum">49.</span> Closely related to the question of the length of Jesus' ministry is +another: Can definite dates be given for the chief events in his life? For +the year of the opening of his public activity the gospels furnish two +independent testimonies: the remark of the Jews on the occasion of Jesus' +first visit to Jerusalem, "Forty and six years was this temple in +building" (John ii. 20), and Luke's careful dating of the appearance of +John the Baptist, "in the fifteenth year of Tiberius Cæsar" (iii. 1, 2). +John ii. 20 leads to the conclusion that the first Passover fell in the +spring of A.D. 26 or 27, since we learn from Josephus (Ant. xv. 11. 1) +that Herod began to rebuild the temple in the eighteenth year of his +reign, which closed in the spring of B.C. 19. Luke iii. 1 gives a date +contradictory to the one just found, if the fifteenth year of Tiberius is +to be counted from the death of his predecessor, for Augustus died August +19, A.D. 14. Reckoned from this time the opening of John's work falls in +the year <a class="newpage" name="page050" id="page050" title="50"></a>A.D. 28, and the first Passover of Jesus' ministry could not be +earlier than the spring of 29. This is at least two years later than is +indicated by the statement in John. The remark in John is, however, so +incidental and so lacking in significance for his argument that its +definiteness can be explained only as due to a clear historic +reminiscence; but it does not follow that Luke has erred in the date given +by him. Although Augustus did not die until A.D. 14, there is evidence +that Tiberius was associated with him in authority over the army and the +provinces not later than January, A.D. 12. One who lived and wrote in the +reign of Titus may possibly have applied to the reign of Tiberius a mode +of reckoning customary in the case of Titus, as Professor Ramsay has shown +(Was Christ born at Bethlehem, 202). If this is the fact, Luke reckoned +from the co-regency of Tiberius; hence the fifteenth year would be A.D. 25 +or 26, according as the co-regency began before or after the first of +January, A.D. 12. This would place the first Passover of Jesus' ministry +in the spring of 26 or 27, in agreement with the hint found in John.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s050"><p><span class="versenum">50.</span> If the public ministry of Jesus began with the spring of 26 or 27, the +close of three years of activity would, come at the Passover of 29 or 30. +The former of these dates agrees with the early Christian tradition +already mentioned. But before accepting that traditional date another +matter must be considered. Jesus was crucified on the Friday at the +opening of the feast of the Passover. Whether it was the day of the +sacrifice of the Passover (14 Nisan) or the day following (15 Nisan), is +not essential for the present question. As the Jewish month began with the +first appearance <a class="newpage" name="page051" id="page051" title="51"></a>of the new moon, it is evident that, in the year of +Jesus' death, the month of Nisan must have begun on a day that would make +the 14th or the 15th fall on Friday. Now it can be shown that in the year +30 the 14th of Nisan was Thursday (April 6) or Friday (April 7), for at +best only approximate certainty is attainable. The tradition which assigns +the passion to 29, generally names March 25 as the day of the month. This +date is impossible, because it does not coincide with the full moon of +that month. The choice of March 25 by a late tradition may be explained by +the fact that it was commonly regarded as the date of the spring equinox, +the turning of the year towards its renewing. Mr. Turner has shown +(HastBD. I. 415) that another date found in an early document cannot be so +explained. Epiphanius was familiar with copies of the Acts of Pilate, +which gave March 18 as the date of the crucifixion; and it is remarkable +that this date coincides with the full moon, and also falls on Friday. +Such a combination gives unusual weight to the tradition, particularly as +there is no ready way to account for its rise, as in the case of March 25. +From this supplementary tradition the year 29 gains in probability as the +year of the passion. Without attempting to arrive at a final +conclusion,--a task which must be left for chronological specialists,--it +is safe to assume that Jesus died at the Passover of A.D. 29 or 30.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s051"><p><span class="versenum">51.</span> Concluding that Jesus' active ministry fell within the years A.D. 26 +to 30, is it possible to determine the date of his birth? Four hints are +furnished by the gospels: he was born before the death of Herod (Matt. ii. +1; Luke i. 5); he was about thirty years of age at his baptism (Luke iii. +23); he was <a class="newpage" name="page052" id="page052" title="52"></a>born during a census conducted in Judea in accordance with +the decree of Augustus at a time when Quirinius was in authority in Syria +(Luke ii. 1, 2); after his birth wise men from the East were led to visit +him by observing "his star" (Matt. ii. 1, 2). From these facts it follows +that the birth of Jesus cannot be placed later than B.C. 4, since Herod +died about the first of April in that year (Jos. Ant. xvii. 6. 4; 8. 1, +4). The awkwardness of having to find a date <i>Before Christ</i> for the birth +of Jesus is due to the miscalculation of the monk, Dionysius the Little, +who in the sixth century introduced our modern reckoning from "the year of +our Lord."</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s052"><p><span class="versenum">52.</span> But is it impossible to determine the time of Jesus' birth more +exactly? Luke (ii. 1, 2) offers what seems to be more definite +information, but his reference to the decree of Augustus and the enrolment +under Quirinius are among the most seriously challenged statements in the +gospels. It has been said (1) that history knows of no edict of Augustus +ordering a general enrolment of "the world;" (2) that a Roman census could +not have been taken in Palestine before the death of Herod; (3) that if +such an enrolment had been taken it would have been unnecessary for Joseph +and Mary to journey from Nazareth to Bethlehem; (4) that the census taken +when Quirinius was governor of Syria is definitely assigned by Josephus to +the year after the deposition of Archelaus, A.D. 6 (Ant. xviii. 1. 1; see +also Acts v. 37); (5) that if Luke's reference to this census as the +"first" be appealed to, it must be replied that Quirinius was not governor +of Syria at any time during the lifetime of Herod. This array of +difficulties is impressive, and has persuaded <a class="newpage" name="page053" id="page053" title="53"></a>many conservative students +to concede that in his reference to the census Luke has fallen into error. +Some recent discoveries in Egypt, however, have furnished new information +concerning the imperial administration of that province. Inferring that a +policy adopted in Egypt may have prevailed also in Syria, Professor Ramsay +has recently put forth a strong argument for Luke's accuracy in respect of +this census (Was Christ born at Bethlehem, 95-248). That argument may be +condensed as follows: We have evidence of a system of Roman enrolments in +Egypt taken every fourteen years, and already traced back to the time of +Augustus, the earliest document so far recovered belonging, apparently, to +the census of A.D. 20. It is at least possible that this system of +Egyptian enrolments may have been part of an imperial policy, of which all +other trace is lost excepting the statement of Luke. It is significant +that the date of the census referred to by Josephus (A.D. 6) fits exactly +the fourteen-year cycle which obtained in Egypt. If the census of A.D. 6 +was preceded by an earlier one its date would be B.C. 8; that is, it would +be actually taken in B.C. 7, in order to secure the full acts for B.C. 8.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s053"><p><span class="versenum">53.</span> The statement of Tertullian (Against Marcion, iv. 19) that a census +had been taken in Judea under Augustus by Sentius Saturninus, who was +governor of Syria about 9 to 7 B.C., certainly comes from some source +independent of the gospels, and tends to confirm Luke's account of a +census before the death of Herod. That a Roman census might have been +taken in Palestine during Herod's life is seen from the fact that in A.D. +36 Vitellius, the governor of Syria, <a class="newpage" name="page054" id="page054" title="54"></a>had to send Roman forces into +Cilicia Trachæa to assist Archelaus, the king of that country, to quell a +revolt caused by native resistance to a census taken after the Roman +fashion (Tacitus, Ann. vi. 41). Herod would almost certainly resent as a +mark of subjection the order to enrol his people; and the fact that he was +in disfavor with Augustus during the governorship of Saturninus (Josephus, +Ant. xvi. 9. 1-3), suggests to Professor Ramsay that he may have sought to +avoid obedience to the imperial will in the matter of the census. If after +some delay Herod was forced to obey, the enrolment may have been taken in +the year 7-6. Since it is probable that the Romans would allow Herod to +give the census as distinctly Jewish a character as possible, it is easy +to credit the order that all Jews should be registered, so far as +possible, in their ancestral homes. Hence the journey of Joseph to +Bethlehem; and if Mary wished to have her child also registered as from +David's line, her removal with Joseph to Bethlehem is explained. Such a +delay in the taking of the census would have postponed it until after the +recall of Saturninus. The statement of Tertullian may therefore indicate +simply that he knew that a census was taken in Syria by Saturninus.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s054"><p><span class="versenum">54.</span> The successor of Saturninus was Varus, who held the governorship until +after the death of Herod. How then does Luke refer to the enrolment as +taken when Quirinius was in authority? It has for a long time been known +that this man was in Syria before he was there as legate of the emperor in +A.D. 6. There seems to be evidence that Quirinius was in the East about +the year B.C. 6, putting down a rebellion on the borders of Cilicia, a +district joined with Syria into <a class="newpage" name="page055" id="page055" title="55"></a>one province under the early empire. +Varus was at this time governor, but Quirinius might easily have been +looked upon as representing for the time the power of the Roman arms. If +Herod was forced to yield to the imperial wish by the presence in Syria of +this renowned captain, the statement of Luke is confirmed, and the census +at which Jesus was born was taken, according to a Jewish fashion, during +the life of Herod, but under compulsion of Rome exacted by Quirinius, +while he was in command of the Roman forces in the province of +Syria-Cilicia. This gives as a probable date for the birth of Jesus B.C. +6, which accords well with the hints previously considered, inasmuch as it +is earlier than the death of Herod, and, if born in B.C. 6, Jesus would +have been thirty-two at his baptism in A.D. 26.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s055"><p><span class="versenum">55.</span> The account given in Matthew of "the star" which drew the wise men to +Judea gives no sure help in determining the date of the birth of Jesus, +but it is at least suggestive that in the spring and autumn of B.C. 7 +there occurred a remarkable conjunction of the planets Jupiter and Saturn. +This was first noticed by Kepler in consequence of a similar conjunction +observed by him in A.D. 1603. Men much influenced by astrology must have +been impressed by such a celestial phenomenon, but that it furnishes an +explanation of the star of the wise men is not clear. If it does, it +confirms the date otherwise probable for the nativity, that is, not far +from B.C. 6.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s056"><p><span class="versenum">56.</span> Can we go further and determine the time of year or the month and day +of the nativity? It should be borne in mind that our Christmas festival +was not observed earlier than the fourth century, and that the <a class="newpage" name="page056" id="page056" title="56"></a>evidence +is well-nigh conclusive that December 25th was finally selected for the +Nativity in order to hallow a much earlier and widely spread pagan +festival coincident with the winter solstice. If anything exists to +suggest the time of year it is Luke's mention of "shepherds in the field +keeping watch by night over their flock" (ii. 8). This seems to indicate +that it must have been the summer season. In winter the flocks would be +folded, not pastured, by night.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s057"><p><span class="versenum">57.</span> It therefore seems probable that Jesus was born in the summer of B.C. +6; that he was baptized in A.D. 26; that the first Passover of his +ministry was in the spring of 26 or 27; and that he was crucified in the +spring of 29 or 30.</p></div> +</div> + + +<div class="chapter" id="p01-05"> +<h2><a class="newpage" name="page057" id="page057" title="57"></a>V</h2> + +<h3>The Early Years of Jesus</h3> + +<h4>Matt. i. 1 to ii. 23; Luke i. 5 to ii. 52; iii. 23-38</h4> + + + +<div class="section" id="s058"><p><span class="versenum">58.</span> It is surprising that within a century of the life of the apostles, +Christian imagination could have so completely mistaken the real greatness +of Jesus as to let its thirst for wonder fill his early years with scenes +in which his conduct is as unlovely as it is shocking. That he who in +manhood was "holy, harmless, undefiled, separate from sinners" (Heb. vii. +26), could in youth, in a fit of ill-temper, strike a companion with death +and then meet remonstrance by cursing his accusers with blindness (Gospel +of Thomas, 4, 5); that he could mock his teachers and spitefully resent +their control (Pseudo-Matthew, 30, 31); that it could be thought worthy of +him to exhibit his superiority to common human conditions by carrying +water in his mantle when his pitcher had been broken (same, 33), or by +making clay birds in play on the Sabbath and causing them to fly when he +was rebuked for naughtiness (same, 27);--these and many like legends +exhibit incredible blindness to the real glory of the Lord. Yet such +things abound in the early attempts of the pious imagination to write the +story of the youth of Jesus, and the account of the nativity and its +antecedents fares as ill, being pitifully trivial where it is not +revolting.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s059"><p><a class="newpage" name="page058" id="page058" title="58"></a><span class="versenum">59.</span> How completely foreign all this is to the apostolic thought and +feeling is clear when we notice that excepting the first two chapters of +Matthew and Luke the New Testament tells us nothing whatever of the years +which preceded John the Baptist's ministry in the wilderness. The gospels +are books of testimony to what men had seen and heard (John i. 14); and +the epistles are practical interpretations of the same in its bearing on +religious life and hope. The apostles found no difficulty in recognizing +the divinity and sinlessness of their Lord without inquiring how he came +into the world or how he spent his early years; it was what he showed +himself to be, not how he came to be, that formed their conception of him. +Yet the early chapters of Matthew and Luke should not be classed with the +later legends. Notwithstanding the attempts of Keim to associate the +narratives of the infancy in the canonical and apocryphal gospels, a great +gulf separates them: on the one side there is a reverent and beautiful +reserve, on the other indelicate, unlovely, and trivial audacity.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s060"><p><span class="versenum">60.</span> The gospel narratives have, however, perplexities of their own, for +the two accounts agree only in the main features,--the miraculous birth in +Bethlehem in the days of Herod, Mary being the mother and Joseph the +foster-father, and Nazareth the subsequent residence. In further details +they are quite different, and at first sight seem contradictory. Moreover, +while Matthew sheds a halo of glory over the birth of Jesus, Luke draws a +picture of humble circumstances and obscurity. These differences, taken +with the silence of the rest of the New Testament concerning a miraculous +birth, constitute a real difficulty. To many it <a class="newpage" name="page059" id="page059" title="59"></a>seems strange that the +disciples and the brethren of Jesus did not refer to these things if they +knew them to be true. But it must not be overlooked that any familiar +reference to the circumstances of the birth of Jesus which are narrated in +the gospels would have invited from the Jews simply a challenge of the +honor of his home. Moreover, as the knowledge of these wonders did not +keep Mary from misunderstanding her son (Luke ii. 19, 51; compare Mark in. +21, 31-35), the publication of them could hardly have helped greatly the +belief of others. The fact that Mary was so perplexed by the course of +Jesus in his ministry makes it probable that even until quite late in her +life she "kept these things and pondered them in her heart."</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s061"><p><span class="versenum">61.</span> No parts of the New Testament are challenged so widely and so +confidently as these narratives of the infancy. But if they are not to be +credited with essential truth it is necessary to show what ideas cherished +in the apostolic church could have led to their invention. That John and +Paul maintain the divinity of their Lord, yet give no hint that this +involved a miraculous birth, shows that these stories are no necessary +outgrowth of that doctrine. The early Christians whether Jewish or Gentile +would not naturally choose to give pictorial form to their belief in their +Lord's divinity by the story of an incarnation. The heathen myths +concerning sons of the gods were in all their associations revolting to +Christian feeling, and, while the Jewish mind was ready to see divine +influence at work in the birth of great men in Israel (as Isaac, and +Samson, and Samuel), the whole tendency of later Judaism was hostile to +any such idea as actual incarnation. Some would explain the story of the +<a class="newpage" name="page060" id="page060" title="60"></a>miraculous birth as a conclusion drawn by the Christian consciousness +from the doctrine of the sinlessness of Jesus. Yet neither Paul nor John, +who are both clear concerning the doctrine, give any idea that a +miraculous birth was essential for a sinless being. Some appeal to the +eagerness of the early Christians to exalt the virginity of Mary, This is +certainly the animus of many apocryphal legends. But the feeling is as +foreign to Jewish sentiment and New Testament teaching as it is +contradictory to the evidence in the gospels that Mary had other children +born after Jesus.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s062"><p><span class="versenum">62.</span> Moreover, the songs of Mary (Luke i. 46-55) and Zachariah (Luke i. +68--79) bear in themselves the evidence of origin before the doctrine of +the cross had transformed the Christian idea of the Messiah. That +transformed idea abounds in the Epistles and the Acts, and it is difficult +to conceive how these songs (if they were later inventions) could have +been left free of any trace of specifically Christian ideas. A Jewish +Christian would almost certainly have made them more Christian than they +are; a Gentile Christian could not have made them so strongly and +naturally Jewish as they are; while a non-Christian Jew would never have +invented them. Taken with the evidence in Ignatius (Ad Eph. xviii., xix.) +of the very early currency of the belief in a miraculous birth, they +confirm the impression that it is easier to accept the evidence offered +for the miracle than to account for the origin of the stories as legends. +The idea of a miraculous birth is very foreign to modern thought; it +becomes credible only as the transcendent nature of Jesus is recognized on +other grounds. It may not be said that the incarnation required a +<a class="newpage" name="page061" id="page061" title="61"></a>miraculous conception, yet it may be acknowledged that a miraculous +conception is a most suitable method for a divine incarnation.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s063"><p><span class="versenum">63.</span> These gospel stories are chiefly significant for us in that they show +that he in whom his disciples came to recognize a divine nature began his +earthly life in the utter helplessness and dependence of infancy, and grew +through boyhood and youth to manhood with such naturalness that his +neighbors, dull concerning the things of the spirit, could not credit his +exalted claims. He is shown as one in all points like unto his brethren +(Heb. ii. 17). Two statements in Luke (ii. 40, 52) describe the growth of +the divine child as simply as that of his forerunner (Luke i. 80), or that +of the prophet of old (I. Sam. ii. 26). The clear impression of these +statements is that Jesus had a normal growth from infancy to manhood, +while the whole course of the later life as set before us in the gospels +confirms the scripture doctrine that his normal growth was free from sin +(Heb. iv. 15).</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s064"><p><span class="versenum">64.</span> The knowledge of the probable conditions of his childhood is as +satisfying as the apocryphal stories are revolting. The lofty Jewish +conception of home and its relations is worthy of Jesus. The circumstances +of the home in Nazareth were humble (Matt. xiii. 55; Luke ii. 24; compare +Lev. xii. 8). Probably the house was not unlike those seen to-day, of but +one room, or at most two or three,--the tools of trade mingling with the +meagre furnishings for home-life. We should not think it a home of penury; +doubtless the circumstances of Joseph were like those of his neighbors. In +one respect this home was rich. The wife and mother had an exalted place +in the Jewish <a class="newpage" name="page062" id="page062" title="62"></a>life, notwithstanding the trivial opinions of some +supercilious rabbis; and what the gospel tells of the chivalry of Joseph +renders it certain that love reigned in his home, making it fit for the +growth of the holy child.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s065"><p><span class="versenum">65.</span> Religion held sway in all the phases of Jewish life. With some it was +a religion of ceremony,--of prayers and fastings, tithes and boastful +alms, fringes and phylacteries. But Joseph and Mary belonged to the +simpler folk, who, while they reverenced the scribes as teachers, knew not +enough of their subtlety to have substituted barren rites for sincere love +for the God of their fathers and childlike trust in his mercy. Jesus knew +not only home life at its fairest, but religion at its best. A father's +most sacred duty was the teaching of his child in the religion of his +people (Deut. vi. 4-9), and then, as ever since, the son learned at his +mother's side to know and love her God, to pray to him, and to know the +scriptures. No story more thrilling and full of interest, no prospect more +rich and full of glowing hope, could be found to satisfy the child's +spirit of wonder than the story of Israel's past and God's promises for +the future. Religious culture was not confined to the home, however. The +temple at Jerusalem was the ideal centre of religious life for this +Nazareth household (Luke ii. 41) as for all the people, yet practically +worship and instruction were cultivated chiefly by the synagogue (Luke iv. +16); there God was present in his Holy Word. Week after week the boy Jesus +heard the scripture in its original Hebrew form, followed by translation +into Aramaic, and received instruction from it for daily conduct. The +synagogue probably influenced the boy's intellectual life even more +directly. In the time of Jesus schools <a class="newpage" name="page063" id="page063" title="63"></a>had been established in all the +important towns, and were apparently under the control of the synagogue. +To such a school he may have been sent from about six years of age to be +taught the scriptures (compare II. Tim. iii. 15), together with the +reading (Luke iv. 16-19), and perhaps the writing, of the Hebrew language. +Of his school experience we know nothing beyond the fact that he grew in +"wisdom and in stature and in favor with God and man" (Luke ii. 52),--a +sufficient contradiction of the repulsive legends of the apocryphal +gospels.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s066"><p><span class="versenum">66.</span> The physical growth incident to Jesus' development from boyhood to +manhood is a familiar thought. The intellectual unfolding which belongs to +this development is readily recognized. Not so commonly acknowledged, but +none the less clearly essential to the gospel picture, is the gradual +unfolding of the child's moral life under circumstances and stimulus +similar to those with which other children meet (Heb. iv. 15). The man +Jesus was known as the carpenter (Matt. xiii. 55). The learning of such a +trade would contribute much to the boy's mastery of his own powers. Far +more discipline would come from his fellowship with brothers and sisters +who did not understand his ways nor appreciate the deepest realities of +his life. Without robbing boyhood days of their naturalness and reality, +we may be sure that long before Jesus knew how and why he differed from +his fellows he felt more or less clearly that they were not like him. The +resulting sense of isolation was a school for self-mastery, lest isolation +foster any such pride or unloveliness as that with which later legend +dared to stain the picture of the Lord's youth. Four brothers of <a class="newpage" name="page064" id="page064" title="64"></a>Jesus +are named by Mark (vi. 3),--James, and Joses, and Judas, and Simon,--the +gospel adds also that he had sisters living at a later time in Nazareth. +They were all subject with him to the same home influences, and apparently +were not unresponsive to them. The similarity of thought and feeling +between the sermon on the mount and the Epistle of James is not readily +explained by the influence of master over disciple, since the days of +James's discipleship began after the resurrection of Jesus. In any case +there is no reason to think that the companions of Jesus' home were +uncommonly irritating or in any way irreligious, only Jesus was not +altogether like them (John vii. 5), and the fact of difference was a moral +discipline, which among other things led to that moral growth by which +innocence passed into positive goodness. If the home was such a school of +discipline, its neighbors, less earnest and less favored with spiritual +training, furnished more abundant occasion for self-mastery and growth. +The very fact that in his later years Jesus was no desert preacher, like +John, but social, and socially sought for, indicates that he did not win +his manhood's perfection in solitude, but in fellowship with common life +and in victory over the trials and temptations incident to it (Heb. ii. +17, 18).</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s067"><p><span class="versenum">67.</span> Yet he must have been familiar with the life which is in secret (Matt. +vi. 1-18). He who in his later years was a man of much prayer, who began +(Luke iii. 21) and closed (Luke xxiii. 46) his public life with prayer, as +a boy was certainly familiar not only with the prayers of home and +synagogue, but also with quiet, personal resort to the presence of God. It +would be unjust to think of any abnormal religious <a class="newpage" name="page065" id="page065" title="65"></a>precocity. Jesus was +the best example the world has seen of perfect spiritual health, but we +must believe that he came early to know God and to live much with him.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s068"><p><span class="versenum">68.</span> It is instructive in connection with this inwardness of Jesus' life to +recall the rich familiarity with the whole world of nature which appears +in his parables and other teachings. The prospect which met his eye if he +sought escape from the distractions of home and village life, has been +described by Renan: "The view from the town is limited; but if we ascend a +little to the plateau swept by a perpetual breeze, which stands above the +highest houses, the landscape is magnificent. On the west stretch the fine +outlines of Carmel, terminating in an abrupt spur which seems to run down +sheer to the sea. Next, one sees the double summit which towers above +Megiddo; the mountains of the country of Shechem, with their holy places +of the patriarchal period; the hills of Gilboa, the small picturesque +group to which is attached the graceful or terrible recollections of +Shunem and of Endor; and Tabor, with its beautiful rounded form, which +antiquity compared to a bosom. Through a gap between the mountains of +Shunem and Tabor are visible the valley of the Jordan and the high plains +of Perea, which form a continuous line from the eastern side. On the +north, the mountains of Safed, stretching towards the sea, conceal St. +Jean d'Acre, but leave the Gulf of Khaifa in sight. Such was the horizon, +of Jesus. This enchanted circle, cradle of the kingdom of God, was for +years his world. Indeed, during his whole life he went but little beyond +the familiar bounds of his childhood. For yonder, <a class="newpage" name="page066" id="page066" title="66"></a>northwards, one can +almost see, on the flank of Hermon, Cæsarea-Philippi, his farthest point +of advance into the Gentile world; and to the south the less smiling +aspect of these Samaritan hills foreshadows the dreariness of Judea +beyond, parched as by a burning wind of desolation and death." In the +midst of such scenes we are to understand that, with the physical growth, +and opening of mind, and moral discipline which filled the early years of +Jesus, there came also the gradual spiritual unfolding in which the boy +rose step by step to the fuller knowledge of God and himself.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s069"><p><span class="versenum">69.</span> That unfolding is pictured in an early stage in the story given us +from the youth of Jesus. It was customary for a Jewish boy not long after +passing his twelfth year to come under full adult obligation to the law. +The visit to Jerusalem was probably in preparation for such assumption of +obligation by Jesus. All his earlier training had filled his mind with the +sacredness of the Holy City and the glory of the temple. It is easy to +feel with what joy he would first look upon Zion from the shoulder of the +Mount of Olives, as he came over it on his journey from Galilee; to +conceive how the temple and the ritual would fill him with awe in his +readiness not to criticise, but to idealize everything he saw, and to +think only of the significance given by it all to the scripture; to +imagine how eagerly he would talk in the temple court with the learned men +of his people about the law and the promises with which in home and school +his youth had been made familiar. Nor is it difficult to appreciate his +surprise, when Joseph and Mary, only after long searching for him, at last +found him <a class="newpage" name="page067" id="page067" title="67"></a>in the temple, for he felt that it was the most natural place +in which he could be found. In his wondering question to Mary, "Did not +you know that I must be in my Father's house?" (Luke ii. 49), there is a +premonition of his later consciousness of peculiarly intimate relation to +God. The question was, however, a sincere inquiry. It was no precocious +rebuke of Mary's anxiety. The knowledge of himself as Son of God was only +dawning within him, and was not yet full and clear. This is shown by his +immediate obedience and his subjection to his parents in Nazareth through +many years. It is safe, in the interpretation of the acts and words of +Jesus, to banish utterly as inconceivable anything that savors of the +theatrical. We must believe that he was always true to himself, and that +the subjection which he rendered to Joseph and Mary sprang from a real +sense of childhood's dependence, and was not a show of obedience for any +edifying end however high.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s070"><p><span class="versenum">70.</span> That question "Did not you know?" is the only hint we possess of +Jesus' inner life before John's call to repentance rang through the land. +Meanwhile the carpenter's son became himself the carpenter. Joseph seems +to have died before the opening of Jesus' ministry. For Jesus as the +eldest son, this death made those years far other than a time of spiritual +retreat; responsibility for the home and the pressing duties of trade must +have filled most of the hours of his days. This is a welcome thought to +our healthiest sentiment, and true also to the earliest Christian feeling +(Heb. iv. 15). John the Baptist had his training in the wilderness, but +Jesus came from familiar intercourse with men, was welcomed <a class="newpage" name="page068" id="page068" title="68"></a>in their +homes (John ii. 2), knew their life in its homely ongoing, and was the +friend of all sorts and conditions of men. After that visit to Jerusalem, +a few more years may have been spent in school, for, whether from school +instruction, or synagogue preaching, or simple daily experience, the young +man came to know the traditions of the elders and also to know that +observance of them is a mockery of the righteousness which God requires. +Yet he seems to have felt so fully in harmony with God as to be conscious +of nothing new in the fresh and vital conceptions of righteousness which +he found in the law and prophets. We may be certain that much of his +thought was given to Israel's hope of redemption, and that with the +prophets of old and the singer much nearer his own day (Ps. of Sol. xvii. +23), he longed that God, according to his promise, would raise up unto his +people, their King, the Son of David.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s071"><p><span class="versenum">71.</span> He must also have read often from that other book open before him as +he walked upon the hills of Nazareth. The beauty of the grass and of the +lilies was surely not a new discovery to him after he began to preach the +coming kingdom, nor is it likely that he waited until after his baptism to +form his habit of spending the night in prayer upon the mountain. We may +be equally sure that he did not first learn to love men and women and long +for their good after he received the call, "Thou art my beloved son" (Mark +i. 11). He who in later life read hearts clearly (John ii. 25) doubtless +gained that skill, as well as the knowledge of human sin and need, early +in his intercourse with his friends and neighbors in Nazareth; while a +clear conviction that God's kingdom consists in his sover<a class="newpage" name="page069" id="page069" title="69"></a>eignty over +loyal hearts must have filled much of his thought about the promised good +which God would bring to Israel in due time. Thus we may think that in +quietness and homely industry, in secret life with God and open love for +men, in study of history and prophecy, in longing for the actual sway of +God in human life, Jesus lived his life, did his work, and grew in "wisdom +and in stature and in favor with God and man" (Luke ii. 52).</p></div> +</div> + + +<div class="chapter" id="p01-06"> +<h2><a class="newpage" name="page070" id="page070" title="70"></a>VI</h2> + +<h3>John The Baptist</h3> + +<h4>Matt. iii. 1-17; iv. 12; xiv. 1-12; Mark i. 1-14; vi. 14-29; Luke i. 5-25, +57-80; iii. 1-22; ix. 7-9; John i. 19-37; iii. 22-30.</h4> + + + +<div class="section" id="s072"><p><span class="versenum">72.</span> The first reappearance of Jesus in the gospel story, after the temple +scene in his twelfth year, is on the banks of the Jordan seeking baptism +from the new prophet. One of the silent evidences of the greatness of +Jesus is the fact that so great a character as John the Baptist stands in +our thought simply as accessory to his life. For that the prophet of the +wilderness was great has been the opinion of all who have been willing to +seek him in his retirement. One reason for the common neglect of John is +doubtless the meagreness of information about him. But though details are +few, the picture of him is drawn in clearest lines: a rugged son of the +wilderness scorning the gentler things of life, threatening his people +with coming wrath and calling to repentance while yet there was time; a +preacher of practical righteousness heeded by publicans and harlots but +scorned by the elders of his people; a bold and fearless spirit, yet +subdued in the presence of another who did not strive, nor cry, nor cause +his voice to be heard in the streets. When the people thought to find in +John <a class="newpage" name="page071" id="page071" title="71"></a>the promised Messiah, with unparalleled self-effacement he pointed +them to his rival and rejoiced in that rival's growing success. Side by +side they worked for a time; then the picture fails, but for a hint of a +royal audience, with a fearless rebuke of royal disgrace and sin; a prison +life, with its pathetic shaking of confidence in the early certainties; a +long and forced inaction, and the question put by a wavering faith, with +its patient and affectionate reply; then a lewd orgy, a king's oath, a +girl's demands, a martyr's release, the disciples' lamentation and their +report to that other who, though seeming a rival, was known to appreciate +best the greatness of this prophet. Such is the picture in the gospels.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s073"><p><span class="versenum">73.</span> John, unlike his greater successor, has a highly appreciative notice +from Josephus: "Now some of the Jews thought that the destruction of +Herod's army came from God, and that very justly, as a punishment for what +he did against John, who was called the Baptist. For Herod had had him put +to death though he was a good man, and commanded the Jews to exercise +virtue, both as to justice towards one another, and piety towards God, and +so to come to baptism; for baptism would be acceptable to God, if they +made use of it not in order to expiate some sin, but for the purification +of the body, provided that the soul was thoroughly purified beforehand by +righteousness. Now, as many flocked to him, for they were greatly moved by +hearing his words, Herod, fearing that the great influence, John had over +the people might lead to some rebellion (for the people seemed likely to +do anything he should advise), thought it far best, by putting him to +death, to prevent any mischief he <a class="newpage" name="page072" id="page072" title="72"></a>might cause, and not bring himself into +difficulties by sparing a man who might make him repent of his leniency +when it should be too late. Accordingly he was sent a prisoner, in +consequence of Herod's suspicious temper, to Machaerus, the fortress +before mentioned, and was there put to death. So the Jews had the opinion +that the destruction of this army [by Aretas] was sent as a punishment +upon Herod and was the mark of God's displeasure at him" (Ant. xviii. 5. +2). This section is commonly accepted as trustworthy. Superficially +different from the gospel record and assigning quite another cause for +John's imprisonment and death, it correctly describes his character and +his influence with the people, and leaves abundant room for a more +intimately personal motive on the part of Antipas for the imprisonment of +John. If the jealousy of Herodias was the actual reason for John's arrest, +it is highly probable that another cause would be named to the world, and +a likelier one than that given by Josephus could not be found.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s074"><p><span class="versenum">74.</span> The first problem that offers itself in the study of this man is the +man himself. Whence did he come? Everything about him is surprising. He +appears as a dweller in the desert, an ascetic, holding aloof from common +life and content with the scanty fare the wilderness could offer; yet he +was keenly appreciative of his people's needs, and he knew their +sins,--the particular ones that beset Pharisees, publicans, soldiers. If a +recluse in habit, he was far from such in thought; he was therefore no +seeker for his own soul's peace in his desert life. His dress was +strikingly suggestive of the old prophet of judgment on national +infidelity (I. Kings xvii. 1; II. Kings i, 8), the Elijah whom John <a class="newpage" name="page073" id="page073" title="73"></a>would +not claim to be. His message was commanding, with its double word "Repent" +and "The kingdom is near." His idea of the kingdom was definite, though +not at all developed; it signified to him God's dominion, inaugurated by a +divine judgment which should mean good for the penitent and utter +destruction for the ungodly; hence the prophet's call to repentance. His +ministry was one of grace, but the time was drawing near when the Greater +One would appear to complete by a swift judgment the work which his +forerunner was beginning. That Greater One would hew down the fruitless +tree, winnow the wheat from the chaff on the threshing floor, baptize the +penitent with divine power, and the wicked with the fire of judgment, +since his was to be a ministry of judgment, not of grace.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s075"><p><span class="versenum">75.</span> Whence, then, came this strange prophet? Near the desert region where +he spent his youth and where he first proclaimed his message of repentance +and judgment was the chief settlement of that strange company of Jews +known as Essenes. It has long been customary to think that during his +early years John was associated with these fellow-dwellers in the desert, +if he did not actually join the order. He certainly may have learned from +them many things. Their sympathy with his ascetic life and with his +thorough moral earnestness would make them attractive to him, but he was +far too original a man to get from them more than some suggestions to be +worked out in his own fashion. The simplicity of his teaching of +repentance and the disregard of ceremonial in his preaching separate him +from these monks. John may have known his desert companions, may have +appreciated some <a class="newpage" name="page074" id="page074" title="74"></a>things in their discipline, but he remained independent +of their guidance.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s076"><p><span class="versenum">76.</span> The leaders of religious life and thought in his day were +unquestionably the Pharisees. The controlling idea with them, and +consequently with the people, was the sanctity of God's law. They were +conscious of the sinfulness of the people, and their demand for repentance +was constant. It is a rabbinic commonplace that the delay of the Messiah's +coming is due to lack of repentance in Israel. But near as this conception +is to John's, we need but to recall his words to the Pharisees (Matt. iii. +7) to realize how clearly he saw through the hollowness of their religious +pretence. With the quibbles of the scribes concerning small and great +commandments, Sabbaths and hand-washings, John shows no affinity. He may +have learned some things from these "sitters in Moses' seat," but he was +not of them.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s077"><p><span class="versenum">77.</span> John's message announced the near approach of the kingdom of God. It +is probable that many of those who sought his baptism were ardent +nationalists,--eager to take a hand in realizing that consummation. +Josephus indicates that it was Herod's fear lest John should lead these +Zealots to revolt that furnished the ostensible cause of his death. But +similar as were the interests of John and these nationalists, the distance +between them was great. The prophet's replies to the publicans and to the +soldiers, which contain not a word of rebuke for the hated callings (Luke +iii. 13, 14), show how fundamentally he differed from the Zealots.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s078"><p><span class="versenum">78.</span> But there was another branch of the Pharisees than that which quibbled +over Sabbath laws, tradi<a class="newpage" name="page075" id="page075" title="75"></a>tions, and tithes, or that which itched to grasp +the sword; they were men who saw visions and dreamed dreams like those of +Daniel and the Revelation, and in their visions saw God bringing +deliverance to his people by swift and sudden judgment. There are some +marked likenesses between this type of thought and that of John,--the +impending judgment, the word of warning, the coming blessing, were all in +John; but one need only compare John's words with such an apocalypse as +the Assumption of Moses, probably written in Palestine during John's life +in the desert, to discover that the two messages do not move in the same +circle of thought at all; there is something practical, something severely +heart-searching, something at home in every-day life, about John's +announcement of the coming kingdom that is quite absent from the visions +of his contemporaries. John had not, like some of these seers, a coddling +sympathy for people steeped in sin. He traced their troubles to their own +doors, and would not let ceremonies pass in place of "fruits meet for +repentance." He came from the desert with rebuke and warning on his lips; +with no word against the hated Romans, but many against hypocritical +claimants to the privileges of Abraham; no apology for his message nor +artificial device of dream or ancient name to secure a hearing, but the +old-fashioned prophetic method of declaration of truth "whether men will +hear or whether they will forbear." "All was sharp and cutting, imperious +earnestness about final questions, unsparing overthrow of all fictitious +shams in individual as in national life. There are no theories of the law, +no new good works, no belief in the old, but simply and solely a prophetic +<a class="newpage" name="page076" id="page076" title="76"></a>clutch at men's consciences, a mighty accusation, a crushing summons to +contrite repentance and speedy sanctification" (KeimJN. II. 228). We look +in vain for a parallel in any of John's contemporaries, except in that one +before whom he bowed, saying, "I have need to be baptized of thee."</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s079"><p><span class="versenum">79.</span> John had, however, predecessors whose work he revived. In Isaiah's +words, "Wash you, make you clean" (Isa. i 16), one recognizes the type +which reappeared in John. The great prophetic conception of the Day of the +Lord--the day of wrath and salvation (Joel ii. 1-14)--is revived in John, +free from all the fantastic accompaniments which his contemporaries loved. +The invitations to repentance and new fidelity which abound in Isaiah, +Ezekiel, Hosea, and Joel; the summons to simple righteousness, which rang +from the lips of Micah (vi. 8), and of the great prophet of the exile +(Isa. lviii.), these tell us where John went to school and how well he +learned his lesson. It is hard for us to realize how great a novelty such +simplicity was in John's day, or how much originality it required to +attain to this discipleship of the prophets. From the time when the +curtain rises on the later history of Israel in the days of the Maccabean +struggle to the coming of that "voice crying in the wilderness," Israel +had listened in vain for a prophet who could speak God's will with +authority. The last thing that people expected when John came was such a +simple message. He was not the creature of his time, but a revival of the +older type; yet, as in the days of Elijah God had kept him seven thousand +in Israel that had not bowed the knee to Baal, so, in the later time, not +all were bereft of liv<a class="newpage" name="page077" id="page077" title="77"></a>ing faith. These devout souls furnished the soil +which could produce a life like John's, gifted and chosen by God to +restore and advance the older and more genuine religion.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s080"><p><span class="versenum">80.</span> If John was thus a revival of the older prophetic order, a second +question arises: Whence came his baptism, and what did it signify? The +gospels describe it as a "baptism of repentance for the remission of sins" +(Mark i. 4). John's declaration that his greater successor should baptize +with the Holy Spirit and fire (Matt. iii. 11) shows that he viewed his +baptism as a symbol, rather than as a means, of remission of sin. But it +was more than a sign of repentance, it was a confession of loyalty to the +kingdom which John's successor was to establish. It had thus a twofold +significance: (<i>a</i>) confession of and turning from the old life of sin, +and (<i>b</i>) consecration to the coming kingdom. Whence, then, came this +ordinance? Not from the Essenes, for, unlike John's baptism, the bath +required by these Jewish ascetics was an oft-repeated act. Further, John's +rite had a far deeper religious significance than the Essene washings. +These performed their ablutions to secure ritual cleanness as exemplary +disciples of the Mosaic ideal. The searching of heart which preceded +John's baptism, and the radical change of life it demanded, seem foreign +to Essenism. The baptism of John, considered as a ceremony of consecration +for the coming kingdom, was parallel rather to the initiatory oaths of the +Essene brotherhood than to their ablutions. Their custom may have served +to suggest to John a different application of the familiar sacred use of +the bath; indeed John could hardly have been uninfluenced by the <a class="newpage" name="page078" id="page078" title="78"></a>usage of +his contemporaries; yet in this, as in his thought, he was not a product +of their school.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s081"><p><span class="versenum">81.</span> John's baptism was equally independent of the pharisaic influence. The +scribes made much of "divers washings," but not with any such significance +as would furnish to John his baptism of repentance and of radical change +of life. That he was not following a pharisaic leading appears in the +question put to him by the Pharisees, "Why, then, baptizest thou?" (John +i. 25). They saw something unique in the ceremony as he conducted it.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s082"><p><span class="versenum">82.</span> Many have held that he derived his baptism from the method of +admitting proselytes into the Jewish fellowship. It is clear, at least, +that the later ritual prescribed a ceremonial bath as well as circumcision +and sacrifice for all who came into Judaism from the Gentiles, and it is +difficult to conceive of a time when a ceremonial bath would not seem +indispensable, since Jews regarded all Gentile life as defiling. While +such an origin for John's baptism would give peculiar force to his rebuke +of Jewish confidence in the merits of Abraham (Matt. iii. 9), it is more +likely, as Keim has shown (JN. II. 243 and note), that in this as in his +other thought John learned of his predecessors rather than his +contemporaries. Before the giving of the older covenant from Sinai, it is +said that Moses was required "to sanctify the people and bid them wash +their garments" (Ex. xix. 10). John was proclaiming the establishment of a +new covenant, as the prophets had promised. That the people should prepare +for this by a similar bath of sanctification seems most natural. John +appeared with a revival of the older and simpler religious ideas of +Israel's past, deriving his rite as well <a class="newpage" name="page079" id="page079" title="79"></a>as his thought from the springs +of his people's religious life.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s083"><p><span class="versenum">83.</span> This revival of the prophetic past had nothing scholastic or +antiquarian about it. John was a disciple, not an imitator, of the great +men of Israel; his message was not learned from Isaiah or any other, +though he was educated by studying them. What he declared, he declared as +truth immediately seen by his own soul, the essence of his power being a +revival, not in letter but in spirit, of the old, direct cry, "Thus saith +the Lord." Inasmuch as John's day was otherwise hopelessly in bondage to +tradition and the study of the letter, by so much is his greatness +enhanced in bringing again God's direct message to the human conscience. +John's greatness was that of a pioneer. The Friend of publicans and +sinners also spoke a simple speech to human hearts; he built on and +advanced from the old prophets, but it was John who was appointed to +prepare the people for the new life, "to make ready the way of the Lord" +(Mark i. 3). The clearness of his perception of truth is not the least of +his claims to greatness. His knowledge of the simplicity of God's +requirements in contrast with the hopeless maze of pharisaic traditions, +and his insight into the characters with whom he had to deal, whether the +sinless Jesus or the hypocritical Pharisees, show a man marvellously +gifted by God who made good use of his gift. This greatness appears in +superlative degree in the self-effacement of him who possessed these +powers. Greatness always knows itself more or less fully. It was not +self-ignorance that led John to claim to be but a voice, nor was it mock +humility. The confession of his unworthiness in com<a class="newpage" name="page080" id="page080" title="80"></a>parison with the +mightier one who should follow is unmistakably sincere, as is the +completed joy of this friend of the bridegroom rejoicing greatly because +of the bridegroom's voice, even when the bridegroom's presence meant the +recedence of the friend into ever deepening obscurity (John iii. 30).</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s084"><p><span class="versenum">84.</span> But John had marked limitations. He knew well the righteousness of +God; he knew, and, in effect, proclaimed God's readiness to forgive them +that would turn from their wicked ways; he knew the simplicity as well as +the exceeding breadth of the divine commandment; but beyond one flash of +insight (John i. 29-36), which did not avail to remould his thought, he +did not know the yearning love of God which seeks to save. It is not +strange that he did not. Some of the prophets had more knowledge of it +than he, his own favorite Isaiah knew more of it than he, but it was not +the thought of John's day. The wonder is that the Baptist so far freed +himself from current thought; yet he did not belong to the new order. He +thundered as from Sinai. The simplest child that has learned from the +heart its "Our Father" has reached a higher knowledge and entered a higher +privilege (Matt. xi. 11). John's self-effacement, wonderful as it was, +fell short of discipleship to his greater successor; in fact, at a much +later time there was still a circle of disciples of the Baptist who kept +themselves separate from the church (Acts xix. 1-7). He was doubtless too +strenuous a man readily to become a follower. He could yield his place +with unapproachable grace, but he remained the prophet of the wilderness +still. He seemed to belong consciously to the old order, and, by the very +circumstances ordained of <a class="newpage" name="page081" id="page081" title="81"></a>God who sent him, he could not be of those who, +sitting at Jesus' feet, learned to surrender to him their preconceptions +and hopes, and in heart, if not in word, to say, "To whom shall we go, +thou hast the words of eternal life?" (John vi. 68).</p></div> +</div> + + +<div class="chapter" id="p01-07"> +<h2><a class="newpage" name="page082" id="page082" title="82"></a>VII</h2> + +<h3>The Messianic Call</h3> + +<h4>Matt. iii. 13 TO iv. 11; Mark i. 9-13; Luke iii. 21, 22; iv. 1-13; John i. +30-34</h4> + + + +<div class="section" id="s085"><p><span class="versenum">85.</span> In the circle about John all classes of the people were represented: +Pharisees and Sadducees, jealous of innovation and apprehensive of popular +excitement; publicans and soldiers, interested in the new preacher or +touched in conscience; outcasts who came in penitence, and devout souls in +consecration. The wonder of the new message was carried throughout the +land and brought great multitudes to the Jordan. Jesus in Nazareth heard +it, and recognized in John a revival of the long-silent prophetic voice. +The summons appealed to his loyalty to God's truth, and after the +multitudes had been baptized (Luke iii. 21) he too sought the prophet of +the wilderness.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s086"><p><span class="versenum">86.</span> The connection which Luke mentions (i. 36) between the families of +Jesus and John had not led to any intimacy between the two young men. John +certainly did not know of his kinsman's mission (John i. 31), nor was his +conception of the Messiah such that he would look for its fulfilment in +one like Jesus (Matt. iii. 10-12). One thing, however, was clear as soon +as they met,--John recognized in Jesus one holier than himself (Matt. iii. +14). With a prophet's spiritual <a class="newpage" name="page083" id="page083" title="83"></a>insight he read the character of Jesus +at a glance, and although that character did not prove him to be the +Messiah, it prepared John for the revelation which was soon to follow.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s087"><p><span class="versenum">87.</span> The reply of Jesus to the unwillingness of John to give him baptism +(Matt. iii. 15) was an expression of firm purpose to do God's will; the +absence of any confession of sin is therefore all the more noticeable. In +all generations the holiest men have been those most conscious of +imperfection, and in John's message and baptism confession and repentance +were primary demands; yet Jesus felt no need for repentance, and asked for +baptism with no word of confession. But for the fact that the total +impression of his life begat in his disciples the conviction that "he did +no sin" (I. Pet. ii. 22; compare John viii. 46; II. Cor. v. 21), this +silence of Jesus would offend the religious sense. Jesus, however, had no +air of self-sufficiency, he came to make surrender and "to fulfil +all-righteousness" (Matt. iii. 15). It was the positive aspect of John's +baptism that drew him to the Jordan. John was preaching the coming of +God's kingdom. The place held by the doctrine of that kingdom in the later +teaching of Jesus makes it all but certain that his thought had been +filled with it for many years. In his reading of the prophets Jesus +undoubtedly emphasized the spiritual phases of their promises, but it is +not likely that he had done much criticising of the ideas held by his +contemporaries before he came to John. As already remarked he seems to +have been quicker to discover his affinity with the older truth than to be +conscious of the novelty of his own ways of apprehending it (Matt. v. 17). +When, then, Jesus heard <a class="newpage" name="page084" id="page084" title="84"></a>John's call for consecration to the approaching +kingdom he recognized the voice of duty, and he sought the baptism that he +might do all that he could to "make ready the way of the Lord."</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s088"><p><span class="versenum">88.</span> This act of consecration on Jesus' part was one of personal obedience. +There were no crowds present (Luke iii. 21), and his thoughts were full of +prayer. It was an experience which concerned his innermost life with God, +and it called him to communion with heaven like that in which he sought +for wisdom before choosing his apostles (Luke vi. 12), and for strength in +view of his approaching death (Luke ix. 28, 29). His outward declaration +of loyalty to the coming kingdom was thus not an act of righteousness "to +be seen of men," but one of personal devotion to him who is and who sees +in secret (Matt. vi. 1, 6). As the transfiguration followed the prayer on +Hermon, so this initial consecration was answered from heaven. A part of +the answer was evident to John, for he saw a visible token of the gift of +the divine Spirit which was granted to Jesus for the conduct of the work +he had to do, and he recognized in Jesus the greater successor for whom he +was simply making preparation (Mark i. 10; John i. 32-34). To Jesus there +came also with the gift of the Spirit a definite word from heaven, "Thou +art my beloved Son, in thee I am well pleased" (Mark i. 11). The language +in Mark and Luke, and the silence of the Baptist concerning the voice from +heaven (John i. 32-34), indicate that the word came to Jesus alone, and +was his summons to undertake the work of setting up that kingdom to which +he had just pledged his loyalty. The expression "My beloved Son" had clear +Messianic signifi<a class="newpage" name="page085" id="page085" title="85"></a>cance for Jesus' contemporaries (comp. Mark xiv. 62), +and the message can have signified for him nothing less than a Messianic +call. It implied more than that child-relation to God which was the +fundamental fact in his religious life from the beginning: it had an +official meaning.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s089"><p><span class="versenum">89.</span> For Jesus the sense of being God's child was normally human, and in +his ministry he invited all men to a similar consciousness of sonship. Yet +his early years must have brought to him a realization that he was +different from his fellows. That in him which made a confession at the +baptism unnatural and which led to John's word, "I have need to be +baptized by thee," was ready to echo assent when God said, "Thou art my +Son." He accepted the call and the new office and mission which it +implied, and he must have recognized that it was for this moment that all +the past of his life had been making preparation.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s090"><p><span class="versenum">90.</span> The gift of the Spirit to Jesus, which furnished to John the proof +that the Greater One had appeared, was not an arbitrary sign. The old +prophetic thought (Isa. xi. 2; xlii. 1; lxi. 1) as well as a later popular +expectation (Ps. of Sol. xvii. 42) provided for such an anointing of the +Messiah; and in the actual conduct of his life Jesus was constantly under +the leading of this Spirit (see Matt. xii. 28 and John iii. 34). The +temptation which followed the baptism, and in which he faced the +difficulties in his new task, was the first result of the Spirit's +control. Its later influence is not so clearly marked in the gospels, but +they imply that as the older servants of God were guided and strengthened +by him, so his Son also was aided,--with this difference, however, that he +possessed com<a class="newpage" name="page086" id="page086" title="86"></a>pletely the heavenly gift (John iii. 34). Jesus' uniform +confession of dependence on God confirms this teaching of the gift of the +divine Spirit; and his uniform consciousness of complete power and +authority confirms the testimony that he had the Spirit "without measure."</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s091"><p><span class="versenum">91.</span> The temptation to which the Spirit "drove" Jesus after his baptism +gives proof that the call to assume the Messianic office came to him +unexpectedly; for the three temptations with which his long struggle ended +were echoes of the voice which he had heard at the Jordan, and subtle +insinuations of doubt of its meaning. Some withdrawal to contemplate the +significance of his appointment to a Messianic work was a mental and +spiritual necessity. As has often been said, if the gospels had not +recorded the temptation, we should have had to assume one. Jesus being the +man he was, could not have thought that his call was a summons to an +entire change in his ideals and his thoughts about God and duty. Yet he +must have been conscious of the wide differences between his conceptions +of God's kingdom and the popular expectation. Those differences, by the +measure of the definiteness of the popular thought and the ardor of the +popular hope, were the proof of the difficulty of his task. The call meant +that the Messiah could be such as he was; it meant that the kingdom could +be and must be a dominion of God primarily in the hearts of men and +consequently in their world; it meant that his work must be religious +rather than political, and gracious rather than judicial. These essentials +of the work which he could do contradicted at nearly every point the +expectations of his people. How could he <a class="newpage" name="page087" id="page087" title="87"></a>succeed in the face of such +opposition? His long meditation during forty days doubtless showed him the +difficulty of his task in all its baldness, yet it did not shake his +certainty that the call had come to him from God, nor his faith that what +God had called him to do he could accomplish.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s092"><p><span class="versenum">92.</span> The gospels show no hesitation in calling the experience of these days +a temptation, nor had the Christian feeling of the first century any +difficulty in thinking of its Lord as actually suffering temptation (Heb. +ii. 18; iv. 15). A temptation to be real cannot be hypothetical; evil must +actually present itself as attractive to the tempted soul. A suggestion of +evil that takes no hold concretely of the heart is no temptation, nor is +the resistance of it any victory. The sinlessness of him who sought +baptism with no confession on his lips nor sense of penitence in his heart +offers no barrier to his experience of genuine temptation, unless we think +him incapable of sin, and therefore not "like unto his brethren." Not only +do the gospels repeatedly refer to his temptations (Luke iv. 13; Mark +viii. 31-33; Luke xxii. 28; compare Heb. v. 7-9), but they also depict +clearly the reality of these initial testings. The account as given in +Matthew and Luke represents the experience with which the forty days' +struggle culminated. The absorption of Jesus' mind had been so complete +that he had neglected the needs of his body, and when he turned to think +of earthly things he was pressed by hunger. A popular notion at a later +time, and probably also in Jesus' day, was that the Messiah would be able +to feed his people as Moses had given them manna in the wilderness (John +vi. 30-32; see EdersLJM. I. 176). He had just <a class="newpage" name="page088" id="page088" title="88"></a>been endowed with the +divine Spirit for the work before him; it was therefore no fantastic idea +when the suggestion came that he should use his power to supply his own +needs in the desert. Nor was the temptation without attractiveness; his +own physical nature urged its need, and Jesus was no ascetic who found +discomfort a way of holiness. The evil in the suggestion was that it asked +him to use his newly given powers for the supply of his own needs, as if +doubting that God would care for him as for any other of his children. +There was more than distrust of God suggested; the temptation came with a +hint of another doubt,--"<i>If</i> thou art God's Son." A miracle would prove +to himself his appointment and his power. The suggested doubt of his call +he passed unnoticed; distrust of God he repudiated instantly, falling back +on his faith in the God he had served these many years (Deut. viii. 3). +His victory is remarkable because his spirit conquered unhesitatingly +after a long ecstasy which would naturally have induced a reaction and a +surrender for the moment to the demand of lower needs.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s093"><p><span class="versenum">93.</span> This firmness of trust opened the way for another evil suggestion. In +the work before him as God's Anointed many difficulties were on either +side and across his path. He knew his people, their prejudices, and their +hardness of heart; and he knew how far he was from their ideal of a +Messiah. He knew also the watchful jealousy of Rome. Others before him, +like Judas of Galilee, had tried the Messianic rôle and had failed. He, +however, was confident of his divine call: should he not, therefore, press +forward with his work, heedless of all danger and regardless of the +dictates of prudence,--as heedless as if, trus<a class="newpage" name="page089" id="page089" title="89"></a>ting God's promised care, +he should cast himself down from a pinnacle of the temple to the rocks in +Kidron below? A fanatic would have yielded to such a temptation. Many +another than Jesus did so,--Theudas (Acts v. 36), the Egyptian (Acts xxi. +38); and Bar Cochba (Dio Cassius, lxix. 12-14; Euseb. Ch. Hist. iv. 6). +Jesus, however, showed his perfect mental health, repudiating the +temptation by declaring that while man may trust God's care, he must not +presumptuously put it to the test (Matt. iv. 7). The after life of Jesus +was a clear commentary on this reply. He constantly sought to avoid +situations which would compromise his mission or cut short his work (see +John vi. 15), and when at the end he suffered the death prepared for him +by his people's hatred, it was because his hour had come and he could say, +"I lay down my life of myself" (John x. 18). His marvellous control of +enthusiasm and his self-mastery in all circumstances separate Jesus from +all ecstatics and fanatics. Yet presumption must have seemed the easier +course, and could readily wear the mask of trust. He was tempted, yet +without sin.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s094"><p><span class="versenum">94.</span> As the refusal to doubt led to the temptation to presume, so the +determination to be prudent opened the way for a third assault upon his +perfect loyalty to God. The world he was to seek to save was swayed by +passions; his own people were longing for a Messiah, but they must have +their kind of a Messiah. If he would acknowledge this actual supremacy of +evil and self-will in the world, the opposition of passion and prejudice +might be avoided. If he would own the evil inevitable for the time, and +accommodate his work to it, he might then be free to lead men to <a class="newpage" name="page090" id="page090" title="90"></a>higher +and more spiritual views of God's kingdom. His knowledge of his people's +grossness of heart and materialism of hope made a real temptation of the +suggestion that he should not openly oppose but should accommodate himself +to them. Jesus did not underestimate the opposition of "the kingdoms of +the world," but he truly estimated God's intolerance of any rivalry (Matt. +iv. 10), and he was true to God and to his own soul. Again, in this as in +the preceding temptations, Jesus conquered the evil suggestions by +appropriating to himself truth spoken by God's servants to Israel. Tempted +in all points like his brethren, he resisted as any one of them could have +resisted, and won a victory possible, ideally considered, to any other of +the children of men.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s095"><p><span class="versenum">95.</span> It is not idle curiosity which inquires whence the evangelists got +this story of the temptation of Jesus. Even if the whole transaction took +place on the plane of outer sensuous life, and Jesus was bodily carried to +Jerusalem and to the mountain-top, there is no probability that any +witnesses were at hand who could tell the tale. But the fact that in any +case the vision of the kingdoms of the world in a moment of time (Luke iv. +5) could have been spiritual only, since no mountain, however high (Matt. +iv. 8), could give, physically, that wide sweep of view, suggests that the +whole account tells in pictorial language an intensely real, inner +experience of Jesus. This in no respect reduces the truthfulness of the +narratives. Temptation never becomes temptation till it passes to that +inner scene of action and debate. Since Jesus shows in all his teaching a +natural use of parabolic language to set forth spiritual truth, the +inference is <a class="newpage" name="page091" id="page091" title="91"></a>almost inevitable that the gospels have in like manner +adopted the language of vivid picture as alone adequate to depict the +essential reality of his inner struggle. In any case the narrative could +have come from no other source than himself. How he came to tell it we do +not know. On one of the days of private converse with his disciples after +the confession at Cæsarea Philippi he may have given them this account of +his own experience, in order to help his loyal Galileans to understand +more fully his work and the way of it, and to prepare them for that +disappointment of their expectations which they were so slow to +acknowledge as possible.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s096"><p><span class="versenum">96.</span> From this struggle in the wilderness Jesus came forth with the clear +conviction that he was God's Anointed, and in all his after life no +hesitation appeared. The kingdom which he undertook to establish was that +dominion of simple righteousness which he had learned to know and love in +the years of quiet life in Nazareth. He set out to do his work fearlessly, +but prudently, seeking to win men in his Father's way to acknowledge that +Father's sovereignty. There is no evidence that, beyond such firm +conviction and purpose, he had any fixed plan for the work he was to do, +nor that he saw clearly as yet how his earthly career would end. The third +temptation, however, shows that he was not unprepared for seeming defeat. +The struggle had been long and serious,--for the three temptations of the +end are doubtless typical of the whole of the forty days,--and the victory +was great and final. With the light of victory as well as the marks of +warfare on his face, he took his way back towards Galilee.</p></div> +</div> + + +<div class="chapter" id="p01-08"> +<h2><a class="newpage" name="page092" id="page092" title="92"></a>VIII</h2> + +<h3>The First Disciples</h3> + +<h4>John i. 19 TO ii. 12</h4> + + + +<div class="section" id="s097"><p><span class="versenum">97.</span> After the withdrawal of Jesus into the wilderness, John the Baptist +continued his ministry of preaching and baptizing, moving northward up the +Jordan valley to Bethany, on the eastern side of the river, near one of +the fords below the Sea of Galilee (John i. 28). Here Galilee, doubtless, +contributed more to his audience than Judea. It is certain that some from +the borders of the lake were at this time among his constant attendants: +Andrew and Simon of Bethsaida, John the son of Zebedee, and perhaps his +brother James, probably also Philip of Bethsaida and Nathanael of Cana +(John i. 40, 41, 43-45; compare xxi. 2).</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s098"><p><span class="versenum">98.</span> The leaders in Jerusalem, becoming apprehensive whither this work +would lead, sent an embassy to question John. They chose for this mission +priests and Levites of pharisaic leaning as most influential among the +people. The impression John and his message were making on the popular +mind is seen in the questions put to him, "Art thou the Messiah?" +"Elijah?" "The prophet?" (see Deut. xviii. 15), and in the challenge, +"Why, then, baptizest thou?" when John disclaimed the right to any of +these names. John's reply is the echo of his earlier proclamation of <a class="newpage" name="page093" id="page093" title="93"></a>the +one mightier than he who should baptize with the Spirit (Mark i. 7, 8), +only now he added that this one was present among them (John i. 26, 27).</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s099"><p><span class="versenum">99.</span> This interview occurred several weeks after Jesus' baptism, for upon +the next day John saw Jesus (John i. 29), now returned from the +temptation, and pointed him out to a group of disciples. Something in +Jesus' face or in his bearing, as he came from his temptation, must have +impressed John even more than at their first meeting; for he was led to +think of a prophetic word for the most part ignored by the Messianic +thought of his day, "He was brought as a lamb to the slaughter" (Isa. +liii. 7). As he looked on Jesus the mysterious oracle was illuminated for +him, and he cried, "Behold the lamb of God which taketh away the sin of +the world." Once again on the next day the same thought rushed to his lips +when, with two disciples, he saw Jesus passing by (John i. 35, 36). Then +as Jesus left John's neighborhood and took up again the round of ordinary +life, John seems to have reverted to his more ordinary Messianic thought, +his momentary insight into highest truth standing as a thing apart in his +life. Such a moment's insight, caused by extraordinary circumstances, no +more requires that John should retain the high thought constantly than +does Peter's confession of Christ at Cæsarea Philippi exclude his later +rebuke of his Lord (Mark viii. 32, 33), or his denials (Mark xiv. 66-72).</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s100"><p><span class="versenum">100.</span> The disciples who heard these testimonies from John understood them +to be Messianic (John i. 30-34), though their later consternation, when +the cross seemed to shatter their hopes (John xx. 9, 10, 24, <a class="newpage" name="page094" id="page094" title="94"></a>25), shows +that they did not comprehend their deeper meaning. Two of these disciples +at once attached themselves to Jesus, and one of them, Andrew of +Bethsaida, was so impressed by the new master that, having sought out his +brother Simon, he declared that they had found the Messiah. The other of +these earliest followers was John the son of Zebedee, and it is possible +that he also found his brother and introduced James from the very first +into the circle of the disciples. Jesus was about to take his departure +for Galilee, and on the next day, as he was leaving, added Philip of +Bethsaida to the little company of followers. Philip, impressed as Andrew +had been, brought Nathanael of Cana to Jesus. The undefined something +about Jesus which drew noble hearts irresistibly to himself, and his +marvellous knowledge of this new comer, produced the same effect in +Nathanael, as was seen earlier in Andrew and Philip, and he acknowledged +the new master as "Son of God, King of Israel" (John i. 49).</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s101"><p><span class="versenum">101.</span> These early confessions in the fourth gospel present a difficulty in +view of Jesus' warm approval of Peter's acknowledgment of him at Cæsarea +Philippi (Matt. xvi. 13-20). Jesus saw in that confession a distinct +advance in the disciples' thought and faith. Yet the religious feeling +which early questioned whether the Baptist even were not the Messiah (Luke +iii. 15) would almost certainly have concluded that John's greater +successor must be God's anointed. The very fact that men's thoughts about +the Messiah were varied and complex made them ready for some modifications +of their preconceptions. One with such subtle personal power as Jesus had +exercised was almost sure to be hailed by some with enthusiasm as the +looked-<a class="newpage" name="page095" id="page095" title="95"></a>for representative of God. In fact, it is probable that at any +time in the early days of his ministry Jesus could have been proclaimed +Messiah, provided he had accepted the people's terms. Such a confession +would have been merely the outcome of enthusiasm. The people, even the +disciples, did not know Jesus. They all had high hopes and somewhat fixed +ideas about the Messiah, nearly every one of which was destined to rude +shock. How little they knew him Jesus realized (John i. 51), and his +self-mastery is manifest in his attitude to this early enthusiasm. He was +no visionary; he had a great work to do and a long lesson to teach, and he +was patient enough to teach it little by little. He did not rebuke the +ill-informed faith of a Nathanael, but sought gradually to supplant the +old thought of the Messiah and of the kingdom by new truth, and to bind +men's affections to himself for his own sake and the truth's sake, not +simply for the idea which he impersonated to them.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s102"><p><span class="versenum">102.</span> The visit to Cana seems to have found a place in the fourth gospel, +because there the new disciples discovered in their master miraculous +powers which were to them a sign that he was in truth God's anointed. It +is probable that at the time of this miracle the disciples thought only of +the power and the marvel, yet the sharp contrast between John's ascetic +habit and Jesus' use of his divine resources to relieve embarrassment at a +wedding feast must have impressed every man among them. Their minds, +however, were as yet too full of Messianic hopes to leave much room for +reflection. They were content to have a sign, for in the view of Jesus' +contemporaries signs were essential marks of the Messiah (John vi. 30; +vii. 31; <a class="newpage" name="page096" id="page096" title="96"></a>Mark viii. 11). They did their reflecting later (John ii. 22).</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s103"><p><span class="versenum">103.</span> Miracles are as great a stumbling-block to modern thought as they +were a help to the contemporaries of Jesus. The study of Jesus' life +cannot ignore this fact, nor make little of it. It is fair to insist, +however, that the question is one of evidence, not of metaphysical +possibility. Men are wisely slow to-day to claim that they can tell what +are the limits of the possible. If the question is one of evidence, it is +in an important sense true that the evidence for miracle in the life of +Jesus is appreciable only when that life is viewed in its completeness. +The miracles attributed to Jesus may be studied, however, for the +disclosure which they give of his character, and of his relation to common +human need. So it is with this first sign at Cana. Jesus had just heard +the call to be Messiah, and in his lonely struggle in the wilderness had +given a loyal answer to that call, and had set out to do his Father's +business in his Father's way. He who by the Jordan still carried the marks +of struggle, so that the Baptist saw in him the suffering Saviour of +Isaiah liii., now returned to the ordinary daily life in Galilee, and as a +guest at a wedding feast he commenced that ministry of simple human +friendliness (Matt. xi. 19; compare Mark ii. 15-17; Luke xv. 1, 2), which +set him in sharp contrast alike with John's asceticism and with the +ritualism and pedantry of the Pharisees.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s104"><p><span class="versenum">104.</span> His human friendliness is all the more worthy of note, inasmuch as on +his return to Cana Jesus did not take up again the old relations of life +as they existed before his baptism. This is clear from his reply to his +mother when she reported the scarcity <a class="newpage" name="page097" id="page097" title="97"></a>of wine (John ii. 3-5). While it is +true that the title by which Jesus addressed Mary was neither +disrespectful nor unkind (John xix. 26), the reply itself was a warning +that now he was no longer hers in the old sense. A new mission had been +given him, which henceforth would determine all his conduct, and in that +mission she could not now share. Here is one of the many indications +(compare Mark iii. 21, 31-35; Luke ii. 48) that Mary did not understand +her son nor his work until much later (John xix. 25; Acts i. 14). That +with such a clear sense of his new and serious mission Jesus' first +official act was one of kindly relief for social embarrassment is most +significant. He chose to show his divine authority to his new disciples in +a way that brought joy to a festal company. Little as the disciples were +likely to appreciate it at the time, it was beautifully indicative of the +simplicity and everyday lovableness of Jesus' idea of the earnest service +of God.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s105"><p><span class="versenum">105.</span> With the disciples thus strengthened in faith, and the mother not +separated from him though unable to know his deepest thoughts, and the +brethren who could not yet nor later understand their kinsman and his +work, Jesus went down to Capernaum (John ii. 12), which proved thenceforth +to be the centre of his greatest work and teaching. There for a time, how +long cannot be known, he continued in quiet fellowship with his new +friends, until the approach of the Passover drew him to Jerusalem to make +formal opening of his Messianic work in that centre of his people's +religious life.</p></div> +</div> +<p><a class="newpage" name="page098" id="page098" title="98"></a></p> +</div> + + + +<div class="part" id="p02"> +<h2><a class="newpage" name="page099" id="page099" title="99"></a>Part II</h2> + +<h3>The Ministry</h3> + +<p><a class="newpage" name="page100" id="page100" title="100"></a></p> + +<div class="chapter" id="p02-01"> +<h2><a class="newpage" name="page101" id="page101" title="101"></a>I</h2> + +<h3>General Survey of the Ministry</h3> + + + +<div class="section" id="s106"><p><span class="versenum">106.</span> The attempt to arrange an orderly account of the way in which Jesus +set about the work to which he was called at his baptism is met at the +outset by a problem. The vivid and familiar words of Mark (i. 14), +seconded by the representation in both Matthew (iv. 12) and Luke (iv. 14), +indicate the imprisonment of John as the occasion, and Galilee as the +scene of the inauguration of Jesus' public ministry. The fourth gospel, on +the other hand, tells of a work of Jesus and his disciples in Judea prior +to the imprisonment of John (in. 24), and makes this work follow at some +interval after the inauguration of the Messianic ministry in Jerusalem. +The minuteness of detail of time and place in the early chapters of John +(i. 19 to iv. 43), together with the vividness of their narrative, give +them strong claim to credence. They thus record a ministry earlier than +that narrated in the other gospels, proving that the actual inauguration +of Jesus' work occurred in Jerusalem at a Passover season previous to the +imprisonment of John. This is known as the Early Judean Ministry.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s107"><p><span class="versenum">107.</span> The fact that Peter was wont to tell the story of Jesus' life in such +a way as to lead Mark to set the opening of the ministry after the close +of John's activ<a class="newpage" name="page102" id="page102" title="102"></a>ity, indicates that that beginning of work in Galilee +seemed to the disciples to be in a way the actual inauguration of Jesus' +constructive and successful work. Peter cannot have been ignorant of the +labors in Judea, though he may not himself have accompanied Jesus to the +Passover. A new stage in the life of Jesus began, therefore, with his +withdrawal to Galilee.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s108"><p><span class="versenum">108.</span> The story of the Galilean ministry is given chiefly by the first +three gospels, John contributing but two incidents to the period covered +by that ministry,--a second miracle at Cana (iv. 46-54), and a visit to +Judea (v. 1-47),--and relating more fully the story of the feeding of the +multitudes (vi. 1-71). The journey from Judea through Samaria (John iv. +1-45) should be identified with the removal to Galilee which stands at the +beginning of Mark's record (i. 14; Matt. iv. 12; Luke iv. 14). Mark's +account of the Galilean activity of Jesus (i. 14 to ix. 50) is one of such +simple and steady progress that the whole period must be considered as a +unit.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s109"><p><span class="versenum">109.</span> In the use which Matthew (iv. 12 to xviii. 35) and Luke (iv. 14 to +ix. 50) make of Mark's record this unity is emphasized. Their treatment of +the matter which they add, however, makes it best to study the period +topically rather than attempt to follow closely a chronological sequence. +As it is probable that the early writing ascribed by Papias to the apostle +Matthew failed to preserve in many cases any record of the time and place +of the teachings of Jesus, so is it certain that the first and third +evangelists have distributed quite differently the material which they +seem to have derived from that apostolic document. Mention need only be +made of the exhor<a class="newpage" name="page103" id="page103" title="103"></a>tation against anxiety which Matthew places in the +sermon on the mount (vi. 19-34), and which Luke has given after the close +of the Galilean activity (xii. 22-34). It is possible to form some +judgment of the general relations of such discourses from the character of +their contents, but in the absence of positive statement by the +evangelists it is hopeless to seek to give them a more definite historical +setting. A topical study can consider them as contributions to the period +to which they belong, while a chronological study would be lost in +uncertain conjectures. A topical study may, however, disclose the fact +that sequence of time was identical with development of method. This is, +in general, the case with the Galilean ministry. The new lesson which +Jesus began to teach after the confession at Cæsarea Philippi marked the +supreme turning point in his whole public activity. Before that crisis the +work of Jesus was a constructive preparation for the question which called +forth Peter's confession. Subsequently his work was that of making ready +for the end, which from that time on he foretold. As has been stated, the +Galilean ministry is the story of the first three gospels, except for two +incidents and a discourse added by John. The visit to the feast of +Tabernacles (John vii. 1 to viii. 59) stands on the border between the +work in Galilee and that which followed. It was one of Jesus' many +attempts to win Jerusalem, and is evidence that the author of the fourth +gospel--either because of special interest in the capital, or because of +superior knowledge of the work of his Master in Judea--gave emphasis to a +side of the life of Jesus which the other gospels have neglected.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s110"><p><a class="newpage" name="page104" id="page104" title="104"></a><span class="versenum">110.</span> With the close of the constructive ministry in Galilee, the account +of Mark (x. 1; compare Matt xix. 1; Luke ix. 51) turns towards Jerusalem +and the cross. The journey was not direct, but traversed Perea, the domain +of Antipas beyond Jordan, and was accompanied by continued ministry of +teaching and healing (Mark x. 1-52; Matt. xix. 1 to xx. 34). It is at this +point that Luke has inserted the long section peculiar to his gospel (ix. +51 to xviii. 14), becoming again parallel with Mark as Jesus drew near to +Jerusalem (xviii. 15 to xix. 28; compare Mark x. 13-52). Much of that +which Luke adds gives evidence that in all probability it should be placed +before the change in method at Cæsarea Philippi, while much of it +undoubtedly belongs to the last months of Jesus' life. Since the last +journey to Jerusalem is reported with considerable fulness, it is natural +in a study of Jesus' life to treat that journey by itself. At this point +John contributes important additions to the record (ix. 1 to xi. 57) +showing that the journey was not continuous, but was interrupted by +several more or less hurried visits to the capital, renewed efforts of +Jesus to win the city.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s111"><p><span class="versenum">111.</span> With the final arrival in Jerusalem the four gospels come together in +a record of the last days and the crucifixion (Mark xi. 1 to xv. 47; Matt, +xxi 1 to xxvii. 66; Luke xix. 29 to xxiii. 56; John xi. 55 to xix. 42). +The evangelists, in their accounts of the last week, seem to have had +access to completer and more varied information than for any other part of +the ministry. This causes some difficulties in constructing an ordered +conception of the events, yet it greatly adds to the fulness of our +knowledge. It is easier, therefore, <a class="newpage" name="page105" id="page105" title="105"></a>to consider the period in three +parts,--the final controversies in Jerusalem, the Last Supper, and the +betrayal, trial, and crucifixion.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s112"><p><span class="versenum">112.</span> In a sense the resurrection and ascension form the conclusion of the +final visit to Jerusalem, and should be treated with the last week. In a +larger sense, however, they form the culmination of the whole ministry, +and therefore constitute a final stage in the study of Jesus' life. At +this point the record of the gospels is supplemented by the first chapter +of the Acts and by Paul's concise report of the appearances of the risen +Christ (I. Cor. xv. 3-8). The various accounts exhibit perplexing +independence of each other. In total impression, however, they agree, and +show that the tragedy, by which the enemies of Jesus thought to end his +career, was turned into signal triumph.</p></div> +</div><div class="chapter" id="p02-02"> +<div class="outline"> +<h2><a class="newpage" name="page106" id="page106" title="106"></a> Outline of Events in the Early Judean Ministry</h2> + + +<p> The first Passover of the public ministry: Cleansing of the + temple--John ii. 13-22.</p> + +<p> Early results in Jerusalem: Discourse with Nicodemus--John ii. 23 to + iii. 15.</p> + +<p> Withdrawal into rural parts of Judea to preach and baptize--John in. + 22-30; iv. 1, 2.</p> + +<p> Imprisonment of John the Baptist--Matt. iv. 12; Mark i. 14.</p> + +<p> Withdrawal from Judea through Samaria--John iv. 1-42.</p> + +<p> Unlooked-for welcome in Galilee--John iv. 43-45.</p> + +<p> ? Second sign at Cana: Cure of the Nobleman's son--John iv. 46-54 (see + sect. <a href="#a041">A 41</a>).</p> + +<p> [Retirement at Nazareth, the disciples resuming their accustomed + calling. Inferred from Matt. iv. 13; Luke iv. 31; Matt. iv. 18-22 and + ∥s.]</p> + +<p> Events marked ? should possibly be given a different place; ∥s stands + for "parallel accounts;" for sections marked A--as <a href="#a041">A 41</a>--see Appendix.</p> +</div> + + + + +<h2>II</h2> + +<h3>The Early Ministry in Judea</h3> + + + +<div class="section" id="s113"><p><span class="versenum">113.</span> We owe to the fourth gospel our knowledge of the fact that Jesus +began his general ministry in Jerusalem. The silence of the other records +concerning this beginning cannot discredit the testimony of John. For +these other records themselves indicate in various ways that Jesus had +repeatedly sought to win Jerusalem before his final visit at the end of +his life (compare Luke xiii. 34; Matt. xxiii. 37). Moreover, the fourth +gospel is confirmed by the probability, rising <a class="newpage" name="page107" id="page107" title="107"></a>almost to necessity, that +such a mission as Jesus conceived his to be must seek first to win the +leaders of his people. The temple at Jerusalem was the centre of worship, +drawing all Jews sooner or later to itself--even as Jesus in early youth +was accustomed to go thither at the time of feasts (Luke ii. 41). +Worshippers of God throughout the world prayed with their faces towards +Jerusalem (Dan. vi. 10). Moreover, at Jerusalem the chief of the scribes, +as well as the chief of the priests, were to be found. Compared with +Jerusalem all other places were provincial and of small influence. A +Messiah, who had not from the outset given up hope of winning the capital, +cannot have long delayed his effort to find a following there.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s114"><p><span class="versenum">114.</span> Arriving at Jerusalem at the Passover season, in the early spring, +Jesus remained in Judea until the following December (John iv. 35). +Evidently the record which John gives of these months is most fragmentary, +and from his own statement (xx. 30, 31) it seems highly probable that it +is one sided, emphasizing those events and teachings in which Jesus +disclosed more or less clearly his claim to be the Messiah. Doubtless the +full record would show a much closer similarity between this early work in +Judea and that later conducted in Galilee than a comparison of John with +the other gospels would suggest; yet it is evident that Jesus opened his +ministry in Jerusalem with an unrestrained frankness that is not found +later in Galilee.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s115"><p><span class="versenum">115.</span> It is a mistake to think of the cleansing of the temple as a distinct +Messianic manifesto. The market in the temple was a licensed affront to +spiritual religion. It found its excuse for being in the require<a class="newpage" name="page108" id="page108" title="108"></a>ment that +worshippers offer to the priests for sacrifice animals levitically clean +and acceptable, and that gifts for the temple treasury be made in no coin +other than the sacred "shekel of the sanctuary." The chief priests +appreciated the convenience which worshippers coming from a distance would +find if they could obtain all the means of worship within the temple +enclosure itself. The hierarchy or its representatives seem also to have +appreciated the opportunity to charge good prices for the accommodation so +afforded. The result was the intrusion of the spirit of the market-place, +with all its disputes and haggling, into the place set apart for worship. +In fact, the only part of the temple open to Gentiles who might wish to +worship Israel's God was filled with distraction, unseemly strife, and +extortion (compare Mark xi. 17). Such despite done the sanctity of God's +house must have outraged the pious sense of many a devout Israelite. There +is no doubt of what an Isaiah or a Micah would have said and done in such +a situation. This is exactly what Jesus did. His act was the assumption of +a full prophetic authority. In itself considered it was nothing more. In +his expulsion of the traders he had the conscience of the people for his +ally. There is no need to think of any use of miraculous power. His moral +earnestness, coupled with the underlying consciousness on the part of the +traders themselves that they had no business in God's house, readily +explains the confusion and departure of the intruders. Even those who +challenged Jesus' conduct did not venture to defend the presence of the +market in the temple. They only demanded that Jesus show his warrant for +disturbing a condition of things authorized by the priests.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s116"><p><a class="newpage" name="page109" id="page109" title="109"></a><span class="versenum">116.</span> The temple cleansing is recorded in the other gospels at the end of +Jesus' ministry, just before the hostility of the Jews culminated in his +condemnation and death. Inasmuch as these gospels give no account of a +ministry by Jesus in Jerusalem before the last week of his life, it is +easy to see how this event came to be associated by them with the only +Jerusalem sojourn which they record. The definite place given to the event +in John, together with the seeming necessity that Jesus should condemn +such authorized affront to the very idea of worship, mark this cleansing +as the inaugural act of Jesus' ministry of spiritual religion, rather than +as a final stern rebuke closing his effort to win his people. Against the +conclusion commonly held that Jesus cleansed the temple both at the +opening and at the close of his course is the extreme improbability that +the traders would have been caught twice in the same way. The event fits +in closely with the story of the last week, because it actually led to the +beginning of opposition in Jerusalem to the prophet from Galilee. At the +first the opposition was doubtless of a scornful sort. Later it grew in +bitterness when it saw how Jesus was able to arouse a popular enthusiasm +that seemed to threaten the stability of existing conditions.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s117"><p><span class="versenum">117.</span> The reply of Jesus to the challenge of his authority for his +high-handed act shows that he offered it to the people as an invitation; +he would lead them to a higher idea and practice of worship (compare John +iv. 21-24). When they demanded the warrant for his act, he saw that they +were not ready to follow him, and could not appreciate the only warrant he +needed for his course. He cleansed the temple because they were destroying +<a class="newpage" name="page110" id="page110" title="110"></a>it as a place where men could worship God in spirit. In reply to the +challenge, he who later taught the Samaritan woman that the worship of God +is not dependent on any place however sacred, answered that they might +finish their work and destroy the temple as a house of God, yet he would +speedily re-establish a true means of approach to the Most High for the +souls of men. He clothed his reply in a figurative dress, as he was often +wont to do in his teaching,--"Destroy this temple, and in three days I +will raise it up." To his unsympathetic hearers it must have been +completely enigmatic. Even the disciples did not catch its meaning until +after the resurrection had taught them that in their Master a new chapter +in God's dealing with men had begun.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s118"><p><span class="versenum">118.</span> The unreadiness of the Jewish leaders to receive the only kind of +message he had to offer produced in Jesus a decided reserve. He did not +lack a certain kind of success in Jerusalem. His cures of the sick won him +many followers who seemed ready to believe almost anything of him. But the +attitude taken by the leaders made it evident that Jesus must make +disciples who should understand in some measure at least his idea of God's +kingdom, and, understanding, must be ready to be loyal to it through good +report and evil. For the position taken by the leaders of the people had +an ominous significance. It could mean but one thing for +Jesus,--unrelenting conflict. If they could not be won, they who would so +legalize the desecration of God's house would not hesitate at any extreme +in opposing his messenger. This possibility confronted Jesus at the very +outset; therefore he held the popular enthusiasm in check, knowing that +<a class="newpage" name="page111" id="page111" title="111"></a>as yet it had little of that kind of faith which could endure seeming +defeat.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s119"><p><span class="versenum">119.</span> One of those who were drawn to him, however, gave Jesus opportunity +to lay aside his reserve and speak clearly of the truth lie came to +publish. He was a member of the Jewish sanhedrin, a rabbi apparently held +in high regard in Jerusalem. While his associates were dismissing the +claims of Jesus with a wave of the hand, Nicodemus sought out the new +teacher by night, and showed his desire to learn what Jesus held to be +truth concerning God's kingdom. Jesus first reminded the teacher of Israel +of the old doctrine of the prophets, that Israel must find a new heart +before God's kingdom can come (Jer. xxxi. 31-34; Ezek. xxxvi. 25-27), and +then declared that the heavenly truth which God now would reveal to men is +that all can have the needed new life as freely as the plague-stricken +Israelites found relief when Moses lifted up the brazen serpent. This +conversation serves to introduce the evangelist's interpretation of Jesus +as the only begotten Son of God sent in love to redeem the world (John +iii. 16-21).</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s120"><p><span class="versenum">120.</span> John's record suggests that Jesus left Jerusalem shortly after the +conversation with Nicodemus. His work there was not without success, for +Nicodemus seems to have been henceforth his loyal advocate (compare John +vii. 50-52; xix. 39); and it may be that at the time of this sojourn he +won the hearts of his friends in Bethany, for the first picture the +gospels give of this household seems to presuppose a somewhat intimate +relation of Jesus to the family (Luke x. 38-42). It would be idle to +speculate whether it was at this time or later that he became acquainted +with Joseph of Arimathea, or the friends who during the last week of <a class="newpage" name="page112" id="page112" title="112"></a>his +life showed him hospitality (Mark xi. 2-6; xiv. 12-16).</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s121"><p><span class="versenum">121.</span> For a time after his withdrawal from Jerusalem he lingered in Judea, +carrying on a simple ministry of preparation like that of John the +Baptist. In this way the summer and early autumn seem to have passed, +Jesus growing more popular as a prophet than John himself had been. The +fact that Jesus' disciples administered baptism in connection with his +work roused the jealousy of some of John's followers, and attracted again +the attention of Jerusalem to the new activity of the bold disturber of +the temple market. John's disciples complained to him of Jesus' rivalry, +and received his self-effacing confession, "He must increase, I must +decrease." The Pharisees, on the other hand, made Jesus feel that further +work in Judea was for the time unwise, and he withdrew into Galilee for +retirement, since "a prophet has no honor in his own country" (John iv. +1-3, 44). Baffled in his first effort to win his people, this journey back +from the region of the holy city must have been one of no little sadness +for Jesus. Some urgency for haste led him by the direct road through +despised Samaria. A seemingly chance conversation with a woman at Jacob's +well, where he was resting at noonday, gave him an opportunity for +ministry which was more ingenuously received than any which he had been +able to render in Judea; and to this woman he declared himself even more +plainly than to Nicodemus, and preached to her that spiritual idea of +worship which he had sought to enforce by cleansing Jerusalem's temple. +Samaria was so isolated from all Jewish interest that Jesus felt no need +for reserve in this "strange" land. The few days spent there must <a class="newpage" name="page113" id="page113" title="113"></a>have +been peculiarly welcome to his heart, fresh from rejection in Judea.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s122"><p><span class="versenum">122.</span> One reason why he wished to hasten from Judea seems to have been his +knowledge of the hostile movement which was making against John the +Baptist. Either before or soon after Jesus started for Galilee Herod had +arrested John, ostensibly as a measure of public safety owing to John's +undue popularity (Jos. Ant. xviii. 5. 2). Herod may have been encouraged +to take this step by the hostility of the Pharisees to the plain-spoken +prophet of the desert (see John iv. 1-3). The fourth gospel leaves its +readers to infer that the imprisonment took place somewhere about this +time (compare iii. 24 and v. 35), while the other gospels unite in giving +this arrest as the occasion for Jesus' withdrawal into Galilee.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s123"><p><span class="versenum">123.</span> Arrived in Galilee, Jesus seems to have returned to his home at +Nazareth, while his disciples went back to their customary occupations, +until he summoned them again to join him in a new ministry (see sect. +125). John assigns to this time the cure of a nobleman's son. The father +sought out Jesus at Cana, having left his son sick at Capernaum. At first +Jesus apparently repelled his approach, even as he had dealt with seekers +after marvels at Jerusalem; but on hearing the father's cry of need and +trust, he at once spoke the word of healing. This event is in so many ways +a duplicate of the cure of a centurion's servant recorded in Matthew and +Luke, that to many it seems but another version of the same incident. +Considering the variations in the story reported by Matthew and Luke, it +is clearly not possible to prove that John tells of a different case. Yet +the simple fact of similarity of some details in two <a class="newpage" name="page114" id="page114" title="114"></a>events should not +exclude the possibility of their still being quite distinct. The reception +which Jesus gave the two requests for help is very different, and the case +reported in John is in keeping with the attitude of Jesus before he began +his new ministry in Galilee. On his arrival in Galilee he wished to avoid +a mere wonder faith begotten of the enthusiasm he excited in Jerusalem, +yet this wish yielded at once when a genuine need sought relief at his +hands.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s124"><p><span class="versenum">124.</span> The apparent result of this first activity in Judea was +disappointment and failure. He had won no considerable following in the +capital. He had definitely excited the jealousy and opposition of the +leading men of his nation. Even such popular enthusiasm as had followed +his mighty works was of a sort that Jesus could not encourage. The +situation in Judea had at length become so nearly untenable that he +decided to withdraw into seclusion in Galilee, where, as a prophet, he +could be "without honor." He had gone to Jerusalem eager to begin there, +where God should have had readiest service, the ministry of the kingdom of +God. Challenge, cold criticism, and superficial faith were the results. A +new beginning must be made on other lines in other places. Meanwhile Jesus +retired to his home and his followers to theirs.</p></div></div> +<div class="chapter" id="p02-03"> +<div class="outline"> +<h2><a class="newpage" name="page115" id="page115" title="115"></a> Outline of Events in the Galilean Ministry (Chapters <a href="#p02-03">III.</a> and <a href="#p02-04">IV.</a>)</h2> + + +<p> The imprisonment of John and the withdrawal of Jesus into + Galilee--Matt. iv. 12-17; Mark i. 14, 15; Luke iv. 14, 15.</p> + +<p> Removal from Nazareth to Capernaum--Matt. iv. 13-16; Luke iv. 31.</p> + +<p> The call of Simon and Andrew, James and John--Matt. iv. 18-22; Mark i. + 16-20; Luke v. 1-11. + +</p> + +<p> First work in Capernaum--Matt. viii. 14-17; Mark i. 21-34; Luke iv. + 31-41.</p> + +<p> First circuit of Galilee--Matt. iv. 23; viii. 2-4; Mark i. 35-45; Luke + iv. 42-44; v. 12-16.</p> + +<p> Cure of a paralytic in Capernaum--Matt. ix. 2-8; Mark ii. 1-12; Luke v. + 17-26.</p> + +<p> The call of Matthew--Matt. ix. 9-13; Mark ii. 13-17; Luke v. 27-32.</p> + +<p> ? The question about fasting--Matt ix. 14-17; Mark ii. 18-22; Luke v. + 33-39 (see sects. 47; <a href="#a054">A 54</a>).</p> + +<p> ? Sabbath cure at Jerusalem at the unnamed feast--John v. 1-47 (see + sect. <a href="#a053">A 53</a>).</p> + +<p> ? The Sabbath controversy in the Galilean grain fields--Matt. xii. 1-8; + Mark ii. 23-28; Luke vi. 1-5 (see sects. 47; <a href="#a054">A 54</a>).</p> + +<p> ? Another Sabbath controversy: cure of a withered hand--Matt. xii. + 9-14; Mark iii. 1-6; Luke vi. 6-11 (see sects. 47; <a href="#a054">A 54</a>).</p> + +<p> Jesus followed by multitudes from all parts--Matt. iv. 23-25; xii. + 15-21; Mark iii. 7-12; Luke vi. 17-19.</p> + +<p> The choosing of the twelve--Matt. x. 2-4; Mark iii. 13-19; Luke vi. + 12-19.</p> + +<p> The sermon on the mount--Matt. v. 1 to viii. 1; Luke vi. 20 to vii. 1 + (see sect. <a href="#a055">A 55</a>).</p> + +<p> The cure of a centurion's servant--Matt. viii. 5-13; Luke vii. 1-10; + John iv. 46-54.</p> + +<p><a class="newpage" name="page116" id="page116" title="116"></a> The restoration of the widow's son at Nain--Luke vii. 11-17.</p> + +<p> The message from John in prison--Matt. xi. 2-19; Luke vii. 18-35.</p> + +<p> The anointing of Jesus by a sinful woman--Luke vii. 36-50.</p> + +<p> The companions of Jesus on his second circuit of Galilee--Luke viii. + 1-3.</p> + +<p> Cure of a demoniac in Capernaum and blasphemy by the Pharisees--Matt. + xii. 22-45; Mark iii. 19<sup>a</sup>-30; Luke xi. 14-36.</p> + +<p> The true kindred of Jesus--Matt. xii. 46-50; Mark iii. 31-35; Luke + viii. 19-21.</p> + +<p> The parables by the sea--Matt. xiii. 1-53; Mark iv. 1-34; Luke viii. + 4-18 (see sect. <a href="#a056">A 56</a>).</p> + +<p> The tempest stilled--Matt. viii. 18, 23-27; Mark iv. 35-41; Luke viii. + 22-25.</p> + +<p> Cure of the Gadarene demoniac--Matt. viii. 28-34; Mark v. 1-20; Luke + viii. 26-39.</p> + +<p> The restoration of the daughter of Jairus and cure of an invalid + woman--Matt. ix. 1, 18-26; Mark v. 21-43; Luke viii. 40-56.</p> + +<p> Cure of blind and dumb--Matt. ix. 27-34.</p> + +<p> Rejection at Nazareth--Matt. xiii. 54-58; Mark vi. 1-6<sup>a</sup>; Luke iv. + 16-30 (see sect. <a href="#a052">A 52</a>).</p> + +<p> Third circuit of Galilee--Matt. ix. 35; Mark vi. 6<sup>b</sup>.</p> + +<p> The mission of the twelve--Matt. ix. 36 to xi. 1; Mark vi. 7-13; Luke + ix. 1-6 (see sect. <a href="#a057">A 57</a>).</p> + +<p> The death of John the Baptist--Matt. xiv. 1-12; Mark vi. 14-29; Luke + ix. 7-9.</p> + +<p> Withdrawal of Jesus across the sea and feeding of the five + thousand--Matt. xiv. 13-23; Mark vi. 30-46; Luke ix. 10-17; John vi. + 1-15.</p> + +<p> Return to Capernaum, Jesus walking on the water--Matt. xiv. 24-36; Mark + vi. 47-56; John vi. 16-21.</p> + +<p> Teaching about the Bread of Life in the synagogue at Capernaum--John + vi. 22-71 (see sect. <a href="#a059">A 59</a>).</p> + +<p> Controversy concerning tradition: handwashing, etc.--Matt. xv. 1-20; + Mark vii. 1-23.</p> + +<p> Withdrawal to regions of Tyre and Sidon: the Syrophœnician woman's + daughter--Matt. xv. 21-28; Mark vii. 24-30.</p> + +<p><a class="newpage" name="page117" id="page117" title="117"></a> Return through Decapolis--Matt. xv. 29-31; Mark vii. 31-37. +</p> + +<p> ? The feeding of the four thousand--Matt. xv. 32-38; Mark viii. 1-9 + (see sect. <a href="#a058">A 58</a>).</p> + +<p> Pharisaic challenge in Galilee, and warning against the leaven of the + Pharisees--Matt xv. 39 to xvi. 12; Mark viii. 10-21.</p> + +<p> Cure of blind man near Bethsaida--Mark viii. 22-26.</p> + +<p> Peter's confession of Jesus as Christ near Cæsarea Philippi--Matt. xvi. + 13-20; Mark viii. 27-30; Luke ix. 18-21.</p> + +<p> The new lesson, that the Christ must die--Matt. xvi. 21-28; Mark viii. + 31 to ix. 1; Luke ix. 22-27.</p> + +<p> The transfiguration--Matt. xvii. 1-13; Mark ix. 2-13; Luke ix. 28-36.</p> + +<p> Cure of the epileptic boy--Matt. xvii. 14-20; Mark ix. 14-29; Luke ix. + 37-43<sup>a</sup>.</p> + +<p> Second prediction of approaching death and resurrection--Matt. xvii. + 22, 23; Mark ix. 30-32; Luke ix. 43<sup>b</sup>-45.</p> + +<p> Return to Capernaum: the temple tax--Matt. xvii. 24-27; Mark ix. 33<sup>a</sup>.</p> + +<p> Teachings concerning humility and forgiveness--Matt. xviii. 1-35; Mark + ix. 33-50; Luke ix. 46-50.</p> + +<p> Visit of Jesus to Jerusalem at the feast of Tabernacles--John vii. + 1-52; viii. 12-59 (see sect. <a href="#a060">A 60</a>).</p> + +<p> ? The woman taken in adultery--John vii. 53 to viii. 11 (see sect. + 163).</p> + +<p> The following probably belong to the Galilean ministry before the + confession at Cæsarea Philippi (see sect. 168):--</p> + +<p> The disciples taught to pray--Matt. vi. 9-15; vii. 7-11; Luke xi. 1-13.</p> + +<p> The cure of an infirm woman on the Sabbath--Luke xiii. 10-17.</p> + +<p> Two parables: mustard-seed and leaven--Matt. xiii. 31-33; Luke xiii. + 18-21 (see sect. <a href="#a056">A 56</a>).</p> + +<p> The parable of the rich fool--Luke xii. 13-21.</p> + +<p> Cure on a Sabbath and teaching at a Pharisee's table--Luke xiv. 1-24.</p> + +<p> Five parables--Luke xv. 1 to xvi. 31.</p> + +<p> Certain disconnected teachings--Luke xvii. 1-4.</p> +</div> + + + + +<h2><a class="newpage" name="page118" id="page118" title="118"></a>III</h2> + +<h3>The Ministry In Galilee--Its Aim and Method</h3> + + + +<div class="section" id="s125"><p><span class="versenum">125.</span> The work of Jesus in Galilee, which is the principal theme of the +first three gospels, began with a removal from Nazareth to Capernaum, and +the calling of four fishermen to be his constant followers. The ready +obedience which Simon and Andrew and James and John gave to this call is +an interesting evidence that they did not first come to know Jesus at the +time of this summons. The narrative presupposes some such earlier +association as is reported in John, followed by a temporary return to +their old homes and occupations, while Jesus sought seclusion after his +work in Judea. The first evangelist has most vividly indicated the +development of the Galilean ministry, directing attention to two points of +beginning,--the beginning of Jesus' preaching of the kingdom (Matt. iv. +17) and the beginning of his predictions of his own sufferings and death +(xvi. 21). Between these two beginnings lies the ministry of Jesus to the +enthusiastic multitudes, the second of them marking his choice of a more +restricted audience and a less popular message. Within the first of these +periods two events mark epochs,--the mission of the twelve (Matt. ix. 36; +x. I) to preach the coming kingdom of God and to multiply Jesus' ministry +of healing, and the feeding of the five thousand when the popular +enthusiasm <a class="newpage" name="page119" id="page119" title="119"></a>reached its climax (John vi. 14, 15). These events fall not +far apart, and mark two different phases of the same stage of development +in his work. The first is emphasized by Matthew, the second by John; both +help to a clearer understanding of the narrative which Mark has furnished +to the other gospels for their story of the Galilean ministry. The table +at the head of this chapter indicates in outline the probable succession +of events in the Galilean period. The order adopted is that of Mark, +supplemented by the other gospels. Luke's additions are inserted in his +order where there is not some reason for believing that he himself +disregarded the exact sequence of events. Thus the rejection at Nazareth +is placed late, as in Mark. Much of the material in the long section +peculiar to Luke is assigned in general to this Galilean period, since all +knowledge of its precise location in time and place has been lost for us, +as it not unlikely was for Luke. Although Matthew is the gospel giving the +clearest general view of the Galilean work, it shows the greatest +disarrangement of details, and aids but little in determining the sequence +of events. The material from that gospel is assigned place in accordance +with such hints as are discoverable in parallel or associated parts of +Mark or Luke. Of John's contributions one--the feeding of the +multitudes--is clearly located by its identity with a narrative found in +all the other gospels. The visit to Jerusalem at the unnamed feast can be +only tentatively placed.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s126"><p><span class="versenum">126.</span> Viewing this gospel story as a whole, the parallel development of +popular enthusiasm and official hostility at once attracts attention. +Jesus' first cures in the synagogue at Capernaum roused the interest and +<a class="newpage" name="page120" id="page120" title="120"></a>wonder of the multitudes to such an extent that he felt constrained to +withdraw to other towns. On his return to Capernaum he was so beset with +crowds that the friends of the paralytic could get at him only by breaking +up the roof. It was when Jesus found himself followed by multitudes from +all parts of the land that he selected twelve of his disciples "that they +might be with him and that he might send them forth to preach," and +addressed to them in the hearing of the multitudes the exacting, although +unspeakably winsome teaching of the sermon on the mount. This condition of +things continued even after Herod had killed John the Baptist, for when +Jesus, having heard of John's fate, sought retirement with his disciples +across the sea of Galilee, he was robbed of his seclusion by throngs who +flocked to him to be healed and to hear of the kingdom of God.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s127"><p><span class="versenum">127.</span> The popular enthusiasm was not indifferent to the question who this +new teacher might be. At first Jesus impressed the people by his +authoritative teaching and cures. After the raising of the widow's son at +Nain the popular feeling found a more definite declaration,--"a great +prophet has risen up among us." The cure of a demoniac in Capernaum raised +the further incredulous query, "Can this be the Son of David?" The notion +that he might be the Messiah seems to have gained acceptance more and more +as Jesus' popularity grew, for at the time of the feeding of the +multitudes the enthusiasm burst into a flame of determination to force him +to undertake the work for which he was so eminently fitted, but from which +for some inexplicable reason he seemed to shrink (John vi. 15).</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s128"><p><a class="newpage" name="page121" id="page121" title="121"></a><span class="versenum">128.</span> Parallel with the growth of popular enthusiasm, and in part because +of it, the religious leaders early assumed and consistently maintained an +attitude of opposition. The gospels connect the critics of Jesus now and +again with the Pharisees of the capital--the Galilean Pharisees being +represented as more or less friendly. At the first appearance of Jesus in +Capernaum even the Sabbath cure in the synagogue passed unchallenged; but +on the return from his first excursion to other towns, Jesus found critics +in his audience (Luke connects them directly with Jerusalem). From time to +time such censors as these objected to the forgiveness by Jesus of the +sins of the paralytic (Mark ii. 6, 7), criticised his social relations +with outcasts like the publicans (Mark ii. 16), took offence at his +carelessness of the Sabbath tradition in his instruction of his disciples +(Mark ii. 24), and sought to turn the tide of rising popular enthusiasm by +ascribing his power to cure to a league with the devil (Mark iii. 22). +Baffled in one charge, they would turn to another, until, after the +feeding of the multitudes, Jesus showed his complete disregard of all they +held most dear, replying to a criticism of his disciples for carelessness +of the ritual of hand-washing by an authoritative setting aside of the +whole body of their traditions, as well as of the Levitical ceremonial of +clean and unclean meats (Mark vii. 1-23).</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s129"><p><span class="versenum">129.</span> The wonder is, not that popular enthusiasm for Jesus was great, but +that it was so hesitating in its judgment about him. The province which +provided a following to Judas of Galilee a generation earlier than the +public ministry of Jesus, and which under John of Gischala furnished the +chief support to the <a class="newpage" name="page122" id="page122" title="122"></a>revolt against Rome a generation later, could have +been excited to uncontrollable passion by the simple idea that a leader +was present who could be made to head a movement for Jewish liberty. But +there was something about Jesus which made it impossible to think of him +as such a Messiah. He was much more moved by sin lurking within than by +wrong inflicted from without. He looked for God's kingdom, as did the +Zealots, but he looked for it within the heart more than in outward +circumstances. Even the dreamers among the people, who were as unready as +Jesus for any uprising against Rome, and who waited for God to show his +own hand in judgment, found in Jesus--come to seek and to save that which +was lost--something so contradictory of their idea of the celestial judge +that they could not easily think of him as a Messiah. Jesus was a puzzle +to the people. They were sure that he was a prophet; but if at any time +some were tempted to query, "Can this be the Son of David?" the +incredulous folk expected ever a negative reply.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s130"><p><span class="versenum">130.</span> This was as Jesus wished it to be. An unreasoning enthusiasm could +only hinder his work. When his early cures in Capernaum stirred the ardent +feelings of the multitudes, he took occasion to withdraw to other towns +and allow popular feeling to cool. When later he found himself pressed +upon by crowds from all quarters of the land, by the sermon on the mount +he set them thinking on strange and highly spiritual things, far removed +from the thoughts of Zealots and apocalyptic dreamers.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s131"><p><span class="versenum">131.</span> The manifest contradiction of popular Messianic ideas which Jesus +presented in his own person <a class="newpage" name="page123" id="page123" title="123"></a>usually served to check undue ardor as long +as he was present. But when some demoniac proclaimed the high station of +Jesus, and thus seemed to the people to give supernatural testimony; or +when some one in need sought him apart from the multitudes, Jesus +frequently enjoined silence. These injunctions of silence are enigmas +until they are viewed as a part of Jesus' effort to keep control of +popular feeling. In his absence the people might dwell on his power and +easily come to imagine him to be what he was not and could not be. Jesus +was able by these means to restrain unthinking enthusiasm until the +multitudes whom he fed on the east side of the sea determined to force him +to do their will as a Messiah. Then he refused to follow where they +called, and that happened which would doubtless have happened at an +earlier time but for Jesus' caution,--the popular enthusiasm subsided, and +his active work with the common people was at an end. But he had held off +this crisis until there were a few who did not follow the popular +defection, but rather clung to him from whom they had heard the words of +eternal life (John vi. 68).</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s132"><p><span class="versenum">132.</span> Jesus' caution brings to light one aspect of his aim in the Galilean +ministry,--he sought to win acceptance for the truth he proclaimed. His +message as reported in the synoptic gospels was the near approach of the +kingdom of God. Any such proclamation was sure of eager hearing. At first +he seems to have been content to gather and interest the multitudes by +this preaching and the works which accompanied it. But he early took +occasion to state his ideas in the hearing of the multitudes, and in terms +so simple, so concerned <a class="newpage" name="page124" id="page124" title="124"></a>with every-day life, so exacting as respects +conduct, and so lacking in the customary glowing picture of the future, +that the people could not mistake such a teacher for a simple fulfiller of +their ideas. In this early sermon in effect, and later with increasing +plainness, he set forth his doctrine of a kingdom of heaven coming not +with observation, present actually among a people who knew it not, like a +seed growing secretly in the earth, or leaven quietly leavening a lump of +meal. By word and deed, in sermon and by parable, he insisted on this +simple and every-day conception of God's rule among men. With Pharisee, +Zealot, and dreamer, he held that "the best is yet to be," yet all three +classes found their most cherished ideals set at nought by the new +champion of the soul's inner life in fellowship with the living God. In +all his teaching there was a claim of authority and a manifest +independence which indicate certainty on his part concerning his own +mission. Yet so completely is the personal question retired for the time, +that in his rebuke of the blasphemy of the Pharisees he took pains to +declare that it was not because they had spoken against the Son of Man, +that they were in danger, but because they had spoken against the Spirit +of God, whose presence was manifest in his works. He wished, primarily, to +win disciples to the kingdom of God.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s133"><p><span class="versenum">133.</span> Yet Jesus was not indifferent in Galilee to what the people thought +about himself. The question at Cæsarea Philippi shows more fully the aim +of his ministry. During all the period of the preaching of the kingdom he +never hesitated to assert himself whenever need for such self-assertion +arose. This <a class="newpage" name="page125" id="page125" title="125"></a>was evident in his dealing with his pharisaic critics. He +rarely argued with them, and always assumed a tone of authority which was +above challenge, asserting that the Son of Man had authority to forgive +sins, was lord of the Sabbath, was greater than the temple or Jonah or +Solomon. Moreover, in his positive teaching of the new truth he assumed +such an authoritative tone that any who thought upon it could but remark +the extraordinary claim involved in his simple "I say unto you." He wished +also to win disciples to himself.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s134"><p><span class="versenum">134.</span> The key to the ministry in Galilee is furnished in Jesus' answer to +the message from John the Baptist. John in prison had heard of the works +of his successor. Jesus did so much that promised a fulfilment of the +Messianic hope, yet left so much undone, contradicting in so many ways the +current idea of a Messiah by his studied avoidance of any demonstration, +that the older prophet felt a momentary doubt of the correctness of his +earlier conviction. It is in no way strange that he experienced a reaction +from that exalted moment of insight when he pointed out Jesus as the Lamb +of God, particularly after his restless activity had been caged within the +walls of his prison. Jesus showed that he did not count it strange, by his +treatment of John's quesestion and by his words about John after the +messengers had gone. Yet in his reply he gently suggested that the +question already had its answer if John would but look rightly for it. He +simply referred to the things that were being done before the eyes of all, +and asked John to form from them a conclusion concerning him who did them. +One aid he offered to the imprisoned prophet,--a word from the <a class="newpage" name="page126" id="page126" title="126"></a>Book of +Isaiah (xxxv. 5f., lxi. 1f.),--and added a blessing for such as "should +find nothing to stumble at in him." Here Jesus emphasized his works, and +allowed his message to speak for itself; but he frankly indicated that he +expected people to pass from wonder at his ministry to an opinion about +himself. At Cæsarea Philippi he showed to his disciples that this opinion +about himself was the significant thing in his eyes. Throughout the +ministry in Galilee, therefore, this twofold aim appears. Jesus would +first divert attention from himself to his message, in order that he might +win disciples to the kingdom of God as he conceived it. Having so attached +them to his idea of the kingdom, he desired to be recognized as that +kingdom's prince, the Messiah promised by God for his people. He retired +behind his message in order that men might be drawn to the truth which he +held dear, knowing that thus they would find themselves led captive to +himself in a willing devotion.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s135"><p><span class="versenum">135.</span> This aim explains his retirement when popularity pressed, his +exacting teaching about the spirituality of the kingdom of God, and his +injunctions of silence. He wished to be known, to be thought about, to be +accepted as God's anointed, but he would have this only by a genuine +surrender to his leadership. His disciples must own him master and follow +him, however much he might disappoint their misconceptions. This aim, too, +explains his frank self-assertions and exalted personal claims in +opposition to official criticism. He would not be false to his own sense +of masterhood, nor allow people to think him bold when his critics were +away, and cowardly in their presence. Therefore, when needful, he invited +attention to him<a class="newpage" name="page127" id="page127" title="127"></a>self as greater than the temple or as lord of the +Sabbath. This kind of self-assertion, however, served his purpose as well +as his customary self-retirement, for it forced people to face the +contradiction which he offered to the accepted religious ideas of their +leaders.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s136"><p><span class="versenum">136.</span> The method which Jesus chose has already been repeatedly +indicated,--teaching and preaching on the one hand, and works of +helpfulness to men on the other. The character of the teaching of this +period is shown in three discourses,--the Sermon on the Mount, the +Discourse in Parables, and the Instructions to the Twelve. The sermon on +the mount is given in different forms in Matthew and Luke, that in Matthew +being evidently the more complete, even after deduction has been made of +those parts which Luke has assigned with high probability to a later time. +This address was spoken to the disciples of Jesus found among the +multitudes who flocked to him from all quarters. It opened with words of +congratulation for those who, characterized by qualities often despised, +were yet heirs of God's kingdom. The thought then passed to the +responsibility of such heirs of the kingdom for the help of a needy world. +Next, since much in the words and works of Jesus hitherto might have +suggested to men that he was indifferent to the older religion of his +people, he carefully explained that he came, not to set aside the old, but +to realize the spiritual idea for which it stood, by establishing a more +exacting standard of righteousness. This more exacting righteousness Jesus +illustrated by a series of restatements of the older law, and then by a +group of criticisms of current religious practice. The sermon closed with +warnings against complacent <a class="newpage" name="page128" id="page128" title="128"></a>censoriousness in judging other men's +failures, and a solemn declaration of the vital seriousness of "these +sayings of mine." The righteousness required by this new law is not only +more exacting but unspeakably worthier than the old, being more simply +manifested in common life, and demanding more intimate filial fellowship +with the living God.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s137"><p><span class="versenum">137.</span> The teachings included in the sermon by the first gospel, but placed +later by Luke, supplement the sermon by bidding God's child to lead a +trustful life, knowing that the heavenly Father cares for him. That Luke +has omitted much which from Matthew's account clearly belonged to the +original sermon may be explained by the fact that Gentile readers did not +share the interest which Jesus' hearers had, and which the readers of the +first gospel had, in the relation of the new gospel to the older law. +Hence the restatement of older commands and the criticism of current +practice was omitted. Similar to the teachings which the first gospel has +included in the sermon, are many which Luke has preserved in the section +peculiar to himself. It is not unlikely that they belong also to the +Galilean ministry. They urge the same sincere, reverent life in the sight +of God, the same trust in the heavenly Father, the same certainty of his +love and care; and they do not have that peculiar note of impending +judgment which entered into the teachings of Jesus after the confession at +Cæsarea Philippi.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s138"><p><span class="versenum">138.</span> In the story of Mark, which is reproduced in the first and third +gospels, the use of parable was first introduced in a way to attract the +attention of the disciples, after pharisaic opposition to Jesus had become +somewhat bitter and there was need of checking <a class="newpage" name="page129" id="page129" title="129"></a>a too speedy culmination +of opposition. He chose at that time a form of parable which was enigmatic +to his disciples, and could but further puzzle hearers who had no sympathy +with him and his message. Mark (iv. 12) states that this perplexity was in +accordance with the purpose of Jesus. But it is equally clear that Jesus +meant to teach the teachable as well as to perplex the critical by these +illustrations, for in explaining the Sower he suggested that the disciples +should have understood it without explanation (Mark iv. 13). Many of +Jesus' parables, however, had no such enigmatic character, but were +intended simply to help his hearers to understand him. He made use of this +kind of teaching from first to last. The pictures of the wise and foolish +builders with which the sermon on the mount concludes show that it was not +the use of illustration which surprised the disciples in the parables +associated with the Sower, but his use of such puzzling illustrations. +Some of the parables of Luke's peculiar section may belong to the Galilean +ministry, and even to the earlier stages of it. These have none of the +enigmatic character; the parables of the last days of Jesus' life also +seem to have been simple and clear to his hearers. The Oriental mind +prefers the concrete to the abstract, and its teachers have ever made +large use of illustration. Jesus stands unique, not in that he used +parables, but in the simplicity and effective beauty of those which he +used. These illustrations, whether Jesus intended them for the moment to +enlighten or to confound, served always to set forth concretely some truth +concerning the relation of men to God, or concerning his kingdom and their +relation to it. The form of teaching was welcome to his <a class="newpage" name="page130" id="page130" title="130"></a>hearers, and +served as one of the attractions to draw men to him.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s139"><p><span class="versenum">139.</span> The first gospel assigns another extended discourse to this Galilean +period,--the Instructions to the Twelve. The mission of the twelve formed +a new departure as Jesus saw the Galilean crisis approaching. He sought +thereby to multiply his own work, and commissioned his disciples to heal +and preach as he was doing. The restriction of their field to Israel +(Matt. x. 5, 6) simply applied to them the rule he adopted for himself +during the Galilean period (Matt. xv. 24). Comparison with the accounts in +Mark and Luke, as well as the character of the instructions found in +Matthew, show that here the first evangelist has followed his habit of +gathering together teachings on the same general theme from different +periods in Jesus' life. Much in the tenth chapter of Matthew indicates +clearly that the ministry of Jesus had already passed the period of +popularity, and that his disciples could now look for little but scorn and +persecution. This was the situation at the end of Jesus' public life, and +parallel sayings are found in the record of the last week in Jerusalem.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s140"><p><span class="versenum">140.</span> When the teaching of the sermon and the parables is compared with +Jesus' self-assertion in his replies to pharisaic criticism and blasphemy, +the difference is striking. Ordinarily he avoided calling attention to +himself, wishing men to form their opinion of him after they had learned +to know him as he was. Yet when one looks beneath the surface of his +teaching, the tone of authority which astonished the multitudes is +identical with the calm self-confidence which replied to pharisaic +censure: "The <a class="newpage" name="page131" id="page131" title="131"></a>Son of Man hath authority on the earth to forgive sins."</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s141"><p><span class="versenum">141.</span> Jesus drew the multitudes after him not only by his teachings, but +also by his mighty works. He certainly was for his contemporaries a +wonder-worker and healer of disease, and, in order to appreciate the +impression which he made, the miracles recorded in the gospels must be +allowed to reveal what they can of his character. The mighty works which +enchained attention in Galilee were chiefly cures of disease, with +occasional exhibitions of power over physical nature,--such as the +stilling of the tempest and the feeding of the five thousand. The +significant thing about them is their uniform beneficence of purpose and +simplicity of method. Nothing of the spectacular attached itself to them. +Jesus repeatedly refused to the critical Pharisees a sign from heaven. +This was not because he disregarded the importance of signs for his +generation,--witness his appeal to his works in the reply to John (Matt. +xi. 4-6); but he felt that in his customary ministry to the needy +multitudes he had furnished signs in abundance, for his deeds both gave +evidence of heavenly power and revealed the character of the Father who +had sent him.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s142"><p><span class="versenum">142.</span> One of the commonest of the ailments cured by Jesus is described in +the gospels as demoniac possession, the popular idea being that evil +spirits were accustomed to take up their abode in men, speaking with their +tongues and acting through their bodies, at the same time afflicting them +with various physical diseases. Six specific cures of such possession are +recorded in the story of the Galilean ministry, besides general references +to the cure of many that were pos<a class="newpage" name="page132" id="page132" title="132"></a>sessed. Of these specific cases the +Gadarene demoniac shows symptoms of violent insanity; the boy cured near +Cæsarea Philippi, those of epilepsy; in other cases the disease was more +local, showing itself in deafness, or blindness, or both. In the cures +recorded Jesus addressed the possessed with a command to the invading +demon to depart. He was ordinarily greeted, either before or after such a +command, with a loud outcry, often accompanied with a recognition of him +as God's Holy One.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s143"><p><span class="versenum">143.</span> The record of such maladies and their cure is not confined to the New +Testament. The evil spirit which came upon King Saul is a similar case, +and Josephus tells of Jewish exorcists who cured possessed persons by the +use of incantations handed down from King Solomon. The early Christian +fathers frequently argued the truth of Christianity from the way in which +demons departed at the command of Christian exorcists, while in the middle +ages and down to modern times belief in demoniac possession has been +common, particularly among some of the more superstitious of the peasantry +in Europe. Moreover, from missionaries in China and other eastern lands it +is learned that diseases closely resembling the cases of possession +recorded in the New Testament are frequently met with, and are often cured +by native Christian ministers.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s144"><p><span class="versenum">144.</span> The similarity of the symptoms of so-called possession to recognized +mental and physical derangements such as insanity, epilepsy, and hysteria, +suggests the conclusion that possession should be classed with other +ailments due to ill adjustment of the relations of the mental and physical +life. If this conclu<a class="newpage" name="page133" id="page133" title="133"></a>sion is valid, the idea of actual possession by evil +spirits becomes only an ancient effort to interpret the mysterious +symptoms in accordance with wide-spread primitive beliefs. This +explanation would doubtless be generally adopted were it not that it seems +to compromise either the integrity or the knowledge of Jesus. The gospels +plainly represent him as treating the supposed demoniac influence as real, +addressing in his cures not the invalid, but the invading demon. If he did +this knowing that the whole view was a superstition, was he true to his +mission to release mankind from its bondage to evil and sin? If he shared +the superstition of his time, had he the complete knowledge necessary to +make him the deliverer he claimed to be? These questions are serious and +difficult, but they form a part of the general problem of the extent of +Jesus' knowledge, and can be more intelligently discussed in connection +with that whole problem (sects. 249-251). It is reasonable to demand, +however, that any conclusion reached concerning the nature of possession +in the time of Jesus must be considered valid for similar manifestations +of disease in our own day.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s145"><p><span class="versenum">145.</span> What astonished people in Jesus' cures was not so much that he healed +the sick as that he did it with such evidence of personal authority. His +cures and his teachings alike served to attract attention to himself and +to invite question as to who he could be. Yet a far more powerful means to +the end he had in view was the subtle, unobtrusive, personal influence +which without their knowledge knit the hearts of a few to himself. In +reality both his teaching and his cures were only means of +self-disclosure. His permanent work during this Galilean period was the +winning <a class="newpage" name="page134" id="page134" title="134"></a>of personal friends. His chief agency in accomplishing his work +was what Renan somewhat too romantically has called his "charm." It was +that in him which drew to his side and kept with him the fishermen of +Galilee and the publican of Capernaum, during months of constant +disappointment of their preconceived religious ideas and Messianic hopes; +it was that which won the confidence of the woman who was a sinner, and +the constant devotion of Mary Magdalene and Susanna and the others who +followed him "and ministered to him of their substance." The outstanding +wonder of early Christianity is the complete transformation not only of +life but of established religious ideas by the personal impress of Jesus +on a Peter, a John, and a Paul. The secret of the new element of the +Christian religion--salvation through personal attachment to Jesus +Christ--is simply this personal power of the man of Nazareth. The +multitudes followed because they saw wonderful works or heard wonderful +words; many because they hoped at length to find in the new prophet the +champion of their hopes in deliverance from Roman bondage. But these +sooner or later fell away, disappointed in their desire to use the new +leader for their own ends. It was only because from out the multitudes +there were a few who could answer, "To whom shall we go? thou hast the +words of eternal life," when Jesus asked, "Will ye also go away?" that the +work in Galilee did not end in complete failure. These few had felt his +personal power, and they became the nucleus of a new religion of love to a +personal Saviour.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s146"><p><span class="versenum">146.</span> The test of the personal attachment of the few came shortly after the +execution of John the Baptist <a class="newpage" name="page135" id="page135" title="135"></a>by Antipas. Word of this tragedy was +brought to Jesus by John's disciples about the time that he and the twelve +returned to Capernaum from their tour of preaching. At the suggestion of +Jesus they withdrew to the eastern side of the lake in search of rest. It +is not unlikely that the little company also wished to avoid for the time +the territory of the tyrant who had just put John to death, for Jesus was +not yet ready for the crisis of his own life. Such a desire for seclusion +would be intensified by the continued impetuous enthusiasm of the +multitudes who flocked about him again in Capernaum. In fact, so insistent +was their interest in Jesus that they would not allow him the quiet he +sought, but followed around the lake in great numbers when they learned +that he had taken ship for the other side. He who came not to be +ministered unto but to minister could not repel the crowds who came to +him, and he at once "welcomed them, and spake to them of the kingdom of +God, and them that had need of healing he healed" (Luke ix. 11). The day +having passed in this ministry, he multiplied the small store of bread and +fish brought by his disciples in order to feed the weary people. This work +of power seemed to some among the multitudes to be the last thing needed +to prove that Jesus was to be their promised deliverer, and they "were +about to come and take him by force and make him king" (John vi. 15), when +he withdrew from them and spent the night in prayer.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s147"><p><span class="versenum">147.</span> This sudden determination on the part of the multitudes to force the +hand of Jesus was probably due to the prevalence of an idea, found also in +the later rabbinic writers, that the Messiah should feed his <a class="newpage" name="page136" id="page136" title="136"></a>people as +Moses had provided them manna in the desert. The rebuff which Jesus +quietly gave them did not cool their ardor, until on the following day, in +the synagogue in Capernaum, he plainly taught them that they had quite +missed the significance of his miracle. They thought of loaves and +material sustenance. He would have had them find in these a sign that he +could also supply their spirits' need, and he insisted that this, and this +alone, was his actual mission. From the first the popular enthusiasm had +had to ignore many contradictions of its cherished notions. But his power +and the indescribable force of his personality had served hitherto to hold +them to a hope that he would soon discard the perplexing rôle which he had +chosen for the time to assume, and take up avowedly the proper work of the +Messiah. This last refusal to accept what seemed to them to be his evident +duty caused a revulsion in the popular feeling, and "many of his disciples +turned back and walked no more with him" (John vi. 66). The time of +sifting had come. Jesus had known that such a rash determination to make +him king was possible to the Galilean multitudes, and that whenever it +should come it must be followed by a disillusionment. Now the open +ministry had run its course. As the multitudes were turning back and +walking no more with him, he turned to the twelve with the question, "Will +ye also go away?" and found that with them his method had borne fruit. +They clung to him in spite of disillusionment, for in him they had found +what was better than their preconceptions.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s148"><p><span class="versenum">148.</span> It is the fourth gospel that shows clearly the critical significance +of this event. The others tell <a class="newpage" name="page137" id="page137" title="137"></a>nothing of the sudden determination of the +multitude, nor of the revulsion of feeling that followed Jesus' refusal to +yield to their will. Yet these other gospels indicate in their narratives +that from this time on Jesus avoided the scenes of his former labors, and +show that when from time to time he returned to the neighborhood of +Capernaum he was met by such a spirit of hostility that he withdrew again +immediately to regions where he and his disciples could have time for +quiet intercourse.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s149"><p><span class="versenum">149.</span> The months of toil in Galilee show results hardly more significant +than the grain of mustard seed or the little leaven. Popular enthusiasm +had risen, increased, reached its climax, and waned. Official opposition +had early been aroused, and had continued with a steadily deepened +intensity. The wonderful teaching with authority, and the signs wrought on +them that were sick, had been as seed sown by the wayside or in thorny or +in stony ground, except for the little handful of hearers who had felt the +personal power of Jesus and had surrendered to it, ready henceforth to +follow where he should lead, whether or not it should be in a path of +their choice. These, however, were the proof that those months had been a +time of rewarded toil.</p></div> +</div> + + +<div class="chapter" id="p02-04"> +<h2><a class="newpage" name="page138" id="page138" title="138"></a>IV</h2> + +<h3>The Ministry in Galilee--The New Lesson</h3> + + + +<div class="section" id="s150"><p><span class="versenum">150.</span> With the crisis in Capernaum the ministry in Galilee may be said in +one sense to have come to an end. Yet Jesus did not immediately go up to +Jerusalem. Once and again he was found in or near Capernaum, while the +time between these visits was spent in regions to the north and northwest. +In fact, the disciples were far from ready for the trial their loyalty was +to meet before they had seen the end of the opposition to their Lord. The +time intervening between the collapse of popularity and Jesus' final +departure from Galilee may well be thought of, then, as a time of further +discipline of the faith of his followers and of added instruction +concerning the truth for which their Master stood. The length of this +supplementary period in Galilee is not definitely known. It extended from +the Passover to about the feast of Tabernacles (April to October, see John +vi. 4 and vii. 2). The record of what Jesus did and said in this time is +meagre, only enough being reported to show that it was a time of repeated +withdrawals from Galilee and of private instruction for the disciples.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s151"><p><span class="versenum">151.</span> The disciples were trained in faith by further exhibitions of the +complete break between their Master and the leaders of the people. This +break appeared <a class="newpage" name="page139" id="page139" title="139"></a>most clearly, soon after the feeding of the multitudes, in +his reply to a criticism of the disciples for disregard of pharisaic +traditions concerning hand-washing (Mark vii. 1-23). The critics insisted +on the sacredness of their traditions. Jesus in reply scored them for +disregard for the plain demands of God's law, and with a word freed men +from bondage to the whole ritual of ceremonial cleanness and uncleanness +(Mark vii. 19), thus attacking Judaism in its citadel.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s152"><p><span class="versenum">152.</span> It was immediately after this that he withdrew with his disciples to +the regions of Tyre. On his return a little later to the west side of the +sea of Galilee he was met by hostile Pharisees with a demand for a sign +(Mark viii. 11-13), and after refusing to satisfy the unbelieving +challenge,--signs in plenty having been before their eyes since the +opening of his work among them,--he and his disciples withdrew again from +Galilee towards Cæsarea Philippi. As they went on their way, Jesus +distinctly warned them against the influence of their leaders, religious +and political (Mark viii. 14f.). So far as our records tell us Jesus was +but once again in Capernaum. Then he was met with the demand that he pay +the temple tax (Matt. xvii. 24-27). This tax was usually collected just +before the Passover. As this last visit to Capernaum was probably not far +from the feast of Tabernacles, Jesus seems to have been in arrears. This +may have been due to his absence from Capernaum at the time of the +collection. The prompt answer of Peter may indicate that he knew that in +other years Jesus had paid this tax, as it is altogether probable that he +did. The question, however, implies official suspicion that Jesus was +seeking to evade pay<a class="newpage" name="page140" id="page140" title="140"></a>ment, and exhibits further the straining of the +relations between him and the Jewish leaders. The conversation of Jesus +with Peter served to show his clear consciousness of superiority, and was +a further summons to the disciples to choose between him and his +opponents.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s153"><p><span class="versenum">153.</span> Within the limits of the Holy Land the faith of the disciples had +been constantly tested by the increasing opposition between their master +and their old leaders. When the little company withdrew to Gentile +regions, however, Jesus had regard for their Jewish feeling. The time +would come when he would send them forth to make disciples of all the +nations. For the present he made it his business to nurture their faith in +him, and when appealed to for help by one of these foreigners, he refused +to "take the children's bread and cast it to the dogs" (Mark vii. 27). +Jesus had assumed a different attitude to the Samaritans before the +opening of his work in Galilee, and in general had shown ready sympathy +for all in distress. In fact it seems as if he welcomed the Syrophœnician +woman's great faith with a feeling of relief from a restriction that he +had felt it wise to adopt for his work in Phœnicia. It appears from his +later attitude in the Gentile regions of the Decapolis (Mark vii. 31-37; +Matt. xv. 21-31) that, having once shown his regard for the limitations of +his disciples' faith in the case of the Syrophœnician, he felt no longer +obliged to check his natural readiness to help the needy who sought him +out. Although in one instance, for reasons no longer known to us, Jesus +charged a man whom he had cured to keep it secret (Mark vii. 32-37), in +general his work in these heathen regions seems, after <a class="newpage" name="page141" id="page141" title="141"></a>the visit to +Phœnicia, to have been quite unrestrained, and to have produced the same +enthusiasm that had earlier brought the multitudes to him in Galilee (Mark +viii. 1f.).</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s154"><p><span class="versenum">154.</span> This continued activity of healing must have served greatly to +strengthen the determination of the disciples to cling to Jesus, let the +leaders say what they would. We can only conjecture what various teachings +filled the days, and what personal fellowship the disciples had with him +who spake as never man spake. There was need for advance in the faith of +these loyal friends. Their enthusiastic declaration when the multitudes +turned away could easily have been followed by reaction. Each new +exhibition of the irrevocableness of the break between Jesus and the +leaders was a severe test of their loyalty. These weeks of withdrawal were +doubtless filled, therefore, with new proofs that Jesus had the words of +eternal life.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s155"><p><span class="versenum">155.</span> Before he put to his disciples the crucial question, he who knew what +was in man (John ii. 25) was confident that they were ready for it. It was +after the rebuff in Galilee, when the unbelieving Pharisees had again +demanded a sign of his authority, and after he had definitely warned the +disciples against the influence of their leaders, that Jesus led his +little company far to the north towards the slopes of Hermon. There, near +the recently built Cæsarea Philippi, Jesus plainly asked his disciples +what the people thought of him (Mark viii. 27-30). We have seen how +gradually sentiment in Galilee concerning the new teacher crystallized +until, from thinking him a prophet, the people, first timidly, then +boldly, con<a class="newpage" name="page142" id="page142" title="142"></a>cluded that such a teacher and worker of signs must be the +promised king. We have seen also how the popular estimate changed when +Jesus refused to be guided by the popular will. Now, after the lapse of a +few weeks, in answer to his inquiry concerning the common opinion of him, +he is told that the people look on him as a prophet, in whom the spirit of +the men of old had been revived; but not a whisper remains of the former +readiness to hail him as the Messiah. It was in the face of such a +definite revulsion in the popular feeling, in the face, too, of the +increasing hostility of all the great in the nation, that Peter answered +for the twelve that they believed Jesus to be the Messiah, God's appointed +Deliverer of his people (Matt. xvi. 16 ff.). In form this confession was +no more than Nathanael had rendered on his first meeting with Jesus (John +i. 49), and was practically the same as the report made by Andrew to Simon +his brother, and by Philip to Nathanael (John i. 41, 45). In both idea and +expression the reply to Jesus' question, "Will ye also go away?" (John vi. +68, 69), was virtually equivalent to this later confession of Peter. Yet +Jesus found in Peter's answer at Cæsarea Philippi something so significant +and remarkable that he declared that the faith that could answer thus +could spring only from a heavenly source (Matt. xvi. 17). The early +confessions were in fact no more than expressions of more or less +intelligent expectation that Jesus would fulfil the confessor's hopes. The +confession at Capernaum followed one of Jesus' mightiest exhibitions of +power, and was given before the disciples had had time to consider the +extent of the defection from their Master. Here at Cæsarea Philippi, +however, the <a class="newpage" name="page143" id="page143" title="143"></a>word was spoken immediately after an acknowledgment that the +people had no more thought of finding in Jesus their Messiah. It was +spoken after the disciples had had repeated evidence of the determined +hostility of the leaders to Jesus. All the disappointment he had given to +their cherished ideas was emphasized by the isolation in which the little +company now found itself. One after another their ideas of how a Messiah +should act and what he should be had received contradiction in what Jesus +was and did. Yet after the weeks of withdrawal from Galilee, Peter could +only in effect assert anew what he had declared at Capernaum,--that Jesus +had the words of eternal life. It was a faith chastened by perplexity, and +taught at length to follow the Lord let him lead where he would. It was an +actual surrender to his mastery over thought and life. Here at length +Jesus had won what he had been seeking during all his work in Galilee,--a +corner-stone on which to build up the new community of the kingdom of God. +Peter was the first to confess openly to this simple surrender to the full +mastery of Jesus. He was the first stone in the foundation of the new +"building of God."</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s156"><p><span class="versenum">156.</span> In his commendation of Peter Jesus revealed the secret of his method +in the work which, because of this confession, he could now proceed to do +more rapidly. He cuts loose utterly from the method of the scribes. He, +the new teacher, commits to them no body of teaching which they are to +give to others as the key to eternal life. The salvation they are to +preach is a salvation by personal attachment; that is, by faith. The rock +on which he will build his church is personal attachment, faith that is +ready to leave all <a class="newpage" name="page144" id="page144" title="144"></a>and follow him. Peter, not the substance of his +confession, was its corner-stone, but Peter, as the first clear confessor +of a faith that is ready to leave all, a faith whose very nature it is to +be contagious, and associate with itself others of "like precious faith." +His faith was as yet meagre, as he showed at once; but it was genuine, the +surrender of his heart to his Lord's guidance and control. This was the +distinctive mark of the new religious life inaugurated by Jesus of +Nazareth.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s157"><p><span class="versenum">157.</span> If anything were needed to prove that the idea that he was the +Messiah was no new thought to Jesus, it could be found in the new lesson +which he at once began to teach his disciples. The confession of Peter +indicated to him simply that the first stage in his work had been +accomplished. He immediately began to prepare the disciples for the end +which for some time past he had seen to be inevitable. He taught them more +than that his death was inevitable; he declared that it was divinely +necessary that he should be put to death as a result of the hostility of +the Jews to him ("the Son of Man must suffer"). All the contradictions +which he had offered to the Messianic ideas of his disciples paled into +insignificance beside this one. When they saw how he failed to meet the +hopes that were commonly held, they needed only to urge themselves to +patience, expecting that in time he would cast off the strange mask and +take to himself his power and reign. But it was too much for the late +confessed and very genuine faith of Peter to hear that the Messiah must +die. So unthinkable was the idea, that he assumed that Jesus had become +unduly discouraged by the relentlessness of the opposition which <a class="newpage" name="page145" id="page145" title="145"></a>had +driven him first out of Judea and later out of Galilee. Accordingly Peter +sought to turn his Master's mind to a brighter prospect, asserting that +his forebodings could not be true. It is hard for us to conceive the chill +of heart which must have followed the glow of his confession when he heard +the stern rebuke of Jesus, who found in Peter's later words the voice of +the Evil One, as before in his confession he had recognized the Spirit of +God.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s158"><p><span class="versenum">158.</span> The sternness of Jesus' rebuke escapes extravagance only in view of +the fact that the words of Peter had greatly affected Jesus himself. At +the outset of his public life he had faced the difficulty of doing the +Messiah's work in his Father's way, and had withstood the temptation to +accommodate himself to the ideas of his world, declaring allegiance to God +alone (Matt. iv. 10). Yet once and again in the course of his ministry he +showed that this allegiance cost him much. Luke reports a saying in which +Jesus confessed that, in view of this prospect of death which Peter was +opposing so eagerly, he was greatly "straitened" (xii. 50), and at the +near approach of the end "his soul was exceeding sorrowful" (Mark xiv. +34). It should never be forgotten that Jesus was a Jew, and heir to all +the Messianic ideas of his people. In these, glory, not rejection and +death, was to be the Messiah's portion. That he was always superior to +current expectations is no sign that he did not feel their force. They +quite mistake who find the bitterness of Jesus' "cup" simply in his +physical shrinking from suffering. The temptation was ever with him to +find some other way to the goal of his work than that which led through +death. What Peter said hid a force greater <a class="newpage" name="page146" id="page146" title="146"></a>than any word of the +disciple's. It voiced the crucial temptation of Jesus' life. The answer +addressed to Peter showed that his words had drawn the thought of Jesus +away from the disciple to that earlier temptation which was never absent +from him more than "for a season" (Luke iv. 13).</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s159"><p><span class="versenum">159.</span> Jesus was not content with a mere rebuke of his impulsive disciple. +In his first announcement of his death as necessary he had also declared +that it would not be a tragedy, but would be followed by a resurrection. +This the disciples could not appreciate, as they found the idea of the +Messiah's death unthinkable. Jesus, however, saw in it the general law, +that life must ever win its goal by disregard of itself, and called his +disciples also to walk in the path of self-sacrifice. In order that the +new lesson might not quite overwhelm the yet feeble faith of these +followers, Jesus assured them that after his death and resurrection he +would come as Messianic Judge and fulfil the hopes which his prediction of +death seemed to blot out utterly (Mark viii. 34 to ix. 1).</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s160"><p><span class="versenum">160.</span> That this new lesson was a difficult one for master as well as +disciple seems to be shown by the experience which came a few days later +to Jesus and his three closest friends. He had withdrawn with them to a +"high mountain" for prayer (Luke ix. 28f.). While he prayed the light of +heaven came into his face, and his disciples were granted a vision of him +in celestial glory, conversing with Moses and Elijah, representatives of +Old Testament law and prophecy. The theme of the discourse was that death +which had so troubled the disciples, and which then and later weighed +heavily on Jesus' own spirit (Luke ix. 31). <a class="newpage" name="page147" id="page147" title="147"></a>At the conclusion of the +vision came a divine injunction to hear him who now was superseding law +and prophets. The effect of the transfiguration can only be inferred. It +doubtless brought strengthening to Jesus for his difficult task (compare +Heb. v. 7), and at least a silencing of remonstrance when he spoke again +to his disciples of his approaching death. This he did while the little +company was making its way back towards Capernaum (Mark ix. 30-32), and +repeatedly later before the end came (Mark x. 32-34; Matt. xxvi. 1f.).</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s161"><p><span class="versenum">161.</span> On Jesus' return from the mountain, he was met by the despairing plea +of a father and healed his epileptic son, out of whom the disciples were +unable to cast the demon (Mark ix. 14-29; compare vi. 7, 13). It may have +been the shock which the new lesson had given the disciples that accounted +for the reproof of their lack of faith. The new evidence of Jesus' power, +coupled with this reproof, seems to have restored their confidence in him. +Perhaps, too, there was something contagious about the spirit of hope with +which the three came from their vision of the Master's glory. For, +although they were not free to tell what they had seen (Mark ix. 9), they +could not have concealed the fact that their faith had received great +encouragement. Whatever the cause, hope revived for the disciples, for on +the way back to Capernaum a dispute arose among them concerning personal +precedence in the kingdom which their Master should soon set up. In this +rapid reaction from unbelief to faith the disciples seem to have forgotten +the lesson of self-denial recently given them (Mark viii. 34, 35). In +Peter's confession the corner-stone of the church <a class="newpage" name="page148" id="page148" title="148"></a>was laid; but the +superstructure was yet far out of sight. Although his own soul, taking its +way down into the valley of shadows, might rightly have asked for sympathy +and complained of its lack, Jesus simply set a little child in the midst +of them, and taught them again the first lessons of faith,--gentle +humility and trust. Thereby he rebuked the spirit of rivalry and asked of +his disciples a generous, unselfish, and forgiving spirit (Matt, xviii. +1-35).</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s162"><p><span class="versenum">162.</span> It was possibly at this time, certainly near the end of the Galilean +ministry, that Jesus was approached by his own brethren, who urged him to +try to win the capital. Their attitude was not one of indifference, though +clearly not one of actual faith in his claim (John vii. 2-5). They seem to +have felt that Jesus had not made adequate effort to secure a following in +Jerusalem, and that he could not hope for success in his work if he +continued to confine his attention to Galilee. Jesus knew conditions in +Jerusalem far better than they did, and had no idea as yet of resuming a +general ministry there. He therefore dismissed the suggestion, and left +his brethren to go up to the feast disappointed in their desire that he +make a demonstration at that time. Yet Jesus still yearned over Jerusalem. +He knew in what organized opposition a general demonstration would result. +There were some, however, in the capital who had real faith in him. His +repeated efforts to win Jerusalem mean nothing if we do not recognize that +he hoped against hope that many of the people might yet turn and let him +lead them. With some such purpose, therefore, he went up a little later +without ostentation, and quietly appeared in the temple teaching. The +effect <a class="newpage" name="page149" id="page149" title="149"></a>of this unannounced arrival was that the opposition was not ready +for him. The multitude was compelled to form an opinion of him for itself, +and he had opportunity to make his own impression for a time, +independently of official suggestion as to what ought to be thought of +him. This course resulted in a division of sentiment among the people, so +much so that when the leaders, both secular and religious, sought to +compass his arrest, the officers sent to take Jesus were themselves +entranced by his teaching. In spite of the wish of the leaders Jesus +continued to teach, and many of the people began to think of him with +favor. When, however, he tried to lead them on to become "disciples +indeed," they took offence, and showed that they were not ready yet to +follow him. This effort to "gather the children of Jerusalem" resulted in +new proof that they preferred his death to his message (John vii. 2 to +viii. 59).</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s163"><p><span class="versenum">163.</span> Interesting evidence of the fact that "Jesus did many other signs +which are not written" in our accepted gospels is found in the story of +his dealing with an adulteress whom the Pharisees brought to him for +judgment (John vii. 53 to viii. 11). This narrative had no secure place in +any of the gospels in the earliest days, yet was so highly regarded that +men would not let it go. Hence in the manuscripts which contain it, it is +found in various places. Some give it in Luke after chapter xxi., some at +the end of the Gospel of John, one placing it after John vii. 36. Many +considerations combine to prove that it was no part of the Gospel of John, +but as many show that it preserves a true incident in the ministry of +Jesus. In scene it belongs to the temple, therefore in time to <a class="newpage" name="page150" id="page150" title="150"></a>one of the +Jerusalem visits. To which of those visits it should he assigned is not +now discoverable. The ancient copyists who assigned it to this feast of +Tabernacles, chose as well as later students can. If the incident belongs +to this visit, it illustrates the patience and the keen insight of Jesus +in his effort to win self-satisfied Jerusalem.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s164"><p><span class="versenum">164.</span> John is silent concerning the doings of Jesus after the feast of +Tabernacles. In x. 22 he notes that Jesus was at Jerusalem at the feast of +Dedication, which followed two months later. It seems probable that after +his hurried and private journey to the feast of Tabernacles (John vii. 10) +he returned to Galilee and gathered to himself again the little company of +his loyal followers, preparatory to that final journey to Jerusalem which +should bring the end foreseen, unless, perchance, Israel should yet repent +and turn unto the Lord. As the shadow deepened over his own life, and the +persistency of the unbelief of his people appeared more and more clearly, +the teachings of Jesus took on a new note of tragedy which was not +characteristic of the earlier preaching in Galilee. Even when his topic +was similar and his treatment of it not unlike some earlier discourse, +there appeared in it here and there a warning of impending judgment. This +is seen as early as the reply to the criticism of the disciples for +disregard of traditions (Matt. xv. 13f.). Many discourses in the section +peculiar to Luke show by the presence of this note of doom that they +belong to this later time rather than to the Galilean period proper. (See +the table prefixed to Chapter V.)</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s165"><p><span class="versenum">165.</span> Two years had nearly passed since Jesus withdrew from Judea to start +his ministry anew in a differ<a class="newpage" name="page151" id="page151" title="151"></a>ent region and following a different method. +The fruit of that ministry was small, but significant. His proclamation of +the coming kingdom and his call to a deeper righteousness, coupled as they +were with his works of heavenly power, had won at first an enthusiastic +following. Realizing that an uncontrolled enthusiasm would thwart his +purpose to introduce a kingdom of the spirit, Jesus had kept his Messianic +claim in the background, seeking first to win disciples to the kingdom +that he was proclaiming. Yet emphasize his message as he would, he could +not conceal his personal significance. In fact he wished by winning +disciples to his doctrine of the kingdom to attach followers to himself, +the bearer of the words of eternal life. The great development of popular +enthusiasm did not deceive him, nor did he hesitate, when the multitude +would force him to do its will, to show clearly how far he was from being +a fulfiller of their desires. By successive disappointments of the popular +ideas he sifted his followers until a few were ready to follow him +whithersoever he might lead. With these he allowed time for the fact of +his unpopularity to appear, giving them opportunity to consider the +relentless hostility of their national leaders to the teacher from +Galilee. Then when the time was ripe he drew from the loyal few their +declaration that they would follow him in spite of disappointments and +unpopularity, their confession that he had come to be to them more than +their cherished preconceptions, that he had won the mastery over their +thought and life. He began then to prepare them for the end he had long +foreseen, and at length, after giving them time for that perplexing +mystery to find place in their <a class="newpage" name="page152" id="page152" title="152"></a>hearts, he was ready to move on toward the +crisis which he knew his public appearance in Jerusalem would precipitate. +Before setting out on this journey his desire still to seek to win +Jerusalem, if perchance it would repent, led him to visit the capital +unannounced at the feast of Tabernacles. This taught him that, however +ready some might be superficially to believe in him, he could as yet win +in Jerusalem only hatred and plots against his life, and he returned to +his faithful friends in Galilee.</p></div></div> +<div class="chapter" id="p02-05"> +<div class="outline"> +<h2><a class="newpage" name="page153" id="page153" title="153"></a> Outline of Events in the Journey through Perea to Jerusalem</h2> + + +<p> The final departure from Galilee--Matt. xix. 1, 2; viii. 19-22; Mark x. + 1; Luke ix. 51-62.</p> + +<p> The mission of the seventy--Matt. xi. 20-30; Luke x. 1-24.</p> + +<p> The visit to the feast of Dedication--John ix. 1 to x. 39.</p> + +<p> Possibly at this time: The parable of the Good Samaritan--Luke x. + 25-37. The visit to Mary and Martha--Luke x. 38-42.</p> + +<p> Return to Perea--John x. 40-42.</p> + +<p> The visit to Bethany and the raising of Lazarus--John xi. 1-46.</p> + +<p> The withdrawal to Ephraim--John xi. 47-54.</p> + +<p> Events connected with the last journey to Jerusalem, which cannot be + more definitely located:</p> + +<p> The question whether few are saved--Luke xiii. 22-30.</p> + +<p> Reply to the warning against Herod, probably near the close--Luke xiii. + 31-35.</p> + +<p> The cure of ten lepers--Luke xvii. 11-19.</p> + +<p> The question of the Pharisees concerning divorce--Matt. xix. 3-12; Mark + x. 2-12. + +</p> + +<p> The blessing of little children--Matt. xix. 13-15; Mark x. 13-16; Luke + xviii. 15-17.</p> + +<p> The question of the rich young ruler--Matt. xix. 16 to xx. 16; Mark x. + 17-31; Luke xviii. 18-30.</p> + +<p> The third prediction of death and resurrection--Matt xx. 17-19; Mark x. + 32-34; Luke xviii. 31-34.</p> + +<p> The ambitious request of the sons of Zebedee--Matt. xx. 20-28; Mark x. + 35-45.</p> + +<p> The last stage, Jericho to Jerusalem:</p> + +<p> The blind men near Jericho--Matt. xx. 29-34; Mark x. 46-52; Luke xviii. + 35-43.</p> + +<p><a class="newpage" name="page154" id="page154" title="154"></a> The visit to Zacchæus--Luke xix. 1-10.</p> + +<p> The parable of the pounds (minæ)--Luke xix. 11-28. Events and + discourses found in Luke ix. 51 to xviii. 14, which probably belong + after the confession of Peter, and very likely to some stage of the + journey to Jerusalem:</p> + +<p> Woes against the Pharisees, uttered at a Pharisee's table--Luke xi. + 37-54.</p> + +<p> Warnings against the spirit of pharisaism--Luke xii. 1-59.</p> + +<p> Comment on the slaughter of Galileans by Pilate--Luke xiii. 1-9.</p> + +<p> Discourse on counting the cost of discipleship--Luke xiv. 25-35.</p> + +<p> Discourse on the coming of the kingdom--Luke xvii. 20-37.</p> + +<p> Parable of the Unjust Judge--Luke xviii. 1-8.</p> + +<p> Parable of the Pharisee and the Publican--Luke xviii. 9-14.</p> +</div> + + + + +<h2>V</h2> + +<h3>The Journey through Perea to Jerusalem</h3> + + + +<div class="section" id="s166"><p><span class="versenum">166.</span> The fourth gospel says that after the visit to Jerusalem at the feast +of Dedication Jesus withdrew beyond Jordan to the place where John at the +first was baptizing (x. 40). Matthew and Mark also say that at the close +of the ministry in Galilee Jesus departed and came into the borders of +Judea and beyond Jordan, and that in this new region the multitudes again +flocked to him, and he resumed his ministry of teaching (Matt. xix. 1f.; +Mark x. 1). What he did and taught at this time is not shown at all by +John, and only in scant fashion by the other two. They tell of a +discussion with the Pharisees concerning divorce (Mark x. 2-12); of the +welcome extended by Jesus to certain little children (Mark x. 13-16); of +the disappointment of a rich young ruler, who wished to learn <a class="newpage" name="page155" id="page155" title="155"></a>from Jesus +the way of life, but loved better his great possessions (Mark x. 17-31); +of a further manifestation of the unlovely spirit of rivalry among the +disciples in the request of James and John for the best places in the +kingdom (Mark x. 35-45),--a request following in the records directly +after another prediction by Jesus of his death and resurrection (Mark x. +32-34). Then, after a visit to Jericho (Luke xviii. 35 to xix. 28), these +records come into coincidence with John in the account of the Messianic +entry into Jerusalem just before the last Passover.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s167"><p><span class="versenum">167.</span> The fourth gospel tells in addition of a considerable activity of +Jesus in and near Jerusalem during this period. In making the journey +beyond Jordan start from Jerusalem (x. 40), John shows that Jesus must +have returned to the capital after his withdrawal from the feast of +Tabernacles. When and how this took place is not indicated. Later, after +his retirement from the feast of Dedication Jesus hastened at the summons +of his friends from beyond Jordan to Bethany when Lazarus died (xi. 1-7). +From Bethany he went not to the other side of Jordan again, but to Ephraim +(xi. 54), a town on the border between Judea and Samaria, and from there +he started towards Jerusalem when the Passover drew near. This record of +John has, as Dr. Sanday has recently remarked (HastBD II. 630), so many +marks of verisimilitude that it must be accepted as a true tradition. It +demands thus that in our conception of the last journey from Galilee room +be found for several excursions to Jerusalem or its neighborhood. One of +these at least--to the feast of Dedication (x. 22)--represents another +effort to "gather the children of Jerusalem." <a class="newpage" name="page156" id="page156" title="156"></a>While not without success, +for at least the blind man restored by Jesus gave him the full faith he +sought (ix. 35-38), it showed with fuller clearness the determined +hostility to Jesus of the influential class (x. 39).</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s168"><p><span class="versenum">168.</span> It has been customary to find in the long section peculiar to Luke +(ix. 51 to xviii. 14) a fuller account of the Perean ministry, as it has +been called. For it opens with a final departure from Galilee, and comes +at its close into parallelism with the record of Matthew and Mark. Yet +some parts of this section in Luke belong in the earlier Galilean +ministry. The blasphemy of the Pharisees (xi. 14-36) is clearly identical +with the incident recorded in Mark iii. 22-30, and Matt. xii. 22-45; while +several incidents and discourses (see outline prefixed to Chapter III.) +bear so plainly the marks of the ministry before the revulsion of popular +favor, that it is easiest to think of them as actually belonging to the +earlier time, but assigned by Luke to this peculiar section because he +found no clear place offered for them in the record of Mark. Not a little, +however, of what Luke records here manifestly belongs to the time when +Jesus referred openly to his rejection by the Jewish people. The note of +tragedy characteristic of later discourses appears in the replies of Jesus +to certain would-be disciples (ix. 57-62), and in his warning that his +followers count the cost of discipleship (xiv. 25-35). The woes spoken at +a Pharisee's table (xi. 37-52), the warning to the disciples against +pharisaism (xii. 1-12), and the encouragement of the "little flock" (xii. +22-34), with many other paragraphs from this part of the gospel (see +outline at the head of this chapter), evidently were spoken <a class="newpage" name="page157" id="page157" title="157"></a>at the time +of the approaching end. Some narratives reflect the neighborhood of +Jerusalem, and naturally corroborate the indications in the fourth gospel +that Jesus was repeatedly at the capital during this time. The parable of +the good Samaritan, for instance, must have been spoken in Judea, else why +choose the road from Jerusalem to Jericho for the illustration? The visit +to Mary and Martha shows Jesus at Bethany, and the parable of the Pharisee +and the Publican, naming the temple as the place of prayer, belongs +naturally to Judea.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s169"><p><span class="versenum">169.</span> The effort to find the definite progress of events in this part of +Luke has not been successful. There are three hints of movement towards +Jerusalem,--the introductory mention of the departure from Galilee (ix. +51); a statement that Jesus went on his way through cities and villages, +journeying on unto Jerusalem (xiii. 22); and again a reference to passing +through the midst of Samaria and Galilee on the way to Jerusalem (xvii. +11). The attempt to make the third of these belong actually to the last +stages of the final journey seems artificial. Confessedly the expression +"through the midst of Samaria and Galilee" is obscure. It is much easier +to understand, however, if the journey so described is identified with the +visit to Samaria with which the departure from Galilee opened. It seems +probable that Luke found these records of events and teachings in Jesus' +life, and was unable to learn exactly their connection in time and place, +so placed them after the close of the Galilean story and before the +account of the passion, much as later some copyist found the story of the +adulteress (John vii. 53 to viii. 11), and, certain that <a class="newpage" name="page158" id="page158" title="158"></a>it was a true +incident, gave it a place in connection with the visit to the feast of +Tabernacles (perhaps influenced by John viii. 15). It must always be +remembered that the earliest apostolic writing--Matthew's Logia--probably +consisted of just such disconnected records (see sects. 28, 42), and that, +as Jülicher (Einleitung i. d. NT. 235) has said, the early church was not +interested in <i>when</i> Jesus said or did anything. Its interest was in +<i>what</i> he said and did.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s170"><p><span class="versenum">170.</span> The time of the departure from Galilee for Jerusalem may be set with +much probability not long before the feast of the Dedication in December; +for at that feast Jesus was again in Jerusalem, and from it he returned to +Perea (John x. 22, 40-42). He started southward through Samaria (Luke ix. +51 ff.), and probably in connection with the early stages of the journey +he sent out the seventy "into every city and place whither he himself was +about to come" (Luke x. 1). It is not unlikely that, after the sending out +of these heralds, he went with a few disciples to make one more effort to +turn the heart of Jerusalem to himself (John ix., x.). It is impossible to +determine whither the seventy were sent. The "towns and cities" whither +Jesus was about to come may have included some from all portions of the +land, not excepting Judea. The matter must be left in considerable +obscurity. This, however, may be said, that the reasons offered for +holding that the story of the sending out of the seventy is only a +"doublet" of the mission of the twelve are not conclusive (see sect. A +68). The connection in Luke of the woes against Capernaum, Bethsaida, and +Chorazin with the instruction of the seventy is very natural, and marks +this mission as belonging to <a class="newpage" name="page159" id="page159" title="159"></a>the close of the Galilean period, while the +mission of the twelve belongs to the height of Jesus' popularity.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s171"><p><span class="versenum">171.</span> Our knowledge of Jesus' visit to the feast of Dedication is due to +John's interest in the cure at about that time of one born blind (John +ix., x.). The prejudice of the sanhedrists who excommunicated the man for +his loyalty to Jesus led him in indignation to contrast their method of +caring for God's "sheep" with his own love and sympathy and genuine +ministry to their needs. He saw clearly that his course must end in death, +unless a great change should come over his enemies; yet, as the Good +Shepherd, he was ready to lay down his life for the sheep, rather than +leave them to the heartlessness of leaders who cared only for themselves +(x. 11-18). The critics of Jesus could not, or would not, understand his +charge against them, and accused him of madness for his extraordinary +claims. There were some, however, who could not credit the notion that +Jesus had a devil (John x. 21). It is possible that it was at this time +that the lawyer questioned him about the breadth of interpretation to be +given to the word "neighbor" in the law of love, and was answered by the +parable of the Good Samaritan (Luke x. 25-37). Possibly the parable of the +Pharisee and the Publican (Luke xviii. 9-14) belongs also to this time. In +general, however, the visit proved anew that Jerusalem was in no mood to +accept Jesus (John x. 24-39). His enemies sought to draw from him a +declaration of his claim to be the Messiah, and Jesus appealed to his +works, asserting that only their incorrigible prejudice prevented their +recognizing his claims. He added that his Father, with whom he was ever in +perfect accord, had drawn <a class="newpage" name="page160" id="page160" title="160"></a>some faithful followers to him, and thereupon, +angered by his claim to close kinship with God, they appealed to the rough +logic of violence (John x. 31-39; compare viii. 59).</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s172"><p><span class="versenum">172.</span> After this added attempt to win Jerusalem Jesus withdrew to the +region beyond Jordan, where John had carried on his ministry to the eager +multitudes. Here he anew attracted great attention, causing people to +contrast his ministry with the less remarkable work of John, and to +acknowledge that John's testimony to him was true (John x. 40-42). +Possibly it was in this place that the seventy found Jesus when they +returned to report the success of their mission (Luke x. 17-24), for the +thanksgiving which Jesus rendered for the faith of the common people in +contrast with the unbelief of the "wise and prudent" might well express +his feeling after the fresh evidence he had at the feast of Dedication +that Jerusalem would none of his mission. The invitation to all the heavy +laden to take his yoke illustrates, though under another figure, his claim +to be the Good Shepherd (Matt. xi. 28-30). We have no means of knowing how +much more of what the gospels assign to the last journey to Jerusalem +should be put in connection with this sojourn across the Jordan. The +multitudes that came to him there may have included the Pharisees who +questioned him about divorce (Mark x. 2-12), and the young ruler who loved +his great possessions (Mark x. 17-31), as well as the parents who eagerly +sought the Lord's blessing for their children (Mark x. 13-16). Some parts +of Luke's narrative seem to belong still later in this journey, yet such a +section as the reply of Jesus to the report of <a class="newpage" name="page161" id="page161" title="161"></a>Pilate's slaughter of the +Galileans (xiii. 1-9), or the parable of the Great Supper (xiv. 15-24), is +suitable to any stage of it.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s173"><p><span class="versenum">173.</span> This sojourn on the other side of Jordan was brought to a close by +the summons to come to the aid of his friends in Bethany (John xi.). It is +not strange that the disciples feared his return to Judea, nor that Jesus +did not hesitate when he recognized the call of duty as well as of +friendship. In no recorded miracle of Jesus is his power more signally set +forth, yet here more clearly than anywhere else he is represented as +dependent on his Father in his exercise of that power. The words of Jesus +at the grave (John xi. 41, 42) show that he was confident of the +resurrection of Lazarus, because he had prayed and was sure he was heard. +It may be that his delay after hearing of the sickness of his friend (xi. +6) was a time of waiting for answer, and that this explains his confidence +of safety when the time came for him to expose himself again to the +hostility of Judea. Jesus indicated not only that on this occasion he had +help from above in doing his miracles, but that it was the rule in his +life to seek such help and guidance (xi. 42). In fact, at a later time he +ascribed all his works to the Father abiding in him (John xiv. 10; compare +x. 25). The effect of the resurrection of Lazarus was such as to intensify +the determination of the leaders in Jerusalem--both Pharisees and +Sadducees--to get rid of Jesus as dangerous to the quiet of the nation +(John xi. 47-54). In this it simply served to fix a determination already +present (John vii. 25, 32; viii. 59; x. 31, 39). The miracle does not +appear in John as the cause of the apprehension of Jesus, but <a class="newpage" name="page162" id="page162" title="162"></a>rather as +one influence leading to it. It was indeed the total contradiction between +Jesus and all current and cherished ideas that led to his condemnation; +the raising of Lazarus only showed that he was becoming dangerously +popular, and made the priestly leaders feel the necessity of haste. The +silence of the first three gospels concerning this event is truly +perplexing, yet it is not any more difficult of explanation, as Beyschlag +(LJ I. 495) has shown, than the silence of all four evangelists concerning +the appearance of the risen Jesus to James, or to the five hundred +brethren (I. Cor. xv. 6, 7). Room must be allowed in our conception of the +life of Jesus for many things of which no record remains, all the more, +therefore, for incidents to which but one of the gospels is witness. +Moreover, after the collapse of popularity in Galilee, the great +enthusiasm of the multitudes over Jesus when he entered Jerusalem (Luke +xix. 37-40; Mark xi. 8-10) is most easily understood if he had made some +such manifestation of power as the restoration of Lazarus.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s174"><p><span class="versenum">174.</span> After the visit to Bethany Jesus withdrew to a little town named +Ephraim, on the border between Judea and Samaria, and spent some time +there in seclusion with his disciples (John xi. 54), doubtless +strengthening his personal hold on them preparatory to the shock their +faith was about to receive. Of the length of this sojourn nothing is told +us, nor of the road by which Jesus left Ephraim for Jerusalem (John xii. +1). The first three gospels show that he began his final approach to the +Holy City at Jericho (Mark x. 46). It may be that he descended from +Ephraim direct to Jericho some days before the Passover, rejoining there +some of the people who had been <a class="newpage" name="page163" id="page163" title="163"></a>impressed by his recent ministry in the +region "where John at the first was baptizing." It is natural to suppose +that it was on this journey to Jericho that he warned his disciples again +of the fate which he saw before him in Jerusalem (Mark x. 32-34), and +quite probably it was at this time that he rebuked the crude ambition of +the sons of Zebedee by reminding them that his disciples must be more +ambitious to serve than to rule, since even "the Son of Man came not to be +ministered unto but to minister, and to give his life a ransom for many" +(Mark x. 35-45). At Jericho he was at once crowded upon by enthusiastic +multitudes. The feeling they had for him may perhaps be inferred from the +cry of blind Bartimeus, "Thou son of David, have mercy on me" (Mark x. +48). This enthusiasm received a shock when Jesus chose to be guest in +Jericho of a chief of the publicans, a shock which Jesus probably intended +to give, for much the same reason that led him afterwards on his way up to +Jerusalem to teach his followers in the parable of the pounds that they +must be ready for long delay in his actual assumption of his kingly right +(Luke xix. 11-28). Finally, six days before the Passover, he and his +disciples left Jericho and went up to Bethany preparatory to his final +appearance in Jerusalem (John xii. 1).</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s175"><p><span class="versenum">175.</span> The interval between the final departure from Galilee and the public +entry into Jerusalem was given to three different tasks: the renewed +proclamation of the coming of the kingdom, further efforts to win +acceptance in Jerusalem, if perchance she might learn to know the things +that belonged to her peace; and continued training of the disciples, +specially needed <a class="newpage" name="page164" id="page164" title="164"></a>because of the ill-considered enthusiasm with which they +were inclined to view the probable issue of this journey to Jerusalem. The +first of these tasks was conducted as the earlier work in Galilee had +been, both by teaching and healing, in which Jesus used his disciples even +more extensively than before. It proved that here as in Galilee the common +people were ready to hear him gladly, until he showed too radical a +disappointment of their hopes. In this new ministry to the people Jesus +spoke very frankly of the seriousness of the opposition which the leaders +of the people were manifesting, and of the need that those who would be +his disciples should count the cost of their allegiance (Luke xiii. 22-30; +xiv. 25-35; xii. 1-59). He did not hesitate to administer the most +scathing rebuke to the Pharisees for the superficiality and hypocrisy of +their religious life and teaching (Luke xi. 37-54),--a rebuke which is +emphasized by the parable in which, on another occasion, he taught God's +preference for a contrite sinner over a complacent saint (Luke xviii. +9-14). When reminded of Pilate's outrage upon certain Galilean +worshippers, he used the calamity to warn his hearers that personal +godliness was the only protection which could secure them against a more +serious outbreak of the hostility of the Roman power (Luke xiii. 1-9); and +it was probably in reply to such an appeal as accompanied this report of +Pilate's cruelty that Jesus spoke the parable of the Unjust Judge (Luke +xviii. 1-8), teaching that God's love may be trusted to be no less +regardful of his people's cry than a selfish man's love of ease would be.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s176"><p><span class="versenum">176.</span> The second of these tasks must not be held to <a class="newpage" name="page165" id="page165" title="165"></a>be perfunctory, even +though each new effort for Jerusalem proved that genuine acceptance of its +saviour was increasingly improbable. As the denunciations of the older +prophets ever left open a way of escape <i>if </i> Israel would return and seek +the Lord, so the anticipation of rejection and death which filled the +heart of Jesus does not banish a like <i>if</i> from his own thought of +Jerusalem in his repeated efforts to "gather her children." The +combination of the new popular enthusiasm and the fresh proofs of the +hopelessness of winning Jerusalem made more important the third task,--the +founding of the faith of the disciples on the rock of personal certainty, +from which the rising floods of hatred and seeming ruin for the Master's +cause could not sweep it. It was for them that much of his instruction of +the multitudes was doubtless primarily intended; they needed above all +others to count the cost of discipleship (Luke xiv. 25-35), and the +warnings against the spirit of Pharisaism (Luke xii.) were addressed +principally to them, even as it was to them that Jesus confessed the +"straitening" of his own soul in view of the "fire which he had come to +cast upon the earth" (Luke xii. 49-53),--a confession which had another +expression when he found it needful to rebuke the personal ambition of the +sons of Zebedee (Mark x. 35-45). As for Jesus himself, the popular +enthusiasm had not deceived him, nor the obdurate unbelief of Jerusalem +daunted him, nor his disciples' misconception of his kingdom disheartened +him; he still steadfastly set his face to go to Jerusalem.</p></div></div> +<div class="chapter" id="p02-06"> +<div class="ouline"> +<h2><a class="newpage" name="page166" id="page166" title="166"></a> Outline of Events in the Last Week of Jesus' Life</h2> + + +<p> <i>Saturday</i> (?). The anointing in Bethany six days before the + Passover--Matt. xxvi. 6-13; Mark xiv. 3-9; John xi. 55 to xii. 11. + +</p> + +<p> <i>Sunday</i> (?). The Messianic entry--Matt. xxi. 1-11; Mark xi. 1-11; Luke + six. 29-44; John xii. 12-19.</p> + +<p> <i>Monday</i> (?). Visit to the temple: the cursing of the barren + fig-tree--Matt. xxi. 18-19, 12-17; Mark xi. 12-14, 15-18; Luke xix. 45, + 47, 48.</p> + +<p> Return to Bethany for the night--Matt. xxi. 17; Mark xi. 19; Luke xxi. + 37, 38.</p> + +<p> <i>Tuesday</i> (?). Visit to the temple: the fig-tree found withered--Matt, + xxi 20-23; Mark xi. 20-27; Luke xx. 1.</p> + +<p> Challenge of Jesus' authority--Matt. xxi. 23-27; Mark xi. 27-33; Luke + xx. 1-8.</p> + +<p> Three parables against the religious leaders--Matt. xxi. 28 to xxii. + 14; Mark xii. 1-12; Luke xx. 9-19.</p> + +<p> The question about tribute--Matt. xxii. 15-22; Mark xii. 13-17; Luke + xx. 20-26.</p> + +<p> The question of the Sadducees about the resurrection--Matt. xxii. + 23-33; Mark xii. 18-27; Luke xx. 27-40.</p> + +<p> The question of the Pharisees about the great commandment--Matt. xxii. + 34-40; Mark xii. 28-34.</p> + +<p> Jesus' counter-question about David's son and Lord--Matt. xxii. 41-46; + Mark xii. 35-37; Luke xx. 41-44.</p> + +<p> Jesus' denunciation of the scribes and Pharisees--Matt, xxiii. 1-39; + Mark xii. 38-40; Luke xx. 45-47.</p> + +<p> The widow's two mites--Mark xii. 41-44; Luke xxi. 1-4.</p> + +<p> The visit of the Greeks--John xii. 20-36<sup>a</sup>.</p> + +<p> Final departure from the temple--John xii. 36<sup>b</sup> (-50).</p> + +<p><a class="newpage" name="page167" id="page167" title="167"></a> Discourse concerning the destruction of Jerusalem and the end of the + world--Matt. xxiv. 1 to xxvi. 2; Mark xiii. 1-37; Luke xxi. 5-38.</p> + +<p> Plot of Judas to betray Jesus--Matt. xxvi. 3-5, 14-16; Mark xiv. 1, 2, + 10, 11; Luke xxii. 1-6.</p> + +<p> <i>Wednesday</i>. Retirement at Bethany. (?)</p> + +<p> <i>Thursday</i>. The Last Supper--Matt. xxvi. 17-30; Mark xiv. 12-26; Luke + xxii. 7-30; John xiii. 1-30.</p> + +<p> The farewell words of admonition and comfort--John xiii. 31 to xvi. 33.</p> + +<p> The intercessory prayer--John xvii. 1-26.</p> + +<p> <i>Friday</i>. The agony in Gethsemane--Matt. xxvi. 30, 36-46; Mark xiv. 26, + 32-42; Luke xxii. 39-46; John xviii. 1.</p> + +<p> The betrayal and arrest--Matt xxvi. 47-56; Mark xiv. 43-52; Luke xxii. + 47-53; John xviii. 1-12.</p> + +<p> Trial before the high-priests and sanhedrin--Matt. xxvi. 57 to xxvii. + 10; Mark xiv. 53 to xv. 1<sup>a</sup>; Luke xxii. 54-71; John xviii. 12-27.</p> + +<p> Trial before Pilate--Matt, xxvii. 11-31; Mark xv. 1-20; Luke xxiii. + 1-25; John xviii. 28 to xix. 16<sup>a</sup>.</p> + +<p> The crucifixion--Matt, xxvii. 32-56; Mark xv. 21-41; Luke xxiii. 26-49; + John xix. 16-37.</p> + +<p> The burial--Matt, xxvii. 57-61; Mark xv. 42-47; Luke xxiii. 50-56; John + xix. 38-42.</p> + +<p> <i>Saturday</i>. The Sabbath rest--Luke xxiii. 56<sup>b</sup>.</p> + +<p> The watch at the tomb--Matt, xxvii. 62-66.</p> +</div> + + + + +<h2>VI</h2> + +<h3>The Final Controversies in Jerusalem</h3> + + + +<div class="section" id="s177"><p><span class="versenum">177.</span> The early Christians were greatly interested in the teachings of +Jesus and in his deeds, but they thought oftenest of the victory which by +his resurrection he won out of seeming defeat. This is proved by the fact +that of the first two gospels over one third, of Luke over one fifth, and +of the fourth gospel nearly <a class="newpage" name="page168" id="page168" title="168"></a>one half are devoted to the story of the +passion and resurrection. This preponderance is not strange in view of the +shock which the death of Jesus caused his disciples, and the new life +which the resurrection brought to their hearts. The resurrection was the +fundamental theme of apostolic preaching, the supreme evidence that Jesus +was the Messiah. Hence the cross early became the object of exultant +Christian joy and boasting; and in this the church entered actually into +the Lord's own thought, for through the cross he looked for his exaltation +and glory (Mark viii. 31; John xii. 23-36). From the time of the +confession at Cæsarea Philippi, he had had his death avowedly in view, and +had repeatedly checked the ambitious and unthinking enthusiasm of his +disciples by reminding them of what he must receive at the hands of the +leaders of the people. The few months preceding his final appearance in +Jerusalem had been devoted to the journey to the cross. This explains the +note of tragedy which appears in his teachings at this period. The people +had shown that they would none of his ministry. In this they had written +their national and religious death warrant, and as he approached Jerusalem +for the final crisis he declared, though with almost breaking heart, "Your +house is left unto you desolate" (Luke xiii. 31-35). Each new effort of +Jesus to turn aside the impending judgment of his people by winning their +acceptance of himself and his message resulted in a new certainty of his +ultimate rejection, and thus in confirmation of the early recognized +necessity, that, if he continued the work God had given him to do, he +should suffer many things, and die at the hands of his own people.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s178"><p><a class="newpage" name="page169" id="page169" title="169"></a><span class="versenum">178.</span> The last chapter in his public ministry began with his arrival at +Bethany six days before the Passover. It is probable that the caravan with +which Jesus was travelling reached Bethany not far from the sunset which +marked the beginning of the Sabbath preceding the feast. Jesus had friends +there who gladly gave him entertainment, and the Sabbath was doubtless +spent quietly in this retreat. The holy day closed with the setting sun, +and then his hosts were able to show him the special attention which they +desired. The general cordiality of welcome expressed itself in a feast +given in the house of one Simon, a leper who had probably experienced the +power of Jesus to heal. He may have been a relative also of Lazarus, for +Martha assisted in the entertainment, and Lazarus was one of the guests of +honor (Mark xiv. 3; John xii. 2). During the feast, Mary, the sister of +Lazarus, poured forth on the head and feet of Jesus a box of the rarest +perfume. This act of costly adoration seemed extravagant to some, +particularly to one of Jesus' disciples, who complained that the money +could have been better spent. This criticism of one who had not counted +cost in her service was rebuked by Jesus, who defended and commended Mary; +for in the act he recognized her fear that he might not be long with her +(Mark xiv. 8; John xii. 7). It is probable that this rebuke, with the +clear reference to his approaching death, led Judas to decide to abandon +the apparently waning cause of his Master, and bargain with the leaders in +Jerusalem to betray him (Mark xiv. 3-11).</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s179"><p><span class="versenum">179.</span> The day following the supper at Bethany--that is, the first day of +the week--witnessed the welcome of Jesus to Jerusalem by the jubilant +multitudes. <a class="newpage" name="page170" id="page170" title="170"></a>His mode of entering the city affords a marked contrast to +his treatment of the determination to make him king after he had fed the +multitudes in Galilee (John vi. 15). In some respects the circumstances +were similar. A multitude of the visitors to the feast, hearing that Jesus +was at Bethany on his way to Jerusalem, went out to meet him with a +welcome that showed their enthusiastic confidence that at last he would +assume Messianic power and redeem Israel (John xii. 12, 13). Jesus was now +ready for a popular demonstration, for the rulers were unwilling longer to +tolerate his work and his teaching. He had never hesitated to assert his +superiority to official criticism, and at length the hour had come to +proclaim the full significance of his independence. In fact it was for +this that some months before he had set his face steadfastly to go to +Jerusalem. When, therefore, the crowd from Jerusalem appeared, Jesus took +the initiative in a genuine Messianic demonstration. He sent two of his +disciples to a place near by to borrow an ass's colt, on which he might +ride into the city, fulfilling Zechariah's prophecy of the "king that +cometh meek, and riding upon an ass" (see Matt. xxi. 4, 5). At this, the +enthusiasm of his followers, and of those who had come to meet him, became +unbounded, and without rebuke from Jesus they proceeded towards Jerusalem +crying, "Hosanna; Blessed <i>is</i> he that cometh in the name of the Lord" +(Mark xi. 9, 10). Notwithstanding the remonstrances of certain Pharisees +among the multitude (Luke xix. 39), Jesus accepted the hosannas, for they +served to emphasize the claim which he now wished, without reserve or +ambiguity, to make in Jerusalem. The <a class="newpage" name="page171" id="page171" title="171"></a>time for reserve had passed. The +mass of the people with their leaders had shown clearly that for his +truth, and himself as bearer of it, they had no liking; while the few had +become attached to him sufficiently to warrant the supreme test of their +faith. He could not continue longer his efforts to win the people, for +both Galilee and Judea were closed to him. Even if he had been content, +without contradicting popular ideas, to work wonders and proclaim promises +of coming good, he could with difficulty have continued this work, for +Herod had already been regarding him with suspicion (Luke xiii. 31). He +had run his course and must measure strength with the hostile forces in +Jerusalem. For the last encounter he assumed the aggressive, and entered +the city as its promised deliverer, the Prince of Peace. The very method +of his Messianic proclamation was a challenge of current Jewish ideas, for +they were not looking for so meek and peaceful a leader as Zechariah had +conceived; this entrance emphasized the old contradiction between Jesus +and his people's expectations. He accepted the popular welcome with full +knowledge of the transitoriness of the present enthusiasm. As he advanced +he saw in thought the fate to which the city and people were blindly +hurrying, and his day of popular triumph was a day of tears (Luke xix. +41-44). The city was stirred when the prophet of Nazareth thus entered it; +but he simply went into the temple, looked about with heavy heart, and, as +it was late, returned to Bethany with the twelve for the night.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s180"><p><span class="versenum">180.</span> On the following day Jesus furnished to his disciples a parable in +action illustrating the fate awaiting the nation; for it is only as a +parable that the <a class="newpage" name="page172" id="page172" title="172"></a>curse of the barren fig-tree can be understood. The idea +that Jesus showed resentment at disappointment of his hunger when he found +no figs on the tree out of season is too petty for consideration. He was +drawn to it by the early foliage, for it was not yet the season for either +fruit or leaves. One is tempted to believe, as Dr. Bruce has suggested, +that he had small expectation of finding fruit, and that even before he +reached the tree with its early leaves he felt a likeness between it and +the nation of hypocrites whose fate was so clear in his mind. The +withering of the fig-tree set his disciples thinking; and Jesus showed +that it was an object lesson, promising that the disciples, by the +exercise of but a little faith, could do more, even remove +mountains,--such mountains of difficulty as the opposition of the whole +Jewish nation would offer to the success of their work in their Master's +name.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s181"><p><span class="versenum">181.</span> The curse upon the barren fig-tree was spoken as Jesus was going from +Bethany to Jerusalem on the morning after his Messianic entry, that is, on +Monday, and it was Tuesday when the disciples found it withered away (Mark +xi. 12-14, 20-25). On Monday Jesus entered into the temple and taught and +healed (Luke xix. 47; Matt. xxi. 14-16). It is at this point that Mark +inserts the cleansing of the temple which John shows to belong rather to +Jesus' first public visit to Jerusalem. The place which this incident +holds in the first three gospels has already been explained by the fact +that it furnished one cause for the official hostility to Jesus, and that +Mark's story included no earlier visit to the holy city (sect. 116; see A +39).</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s182"><p><span class="versenum">182.</span> Tuesday, the last day of public activity, ex<a class="newpage" name="page173" id="page173" title="173"></a>hibits Jesus in four +different lights, according as he had to do with his critics, with the +devout widow, with the inquiring Greeks, and with his own disciples. The +opposition to him expressed itself, after the general challenge of his +authority, in three questions put in succession by Pharisees and +Herodians, by Sadducees, and by a scribe, more earnest than most, whom the +Pharisees put forward after they had seen how Jesus silenced the +Sadducees. Jesus met the opening challenge by a question about John's +baptism (Mark xi. 29-33) which completely destroyed the complacency of his +critics, putting them on the defensive. This was more than a clever +stroke, they could not know what his authority was unless they had a quick +sense for spiritual things. His question would have served to bring this +to the surface if they had possessed it. Their reply showed them incapable +of receiving a real answer to their question. It also gave him opportunity +to say in three significant parables (Matt. xxi. 28 to xxii. 14) what +their spiritual blindness signified for them and their nation, giving thus +a turn to the interview not at all to their minds. As Jesus' rebuke was +spoken in the hearing of the people, a determined effort was at once made +to discredit him in the popular mind. The question (Mark xii. 13-17) with +which the Pharisees and Herodians hoped to ensnare him was most subtle, +for the popular feeling was as sensitive to the mark of subserviency which +the payment of tribute kept ever before them as the Roman authorities were +to the slightest suspicion of revolt against their sway. In none of his +words had Jesus so clearly asserted the simple other-worldliness of his +doctrine of the kingdom of God as in his answer <a class="newpage" name="page174" id="page174" title="174"></a>to the question about +tribute. For him loyalty to the actual earthly sovereign was quite +compatible with loyalty to God, the lower obligation was in fact a summons +to be scrupulous also to render to God his due,--a duty in which this +nation was sadly delinquent. The reply gave no ground for an accusation +before the governor; but the popular feeling against Rome was so strong +that it is not unlikely that it contributed somewhat to the readiness of +the multitude a few days later to prefer Barabbas to Jesus.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s183"><p><span class="versenum">183.</span> A second assault was made by some Sadducees who put to him a crude +question about the relations of a seven-times married woman in the +resurrection (Mark xii. 18-27). If this question was asked with the +expectation of making Jesus ridiculous in the sight of the people it was a +marked failure, for his reply was so simple and straightforward that he +won the admiration even of some of the Pharisees. The most significant +feature of it was his argument from God's reference to himself as God of +Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob; for in that he taught that the fact of +fellowship with God implies that God's servants share with him a life that +death cannot vanquish. The skill with which Jesus met these two questions +interested some of his hearers and showed to his opponents that they must +put forward their ablest champions to cope with him. The next test was +more purely academic in character,--as to what class of commands is +greatest in the law (Mark xii. 28-34). For the pharisaic scholars this was +a favorite problem. For Jesus, however, the question contained no problem, +since all the law is summed up in the two commandments of love. His +contemporaries were not without power to see the truth of his +<a class="newpage" name="page175" id="page175" title="175"></a>generalization, and their champion in this last attack was moved with +admiration for the fineness and sufficiency of Jesus' answer.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s184"><p><span class="versenum">184.</span> All of the assaults served only to show freshly the clearness and +profoundness of his thought; his critics were quite discomfited in their +effort to entangle him. They had done with him, but he had still a word +for them. The business of these scribes was the study of the scriptures. +They furnished the people with authoritative statements of truth. One of +the common-places of the current thought was that the Messiah should be +David's son. Jesus did not deny the truth of this view, yet he showed them +how partial their ideas were by quoting a word of scripture in which the +Messiah is shown as David's Lord. If they had been open-minded they might +have inferred from this that perhaps the man before them was not so +impossible a Messiah as they thought. This last question closed the +colloquy; there awaited yet, however, Jesus' calm, scathing arraignment of +the hypocrisy of these religious leaders. There was no longer any need for +prudence and every reason for a clear indication of the difference between +himself and the scribes in motive, in teaching, and in character. The +final conflict was on, and Jesus freely spoke his mind concerning their +whole life of piety without godliness. Never have sharper words of +reproach fallen from human lips than these which Jesus directed against +the scribes and Pharisees; they are burdened with indignation for the +misleading of the people, with rebuke for the misrepresentation of God's +truth, and with scorn for their hollow pretence of righteousness. Through +it all breathes a note of sorrow for the city <a class="newpage" name="page176" id="page176" title="176"></a>whose house was now left to +her desolate. The change of scene which introduces the widow offering her +gift in the temple treasury heightens the significance of the +controversies through which Jesus had just passed. In his comment on the +worth of her two mites we hear again the preacher of the sermon on the +mount, and are assured that it is indeed from him that the severe rebukes +which have fallen on the scribes have come. There is again a reference to +the insight of him who sees in secret, and who judges as he sees; while +allusion is not lacking to the others whose larger gifts attracted a wider +attention. The whole scene is like a commentary on Matt. vi. 2-4.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s185"><p><span class="versenum">185.</span> Still a different side of Jesus' life appears when the Greeks seek +him in the temple. They were probably proselytes from some of the Greek +cities about the Mediterranean where the synagogue offered to the +earnest-minded a welcome relief from the foolishness and corruption of +what was left of religion in the heathen world. Having visited Jerusalem +for the feast, they heard on every hand about the new teacher. They were +not so bound to rabbinic traditions as the Jews themselves, they had been +drawn by the finer features of Judaism,--its high morality and its noble +idea of God. What they heard of Jesus might well attract them, and they +sought out Philip, a disciple with a Greek name, to request an interview +with his Master. The evangelist who has preserved the incident (John xii. +20-36) evidently introduced it because of what it showed of Jesus' inner +life; hence we have no report of the conversation between him and his +visitors. The effect of their seeking him was marked, however, for it +offered sharp contrast to the <a class="newpage" name="page177" id="page177" title="177"></a>rejection which he already felt in his +dealings with the people who but two days before had hailed him as +Messiah. This foreign interest in him did not suggest a new avenue for +Messianic work, it only brought before his mind the influence which was to +be his in the world which these inquirers represented, and immediately +with the thought of his glorification came that of the means thereto,--the +cross whose shadow was already darkening his path. Excepting Gethsemane, +no more solemn moment in Jesus' life is reported for us. A glimpse is +given into the inner currents of his soul, and the storm which tossed them +is seen. It is in marked contrast to the calmness of his controversy with +the leaders, and to the gentleness of his commendation of the widow. The +agitation passed almost at once, but it left Jesus in a mood which he had +not shown before on that day; in it his own thoughts had their way, and +the doctrine of the grain of wheat dying to appear in larger life, of the +Son of Man lifted up to draw all men unto him, had utterance, greatly to +the perplexity of his hearers. It seems to have been one of the few times +when Jesus spoke for his own soul's relief.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s186"><p><span class="versenum">186.</span> In all the earlier events of the day the disciples of Jesus appear +but little. He is occupied with others, accepting the challenge of the +leaders, and completing his testimony to the truth they refused to hear. +The quieter hours of the later part of the day gave time for further words +with his friends. The comment on the widow's gift was meant for them, and +the uncovering of his own soul when the Greeks sought him was in their +presence. After he had left the temple and the city he gave himself to +them more ex<a class="newpage" name="page178" id="page178" title="178"></a>clusively. His disciples were perplexed by what they saw and +felt, for the temper of the people toward their Master could not be +mistaken. Yet they were sure of him. The leaders among them, therefore, +asked him privately to tell them when the catastrophe should come, to +which during the day he had made repeated reference. The conversation +which followed is reported for us in the discourse on the destruction of +Jerusalem and the end of the world (Mark xiii. and parallels), in which +Jesus taught his disciples to expect trouble in their ministry, as he was +meeting trouble in his; and to be ready for complete disappointment of +their inherited hopes for the glory of their holy city. He also taught +them to expect that his work would shortly be carried to perfection, and +to live in expectancy of his coming to complete all that he was now +seeming to leave undone. This lesson of patience and expectancy is +enforced in a group of parables preserved for us in Matthew (chap. xxv.), +closing with the remarkable picture of the end of all things when the +Master should return in glory as judge of all to make final announcement +of the simplicity of God's requirement of righteousness, as it had been +exhibited in the life which by the despite of men was now drawing to its +close.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s187"><p><span class="versenum">187.</span> The bargain made by Judas to betray his Lord has always been +difficult to understand. The man must have had fine possibilities or Jesus +would not have chosen him for an apostle, nor would the little company +have made him its treasurer (John xii. 6; xiii. 29). The fact that Jesus +early discovered his character (John vi. 64) does not compel us to think +that his selection as an apostle was not perfectly sin<a class="newpage" name="page179" id="page179" title="179"></a>cere; the man must +have seemed to be still savable and worthy thus to be associated with the +eleven others who were Jesus' nearest companions. It has often been +noticed that he was probably the only Judean among the twelve, for +Kerioth, his home, was a town in southern Judea. The effort has frequently +been made to redeem his reputation by attributing his betrayal to some +high motive--such as a desire to force his Master to use his Messianic +power, and confound his opponents by escaping from their hands and setting +up the hoped-for kingdom. But the remorse of Judas, in which De Quincey +finds support for this theory of the betrayal, must be more simply and +sadly understood. It is more likely that the traitor illustrates Jesus' +words: "No man can serve two masters; for either he will hate the one and +love the other; or else he will hold to the one and despise the other. Ye +cannot serve God and mammon" (Matt. vi. 24). The beginning of his fall may +have been his disappointment when Jesus showed clearly that he would not +establish a kingdom conformed to the popular ideas. As the enthusiasm +which drew him to Jesus cooled, personal greed, with something of +resentment at the cause of his disappointment, seem to have taken +possession of him, and they led him on until the stinging rebuke which +Jesus administered to the criticism of Mary at Bethany prompted the man to +seek a bargain with the authorities which should insure him at least some +profit in the general wreck of his hopes. His remorse after he saw in its +bald hideousness what he had done was psychologically inevitable. Although +Jesus was aware of Judas' character from the beginning (John vi. 64), he +that came to <a class="newpage" name="page180" id="page180" title="180"></a>seek and to save that which was lost was no fatalist; and +this knowledge was doubtless--like that which he had of the fate hanging +over Jerusalem--subject to the possibility that repentance might change +what was otherwise a certain destiny. As the event turned he could only +say, "Good were it for that man if he had not been born" (Mark xiv. 21).</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s188"><p><span class="versenum">188.</span> With this the curtain falls on the public ministry of Jesus. The +gospels suggest a day of quiet retirement following these controversies +and warnings, with their fresh demonstration of the irreconcilable +hostility of people of all classes to him and his work. After the +seclusion of that day, he returned to give final proof of complete +obedience to his Father's will.</p></div> +</div> + + +<div class="chapter" id="p02-07"> +<h2><a class="newpage" name="page181" id="page181" title="181"></a>VII</h2> + +<h3>The Last Supper</h3> + + + +<div class="section" id="s189"><p><span class="versenum">189.</span> On Thursday Jesus and his disciples returned to Jerusalem for the +last time. Knowing the temper of the leaders, and the danger of arrest at +any time, Jesus was particularly eager to eat the Passover with his +disciples (Luke xxii. 15), and he sent two of them--Luke names them as +Peter and John--to prepare for the supper. In a way which would give no +information to such a one as Judas, he directed them carefully how to find +the house where a friend would provide them the upper room that was needed +for an undisturbed meeting of the little band, and the two went on in +advance to make ready. When the hour was come Jesus with the others went +to the appointed place and sat down for the supper (Mark xiv. 17; Luke +xxii. 14; Matt. xxvi. 20).</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s190"><p><span class="versenum">190.</span> The gospels all report the last evening which the little company +spent together. There is a perplexing divergence, however, between John +and the others concerning the relation of this supper to the feast of the +Passover. In their introduction of the story, Mark and his companion +gospels indicate that the supper which Jesus ate was the Passover meal +itself. John, on the other hand, declares that it was "before the feast of +the Passover" (xiii. 1) that Jesus took this meal with his disciples. +John's account is consistent throughout, <a class="newpage" name="page182" id="page182" title="182"></a>for he states that on the next +day the desire of the Jews to "eat the Passover" forbade them to enter the +house of the governor lest they should incur defilement (xviii. 28). The +other gospels, moreover, hint in several ways that the day of Jesus' death +could not have been the day after the Passover; that is, the first day of +the feast of unleavened bread. Dr. Sanday has recently enumerated these +afresh, remarking that "the Synoptists make the Sanhedrin say beforehand +that they will not arrest Jesus 'on the feast day,' and then actually +arrest him on that day; that not only the guards, but one of the disciples +(Mark xiv. 47), carries arms, which on the feast day was not allowed; that +the trial was also held on the feast day, which would be unlawful; that +the feast day would not be called simply Preparation (see Mark xv. 42, and +compare John xix. 31); that the phrase 'coming from the field' (Mark xv. +21 [Greek]) means properly 'coming from work;' that Joseph of Arimathea is +represented as buying a linen cloth (Mark xv. 46) and the women as +preparing spices and ointments (Luke xxiii. 56), all of which would be +contrary to law and custom" (HastBD ii. 634). In these particulars the +first three gospels seem to confirm the representation of the fourth that +the day of the last supper was earlier than the regular Jewish Passover. +On the other hand, a strong argument, though one that has not commended +itself to other specialists in Jewish archæology, has been put forth by +Dr. Edersheim (LJM ii. 567f.) to prove that John also indicates that the +last supper was eaten at the time of the regular Passover. In the present +condition of our knowledge certainty is impossible. If John does differ +from the others, his testimony has the greatest <a class="newpage" name="page183" id="page183" title="183"></a>weight. While not +conclusive, it has some significance that Paul identified Christ with the +sacrifice of the passover (I. Cor. v. 7), a statement which may indicate +that he held that Jesus died about the time of the killing of the paschal +lamb. If John be taken to prove that the last supper occurred a day before +the regular Passover, Jesus must have felt that the anticipation was +necessary in order to avoid the publicity and consequent danger of a +celebration at the same time with all the rest of the city.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s191"><p><span class="versenum">191.</span> Whatever the conclusion concerning the date of the last supper, and +consequently of the crucifixion, the last meal of Jesus with his disciples +was for that little company the equivalent of the Passover supper. Luke +states that the desire of Jesus had looked specially to eating this feast +with his disciples (xxii. 15). The reason must be found in his certainty +of the very near end, and in his wish to make the meal a preparation for +the bitter experiences which were overhanging him and them.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s192"><p><span class="versenum">192.</span> It is customary to connect as occasion and consequence the dispute +concerning precedence which Luke reports (xxii. 24-30), and the rebuke +which Jesus administered by washing the disciples' feet (John xiii. 1-20). +The jealousies of the disciples may have arisen over the allotment of +seats at the table, as Dr. Edersheim has most fully shown (LJM ii. +492-503); such a controversy would be the natural sequel of earlier +disputes concerning greatness, and particularly of the request of James +and John for the best places in the coming kingdom (Mark x. 35-45), and +would lead as naturally to the distress of heart with which Jesus declared +that one of the disciples should betray <a class="newpage" name="page184" id="page184" title="184"></a>him, and that another of them +should deny him. The narrative in Mark favors the withdrawal of Judas +before the new rite was appointed. This must seem to be the probability in +the case, for the presence of Judas would be most incongruous at such a +memorial service. John's mention of his departure before the announcement +of Peter's approaching fall confirms this interpretation of Mark (Mark +xiv. 18-21; John xiii. 21-30).</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s193"><p><span class="versenum">193.</span> The paschal memories furnished to Jesus an opportunity to establish +for his disciples an institution which should symbolize the new covenant +which he was soon to seal with his blood. Jesus regarded this new covenant +as that which was promised by the prophets, especially Jeremiah (xxxi. +31-34), and his thought, like that of the prophets, goes back to the story +of the covenant established at Sinai (Ex. xxiv. 1-11). In this way he gave +to his disciples a conception of his death, which later, if not +immediately, would help them to regard it as a necessary part of his work +as Messiah. They were now oppressed by the evident certainty that the near +future would bring their Master to death; he accordingly gave them a +sacred reminder of himself and of his death as an essential part of his +self-giving "for them;" for whatever the conclusion concerning the +disputed text of Luke (xxii. 19), the institutional character of the act +and words of Jesus is clear. As Holtzmann remarks (NtTh i. 304): "The +words 'this do in remembrance of me' were perhaps not spoken; all the more +certainly do they of themselves express what lay in the situation and made +itself felt with incontestable conclusiveness."</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s194"><p><span class="versenum">194.</span> Several hints in the records seem to connect <a class="newpage" name="page185" id="page185" title="185"></a>the meal in various +details with what is known of ancient custom in the celebration of the +Passover. The hymn with which according to Mark and Matthew the supper +closed is easily identified with the last part (Psalms cxv. to cxviii.) of +the so called <i>Hallel</i>, which was sung at the close of the Passover meal. +The mention of two cups in the familiar text of Luke (xxii. 17-20) agrees +with the repeated cups of the Passover ritual; so also do the sop and the +dipping of it with which Jesus indicated to John who the traitor was (John +xiii. 23-26; Mark xiv. 20). If it could be proved that the customs +recorded in the Talmud correctly represent the usage in Jesus' time it +would be of extreme interest to seek to connect what is told us of the +last supper with that Passover ritual as Dr. Edersheim has done (LJM ii. +490-512). The antiquity of the rabbinic record is so uncertain, however, +that it is only useful as showing what possibly may have been the case. +All that can be asserted is that the rabbinic ritual probably originated +long before it was recorded, and that as the last supper was a meal which +Jesus and his disciples celebrated as a Passover, it is probable that some +such ritual was more or less closely followed.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s195"><p><span class="versenum">195.</span> Luke and John give the fullest reports of what was said at the table. +All the gospels tell of Peter's declaration of superior loyalty and the +prediction of his threefold denial; Luke, however, adds that in connection +with it Jesus assured Peter of his restoration, and charged him to +strengthen his brethren (Luke xxii. 31-34). John alone gives the long and +full discourse of admonition and comfort, followed by Jesus' prayer for +his disciples (xiii. 31 to xvii. 26). It is evident <a class="newpage" name="page186" id="page186" title="186"></a>from the words of +Jesus as he entered the garden of Gethsemane (Mark xiv. 33, 34), as from +those which had escaped him when the Greeks sought him the last day in the +temple (John xii. 27), that his own heart was greatly troubled during the +supper by the apparent defeat which was now close at hand. His quietness +and self-possession during the supper, particularly when tenderly +reproving his disciples for petty ambition, or when solemnly dismissing +the traitor, or warning Peter of his denials, must not blind us to the +depth of the emotion which was stirring his own soul. It is only as we +remember his trouble of heart that it is possible justly to value the +ministry which in varied ways he rendered to his disciples that night. In +the discourses reported by John he showed that he realized that the +approaching separation would sorely try the faith of his followers, and he +sought to strengthen them by showing his own calmness in view of it, and +by promising them another who should abide with them spiritually as his +representative, and continue for them the work which he had begun. He +therefore urged them to maintain their devotion to him, still to seek and +find the source of their life and secret of their strength in fellowship +with him--present, though unseen among them. He sought to convince them +that his departure was to be for their advantage, that fellowship with him +spiritually would be far more real and efficacious than the intercourse +they had already enjoyed. He whose own heart was "exceeding sorrowful even +unto death" bade his disciples not to let their hearts be troubled nor +afraid. How long the conversation continued, of when the company left the +upper chamber, cannot be told. At some time before the arrival at +Gethsemane <a class="newpage" name="page187" id="page187" title="187"></a>Jesus turned to God in prayer for the disciples whom he was +about to leave to the severe trial of their faith, asking for them that +realization of eternal life which he had enjoyed and exemplified in his +own intimate life with his Father. With this his ministry to them closed +for the time, and, crossing the Kidron, he entered the garden of +Gethsemane weighed down by the sorrow of his own soul.</p></div> +</div> + + +<div class="chapter" id="p02-08"> +<h2><a class="newpage" name="page188" id="page188" title="188"></a>VIII</h2> + +<h3>The Shadow of Death</h3> + + + +<div class="section" id="s196"><p><span class="versenum">196.</span> Of the garden of Gethsemane it is only known that it was across the +Kidron, on the slope of the Mount of Olives. Tradition has long pointed to +an enclosure some fifty yards beyond the bridge that crosses the ravine on +the road leading eastward from St. Stephen's gate. Most students feel that +this is too near the city and the highway for the place of retreat chosen +by Jesus. Archæologically and sentimentally the identification of places +connected with the life of Jesus is of great interest. Practically, +however, it is easy to over-emphasize the importance of such an +identification. Granted the fact that in some olive grove on the +mountain-side, where an oil-press gave a name to the place (Gethsemane), +Jesus withdrew with his disciples on that last night, and all that is +important is known. It is of far higher importance to see rightly the +relation of what took place in that garden to the things which preceded +and followed it in the life of Jesus. At that time Jesus saw pressed to +his lips the "cup" from the bitterness of which his whole soul shrank. It +was not an unlooked-for trial; some time earlier he had sought to cool the +ardor of the ambition of James and John by telling them that they should +drink of his cup, and declared that even the Son of Man came not to be +<a class="newpage" name="page189" id="page189" title="189"></a>ministered unto but to minister, and to give his life a ransom for many. +The fourth gospel, whose representation omits the agony of Gethsemane and +only reports its victory, tells how Jesus rebuked the violent impulse of +Peter with the word, "The cup which my Father hath given me to drink shall +I not drink it?" (John xviii. 11<sup>b</sup>); and all the gospels exhibit the +marvellous quietness of spirit and dignity of self-surrender which +characterized Jesus throughout his trial and execution. In Gethsemane, +however, we see the struggle in which that calmness and self-mastery were +won.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s197"><p><span class="versenum">197.</span> It is unbecoming to consider that scene with any vulgar curiosity to +know what it was that made Jesus so draw back from the drinking of his +"cup." It is not unfitting, however, to recognize that in his cry, "Abba, +Father, all things are possible unto thee; remove this cup from me" (Mark +xiv. 36), an intense longing of his own soul's life had expression. There +was something in the fate which he saw before him from which his whole +being shrank. But stronger than this was his fixed desire to do his +Father's will. Here was supremely illustrated the truth that "he came down +from heaven, not to do his own will, but the will of him that sent him" +(John vi. 38). The fullest allowance for the shrinking of the most +delicately constituted nature from pain and death completely fails to +account for this dread of Jesus. He was no coward, drawing back from +sufferings which for simple physical pain were over and again more than +matched by many of the martyrs to truth who preceded and followed him. He +himself declared to the sons of Zebedee that they should share a cup in +kind like <a class="newpage" name="page190" id="page190" title="190"></a>unto his, suffering for the kingdom of God, for the salvation +of the world. Yet there is a difference evident between what others have +had to bear and the cup from which Jesus shrank. The death which now stood +before him in the path of obedience had in it a bitterness quite +unexplained by the pain and disappointment it entailed. That excess of +bitterness can probably never be understood by us. A hint of its nature +may be found in the "shame of the cross" which the author of Hebrews (xii. +2; xiii. 13) emphasizes, and in the "curse" of the cross which made it a +stumbling block to Paul and his Jewish brethren (Gal. iii. 13; I. Cor. i. +23). Jesus came from the garden ready to endure the cross in obedience to +his Father's will; but it was a costly obedience, a complete emptying of +himself (Phil. ii. 7, 8).</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s198"><p><span class="versenum">198.</span> The loneliness of Jesus in his struggle is emphasized in the gospels +of Mark and Matthew. In search of sympathy he had confessed to the +disciples his trouble of heart, and had taken his three intimates with him +when he withdrew from the others for prayer, asking them to watch with +him. They were too heavy of heart and weary of body to stand by in his +bitter hour, and instead of being in readiness to warn him of the approach +of the hostile band, he had to awake them to their danger. The fourth +gospel reports that after the struggle Jesus bore marks of majesty which +astonished and overawed his foes when he calmly told them that he was the +one they were seeking. Their fear was overcome, however, when Judas gave +the appointed sign by kissing his Master (Mark xiv. 45). The thought for +the disciples' safety which John records (xviii. 8) is another proof <a class="newpage" name="page191" id="page191" title="191"></a>that +the fight had been won, and Jesus had fully resumed the self-emptying +ministry appointed to him by his Father.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s199"><p><span class="versenum">199.</span> The band that arrested Jesus was accompanied by a Roman cohort from +the garrison of the city, but it was not needed, for the disciples offered +no appreciable resistance; on the contrary, "they all forsook him and +fled" (Mark xiv. 50). Having arrested Jesus, the band took him to Annas, +the actual leader of Jewish affairs, though not at the time the official +high-priest. He had held that office some time before, but had been +deposed by the Roman governor of Syria after being in power for nine +years. His influence continued, however, for although he was never +reinstated, he seems to have been able to secure the appointment for +members of his own family during a period of many years. Caiaphas, the +legal high-priest, was his son-in-law. Annas, as the leader of +aristocratic opinion in Jerusalem, had doubtless been foremost in the +secret counsels which led to the decision to get rid of Jesus, hence the +captive was, as a matter of course, taken first to his house. The trial by +the Jewish authorities was irregular. There seems to have been an informal +examination of Jesus and various witnesses, first before Annas, and then +before Caiaphas and a group of members of the sanhedrin, the outcome of +which was complete failure to secure evidence against Jesus from their +false witnesses, and the formulation of a charge of blasphemy in +consequence of his answer to the high-priest acknowledging himself to be +the Messiah (Mark xiv. 61-64). The early hours before the day were given +over to mockery and ill-usage of the captive Jesus. When <a class="newpage" name="page192" id="page192" title="192"></a>morning was +come, the sanhedrin was convened, and he was condemned to death on the +charge of blasphemy (Mark xv. 1; Luke xxii. 66-71), and then was led in +bonds to the Roman governor for execution, since the Romans had taken from +the sanhedrin the authority to execute a death sentence (John xviii. 31). +Before Pilate the Jews had to name an offence recognized by Roman law; his +accusers therefore falsified his claim and made him out a political +Messiah, hostile to Roman rule (Luke xxiii. 1, 2). Pilate soon saw that +the charge was trumped up, and sought in every way, while keeping the +good-will of the people, to escape the responsibility of giving sentence +against Jesus. His first effort was a simple declaration that he found no +fault in the prisoner (Luke xxiii. 4); then, having heard that he was a +Galilean, he tried to transfer the case to Herod, who happened to be in +the city at the time (Luke xxiii. 5-12); he then sought to compromise by +agreeing to chastise Jesus and then release him (Luke xxiii. 13-16); next +he offered the people their choice between the innocent Jesus and +Barabbas, a convicted insurrectionist (Mark xv. 6-15; Luke xxiii. 16-24), +and the people, instructed by the priests, chose Barabbas, caring nothing +for a Messiah who would allow himself to be arrested without resistance; +the fourth gospel tells of Pilate's still further effort, by appealing to +the people's sympathy, to escape giving sentence, even after he had +delivered Jesus to the soldiers for the preliminary scourging. Finding the +Jews ready to urge, at length, a religious charge, Pilate's superstitious +fear was roused (John xix. 7-12), and he sought again to release him, but +was finally cowed by the <a class="newpage" name="page193" id="page193" title="193"></a>threat of an accusation against him at Rome, +and, mocking the people by sitting in judgment to condemn Jesus as their +king, he gave sentence against the man whom he knew to be innocent (John +xix. 12-16).</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s200"><p><span class="versenum">200.</span> Some of Jesus' disciples and friends were witnesses of the early +stages of the informal trial, in particular, John (John xviii. 15) and +Peter. It was during the progress of the early examination that Peter was +drawn into his denials by the comments made by the bystanders on his +connection with the accused. It has been suggested that the house of the +high-priest where Jesus was tried was built, like other Oriental houses, +about a court so that the room where Jesus was examined was open to view +from the court. In this case it is easy to see how Jesus could overhear +his disciple's strenuous denials of any acquaintance with him, and could +turn and give him that look which sent him out to weep bitterly (Luke +xxii. 61, 62). If it be further assumed that Annas and Caiaphas occupied +different sides of the same high-priestly palace, the double examination +reported by John would still be within hearing from the one court in which +the faithless disciple was a fascinated witness of his Master's trial.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s201"><p><span class="versenum">201.</span> Humanly speaking, it may be said that the fate of Jesus was sealed +when the Sadducean leaders came to look on him seriously as a danger to +the State (John xi. 47-50, note the mention of chief priests). The +religious opposition was serious, and might have brought trouble, in some +such way as it seems to have done to John the Baptist (see Matt. xvii. +10-13; Luke xiii. 31, 32); but it is doubtful whether the gov<a class="newpage" name="page194" id="page194" title="194"></a>ernor would +have given much attention to a charge not urged by the men of influence in +Jerusalem. The notable thing in connection with the last days of Jesus' +life is the joint opposition of Sadducean priests and Pharisaic scribes. +That the populace easily changed their cry from "hosanna" to "crucify him" +is not surprising. Their hosannas were due to a complete misconception of +Jesus' aim and purpose; disappointed in him, they would be the earliest to +cry out against him, especially when the choice lay between him and a +genuine insurrectionist.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s202"><p><span class="versenum">202.</span> Each fresh study of the trial of Jesus gives a fresh impression of +his greatness. He who but a few hours before was pouring out his soul in +prayer that his cup might pass, stands forth as the one calm and +undisturbed actor among all those who took part in the tragic doings of +that day. His judges and foes were all swayed by passion and self-interest +and were ready to make travesty of justice, from the leaders of the +sanhedrin who condemned him on one charge and accused him to the governor +on another, to the governor himself, who appeared determined to release +him if he could do it without risk of personal popularity, and who yet, in +order to avoid accusation at Rome, gave sentence according to the people's +will. The fickle populace crying "crucify him," the disciples who forsook +him, the rock-apostle who denied even so much as knowledge of the man, +show how all the currents of life about him were stirred and full of +tumult. In all this, of which he was the occasion and centre, he stands +the supreme example of dignity, self-mastery, and quietness. This is seen +in his silence in the presence of Annas and Caiaphas, and later before +<a class="newpage" name="page195" id="page195" title="195"></a>Pilate; in his frank avowal of his Messianic claim in reply to the +high-priest's challenge, and of his kingly rank in answer to the +governor's question; and in the look of reproof which he turned upon +Peter. Not that he was without feeling. There is strong sense of outrage +in his words, "If I have spoken evil, bear witness of the evil, but if +well, why smitest thou me?" It was not the quietness of stoic +indifference, but of perfect self-devotion to the Father's will. He +maintained it from the time of his arrest to the last cry of trust with +which he committed his spirit to his Father.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s203"><p><span class="versenum">203.</span> The scourging over, the mock homage of the soldiers done, he was led +out beyond the city wall to be crucified. The exact place of the +crucifixion can be determined as little as that of Gethsemane, though +there is a tradition from the fourth century, and in addition there are +many conjectures. Jesus was led, apparently, to the ordinary place of +criminal execution, and with two others, probably insurrectionary robbers +like those with whom Barabbas had been associated, he was crucified. Two +episodes in the journey to the place of crucifixion are recorded,--the +help which Simon of Cyrene was compelled to give to Jesus in carrying his +cross (Mark xv. 21), and the word of Jesus to those who, following him, +bewailed his fate (Luke xxiii. 27-31).</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s204"><p><span class="versenum">204.</span> Of the cruelty and torture of crucifixion much has been written and +often. It would be difficult to exaggerate it. The death by the cross was +a death by hunger and exhaustion in ordinary cases; it was thus torture +prolonged for many hours. It is noticeable, however, that it is not the +suffering but the disgrace and shame of the cross that occupied the +thought of <a class="newpage" name="page196" id="page196" title="196"></a>the apostolic days. Indeed, were physical suffering chiefly to +be considered, it would have to be owned that the fact that Jesus died +within a few hours released him from the most excruciating pains incident +to this barbarous form of execution. The later ascetic thought loved, and +still loves, to dwell on the physical torments of the Lord's death. They +were severe enough to give us awe; but the biblical writers show a much +healthier mind, and their thought does not invite comparison between the +pains endured by the Master and those which some of his martyred followers +bore with great fortitude. The disgrace of the cross was the uttermost; +for the Romans it was the death of a slave, for the Jews it was patent +proof of the curse of God (Deut. xxi. 23). The obedience of Jesus was +unlimited when he submitted to death (Phil. ii. 8). It is on the shame of +the cross, and on the sacrifice of himself for the life of the world when +in obedience to his Father's will he "despised the shame," that the +thought of the apostolic day laid emphasis. In this experience Jesus found +himself in truth numbered with the transgressors; he was the object of +scorn for all them that passed by, they mocked at him, at his works, and +at his confident trust in God. In this last extremity the darkness of +Gethsemane again swept over Jesus' soul, when he cried out "My God, my +God," recalling the words of one of the saints of old in his hour of +distress (Ps. xxii.). Yet, like him, Jesus kept hold on the certainty of +deliverance; the darkness passed at length.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s205"><p><span class="versenum">205.</span> The evangelists preserve several sayings of Jesus from the cross, the +records of the different gospels being remarkably diverse. Mark and +Mat<a class="newpage" name="page197" id="page197" title="197"></a>thew record the exclamation, "My God, my God <i>(Eloi, Eloi</i>), why hast +thou forsaken me," which the bystander misconstrued as a call for Elijah, +thinking this pseudo-Messiah was reproaching Elijah for failing to come to +his help. The same gospels tell of the loud cry with which Jesus died. +Luke omits the call <i>Eloi</i>, and gives in place of the last expiring cry +the prayer of trust, "Father, into thy hands I commend my spirit" (xxiii. +46). Earlier, however, this gospel tells of Jesus' word to the penitent +robber, "To-day shalt thou be with me in Paradise" (xxiii. 43), and of the +prayer for his foes, that is, for the Jewish people who blindly condemned +him (xxiii. 34). The oldest manuscripts cause some doubt whether this last +saying was originally a part of the Gospel of Luke. If it was not it would +belong in the same class with the story of the sinful woman which we now +find in John, both being authentic records of the life of Jesus, though +from some other source than that in which we now find them. The fourth +gospel gives quite an independent group of sayings. It interprets the +dying cry as, "It is finished" (xix. 30), and preceding this it gives the +cry, "I thirst" (xix. 28), which led to the offering of the vinegar of +which the first two gospels speak. Earlier it tells of the committal of +Mary to the care of the beloved disciple (xix. 26, 27). Of these seven +sayings, "Eloi," "I thirst," "Father, into thy hand I commend my spirit," +and "It is finished" belong to the last hours of the life of the crucified +one, after the darkness of which the first three gospels speak had +overshadowed the land. Of the cause of that darkness they give no hint, +for Luke's expression cannot mean an eclipse, since an eclipse at Passover +<a class="newpage" name="page198" id="page198" title="198"></a>time, that is, at full moon, is an impossibility. The conjecture that +dense clouds hid the sun is common, and is as suitable as any other. +Whatever the cause, the evangelists saw in it a token of nature's awe at +the death of the Son of God. During the hours of the darkness the waves +swept over his soul, as the cry "my God" shows to our reverent thought. +But the last word of trust proves that the dying Jesus was not forsaken, +and that Calvary, like Gethsemane, was a battle won. The earlier sayings +all express Jesus' continued spirit of ministry, showing even in his +bitter pain his accustomed thoughtfulness for others' need.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s206"><p><span class="versenum">206.</span> It is futile to speculate on the cause of Jesus' early death. He +certainly suffered a much shorter time than was ordinarily the case, as +appears in the fact that at sunset it was necessary to break the legs of +the robbers so as to hasten death, Jesus having already been some time +dead. There is something attractive in the theory of Dr. Stroud (The +Physical Cause of Christ's Death) that Jesus died of rupture of the heart. +It may have been true, but the evidences on which he based his argument +are insufficient for proof. To the Jews the death of their victim did not +give all the satisfaction they desired. In the first place, Pilate +insisted on mocking them by posting over the head of Jesus the placard, +"The King of the Jews" (see John xix. 19-22); moreover, their haste had +brought the crime into close proximity to the feast which they were eager +to keep from defilement; so that they had still to beg of Pilate that he +would hasten the death of the victims, that their bodies might not remain +to desecrate the following Sabbath sanctity (John xix. 31-37); while for +those <a class="newpage" name="page199" id="page199" title="199"></a>who witnessed it the death of Jesus deepened the impression that a +hideous crime had been committed in the slaughter of an innocent man (Mark +xv. 39).</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s207"><p><span class="versenum">207.</span> Among the bystanders few of the disciples of Jesus were to be +found--they were hiding in fear. Yet some faithful women, and two +courageous councillors of Jerusalem, were bold enough to make their +loyalty known. These two men, Joseph of Arimathea and Nicodemus, were +members of the sanhedrin, but they had had no part in the condemnation of +Jesus; and after knowing that he was dead, Joseph begged of Pilate the +body, and he and Nicodemus took Jesus down from the cross and laid him in +a tomb which Joseph owned near the place of crucifixion, rendering such +tender ministries as were possible in the closing hours of the day. The +women who had witnessed his end meanwhile were arranging also to anoint +the body. They took notice where the two friends had laid him, and then +went away to rest on the Sabbath day, according to the commandment.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s208"><p><span class="versenum">208.</span> To the Jews it was a high day, the first Sabbath in the eight days of +their holy feast (John xix. 31). They had eagerly guarded their conduct +that no ceremonial defilement might prevent their sharing in the paschal +feast. They believed that they had rid their nation of a dangerous +disturber of its peace, and men whose conscience shrank not from making +God's house a house of merchandise, who would punish one who ventured to +cure a mortal disease if it chanced to cross their Sabbath traditions, who +had condemned to death the holiest man and godliest teacher the world had +ever seen because he did not square with their heartless formalism,--such +men hardly had conscience <a class="newpage" name="page200" id="page200" title="200"></a>enough to feel repentance or remorse for the +cowardly injustice and crime with which of their own choice they had +reddened their hands (Matt, xxvii. 25). They doubtless kept their feast +with satisfaction. Not a few hearts, however, were heavy with grief and +disappointed hope. They had believed that Jesus "was he that should redeem +Israel" (Luke xxiv. 21). Stunned, they could not throw away the faith +which he had kindled in their hearts. Yet he was dead, and only faintly, +if at all, did they recall his prediction of suffering and his certainty +of triumph through it all (John xx. 9). What remained for them was the +last tender ministry to their dead Lord.</p></div></div> +<div class="chapter" id="p02-09"> +<div class="outline"> +<h2><a class="newpage" name="page201" id="page201" title="201"></a> Outline of Events after the Resurrection</h2> + + +<p> <i>The day of the resurrection--Sunday</i>. The visit of the women to the + tomb--Matt. xxviii. 1-8; Mark xvi. 1-8; Luke xxiv. 1-12; John xx. 1-10.</p> + +<p> Jesus' first appearance; to Mary--Matt. xxviii. 9 10; [Mark xvi. 9-11]; + John xx. 11-18.</p> + +<p> The report of the watch--Matt. xxviii. 11-15.</p> + +<p> The appearance to Simon Peter--I. Cor. xv. 5.</p> + +<p> The walk to Emmaus--[Mark xvi 12,13]; Luke xxiv. 13-35.</p> + +<p> The appearance to the ten in the evening--[Mark xvi. 14]; Luke xxiv. + 36-43; John xx. 19-25; I. Cor. xv. 5.</p> + +<p> <i>One week later--Sunday</i>. The appearance to the eleven, with + Thomas--John xx. 26-29.</p> + +<p> <i>Later appearances</i>. To seven disciples by the sea of Galilee--John + xxi. 1-24.</p> + +<p> To a company of disciples in. Galilee--Matt, xxviii. 16-20; [Mark xvi. + 15-18]; I. Cor. xv. 6.</p> + +<p> The appearance to James--I. Cor. xv. 7.</p> + +<p> To the disciples in Jerusalem, followed by the ascension--Mark xvi. 19, + 20; Luke xxiv. 44-53; Acts i. 1-12; I. Cor. xv. 7.</p> +</div> + + + +<h2>IX</h2> + +<h3>The Resurrection</h3> + + + +<div class="section" id="s209"><p><span class="versenum">209.</span> Christianity as a historic religious movement starts from the +resurrection of Jesus from the dead. This is very clear in the preaching +and writings of Paul. The first distinctively Christian feature in his +address at Athens is his statement that God had designated <a class="newpage" name="page202" id="page202" title="202"></a>Jesus to be +the judge of men by having "raised him from the dead" (Acts xvii. 31), and +for him the resurrection was the demonstration of the divinity of Christ +(Rom. i. 4), and the confirmation of the Christian hope (I. Cor. xv.). +With him the prime qualification for an apostle was that he should have +seen the risen Lord (I. Cor. ix. 1). The early preaching as recorded in +Acts shows the same feature, for after repeated testimony to the fact that +God had raised up Jesus, Peter summed up his address with the declaration, +"Let all the house of Israel therefore know assuredly, that God hath made +him both Lord and Christ, this Jesus whom ye crucified" (Acts ii. 36). In +fact the buoyancy of hope and confidence of faith which gave to the +despised followers of the Nazarene their strength resulted directly from +the experiences of the days which followed the deep gloom that settled +over the disciples when Jesus died.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s210"><p><span class="versenum">210.</span> It can but seem strange to us that after Jesus had so often foretold +his death and the resurrection which should follow it, his disciples were +thrown into despair by the cross. Joseph of Arimathea and Nicodemus when +they embalmed his body may not have known of these teachings which Jesus +gave to the nearer circle of his followers, but it is difficult to believe +that the women who prepared their spices to anoint his body (Mark xvi. 1) +had heard nothing of these predictions, and it is certain that the +apostles who received with incredulity the first news of the resurrection +were the men whom Jesus had sought to prepare for this glorious victory. +The disciples do not seem to have finished "questioning among themselves +what the rising again from the dead should <a class="newpage" name="page203" id="page203" title="203"></a>mean" (Mark ix. 10, compare +Luke xviii. 34) until Jesus himself explained it by his return to them +after his crucifixion. It was formerly common to conclude from the +scepticism of the disciples that Jesus could not have told them, as he is +reported to have done, that he would rise again the third day. It is now +widely conceded, however, that if he foresaw and foretold his death, he +surely coupled with it a promise of resurrection, otherwise he must have +surrendered his own conviction that he was Messiah; for a Messiah taken +and held captive by death was apparently as foreign to Jesus' thought as +it was unthinkable for the men of his generation. The inability of the +disciples to adjust their Messianic ideas to the death of their Master was +not removed by the rebuke Jesus administered to Peter at Cæsarea Philippi; +their objections were only silenced. It would seem that even when they saw +his death to be inevitable, they were simply dumb with hope that in some +way he would come off victor; the cross and the tomb crushed out that +hope--at least from most of them. If one disciple, his closest friend, +recalled and believed his words when he saw the empty tomb (John xx. 8), +others were cast into still deeper sorrow by the report, and could only +say, "But we hoped that it was he which should redeem Israel" (Luke xxiv. +21).</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s211"><p><span class="versenum">211.</span> The light which banished the gloom from the hearts of Jesus' +followers dawned suddenly. There was no time for gradual readjustment of +ideas and the springing of hope from a faith which would not die. The +uniform early tradition is that Jesus showed himself alive to his +disciples "on the third day," that is, a little over thirty-six hours from +the time of his <a class="newpage" name="page204" id="page204" title="204"></a>death. Not only the gospels, but Paul, who wrote many +years before our evangelists, testify to this (I. Cor. xv. 4), as does the +very early observance of the first day of the week as "the Lord's day," +and the substitution of "the third day" for "after three days" in the +gospels which made use of our Gospel of Mark (compare parallels with Mark +viii. 81; ix. 31; x. 34, and see Holtzmann, NtTh I. 309). Of the events +which occurred on that third day and after, our earliest account is that +of Paul. He gives a simple catalogue of the appearances of the risen Lord, +referring to them as well known, in fact as the familiar subject matter of +his earliest teaching (I. Cor. xv. 4-8). He gives definite date to none of +these appearances, indicating only their sequence. He tells of six +different manifestations, beginning with an appearance to Cephas on the +third day, then to the twelve, then to a large company of +disciples,--above five hundred,--then to James, then to all the apostles. +The sixth in the list is his own experience, which he puts in the same +class with the appearances of the first Easter morning. Two of these +instances are found only in Paul's account, the appearance to James and to +the five hundred brethren, though this last may probably be the same as is +referred to in the Gospel of Matthew (xxviii. 16-20).</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s212"><p><span class="versenum">212.</span> The gospel records are much fuller, but they differ from each other +even more than they do from Paul. Mark is unhappily incomplete, for the +last twelve verses in that gospel, as we have it, are lacking in the +oldest manuscripts, and were probably written by a second-century +Christian named Aristion, as a substitute for the proper end of the gospel +which seems by some acci<a class="newpage" name="page205" id="page205" title="205"></a>dent to have been lost. These twelve verses are +clearly compiled from our other gospels. They have value as indicating the +currency of the complete tradition in the early second century, but they +contribute nothing to our knowledge of the resurrection. All, then, that +Mark tells is that the women who came early on the first day of the week +to anoint the body of Jesus found the tomb open and empty, and saw an +angel who bade them tell the disciples that the Lord had risen. How the +record originally continued no one knows, for Matthew and Luke use the +same general testimony up to the point where Mark breaks off, and then go +quite different ways. Of the two Matthew is closer to Mark than is Luke. +The first gospel adds to the record of the second an account of an +appearance of Jesus to the women as they went to report to the disciples, +and then tells of the meeting of Jesus with the disciples on a mountain in +Galilee, and his parting commission to them. It gives no account of the +ascension. Luke agrees with Mark in general concerning the visit of the +women to the tomb, the angelic vision, and the report to the disciples. He +says nothing of an appearance of Jesus to the women on their flight from +the tomb, but, if xxiv. 12 is genuine (see R.V. margin), he, like John, +tells of Peter's visit to the sepulchre.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s213"><p><span class="versenum">213.</span> Luke further reports the appearances of Jesus to two on their way to +Emmaus, to Simon, and to the eleven in Jerusalem,--this last being blended +consciously or unconsciously with the final meeting of Jesus with the +disciples before his ascension. The genuine text of the gospel (xxiv. 50) +says nothing of the ascension itself, but clearly implies it. In contrast +with Matthew it is noticeable that Luke shows no knowl<a class="newpage" name="page206" id="page206" title="206"></a>edge of any +appearance of Jesus to his disciples in Galilee. John is quite independent +of Mark, as well as of Matthew and Luke. He mentions only Mary Magdalene +in connection with the early visit to the tomb, though perhaps he implies +the presence of others with her ("we" in xx. 2). He tells of a visit of +Peter and John to the tomb, of an appearance of Jesus to Mary Magdalene, +of an appearance to ten of the disciples in the evening, and a week later +to the eleven, including Thomas. So far this gospel makes no reference to +appearances in Galilee; but in the appendix (chapter xxi.) there is added +a manifestation to seven disciples as they were fishing on the Sea of +Galilee.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s214"><p><span class="versenum">214.</span> Criticism which seeks to discredit the gospels, for instance most +recently Réville in his "Jésus de Nazareth," discovers two separate and +mutually exclusive lines of tradition,--one telling of appearances in +Galilee, represented by Mark and the last chapter in John, the other +telling of appearances in or near Jerusalem, and found in Luke and the +twentieth chapter of John. It is said that the gospels have sought to +blend the two cycles, as when Matthew tells of an appearance to the women +in Jerusalem on their way from the tomb, and when the last chapter of John +adds to the original gospel a Galilean appearance. Luke, however, who +makes no reference at all to Galilean manifestations, is taken to prove +that originally the one cycle knew nothing of the other. This theory +falls, however, before the uniform tradition of appearances on the third +day, which must have been in Jerusalem, and the very early testimony of +Paul to an appearance to above five hundred brethren at once, which could +not have been in Judea. It need not surprise us that there <a class="newpage" name="page207" id="page207" title="207"></a>should have +been two cycles of tradition, not however mutually exclusive, if Jesus did +appear both in Jerusalem and in Galilee. The same kind of local interest +which is supposed to explain the one-sidedness of the synoptic story of +the public ministry would easily account for one line of tradition which +reported Galilean appearances, and another which reported those in +Jerusalem. Luke may have had access to information which furnished him +only the Jerusalem story. John and Peter, however, must have known the +wider facts. The very divergences and seeming contradictions of the +gospels, troublesome as they are, indicate how completely certainty +regarding the fact of the resurrection removed from the thought of the +apostolic day nice carefulness concerning the testimony to individual +manifestations of the risen Lord. Doubtless the first preaching rested, as +in the case of Paul, on a simple "I have seen the Lord." When later the +detailed testimony was wanted for written gospels, it had suffered the lot +common to orally transmitted records, and divergences had sprung up which +it is no longer possible for us to resolve. They do not, however, +challenge the fact which lies behind all the varied testimony.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s215"><p><span class="versenum">215.</span> A general view of the events of that third day and those which +followed can be constructed from our gospels and Paul. Early on the first +day of the week certain women, including Mary Magdalene, Mary the mother +of James and Joses, Salome, Joanna, and others, came to anoint the body of +Jesus. On their arrival they found that the stone had been rolled back +from the tomb. Mary Magdalene saw that the grave was empty and ran to tell +Peter and John. The others saw <a class="newpage" name="page208" id="page208" title="208"></a>also a vision of angels which said that +Jesus was alive and would see his disciples in Galilee, and ran to report +this to the disciples. Meanwhile Mary Magdalene returned, following Peter +and John who ran to see the tomb, and found it empty as she had said. She +lingered after they left, and Jesus appeared to her, she mistaking him at +first for the gardener. She then went to tell the disciples that she had +seen the Lord. These events evidently occurred in the early morning. The +next incident reported is that of the walk of two disciples, not of the +twelve, to Emmaus, and the appearance of Jesus to them. At first they did +not recognize him, not even when he taught them out of the scriptures the +necessity that the Messiah should die. He was made known when at evening +he sat down with them to a familiar meal. Either before or after this +event he had shown himself to Peter. This is the first manifestation +reported by Paul. If Luke xxiv. 12 is genuine (see R.V. margin), he also +tells that when the two again reached Jerusalem the apostles received them +with the news that Peter had seen the Lord. That same evening Jesus +appeared suddenly among the disciples in their well-guarded upper room. +His coming was such that he had to convince the disciples that he was not +simply a disembodied spirit. Luke says that he did this by bidding them +handle him, and by eating part of a fish before them. According to John, +Thomas was not with the others at this first meeting with the disciples. A +week later, presumably in Jerusalem, Jesus again manifested himself to the +little company, Thomas being with them, and dispelled the doubt of that +disciple who loved too deeply to indulge a hope which might <a class="newpage" name="page209" id="page209" title="209"></a>only +disappoint. He had but to see in order to believe, and make supreme +confession of his faith. The next appearance was probably that to the +seven disciples by the Sea of Galilee, when Peter, who denied thrice, was +thrice tested concerning his love for his Lord. Then apparently followed +the meeting on the mountain reported in Matthew, which was probably the +same as the appearance to the five hundred brethren; then, probably still +in Galilee, Jesus appeared to his brother James, who from that time on was +a leader among the disciples. The next manifestation of which record is +preserved was the final one in Jerusalem, after which Jesus led his +disciples out as far as Bethany and was separated from them, henceforth to +be thought of by them as seated at the right hand of God.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s216"><p><span class="versenum">216.</span> This construction of the story as given in the New Testament does +violence to the accounts in one particular. It holds that Matthew's report +of the meeting of Jesus with the women on their way from the tomb on +Easter morning is to be identified with his meeting with Mary Magdalene. +This can be done only if it is supposed that in the transmission of the +tradition the commission given the women by the angel (Mark xvi. 6f.) +became blended with the message given to Mary by the Lord (John xx. 17), +the result being virtually the same for the religious interest of the +first Christians, while for the historic interest of our days it +constitutes a discrepancy. The difficulty is less on this supposition than +on any other. It is highly significant that the account of the most +indubitable fact in the view of the early Christians is the most difficult +portion of the gospels for the exact harmonist to deal with. This is not +of <a class="newpage" name="page210" id="page210" title="210"></a>serious moment for the historical student. It is rather a warning +against theoretical ideas of inspiration.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s217"><p><span class="versenum">217.</span> The universal acknowledgment that the early Christians firmly +believed in the resurrection of their Lord has made the origin of that +firm conviction a question of primary importance. The simple facts as set +forth in the New Testament serve abundantly to account for the faith of +the early church, but they not only involve a large recognition of the +miraculous, they also contain perplexities for those who do not stumble at +the supernatural; hence there have been many attempts to find other +solutions of the problem. Some of the explanations offered may be +dismissed with a word: for instance, those which, in one form or other, +renew the old charge found in the first gospel, that the disciples stole +the body of Jesus, and then declared that he had risen; and those which +assume that the death of Jesus was apparent only, that he fainted on the +cross, and then the chill of the night air and of the sepulchre served to +revive him, so that in the morning he was able to leave the tomb and +appear to his disciples as one risen from the dead. This apparent-death +theory involves Jesus in an ugly deception, while the theory that the +disciples or any group of them removed the body of Jesus and then gave +currency to the notion that he had risen, builds the greatest ethical and +religious movement known to history on a lie. A slightly different +explanation which was very early suggested was that the Jews themselves, +or perhaps the gardener, had the body removed, and that when Mary found +the tomb empty she let her faith conclude that his absence must be due to +his resurrection.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s218"><p><a class="newpage" name="page211" id="page211" title="211"></a><span class="versenum">218.</span> This last explanation has in recent times been revived in connection +with the so-called vision-hypothesis by Renan and Réville. Mary found the +tomb empty, and being herself of a highly strung nervous nature--she had +been cured by Jesus of seven devils--by thinking about the empty tomb she +soon worked herself into an ecstasy in which her eyes seemed to behold +what her heart desired to see. She communicated her vision to the others, +and by a sort of nervous contagion, they, too, fell to seeing visions, and +it is the report of these that we have in the gospels. The +vision-hypothesis takes with some, Strauss for instance, a different form. +These deny that the tomb was found empty at all, and regard this story as +a contribution of the later legend-making spirit. They hold that the +disciples fled from Jerusalem as soon as the death of Jesus was an assured +fact, and not until after they found themselves amid the familiar scenes +of Galilee, did their faith recover from the shock it had received in +Jerusalem. In Galilee the experiences of their life with Jesus were lived +over again, and the old confidence in him as Messiah revived. Thus +thinking about the Lord, their hearts would say, "He cannot have died," +and after a while their faith rose to the conviction which declared, "He +is not dead;" then they passed into an ecstatic mood and visions followed +which are the germ out of which the gospel stories have grown.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s219"><p><span class="versenum">219.</span> These different forms of the vision-hypothesis have been subjected to +most searching criticism by Keim, who is all the more severe because his +own thought has so much that is akin to them. There are two objections +which refute the hypothesis. The <a class="newpage" name="page212" id="page212" title="212"></a>first is that the uniform tradition +which connects the resurrection and the first appearances with the "third +day" after the crucifixion leaves far too short a time for the recovery of +faith and the growth of ecstatic feeling which are requisite for these +visions, even supposing that the disciples' faith had such recuperative +powers. The second is that once such an ecstatic mood was acquired it +would be according to experience in analogous cases for the visions to +continue, if not to increase, as the thought of the risen Lord grew more +clear and familiar; yet the tradition is uniform that the appearances of +the risen Christ ceased after, at most, a few weeks. The only later one +was that which led to the conversion of Paul; and though Paul was a man +somewhat given to ecstatic experiences (see II. Cor. xii.), he carefully +distinguishes in his own thought his seeing of the Lord and his heavenly +visions. In a word, the disciples of Jesus never showed a more healthy, +normal life than that which gave them strength to found a church of +believers in the resurrection in the face of persecution and scorn.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s220"><p><span class="versenum">220.</span> Keim seeks to avoid the difficulties which his own acute criticism +disclosed in the ordinary vision-theory, by another which rejects the +gospel stories as legendary, yet frankly acknowledges that the faith of +the apostles in the resurrection was based on a miracle. Their certainty +was so unshakable, so uniform, so abiding, that it can be accounted for +only by acknowledging that they did actually see the Lord. This seeing, +however, was not with the eyes of sense, but with the spiritual vision, +which properly perceives what pertains to the spirit world into which the +glorified <a class="newpage" name="page213" id="page213" title="213"></a>Lord had withdrawn when he died. In his spiritual estate he +manifested himself to his disciples, by a series of divinely caused and +therefore essentially objective visions, in which he proved to them +abundantly that he was alive, was victor over death, and had been exalted +by God to his right hand. This theory is not in itself offensive to faith. +It concedes that the belief of the disciples rested on actual disclosures +of himself to them by the glorified Lord. The difficulty with the theory +is that it relegates the empty tomb to the limbo of legend, though it is a +feature of the tradition which is found in all the gospels and clearly +implied in Paul (I. Cor. xv. 4; compare Rom. vi. 4); it also fails to show +how this glorified Christ came to be thought of by the disciples as +<i>risen</i>, rather than simply glorified in spirit. This criticism brings us +back to the necessity of recognizing a resurrection which was in some real +sense corporeal, difficult as that conception is for us. The gospels +assert this with great simplicity and delicate reserve. They represent +Jesus as returning to his disciples with a body which was superior to the +limitations which hedge our lives about. It may be well described by +Paul's words, "It is sown a natural body; it is raised a spiritual body." +Yet the records indicate that when he willed Jesus could offer himself to +the perception of other senses than sight and hearing--"handle me and see" +is not an invitation that we expect from a spiritual presence. If, +however, we have to confess an unsolved mystery here, and still more in +the record of his eating in the presence of the disciples (Luke xxiv. +41-43), it is permitted us to own that our knowledge of the possible +conditions of the fully perfected <a class="newpage" name="page214" id="page214" title="214"></a>life are not such as to warrant great +dogmatism in criticising the account. The empty tomb, the objective +presence of the risen Jesus, the renewed faith of his followers, and their +new power are established data for our thought. With these, many of the +details may be left in mystery, because we have not yet light sufficient +to reveal to us all that we should like to know.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s221"><p><span class="versenum">221.</span> The ascension of the risen Christ to his Father is the presupposition +of all the New Testament teaching. The Acts, the Epistles, and the +Apocalypse join in the representation that he is now at the right hand of +God. In fact it may be said that such a view is involved in the doctrine +of the resurrection, for the very idea of that victory was that death had +no more dominion over him. It is a fact, however, that none of our gospels +in their correct text (see Luke xxiv. 51, R.V. margin) tell of the +ascension. Luke clearly implies it, and John says that Jesus told Mary to +tell the disciples that he was about to ascend to his Father and their +Father. In Luke's later book, however (Acts i. 1-11), he gives a full +a<ins>c</ins>count of a last meeting of Jesus with the disciples, and of +his ascension to heaven before their eyes. This withdrawal in the cloud +must be understood as an acted parable; for, in reality, there is no +reason for thinking that the clouds which hung over Olivet that day were +any nearer God's presence than the ground on which the disciples stood. +For them, however, such a disappearance would signify vividly the +cessation of their earthly intercourse with their Lord, and his return to +his home with the Father. The word of Jesus to Mary (John xx. 17) may +fairly be interpreted to <a class="newpage" name="page215" id="page215" title="215"></a>mean that Jesus had ascended to the Father on +the day of the resurrection, and that each of his subsequent +manifestations of himself were like that which later he granted to Paul +near Damascus. In fact it is easier to view the matter in this way than to +conceive of Jesus as sojourning in some hidden place for forty days after +his resurrection. What the disciples witnessed ten days before Pentecost +was a withdrawal similar to those which had separated him from them +frequently during the recent weeks, only now set before their eyes in such +a way as to tell them that these manifestations had reached an end; they +must henceforth wait for the other representative of God and Christ, the +Spirit, given to them at Pentecost.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s222"><p><span class="versenum">222.</span> The faith with which the disciples waited for the promised spirit was +a very different faith from that which Peter confessed for his fellows at +Cæsarea Philippi. It had the same supreme attachment to a personal friend +who had proved to be God's Anointed; the same readiness to let him lead +whithersoever he would; the same firm expectation of a restitution of all +things, in which God should set up his kingdom visibly, with Jesus as the +King of men. Now, however, their trust was much fuller than before, and +they looked for a still more glorious kingdom when their friend and Lord +should come from heaven to assume his reign. They expected Christ to +return soon in glory, yet his death and victory made them ready to endure +any persecution for him, certain that, like the sufferings which he +endured, it would lead to victory. These disciples had no idea that in +preaching a religion of personal attachment to their Master, in filling +all men's thoughts with his name, in building <a class="newpage" name="page216" id="page216" title="216"></a>all hope on his return, and +guiding all life by his teaching and spirit, they were cutting their +moorings from the religion of their fathers. They remained loyal to the +law, they were constant in the worship; but they had poured new wine into +the bottles, and in time it proved the inadequacy of the old forms and +revolutionized the world's religious life.</p></div> +</div> +</div> + + +<div class="part" id="p03"> +<h2><a class="newpage" name="page217" id="page217" title="217"></a>Part III</h2> + +<h3>The Minister</h3> + +<p><a class="newpage" name="page218" id="page218" title="218"></a></p> + +<div class="chapter" id="p03-01"> +<h2><a class="newpage" name="page219" id="page219" title="219"></a>I</h2> + +<h3>The Friend of Men</h3> + + + +<div class="section" id="s223"><p><span class="versenum">223.</span> In nothing does the contrast between Jesus and John the Baptist +appear more clearly than in their attitude towards common social life. +John had his training and did his work apart from the homes of men. The +wilderness was his chosen and fit scene of labor. From this solitude he +sent forth his summons and warning to his people. They who sought him for +fuller teaching went after him and found him where he was. They then +returned to their homes and their work, leaving the prophet with his few +disciples in their seclusion. With Jesus it was otherwise. His first act, +after attaching to himself a few followers, was to go into Galilee to the +town of Cana, and there with them to partake in the festivities of a +wedding. While it is true that most of his teaching was by the wayside, +among the hills, or by the sea, it is still a surprise to discover how +often his ministry found its occasion as he was sitting at table in the +house of some friend, real or feigned. The genuine friendships of Jesus as +they appear in the gospels are among the most characteristic features of +his life--witness the home at Bethany, the women who followed him even to +the cross, and ministered to him of their substance, and the "beloved +disciple." Jesus calls attention to this contrast between himself and +John, reminding the people <a class="newpage" name="page220" id="page220" title="220"></a>how some of the scornful pointed the finger at +himself as "a gluttonous man and a wine-bibber, a friend of publicans and +sinners." He received his training as a carpenter while John was in his +wilderness solitude. Men who would probably have stood with admiration +before John had he visited their synagogue, found Jesus too much one of +themselves, and would none of him as a prophet (Mark vi. 2, 3).</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s224"><p><span class="versenum">224.</span> A like contrast sets Jesus apart from the scribes of his day. These +were revered by the people, in part perhaps because they held the common +folk in such contempt. Their attitude was frank--"this multitude which +knoweth not the law is accursed" (John vii. 49). The popular enthusiasm +for Jesus filled them with scorn, until it began to give them alarm. They +were glad to be reverenced by the people, to interpret the law for them +"binding heavy burdens and grievous to be borne;" but showed little +genuine interest in them. Jesus, on the other hand, not only had the +reverence of the multitudes, but welcomed them. First his words and his +works drew them, then he himself enchained their hearts. Outcasts, rich +and poor, crowded into his company, and found him not only a teacher, a +prophet of righteousness rebuking their sins and calling to repentance, +but a friend, who was not ashamed to be seen in their homes, to have them +among his closest attendants, and to be known as their champion. It was +when such as these were pressing upon him to hear him that Jesus replied +to the criticism of the scribes in the three parables of recovered +treasure which stand among the rarest gems of the Master's teaching (Luke +xv.).</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s225"><p><a class="newpage" name="page221" id="page221" title="221"></a><span class="versenum">225.</span> One class only in the community failed of his sympathy,--the +self-righteous hypocrites, who thought that godliness consisted in +scrupulous regard for pious ceremonies, and that zeal was most laudable +when directed to the removal of motes from their brothers' eyes. For these +Jesus had words of rebuke and burning scorn. It has been common with some +to emphasize his friendship for the poor as if he chose them for their +poverty, and the unlettered for their ignorance. Yet Jesus had no faster +friends than the women who followed from Galilee and ministered to him of +their substance, and the two sanhedrists, Joseph whose new tomb received +his body, and Nicodemus whose liberality provided the spices which +embalmed him; for these, and not the Galilean fishermen, were faithful to +the last at the cross and at the grave. In no home did Jesus find a fuller +or more welcome friendship than in Bethany, where all that is told us of +its conditions suggests the opposite of poverty. The rich young ruler, who +showed his too great devotion to his possessions, would hardly have sought +out Jesus with his question, if he was known as the champion of poverty as +in itself essential to godliness. The demand made of him surprised him, +and was suited to his special case. Jesus saw clearly the difficulties +which wealth puts in the way of faith, but he recognized the power of God +to overcome them, and when Zaccheus turned disciple, the demand for +complete surrender of possessions was not repeated. On the contrary Jesus +taught his disciples that even "the unrighteous mammon" should be used to +win friends (Luke xvi. 9), so ministering unto some of "the least of these +my brethren" (Matt. xxv. 40). The beatitude <a class="newpage" name="page222" id="page222" title="222"></a>in Luke's report of the +sermon on the mount (Luke vi. 20) was not for the poor as poor simply, but +for those poor folk lightly esteemed who had spiritual sense enough to +follow Jesus, while the well-to-do as a class were content with the +"consolation" already in hand. Jesus' interest was in character, wherever +it was manifest, whether in the repentance of a chief of the publicans, or +in the widow woman's gift of "all her living;" whether it appeared in the +hunger for truth shown by Nicodemus, a teacher of Israel, or in the woman +that was a sinner who washed his feet with her tears. He was the great +revealer of the worth of simple humanity, in man, woman, or child. Our +world has never seen another who so surely penetrated all masks or +disguising circumstances and found the man himself, and having found him +loved him.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s226"><p><span class="versenum">226.</span> This sympathy for simple manhood was manifested in a genuine interest +in the common life of men in business, pleasure, or trouble. It is +significant that the first exercise of his miraculous power should have +been to relieve the embarrassment of his host at a wedding feast. +Doubtless we are to understand that the miracle had a deeper purpose than +simply supplying the needed wine (John ii. 11); but the significant thing +is that Jesus should choose to manifest his glory in this way. It shows a +genuine appreciation of social life quite impossible to an ascetic like +the Baptist. The same appears in the way Jesus allowed his publican +apostle to introduce him to his former associates, to the great scandal of +the Pharisees; for a feast at which Jesus and a number of publicans were +the chief guests accorded not with religion as they understood it. Jesus, +however, seems to have found <a class="newpage" name="page223" id="page223" title="223"></a>it a welcome opportunity to seek some of his +lost sheep. The illustrations which he used in his teaching were often his +best introduction to the common heart, for they were drawn from the +occupations of the people who came to listen; while the aid Jesus gave to +his disciples in their fishing showed not only his power, but also his +respect for their work, a respect further proved when he called them to be +fishers of men.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s227"><p><span class="versenum">227.</span> Beyond this interest in life's joy and its occupations was that +unfailing sympathy with its troubles which drew the multitudes to him. He +was far more than a healer; he studied to rid the people of the idea that +he was a mere miracle-monger. He healed them because he loved them, and he +asked of those who sought his help that they too should feel the personal +relation into which his power had brought them. This seems to be in part +the significance of his uniform demand for faith. Doubtless Mary, out of +whom he had cast seven devils, and Simon the leper, who seems to have +experienced his power to heal, are only single instances of many who found +in him far more than at first they sought. No further record remains of +the paralytic who carried off his bed, but left the burden of his sins +behind, nor of the woman who loved much because she had been forgiven +much, nor of the Samaritan whose life he uncovered that he might be able +to give her the living water. Some who had his help for body or heart may +have gone away forgetful, after the fashion of men, but in the company of +those who were bold to bear his name after his resurrection there must +have been many who could not forget.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s228"><p><a class="newpage" name="page224" id="page224" title="224"></a><span class="versenum">228.</span> Jesus' interest in common life was genuine, and he entered into it +with his heart. The incident of the anointing of his feet as he sat a +guest in a Pharisee's house shows that he was keenly sensitive to the +treatment he received at the hands of men. He had nothing to say of the +slights his host had shown him, until that host began mentally to +criticise the woman who was ministering to him in her love and penitence. +Then with quiet dignity Jesus mentioned the several omissions of courtesy +which he had noticed since he came in, contrasting the woman's attention +with Simon's neglect (Luke vii. 36-50). One of the saddest things about +Gethsemane was Jesus' vain pleading with his disciples for sympathy in his +awful hour. They were too much dazed with awe and fear to lend him their +hearts' support. He recognized indeed that it was only a weakness of the +flesh; yet he craved their friendship's help, and repeatedly asked them to +watch with him, for his soul was exceeding sorrowful. In contrast with +this disappointment stands the joy with which Jesus heard from Peter the +confession which proved that the falling off of popular enthusiasm had not +shaken the loyalty of his chosen companions,--"Blessed art thou, Simon +Bar-Jonah: for flesh and blood have not revealed it unto thee, but my +Father which is in heaven" (Matt. xvi. 17). There is the sorrow of +loneliness as well as rebuke in his complaint, "O faithless generation, +how long shall I be with you? how long shall I bear with you?" (Mark ix. +19), and the lamentation over Jerusalem comes from a longing heart (Luke +xiii. 34).</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s229"><p><span class="versenum">229.</span> The independence of human sympathy which Jesus often showed is all +the more glorious for the <a class="newpage" name="page225" id="page225" title="225"></a>evidence the gospels give of his longing for +it. When he put the question to the twelve, "Would ye also go away?" (John +vi. 67), there is no hint in his manner that their defection with the rest +would turn him at all from faithfully fulfilling the task appointed to him +by his Father. In fact only now and then did he allow his own hunger to +appear. Ordinarily he showed himself as the friend longing to help, but +not seeking ministry from others; he rather sought to win his disciples to +unselfishness by showing as well as saying that he came not to be +ministered unto but to minister. He washed the feet of his disciples to +rebuke their petty jealousies, but we have no hint that he showed that he +felt personal neglect. His own heart was full of "sorrow even unto death," +but his word was, "Let not your heart be troubled;" he asked in vain for +the sympathy of his nearest friends in Gethsemane, yet when the band came +to arrest him he pleaded, "Let these, the disciples, go their way."</p></div> +</div> + + +<div class="chapter" id="p03-02"> +<h2><a class="newpage" name="page226" id="page226" title="226"></a>II</h2> + +<h3>The Teacher with Authority</h3> + + + +<div class="section" id="s230"><p><span class="versenum">230.</span> To his contemporaries Jesus was primarily a teacher. The name by +which he is oftenest named in the gospels is Teacher,--translated Master +in the English versions and the equivalent of Rabbi in the language used +by Jesus (John i. 38). People thought of him as a rabbi approved of God by +his power to work miracles (John iii. 2), but it was not the miracles that +most impressed them. The popular comment was, "He taught them as one +having authority, and not as the scribes" (Matt. vii. 29). Two leading +characteristics of the scribes were their pride of learning, and their +bondage to tradition. In fact the learning of which they were proud was +knowledge of the body of tradition on whose sanctity they insisted; their +teaching was scholastic and pedantic, an endless citing of precedents and +discussion of trifles. To all this Jesus presented a refreshing contrast. +In commending truth to the people, he was content with a simple "verily," +and in defining duty he rested on his unsupported "I say unto you," even +when his dictum stood opposed to that which had been said to them of old +time.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s231"><p><span class="versenum">231.</span> In this freedom from the bondage of tradition Jesus was not alone. +John the Baptist's message had been as simple and unsupported by appeal to +the elders. <a class="newpage" name="page227" id="page227" title="227"></a>Jesus and John both revived the method of the older prophets, +and it is in large measure due to this that the people distinguished them +clearly from their ordinary teachers, and held them both to be prophets. +One thing involved in this authoritative method was a frank appeal to the +conscience of men. So completely had the scribes substituted memory of +tradition for appeal to the simple sense of right, that they were utterly +dazed when Jesus undertook to settle questions of Sabbath observance and +ceremonial cleanliness by asking his hearers to use their religious common +sense, and consider whether a man is not much better than a sheep, or +whether a man is not defiled rather by what comes out of his mouth than by +what enters into it (Matt. xii. 12; Mark vii. 15). Jesus was for his +generation the great discoverer of the conscience, and for all time the +champion of its dignity against finespun theory and traditional practice. +All his teaching has this quality in greater or less degree. It appears +when by means of the parable of the Good Samaritan he makes the lawyer +answer his own question (Luke x. 25-37), when he bids the multitude in +Jerusalem "judge not according to the appearance, but judge righteous +judgment" (John vii. 24), when he asks his inquisitors in the temple whose +image and superscription the coin they used in common business bears (Mark +xii. 16). His whole work in Galilee was proof of his confidence that in +earnest souls the conscience would be his ally, and that he could impress +himself on them far more indelibly than any sign from heaven could enforce +his claim.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s232"><p><span class="versenum">232.</span> Jesus was not only independent of the traditions of the scribes, he +was also very free at times with <a class="newpage" name="page228" id="page228" title="228"></a>the letter of the Old Testament. When by +a word he "made all meats clean" (Mark vii. 19), he set himself against +the permanent validity of the Levitical ritual. When the Pharisees pleaded +Moses for their authority in the matter of divorce, Jesus referred them +back of Moses to the original constitution of mankind (Matt. xix. 3-9). +His general attitude to the Sabbath was not only opposed to the traditions +of the scribes, it also disregarded the Old Testament conception of the +Sabbath as an institution. Yet Jesus took pains to declare that he came +not to set aside the old but to fulfil it (Matt. v. 17). The contrasts +which he draws between things said to them of old and his new teachings +(Matt. v. 21-48) look at first much like a doing away of the old. Jesus +did not so conceive them. He rather thought of them as fresh statements of +the idea which underlay the old; they fulfilled the old by realizing more +fully that which it had set before an earlier generation. He was the most +radical teacher the men of his day could conceive, but his work was +clearing rubbish away from the roots of venerable truth that it might bear +fruit, rather than rooting up the old to put something else in its place.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s233"><p><span class="versenum">233.</span> The Old Testament was for Jesus a holy book. His mind was filled with +its stories and its language. In the teachings which have been preserved +for us he has made use of writings from all parts of the Jewish +scriptures--Law, Prophets, and Psalms. The Old Testament furnished him the +weapons for his own soul's struggle with temptation (Matt. iv. 4, 7, 10), +it gave him arguments for use against his opponents (Mark xii. 24-27; ii. +25-27), and it was for him an inexhaustible storehouse of <a class="newpage" name="page229" id="page229" title="229"></a>illustration in +his teaching. When inquirers sought the way of life he pointed them to the +scriptures (Mark x. 19; see also John v. 39), and declared that the rising +of one from the dead would not avail for the warning of those who were +unmoved by Moses and the prophets (Luke xvi. 31). When Jesus' personal +attitude to the Old Testament is considered it is noticeable that while +his quotations and allusions cover a wide range, and show very general +familiarity with the whole book, there appears a decided predominance of +Deuteronomy, the last part of Isaiah, and the Psalms. It is not difficult +to see that these books are closer in spirit to his own thought than much +else in the old writings; his use of the scripture shows that some parts +appealed to him more than others.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s234"><p><span class="versenum">234.</span> Jesus as a teacher was popular and practical rather than systematic +and theoretical. The freshness of his ideas is proof that he was not +lacking in thorough and orderly thinking, for his complete departure from +current conceptions of the kingdom of God indicates perfect mastery of +ethical and theological truth. It is all the more remarkable, therefore, +that so much of his profoundest teaching seems to have been almost +accidental. The most formal discourse preserved to us is the sermon on the +mount, in which human conduct is regulated by the thought of God as Father +and Searcher of hearts. For the rest the great ideas of Jesus have +utterance in response to specific conditions presented to him in his +ministry. His most radical sayings concerning the Sabbath followed a +criticism of his disciples for plucking ears of grain as they passed +through the fields on the Sabbath day (Mark ii. 23-28); his authority to +forgive sins was announced when a paralytic <a class="newpage" name="page230" id="page230" title="230"></a>was brought to him for +healing (Mark ii. 1-12); so far as the gospels indicate, we should have +missed Jesus' clearest statement of the significance of his own death but +for the ambitious request of James and John (Mark x. 35-45). Examples of +the occasional character of his teaching might be greatly multiplied. He +did not seek to be the founder of a school; important as his teachings +were, they take a place in his work second to his personal influence on +his followers. He desired to win disciples whose faith in him would +withstand all shocks, rather than to train experts who would pass on his +ideas to others. His disciples did become experts, for we owe to them the +vivid presentation we have of the exalted and unique teaching of their +Master; but they were thus skilful because they surrendered themselves to +his personal mastery, and learned to know the springs of his own life and +thought.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s235"><p><span class="versenum">235.</span> Nothing in the teaching of Jesus is more remarkable than his +confidence that men who believed in him would adequately represent him and +his message to the world. The parable of the Leaven seems to have set +forth his own method. We owe our gospels to no injunction given by him to +write down what he said and did. He impressed himself on his followers, +filled them with a love to himself which made them sensitive to his ideas +as a photographic plate is to light, teaching them his truth in forms that +did not at first show any effect on their thought, but were developed into +strength and clearness by the experiences of the passing years. Christian +ethics and theology are far more than an orderly presentation of the +teaching of Jesus; in so far as they are purely Christian they are the +systematic setting forth of truth involved, <a class="newpage" name="page231" id="page231" title="231"></a>though not expressed, in what +he said and did in his ministry among men. His ideas were radical and +thoroughly revolutionary. His method, however, had in it all the patience +of God's working in nature, and the hidden noiseless power of an evolution +is its characteristic. Hence it was that he chose to teach some things +exclusively in figure. So great and unfamiliar a truth as the gradual +development of God's kingdom was unwelcome to the thought of his time. He +made it, therefore, the theme of many of his parables; and although the +disciples did not understand what he meant, the picture remained with +them, and in after years they grew up to his idea.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s236"><p><span class="versenum">236.</span> Jesus' use of illustration is one of the most marked features of his +teaching. In one sense this simply proves him to be a genuine Oriental, +for to contemplate and present abstract truths in concrete form is +characteristic of the Semitic mind. In the case of Jesus, however, it +proves more: the variety and homeliness of his illustrations show how +completely conversant he was alike with common life and with spiritual +truth. There is a freedom and ease about his use of figurative language +which suggests, as nothing else could, his own clear certainty concerning +the things of which he spoke. The fact, too, that his mind dealt so +naturally with the highest thoughts has made his illustrations unique for +profound truth and simple beauty. Nearly the whole range of figurative +speech is represented in his recorded words, including forms like irony +and hyperbole, often held to be unnatural to such serious speech as his.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s237"><p><span class="versenum">237.</span> Another figure has become almost identified with the name of +Jesus,--such abundant and incom<a class="newpage" name="page232" id="page232" title="232"></a>parable use did he make of it. Parable +was, however, no invention of his, for the rabbis of his own and later +times, as well as the sages and prophets who went before them, made use of +it. As distinguished from other forms of illustration, the parable is a +picture true to actual human life, used to enforce a religious truth. The +picture may be drawn in detail, as in the story of the Lost Son (Luke xv. +11-32), or it may be the concisest narration possible, as in the parable +of the Leaven (Matt. xiii. 33); but it always retains its character as a +narrative true to human experience. It is this that gives parable the +peculiar value it has for religious teaching, since it brings unfamiliar +truth close home to every-day life. Like all the illustrations used by +Jesus, the parable was ordinarily chosen as a means of making clear the +spiritual truth which he was presenting. Illustration never finds place as +mere ornament in his addresses. His parables, however, were sometimes used +to baffle the unteachable and critical. Such was the case on the occasion +in Jesus' life when attention is first called in the gospels to this mode +of teaching (Mark iv. 1-34). The parable of the Sower would mean little to +hearers who held the crude and material ideas of the kingdom which +prevailed among Jesus' contemporaries. It was used as an invitation to +consider a great truth, and for teachable disciples was full of suggestion +and meaning; while for the critical curiosity of unfriendly hearers it was +only a pointless story,--a means adopted by Jesus to save his pearls from +being trampled under foot, and perhaps also to prevent too early a +decision against him on the part of his opponents.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s238"><p><span class="versenum">238.</span> In nothing is Jesus' ease in handling deepest <a class="newpage" name="page233" id="page233" title="233"></a>truth more apparent +than in his use of irony and hyperbole in his illustrations. In his +reference to the Pharisees as "ninety and nine just persons which need no +repentance" (Luke xv. 7), and in his question, "Many good works have I +shewed you from the Father, for which of these works do you stone me?" +(John x. 32), the irony is plain, but not any plainer than the rhetorical +exaggeration of his accusation against the scribes, "You strain out a gnat +and swallow a camel" (Matt, xxiii. 24), or his declaration that "it is +easier for a camel to go through a needle's eye than for a rich man to +enter into the kingdom of God" (Mark x. 25), or his charge, "If a man +cometh unto me and hateth not his own father and mother ... he cannot be +my disciple" (Luke xiv. 26). The force of these statements is in their +hyperbole. Only to an interpretation which regards the letter above the +spirit can they cause difficulty. In so far as they remove Jesus utterly +from the pedantic carefulness for words which marked the scribes they are +among the rare treasures of his teachings. The simple spirit will not busy +itself about finding something that may be called a needle's eye through +which a camel can pass by squeezing, nor will it seek a camel which could +conceivably be swallowed, nor will it stumble at a seeming command to hate +those for whom God's law, as emphasized indeed by Jesus (Mark vii. 6-13), +demands peculiar love and honor. The childlike spirit which is heir of +God's kingdom readily understands this warning against the snare of +riches, this rebuke of the hypocritical life, and this demand for a love +for the Master which shall take the first place in the heart.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s239"><p><span class="versenum">239.</span> Jesus sometimes used object lessons as well as <a class="newpage" name="page234" id="page234" title="234"></a>illustrations, and +for the same purpose,--to make his thought transparently clear to his +hearers. The demand for a childlike faith in order to enter the kingdom of +God was enforced by the presence of a little child whom Jesus set in the +midst of the circle to whom he was talking (Mark ix. 35-37). The unworthy +ambitions of the disciples were rebuked by Jesus' taking himself the +menial place and washing their feet (John xiii. 1-15).</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s240"><p><span class="versenum">240.</span> The simplicity and homeliness of Jesus' teaching are not more +remarkable than the alertness of mind which he showed on all occasions. +The comment of the fourth gospel, "he needed not that any one should bear +witness concerning man, for he himself knew what was in man" (ii. 25), +doubtless refers to his supernatural insight, but it also tells of his +quick perception of what was involved in each situation in which he found +himself. Whether it was Nicodemus coming to him by night, or the lawyer +asking, "Who is my neighbor?" or a dissatisfied heir demanding that his +brother divide the inheritance with him, or a group of Pharisees seeking +to undermine his power by attributing his cures to the devil, or trying to +entrap him by a question about tribute, Jesus was never caught unawares. +His absorption in heavenly truth was not accompanied by any blindness to +earthly facts. He knew what the men of his day were thinking about, what +they hoped for, to what follies they gave their hearts, and what sins hid +God from them. He was eminently a man of the people, thoroughly acquainted +with all that interested his fellows, and in the most natural, human way. +Whatever of the supernatural there was in his knowledge did not make it +unnatural. <a class="newpage" name="page235" id="page235" title="235"></a>As he was socially at ease with the best and most cultivated +of his day, so he was intellectually the master of every situation. This +appears nowhere more strikingly than in his dealing with his pharisaic +critics. When they were shocked by his forgiveness of sins, or offended by +his indifference to the Sabbath tradition, or goaded into blasphemy by his +growing influence over the people, or troubled by his disciples' disregard +of the traditional washings, or when later they conspired to entrap him in +his speech,--from first to last he was so manifestly superior to his +opponents that they withdrew discomfited, until at length they in madness +killed, without reason, him against whom they could find no adequate +charge. His lack of "learning" (John vii. 15) was simply his innocence of +rabbinic training; he had no diploma from their schools. In keenness of +argument, however, and invincibleness of reasoning, as well as in the +clearness of his insight, he was ever their unapproachable superior. His +reply to the charge of league with Beelzebub is as merciless an exposure +of feeble malice as can be found in human literature. He was as worthy to +be Master of his disciples' thinking as he was to be Lord of their hearts.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s241"><p><span class="versenum">241.</span> In the teaching of Jesus two topics have the leading place,--the +Kingdom of God, and Himself. His thought about himself calls for separate +consideration, but it may be remarked here that as his ministry progressed +he spoke with increasing frankness about his own claims. It became more +and more apparent that he sought to be Lord rather than Teacher simply, +and to impress men with himself rather than with his ideas. Yet his ideas +were constantly urged on his disciples, and they were summed up in his +conception <a class="newpage" name="page236" id="page236" title="236"></a>of the kingdom of God, or the kingdom of heaven. This was the +topic, directly or indirectly, of far the greater part of his teaching. +The phrase was as familiar to his contemporaries as it is common in his +words; but his understanding of it was radically different from theirs. He +and they took it to mean the realization on earth of heavenly conditions +(kingdom of heaven), or of God's actual sovereignty over the world +(kingdom of God); but of the God whose will was thus to be realized they +conceived quite differently. Strictly speaking there is nothing novel in +the idea of God as Father which abounds in the teaching of Jesus. He never +offers it as novel, but takes it for granted that his hearers are familiar +with the name. It appears in some earlier writers both in and out of the +Old Testament. Yet no one of them uses it as constantly, as naturally, and +as confidently as did Jesus. With him it was the simple equivalent of his +idea of God, and it was central for his personal religious life as well as +for his teaching. "My Father" always lies back of references in his +teaching to "your Father." This is the key to what is novel in Jesus' idea +of the kingdom of God. His contemporaries thought of God as the covenant +king of Israel who would in his own time make good his promises, rid his +people of their foes, set them on high among the nations, establish his +law in their hearts, and rule over them as their king. The whole +conception, while in a real sense religious, was concerned more with the +nation than with individuals, and looked rather for temporal blessings +than for spiritual good. With Jesus the kingdom is the realization of +God's fatherly sway over the hearts of his children. It begins when men +come to own God as their Father, and <a class="newpage" name="page237" id="page237" title="237"></a>seek to do his will for the love +they bear him. It shows development towards its full manifestation when +men as children of God look on each other as brothers, and govern conduct +by love which will no more limit itself to friends than God shuts off his +sunlight from sinners. From this love to God and men it will grow into a +new order of things in which God's will shall be done as it is in heaven, +even as from the little leaven the whole lump is leavened. Jesus did not +set aside the idea of a judgment, but while his fellows commonly made it +the inauguration, he made it the consummation of the kingdom; they thought +of it as the day of confusion for apostates and Gentiles, he taught that +it would be the day of condemnation of all unbrotherliness (Matt. xxv. +31-46). This central idea--a new order of life in which men have come to +love and obey God as their Father, and to love and live for men as their +brothers--attaches to itself naturally all the various phases of the +teaching of Jesus, including his emphasis on himself; for he made that +emphasis in order that, as the Way, the Truth, and the Life, he might lead +men unto the Father.</p></div> +</div> + + +<div class="chapter" id="p03-03"> +<h2><a class="newpage" name="page238" id="page238" title="238"></a>III</h2> + +<h3>Jesus' Knowledge of Truth</h3> + + + +<div class="section" id="s242"><p><span class="versenum">242.</span> The note of authority in the teaching of Jesus is evidence of his own +clear knowledge of the things of which he spoke. As if by swift intuition, +his mind penetrated to the heart of things. In the scriptures he saw the +underlying truth which should stand till heaven and earth shall pass +(Matt. v. 18); in the ceremonies of his people's religion he saw so +clearly the spiritual significance that he did not hesitate to sacrifice +the passing form (Mark vii. 14-23); such a theological development as the +pharisaic doctrine of the resurrection he unhesitatingly adopted because +he saw that it was based on the ultimate significance of the soul's +fellowship with God (Mark xiii. 24-27); he reduced religion and ethics to +simplicity by summing up all commandments in one,--Thou shalt love (Matt. +xxii. 37-40); and at the same time insisted as no other prophet had done +on the finality of conduct and the necessity of obedience (Matt. vii. +21-27). His penetration to the heart of an idea was nowhere more clear +than in his doctrine of the kingdom of God as realized in the filial soul, +and as involving a judgment which should take cognizance only of +brotherliness of conduct. It would not be difficult to show that all these +different aspects of his teaching grew naturally out of <a class="newpage" name="page239" id="page239" title="239"></a>his knowledge of +God as his Father and the Father of all men; they were the fruit, +therefore, of personal certainty of ultimate and all-dominating truth.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s243"><p><span class="versenum">243.</span> If the knowledge of Jesus had been shown only in matters of spiritual +truth, it would still have marked him as one apart from ordinary men. +There were other directions, however, in which he surpassed the common +mind. The fourth gospel declares that "he knew what was in man" (ii. 25), +and all the evangelists give evidence of such knowledge. Not only the +designation of Judas as the traitor, and of Peter as the one who should +deny him, before their weakness and sin had shown themselves, but also +Jesus' quick reading of the heart of the paralytic who was brought to him +for healing, and of the woman who washed his feet with her tears (Mark ii. +5; Luke vii. 47), and his knowledge of the character of Simon and +Nathanael (John i. 42, 47,) as well as his sure perception of the intent +of the various questioners whom he met, indicate that he had powers of +insight unshared by his fellow men.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s244"><p><span class="versenum">244.</span> Furthermore, the gospels state explicitly that Jesus predicted his +own death from a time at least six months before the end (Matt. xvi. 21), +and they indicate that the idea was not new to him when he first +communicated it to his disciples (Matt. xvi. 23; Mark ii. 20). He viewed +his approaching death, moreover, as a necessity (Mark viii. 31-33), yet he +was no fatalist concerning it. He could still in Gethsemane plead with his +Father, to whom all things are possible, to open to him some other way of +accomplishing his work (Mark xiv. 36). The old Testament picture of the +suffering and dying servant of Jehovah (Isa. liii.) <a class="newpage" name="page240" id="page240" title="240"></a>was doubtless +familiar to Jesus. Although it was not interpreted Messianically by the +scribes, Jesus probably applied it to himself when thinking of his death; +yet the predictions of the prophets always provided for a non-fulfilment +in case Israel should turn unto the Lord in truth (see Ezek. xxxiii. +10-20). Moreover, the contradiction which Jesus felt between his ideas and +those cherished by the leaders of his people, whether priests or scribes, +was so radical that his death might well seem inevitable; yet it was +possible that his people might repent, and Jerusalem consent to accept him +as God's anointed. Neither prophecy, nor the actual conditions of his +life, therefore, would give Jesus any fatalistic certainty of his coming +death. In Gethsemane his heart pleaded against it, while his will bowed +still to God in perfect loyalty. It is not for us to explain his +prediction of death by appealing to the connection which the apostolic +thought established between the death of Christ and the salvation of men, +for we are not competent to say that God could not have effected +redemption in some other way if the repentance of the Jews had, humanly +speaking, removed from Jesus the necessity of death. All that can be said +is that he knew the prophetic picture, knew also the hardness of heart +which had taken possession of the Jews, and knew that he must not swerve +from his course of obedience to what he saw to be God's will for him. +Since that obedience brought him into fatal opposition to human prejudice +and passion, he saw that he must die, and that such a death was one of the +steps in his establishment of God's kingdom among men. So he went on his +way ready "not to be ministered unto but to <a class="newpage" name="page241" id="page241" title="241"></a>minister, and to give his +life a ransom for many" (Mark x. 45).</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s245"><p><span class="versenum">245.</span> With his prediction of his death the gospels usually associate a +prophecy of his speedy resurrection. As has been already remarked (sect. +210), it is being generally recognized that if Jesus believed that he was +the Messiah, he must have associated with the thought of death that of +victory over death, which for all Jewish minds meant a resurrection from +the dead. Jesus certainly taught that his death was part of his Messianic +work, it could not therefore be his end. The prediction of the +resurrection is the necessary corollary of his expectation of death; and +it may reverently be believed that his knowledge of it was intimately +involved with his certainty that it was as Messiah that he was to die.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s246"><p><span class="versenum">246.</span> From the time when he began to tell his disciples that he must die, +Jesus began also to teach that his earthly ministry was not to finish his +work, but that he should return in glory from heaven to realize fully all +that was involved in the idea of God's kingdom. His predictions resemble +in form the representations found in the Book of Daniel and the Book of +Enoch; and the understanding of them is involved in difficulties like +those which beset such apocalyptic writings. In general, apocalypses were +written in times of great distress for God's people, and represented the +deliverance which should usher in God's kingdom as near at hand. One +feature of them is a complete lack of perspective in the picture of the +future. It may be that this fact will in part account for one great +perplexity in the apocalyptic sayings of Jesus. In the chief of these +(Mark xiii. and parallels), <a class="newpage" name="page242" id="page242" title="242"></a>predictions of the destruction of Jerusalem +are so mingled with promises of his own second coming and the end of all +things that many have sought to resolve the difficulty by separating the +discourse into two different ones,--one a short Jewish apocalypse +predicting the destruction of Jerusalem and the coming of the Son of Man +within the life of that generation; the other, Jesus' own prediction of +the end of all things, concerning which he warns his disciples that they +be not deceived, but watch diligently and patiently for God's full +salvation. The difficulties of this discourse as it stands are so great +that any solution which accounts for all the facts must be welcomed. So +far as this analysis seeks to remove from the account of Jesus' own words +the references to a fulfilment of the predictions within the life of that +generation, it is confronted by other sayings of Jesus (Mark ix. 1) and by +the problem of the uniform belief of the apostolic age that he would +speedily return. That belief must have had some ground. What more natural +than that words of Jesus, rightly or wrongly understood, led to the common +Christian expectation? Some such analysis may yet establish itself as the +true solution of the difficulties; it may be, however, that in adopting +the apocalyptic form of discourse, Jesus also adopted its lack of +perspective, and spoke coincidently of future events in the progress of +the kingdom, which, in their complete realization at least, were widely +separated in time. In such a case it would not be strange if the disciples +looked for the fulfilment of all of the predictions within the limit +assigned for the accomplishment of some of them.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s247"><p><span class="versenum">247.</span> Whatever the explanation of these difficulties, <a class="newpage" name="page243" id="page243" title="243"></a>the gospels clearly +represent Jesus as predicting his own return in glory to establish his +kingdom,--a crowning evidence of his claim to supernatural knowledge. It +is all the more significant, therefore, that it is in connection with his +prediction of his future coming that he made the most definite declaration +of his own ignorance: "Of that day or that hour knoweth no one, not even +the angels in heaven, neither the Son, but the Father" (Mark xiii. 32). +This confession of the limitation of his knowledge is conclusive. Yet it +is not isolated. With his undoubted power to read "what was in man," he +was not independent of ordinary ways of learning facts. When the woman was +healed who touched the hem of his garment, Jesus knew that his power had +been exercised, but he discovered the object of his healing by asking, +"Who touched me?" and calling the woman out from the crowd to acknowledge +her blessing (Mark v. 30-34); when the centurion urged Jesus to heal his +boy without taking the trouble to come to his house, Jesus "marvelled" at +his faith (Matt. viii. 10); when he came to Bethany, assured of his +Father's answer to his prayer for the raising of Lazarus, he asked as +simply as any other one in the company, "Where have ye laid him?" (John +xi. 34). It should not be forgotten that his knowledge of approaching +death, resurrection, and return in glory did not prevent the earnest +pleading in Gethsemane, and it may be that his reply to the ambition of +James and John, it "is not mine to give" (Mark x. 40), is a confession of +ignorance as well as subordination to his Father.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s248"><p><span class="versenum">248.</span> The supernatural knowledge of Jesus, so far as its exercise is +apparent in the gospels, was concerned with the truths intimately related +to his reli<a class="newpage" name="page244" id="page244" title="244"></a>gious teaching or his Messianic work. There is no evidence +that it occupied itself at all with facts of nature or of history +discovered by others at a later day. When he says of God that "he maketh +his sun to rise on the evil and the good" (Matt. v. 45), there is no +evidence that he thought of the earth and its relation to the sun +differently from his contemporaries; it is probable that his thought +anticipated Galileo's discovery no more than do his words. Much the same +may be said with reference to the purely literary or historical questions +of Old Testament criticism, now so much discussed. If it is proved by just +interpretation of all the facts that the Pentateuch is only in an ideal +sense to be attributed to Moses, and that many of the psalms inscribed +with his name cannot have been written by David, the propriety of Jesus' +references to what "Moses said" (Mark vii. 10), and the validity of his +argument for the relative unimportance of the Davidic descent of the +Messiah, will not suffer. Had Jesus had in mind the ultimate facts +concerning the literary structure of the Pentateuch, he could not have +hoped to hold the attention of his hearers upon the religious teaching he +was seeking to enforce, unless he referred to the early books of the Old +Testament as written by Moses. Jesus did repeatedly go back of Moses to +more primitive origins (Mark x. 5, 6; John vii. 22); yet there is no +likelihood that the literary question was ever present in his thinking. +This phase of his intellectual life, like that which concerned his +knowledge of the natural universe, was in all probability one of the +points in which he was made like unto his brethren, sharing, as matter of +course, their views on questions that were indif<a class="newpage" name="page245" id="page245" title="245"></a>ferent for the spiritual +mission he came to fulfil. If this was the case, his argument from the one +hundred and tenth Psalm (Mark xii. 35-37) would simply give evidence that +he accepted the views of his time concerning the Psalm, and proceeded to +use it to correct other views of his time concerning what was of most +importance in the doctrine of the Messiah. The last of these was of vital +importance for his teaching; the first was for this teaching quite as +indifferent a matter as the relations of the earth and the sun in the +solar system.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s249"><p><span class="versenum">249.</span> A more perplexing difficulty arises from his handling of the cases of +so-called demoniac possession. He certainly treated these invalids as if +they were actually under the control of demons: he rebuked, banished, gave +commands to the demons, and in this way wrought his cures upon the +possessed. It has already been remarked that the symptoms shown in the +cases cured by Jesus can be duplicated from cases of hysteria, epilepsy, +or insanity, which have come under modern medical examination. Three +questions then arise concerning his treatment of the possessed. 1. Did he +unquestioningly share the interpretation which his contemporaries put upon +the symptoms, and simply bring relief by his miraculous power? 2. Did he +know that those whom he healed were not afflicted by evil spirits, and +accommodate himself in his cures to their notions? 3. Does he prove by his +treatment that the unfortunates actually were being tormented by +diabolical agencies, which he banished by his word? The last of these +possibilities should not be held to be impossible until much more is known +than we now know about <a class="newpage" name="page246" id="page246" title="246"></a>the mysterious phenomena of abnormal psychical +states. If this is the explanation of the maladies for Jesus' day, +however, it should be accepted also as the explanation of similar abnormal +symptoms when they appear in our modern life, for the old hypothesis of a +special activity of evil spirits at the time of the incarnation is +inadequate to account for the fact that in some quarters similar maladies +have been similarly explained from the earliest times until the present +day. If, however, he knew his people to be in error in ascribing these +afflictions to diabolical influence, he need have felt no call to correct +it. If the disease had been the direct effect of such a delusion, Jesus +would have encouraged the error by accommodating himself to the popular +notion. The idea of possession, however, was only an attempt to explain +very real distress. Jesus desired to cure, not to inform his patients. The +notion in no way interfered with his turning the thought of those he +healed towards God, the centre of help and of health. He is not open, +therefore, to the charge of having failed to free men from the thraldom of +superstition if he accommodated himself to their belief concerning +demoniac possession. His cure, and his infusion of true thoughts of God +into the heart, furnished an antidote to superstition more efficacious +than any amount of discussion of the truth or falseness of the current +explanation of the disease. On the other hand, if we are not ready to +conclude that the action of Jesus has demonstrated the validity of the +ancient explanation, we may acknowledge that it would do no violence to +his power, or dignity, or integrity, if it should be held that he did not +concern himself with an inquiry into the cause <a class="newpage" name="page247" id="page247" title="247"></a>of the disease which +presented itself to him for help, but adopted unquestioningly the +explanation held by all his contemporaries, even as he used their +language, dress, manner of life, and in one particular, at least, their +representation of the life after death (Luke xvi. 22--Abraham's bosom). +His own confession of ignorance of a large item of religious knowledge +(Mark xiii. 32) leaves open the possibility that in so minor a matter as +the explanation of a common disease he simply shared the ideas of his +time. In this case, when one so afflicted came under his treatment, he +applied his supernatural power, even as in cases of leprosy or fever, and +cured the trouble, needing no scientific knowledge of its cause. If +accommodation or ignorance led Jesus to treat these sick folk as +possessed, it does not challenge his integrity nor his trustworthiness in +all the matters which belong properly to his own peculiar work.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s250"><p><span class="versenum">250.</span> There is one incident in the gospels which favors the conclusion that +Jesus definitely adopted the current idea,--the permission granted by him +to the demons to go from the Gadarene into the herd of swine, and the +consequent drowning of the herd (Mark v. 11-13). On any theory this +incident is full of difficulty. Bernhard Weiss (LXt II. 226 ff.) holds +that Jesus accommodated himself to current views, and that the man, having +received for the possessing demons permission to go into the swine, was at +once seized by a final paroxysm, and rushed among the swine, stampeding +them so that they ran down the hillside into the sea.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s251"><p><span class="versenum">251.</span> In recent years the view has been somewhat widely advocated that his +power over demoniacs was <a class="newpage" name="page248" id="page248" title="248"></a>to Jesus himself one of the chief proofs of his +Messiahship. His words are quoted: "If I, by the Spirit of God, cast out +demons, then is the kingdom of God come upon you" (Matt. xii. 28); and "I +beheld Satan falling as lightning from heaven" (Luke x. 18). The first of +these is in the midst of an <i>ad hominem</i> reply of Jesus to the charge that +he owed his power to a league with the devil (Matt. xii. 28); and the +second was his remark when the seventy reported with joy that the demons +were subject unto them (Luke x. 18). The gospels, however, trace his +certainty of his Messiahship to quite other causes, primarily to his +knowledge of himself as God's child, then to the Voice which, coming at +the baptism, summoned him as God's beloved Son to do the work of the +Messiah. Throughout his ministry Jesus exhibits a certainty of his mission +quite independent of external evidences,--"Even if I bear witness of +myself, my witness is true; for I know whence I came and whither I go" +(John viii. 14).</p></div> +</div> + + +<div class="chapter" id="p03-04"> +<h2><a class="newpage" name="page249" id="page249" title="249"></a>IV</h2> + +<h3>Jesus' Conception of Himself</h3> + + + +<div class="section" id="s252"><p><span class="versenum">252.</span> When Jesus called forth the confession of Peter at Cæsarea Philippi +he brought into prominence the question which during the earlier stages of +the Galilean ministry he had studiously kept in the background. This is no +indication, however, that he was late in reaching a conclusion for himself +concerning his relation to the kingdom which he was preaching. From the +time of his baptism and temptation every manifestation of the inner facts +of his life shows unhesitating confidence in the reality of his call and +in his understanding of his mission. This is the case whether the fourth +gospel or the first three be appealed to for evidence. It is generally +felt that the Gospel of John presents its sharpest contrast to the +synoptic gospels in respect of the development of Jesus' self-disclosures. +A careful consideration of the first three gospels, however, shows that +the difference is not in Jesus' thought about himself.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s253"><p><span class="versenum">253.</span> The first thing which impressed the people during the ministry in +Galilee was Jesus' assumption of authority, whether in teaching or in +action (Mark i. 27; Matt. vii. 28, 29). His method of teaching +distinguished him sharply from the scribes, who were constantly appealing +to the opinion of the elders to establish the validity of their +conclusions. Jesus <a class="newpage" name="page250" id="page250" title="250"></a>taught with a simple "I say unto you." In this, +however, he differed not only from the scribes, but also from the +prophets, to whom in many ways he bore so strong a likeness. They +proclaimed their messages with the sanction of a "Thus saith the Lord;" he +did not hesitate to oppose the letter of scripture as well as the +tradition of the elders with his unsupported word (Matt. v. 38, 39; Mark +vii. 1-23). His teaching revealed his unhesitating certainty concerning +spiritual truth, and although he reverenced deeply the Jewish scriptures, +and knew that his work was the fulfilment of their promises, he used them +always as one whose superiority to God's earlier messengers was as +complete as his reverence for them. He was confident that what they +suggested of truth he was able to declare clearly; he used them as a +master does his tools.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s254"><p><span class="versenum">254.</span> More striking than Jesus' independence in his teaching is the +calmness of his self-assertion when he was opposed by pharisaic criticism +and hostility. He preferred to teach the truth of the kingdom, working his +cures in such a way that men should think about God's goodness rather than +their healer's significance. Yet coincidently with this method of his +choice he did not hesitate to reply to pharisaic opposition with +unqualified self-assertion and exalted personal claim. Even if the +conflicts which Mark has gathered together at the opening of his gospel +(ii. 1 to iii. 6) did not all occur as early as he has placed them, the +nucleus of the group belongs to the early time. Since the people greatly +reverenced his critics, he felt it unnecessary to guard against arousing +undue enthusiasm by this frank avowal of his claims. He <a class="newpage" name="page251" id="page251" title="251"></a>consequently +asserted his authority to forgive sins, his special mission to the sick in +soul whom the scribes shunned as defiling, his right to modify the +conception of Sabbath observance; even as, later, he warned his critics of +their fearful danger if they ascribed his good deeds to diabolical power +(Mark iii. 28-30), and as, after the collapse of popularity, he rebuked +them for making void the word of God by their tradition (Mark vii. 13). +His attitude to the scribes in Galilee from the beginning discloses as +definite Messianic claims as any ascribed by the fourth gospel to this +early period.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s255"><p><span class="versenum">255.</span> These facts of the independence of Jesus in his teaching and his +self-assertion in response to criticism confirm the impression that his +answer to John the Baptist (Matt. xi. 2-6) gives the key to his method in +Galilee. In John's inquiry the question of Jesus' personal relation to the +kingdom was definitely asked. The answer, "Blessed is he whosoever shall +find none occasion of stumbling in me," showed plainly that Jesus was in +no doubt in the matter, although for the time he still preferred to let +his ministry be the means of leading men to form their conclusions +concerning him. What he brought into prominence at Cæsarea Philippi, +therefore, was that which had been the familiar subject of his own +thinking from the time of his baptism.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s256"><p><span class="versenum">256.</span> In the ministry subsequent to the confession of Peter the +self-disclosures of Jesus became more frequent and clear. His predictions +of his approaching death were at the time the greatest difficulty to his +disciples; when considered in their significance for his own life, +however, they prove that his conviction of his Messiahship was as +independent of current <a class="newpage" name="page252" id="page252" title="252"></a>and inherited ideas as was his teaching concerning +the kingdom. When he came to see that death was the inevitable issue of +his work, he at once discovered in it a divine necessity; it does not seem +to have shaken in the least his certainty that he was the Messiah. +Associated with this conception of his death is the conviction which +appears in all the later teachings, that in rejecting him his people were +pronouncing their own doom. Because she would not accept him as her +deliverer, Jerusalem's "house was left unto her desolate" (Luke xiii. 35). +His sense of his supreme significance appears most clearly in some of the +later parables, such as The Marriage of the King's Son (Matt. xxii. 1-14) +and The Wicked Husbandmen (Matt. xxi. 33-44), which definitely connect the +condemnation of the chosen people with their rejection of God's Son. Two +other sayings in the first three gospels express the personal claim of +Jesus in the most exalted form,--his declaration on the return of the +seventy: "All things have been delivered unto me of my Father, and no man +knoweth who the Son is save the Father, and who the Father is save the +Son, and he to whomsoever the Son willeth to reveal him" (Luke x. 22; +Matt. xi. 27); and his confession of the limits of his own knowledge: "But +of that day and hour knoweth no one, not even the angels in heaven, +neither the Son, but the Father" (Mark xiii. 32). The confession of +ignorance, by the position given to the Son in the climax which denied +that any save the Father had a knowledge of the time of the end, is quite +as extraordinary as the claim to sole qualification to reveal the Father.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s257"><p><span class="versenum">257.</span> The similarity of these last two sayings to the <a class="newpage" name="page253" id="page253" title="253"></a>discourses in the +fourth gospel has often been remarked; the likeness is particularly close +between them and the claims of Jesus recorded in the fifth chapter of +John. It is interesting to note that in the incident which introduces the +discourse in that chapter Jesus shows that he preferred, after healing the +man at the pool, to avoid the attention of the multitudes, precisely as in +Galilee he sought to check too great popular excitement by withdrawing +from Capernaum after his first ministry there (Mark i. 35-39), and +enjoining silence on the leper who had been healed by him (Mark ii. 44). +When, however, he found himself opposed by the criticism of the Pharisees +he spoke with unhesitating self-assertion and exalted personal claim, even +as he did in like situations in Galilee. During his earlier ministry in +Judea he had not shown this reserve. The cleansing of the temple, although +it was no more than any prophet sure of his divine commission would have +done, was a bold challenge to the people to consider who he was who +ventured thus to criticise the priestly administration of God's house. In +his subsequent dealings with Nicodemus and the Samaritan woman Jesus +manifested a like readiness to draw attention to himself. From the time of +the feeding of the multitudes all four of the gospels represent him as +asserting his claims, with this difference, however, that in John it is +the rule rather than the exception to find sayings similar to the two in +which the self-assertion in the other gospels reaches its highest +expression. Although the method of Jesus varied at different times and in +different localities, yet it is evident that he stood before the people +from the first with the consciousness that he had the right to claim +<a class="newpage" name="page254" id="page254" title="254"></a>their allegiance as no one of the prophets who preceded him would have +been bold to do.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s258"><p><span class="versenum">258.</span> During the course of his ministry Jesus used of himself, or suffered +others to use with reference to him, many of the titles by which his +people were accustomed to refer to the Messiah. Thus he was named "the +Messiah" (Mark viii. 29; xiv. 61; John iv. 26); "the King of the Jews" +(Mark xv. 2; John i. 49; xviii. 33, 36, 37); "the Son of David" (Mark x. +47, 48; Matt. xv. 22; xxi. 9, 15); "the Holy One of God" (John vi. 69; +compare Mark i. 24); "the Prophet" (John vi. 14; vii. 40). It is evident +that none of these titles was common; they represent, rather, the bold +venture of more or less intelligent faith on the part of men who were +impressed by him. There are two names, however, that are more significant +of Jesus' thought about himself,--"the Son of God" and "the Son of Man."</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s259"><p><span class="versenum">259.</span> The latter of these titles is unique in the use Jesus made of it. +Excepting Stephen's speech (Acts vii. 56), it is found in the New +Testament only in the sayings of Jesus, and its precise significance is +still a subject of learned debate. The expression is found in the Old +Testament as a poetical equivalent for Man, usually with emphasis on human +frailty (Ps. viii. 4; Num. xxiii. 19; Isa. li. 12), though sometimes it +signifies special dignity (Ps. lxxx. 17). Ezekiel was regularly addressed +in his visions as Son of Man (Ezek. ii. 1 and often; see also Dan. viii. +17), probably in contrast with the divine majesty.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s260"><p><span class="versenum">260.</span> In one of Daniel's visions (vii. 1-14) the world-kingdoms which had +oppressed God's people and were to be destroyed were symbolized by beasts +<a class="newpage" name="page255" id="page255" title="255"></a>that came up out of the sea,--a winged lion, a bear, a four-headed winged +leopard, and a terrible ten-horned beast; in contrast with these the +kingdom of the saints of the Most High was represented by "one like unto a +son of man," who came with the clouds of heaven (vii. 13, 14). Here the +language is obviously poetic, and is used to suggest the unapproachable +superiority of the kingdom of heaven to the kingdoms of the world. The +expression "one like unto a son of man" is equivalent, therefore, to "one +resembling mankind." The vision in Daniel had great influence over the +author of the so-called Similitudes of Enoch (Book of Enoch, chapters +xxxvii. to lxxi.). He, however, personified the "one like unto a son of +man," and gave the title "the Son of Man" to the heavenly man who will +come at the end of all things, seated on God's throne, to judge the world. +This author used also the titles "the Elect One" and "the Righteous One" +(or "the Holy One of God"), but "the Son of Man" is the prevalent name for +the Messiah in these Similitudes.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s261"><p><span class="versenum">261.</span> The facts thus stated do not account for Jesus' use of the +expression. Many of his sayings undoubtedly suggest a development of the +Daniel vision resembling that in the Similitudes. This does not prove that +Jesus or his disciples had read these writings, though it does suggest the +possibility that they knew them. It is probable, however, that the +apocalypses gave formulated expression to thoughts that were more widely +current than those writings ever came to be. The likeness between the +language of Jesus and that found in the Similitudes may therefore prove no +more than that the Daniel vision <a class="newpage" name="page256" id="page256" title="256"></a>was more or less commonly interpreted of +a personal Messiah in Jesus' day.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s262"><p><span class="versenum">262.</span> Much of the use of the title by Jesus, however, is completely foreign +to the ideas suggested by Enoch and Daniel. Besides apocalyptic sayings +like those in Enoch (Mark viii. 38 and often), the name occurs in +predictions of his sufferings and death (Mark viii. 31 and often), and in +claims to extraordinary if not essentially divine authority (Mark ii. 10, +28 and parallels); it is also used sometimes simply as an emphatic "I" +(Matt. xi. 19 and often). Whatever relation Jesus bore to the Enoch +writings, therefore, the name "the Son of Man" as he used it was his own +creation.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s263"><p><span class="versenum">263.</span> Students of Aramaic have in recent years asserted that it was not +customary in the dialect which Jesus spoke to make distinction between +"the son of man" and "man," since the expression commonly used for "man" +would be literally translated "son of man." It is asserted, moreover, that +if our gospels be read substituting "man" for "the Son of Man" wherever it +appears, it will be found that many supposed Messianic claims become +general statements of Jesus' conception of the high prerogatives of man, +while in other places the name stands simply as an emphatic substitute for +the personal pronoun. Thus, for instance, Jesus is found to assert that +authority on earth to forgive sins belongs to man (Mark ii. 10), and, +toward the end of his course, to have taught simply that he himself must +meet with suffering (Mark viii. 31), and will come on the clouds to judge +the world (Mark viii. 38). The proportion of cases in which the general +reference is possible is, <a class="newpage" name="page257" id="page257" title="257"></a>however, very small; and even if the +equivalence of "man" and "son of man" should be established, most of the +statements of Jesus in which our gospels use the latter expression exhibit +a conception of himself which challenges attention, transcending that +which would be tolerated in any other man. The debate concerning the usage +in the language spoken by Jesus is not yet closed, however, and Dr. Gustaf +Dalman (WJ I. 191-197) has recently argued that the equivalence of the two +expressions holds only in poetic passages, precisely as it does in Hebrew, +and that our gospels represent correctly a distinction observed by Jesus +when they report him, for instance, as saying in one sentence, "the +Sabbath was made for man" (Mark ii. 27), and in the next, "the Son of Man +is lord even of the Sabbath." The antecedent probability is so great that +the dialect of Jesus' time would be capable of expressing a distinction +found in the Hebrew of the Old Testament and in the Syriac of the +second-century version of the New Testament, that Dalman's opinion carries +much weight.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s264"><p><span class="versenum">264.</span> Many of those who look for a distinct significance in the title "the +Son of Man," find in it a claim by Jesus to be the ideal or typical man, +in whom humanity has found its highest expression. It thus stands sharply +in contrast with "the Son of God," which is held to express his claim to +divinity. So understood, the titles represent truth early recognized by +the church in its thought about its Lord. Yet it must be acknowledged that +the conception "the ideal man" is too Hellenic to have been at home in the +thought of those to whom Jesus addressed his teaching. If the phrase +suggested anything more to his <a class="newpage" name="page258" id="page258" title="258"></a>hearers than the human frailty or the +human dignity of him who bore it, it probably had a Messianic meaning like +that found in the Similitudes of Enoch. A hint of this understanding of +the name appears in the perplexed question reported in John (xii. 34): "We +have heard out of the law that the Messiah abideth forever; and how sayest +thou, The Son of Man must be lifted up? who is this Son of Man?" Here the +difficulty arose because the people identified the Son of Man with the +Messiah, yet could not conceive how such a Messiah could die. In fact, if +the conception of the Son of Man which is found in Enoch had obtained any +general currency among the people, either from that book or independently +of it, it was so foreign to the earthly condition and manner of life of +the Galilean prophet, that it would not have occurred to his hearers to +treat his use of the title as a Messianic claim until after that claim had +been published in some other and more definite form. Their Son of Man was +to come with the clouds of heaven, seated on God's throne, to execute +judgment on all sinners and apostates; the Nazarene fulfilled none of +these conditions. The name, as used by Jesus, was probably always an +enigma to the people, at least until he openly declared its Messianic +significance in his reply to the high-priest's question at his trial (Mark +xiv. 62), and gave the council the ground it desired for a charge of +blasphemy against him.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s265"><p><span class="versenum">265.</span> What did this title signify to Jesus? His use of it alone can furnish +answer, and in this the variety is so great that it causes perplexity. +"The Son of Man came eating and drinking" is his description of his own +life in contrast with John the Baptist <a class="newpage" name="page259" id="page259" title="259"></a>(Matt. xi. 18, 19). "The Son of +Man hath not where to lay his head" was his reply to one over-zealous +follower (Matt. viii. 20). Unseemly rivalry among his disciples was +rebuked by the reminder that "even the Son of Man came not to be +ministered unto but to minister" (Mark x. 42-45). When it became needful +to prepare the disciples for his approaching death he taught them that +"the Son of Man must suffer many things ... and be killed, and after three +days rise again" (Mark viii. 31). On the other hand, the paralytic's cure +was made to demonstrate that "the Son of Man hath authority upon the earth +to forgive sins" (Mark ii. 10). Similarly it is the Son of Man who after +his exaltation shall come "in the glory of his Father with the holy +angels" (Mark viii. 38). In these typical cases the title expresses Jesus' +consciousness of heavenly authority as well as self-sacrificing ministry, +of coming exaltation as well as present lowliness; and the suffering and +death which were the common lot of other sons of men were appointed for +this Son of Man by a divine necessity. The name is, therefore, more than a +substitute for the personal pronoun; it expresses Jesus' consciousness of +a mission that set him apart from the rest of men.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s266"><p><span class="versenum">266.</span> We do not know how Jesus came to adopt this title. Its association +with the predictions of his coming glory shows that he knew that in him +the Daniel vision was to have fulfilment. The predictions of suffering and +death, however, are completely foreign to that apocalyptic conception, +being akin rather, as Professor Charles has suggested, to the prophecies +of the suffering servant in the Book of Isaiah (Book of Enoch, p. +314-317). Moreover, it may not be fanci<a class="newpage" name="page260" id="page260" title="260"></a>ful to find in his claims to +heavenly authority a hint of the thought of the eighth Psalm, "Thou madest +him to have dominion over the works of thy hands; thou hast put all things +under his feet" (see Dalman WJ I. 218). Although the name expresses a +consciousness of dignity, vicarious ministry, and authority, similar to +thoughts found in Daniel, Isaiah, and the Psalms, it was not deduced from +these scriptures by any synthesis of diverse ideas. It rather indicates +that Jesus in his own nature realized a synthesis which no amount of study +of scripture would ever have suggested. He drew his conception of himself +from his own self-knowledge, not from his Messianic meditations. On his +lips, then, "the Son of Man" indicates that he knew himself to be the Man +whom God had chosen to be Lord over all (compare Dalman as above). The +lowly estate which contradicted the Daniel vision prevented Jesus' hearers +from recognizing in the title a Messianic claim; for him, however, it was +the expression of the very heart of his Messianic consciousness.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s267"><p><span class="versenum">267.</span> If Jesus gave expression to his official consciousness when he used +the name "the Son of Man," the title "the Son of God" may be said to +express his more personal thought about himself. It is necessary to +distinguish between the meaning of this title to the contemporaries of +Jesus and his own conception of it. In the popular thought "the Son of +God" was the designation of that man whom God would at length raise up and +crown with dignity and power for the deliverance of his people. This +meaning followed from the Messianic interpretation of the second Psalm, in +which the theocratic king is called God's son (Ps. <a class="newpage" name="page261" id="page261" title="261"></a>ii. 7). In another +psalm, which Jesus himself quotes (John x. 34), magistrates and judges are +called "sons of the Most High" (lxxxii. 6). Another Old Testament use +casts light on this,--the designation of Israel as God's son, his +firstborn (Ex. iv. 22; Hos. i. 10), with which may be compared a +remarkable expression in the so-called Psalms of Solomon (xviii. 4), "Thy +chastisement was upon us [that is, Israel] as upon a son, firstborn, only +begotten." In all these passages that which constitutes a man the son of +God is God's choice of him for a special work, while Israel collectively +bears the title to suggest God's fatherly love for the people he had taken +for his own. The Messianic title, therefore, described not a metaphysical, +but an official or ethical, relation to God. It is certainly in this sense +that the high-priest asked Jesus "Art thou the Messiah the son of the +Blessed?" (Mark xiv. 61), and that the crowd about the cross flung their +taunts at him (Matt, xxvii. 43), and the demoniacs proclaimed their +knowledge of him (Mark iii. 11; v. 7). The name must be interpreted in +this sense also in the confession of Nathanael (John i. 49); moreover, it +was not the coupling of the names "Messiah" and "son of the living God" in +Peter's confession that gave it its great significance for Jesus. In all +of these cases there is no evidence that there has been any advance over +the theocratic significance which made the title "the Son of God" fitting +for the man chosen by God for the fulfilment of his promises.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s268"><p><span class="versenum">268.</span> The case is different with the name by which Jesus was called at his +baptism (Mark i. 11). The difference here, however, arises not from +anything in the name as used on this occasion, but from that in <a class="newpage" name="page262" id="page262" title="262"></a>Jesus +which acknowledged and accepted the title. With Jesus the consciousness +that God was his Father preceded the knowledge that as "his Son" he was to +undertake the work of the Messiah. The force of the call at the baptism is +found in the response which his own soul gave to the word "Thou art my +Son." The nature of that response is seen in his habitual reference to God +as in a peculiar sense <i>his</i> Father. The name "Father" for God was used by +him in all his teaching, and there is no evidence that he or any of his +hearers regarded it as a novelty. Psalm ciii. 13 and Isaiah lxiii. 16 +indicate that the conception was natural to Jewish thinking. The unique +feature in Jesus' usage is his careful distinction between the general +references to "your Father" and his constant personal allusions to "my +Father." Witness the reply to his mother in the temple (Luke ii. 49); his +word to Peter, "Flesh and blood hath not revealed it unto thee, but my +Father which is in heaven" (Matt. xvi. 17), his solemn warning, "Not every +one that saith unto me Lord, Lord, shall enter into the kingdom of heaven, +but he that doeth the will of my Father which is in heaven" (Matt. vii. +21), and the promise, "Every one who shall confess me before men ... him +will I also confess before my Father" (Matt. x. 32). In the fourth gospel +the same intimate reference is common: so, for example, the temple is "my +Father's house" (ii. 16), the Sabbath cure is defended because "my Father +worketh even until now" (v. 17), the cures are done "in My Father's name" +(x. 25), "I am the vine, and my Father is the husbandman" (xv. 1). This +mode of expression discloses a consciousness of unique filial relation to +God which is independent of, even as <a class="newpage" name="page263" id="page263" title="263"></a>it was antecedent to, the +consciousness of official relation.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s269"><p><span class="versenum">269.</span> The full name "the Son of God" was seldom applied by Jesus to +himself, the only recorded instances being found in the fourth gospel (v. +25; ix. 35?; x. 36; xi. 4). He frequently acquiesced in the use of the +title by others in addressing him (for example, John i. 49; Matt. xvi. 16; +xxvi. 63f.; Mark xiv. 61f.; Luke xxii. 70); but for himself he preferred +the simpler phrase "the Son." This mode of expression occurs often in +John, and is found also in the two passages, already noticed, in which the +other gospels give clearest expression to the extraordinary self-assertion +of Jesus (Matt. xi. 27; Luke x. 22; and Mark xiii. 32). In the first of +them his claim to be the only one who can adequately reveal God is founded +on the consciousness that the relation between himself and God is so +intimate that God alone adequately knows him, whom men were so ready to +set at nought, and he alone knows God. This relation, in which he and God +stand together in contrast with all other men, is expressed by the +unqualified names, "the Father" and "the Son." In the second passage Jesus +confessed the limitation of his knowledge, but again in such a way as to +set himself and God in contrast not only with men, but also with "the +angels in heaven." Such assertions as these indicate that he who, knowing +his full humanity, chose the title "the Son of Man" to express his +consciousness that he had been appointed by God to be the Messiah, was yet +aware in his inner heart that his relation to God was even closer than +that in which he stood to men.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s270"><p><span class="versenum">270.</span> There is no word in John which goes beyond <a class="newpage" name="page264" id="page264" title="264"></a>the two self-declarations +of Jesus which crown the record of the other evangelists, yet in the +fourth gospel the same claim to unique relation to God is more frequently +and frankly avowed. The most unqualified assertion of intimacy--"I and the +Father are one" (x. 30)--states what is clearly implied throughout the +gospel (so xiv. 6-11; xvi. 25; and particularly xvii. 21, "that they may +be one, even as we are one"). It has often been said, and truly, that this +claim to unity with the Father, taken by itself, signifies no more than +perfect spiritual and ethical harmony with God. Yet when the words are +considered in their connection, and more particularly when the two supreme +self-declarations in the synoptic gospels are associated with them, they +express a sense of relation to God so utterly unique, so strongly +contrasting the Father and the Son with all others, that we cannot +conceive of any other man, even the saintliest, taking like words upon his +lips.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s271"><p><span class="versenum">271.</span> These titles in which Jesus gave expression to his official and his +personal consciousness present clearly the problem which he offers to +human thought. Jesus stands before us in the gospels as a man aware of +completest kinship with his brethren, yet conscious at the same time of +standing nearer to God than he does to men.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s272"><p><span class="versenum">272.</span> It is highly significant that the gospel which records most fully the +claim of Jesus to be more closely related to God than he was to men, most +fully records also his definite acknowledgment of dependence on his +Father, and of that Father's supremacy over him and all others. "The Son +can do nothing of himself" (John v. 19), "I speak not from myself" <a class="newpage" name="page265" id="page265" title="265"></a>(xiv. +10), "my Father is greater than all" (x. 29), "the Father is greater than +I" (xiv. 28),--these confessions join with the common reference to God as +"him that sent me" (v. 30 and often) in giving voice to his own spirit of +reverence. It appears as clearly in his habitual submission to his +Father's will,--"My meat is to do the will of him that sent me, and to +accomplish his work" (John iv. 34); "I am come down from heaven, not to do +mine own will, but the will of him that sent me" (John vi. 38). This +submission reached its fulness in the prayer of Gethsemane, recorded in +the earlier gospels,--"Father, all things are possible unto thee; remove +this cup from me: howbeit not what I will, but what thou wilt" (Mark xiv. +36). Jesus was a man of prayer; not only in Gethsemane, but also +throughout his ministry he habitually sought his Father in that communion +in which the soul of man finds its light and strength for life's duty. +When he was baptized (Luke iii. 21), after the first flush of success in +Capernaum (Mark i. 35), before choosing the twelve (Luke vi. 12), before +the question at Cæsarea Philippi (Luke ix. 18), at the transfiguration +(Luke ix. 29), on the cross (Luke xxiii. 46),--at all the crises of his +life he turned to God in prayer. Moreover, prayer was his habit, for it +was after a night of prayer which has no connection with any crisis +reported for us (Luke xi. 1), that he taught his disciples the Lord's +prayer in response to their requests. The prayer beside the grave of +Lazarus (John xi. 41, 42) suggests that his miracles were often, if not +always (compare Mark ix. 29), preceded by definite prayer to God. His +habit of prayer was the natural expression of his trust in God. From the +<a class="newpage" name="page266" id="page266" title="266"></a>resistance to the temptations in the wilderness to the last cry, "Father, +into thy hands I commend my spirit," his life is an example of childlike +faith in God.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s273"><p><span class="versenum">273.</span> Yet throughout his life of obedience and trust Jesus never gave one +indication that he felt the need of penitence when he came before God. He +perceived as no one else has ever done the searching inwardness of God's +law, and demanded of men that they tolerate no lower ambition than to be +like God, yet he never breathed a sigh of conscious failure, or gave sign +that he blushed when the eternal light shone into his own soul. He was +baptized, but without confession of sin. He challenged his enemies to +convict him of sin (John viii. 46). Such a challenge might have rested on +a man's certainty that his critics did not know his inner life; but +hypocrisy has no place in the character of Jesus. The reply to the rich +young ruler, "Why callest thou me good?" (Mark x. 18), even if it was a +confession that freedom from past sin was still far less than that +absolute goodness that God alone possesses, simply sets in stronger light +his silence concerning personal failure, and his omission in all his +praying to seek forgiveness. It is probable, however, that that reply +deals not with the "good" as the "ethically perfect," but as the +"supremely beneficent," so that Jesus simply reminded the seeker after +life that God alone is the one to be approached as the Gracious and +Merciful One by sinful men (see Dalman WJ I. 277). Thus the reply becomes +a fresh expression of the reverence of Jesus, and still further emphasizes +his failure to confess his sinfulness.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s274"><p><span class="versenum">274.</span> In all this thought about himself Jesus stands <a class="newpage" name="page267" id="page267" title="267"></a>before us as a man, +conscious of his close kinship with his fellows. Like them he hungered and +thirsted and grew weary, like them he longed for friendship and for +sympathy, like them he trusted God and prayed to God and learned still to +trust when his request was denied. He stands before us also as a man +conscious of being anointed by God for the great work which all the +prophets had foretold, and of being fully equipped with authority and +power and the promise of unapproachable dignity. Of deep religious spirit +and great reverence for the scriptures of his people, he yet used these +scriptures as a master does his tools, to serve his work rather than to +instruct him in it. He drew his knowledge from within and from above, and +proclaimed his own fulfilment of the scriptures when he filled them with +new meaning. A man always devout, always at prayer, he is never seen, like +Isaiah, prostrate before the Most High, crying, "I am undone" (Isa. vi. +5). In his moments of greatest seriousness and most manifest communion +with heaven he looked to God as his nearest of kin, and felt himself a +stranger on the earth fulfilling his Father's will. He felt heaven to be +his home not simply by God's gracious promise, but by the right of +previous possession. His kinship with men was a condescension, his natural +fellowship was with God.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s275"><p><span class="versenum">275.</span> The miracles with which the gospels have filled the record of Jesus' +life have caused perplexity to many, and they belong with other mysterious +things recorded for us in the story of the past or occurring under the +incredulous observation of our scientific generation. They all pale, +however, before the unaccountable exception presented to universal human +<a class="newpage" name="page268" id="page268" title="268"></a>experience by this Man of Nazareth. It confronts us when we think of the +unschooled Jew who, in his thought of God, rose not only above all of his +generation, but higher than all who had gone before him, or have come +after, one who built on the foundation of the past a superstructure of +religion new, and simple, and clearly heavenly. It confronts us when we +think of this Man who believed that it was given to him to establish the +kingdom that should fill the whole earth, and who had the boldness and the +faith to ignore the opposition of all the world's wisdom and of all its +enthroned power, and to fulfil his task as the woman does who hides her +leaven in the meal, content to wait for years, or millenniums, until his +truth shall conquer in the realization of God's will on earth even as it +is done in heaven. It confronts us when we consider that the Man who has +shown his brethren what obedience means, who has taught them to pray, who +has been for all these centuries the Way, the Truth, the Life, by whom +they come to God, habitually claimed without shadow of abashment or +slightest hint of conscious presumption, a nature, a relation to God, a +freedom from sin, that other men according to the measure of their +godliness would shun as blasphemy. If the personal claim was true, and not +the blind pretence of vanity, the Jesus of the gospels is the exception to +the uniform fact of human nature, but he is no longer unaccountable; and +if his claim was true, his knowledge of the absolute religion, and his +choice of the irresistible propaganda, are no less extraordinary, but they +are not unaccountable. Paul, whose life was transformed and his thinking +revolutionized by his meeting with the risen Jesus, thought on these +things <a class="newpage" name="page269" id="page269" title="269"></a>and believed that "the name which, is above every name" was his by +right of nature as well as by the reward of obedience (Phil. ii. 5-11). +John, who leaned on Jesus' breast during his earthly life, and who +meditated on the meaning of that life through a ministry of many decades, +came to believe that he whom he had seen with his eyes, heard with his +ears, handled with his hands, was, indeed, "the Word made flesh" (John i. +14), through whom the very God revealed his love to men. Through all the +perplexities of doubt, amidst all the obscurings of irrelevant +speculations, the hearts of men to-day turn to this Jesus of Nazareth as +their supreme revelation of God, and find in him "the Master of their +thinking and the Lord of their lives."</p> + +<p>"Lord, to whom shall we go? Thou hast the words of eternal life. And we +have believed and know that thou art the Holy One of God."</p></div> +<p><a class="newpage" name="page270" id="page270" title="270"></a></p> +</div></div> + + +<div id="appendix"> +<h2><a class="newpage" name="page271" id="page271" title="271"></a><a class="newpage" name="page272" id="page272" title="272"></a><a class="newpage" name="page273" id="page273" title="273"></a>Appendix</h2> + +<h3>Books of Reference on the Life of Jesus</h3> + + + +<div class="section" id="a001"><p><span class="versenum">1.</span> A concise account of the voluminous literature on this subject maybe +found at the close of the article JESUS CHRIST by Zockler in +<i>Schaff-Herzog, Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge</i>. Of the earlier of +the modern works it is well to mention David Friedrich Strauss, <i>Das Leben +Jesu</i> (2 vols. 1835), in which he sought to reduce all the gospel miracles +to myths. August Neander, <i>Das Leben Jesu Christi</i>, 1837, wrote in +opposition to the attitude taken by Strauss. Both of these works have been +translated into English. Ernst Renan, <i>Vie de Jésus</i> (1863, 16th ed. +1879), translated, <i>The Life of Jesus</i> (1863), is a charming, though often +superficial and patronizing, presentation of the subject. For vivid word +pictures of scenes in the life of Jesus his book is unsurpassed. Renan's +inability to appreciate the more serious aspects of the work of Christ +appears constantly, while his effort to discover romance in the life of +Jesus is offensive. More important than any of these is Theodor Keim, +<i>Geschichte Jesu von Nazara</i> (1867-72, 3 vols.), translated, <i>The History +of Jesus of Nazara</i> (1876-81, 6 vols.). The author rejects the fourth +gospel and holds that Matthew is the most primitive of the synoptic +gospels; he does not reject the supernatural as such, but reduces it as +much as possible by recognizing a legendary element in the gospels. When +the work is read with these peculiarities in mind, it is one of the most +stimulating and spiritually illuminating treatments of the subject.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a002"><p><span class="versenum">2.</span> Critically more trustworthy, and exegetically very valuable, is +Bernhard Weiss, <i>Das Leben Jesu</i> (3d ed. 1889, 2 vols.), translated from +the first ed., <i>The Life of Christ</i> (1883, 3 vols.). It is more helpful +for correct understanding of details than for a complete view of the Life +of Jesus. Rivalling Weiss in many ways, yet neither so exact nor so +trustworthy, though more interesting, is Willibald Beyschlag, <i>Das Leben +Jesu</i> (3d ed. 1893, 2 vols.). The most important discussion in English is +Alfred Edersheim, <i>The Life and Times of Jesus the Messiah</i> (1883 and +later editions, 2 vols.). This is valuable for its illustration of +conditions in Palestine in the time of Jesus by quotations from the +rabbinic literature. The material used is enormous, but is not always +treated with due criticism, and the book should be read with the fact in +mind that most of the rabbinic writings date from several centuries after +Christ. Schürer (see below) should be used wherever possible as a +counter-balance. Dr. Edersheim follows the gospel story in detail; his +book is, therefore, a commentary as well as a biography.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a003"><p><span class="versenum">3.</span> Albert Réville, <i>Jesus de Nazareth</i> (1897, 2 vols.), aims to bring the +work of Renan up to date, and to supply some of the lacks which are felt +in the earlier treatise. The book is pretentious and learned. In some +parts, as in the treatment of the youth of Jesus, and of the sermon on the +mount, it is helpfully suggestive. The Jesus whom the author admires, +however, is the Jesus of Galilee. The journey to Jerusalem was a sad +mistake, and the assumption of the Messianic rôle a fall from the high +ideal maintained in the teaching in Galilee. In criticism M. Réville +accepts the two document synoptic theory, and assigns the fourth gospel to +about 140 A.D. He rejects the supernatural, explaining many of the +miracles as legendary embellishments of actual events.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a004"><p><span class="versenum">4.</span> The most important treatment of the subject is the article JESUS CHRIST +by William Sanday in the <i>Hastings Bible Dictionary</i> (1899). It is of the +highest value, discussing the subject topically with great clearness and +with <a class="newpage" name="page275" id="page275" title="275"></a>a rare combination of learning and common sense. S. T. Andrews, <i>The +Life of Our Lord</i> (2d ed. 1892), is a thorough and very useful study of +the gospels, considering minutely all questions of chronology, harmony, +and geography. It presents the different views with fairness, and offers +conservative conclusions. G. H. Gilbert, <i>The Student's Life of Jesus</i> +(1896), is complete in plan and careful in treatment, while being very +concise. Dr. Gilbert faces the problems of the subject frankly, and his +treatment is scholarly and reverent. James Stalker, <i>The Life of Jesus +Christ</i> (1880), is a short work whose value lies in the good conception +which it gives of the ministry of Jesus viewed as a whole. In simplicity, +insight, and clearness the book is a classic, though now somewhat out of +date. <i>Studies in the Life of Christ</i>, by A.M. Fairbairn (1882), is of +great value for the topics considered. The title indicates that the +treatment is fragmentary. The long treatises of Farrar (1875, 2 vols.) and +Geikie (1877, 2 vols.) are useful as commentaries on the words and works +of Jesus. Farrar often interprets most helpfully the essence of an +incident, and Geikie furnishes a mass of illustrative material from +rabbinic sources, though with less criticism than even Edersheim has used. +Neither of these works, however, deals with the fundamental problems of +the composition of the gospels, nor are they satisfactory on other +perplexing questions, for example, the miraculous birth.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a005"><p><span class="versenum">5.</span> The most important accessory for the study of the life of Jesus is Emil +Schürer, <i>Geschichte des Jüdischen Volkes im Zeitalter Jesu Christi</i> (2d +ed. 1886, 1890, 2 vols. A 3d ed. of 2d part in 2 vols., 1898), translated, +<i>A History of the Jewish People in the Time of Jesus Christ</i> (1885-6, 5 +vols.). The political history of the Jews from 175 B.C. to 135 A.D., and +the intellectual and religious life of the times in which Jesus lived, +with the Jewish literature of Palestine and the dispersion, are all +treated with thoroughness and masterful learning. W. Baldensperger, <i>Das +Selbstbewusstsein Jesu im Lichte der messianischen <a class="newpage" name="page276" id="page276" title="276"></a>Hoffnungen seiner +Zeit</i> (2d ed. 1892), furnishes in the first part a survey of the Messianic +hopes of the Jews which is in many respects the most satisfactory account +that is accessible. The second part discusses the problem of Jesus' +conception of himself in a reverent and learned way. George Adam Smith, +<i>The Historical Geography of the Holy Land</i> (1894), is indispensable for +the study of the physical features of the land as they bear on its +history, and on the work of Jesus. The maps are the best that have yet +appeared.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a006"><p><span class="versenum">6.</span> Discussions of the Teaching of Jesus in works on Biblical Theology have +much that is important for the study of Jesus' life. The most significant +is H. H. Wendt, <i>Die Lehre Jesu</i> (1886, 2 vols.). The second volume has +been translated <i>The Teaching of Jesus</i> (1892, 2 vols.); the first volume +of the original work is an elaborate discussion of the sources, and has +not been done into English. Reference may be made especially to H. J. +Holtzmann, <i>Lehrbuch der Neutestamentlichen Theologie</i> (1897, 2 vols.), +and also to G. H. Gilbert, <i>The Revelation of Jesus</i> (1899). Gustaf +Dalman, <i>Die Worte Jesu</i> (1898), of which the first volume only has +appeared, is a study of the meaning of the most significant expressions +used in the gospel records of the teaching of Jesus, made with the aid of +thorough knowledge of Aramaic usage and of the language of post-canonical +Jewish literature.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a007"><p><span class="versenum">7.</span> A good synopsis or Harmony of the gospels is most useful. The best +<i>Harmony is</i> that of Stevens and Burton (1894), which exhibits the +divergencies of the parallel accounts in the gospels as faithfully as the +agreements. A good synopsis of the Greek text of the first three gospels +is Huck, <i>Synapse</i> (1892). Robinson's <i>Greek Harmony of the Gospels</i>, +edited by M. B. Biddle, using Tischendorf's text, has also valuable notes +discussing questions of harmony.</p></div> + + + +<div class="section" id="abbreviations"> +<h4><a class="newpage" name="page277" id="page277" title="277"></a>Abbreviations</h4> + + + +<table summary="Abbreviations"> +<tr><td>AndLOL</td><td> Andrews, The Life of Our Lord, 2d ed., 1892.</td></tr> +<tr><td>BaldSJ</td><td> Baldensperger, Das Selbstbewusstsein Jesu, 2d ed., 1892.</td></tr> +<tr><td>BeysLJ</td><td> Beyschlag, Das Leben Jesu, 3d ed., 2 vols., 1893.</td></tr> +<tr><td>BovonNTTh</td><td> Bovon, Théologie du Nouveau Testament, 1892.</td></tr> +<tr><td>DalmanWJ</td><td> Dalman, Die Worte Jesu, I., 1898.</td></tr> +<tr><td>EdersLJM</td><td> Edersheim, The Life and Times of Jesus the Messiah, 2 vols., + 1883.</td></tr> +<tr><td>FairbSLX</td><td> Fairbairn, Studies in the Life of Christ, 1882.</td></tr> +<tr><td>GilbertLJ</td><td> Gilbert, The Student's Life of Jesus, 1896.</td></tr> +<tr><td>GilbertRJ</td><td> Gilbert, The Revelation of Jesus, 1899.</td></tr> +<tr><td>HoltzNtTh</td><td> Holtzmann, Neutestamentliche Theologie, 2 vols., 1897.</td></tr> +<tr><td>KeimJN</td><td> Keim, The History of Jesus of Nazara, 6 vols., 1876-81.</td></tr> +<tr><td>RévilleJN</td><td> Réville, Jésus de Nazareth, 2 vols., 1897.</td></tr> +<tr><td>SandayHastBD</td><td> Sanday, the article JESUS CHRIST in the Hastings Bible + Dictionary, 1899.</td></tr> +<tr><td>SchürerJPTX</td><td> Schürer, The History of the Jewish People in the Time of + Jesus Christ, 1885-86. Division I. vols. i. and ii.; Division + II. vols. i., ii., and iii.</td></tr> +<tr><td>SmithHGHL</td><td> Smith, Historical Geography of the Holy Land, 1894.</td></tr> +<tr><td>SB</td><td> Stevens and Burton, Harmony of the Gospels, 1894.</td></tr> +<tr><td>WeissLX</td><td> Weiss, The Life of Christ, 3 vols., 1883.</td></tr> +<tr><td>WendtLJ</td><td> Wendt, Die Lehre Jesu, 2 vols., 1886.</td></tr> +<tr><td>WendtTJ</td><td> Wendt, The Teaching of Jesus, 2 vols., 1892.</td></tr> +<tr><td>EnBib</td><td> Encyclopedia Biblica, 1899.</td></tr> +<tr><td>HastBD</td><td> Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible, 1898.</td></tr> +<tr><td>SBD<sup>2</sup></td><td> Smith's Dictionary of the Bible, revision of the first volume + of the original English edition, 1893.</td></tr> +</table> +</div> + + + +<h2><a class="newpage" name="page278" id="page278" title="278"></a>References</h2> + + + +<h3>Part I.--Preparatory</h3> + + +<h4>I</h4> + +<h5>The Historical Situation</h5> + +<div class="section" id="a008"><p><span class="versenum">8.</span> Read SandayHastBD II. 604-609. On the Land, its physical +characteristics, its political divisions, its climate, its roads, and its +varying civilization, SmithHGHL is unsurpassed. Its identifications of +disputed localities are cautions. Robinson, <i>Biblical Researches in +Palestine</i>, and Thomson, <i>The Land and the Book</i>, give fuller detail +concerning particular localities, but no such general view as Smith.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a009"><p><span class="versenum">9.</span> On Political conditions, SchürerJPTX I. i. and ii. is the fullest and +most trustworthy treatise. More concise essays are Oscar Holtzmann, <i>Nt. +Zeitgeschichte</i> (1895), 57-118; S. Mathews, <i>History of NT Times in +Palestine</i> (1899), 1-158; Riggs, <i>Maccabean and Roman Periods of Jewish +History</i> (1900), especially §§ 206-234, 257-267, 276-282. On the Religious +Life and Parties in Palestine, SchürerJPTX II. i. and ii.; O. Holtzmann, +<i>NtZeitg</i>, 136-177; Mathews, <i>NT Times</i>, see index; Riggs, <i>Mac. and Rom. +Periods</i>, §§ 235-256; Muirhead, <i>The Times of Christ</i> (1898), 69-150. In +addition Wellhausen, <i>Die Pharisdäer und die Sadducäer</i> (1874); on the +<i>Essenes</i>, Conybeare in HastBD I. 767-772, also Lightfoot, <i>Colossians</i>, +80-98, 347-419; Wellhausen, <i>Isr. u. jüd. Geschichte</i><sup>3</sup> (1897), 258-262; +on the Samaritans, A. Cowley, in <i>Expos</i>. V. i. 161-174; Jew. Quar. Rev. +VIII. (1896) 562-575.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a010"><p><a class="newpage" name="page279" id="page279" title="279"></a><span class="versenum">10.</span> On the Messianic hope, SchürerJPTX II. ii. 126-187; BaldSJ 3-122; +Muirhead, <i>Times of Xt.</i>, 112-150; Briggs, <i>Messiah of the Gospels</i> +(1894), 1-40; WendtTJ I. 33-84; Mathews, <i>NT Times</i>, 159-169; Riggs, <i>Mac. +and Rom. Periods</i>, §§ 251-256.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a011"><p><span class="versenum">11.</span> On the language of Palestine see Arnold Meyer, <i>Jesu Muttersprache</i> +(1896); DalmanWJ I. 1-57; SchürerJPTX II. i. 8-10, 47-51; Neubauer, +<i>Studia Biblica</i>, I. 39-74.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a012"><p><span class="versenum">12.</span> On Jewish literature dating near the times of Jesus see SchürerJPTX +II. iii.; BaldSJ. 3-122; EdersLJM I. 31-39; Deane, <i>Pseudepigrapha</i> +(1891); Thomson, <i>Books which influenced our Lord</i>, etc. (1891); and +special editions, such as Alexandre, <i>Sibylline Oracles</i> (1869); Deane, +<i>The Wisdom of Solomon</i> (1881); Charles, <i>The Book of Enoch</i> (1893), <i>The +Apocalypse of Baruch</i> (1896), <i>The Assumption of Moses</i> (1897), and <i>The +Book of Jubilees</i> (1895); Charles and Morfill, <i>The Secrets of Enoch</i> +(1896); Ryle and James, <i>The Psalms of the Pharisees</i> [Psalms of Solomon] +(1891); Bensly and James, <i>Fourth Esdras</i> (1895); Charles, EnBib I. +213-250; HastBD I. 109f.; Porter, HastBD I. 110-123; James, EnBib I. +249-261.</p></div> + + +<h4>II</h4> + +<h5>The Sources</h5> + +<div class="section" id="a013"><p><span class="versenum">13.</span> On the sources outside the gospels see Anthony, <i>Introduction to the +Life of Jesus</i>, 19-108; KeimJN I. 12-59; BeysLJ I. 59-72; GilbertLJ 74-78; +Knowling, <i>Witness of the Epistles</i>; Stevens, <i>Pauline Theol</i>. 204-208; +Sabatier, <i>Apostle Paul</i>, 76-85. On Josephus as a source see also +SchürerJPTX I. ii. 143-149; RévilleJN I. 272-280. On the individual +gospels see Burton, <i>The Purpose and Plan of the Four Gospels</i> (Univ. +Chic. Press, 1900); Bruce, <i>With Open Face</i>, 1-61; Weiss, <i>Introduction to +N.T.</i>, II. 239-386; Jülicher, <i>Einleitung i. d. NT</i>, 189-207. On Matthew, +<a class="newpage" name="page280" id="page280" title="280"></a>Burton Bib. Wld. I. 1898, 37-44, 91-101; on Mark, Swete, <i>Comm. on Mark</i>, +ix-lxxxix; on Luke, Plummer, <i>Comm. on Luke</i>, xi-lxx; Mathews, Bib. Wld. +1895, I. 336-342, 448-455; on John, Burton, Bib. Wld. 1899, I. 16-41, +102-105; Westcott, <i>Comm. on John</i>, v-lxxvii; Rhees in Abbott's <i>The Bible +as Literature</i>, 281-297. On the synoptic question see Sanday SBD<sup>2</sup>, +1217-1243, and Expositor, Feb.-June, 1891; Woods, <i>Studia Biblica</i>, II. +59-104; Salmon, <i>Introduction</i><sup>7</sup>, 99-151, 570-581; Stanton in HastBD II. +234-243; Jülicher, <i>Einl.</i> 207-227. A. Wright, <i>Composition of the Four +Gospels</i> (1890) and <i>Some NT Problems</i> (1898), defends the oral tradition +theory in a modified form. On possible dislocations in John see Spitta, +<i>Urchristentum</i>, I. 157-204; Bacon, Jour. Bib. Lit. 1894, 64-76; Burton, +Bib. Wld. 1899, I. 27-35. For the history of opinion see specially H. J. +Holtzmann, <i>Einl.</i><sup>3</sup> 340-375. On the Johannine question see Sanday, +Expositor, Nov. 1891-May 1892; Schürer, Cont. Rev. Sept. 1891; Watkins +SBD<sup>2</sup> 1739-1764; Burton, Bib. Wld. 1899, I. 16-41; Reynolds in HastBD II. +694-722; Zahn, <i>Einl.</i> II. 445-564 (defends Johannine authorship); +Jülicher, <i>Einl.</i> 238-250 (rejects Johannine authorship). For the history +of opinion see Watkins, <i>Bampton Lecture</i> for 1890; Holtzmann, <i>Einl.</i><sup>3</sup> +433-438. P. Ewald, <i>Hauptproblem der evang. Frage</i>, argues the +authenticity of the fourth gospel from the one-sidedness of the synoptic +story. See also Jour. Bib. Lit. 1898, I. 87-102.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a014"><p><span class="versenum">14.</span> Réville proposes to reconstruct Jos. Ant. xviii. 3. 3 thus: "'At that +time appeared Jesus, a wise man, who did astonishing things. That is why a +good number of Jews and also of Greeks attached themselves to him.' Then +follows some phrase probably signifying that these adherents had committed +the error of proclaiming him Christ, and then 'denounced by the leading +men of the nation, this Jesus was condemned by Pilate to die on the cross. +But those who had loved him before persevered in their sentiment, and +still to-day there exists a class of people who take from him their name +Christians.'"</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a015"><p><a class="newpage" name="page281" id="page281" title="281"></a><span class="versenum">15.</span> On the testimony of Papias (Euseb. <i>Ch. Hist</i>. iii. 39. 4) see +Lightfoot, Cont. Rev. 1875, II. 379 ff., and McGiffert's notes in his +<i>Eusebius</i>, 170 ff.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a016"><p><span class="versenum">16.</span> For a collection of probably genuine Agrapha see Ropes, <i>Die Spruche +Jesu</i>, 154-161, and Amer. Jour. Theol. 1897, 758-776; Resch, <i>Agrapha</i>, +gives a much longer list. He is criticised by Ropes. On lost and +uncanonical gospels see Salmon, <i>Intr.</i><sup>7</sup> 173-190, 580-591; Kruger, <i>Early +Christian Literature</i>, 50-57. For the recently discovered Gospel of Peter +see Swete, <i>The Gospel of Peter</i>; and on the so-called <i>Sayings of Jesus</i> +found in Egypt in 1896 see Harnack, <i>Expositor</i>, V. vi. 321-340, 401-416, +and essay by Sanday and Lock. <i>Apocryphal Gospels</i> are most conveniently +found in <i>Ante-nicene Fathers</i>, VIII. 361-476.</p></div> + + +<h4>III</h4> + +<h5>The Harmony of the Gospels</h5> + +<div class="section" id="a017"><p><span class="versenum">17.</span> The Diatessaron of Tatian is translated with notes by Hill, <i>The +Earliest Life of Christ</i>. See also <i>Ante-nic. Fathers</i>, IX. 35-138.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a018"><p><span class="versenum">18.</span> For the extreme position concerning Doublets see Holtzmann, +<i>Hand-commentar zum NT</i> I. passim. E. Haupt, Studien u. Kritiken, 1884, +25, remarks that Jesus must often have repeated his teaching in +essentially the same form.</p></div> + + +<h4>IV</h4> + +<h5>Chronology</h5> + +<div class="section" id="a019"><p><span class="versenum">19.</span> For data and discussion of the various problems see Wieseler, +<i>Chronological Synopsis</i>; Lewin, <i>Fasti Sacra; </i> KeimJN II. 379-402; +AndLOL 1-52; SchürerJPTX I. ii. 30-32, 105-143; O. Holtzmann, <i>NtZeitg</i>, +118-124, 125-127, 131-132; Turner HastBD I. 403-415; <a class="newpage" name="page282" id="page282" title="282"></a>Ramsay, <i>Was Christ +born at Bethlehem</i>; and von Soden in EnBib. I. 799-812. For patristic +opinion concerning the length of Jesus' ministry, see HastBD I. 410. For +the argument for a one-year ministry, see KeimJN II. 398; O. Holtzmann, +<i>NtZeitg</i>, 131f. For two years, see Wieseler, <i>Chron. Synop</i>. 204-220; +WeissLX I. 389-392; Turner, in HastBD. For three years, see AndLOL +189-198; note by Robertson in Broadus, <i>Harmony of the Gospels</i>, 241-244. +Compare RévilleJN II. 227-231; Zahn, <i>Einl.</i> II. 516f.</p></div> + + +<h4>V</h4> + +<h5>The Early Years</h5> + +<div class="section" id="a020"><p><span class="versenum">20.</span> On the problem of the Virgin birth see GilbertLJ 79-89; WeissLX I. +211-233; Swete, <i>Apos. Creed</i>, 42-55; Bruce, <i>Apologetics</i>, 407-413; +Ropes, Andover Rev. 1893, 695-712; FairbSLX 30-45; Godet, <i>Comm. on Luke</i>, +Rem. on chaps. I. and II.; BovonNTTh I. 198-217. These maintain +historicity. The other side: BeysLJ I. 148-174; Meyer, <i>Comm. on Matt</i>., +Rem. on 1.18; Keim JN II. 38-101; Réville, New World, 1892, 695-723, and +JN I. 361-408; Holtz<del>mann</del>NtTh I. 409-415. On the early years of +Jesus see EdersLJM I. 217-254; WeissLX I. 275-293; Hughes, <i>Manliness of +Xt</i>, 35-60; WendtTJ I. 90-96; Stapfer, <i>Jesus Christ before his Ministry; +</i> FairbSLX 46-63; BeysLJ II. 44-65; RévilleJN I. 409-438.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a021"><p><span class="versenum">21.</span> For some of the early legends concerning the birth and childhood of +Jesus, see the so-called <i>Protevangelium of James</i>, the <i>Gospel of +Pseudo-Matthew</i>, and the <i>Gospel of Thomas</i>, Ante-nic. Fathers, VIII. +361-383, 395-398. For Jewish calumnies see Laible, <i>J. X. im Thalmud</i>, +9-39.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a022"><p><span class="versenum">22.</span> On the two genealogies see AndLOL 62-68; WeissLX I. 211-221; Godet on +Luke, iii. 23-38. These refer Luke's genealogy to Marv. Hervey SBD<sup>2</sup> +1145-1148, Plummer on Luke, iii. 23, EdersLJM I. 149, Gil<a class="newpage" name="page283" id="page283" title="283"></a>bertLJ 81f., +with the early fathers (see Plummer), refer both to Joseph. For the view +that they are unauthentic see Holtzmann, <i>Hand-comm.</i> I. 39-41; Bacon in +HastBD II. 137-141.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a023"><p><span class="versenum">23.</span> On the "brethren" of Jesus see Mayor, HastBD I. 320-326; +And<del>rews</del>LOL 111-123. These make the brethren sons of Joseph and +Mary. Lightfoot, <i>Galatians</i><sup>10</sup>, 252-291, regards them as sons of Joseph +by a former marriage.</p></div> + + +<h4>VI</h4> + +<h5>John the Baptist</h5> + +<div class="section" id="a024"><p><span class="versenum">24.</span> On the character and work of John the Baptist see KeimJN II. 201-266 +and references in the index under John the Baptist. Keim's is much the +most satisfactory treatment; it is, moreover, Keim at his best. See also +Ewald, <i>Hist, of Israel</i>, VI. 160-200; WeissLX I. 307-316; FairbSLX 64-79; +W. A. Stevens, Homil. Rev. 1891, II. 163 ff.; Bebb in HastBD II. 677-680; +Wellhausen <i>Isr. u. judische Geschichte</i>, 342f.; Feather, <i>Last of the +Prophets</i>. Reynolds, <i>John the Baptist</i>, obscures its excellencies by a +vast amount of irrelevant discussion.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a025"><p><span class="versenum">25.</span> On the existence of a separate company of disciples of John see Mk. +ii. 18, Mt. ix. 14, Lk. v. 33; Mk. vi. 29, Mt. xiv. 12; Mt. xi. 2f., Lk. +vii. 18f.; Lk. xi. 1; Jn. i. 35f.; iii. 25; Ac. xix. 1-3. Consult +Lightfoot, <i>Colossians</i>, 400 ff.; Baldensperger, <i>Der Prolog des vierten +Evangeliums</i>, 93-152.</p></div> + + +<h4>VII</h4> + +<h5>The Messianic Call</h5> + +<div class="section" id="a026"><p><span class="versenum">26.</span> On the baptism of Jesus see WendtTJ I. 96-101; EdersLJM I. 278-287; +BaldSJ 219-229. WeissLX I. 316-336 says that the baptism meant for Jesus, +already <a class="newpage" name="page284" id="page284" title="284"></a>conscious of his Messiahship, "the close of his former life and +the opening of one perfectly new" (322); KeimJN II. 290-299 makes it an +act of consecration, but eliminates the Voice and Dove; BeysLJ I. 215-231 +thinks that Jesus, conscious of no sin, yet not aware of his Messiahship, +sought the baptism carrying "the sins and guilt of his people on his +heart, as if they were his own" (229). Against Beyschlag see E. Haupt in +Studien u. Kritiken, 1887, 381. Baldensperger shows clearly that the +Messianic call was a revelation to Jesus, not a conclusion from a course +of reasoning.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a027"><p><span class="versenum">27.</span> On the temptation see WendtTJ I. 101-105; WeissLX I. 337-354; EdersLJM +I. 299-307; Fairb<del>airn</del>SLX 80-98; BaldSJ 230-236; BeysLJ I. +231-237; KeimJN II. 317-329. All these see in temptation the necessary +result of the Messianic call at the baptism.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a028"><p><span class="versenum">28.</span> The locality of the baptism of Jesus cannot be determined. Tradition +has fixed on one of the fords of the Jordan near Jericho, see SmithHGHL +496, note 1. On the probable location of Bethany (Bethabarah) (Jn. i. 28) +see discussion in AndLOL 146-151; EnBib 548; and especially Smith's note +as above.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a029"><p><span class="versenum">29.</span> On the anointing of Jesus with the Holy Spirit see WeissLX I. 323-336; +BeysLJ I. 230f. For the influence of the Spirit in the later life of Jesus +see Mk. i. 12; Mt. iv. 1; Lk. iv. 1; iv. 14, 18, 21; Mk. iii. 29, 30; Mt. +xii. 28; Jn. iii. 34; compare Ac. i. 2; x. 38. Clearly these refer not to +the ethical and religious indwelling of the Divine Spirit (comp. Rom. i. +4), but to the special equipment for official duty. This is the OT sense, +see Ex. xxxi. 2-5; Jud. iii. 10; I. Sam. xi. 6; Isa. xi. 1f.; xlii. 1; +lxi. 1; and consult Schultz, <i>Old Test. Theol.</i> II. 202f. Jesus seems to +have needed a like divine equipment, notwithstanding his divine nature. +See GilbertLJ 121f.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a030"><p><span class="versenum">30.</span> How this Messianic anointing is to be related to the doctrine of +Jesus' essential divine nature cannot be determined with certainty. It +must not be forgotten, <a class="newpage" name="page285" id="page285" title="285"></a>however, that it is a <i>datum</i> for Christology, and +that it cannot be explained away. It indicates one of the particulars in +which Jesus was made like unto his brethren. What was involved when the +Son of God "emptied himself and was made in the likeness of men" (Phil. +ii. 7) we can only vaguely conceive. Two views of early heretical sects +seem rightly to have been rejected. The Docetic view, held by some +Gnostics of the 2d cent., dates the incarnation from the baptism, but +distinguishes Christ from the human Jesus, who only served as a vehicle +for the manifestation of the Son of God; the Christ descended on Jesus at +the baptism, ascending again to heaven from the cross, compare Mt. iii. 16 +and xxvii. 50 in the Greek; see Schaff <i>Hist. of Xn Church</i><sup>2</sup>, II. 455f. +The recently discovered Gospel of Peter presents this view, Gosp. Pet. § +5. The Nestorian view represents that the baptism was, in a sense, Jesus' +"birth from above" (Jn. iii. 3, 5); thus the incarnation was first +complete at the baptism though the Logos had been associated with Jesus +from the beginning. See Schaff, <i>Hist, of Xn Church</i><sup>2</sup>, III. 717 ff.; +Conybeare, <i>History of Xmas</i>, Amer. Jour. Theol. 1899, 1-21.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a031"><p><span class="versenum">31.</span> The traditional locality of the temptation is a mountain near Jericho +called <i>Quarantana</i>, see AndLOL 155; the tradition seems to date no +further back than the crusades. It is, however, probable that the +"wilderness" (Mt. iv. 1, Mk. i. 12, Lk. iv. 1) is the same wilderness +mentioned in connection with John's earlier life and work (Mt. iii. 1, Mk. +i. 4), the region W and NW of the Dead Sea, see SmithHGHL 317. Others +(Stanley, <i>Sinai and Palestine</i>, 308; EdersLJM I. 300, 339 notes) hold +that the temptation took place in the desert regions SE of the sea of +Galilee; this is possibly correct, though the record in the gospels +suggests the wilderness of Judea. On the source of the temptation story +see WeissLX I. 339 ff.; BeysLJ I. 234; Bacon, Bib. Wld. 1900, I. 18-25.</p></div> + + +<h4>VIII</h4> + +<h5>The First Disciples</h5> + +<div class="section" id="a032"><p><a class="newpage" name="page286" id="page286" title="286"></a><span class="versenum">32.</span> SandayHastBD II. 612f.; GilbertLJ 144-157; WeissLX I. 355-387; AndLOL +155-165; EdersLJM I. 336-363; BeysLJ II. 129-148 (assigns here a +considerable part of the synoptic account of work in Capernaum).</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a033"><p><span class="versenum">33.</span> <i>The early confessions</i>. On the genuineness of the Baptist's testimony +to "the Lamb of God" see M. Dods in <i>Expos. Gk. Test</i>. I .695f.; Westcott, +<i>Comm. on John</i>, 20; EdersLJM 1. 342 ff.; WeissLX 1. 362f. (thinks the +evangelist added "who taketh away the sin of the world"); Holtzmann, +<i>Hand-comm.</i> IV. 38f. holds that the evangelist has put in the mouth of +the Baptist a conception which was first current after the death of Jesus. +On the confessions of Nathanael and the others, see Jour. Bib. Lit. 1898, +21-30.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a034"><p><span class="versenum">34.</span> <i>Cana</i> is probably the modern Khirbet Kana, eight miles N of Nazareth. +A rival site is Kefr Kenna, three and one-half miles NE from Nazareth. See +EnBib and HastBD, also AndLOL 162-164.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a035"><p><span class="versenum">35.</span> <i>The miracles of Jesus</i> are challenged by modern thought. It is +customary in reading other documents than the N.T. instantly to relegate +the miraculous to the domain of legend. Miracles, however, are integral +parts of the story of Jesus' life, and those who attempt to write that +life eliminating the supernatural are constrained to recognize that he had +marvellous power as an exorcist and healer of some forms of nervous +disease. So E. A. Abbott, <i>The Spirit on the Waters</i>, 169-201. Our +knowledge of nature does not warrant a dogmatic definition of the limits +of the possible; see James, <i>The Will to Believe</i>, vii.-xiii., 299-327. +The question is confessedly one of adequate evidence. The evidence for the +supreme miracle--the transcendent character of Jesus--is clear, see Part +III. chap. iv.; and the miracu<a class="newpage" name="page287" id="page287" title="287"></a>lous element in the story of his life must +be considered in view of this supreme miracle. In association with him his +miracles gain in credibility. In estimating the evidence for them their +dignity and worthiness is important. What the devout imagination would do +in embellishing the story of Jesus is exhibited in the apocryphal gospels; +the miracles of the canonical gospels are of an entirely different type, +which commends them as authentic. By definition a miracle is an event not +explicable in terms of ordinary human experience. It is therefore futile +to attempt to picture the miracles of Jesus in their occurrence, for the +imagination has no material except that furnished by ordinary experience. +For our day the miracles are of importance chiefly for the exhibition they +give of the character of Jesus; they can be studied with this in view +without regard to the curious question how they happened. Read +SandayHastBD II. 624-628; and see Fisher, <i>Grounds of Christian and +Theistic Belief, </i> chaps, iv.--vi., <i>Supernatural Origin of +Christianity</i><sup>3</sup>, chap, xi.; Bruce, <i>Miraculous Element in the Gospels; +Apologetics</i>, 409 ff.; Illingworth, <i>Divine Immanence</i>; Rainy, Orr, and +Dods, <i>The Supernatural in Christianity</i>.</p></div> + + + +<h3>Part II.--The Ministry</h3> + + +<h4>I</h4> + +<h5>General Survey</h5> + +<div class="section" id="a036"><p><span class="versenum">36.</span> SandayHastBD II. 609f.; GilbertLJ 136-143; AndLOL 125-137; BeysLJ I. +256-295.</p></div> + + +<h4>II</h4> + +<h5>The Early Ministry in Judea</h5> + +<div class="section" id="a037"><p><span class="versenum">37.</span> SandayHastBD II. 612<sup>b</sup>-613<sup>b</sup>; WeissLX II. 3-53; EdersLJM I. 364-429; +BeysLJ II. 147-168; GilbertLJ 158-179.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a038"><p><a class="newpage" name="page288" id="page288" title="288"></a><span class="versenum">38.</span> On <i>the chronological significance of John iv</i>. 35 see AndLOL 183; +WeissLX II. 40; Wieseler, <i>Synop</i>. 212 ff, who find indication that the +journey was in December. EdersLJM I. 419f.; Turner in HastBD I. 408, find +indication of early summer. Some treat iv. 35 as a proverb with no +chronological significance; so Alford, <i>Comm. on John</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a039"><p><span class="versenum">39.</span> Geographical notes. <i>Aenon</i> near Salim has not been identified. Most +favor a site in Samaria, seven miles from a place named Salim, which lay +four miles E of Shechem, see Conder, <i>Tent Work in Palestine</i>, II. 57, 58; +Stevens, Jour. Bib. Lit. 1883, 128-141. But can John have been baptizing +in Samaria? WeissLX II. 28 says "it is perfectly impossible that he [John] +can have taken up his station in Samaria." Other suggestions are: some +place in the Jordan valley (but then why remark on the abundance of water, +Jn. iii. 23?); near Jerusalem; and in the south of Judea. See AndLOL +173-175. <i>Sychar</i> is the modern 'Askar, about a mile and three-quarters +from Nablus (Shechem), and half a mile N of Jacob's well. See SmithHGHL +367-375.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a040"><p><span class="versenum">40.</span> General questions. <i>Was the temple twice cleansed?</i> (see sect. 116). +Probably not. The two reports (Jn. ii. 13-22; Mk. xi. 15-18 ¶s) are +similar in respect of Jesus' indignation, its cause, its expression, its +result, and a consequent challenge of his authority. They differ in the +time of the event (John assigns to first Passover, synoptics to the last) +and in a possibly greater sternness in the synoptic account. These +differences are no greater than appear in other records of identical +events (compare Mt. viii. 5-13 with Lk. vii. 2-10), while the repetition +of such an act would probably have been met by serious opposition. If the +temple was cleansed but once, John indicates the true time. At the +beginning of the ministry it was a demand that the people follow the new +leader in the purification of God's house and the establishment of a truer +worship. At the end it could have had only a vindictive significance, +since the people <a class="newpage" name="page289" id="page289" title="289"></a>had already signified to the clear insight of Jesus that +they would not accept his leadership. For two distinct cleansings see the +discussion in AndLOL 169f., 437; EdersLJM I. 373; Plummer on Luke xix. +45f. For one cleansing at the end see KeimJN V. 113-131. For one cleansing +at the beginning see WeissLX II. 6 ff.; BeysLJ II. 149 ff.; GilbertLJ 159 +ff.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a041"><p><span class="versenum">41.</span> <i>The journey to Galilee</i>. Do John (iv. 1-4, 43-45) and Mark (i. 14 = +Mt. iv. 12; Lk. iv. 14) report the same journey? Both are journeys from +the south introducing work in Galilee; yet the reasons given for the +journey are different (compare Jn. iv. 1-3 with Mk. i. 14). If the +Pharisees had a hand in John's "delivering up" (Mk. i. 14; comp. Jos. Ant. +xviii. 5. 2), the same hostile movement may have impelled Jesus to leave +Judea. He may not have heard of John's imprisonment until after his +departure, or some time before he opened his new ministry in Galilee. See +GilbertLJ 173f. AndLOL 176-182 argues against the identification.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a042"><p><span class="versenum">42.</span> <i>The nobleman's son</i> (Jn. iv. 46-54). Is this a doublet of Mt. viii. +5-13; Lk. vii. 2-10? John differs from synoptics in the time, the place, +the disease, the suppliant, his plea, and Jesus' attitude. Matthew and +Mark differ from each other concerning the bearers of the centurion's +messages to Jesus. John's account is similar to synoptic superficially, +but is probably not a doublet. Compare Syro-Phœnician's daughter (Mk. vii. +29f.). See GilbertLJ 202; Meyer on John iv. 51-54; Plummer on Luke vii. +10. WeissLX II. 45-51 identifies. Read SandayHastBD II. 613.</p></div> + + + +<h4>III and IV</h4> + +<h5>The Ministry in Galilee</h5> + +<div class="section" id="a043"><p><span class="versenum">43.</span> Read SandayHastBD II. 613-630; GilbertLJ 180-283. Consult WeissLX II. +44 to III. 153; EdersLJM I. 472 to II. 125; BeysLJ II. 140-147,168-294. +See AndLOL <a class="newpage" name="page290" id="page290" title="290"></a>209-363 for discussion of details, and KeimJN III. 10 to IV. +346 for an illuminating, though not unprejudiced, topical treatment.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a044"><p><span class="versenum">44.</span> Geographical notes. <i>Capernaum</i>. The site is not clearly identified, +two ruins on the NW of Sea of Galilee are rival claimants,--Tell Hum and +Khan Minyeh. Tell Hum is advocated by Thomson, <i>Land and Book, Central +Pal. and Phœnicia</i> (1882), 416-420; Khan Minyeh, by SmithHGHL 456, EnBib +I. 696 ff. Latter is probably correct. See AndLOL 224-237. + +<i>Bethsaida</i>. The full name is Bethsaida Julias, located at entrance of +Jordan into the Sea of Galilee. <del>Smith</del>EnBib I. 565f., +<ins>Smith</ins>HGHL 457f., shows that there is no need of the hypothesis +of a second Bethsaida to meet the statement in Mk. vi. 45, or that in Jn. +i. 44. See also AndLOL 230-236. Ewing HastBD I. 282f. renews the argument +for two Bethsaidas. + +<i>Chorazin</i> was probably the modern Kerazeh, about one mile N of Tell Hum, +and back from the lake. See <del>Smith</del>EnBib I. 751; +<ins>Smith</ins>HGHL 456; AndLOL 237f.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a045"><p><span class="versenum">45.</span> <i>The mountain of the sermon on the mount</i> (Mt. v. 1; Lk. vi. 12) +probably refers to the Galilean highlands as distinct from the shore of +the lake. More definite location is not possible. See AndLOL 268f.; +EdersLJM I. 524. The traditional site, the Horns of Hattin, is a hill +lying about seven miles SW from Khan Minyeh, which has near the top a +level place (Lk. vi. 17) flanked by two low peaks or "horns."</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a046"><p><span class="versenum">46.</span> <i>The country of the Gerasenes, Gadarenes, or Gergesenes</i>. Gadarenes is +the best attested reading in Mt. viii. 28, Gerasenes in Mk. v. 1 and Lk. +viii. 26; Gergesenes has only secondary attestation. Gadara is identified +with Um Keis on the Yarmuk, some six miles SE of the Sea of Galilee. This +cannot have been the site of the miracle, though it is possible that +Gadara may have controlled the country round about, including the shores +of the sea. Gerasa is the name of a city in the highlands of Gilead, +twenty miles E of Jordan, and <a class="newpage" name="page291" id="page291" title="291"></a>thirty-five SE of the Sea of Galilee, and +it clearly cannot have been the scene of the miracle. Near the E shore of +the sea Thomson discovered the ruins of a village which now bears the name +Khersa. The formation of the land in the neighborhood closely suits the +narrative of the gospels. This is now accepted as the true identification. +See Thomson <i>Land and Book, Central Palestine</i>, 353-355; SBD<sup>2</sup> 1097-1100; +HastBD II. 159f.; AndLOL 296-300. The name "Gadarenes" may indicate that +Gadara had jurisdiction over the region of Khersa; the names "Gerasenes" +and "Gergesenes" may be derived directly and independently from Khersa, or +may be corruptions due to the obscurity of Khersa.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a047"><p><span class="versenum">47.</span> <i>The feeding of the five thousand</i> took place on the E of the sea, in +a desert region, abundant in grass, and mountainous, and located in the +neighborhood of a place named Bethsaida. Near the ruins of Bethsaida +Julias is a plain called now Butaiha, "a smooth, grassy place near the sea +and the mountains," which meets the requirements of the narrative. See +AndLOL 322f.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a048"><p><span class="versenum">48.</span> <i>The return of Jesus from the regions of Tyre "through Sidon"</i> (Mk. +vii. 31) avoided Galilee, crossing N of Galilee to the territory of Philip +and "<i>the Decapolis</i>." This latter name applies to a group of free Greek +cities, situated for the most part E of the Jordan. Most of the cities of +the group were farther S than the Sea of Galilee; some, however, were E +and NE of that sea, hence Jesus' approach from Cæsarea Philippi or +Damascus could be described as "through Decapolis." See SmithHGHL 593-608; +En Bib I. 1051 ff.; SchürerJPTX II. i. 94-121.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a049"><p><span class="versenum">49.</span> Of <i>Magadan</i> (Mt. xv. 39) or <i>Dalmanutha</i> (Mk. viii. 10) all that is +known is that they must have been on the W coast of the Sea of Galilee. +They have never been identified, though there are many conjectures. See +SBD<sup>2</sup>, HastBD, and En Bib.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a050"><p><span class="versenum">50.</span> <i>Cæsarea Philippi</i> was situated at the easternmost and most important +of the sources of the Jordan, it is <a class="newpage" name="page292" id="page292" title="292"></a>called Panias by Jos. Ant. xv. 10.3, +now Banias. Probably a sanctuary of the god Pan. Here Herod the Great +built a temple which he dedicated to Cæsar; Philip the Tetrarch enlarged +the town and called it Cæsarea Philippi. See SBD<sup>2</sup>; HastBD; EnBib.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a051"><p><span class="versenum">51.</span> <i>The mountain of the transfiguration</i>. The traditional site, since the +fourth century, is Tabor in Galilee. Most recent opinion has favored one +of the shoulders of Hermon, owing to the supposed connection of the event +with the sojourn near Cæsarea Philippi. WeissLX III. 98 points out that +there is no evidence that Jesus lingered for "six days" (Mk. ix. 2) near +that town, and that therefore the effort to locate the transfiguration is +futile. GilbertLJ 274 thinks that Mk. ix. 30 is decisive in favor of a +place outside Galilee; he therefore holds to the common view that Hermon +is the true locality. See AndLOL 357f.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a052"><p><span class="versenum">52.</span> General questions. <i>Was Jesus twice rejected at Nazareth?</i> (comp. Lk. +iv. 16-30 with Mk. vi. 1-6<sup>a</sup>; Mt. xiii. 54-58). Here are two accounts that +read like independent traditions of the same event; they agree concerning +the place, the teaching in the synagogue on the Sabbath, the astonishment +of the Nazarenes, their scornful question, and Jesus' rejoinder. Luke +makes no reference to the disciples (Mk. vi. 1) nor to the working of +miracles (Mk. vi. 5); Matthew and Mark, on the other hand, say nothing of +an attempt at violence. These differences are no more serious, however, +than appear in the two accounts of the appeal of the centurion to Jesus +(Mt. viii. 5-8; Lk. vii. 3-7). Moreover, Lk. iv. 23 indicates a time after +the ministry in Capernaum had won renown, which agrees with the place +given the rejection in Mark. The general statement (Lk. iv. 14f.) suggests +that the visit to Nazareth is given at the beginning as an instance of +"preaching in their synagogues." The three accounts probably refer to one +event reported independently. For identification see WeissLX III. 34; +Plummer on Luke iv. 30; GilbertLJ <a class="newpage" name="page293" id="page293" title="293"></a>254f. For two rejections see Godet's +supplementary note on Lk. iv. 16-30; Meyer on Mt. xiii. 53-58; EdersLJM I. +457, note 1; Wieseler, <i>Synopsis</i>, 278. BeysLJ I. 270 identifies but +prefers Luke's date.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a053"><p><span class="versenum">53.</span> <i>Were there two miraculous draughts of fish?</i> Lk. v. 1-11 is sometimes +identified with Jn. xxi. 3-13. So WendtLJ I. 211f., WeissLX II. 57f., and +Meyer on Luke v. 1-11. Against the identification see Alford, Godet, and +Plummer on the passage in Luke. The two are alike in scene, the night of +bootless toil, the great catch at Jesus' word. They differ in personnel, +antecedent relations of the fishermen with Jesus, the effect of the +miracle on Peter, and the subsequent teaching of Jesus, as well as in +time. These differences make identification difficult.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a054"><p><span class="versenum">54.</span> <i>Where in the synoptic story should the journey to the feast in +Jerusalem</i> (Jn. v.) <i>be placed?</i> There is nothing in John's narrative to +identify the feast, although it is his custom to name the festivals to +which he refers (Passover, ii. 13, 23; vi. 4; xi. 55; xii. 1; Tabernacles, +vii. 2; Dedication, x. 22). Even if John wrote "the feast," rather than "a +feast" (the MSS. vary, A B D and seven other uncials omit the article), it +would be impossible to decide between Passover and Tabernacles. The +omission of the article suggests either that the feast was of minor +importance, or that its identification was of no significance for the +understanding of the following discourse. Since a year and four months +probably elapsed between the journey into Galilee (Jn. iv. 35) and the +next Passover mentioned in John (vi. 4), v. 1 may refer to any one of the +feasts of the Jewish year. The commonest interpretation prefers Purim, a +festival of a secular and somewhat hilarious type, which occurred on the +14th and 15th of Adar, a month before the Passover. It is difficult to +believe that this feast would have called Jesus to Jerusalem. See WeissLX +II. 391; GilbertLJ 137-139, 142, 234-235. Against this interpretation see +EdersLJM II. 765. Edersheim advocates the feast of <a class="newpage" name="page294" id="page294" title="294"></a>Wood Gathering on the +15th of Ab--about our August. On this day all the people were permitted to +offer wood for the use of the altar in the temple, while during the rest +of the year the privilege was reserved for special families. See LJM II +765f.; Westcott, <i>Comm. on John</i>, add. note on v. 1, argues for the feast +of Trumpets, or the new moon of the month Tisri,--about our +September,--which was celebrated as the beginning of the civil year. +Others have suggested Pentecost, fifty days after the Passover; the day of +Atonement--but this was a fast, not a feast; and Tabernacles. The majority +of those who do not favor Purim prefer the Passover, notwithstanding the +difficulty of thinking that John would refer to this feast simply as "a +feast of the Jews." Read AndLOL 193-198, remembering that the question +must be considered independently of the question of the length of Jesus' +ministry. The impossibility of determining the feast renders the +adjustment of this visit to the synoptic story very uncertain. It may be +that there was some connection between the Sabbath controversy in Galilee +(Mk. ii. 23-28) and the criticism Jesus aroused in Jerusalem (Jn. v.). If +so, one of the spring feasts, Passover or Pentecost, would best suit the +circumstances; but this arrangement is quite uncertain.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a055"><p><span class="versenum">55.</span> <i>Do the five conflicts of Mk. ii. 1 to iii. 6 belong at the early +place in the ministry of Jesus to which that gospel assigns them</i>? It is +commonly held that they do not, and the argument for a two-year ministry +rests on this assumption (see SandayHastBD II. 613). Holtzmann, +<i>Hand-commentar</i> I. 9f., remarks that at least for the cure of the +paralytic and for the call and feast of Levi (Mk. ii. 1, 13, 15) the +evangelist was confident that he was following the actual order of events; +note the call of the fifth disciple, Mk. ii. 13, between the call of the +four, Mk. i. 16-20, and that of the twelve, iii. 16-19. The question about +fasting may owe its place (Mk. ii. 18-22) to association with the +criticism of Jesus for eating with publicans (Mk. ii. 16). In like manner +the <a class="newpage" name="page295" id="page295" title="295"></a>second Sabbath conflict (Mk. iii. 1-6) may be attached to the first +(ii. 23-28) as a result of the identity of subject, for it is noteworthy +that Mark records only these two Sabbath conflicts; moreover, the plot of +Herodians and Pharisees to kill Jesus strongly suggests a later time +for the actual occurrence of this criticism. The first Sabbath question, however, +may belong early, as Mark has placed it. Weiss, Markusevangelium, 76, LX II. +232 ff., places these conflicts late. Edersheim, LJM II. 51 ff., discusses +the Sabbath controversies after the feeding of the multitudes. RévilleJN II. +229 places the first of them early.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a056"><p>56. <i>The sermon on the mount.</i> Luke (vi. 12-19 = Mk. iii. 13-19<sup>a</sup> +indicates the place in the Galilean ministry; Matthew has therefore anticipated +in assigning it to the beginning. The identity of the two sermons +(Mt. v. 1 to vii. 27; Lk. vi. 20-49) is shown by the fact +that each begins with beatitudes, each closes with the +parables of the wise and foolish builders, each is followed by the cure of +a centurian's servant in Capernaum (Mt. +viii. 5-13; Lk. vii. 1-10), and the teachings which are +found in each account are given in the same order. +Matthew is much fuller than Luke, many teachings +given in the sermon in Matthew being found in later +contexts in Luke. Much of the sermon in Matthew, +however, evidently belonged to the original discourse, +and was omitted by Luke, perhaps because of less interest +to Gentile than to Jewish Christians. The following +sections are found elsewhere in Luke, and were +probably associated with the sermon by the first evangelist: +Mt. v. 25, 26; Lk. xii. 58, 59; Mt. vi. 9-13; Lk. xi. 2-4; Mt. vi. 19-34; Lk. xii. +21-34; xi. 34-36; xvi. 13; Mt. vii. 7-11; Lk. xi. 9-13; Mt. vii. 13, 14; Lk. xiii. +24. The first evangelist's habit of grouping may explain also the presence +in his sermon of teachings which he himself has duplicated later, thus: +Mt. v. 29, 30 = xviii. 8,9; v. 32 = xix. 9, comp. Mk. x. 11, ix. 43-47, Lk. xvi. 18; +Mt. vi. 14, 15 = Mk. xi. 25. Matthew vii. 22, 23 has the <a class="newpage" name="page296" id="page296" title="296"></a> +character of the teachings which follow the confession at +Cæsarea Phillipi, and is quite unlike the other early +teachings. It may belong to the later time, for it was +natural for the early Christians to associate together +teachings which the Lord uttered on widely separated +occasions. The sermon as originally given may be +analyzed as follows: The privileges of the heirs of the +kingdom of God, Mt. v. 3-13; Lk. vi. 20-26; their responsibilities, +Mt. v. 13-16; the relation of the new to the old, Mt. v. 17-19; +the text of the discourse, Mt. v. 20; the new conception of morality, Mt. v. 21-48; +Lk. vi. 27-36; the new practice of religion, Mt. vi. 1-8, 16-18; warning +against a censorious spirit, Mt. vii. 16-20; Lk. +vi. 43-46; the wise and foolish builders, Mt. vii. 24-27; +Lk. vi. 47-49.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a057"><p>57. <i>The discourse in parables.</i> Matthew gives seven +parables at this point (xiii.), Mark (iv. 1-34) has three, +one of them is not given in Matthew, Luke (viii. 4-18) gives +in this connection but one,--the Sower. Many think +that the Tares of Matthew (xiii. 24-30, 36-43) is a doublet +of Mark's Seed growing secretly (iv. 26-29); so Weiss +LX II. 209 note, against which view see WendtLJ I. +178 f., and Bruce, <i>Parabolic Teaching of Xt</i>, 119. Matthew +has probably made here a group of parables, as in chapters v. to vii. +he has made a group of other teachings. +The interpretation of the Tares, and of the Draw-net (xiii. 40-43, 49, 50), +may indicate that these parables were spoken after Jesus began to teach plainly +concerning the end of the world (Mk. viii. 31 to ix. 1), Luke +gives the Mustard Seed and Leaven in another connection (xiii. 18-21), +and it may be that Matthew has taken them out of their true context to associate +them with the other parables of his group; yet in popular teaching +it must be recognized that illustrations are most likely +to be repeated in different situations. On the parables see Goebel, +<i>The Parables of Jesus</i> (1890), Bruce, <i>The Parabolic Teaching of Christ</i>, +3d ed. (1886), Jülicher, <a class="newpage" name="page297" id="page297" title="297"></a><i>Die Gleichnissreden Jesu</i> (2 vols. 1899), and the commentaries on +the gospels.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a058"><p><span class="versenum">58.</span> <i>The instructions to the twelve</i>. Mt. ix. 36 to xi. 1. x. 1, 5-14 +corresponds in general with Mk. vi. 7-11; Lk. ix. 1-5. The similarity is +closer, however, between x. 7-15 and Lk. x. 3-12--the instructions to the +seventy (see sect. <a href="#a068">A 68</a>). The rest of Mt. x. (16-42) is paralleled by +teachings found in the closing discourses in the synoptic gospels, and in +teachings preserved in the section peculiar to Luke (ix. 51 to xviii. 14. +See SB sects. 88-92, footnotes). It is probable that here the first +evangelist has made a group of instructions to disciples gathered from all +parts of the Lord's teachings; such a collection was of great practical +value in the early time of persecution.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a059"><p><span class="versenum">59.</span> <i>Did Jesus twice feed the multitudes</i>? All the gospels record the +feeding of the five thousand (Mt. xiv. 13-23; Mk. vi. 30-46; Lk. ix. +10-17; Jn. vi. 1-15), Matthew (xv. 32-38) and Mark (viii. 1-9) give also +the feeding of the four thousand. The similarities are so great that the +two accounts would be regarded as doublets if they occurred in different +gospels. The difficulty with such an identification is chiefly the +reference which in both Matthew (xvi. 9, 10) and Mark (viii. 19, 20) Jesus +is said to have made to the two feedings. The evangelists clearly +distinguished the two. In view of this fact the differences between the +accounts become important. These concern the occasion of the two miracles, +the number fed, the nationality of the multitudes (compare Jn. vi. 31 and +Mk. vii. 31), the number of loaves and of baskets of broken pieces (the +name for basket is different in the two cases, and is preserved +consistently in Mk. viii. 19, 20; Mt. xvi. 9, 10). See GilbertLJ 259-262, +Gould, and Swete, on Mk. viii. 1-9; Meyer, Alford, on Mt. xv. 32-38. +WeissLX II. 376f., BeysLJ I. 279f., WendtLJ I. 42, Holtzmann <i>Hand-comm.</i> +I. 186 ff., identify the accounts. See also SandayHastBD II. 629.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a060"><p><span class="versenum">60.</span> <i>Did Peter twice confess faith in Jesus as Messiah</i>? <a class="newpage" name="page298" id="page298" title="298"></a>Synoptics give +his confession at Cæesarea Philippi (Mk. viii. 27-30; Mt. xvi. 13-20; Lk. +ix. 18-21). John, however, gives a confession earlier at Capernaum (vi. +66-71). WeissLX III. 53 identifies the two, placing that in John at +Cæsarea Philippi, since there is no evidence that all of the long +discourse of Jn. vi. was spoken in Capernaum the day after the feeding of +the five thousand. This may be correct, yet the marked recognition which +Jesus gave to the confession at Cæsarea Philippi does not demand that he +first at that time received a confession of his disciples' faith. The +confession in Jn. vi. 68, 69 declared that the twelve were not shaken in +their faith by the recent defection of many disciples. At Cæsarea Philippi +the confession was made after the revulsion of popular feeling had been +made fully evident, and after the twelve had had time for reaction of +enthusiasm consequent upon the growing coldness of the multitudes and +active opposition of the leaders. The confession of Cæsarea Philippi holds +its unique significance, whether or not Jn. vi. 68 is identified with it.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a061"><p><span class="versenum">61.</span> <i>The journey to Tabernacles</i> (Jn. vii.). Where in the synoptic story +should it be placed? Lk. ix. 51 ff. records the final departure from +Galilee. The journey of Jn. vii. is the last journey from Galilee given in +John. Yet the two are very different. In John, Jesus went in haste, +unpremeditatedly, in secret, and unaccompanied, and confronted the people +with himself unexpectedly during the feast. In Luke (Mk. x. 1 and Mt. xix. +1 are so general that they give no aid) he advanced deliberately, with +careful plans, announcing his coming in advance, accompanied by many +disciples, with whom he went from place to place, arriving in Jerusalem +long after he had set out. The two journeys cannot be identified. John +seems to keep Jesus in the south after the Tabernacles, but his account +does not forbid a return to Galilee between Tabernacles and Dedication (x. +22). After the hurried visit to Tabernacles, Jesus probably went back to +Galilee, and gathered his disciples again <a class="newpage" name="page299" id="page299" title="299"></a>for the final journey towards +his cross--for the visit to Jerusalem had given fresh evidence of the kind +of treatment he must expect in the capital (Jn. vii. 32, 45-52; viii. 59). +See AndLOL 369-379. Andrews suggests that the feast occurred before the +withdrawal to Cæsarea Philippi (376); this is possible, but it seems more +natural to place it during the sojourn in Capernaum after the return from +the north (Mk. ix. 33-50). See SB, sects. 82-85.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a062"><p><span class="versenum">62.</span> On the phenomena and interpretation of <i>Demoniac Possession</i> see J. L. +Nevius, <i>Demon Possession and allied Themes</i>; Conybeare, Jew. Quar. Rev. +VIII. (1896) 576-608, IX. (1896-7) 59-114, 444-470, 581-603; J. Weiss in +<i>Reälencyklopädie</i>,<sup>3</sup> Hauck-Herzog, IV. 408-419; Binet, <i>Alterations of +Personality</i>, 325-356; James, <i>Psychology, </i> I. 373-400; and the articles +on DEMONS in EnBib and HastBD.</p></div> + +<h4>V</h4> + +<h5>The Journey through Perea to Jerusalem</h5> + +<div class="section" id="a063"><p><span class="versenum">63.</span> Read SandayHastBD II. 630-632; see GilbertLJ 298-310: WeissLX III. +157-223; KeimJN V, 1-64; BeysLJ I. 287-294. II. 333-419; AndLOL 365-420; +EdersLJM II. 126-360.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a064"><p><span class="versenum">64.</span> This journey began sometime between Tabernacles and Dedication +(October and December) of the last year of Jesus' life, and continued +until the arrival in Bethany six days before the last Passover.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a065"><p><span class="versenum">65.</span> Geographical notes. <i>Perea</i>--a part of the domain of Antipas--was the +Jewish territory E of the Jordan. Its northern limit seems to have been +marked by Pella (Jos. Wars, iii 3. 3) or Gadara (Wars, iv. 7. 3), and its +E boundary was marked by Philadelphia (Ant. xx. 1. 1); it extended S to +the domain of Aretas, king of Arabia. The population was mixed, though +predomi<a class="newpage" name="page300" id="page300" title="300"></a>natingly Jewish. Cities of the Decapolis, however, lay within the +limits of Perea, and introduced Greek life and ideas to the people. On the +highlands back from the Jordan it was a fertile and well populated land. +See SmithHGHL 539f.; SchürerJPTX II. i. 2-4.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a066"><p><span class="versenum">66.</span> On <i>Bethany and Jericho</i> see BDs and, for the latter, SmithHGHL 266 +ff.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a067"><p><span class="versenum">67.</span> <i>Ephraim</i>, (John xi. 54) is generally identified with the Ephron of +II. Chron. xiii. 19 (Jos. Wars, iv. 9. 9). Robinson located it at et +Taiyibeh, 4 m. NE of Bethel, and 14 from Jerusalem. See HastBD l. 728; +SBD<sup>2</sup> 975.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a068"><p><span class="versenum">68.</span> General questions. <i>The mission of the seventy</i>. Luke records two +missions, that of the twelve (ix. 1-6), and that of the seventy (x. 1-24). +Many regard these as doublets, similar to the two feedings in Mark. So +WeissLX II. 307 ff., BeysLJ I. 275, WendtLJ I. 84f. In favor of this +conclusion emphasis is given to the fact that in Jewish thought seventy +symbolized the nations of the world as twelve symbolized Israel. It is +suggested that in his search for full records Luke came upon an account of +the mission of disciples which had already been modified in the interests +of Gentile Christianity, and failing to recognize its identity with the +account of the mission furnished by Mark, he added it in his peculiar +section. The similarity of the instructions given follows from the nature +of the case. A second sending out of disciples is suitable in view of the +entrance into a region hitherto unvisited. As Dr. Sanday has remarked, the +sayings connected by Luke with this mission bear witness to the +authenticity of the account. There is therefore no need to identify the +two missions. See particularly SandayHastBD II. 614, also GilbertLJ +226-230, Plummer's <i>Comm. on Luke</i>, 269 ff. Luke probably gives the +correct place for the thanksgiving, self-declaration, and invitation of +Jesus, in which the synoptists approach most nearly to the thought of John +(Lk. x. 21, 22; Mt. xi. 25-30). The return of the seventy (Lk. x. <a class="newpage" name="page301" id="page301" title="301"></a>17-20) +followed the woes addressed to the unbelieving cities (Lk. x. 13-16; Mt. +xi. 20-24).</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a069"><p><span class="versenum">69.</span> <i>The destination of the seventy</i>. It is customary to think of them as +sent to the various cities of Perea (see AndLOL 381-383). Were it not for +the words "whither he himself was about to come" (Lk. x. I), it would be +natural to conclude that they were sent E to Gerasa and Philadelphia, and +S to the regions of the Dead Sea. If John's account is accepted, Jesus +spent not a little time of the interval between his departure from Galilee +and his final arrival in Bethany in and near Jerusalem. It may be that +after the withdrawal from the Dedication he went far into the Perean +districts. But John x. 40 is against it. The question must be left +unanswered. The messengers may have visited places in all parts of +Palestine.</p></div> + + +<h4>VI</h4> + +<h5>The Controversies of the Last Week</h5> + +<div class="section" id="a070"><p><span class="versenum">70.</span> See GilbertLJ 311-335; WeissLX III. 224-270; AndLOL 421-450; KeimJN V. +65-275; BeysLJ II. 422-434; EdersLJM II. 363-478; SandayHastBD II 632f.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a071"><p><span class="versenum">71.</span> <i>The supper at Bethany</i>. John is definite, "six days before the +passover" (xii. I). Synoptists place it after the day of controversy, on +the Wednesday preceding the Passover (Mk. xiv. I, 3-9; Mt. xxvi. 2, 6-13). +John is probably correct. The rebuke of Judas (Jn. xii. 4-8) was probably +associated in the thought of the disciples with his later treachery; +consequently the synoptists report the plot of Judas and this supper in +close connection.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a072"><p><span class="versenum">72.</span> <i>The Messianic entry into Jerusalem</i> is regarded by Réville as a +surrender by Jesus of his lofty Messianic ideal in response to the +temptation to seek a popular <a class="newpage" name="page302" id="page302" title="302"></a>following. Keim with finer insight says, +"Even if it had certainly been his wish to bring the kingdom of heaven +near in Jerusalem quietly and gradually, and with a healthy mental +progress, as in Galilee, yet ... in the face of the irritability of his +opponents, in the face of the powerful means at their disposal of crushing +him ... there remained but one chance,--reckless publicity, the conquest +of the partially prepared nation by means, not of force, but of idea.... +He came staking his life upon the venture, but also believing that God +must finish his work through life or death" (JN V. 100f.).</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a073"><p><span class="versenum">73.</span> <i>The question about the resurrection</i> was probably a familiar +Sadducean problem with which they made merry at the expense of the +scribes. On the resurrection in Jewish thought see Charles, <i>Eschatology, +Hebrew, Jewish, and Christian</i>, by index. For the scepticism of the +Sadducees see also Ac. xxiii. 8; Jos. Wars, ii, 8. 14.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a074"><p><span class="versenum">74.</span> On the "<i>great commandment</i>" see EdersLJM II. 403 ff.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a075"><p><span class="versenum">75.</span> The eschatological discourse presents serious exegetical difficulties. +Many cut the knot by assuming that Mk. xiii. and ∥s contain a little +Jewish apocalypse written shortly before the destruction of Jerusalem, +which has been blended with genuine predictions of Jesus concerning his +second coming. See Charles, <i>Eschatology</i>, 323-. 329; WendtLJ I. 9-21; +Holtz<del>mann</del>NtT<del>H</del><ins>h</ins> I. 325 ff.; and Bruce's +criticism in <i>Expos. Gk. Test</i>. I. 287f., also Sanday's note in HastBD II. +635f.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a076"><p><span class="versenum">76.</span> On <i>the relation of proselytes</i> to Judaism see SchürerJPTX II. ii. +291-327. The synagogue in heathen lands drew to itself by its monotheism +and its pure ethics the finest spirits of paganism. But few of them, +however, submitted to circumcision, and became thus proselytes. Most of +them constituted the class of "them that fear God" to whom Paul constantly +appealed in his apostolic mission. The Greeks of Jn. xii. 20 ff. were +probably circumcised proselytes.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a077"><p><span class="versenum">77.</span> On <i>Judas</i> see Plummer in HastBD II. 796 ff.; <a class="newpage" name="page303" id="page303" title="303"></a>EdersLJM II. 471-478; +WeissLX III. 285-289; AndLOL by index. De Quincey's essay on <i>Judas +Iscariot</i> is an elaborate defence.</p></div> + + +<h4>VII</h4> + +<h5>The Last Supper</h5> + +<div class="section" id="a078"><p><span class="versenum">78.</span> GilbertLJ 335-354; WeissLX III. 273-318; EdersLJM II. 479-532; AndLOL +450-497; KeimJN V. 275-343; BeysLJ II. 434-448; SandayHastBD II. 633-638.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a079"><p><span class="versenum">79.</span> <i>The day of the last supper</i>. John seems clearly to place it on the +day before the Passover--13 Nisan. See xiii. I, 29; xviii. 28; xix. 14, +31, 42. Synoptists as clearly declare that the supper was prepared on the +"first day of unleavened bread, when they sacrificed the Passover" (Mk. +xiv. 12; see also Lk. xxii. 15); this is confirmed by the similarity +between the Passover ritual as tradition has preserved it, and the course +of events at the supper. Unless interpretation can remove the +contradiction, John must have the preference. WeissLX III. 273-282, BeysLJ +II. 390-399, accept John and correct the synoptists by him; thus the +supper anticipated the Passover. Some hold that John can be interpreted +harmoniously with synoptists, and be shown to indicate that the supper was +on the 14th Nisan. So EdersLJM II. 508, 566f., 612f.; AndLOL 452-481; +GilbertLJ 335-339. Others believe that a true interpretation of synoptists +shows that in calling the last supper a Passover they correctly represent +the character, but misapprehend the time, of the meal. For this argument +see Muirhead, <i>Times of Xt</i>, 163-169, and read SandayHastBD II. 633-636 +and his references. The debate is still on, but the advantage seems to be +with those who assign the supper to the 13th and the crucifixion to the +14th Nisan.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a080"><p><span class="versenum">80.</span> <i>Did Jesus institute a memorial sacrament</i>? Read SandayHastBD II. +636-638, and Thayer, in Jour. Bib. <a class="newpage" name="page304" id="page304" title="304"></a>Lit. 1899, 110-131; see also +McGiffert, <i>Apostolic Age</i>, 68 ff. note; Holtz<del>mann</del>NtTh I. +296-304.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a081"><p><span class="versenum">81.</span> <i>The Passover ritual</i>. The order according to the rabbis was the +following: the first cup of wine and water was taken by the leader, who +gave thanks over it, and then it was shared by all (compare Lk. xxii. 17); +then the head of the company washed his hands--Dr. Edersheim connects with +this the washing of the disciples' feet, which changed the ceremony from +an act of distinction into one of humble service; after this the dishes +were brought on the table, then the leader dipped some of the bitter herbs +into salt water or vinegar, spoke a blessing, and partook of them, then +handed them to each of the company; then one of the loaves of unleavened +bread was broken; after this a second cup was filled, and before it was +drunk the significance of the Passover was explained by the leader in +reply to a question by the youngest of the company, after which the first +part of the Hallel (Ps. cxiii., cxiv.) was sung, and then the cup was +drunk; then followed the supper itself beginning with "the sop,"--a piece +of the paschal lamb, a piece of unleavened bread, and bitter herbs, +wrapped together and dipped in the vinegar,--which was passed around the +company (compare the sop which Jesus gave to Judas); after the supper came +a third cup, known as "the cup of blessing" (see I. Cor. x. 16); then +followed grace after meat; then a fourth cup, in connection with which the +remainder of the Hallel was sung (Ps. cxv. to cxviii.), followed by +certain other songs and prayers. See EdersLJM II. 496-512; AndLOL 488-494.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a082"><p><span class="versenum">82.</span> <i>The washing of the disciples' feet</i>. John (xiii. 1-11) says this +occurred "during supper" (v. 2), and before the designation of the +traitor. Luke (xxii. 23-30) tells of a dispute about greatness among the +disciples. This dispute may have arisen over the assignment of places at +table (compare Lk. xiv. 7 ff.; Mk. x. 33-45); if so, the reason for the +lesson in humility is apparent. See AndLOL 482-484; EdersLJM II. 492-503.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a083"><p><a class="newpage" name="page305" id="page305" title="305"></a><span class="versenum">83.</span> <i>Did Jesus twice predict Peter's denials</i>? Mark (xiv. 26-31) and +Matthew (xxvi. 30-35) place the prediction after the departure for +Gethsemane; Luke (xxii. 31-34) and John (xiii. 36-38), during the supper. +AndLOL 494 ff. thinks Peter was warned twice, EdersLJM. II. 535-537 holds +to one warning on the way to Gethsemane. Antecedent probability favors +this view.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a084"><p><span class="versenum">84.</span> <i>Where in John should the institution of the sacrament be placed</i>? +Probably after the departure of Judas (Mark xiv. 21f.; Matt. xxvi. 26), +thus not before xiii. 30. The most likely place is between, verses 32 and +33. There is no break at this point, and it remains a mystery why John's +account of the passion omitted this central feature of early Christian +belief and practice. The omission argues for rather than against apostolic +authorship, as a forger would not have ventured to disregard the leading +service of the church in an account of the life of its Lord. See Westcott, +<i>Comm. on John</i>, 188.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a085"><p><span class="versenum">85.</span> On the possible <i>disarrangement of the last discourses</i> (xiii. 31 to +xvi. 33) in our text of John see Spitta, <i>Urchristentum</i>, I. 168-193; +Bacon, Jour. Bib. Lit. 1894, 64-76; Burton, Bib. Wld. 1899 I. 32.</p></div> + + +<h4>VIII</h4> + +<h5>The Shadow of the Cross</h5> + +<div class="section" id="a086"><p><span class="versenum">86.</span> See GilbertLJ 354-384; AndLOL 497-588; WeissLX III. 319-381; BeysLJ I. +390-432, II. 448-473; EdersLJM II. 533-620; KeimJN VI. 1-274; SandayHastBD +II. 632f.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a087"><p><span class="versenum">87.</span> On the location of <i>Gethsemane and Golgotha</i> see AndLOL 499f., +575-588; and HastBD II. 164, 226f.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a088"><p><span class="versenum">88.</span> On the progress of <i>Jesus' trial by the Jewish authorities, </i> see +AndLOL 505-516; GilbertLJ 359-363. The <i>legality of the trial</i> has been +carefully discussed by A. T. Innes, <i>The Trial of Jesus Christ</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a089"><p><a class="newpage" name="page306" id="page306" title="306"></a><span class="versenum">89.</span> On the form and sequence of <i>Peter's denials</i>, see Westcott, <i>Comm. +on John</i>, 263-266; AndLOL 516-521.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a090"><p><span class="versenum">90.</span> The <i>Words from the Cross</i>. Matthew (xxvii. 46) and Mark (xv. 34) +report one; Luke (xxiii. 34?, 43, 46) adds three, omitting the one found +in Matthew and Mark; John adds three more (xix. 26f., 28, 30). Luke xxiii. +34 is bracketed by Westcott and Hort because omitted by a very important +group of MSS. (<span lang="he" xml:lang="he" title="Aleph">א</span><sup>a</sup>BD*) and some early versions. The saying +is almost certainly authentic, though it may have been added to Luke by +some early copyist. See Westcott and Hort, <i>N.T. in Greek</i>, II. Appendix, +68; and Plummer, <i>Comm. on Luke</i>, 544f.</p></div> + + +<h4>IX</h4> + +<h5>The Resurrection and Ascension</h5> + +<div class="section" id="a091"><p><span class="versenum">91.</span> Read SandayHastBD II. 638-643; see KeimJK VI. 274-383, for a still +valid criticism of the position of RévilleJN II. 428-478; see also WeissLX +III. 382-409; BeysLJ I. 433-481, II. 474-493; BovonNTTh I. 350-375; +GilbertLJ 385-405; Loofs, <i>Die Auferstehungsberichte und ihr Wert</i>; +EdersLJM II. 621-652; AndLOL 589-639.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a092"><p><span class="versenum">92.</span> The last twelve verses of Mark (xvi. 9-20) are omitted by the oldest +MSS (<span lang="he" xml:lang="he" title="Aleph">א</span>B) and by the recently discovered Sinaitic Syriac, as +well as by other versions and fathers. An Armenian MS. has been found +ascribing the section to one Ariston, or Aristion, a second century elder, +and this explanation of the origin of the verses is widely accepted. The +gospel cannot have ended with the words "for they were afraid," but no +satisfactory explanation of the condition of its text has been found. For +a recent hypothesis see Rohrbach, <i>Der Schluss des Markusevangeliums</i>; on +Aristion as the author, see Conybeare in Expos. IV. viii. (1893) 241, IV. +x. 219, V. ii. 401; see also SandayHastBD II. 638f., Bruce, <i>Expos. Gk. +Test</i>. I. 454f. For discussion of textual evidence see Westcott and Hort, +<a class="newpage" name="page307" id="page307" title="307"></a><i>NT in Greek</i>, II. Appendix, 28-51, and Burgon, <i>The last twelve verses +of St. Mark</i> (a passionate defence).</p> + +<p>Luke xxiv. 51 is omitted by <span lang="he" xml:lang="he" title="Aleph">א</span>*D and several old Latin MSS. +See Plummer and Bruce on the passage.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a093"><p><span class="versenum">93.</span> "<i>After three days</i>." This formula, which appears often in Mark, is +altered in parallels in Matthew and Luke to "on the third day" (see +Concordance). Jesus died on Friday, lay in the tomb over Saturday, and +rose very early Sunday morning. Thus he spent a part of Friday, and a part +of Sunday, and all of Saturday in the grave. According to Jewish reckoning +this was counted three days.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a094"><p><span class="versenum">94.</span> <i>Emmaus</i>. A village about 60 furlongs from Jerusalem. Cannot have been +the Emmaus in the Shephelah, 20 m. from Jerusalem. May have been el +Kubeibeh, 63 furlongs distant on the road from Jerusalem to Lydda. See +AndLOL 617-619; but also HastBD I. 700.</p></div> + + + + +<h3>Part III.--The Minister</h3> + + +<h4>I</h4> + +<h5>The Friend of Men</h5> + +<div class="section" id="a095"><p><span class="versenum">95.</span> Head Mathews, <i>The Social Teachings of Jesus, </i> especially 132-174; +see also Robinson, <i>The Saviour in the Newer Light</i>, 343 ff.</p></div> + + +<h4>II</h4> + +<h5>The Teacher with Authority</h5> + +<div class="section" id="a096"><p><span class="versenum">96.</span> See WendtTJ I. 106-151; Stevens, <i>Theol. of the N.T.</i> 1-16; Beyschlag, +<i>N.T. Theology, I</i>. 31-34. In particular on the Parables see references in +sect. <a href="#a056">A 56</a>. On the content of Jesus' teaching see WendtTJ 2 vols.; +<a class="newpage" name="page308" id="page308" title="308"></a>Dalman, <i>Die Worte Jesu; Stevens, Theol. of the N.T.</i> 17-244; Beyschlag, +<i>N.T. Theol</i>. I. 27-299; Mathews, <i>Social Teaching of Jesus</i>; Gilbert, +<i>The Revelation of Jesus</i>; Bruce, <i>The Kingdom of God</i>.</p></div> + + +<h4>III</h4> + +<h5>Jesus' Knowledge of Truth</h5> + +<div class="section" id="a097"><p><span class="versenum">97.</span> Adamson, <i>The Mind in Christ</i>; GilbertRJ 169f., 240-242; Schwartzkopf, +<i>The Prophecies of Jesus Christ</i>.</p></div> + + +<h4>IV</h4> + +<h5>Jesus' Conception of Himself</h5> + +<div class="section" id="a098"><p><span class="versenum">98.</span> BaldSJ 125-282; Stalker, <i>Christology of Jesus</i>, +Holtz<del>mann</del>NtTh I. 234-304; WendtTJ II. 122-183; GilbertRJ +167-228; Stevens, <i>Theol. of the N.T.</i> 41-64, 199-212. On the title "Son +of Man" see particularly DalmanWJ I. 191-219; Charles, <i>Eschatology</i>, +214f. note; against, A. Meyer, <i>Jesu Muttersprache</i>, 91-101, and others. +See also Holtz<del>mann</del>NtTh I. 246-264. On the name "Son of God," +see Dalman WJ I. 219-237; Holtzmann NtTh I. 265-278; Stalker, +<i>Christology</i>, 86-123; Gilbert, as above. On the personal religion of +Jesus see Burton, Bib. Wld. 1899, II. 394-403. For the total impression of +the character of Jesus, read Bushnell, <i>The Character of Jesus</i>.</p></div> +</div> + + +<div id="indexes"> +<h2><a class="newpage" name="page309" id="page309" title="309"></a>Indexes<a class="newpage" name="page310" id="page310" title="310"></a></h2> + + + +<div id="index1"> +<h3><a class="newpage" name="page311" id="page311" title="311"></a>Index of Names and Subjects</h3> + + + +<p>[References are to pages.]</p> + + +<ul> +<li>Ænon, site of, <a href="#page288">288</a>.</li> +<li>"After three days," <a href="#page307">307</a>.</li> +<li>Agrapha, <a href="#page036">36</a>, <a href="#page149">149</a>, <a href="#page281">281</a>.</li> +<li>Andrew, of Bethsaida, <a href="#page092">92</a>, <a href="#page094">94</a>, <a href="#page118">118</a>.</li> +<li>Angels, doctrine of, <a href="#page010">10</a>.</li> +<li>Annas, <a href="#page191">191</a>, <a href="#page193">193</a>, <a href="#page194">194</a>.</li> +<li>Antipas, <a href="#page004">4</a>, <a href="#page192">192</a>.</li> +<li>Apocalypse, <a href="#page017">17</a>f., <a href="#page122">122</a>, <a href="#page124">124</a>, <a href="#page241">241</a>.</li> +<li>Apocryphal gospels, <a href="#page037">37</a>, <a href="#page281">281</a>, <a href="#page282">282</a>.</li> +<li>Archelaus, <a href="#page004">4</a>, <a href="#page005">5</a>.</li> +<li>Aristion, author of Mark xvi. <a href="#page009">9</a>-<a href="#page020">20</a>, <a href="#page204">204</a>f., <a href="#page306">306</a>f.</li> +<li>Assumption of Moses, <a href="#page075">75</a></li> + +<li>Baptism of John, see <i>John the Baptist</i>.</li> +<li>Baptism of Jesus, <a href="#page083">83</a>-<a href="#page086">86</a>, <a href="#page283">283</a>f.</li> +<li>Barabbas, <a href="#page174">174</a>, <a href="#page192">192</a>.</li> +<li>Bethany beyond Jordan, <a href="#page092">92</a>, <a href="#page284">284</a>.</li> +<li>Bethany, supper at, <a href="#page169">169</a>, <a href="#page301">301</a>.</li> +<li>Bethsaida, site of, <a href="#page290">290</a>.</li> +<li>Books of reference, <a href="#page273">273</a>-<a href="#page277">277</a>.</li> +<li>Brethren of Jesus, <a href="#page063">63</a>f., <a href="#page283">283</a>.</li> + +<li>Cæsarea Philippi, <a href="#page004">4</a>, <a href="#page291">291</a>. +<ul> <li>confession at, see <i>Peter</i>.</li></ul></li> +<li>Caiaphas, <a href="#page191">191</a>, <a href="#page193">193</a>, <a href="#page194">194</a>.</li> +<li>Cana of Galilee, <a href="#page095">95</a>, <a href="#page222">222</a>, <a href="#page286">286</a>.</li> +<li>Cananeans or Zealots, party of, <a href="#page011">11</a>, <a href="#page074">74</a>.</li> +<li>Capernaum, site of, <a href="#page290">290</a>.</li> +<li>Census under Quirinius, <a href="#page011">11</a>, <a href="#page052">52</a>-<a href="#page055">55</a>.</li> +<li>Chorazin, site of, <a href="#page290">290</a>.</li> + +<li>Dalmanutha, <a href="#page291">291</a>.</li> +<li>Dalmanutha, Books of, <a href="#page017">17</a>f., <a href="#page241">241</a>, <a href="#page254">254</a>f.</li> +<li>Decapolis, the, <a href="#page140">140</a>, <a href="#page291">291</a>.</li> +<li>Dedication, feast of, <a href="#page150">150</a>, <a href="#page154">154</a>.</li> +<li>Demoniac possession, <a href="#page131">131</a>-<a href="#page133">133</a>, <a href="#page245">245</a>-<a href="#page248">248</a>, <a href="#page299">299</a>.</li> +<li>Devout, the, <a href="#page013">13</a>, <a href="#page017">17</a>.</li> +<li>Diatessaron of Tatian, <a href="#page038">38</a>, <a href="#page047">47</a>, <a href="#page281">281</a>.</li> +<li>Doublets, <a href="#page044">44</a>, <a href="#page281">281</a>.</li> +<li>Draughts of fish, miraculous, <a href="#page293">293</a>.</li> + +<li>Emmaus, site of, <a href="#page307">307</a>.</li> +<li>Enoch, Book of, <a href="#page241">241</a>, <a href="#page256">256</a>-<a href="#page258">258</a>.</li> +<li>Ephraim, site of, <a href="#page300">300</a>.</li> +<li>Essenes,<ul><li> manner of living, <a href="#page011">11</a>-<a href="#page012">12</a>;</li> + <li>their hope of Messiah, <a href="#page016">16</a>;</li> + <li>their settlement, <a href="#page073">73</a>;</li> + <li>relation to John the Baptist, <a href="#page073">73</a>, <a href="#page077">77</a>.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Five thousand, the feeding of, <a href="#page135">135</a>f., <a href="#page291">291</a>.</li> + +<li>Gadarenes, country of, <a href="#page247">247</a>, <a href="#page290">290</a>f.</li> +<li>Genealogies of Jesus, <a href="#page282">282</a>.</li> +<li>Gethsemane, <a href="#page177">177</a>, <a href="#page186">186</a>, <a href="#page188">188</a>f., <a href="#page265">265</a>, <a href="#page305">305</a>.</li> +<li>Golgotha, <a href="#page305">305</a>.</li> + +<li>Herod the Great, <a href="#page003">3</a>; +<ul> <li>began to rebuild temple, <a href="#page049">49</a>;</li> + <li>census during his reign, <a href="#page054">54</a>.</li></ul></li> +<li>Herod Antipas, <a href="#page004">4</a>, <a href="#page192">192</a>.</li> +<li>Herodians, <a href="#page014">14</a>, <a href="#page173">173</a>.</li> + +<li>James, brother of John, <a href="#page092">92</a>, <a href="#page094">94</a>, <a href="#page118">118</a>.</li> +<li>Jesus,<ul><li> language of, <a href="#page019">19</a>, <a href="#page062">62</a>, <a href="#page279">279</a>;</li> + <li>date of birth, <a href="#page052">52</a>-<a href="#page056">56</a>;</li> + <li>the miraculous conception, <a href="#page058">58</a>-<a href="#page061">61</a>;</li> + <li>growth, physical, intellectual, moral, and spiritual, <a href="#page061">61</a>-<a href="#page066">66</a>;</li> + <li>his brothers and sisters, <a href="#page064">64</a>;</li> + <li>visit to Jerusalem in his twelfth year, <a href="#page066">66</a>-<a class="newpage" name="page312" id="page312" title="312"></a><a href="#page068">68</a>;</li> + <li>life in Nazareth, <a href="#page068">68</a>f.;</li> + <li>his baptism, <a href="#page083">83</a>-<a href="#page086">86</a>;</li> + <li>his temptation, <a href="#page086">86</a>-<a href="#page091">91</a>;</li> + <li>his first disciples, <a href="#page092">92</a>-<a href="#page095">95</a>;</li> + <li>at Cana, <a href="#page095">95</a>;</li> + <li>his social friendliness, <a href="#page096">96</a>, <a href="#page219">219</a>f.;</li> + <li>the cleansing of the temple, <a href="#page108">108</a>-<a href="#page110">110</a>;</li> + <li>talk with Nicodemus, <a href="#page111">111</a>;</li> + <li>the woman of Samaria, <a href="#page112">112</a>;</li> + <li>cure of nobleman's son, <a href="#page113">113</a>;</li> + <li>in retirement in Galilee, <a href="#page113">113</a>f.;</li> + <li>call of four disciples, <a href="#page118">118</a>;</li> + <li>popular enthusiasm and pharisaic opposition, <a href="#page119">119</a>-<a href="#page121">121</a>;</li> + <li>his withdrawals and injunctions of silence, <a href="#page122">122</a> ff.;</li> + <li>blasphemy of the Pharisees, <a href="#page124">124</a>;</li> + <li>the reply to John's message, <a href="#page125">125</a>;</li> + <li>his twofold aim in Galilee, <a href="#page126">126</a>;</li> + <li>his method, <a href="#page127">127</a>;</li> + <li>the sermon on the mount, <a href="#page127">127</a>f.;</li> + <li>the parables, <a href="#page128">128</a>f., <a href="#page231">231</a>f., <a href="#page296">296</a>f.;</li> + <li>instruction of the twelve, <a href="#page130">130</a>, <a href="#page297">297</a>;</li> + <li>his mighty works, <a href="#page131">131</a>f.;</li> + <li>his personal influence, <a href="#page133">133</a>;</li> + <li>the feeding of the five thousand, <a href="#page135">135</a>f.;</li> + <li>the revulsion in popular feeling, <a href="#page136">136</a>;</li> + <li>the controversy about hand washing, <a href="#page139">139</a>;</li> + <li>the withdrawal to the north, <a href="#page138">138</a>;</li> + <li>the demand for a sign, <a href="#page139">139</a>;</li> + <li>disciples warned against the Pharisees, <a href="#page139">139</a>;</li> + <li>the question at Cæsarea Philippi, <a href="#page141">141</a>f.;</li> + <li>commendation of Peter, <a href="#page143">143</a>;</li> + <li>announcement of approaching death, <a href="#page144">144</a>;</li> + <li>rebuke of Peter, <a href="#page145">145</a>;</li> + <li>the transfiguration, <a href="#page146">146</a>f.;</li> + <li>the epileptic boy, <a href="#page147">147</a>;</li> + <li>rebuke of worldly ambition, <a href="#page147">147</a>f.;</li> + <li>Jesus and his brethren, <a href="#page148">148</a>;</li> + <li>at the feast of Tabernacles, <a href="#page148">148</a>;</li> + <li>return to Galilee, <a href="#page150">150</a>;</li> + <li>final departure from Galilee, <a href="#page154">154</a>;</li> + <li>the mission of the seventy, <a href="#page158">158</a>;</li> + <li>visit to the feast of Dedication, <a href="#page159">159</a>;</li> + <li>in Perea, <a href="#page160">160</a>;</li> + <li>the summons to Bethany, <a href="#page161">161</a>f.;</li> + <li>official determination to get rid of him, <a href="#page161">161</a>;</li> + <li>at Ephraim, <a href="#page162">162</a>;</li> + <li>question about divorce, <a href="#page154">154</a>;</li> + <li>blessing little children, <a href="#page154">154</a>;</li> + <li>the rich young ruler, <a href="#page154">154</a>;</li> + <li>request of Salome, <a href="#page163">163</a>;</li> + <li>Bartimeus, <a href="#page163">163</a>;</li> + <li>Zacchæus, <a href="#page163">163</a>;</li> + <li>anointing at Bethany, <a href="#page169">169</a>;</li> + <li>the Messianic entry, <a href="#page170">170</a>f.;</li> + <li>the barren fig-tree, <a href="#page172">172</a>;</li> + <li>the questions of the leaders, <a href="#page173">173</a>f.;</li> + <li>counter question, <a href="#page175">175</a>;</li> + <li>denunciation of scribes, <a href="#page175">175</a>;</li> + <li>the widow's mites, <a href="#page176">176</a>;</li> + <li>visit of the Greeks. <a href="#page176">176</a>f.;</li> + <li>the eschatological discourse, <a href="#page178">178</a>;</li> + <li>bargain of Judas, <a href="#page169">169</a>, <a href="#page178">178</a>f.;</li> + <li>the last supper, <a href="#page181">181</a>-<a href="#page184">184</a>;</li> + <li>dispute and foot washing, <a href="#page184">184</a>;</li> + <li>withdrawal of Judas, <a href="#page184">184</a>;</li> + <li>prediction of Peter's denials, <a href="#page185">185</a>;</li> + <li>discourse and prayer, <a href="#page185">185</a>-<a href="#page187">187</a>;</li> + <li>Gethsemane, <a href="#page188">188</a>-<a href="#page190">190</a>;</li> + <li>betrayal and arrest, <a href="#page190">190</a>f.;</li> + <li>trial by Jews, <a href="#page191">191</a>f.;</li> + <li>trial by Pilate, <a href="#page192">192</a>-<a href="#page194">194</a>;</li> + <li>crucifixion, <a href="#page195">195</a>-<a href="#page198">198</a>;</li> + <li>burial of Jesus, <a href="#page199">199</a>;</li> + <li>the resurrection, <a href="#page201">201</a>-<a href="#page210">210</a>;</li> + <li>the ascension, <a href="#page214">214</a>f.;</li> + <li>Jesus' attitude to common life, <a href="#page219">219</a>-<a href="#page223">223</a>;</li> + <li>his hunger for sympathy, <a href="#page223">223</a>;</li> + <li>Jesus as a teacher, <a href="#page226">226</a>f.;</li> + <li>his attitude to Old Testament, <a href="#page227">227</a>-<a href="#page229">229</a>;</li> + <li>his confidence in men, <a href="#page230">230</a>f.;</li> + <li>his use of illustration, <a href="#page231">231</a>-<a href="#page233">233</a>;</li> + <li>his alertness of mind, <a href="#page234">234</a>;</li> + <li>his leading ideas, <a href="#page235">235</a> ff.;</li> + <li>his supernatural knowledge, <a href="#page239">239</a>-<a href="#page244">244</a>;</li> + <li>his confession of ignorance, <a href="#page243">243</a>;</li> + <li>his kinship with men, <a href="#page244">244</a>f.;</li> + <li>treatment of demoniac possession, <a href="#page245">245</a>-<a href="#page248">248</a>;</li> + <li>his certainty of his Messianic call, <a href="#page249">249</a>-<a href="#page254">254</a>;</li> + <li>his adoption of Messianic titles, <a href="#page254">254</a>-<a href="#page264">264</a>;</li> + <li>his consciousness of dependence on God, <a href="#page264">264</a>-<a href="#page266">266</a>;</li> + <li>the problem of Jesus, <a href="#page267">267</a>-<a href="#page269">269</a>.</li></ul></li> +<li>John, Gospel of, <a href="#page032">32</a>-<a href="#page036">36</a>, <a href="#page040">40</a>f., <a href="#page181">181</a>, <a href="#page280">280</a>, <a href="#page305">305</a>.</li> +<li>John the Baptist, <a href="#page070">70</a>-<a href="#page081">81</a>; +<ul> <li>notice by Josephus, <a href="#page071">71</a>f., <a href="#page279">279</a>f.;</li> + <li>his idea of the kingdom of God, <a href="#page073">73</a>;</li> + <li>his relation to current thought, <a href="#page073">73</a>-<a href="#page076">76</a>;</li> + <li>his baptism, <a href="#page077">77</a>f., <a href="#page083">83</a>;</li> + <li>baptism of Jesus, <a href="#page082">82</a>-<a href="#page084">84</a>;</li> + <li>the embassy from the priests, <a href="#page092">92</a>;</li> + <li>testimony--"the Lamb of God," <a href="#page093">93</a>, <a href="#page286">286</a>;</li> + <li>baptizing at Ænon, <a href="#page112">112</a>;</li> + <li>his self-effacing witness to Jesus, <a href="#page079">79</a>, <a href="#page112">112</a>;</li> + <li>hostility of the Pharisees, <a href="#page113">113</a>, <a href="#page289">289</a>;</li> + <li>arrest by Antipas, <a href="#page071">71</a>f., <a href="#page113">113</a>;</li> + <li>his message to Jesus, <a href="#page125">125</a>;</li> + <li>death in prison, <a href="#page134">134</a>f.; his significance, <a href="#page079">79</a>-<a href="#page081">81</a>, <a href="#page226">226</a>;</li> + <li>the disciples of John, <a href="#page112">112</a>, <a href="#page283">283</a>;</li> + <li>literature about John, <a href="#page283">283</a>.</li></ul></li> +<li>John, son of Zebedee, <a href="#page036">36</a>, <a href="#page092">92</a>, <a href="#page094">94</a>, <a href="#page118">118</a>, <a href="#page193">193</a>,<a href="#page269">269</a>.</li> +<li><a class="newpage" name="page313" id="page313" title="313"></a>John of Gischals, <a href="#page121">121</a>.</li> +<li>Joseph of Arimathea, <a href="#page182">182</a>, <a href="#page199">199</a>.</li> +<li>Josephus, <a href="#page022">22</a>; +<ul> <li>notice of John the Baptist, <a href="#page071">71</a>, <a href="#page279">279</a>f.</li></ul></li> +<li>Judas of Galilee, <a href="#page011">11</a>, <a href="#page121">121</a>.</li> +<li>Judas the betrayer, <a href="#page169">169</a>, <a href="#page181">181</a>, <a href="#page302">302</a>; +<ul> <li>the bargain, <a href="#page178">178</a>;</li> + <li>his selection as an apostle, <a href="#page179">179</a>;</li> + <li>his criticism of Mary at Bethany, <a href="#page179">179</a>;</li> + <li>his kiss, <a href="#page190">190</a>;</li> + <li>his remorse, <a href="#page179">179</a>.</li></ul></li> +<li>Judea, province of, <a href="#page006">6</a>f.</li> + +<li>Kingdom of God, <a href="#page068">68</a>, <a href="#page086">86</a>, <a href="#page090">90</a>, <a href="#page173">173</a>, <a href="#page190">190</a>, <a href="#page231">231</a>, <a href="#page232">232</a>, <a href="#page235">235</a> ff., <a href="#page238">238</a>, <a href="#page241">241</a>.</li> + +<li>Language used by Jesus, <a href="#page019">19</a>, <a href="#page062">62</a>, <a href="#page279">279</a>.</li> +<li>Last supper, the, <a href="#page181">181</a>-<a href="#page187">187</a>, <a href="#page303">303</a>-<a href="#page305">305</a>.</li> +<li>Lawyers, see <i>Scribes</i>.</li> +<li>Length of Jesus' ministry, <a href="#page045">45</a>-<a href="#page049">49</a>.</li> +<li>Literature of the Jews, <a href="#page018">18</a>f., <a href="#page279">279</a>.</li> +<li>"Logia," ascribed to Matthew, <a href="#page032">32</a>, <a href="#page042">42</a>, <a href="#page158">158</a>.</li> +<li>Luke, Gospel of, <a href="#page026">26</a>f., <a href="#page031">31</a>f., <a href="#page280">280</a>.</li> + +<li>Mark, Gospel of, <a href="#page025">25</a>f., <a href="#page027">27</a>, <a href="#page029">29</a>, <a href="#page032">32</a>, <a href="#page040">40</a>, <a href="#page042">42</a>, <a href="#page280">280</a>, <a href="#page294">294</a>f.; +<ul> <li>last twelve verses of, <a href="#page204">204</a>f., <a href="#page306">306</a>f.</li></ul></li> +<li>Mary Magdalene, <a href="#page134">134</a>, <a href="#page208">208</a>.</li> +<li>Mary, the mother of Jesus, <a href="#page059">59</a>; +<ul> <li>had other children, <a href="#page060">60</a>, <a href="#page063">63</a>f., <a href="#page283">283</a>.</li></ul></li> +<li>Matthew, Gospel of, <a href="#page023">23</a> ff., <a href="#page027">27</a>, <a href="#page030">30</a>f., <a href="#page032">32</a>, <a href="#page280">280</a>.</li> +<li>Messianic entry into Jerusalem, <a href="#page170">170</a>, <a href="#page301">301</a>f.</li> +<li>Messianic hope, the, <a href="#page016">16</a>-<a href="#page018">18</a>, <a href="#page087">87</a>, <a href="#page175">175</a>, <a href="#page279">279</a>.</li> +<li>Miracles of Jesus, <a href="#page096">96</a>, <a href="#page267">267</a>, <a href="#page286">286</a>f.</li> +<li>Miraculous birth, the, <a href="#page057">57</a>-<a href="#page061">61</a>, <a href="#page232">232</a>.</li> +<li>Mission of the twelve, <a href="#page130">130</a>, <a href="#page297">297</a>.</li> +<li>Mission of the seventy, <a href="#page158">158</a>, <a href="#page300">300</a>f.</li> + +<li>Nathanael, of Cana, <a href="#page092">92</a>, <a href="#page094">94</a>, <a href="#page286">286</a>.</li> +<li>Nazareth,<ul><li> the view from, <a href="#page065">65</a>f.</li> + <li>rejection at, <a href="#page292">292</a>.</li></ul></li> +<li>Nicodemus, <a href="#page111">111</a>, <a href="#page199">199</a>.</li> + +<li>Papias, <a href="#page022">22</a>, <a href="#page029">29</a>, <a href="#page034">34</a>, <a href="#page047">47</a>, <a href="#page102">102</a>, <a href="#page281">281</a>.</li> +<li>Parables of Jesus, <a href="#page128">128</a>f., <a href="#page231">231</a>f., <a href="#page296">296</a>f.</li> +<li>Passover, the, <a href="#page181">181</a>, <a href="#page187">187</a>, <a href="#page304">304</a>.</li> +<li>Paul, <a href="#page021">21</a>, <a href="#page036">36</a>, <a href="#page201">201</a>, <a href="#page206">206</a>, <a href="#page268">268</a>.</li> +<li>Pentateuch, Jesus' references to, <a href="#page244">244</a>.</li> +<li>Perea, <a href="#page104">104</a>, <a href="#page153">153</a>f., <a href="#page158">158</a>, <a href="#page299">299</a>f.</li> +<li>Peter, <a href="#page029">29</a>, <a href="#page034">34</a>, <a href="#page092">92</a>, <a href="#page094">94</a>, <a href="#page118">118</a>, <a href="#page185">185</a>, <a href="#page193">193</a>, <a href="#page305">305</a>, <a href="#page306">306</a>; +<ul> <li>confession of, <a href="#page136">136</a>, <a href="#page142">142</a> ff., <a href="#page297">297</a>f.</li></ul></li> +<li>Pharisees, the, <a href="#page008">8</a>-<a href="#page010">10</a>; +<ul> <li>attitude to John the Baptist, <a href="#page082">82</a>, <a href="#page113">113</a>, <a href="#page289">289</a>;</li> + <li>their blasphemy, <a href="#page124">124</a>, <a href="#page156">156</a>;</li> + <li>question about divorce, <a href="#page154">154</a>;</li> + <li>about tribute, <a href="#page173">173</a>;</li> + <li>about the great commandment, <a href="#page174">174</a>, <a href="#page302">302</a>.</li></ul></li> +<li>Philip of Bethsaida, <a href="#page092">92</a>, <a href="#page094">94</a>, <a href="#page176">176</a>.</li> +<li>Philip the tetrarch, <a href="#page004">4</a>.</li> +<li>Pliny the younger, <a href="#page021">21</a>.</li> +<li>Pontius Pilate, <a href="#page005">5</a>, <a href="#page192">192</a>, <a href="#page195">195</a>.</li> +<li>Priests, the, <a href="#page007">7</a>f., <a href="#page107">107</a>; +<ul> <li>and the temple market, <a href="#page108">108</a>.</li></ul></li> +<li>Proselytes, <a href="#page078">78</a>, <a href="#page176">176</a>, <a href="#page302">302</a>.</li> +<li>Psalms, Jesus' use of the, <a href="#page244">244</a>.</li> +<li>Psalms of Solomon, <a href="#page018">18</a>, <a href="#page261">261</a>.</li> +<li>Publicans, <a href="#page006">6</a>, <a href="#page072">72</a>, <a href="#page222">222</a>.</li> + +<li>Quirinius, census under, <a href="#page052">52</a>-<a href="#page055">55</a>.</li> + +<li>Religion of Jesus, <a href="#page264">264</a> ff., <a href="#page308">308</a>.</li> +<li>Resurrection,<ul><li> pharisaic doctrine of, <a href="#page010">10</a>, <a href="#page241">241</a>;</li> + <li>Sadducean rejection of <a href="#page010">10</a>, <a href="#page174">174</a>.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Sadducees, the, <a href="#page008">8</a>, <a href="#page016">16</a>, <a href="#page082">82</a>; +<ul> <li>the question about the resurrection, <a href="#page174">174</a>, <a href="#page303">303</a>;</li> + <li>attitude towards Jesus, <a href="#page193">193</a>.</li></ul></li> +<li>Samaria, <a href="#page006">6</a>f. +<ul> <li>Jesus' journey through, <a href="#page112">112</a>.</li></ul></li> +<li>Samaritans, how regarded, <a href="#page014">14</a>.</li> +<li>Sanhedrin, the great, at Jerusalem, <a href="#page007">7</a>, <a href="#page013">13</a>, <a href="#page192">192</a>.</li> +<li>Scribes,<ul><li> their business, <a href="#page009">9</a>;</li> + <li>power in the sanhedrin, <a href="#page013">13</a>;</li> + <li>their influence over the religious life, <a href="#page014">14</a>;</li> + <li>their hope of a Messiah, <a href="#page016">16</a>;</li> + <li>their washings, <a href="#page078">78</a>;</li> + <li>chief of them at Jerusalem, <a href="#page107">107</a>;</li> + <li>their pride of learning and their bondage to tradition, <a href="#page228">228</a>.</li></ul></li> +<li>Sermon on the mount, <a href="#page127">127</a>, <a href="#page290">290</a>, <a href="#page295">295</a>f.</li> +<li>Signs, essential marks of the Messiah, <a href="#page095">95</a>, <a href="#page131">131</a>.</li> +<li>Soldiers in Palestine, <a href="#page006">6</a>, <a href="#page072">72</a>, <a href="#page191">191</a>.</li> +<li>Son of Man, the, <a href="#page124">124</a>f., <a href="#page130">130</a>f., <a href="#page254">254</a>-<a href="#page260">260</a>, <a href="#page308">308</a>.</li> +<li><a class="newpage" name="page314" id="page314" title="314"></a>Son of God, the, <a href="#page260">260</a>-<a href="#page264">264</a>, <a href="#page308">308</a>.</li> +<li>Star of the wise men, <a href="#page056">56</a>.</li> +<li>Suetonius, <a href="#page021">21</a>.</li> +<li>Sychar, site of, <a href="#page288">288</a>.</li> +<li>Synagogue, the, <a href="#page014">14</a>.</li> +<li>Synoptic gospels, <a href="#page028">28</a>.</li> +<li>Synoptic problem, <a href="#page027">27</a>-<a href="#page032">32</a>, <a href="#page279">279</a>f.</li> + +<li>Tabernacles, feast of, <a href="#page148">148</a>, <a href="#page150">150</a>, <a href="#page298">298</a>f.</li> +<li>Tacitus, <a href="#page003">3</a>, <a href="#page021">21</a>, <a href="#page054">54</a>.</li> +<li>Tatian, <a href="#page023">23</a>, <a href="#page038">38</a>, <a href="#page047">47</a>, <a href="#page281">281</a>.</li> +<li>Taxes, Roman, in Judea, <a href="#page006">6</a>.</li> +<li>Temple at Jerusalem, <a href="#page107">107</a>; +<ul> <li>market in <a href="#page107">107</a>;</li> + <li>cleansing of, <a href="#page107">107</a>, <a href="#page288">288</a>f.</li></ul></li> +<li>Temptation of Jesus, <a href="#page086">86</a>-<a href="#page091">91</a>, <a href="#page145">145</a>, <a href="#page284">284</a>; +<ul> <li>locality of, <a href="#page285">285</a>;</li> + <li>source of the record, <a href="#page090">90</a>, <a href="#page285">285</a>.</li></ul></li> +<li>Tertullian, <a href="#page045">45</a>, <a href="#page053">53</a>.</li> +<li>Thomas, <a href="#page208">208</a>.</li> +<li>Tiberius, <a href="#page001">1</a>, <a href="#page021">21</a>, <a href="#page050">50</a>.</li> +<li>Traditions of the elders, <a href="#page009">9</a>, <a href="#page015">15</a>f., <a href="#page068">68</a>, <a href="#page074">74</a>, <a href="#page139">139</a>.</li> +<li>Transfiguration, the, <a href="#page146">146</a>f., <a href="#page292">292</a>.</li> +<li>Trial of Jesus, the, <a href="#page191">191</a>-<a href="#page195">195</a>, <a href="#page305">305</a>.</li> + +<li>Words from the cross, <a href="#page196">196</a> ff., <a href="#page306">306</a>.</li> + +<li>Zealots, the, <a href="#page011">11</a>, <a href="#page074">74</a>, <a href="#page122">122</a>, <a href="#page124">124</a>.</li> +</ul></div> + + + +<div id="index2"> +<h3><a class="newpage" name="page315" id="page315" title="315"></a>Index of Scripture References</h3> + + + +<table summary="Index of Scripture References"> +<tr><th colspan="2">Ex.</th></tr> + +<tr><td>iv. 22 </td><td><a href="#page261">261</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xix. 10 </td><td><a href="#page078">78</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxiv. 1-11 </td><td><a href="#page183">183</a></td></tr> + + + +<tr><th colspan="2">Lev.</th></tr> + +<tr><td>xii. 8 </td><td><a href="#page061">61</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxiii. 5-11 </td><td><a href="#page047">47</a></td></tr> + + + +<tr><th colspan="2">Num.</th></tr> + +<tr><td>xxiii. 19 </td><td><a href="#page254">254</a></td></tr> + + + +<tr><th colspan="2">Deut.</th></tr> + +<tr><td>vi. 4-9 </td><td><a href="#page062">62</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>viii. 3 </td><td><a href="#page088">88</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xviii. 15 </td><td><a href="#page092">92</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxi. 23 </td><td><a href="#page196">196</a></td></tr> + + + +<tr><th colspan="2">I. Sam.</th></tr> + +<tr><td>ii. 26 </td><td><a href="#page061">61</a></td></tr> + + + +<tr><th colspan="2">I. Kings.</th></tr> + +<tr><td>xvii. 1 </td><td><a href="#page072">72</a></td></tr> + + + +<tr><th colspan="2">II. Kings.</th></tr> + +<tr><td>i. 8 </td><td><a href="#page078">78</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xvii. 24-41 </td><td><a href="#page014">14</a></td></tr> + + + +<tr><th colspan="2">Ps.</th></tr> + +<tr><td>ii. 7 </td><td><a href="#page261">261</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>viii. 4 </td><td><a href="#page254">254</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxii. </td><td><a href="#page196">196</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>lxxx. 17 </td><td><a href="#page254">254</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>lxxxii. 6 </td><td><a href="#page261">261</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ciii. 13 </td><td><a href="#page262">262</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>cxiii., cxiv. </td><td><a href="#page304">304</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>cxv. to cxviii. </td><td><a href="#page185">185</a>, <a href="#page304">304</a></td></tr> + + + +<tr><th colspan="2">Isa.</th></tr> + +<tr><td>i. 16 </td><td><a href="#page076">76</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vi. 5 </td><td><a href="#page267">267</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xi. 2 </td><td><a href="#page085">85</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxxv. 5f. </td><td><a href="#page126">126</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xlii. 1 </td><td><a href="#page085">85</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>li. 2 </td><td><a href="#page254">254</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>liii. </td><td><a href="#page096">96</a>, <a href="#page239">239</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>liii. 7 </td><td><a href="#page093">93</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>lviii. </td><td><a href="#page076">76</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>lxi. 1f. </td><td><a href="#page045">45</a>, <a href="#page085">85</a>, <a href="#page126">126</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>lxiii. 16 </td><td><a href="#page262">262</a></td></tr> + + + +<tr><th colspan="2">Jer.</th></tr> + +<tr><td>xxxi. 31-34 </td><td><a href="#page111">111</a>, <a href="#page183">183</a></td></tr> + + + +<tr><th colspan="2">Ezek.</th></tr> + +<tr><td>ii. 1 </td><td><a href="#page254">254</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxxiii. 10-20 </td><td><a href="#page240">240</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxxvi. 25-27 </td><td><a href="#page111">111</a></td></tr> + + +<tr><th colspan="2">Dan.</th></tr> + +<tr><td>vi. 10 </td><td><a href="#page107">107</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vii. 1-14 </td><td><a href="#page254">254</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vii. 13f. </td><td><a href="#page255">255</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>viii. 17 </td><td><a href="#page254">254</a></td></tr> + + +<tr><th colspan="2">Hos.</th></tr> + +<tr><td>i. 10 </td><td><a href="#page261">261</a></td></tr> + + +<tr><th colspan="2">Joel.</th></tr> + +<tr><td>ii. 1-14 </td><td><a href="#page076">76</a></td></tr> + + +<tr><th colspan="2">Micah.</th></tr> + +<tr><td>vi. 8 </td><td><a href="#page076">76</a></td></tr> + + +<tr><th colspan="2">Matt.</th></tr> + +<tr><td>i. 1 to iv. 17 </td><td><a href="#page023">23</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ii. 1, 2 </td><td><a href="#page052">52</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iii. 7 </td><td><a href="#page074">74</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iii. 9 </td><td><a href="#page078">78</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iii. 10-12 </td><td><a href="#page082">82</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iii. 11 </td><td><a href="#page077">77</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iii. 14 </td><td><a href="#page082">82</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iii. 15 </td><td><a href="#page083">83</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iii. 16 </td><td><a href="#page285">285</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iv. 4, 7, 10 </td><td><a href="#page228">228</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iv. 7 </td><td><a href="#page089">89</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iv. 8 </td><td><a href="#page090">90</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iv. 10 </td><td><a href="#page090">90</a>, <a href="#page145">145</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iv. 12 </td><td><a href="#page101">101</a>, <a href="#page102">102</a>, <a href="#page106">106</a>, <a href="#page289">289</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iv. 12-17 </td><td><a href="#page024">24</a>, <a href="#page039">39</a>, <a href="#page115">115</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iv. 12 to xviii. 35 </td><td><a href="#page102">102</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iv. 13 </td><td><a href="#page106">106</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iv. 13-16 </td><td><a href="#page115">115</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iv. 17 </td><td><a href="#page118">118</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iv. 18-22 </td><td><a href="#page106">106</a>, <a href="#page115">115</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iv. 18 to xvi. 20 </td><td><a href="#page024">24</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iv. 23 </td><td><a href="#page115">115</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iv. 23-25 </td><td><a href="#page115">115</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>v. 1 </td><td><a href="#page290">290</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>v. 3-12 </td><td><a href="#page296">296</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>v. 13-16 </td><td><a href="#page296">296</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>v. 17 </td><td><a href="#page083">83</a>, <a href="#page228">228</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>v. 17-19 </td><td><a href="#page296">296</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>v. 18 </td><td><a href="#page238">238</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>v. 20 </td><td><a href="#page296">296</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>v. 21-48 </td><td><a href="#page228">228</a>, <a href="#page296">296</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>v. 25f. </td><td><a href="#page295">295</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>v. 29f. </td><td><a href="#page295">295</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>v. 32 </td><td><a href="#page295">295</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>v. 38, 39 </td><td><a href="#page250">250</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>v. 45 </td><td><a href="#page244">244</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vi. 1-6 </td><td><a href="#page084">84</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vi. 1-18 </td><td><a href="#page064">64</a>, <a href="#page296">296</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vi. 2-4 </td><td><a href="#page176">176</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vi. 9-15 </td><td><a href="#page004">4</a>, <a href="#page117">117</a>, <a href="#page295">295</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vi. 19-34 </td><td><a href="#page103">103</a>, <a href="#page295">295</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vi. 24 </td><td><a href="#page179">179</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vi. 25-34 </td><td><a href="#page042">42</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vii. 1-6 </td><td><a href="#page296">296</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vii. 7-11 </td><td><a href="#page117">117</a>, <a href="#page295">295</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vii. 13f. </td><td><a href="#page295">295</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vii. 15-21 </td><td><a href="#page296">296</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vii. 21 </td><td><a href="#page262">262</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vii. 21-27 </td><td><a href="#page238">238</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vii. 22f. </td><td><a href="#page295">295</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vii. 24-27 </td><td><a href="#page296">296</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vii. 28, 29 </td><td><a href="#page226">226</a>, <a href="#page249">249</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>viii. 2-4 </td><td><a href="#page115">115</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>viii. 5 </td><td><a href="#page007">7</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>viii. 5, 8 </td><td><a href="#page043">43</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>viii. 5-13 </td><td><a href="#page041">41</a>, <a href="#page115">115</a>, <a href="#page288">288</a>, <a href="#page289">289</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>viii. 10 </td><td><a href="#page243">243</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>viii. 10-12 </td><td><a href="#page024">24</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>viii. 14-17 </td><td><a href="#page115">115</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>viii. 18, 23-27 </td><td><a href="#page116">116</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>viii. 19-22 </td><td><a href="#page153">153</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>viii. 20 </td><td><a href="#page259">259</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>viii. 28-34 </td><td><a href="#page116">116</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ix. 1, 18-26 </td><td><a href="#page116">116</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ix. 2-8 </td><td><a href="#page115">115</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ix. 9-13 </td><td><a href="#page115">115</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ix. 14-17 </td><td><a href="#page115">115</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ix. 27-34 </td><td><a href="#page116">116</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ix. 35 </td><td><a href="#page116">116</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ix. 36 to xi. 1 </td><td><a href="#page116">116</a>, <a href="#page118">118</a>, <a href="#page297">297</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>x. 1, 5-15 </td><td><a href="#page297">297</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>x. 5f. </td><td><a href="#page130">130</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>x. 7-15 </td><td><a href="#page297">297</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>x. 16-42 </td><td><a href="#page297">297</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>x. 32 </td><td><a href="#page262">262</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xi. 2-6 </td><td><a href="#page251">251</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xi. 2-19 </td><td><a href="#page041">41</a>, <a href="#page116">116</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xi. 4-6 </td><td><a href="#page131">131</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xi. 11 </td><td><a href="#page080">80</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xi. 18f. </td><td><a href="#page259">259</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xi. 19 </td><td><a href="#page096">96</a>, <a href="#page220">220</a>, <a href="#page256">256</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xi. 20-24 </td><td><a href="#page301">301</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xi. 20-30 </td><td><a href="#page153">153</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xi. 25-30 </td><td><a href="#page300">300</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xi. 27 </td><td><a href="#page252">252</a>, <a href="#page263">263</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xi. 28-30 </td><td><a href="#page160">160</a></td></tr> +<tr><td><a class="newpage" name="page316" id="page316" title="316"></a>xii. 1-8 </td><td><a href="#page115">115</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xii. 9-14 </td><td><a href="#page115">115</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xii. 12 </td><td><a href="#page227">227</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xii. 15-21 </td><td><a href="#page115">115</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xii. 22-45 </td><td><a href="#page116">116</a>, <a href="#page156">156</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xii. 28 </td><td><a href="#page085">85</a>, <a href="#page248">248</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xii. 46-50 </td><td><a href="#page116">116</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xii. 50 </td><td><a href="#page145">145</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xiii. 1-53 </td><td><a href="#page116">116</a>, <a href="#page296">296</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xiii. 24-30 </td><td><a href="#page296">296</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xiii. 31-33 </td><td><a href="#page044">44</a>, <a href="#page017">17</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xiii. 40-43, 49, 50 </td><td><a href="#page296">296</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xiii. 54-58 </td><td><a href="#page116">116</a>, <a href="#page292">292</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xiii. 55 </td><td><a href="#page061">61</a>, <a href="#page063">63</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xiv. 1-12 </td><td><a href="#page116">116</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xiv. 1 to xxviii. 20 </td><td><a href="#page028">28</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xiv. 13-23 </td><td><a href="#page039">39</a>, <a href="#page116">116</a>, <a href="#page297">297</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xiv. 19 </td><td><a href="#page046">46</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xiv. 21-36 </td><td><a href="#page116">116</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xv. 1 </td><td><a href="#page043">43</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xv. 1-20 </td><td><a href="#page116">116</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xv. 13f. </td><td><a href="#page150">150</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xv. 21-28 </td><td><a href="#page116">116</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xv. 21-31 </td><td><a href="#page140">140</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xv. 22 </td><td><a href="#page254">254</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xv. 24 </td><td><a href="#page130">130</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xv. 29-31 </td><td><a href="#page117">117</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xv. 32-38 </td><td><a href="#page117">117</a>, <a href="#page297">297</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xv. 39 </td><td><a href="#page291">291</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xv. 39 to xvi. 12 </td><td><a href="#page017">17</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xvi. 9f. </td><td><a href="#page297">297</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xvi. 13-20 </td><td><a href="#page094">94</a>, <a href="#page117">117</a>, <a href="#page298">298</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xvi. 16 </td><td><a href="#page263">263</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xvi. 16ff. </td><td><a href="#page142">142</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xvi. 17 </td><td><a href="#page142">142</a>, <a href="#page224">224</a>, <a href="#page262">262</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xvi. 21 </td><td><a href="#page118">118</a>, <a href="#page239">239</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xvi. 21-28 </td><td><a href="#page117">117</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xvi. 21 to xxviii. 20 </td><td><a href="#page024">24</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xvi. 23 </td><td><a href="#page239">239</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xvii. 1-13 </td><td><a href="#page117">117</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xvii. 10-13 </td><td><a href="#page193">193</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xvii. 14-20 </td><td><a href="#page117">117</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xvi. 22-23 </td><td><a href="#page117">117</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xvii. 24-27 </td><td><a href="#page117">117</a>, <a href="#page139">139</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xviii. 1-35 </td><td><a href="#page117">117</a>, <a href="#page148">148</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xviii. 4 </td><td><a href="#page220">220</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xviii. 12-14 </td><td><a href="#page044">44</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xix. 1f. </td><td><a href="#page039">39</a>, <a href="#page153">153</a>, <a href="#page154">154</a>, <a href="#page298">298</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xix. 1 to xx. 34 </td><td><a href="#page104">104</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xix. 3-9 </td><td><a href="#page228">228</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xix. 3-12 </td><td><a href="#page153">153</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xix. 13-15 </td><td><a href="#page153">153</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xix. 16 to xx. 16 </td><td><a href="#page153">153</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xx. 17-19 </td><td><a href="#page153">153</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xx. 20-28 </td><td><a href="#page153">153</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xx. 29-34 </td><td><a href="#page153">153</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxi. 1-11 </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxi. 1 to xxvii. 66 </td><td><a href="#page104">104</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxi. 1 to xxviii. 20 </td><td><a href="#page039">39</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxi. 4f. </td><td><a href="#page170">170</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxi. 9-15 </td><td><a href="#page254">254</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxi. 14-16 </td><td><a href="#page172">172</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxi. 17 </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxi. 18-19, 12-17 </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxi. 20-23 </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxi. 23-27 </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxi. 28 to xxii. 14 </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a>, <a href="#page173">173</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxi. 33-46 </td><td><a href="#page025">25</a>, <a href="#page252">252</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxii. 1-14 </td><td><a href="#page252">252</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxii. 15-22 </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxii. 23-33 </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxii. 34-46 </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a>, <a href="#page238">238</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxii. 41-46 </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxiii. 1-39 </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxiii. 2 </td><td><a href="#page013">13</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxiii. 24 </td><td><a href="#page233">233</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxiii. 37-39 </td><td><a href="#page034">34</a>, <a href="#page106">106</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxiv. 1 to xxvi. 2 </td><td><a href="#page167">167</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxiv. 6-13 </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxv. </td><td><a href="#page178">178</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxv. 37-46 </td><td><a href="#page237">237</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxv. 40 </td><td><a href="#page221">221</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxvi. 1f. </td><td><a href="#page147">147</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxvi. 2, 6-13 </td><td><a href="#page301">301</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxvi. 3-5, 14-16 </td><td><a href="#page167">167</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxvi. 11-13 </td><td><a href="#page167">167</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxvi. 20 </td><td><a href="#page181">181</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxvi. 25 </td><td><a href="#page200">200</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxvi. 26 </td><td><a href="#page305">305</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxvi. 30, 36-46 </td><td><a href="#page167">167</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxvi. 30-35 </td><td><a href="#page305">305</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxvi. 47-56 </td><td><a href="#page167">167</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxvi. 57 to xxvii. 10 </td><td><a href="#page167">167</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxvi. 63f. </td><td><a href="#page263">263</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxvii. 11-31 </td><td><a href="#page167">167</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxvii. 32-56 </td><td><a href="#page167">167</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxvii. 43 </td><td><a href="#page261">261</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxvii. 46 </td><td><a href="#page197">197</a>, <a href="#page306">306</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxvii. 50 </td><td><a href="#page285">285</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxvii. 57 </td><td><a href="#page034">34</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxvii. 57-61 </td><td><a href="#page167">167</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxvii. 62-66 </td><td><a href="#page167">167</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxviii. 1-8 </td><td><a href="#page201">201</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxviii. 9, 10 </td><td><a href="#page201">201</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxviii. 11-15 </td><td><a href="#page201">201</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxviii. 16-20 </td><td><a href="#page201">201</a>, <a href="#page204">204</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxviii. 18-20 </td><td><a href="#page025">25</a></td></tr> + + +<tr><th colspan="2">Mark.</th></tr> + +<tr><td>i. 1-13 </td><td><a href="#page026">26</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>i. 3 </td><td><a href="#page079">79</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>i. 4 </td><td><a href="#page077">77</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>i. 7f. </td><td><a href="#page093">93</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>i. 10 </td><td><a href="#page084">84</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>i. 11 </td><td><a href="#page068">68</a>, <a href="#page084">84</a>, <a href="#page261">261</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>i. 14 </td><td><a href="#page101">101</a>, <a href="#page102">102</a>, <a href="#page106">106</a>, <a href="#page289">289</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>i. 14f. </td><td><a href="#page039">39</a>, <a href="#page115">115</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>i. 14 to ix. 50 </td><td><a href="#page026">26</a>, <a href="#page102">102</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>i. 16-20 </td><td><a href="#page115">115</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>i. 21-34 </td><td><a href="#page115">115</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>i. 24 </td><td><a href="#page254">254</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>i. 27 </td><td><a href="#page249">249</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>i. 35 </td><td><a href="#page265">265</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>i. 35-39 </td><td><a href="#page253">253</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>i. 35-45 </td><td><a href="#page115">115</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ii. 1-12 </td><td><a href="#page047">47</a>, <a href="#page115">115</a>, <a href="#page230">230</a>, <a href="#page294">294</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ii. 1-17 </td><td><a href="#page048">48</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ii. 1 to iii. 6 </td><td><a href="#page047">47</a>, <a href="#page048">48</a>, <a href="#page250">250</a>, <a href="#page204">204</a>f.</td></tr> +<tr><td>ii. 5 </td><td><a href="#page239">239</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ii. 6f. </td><td><a href="#page121">121</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ii. 10 </td><td><a href="#page028">28</a>, <a href="#page256">256</a>, <a href="#page259">259</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ii. 10, 28 and ∥s </td><td><a href="#page256">256</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ii. 12 </td><td><a href="#page025">25</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ii. 13-17 </td><td><a href="#page047">47</a>, <a href="#page115">115</a>, <a href="#page294">294</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ii. 15-17 </td><td><a href="#page096">96</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ii. 16 </td><td><a href="#page047">47</a>, <a href="#page121">121</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ii. 18-22 </td><td><a href="#page026">26</a>, <a href="#page047">47</a>, <a href="#page115">115</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ii. 20 </td><td><a href="#page239">239</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ii. 23 </td><td><a href="#page047">47</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ii. 23-28 </td><td><a href="#page115">115</a>, <a href="#page229">229</a>, <a href="#page294">294</a>f.</td></tr> +<tr><td>ii. 25-27 </td><td><a href="#page228">228</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ii. 27 </td><td><a href="#page257">257</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ii. 44 </td><td><a href="#page253">253</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iii. 1-6 </td><td><a href="#page026">26</a>, <a href="#page115">115</a>, <a href="#page295">295</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iii. 7-12 </td><td><a href="#page115">115</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iii. 11 </td><td><a href="#page261">261</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iii. 13-19 </td><td><a href="#page115">115</a>, <a href="#page295">295</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iii. 17, 41 </td><td><a href="#page025">25</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iii. 19-30 </td><td><a href="#page040">40</a>, <a href="#page042">42</a>, <a href="#page116">116</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iii. 21, 31-35 </td><td><a href="#page059">59</a>, <a href="#page097">97</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iii. 22 </td><td><a href="#page034">34</a>, <a href="#page121">121</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iii. 22-30 </td><td><a href="#page156">156</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iii. 28-30 </td><td><a href="#page251">251</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iii. 31-35 </td><td><a href="#page059">59</a>, <a href="#page097">97</a>, <a href="#page116">116</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iv. 1-34 </td><td><a href="#page116">116</a>, <a href="#page232">232</a>, <a href="#page296">296</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iv. 3 </td><td><a href="#page064">64</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iv. 12 </td><td><a href="#page129">129</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iv. 13 </td><td><a href="#page129">129</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iv. 26-29 </td><td><a href="#page296">296</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iv. 35-41 </td><td><a href="#page116">116</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>v. 1 </td><td><a href="#page290">290</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>v. 1-20 </td><td><a href="#page116">116</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>v. 7 </td><td><a href="#page261">261</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>v. 11-13 </td><td><a href="#page139">139</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>v. 21-43 </td><td><a href="#page116">116</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>v. 30-34 </td><td><a href="#page243">243</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>v. 41 </td><td><a href="#page020">20</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vi. 1-6 </td><td><a href="#page043">43</a>, <a href="#page116">116</a>, <a href="#page292">292</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vi. 2f. </td><td><a href="#page220">220</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vi. 6b </td><td><a href="#page116">116</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vi. 7-11 </td><td><a href="#page297">297</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vi. 7-13 </td><td><a href="#page116">116</a>, <a href="#page147">147</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vi. 14-29 </td><td><a href="#page116">116</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vi. 15 </td><td><a href="#page290">290</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vi. 30-34 </td><td><a href="#page047">47</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vi. 30-46 </td><td><a href="#page039">39</a>, <a href="#page040">40</a>, <a href="#page116">116</a>, <a href="#page297">297</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vi. 39 </td><td><a href="#page046">46</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vi. 47-56 </td><td><a href="#page116">116</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vii. 1 </td><td><a href="#page034">34</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vii. 1-23, 48 </td><td><a href="#page048">48</a>, <a href="#page116">116</a>, <a href="#page121">121</a>, <a href="#page139">139</a>, <a href="#page250">250</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vii. 6-13 </td><td><a href="#page233">233</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vii. 8-13 </td><td><a href="#page010">10</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vii. 10 </td><td><a href="#page244">244</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vii. 13 </td><td><a href="#page251">251</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vii. 14-23 </td><td><a href="#page238">238</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vii. 15 </td><td><a href="#page227">227</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vii. 19 </td><td><a href="#page130">130</a>, <a href="#page228">228</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vii. 24-30 </td><td><a href="#page116">116</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vii. 27 </td><td><a href="#page140">140</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vii. 29f. </td><td><a href="#page289">289</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vii. 31 </td><td><a href="#page291">291</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vii. 31-37 </td><td><a href="#page117">117</a>, <a href="#page297">297</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vii. 34 </td><td><a href="#page020">20</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vii. 37 </td><td><a href="#page025">25</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>viii. 1f. </td><td><a href="#page141">141</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>viii. 1-9 </td><td><a href="#page117">117</a>, <a href="#page297">297</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>viii. 10 </td><td><a href="#page291">291</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>viii. 10-21 </td><td><a href="#page117">117</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>viii. 11 </td><td><a href="#page096">96</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vii. 11-13 </td><td><a href="#page139">139</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>viii. 14f. </td><td><a href="#page139">139</a></td></tr> +<tr><td><a class="newpage" name="page317" id="page317" title="317"></a>viii. 19f. </td><td><a href="#page297">297</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>viii. 22-26 </td><td><a href="#page117">117</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>viii. 27-30 </td><td><a href="#page117">117</a>, <a href="#page141">141</a>, <a href="#page298">298</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>viii. 29 </td><td><a href="#page254">254</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>viii. 31 </td><td><a href="#page168">168</a>, <a href="#page020">20</a>, <a href="#page256">256</a>, <a href="#page259">259</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>viii. 31-33 </td><td><a href="#page087">87</a>, <a href="#page239">239</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>viii. 31-ix. 1 </td><td><a href="#page117">117</a>, <a href="#page296">296</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>viii. 32f. </td><td><a href="#page093">93</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>viii. 34f. </td><td><a href="#page147">147</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>viii. 34 to ix. 1 </td><td><a href="#page146">146</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>viii. 38 </td><td><a href="#page256">256</a>, <a href="#page259">259</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ix. 1 </td><td><a href="#page242">242</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ix. 2 </td><td><a href="#page292">292</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ix. 2-13 </td><td><a href="#page117">117</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ix. 6 </td><td><a href="#page028">28</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ix. 9 </td><td><a href="#page147">147</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ix. 10 </td><td><a href="#page203">203</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ix. 14-29 </td><td><a href="#page117">117</a>, <a href="#page147">147</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ix. 19 </td><td><a href="#page224">224</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ix. 29 </td><td><a href="#page265">265</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ix. 30-32 </td><td><a href="#page117">117</a>, <a href="#page147">147</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ix. 31 </td><td><a href="#page204">204</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ix. 33-50 </td><td><a href="#page117">117</a>, <a href="#page299">299</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ix. 35-37 </td><td><a href="#page234">234</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ix. 43-47 </td><td><a href="#page295">295</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>x. 1 </td><td><a href="#page009"></a>, <a href="#page104">104</a>, <a href="#page153">153</a>, <a href="#page154">154</a>, <a href="#page298">298</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>x. 1 to xvi. 8 </td><td><a href="#page026">26</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>x. 2-12 </td><td><a href="#page153">153</a>, <a href="#page154">154</a>, <a href="#page298">298</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>x. 5f. </td><td><a href="#page244">244</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>x. 11 </td><td><a href="#page153">153</a>, <a href="#page154">154</a>, <a href="#page160">160</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>x. 13-16 </td><td><a href="#page104">104</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>x. 17-31 </td><td><a href="#page153">153</a>, <a href="#page155">155</a>, <a href="#page160">160</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>x. 18 </td><td><a href="#page226">226</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>x. 19 </td><td><a href="#page229">229</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>x. 25 </td><td><a href="#page233">233</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>x. 32-34 </td><td><a href="#page147">147</a>, <a href="#page153">153</a>, <a href="#page155">155</a>, <a href="#page162">162</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>x. 35-45 </td><td><a href="#page153">153</a>, <a href="#page155">155</a>, <a href="#page163">163</a>, <a href="#page165">165</a>, <a href="#page184">184</a>, <a href="#page230">230</a>, <a href="#page304">304</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>x. 40 </td><td><a href="#page243">243</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>x. 42-45 </td><td><a href="#page259">259</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>x. 45 </td><td><a href="#page241">241</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>x. 46 </td><td><a href="#page162">162</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>x. 46-52 </td><td><a href="#page153">153</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>x. 47f. </td><td><a href="#page254">254</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>x. 48 </td><td><a href="#page163">163</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xi. 1-11 </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xi. 1 to xv. 47 </td><td><a href="#page104">104</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xi. 1 to xvi. 8 [20] </td><td><a href="#page039">39</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xi. 2f. </td><td><a href="#page034">34</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xi. 2-5 </td><td><a href="#page112">112</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xi. 8-10 </td><td><a href="#page162">162</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xi. 9f. </td><td><a href="#page170">170</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xi. 12-14, 15-18 </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xi. 12-14, 20-25 </td><td><a href="#page172">172</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xi. 14-36 </td><td><a href="#page042">42</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xi. 15-19 </td><td><a href="#page043">43</a>, <a href="#page288">288</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xi. 17 </td><td><a href="#page108">108</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xi. 19 </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xi. 20-27 </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xi. 25 </td><td><a href="#page295">295</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xi. 27-33 </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xi. 29-33 </td><td><a href="#page173">173</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xii. 1-12 </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xii. 13-17 </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a>, <a href="#page173">173</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xii. 16 </td><td><a href="#page227">227</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xii. 18-27 </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a>, <a href="#page174">174</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xii. 24-27 </td><td><a href="#page228">228</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xii. 27 </td><td><a href="#page186">186</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xii. 28-34 </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a>, <a href="#page174">174</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xii. 35-37 </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a>, <a href="#page245">245</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xii. 38-40 </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xii. 41-44 </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xiii. and ∥s </td><td><a href="#page178">178</a>, <a href="#page241">241</a>, <a href="#page302">302</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xiii. 1-37 </td><td><a href="#page167">167</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xiii. 24-27 </td><td><a href="#page238">238</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xiii. 32 </td><td><a href="#page243">243</a>, <a href="#page247">247</a>, <a href="#page252">252</a>, <a href="#page263">263</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xiv. 1f., 10f. </td><td><a href="#page167">167</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xiv. 3 </td><td><a href="#page169">169</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xiv. 3-9 </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a>, <a href="#page301">301</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xiv. 3-11 </td><td><a href="#page169">169</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xiv. 8 </td><td><a href="#page169">169</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xiv. 12 </td><td><a href="#page303">303</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xiv. 12-16 </td><td><a href="#page112">112</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xiv. 12-26 </td><td><a href="#page167">167</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xiv. 14 </td><td><a href="#page034">34</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xiv. 17 </td><td><a href="#page181">181</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xiv. 18-21 </td><td><a href="#page184">184</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xiv. 20 </td><td><a href="#page185">185</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xiv. 21 </td><td><a href="#page180">180</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xiv. 26, 32-42 </td><td><a href="#page167">167</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xiv. 26-31 </td><td><a href="#page305">305</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xiv. 33f. </td><td><a href="#page186">186</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xiv. 34 </td><td><a href="#page145">145</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xiv. 36 </td><td><a href="#page020">20</a>, <a href="#page189">189</a>, <a href="#page239">239</a>, <a href="#page265">265</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xiv. 43-52 </td><td><a href="#page167">167</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xiv. 45 </td><td><a href="#page190">190</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xiv. 50 </td><td><a href="#page182">182</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xiv. 53 to xv. 1 </td><td><a href="#page190">190</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xiv. 61 </td><td><a href="#page167">167</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xiv. 61f. </td><td><a href="#page254">254</a>, <a href="#page261">261</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xiv. 61-64 </td><td><a href="#page263">263</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xiv. 62 </td><td><a href="#page191">191</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xiv. 66-72 </td><td><a href="#page085">85</a>, <a href="#page258">258</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xv. 1 </td><td><a href="#page192">192</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xv. 1-20 </td><td><a href="#page167">167</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xv. 2 </td><td><a href="#page254">254</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xv. 6-15 </td><td><a href="#page192">192</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xv. 21 </td><td><a href="#page182">182</a>, <a href="#page195">195</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xv. 21-41 </td><td><a href="#page167">167</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xv. 22 </td><td><a href="#page305">305</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xv. 34 </td><td><a href="#page020">20</a>, <a href="#page197">197</a>, <a href="#page306">306</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xv. 42 </td><td><a href="#page182">182</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xv. 42-47 </td><td><a href="#page167">167</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xv. 43 </td><td><a href="#page034">34</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xv. 46 </td><td><a href="#page182">182</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xvi. 1 </td><td><a href="#page202">202</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xvi. 1-8 </td><td><a href="#page201">201</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xvi. 6f. </td><td><a href="#page209">209</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xvi. [9-20] </td><td><a href="#page204">204</a>f., <a href="#page306">306</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xvi. [9-11] </td><td><a href="#page201">201</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xvi. [12f.] </td><td><a href="#page201">201</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xvi. [14] </td><td><a href="#page201">201</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xvi. [15-18] </td><td><a href="#page201">201</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xvi. [19f.] </td><td><a href="#page201">201</a></td></tr> + + + +<tr><th colspan="2">Luke.</th></tr> + + +<tr><td>i. 1-4 </td><td><a href="#page026">26</a>, <a href="#page042">42</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>i. 3 </td><td><a href="#page041">41</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>i. 5 </td><td><a href="#page052">52</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>i. 36 </td><td><a href="#page082">82</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>i. 46-55 </td><td><a href="#page060">60</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>i. 68-79 </td><td><a href="#page068">68</a>-<a href="#page079">79</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>i. 80 </td><td><a href="#page061">61</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ii. 1f. </td><td><a href="#page052">52</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ii. 8 </td><td><a href="#page056">56</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ii. 19-51 </td><td><a href="#page059">59</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ii. 24 </td><td><a href="#page061">61</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ii. 40-52 </td><td><a href="#page061">61</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ii. 41 </td><td><a href="#page062">62</a>, <a href="#page107">107</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ii. 48 </td><td><a href="#page097">97</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ii. 49 </td><td><a href="#page067">67</a>, <a href="#page262">262</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ii. 52 </td><td><a href="#page063">63</a>, <a href="#page069">69</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iii. 1f. </td><td><a href="#page045">45</a>, <a href="#page049">49</a>, <a href="#page052">52</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iii. 13f. </td><td><a href="#page074">74</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iii. 15 </td><td><a href="#page094">94</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iii. 21 </td><td><a href="#page064">64</a>, <a href="#page082">82</a>, <a href="#page085">85</a>, <a href="#page265">265</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iii. 23 </td><td><a href="#page052">52</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iv. 5 </td><td><a href="#page090">90</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iv. 13 </td><td><a href="#page087">87</a>, <a href="#page146">146</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iv. 14 </td><td><a href="#page101">101</a>, <a href="#page102">102</a>, <a href="#page289">289</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iv. 14, 15 </td><td><a href="#page039">39</a>, <a href="#page115">115</a>, <a href="#page292">292</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iv. 14 to ix. 50 </td><td><a href="#page026">26</a>, <a href="#page102">102</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iv. 16 </td><td><a href="#page062">62</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iv. 16-19 </td><td><a href="#page063">63</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iv. 16-30 </td><td><a href="#page043">43</a>, <a href="#page116">116</a>, <a href="#page292">292</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iv. 23 </td><td><a href="#page292">292</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iv. 31 </td><td><a href="#page106">106</a>, <a href="#page115">115</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iv. 31-41 </td><td><a href="#page115">115</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iv. 42-44 </td><td><a href="#page115">115</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>v. 1-11 </td><td><a href="#page115">115</a>, <a href="#page293">293</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>v. 4-11 </td><td><a href="#page043">43</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>v. 12-16 </td><td><a href="#page115">115</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>v. 17 </td><td><a href="#page034">34</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>v. 17-26 </td><td><a href="#page115">115</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>v. 24 </td><td><a href="#page028">28</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>v. 27-32 </td><td><a href="#page115">115</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>v. 33-39 </td><td><a href="#page115">115</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vi. 1-5 </td><td><a href="#page115">115</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vi. 6-11 </td><td><a href="#page115">115</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vi. 12 </td><td><a href="#page084">84</a>, <a href="#page265">265</a>, <a href="#page290">290</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vi. 12-19 </td><td><a href="#page115">115</a>, <a href="#page295">295</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vi. 17 </td><td><a href="#page290">290</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vi. 20 </td><td><a href="#page222">222</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vi. 20 to vii. 1 </td><td><a href="#page115">115</a>, <a href="#page295">295</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vi. 20-26 </td><td><a href="#page296">296</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vi. 27-42 </td><td><a href="#page296">296</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vi. 43-46 </td><td><a href="#page296">296</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vi. 47-49 </td><td><a href="#page296">296</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vii. 1-10 </td><td><a href="#page041">41</a>, <a href="#page115">115</a>, <a href="#page288">288</a>, <a href="#page289">289</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vii. 2-5 </td><td><a href="#page007">7</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vii. 7 </td><td><a href="#page043">43</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vii. 11-17 </td><td><a href="#page042">42</a>, <a href="#page116">116</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vii. 18-35 </td><td><a href="#page041">41</a>, <a href="#page116">116</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vii. 36-50 </td><td><a href="#page042">42</a>, <a href="#page116">116</a>, <a href="#page224">224</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vii. 47 </td><td><a href="#page239">239</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>viii. 1-3 </td><td><a href="#page116">116</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>viii. 4-18 </td><td><a href="#page116">116</a>, <a href="#page296">296</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>viii. 19-21 </td><td><a href="#page116">116</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>viii. 22-25 </td><td><a href="#page116">116</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>viii. 26 </td><td><a href="#page290">290</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>viii. 26-39 </td><td><a href="#page116">116</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>viii. 40-56 </td><td><a href="#page116">116</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ix. 1-6 </td><td><a href="#page116">116</a>, <a href="#page297">297</a>, <a href="#page300">300</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ix. 7-9 </td><td><a href="#page116">116</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ix. 10-17 </td><td><a href="#page039">39</a>, <a href="#page116">116</a>, <a href="#page297">297</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ix. 11 </td><td><a href="#page135">135</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ix. 18 </td><td><a href="#page265">265</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ix. 18-21 </td><td><a href="#page117">117</a>, <a href="#page298">298</a></td></tr> +<tr><td><a class="newpage" name="page318" id="page318" title="318"></a>ix. 22-27 </td><td><a href="#page117">117</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ix. 28f. </td><td><a href="#page084">84</a>, <a href="#page146">146</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ix. 28-36 </td><td><a href="#page117">117</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ix. 29 </td><td><a href="#page265">265</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ix. 31 </td><td><a href="#page146">146</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ix. 37-42 </td><td><a href="#page117">117</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ix. 43-45 </td><td><a href="#page117">117</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ix. 46-50 </td><td><a href="#page117">117</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ix. 51 </td><td><a href="#page039">39</a>, <a href="#page157">157</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ix. 51f. </td><td><a href="#page158">158</a>, <a href="#page298">298</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ix. 51-62 </td><td><a href="#page153">153</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ix. 51 to xviii. </td><td><a href="#page040">40</a>, <a href="#page042">42</a>, <a href="#page104">104</a>, <a href="#page154">154</a>, <a href="#page156">156</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ix. 51 to xix. 27 </td><td><a href="#page026">26</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ix. 57-62 </td><td><a href="#page156">156</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>x. 1 </td><td><a href="#page158">158</a>, <a href="#page301">301</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>x. 3-12 </td><td><a href="#page297">297</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>x. 1-24 </td><td><a href="#page153">153</a>, <a href="#page300">300</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>x. 13-16 </td><td><a href="#page301">301</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>x. 17-20 </td><td><a href="#page301">301</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>x. 17-24 </td><td><a href="#page160">160</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>x. 18 </td><td><a href="#page248">248</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>x. 22 </td><td><a href="#page252">252</a>, <a href="#page263">263</a>, <a href="#page300">300</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>x. 25-37 </td><td><a href="#page034">34</a>, <a href="#page153">153</a>, <a href="#page159">159</a>, <a href="#page227">227</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>x. 28-37 </td><td><a href="#page159">159</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>x. 38-42 </td><td><a href="#page034">34</a>, <a href="#page111">111</a>, <a href="#page153">153</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xi. 1 </td><td><a href="#page042">42</a>, <a href="#page265">265</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xi. 1-4 </td><td><a href="#page042">42</a>, <a href="#page295">295</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xi. 1-13 </td><td><a href="#page117">117</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xi. 9-13 </td><td><a href="#page295">295</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xi. 14-36 </td><td><a href="#page040">40</a>, <a href="#page116">116</a>, <a href="#page156">156</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xi. 34-36 </td><td><a href="#page295">295</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xi. 37-52 </td><td><a href="#page156">156</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xi. 37-54 </td><td><a href="#page154">154</a>, <a href="#page164">164</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xii. 1-12 </td><td><a href="#page156">156</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xii. 1-59 </td><td><a href="#page154">154</a>, <a href="#page164">164</a>, <a href="#page165">165</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xii. 13-21 </td><td><a href="#page117">117</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xii. 22-31 </td><td><a href="#page042">42</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xii. 22-34 </td><td><a href="#page103">103</a>, <a href="#page156">156</a>, <a href="#page295">295</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xii. 49-53 </td><td><a href="#page165">165</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xii. 58f. </td><td><a href="#page295">295</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xiii. 1-9 </td><td><a href="#page154">154</a>, <a href="#page161">161</a>, <a href="#page164">164</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xiii. 10-17 </td><td><a href="#page117">117</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xiii. 18-21 </td><td><a href="#page044">44</a>, <a href="#page117">117</a>, <a href="#page296">296</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xiii. 22 </td><td><a href="#page157">157</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xiii. 22-30 </td><td><a href="#page153">153</a>, <a href="#page164">164</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xiii. 24 </td><td><a href="#page295">295</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xiii. 31f. </td><td><a href="#page171">171</a>, <a href="#page193">193</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xiii. 31-35 </td><td><a href="#page153">153</a>, <a href="#page168">168</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xiii. 32 </td><td><a href="#page005">5</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xiii. 34f. </td><td><a href="#page034">34</a>, <a href="#page106">106</a>, <a href="#page224">224</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xiii. 35 </td><td><a href="#page252">252</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xiv. 1-24 </td><td><a href="#page117">117</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xiv. 7ff. </td><td><a href="#page304">304</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xiv. 15-24 </td><td><a href="#page161">161</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xiv. 25-35 </td><td><a href="#page154">154</a>, <a href="#page156">156</a>, <a href="#page164">164</a>, <a href="#page165">165</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xiv. 26 </td><td><a href="#page233">233</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xv. 1f. </td><td><a href="#page096">96</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xv. 1 to xvi. 31 </td><td><a href="#page117">117</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xv. 4-7 </td><td><a href="#page044">44</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xv. 7 </td><td><a href="#page233">233</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xv. 11-32 </td><td><a href="#page232">232</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xvi. 13 </td><td><a href="#page295">295</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xvi. 22 </td><td><a href="#page247">247</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xvi. 31 </td><td><a href="#page229">229</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xvii. 1-4 </td><td><a href="#page117">117</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xvii. 11 </td><td><a href="#page157">157</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xvii. 11-19 </td><td><a href="#page153">153</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xvii. 20-37 </td><td><a href="#page154">154</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xviii. 1-8 </td><td><a href="#page154">154</a>, <a href="#page164">164</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xviii. 9-14 </td><td><a href="#page154">154</a>, <a href="#page159">159</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xviii. 15-17 </td><td><a href="#page153">153</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xviii. 15 to xix. 28 </td><td><a href="#page104">104</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xviii. 18-30 </td><td><a href="#page153">153</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xviii. 31-34 </td><td><a href="#page153">153</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xviii. 34 </td><td><a href="#page203">203</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xviii. 35-43 </td><td><a href="#page153">153</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xviii. 35 to xix. 28 </td><td><a href="#page155">155</a>, <a href="#page164">164</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xix. 1-10 </td><td><a href="#page154">154</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xix. 11-28 </td><td><a href="#page154">154</a>, <a href="#page163">163</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xix. 28 to xxiv. 53 </td><td><a href="#page027">27</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xix. 29-44 </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xix. 29 to xxiii. 56 </td><td><a href="#page104">104</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xix. 29 to xxiii. 53 </td><td><a href="#page039">39</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xix. 37-40 </td><td><a href="#page162">162</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xix. 39 </td><td><a href="#page170">170</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xix. 41-44 </td><td><a href="#page170">170</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xix. 45f. </td><td><a href="#page289">289</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xix. 45-47f. </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xix. 47 </td><td><a href="#page172">172</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xx. 1 </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xx. 1-8 </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xx. 9-19 </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xx. 20-26 </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xx. 27-40 </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xx. 41-44 </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xx. 45-47 </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxi. 1-4 </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxi. 5-38 </td><td><a href="#page167">167</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxii. 37-38 </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxii. 1-6 </td><td><a href="#page167">167</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxii. 7-30 </td><td><a href="#page167">167</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxii. 14 </td><td><a href="#page181">181</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxii. 15 </td><td><a href="#page181">181</a>, <a href="#page183">183</a>, <a href="#page303">303</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxii. 17 </td><td><a href="#page304">304</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxii. 17-20 </td><td><a href="#page185">185</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxii. 19 </td><td><a href="#page184">184</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxii. 23-30 </td><td><a href="#page304">304</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxii. 28 </td><td><a href="#page087">87</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxii. 31-34 </td><td><a href="#page185">185</a>, <a href="#page305">305</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxii. 39-46 </td><td><a href="#page167">167</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxii. 47-53 </td><td><a href="#page167">167</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxii. 54-71 </td><td><a href="#page167">167</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxii. 61f. </td><td><a href="#page193">193</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxii. 66-71 </td><td><a href="#page192">192</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxii. 70 </td><td><a href="#page263">263</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxiii. 1f. </td><td><a href="#page192">192</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxiii. 1-25 </td><td><a href="#page167">167</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxiii. 4 </td><td><a href="#page192">192</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxiii. 5-12 </td><td><a href="#page192">192</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxiii. 13-16 </td><td><a href="#page192">192</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxiii. 16-24 </td><td><a href="#page192">192</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxiii. 26-49 </td><td><a href="#page167">167</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxiii. 27-31 </td><td><a href="#page195">195</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxiii. 34 </td><td><a href="#page197">197</a>, <a href="#page306">306</a>, <a href="#page307">307</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxiii. 43 </td><td><a href="#page197">197</a>, <a href="#page306">306</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxiii. 46 </td><td><a href="#page064">64</a>, <a href="#page197">197</a>, <a href="#page265">265</a>, <a href="#page306">306</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxiii. 50-56 </td><td><a href="#page167">167</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxiii. 56 </td><td><a href="#page182">182</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxiv. 1-12 </td><td><a href="#page201">201</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxiv. 12 </td><td><a href="#page205">205</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxiv. 13-35 </td><td><a href="#page201">201</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxiv. 21 </td><td><a href="#page200">200</a>, <a href="#page203">203</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxiv. 36-43 </td><td><a href="#page201">201</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxiv. 41-43 </td><td><a href="#page213">213</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxiv. 44-53 </td><td><a href="#page201">201</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxiv. 50 </td><td><a href="#page205">205</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxiv. 51 </td><td><a href="#page214">214</a>, <a href="#page307">307</a></td></tr> + + + +<tr><th colspan="2">John.</th></tr> + + +<tr><td>i. 14 </td><td><a href="#page058">58</a>, <a href="#page269">269</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>1. 19 to iv. 42 </td><td><a href="#page040">40</a>, <a href="#page101">101</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>i. 25 </td><td><a href="#page078">78</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>i. 26f. </td><td><a href="#page093">93</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>i. 28 </td><td><a href="#page092">92</a>, <a href="#page284">284</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>i. 29 </td><td><a href="#page093">93</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>i. 29-36 </td><td><a href="#page080">80</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>i. 30-34 </td><td><a href="#page093">93</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>i. 31 </td><td><a href="#page082">82</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>i. 32-34 </td><td><a href="#page084">84</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>i. 35f. </td><td><a href="#page093">93</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>i. 38 </td><td><a href="#page020">20</a>, <a href="#page226">226</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>i. 40f., 43-45 </td><td><a href="#page092">92</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>i. 41-45 </td><td><a href="#page142">142</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>i. 42-47 </td><td><a href="#page239">239</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>i. 44 </td><td><a href="#page290">290</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>i. 49 </td><td><a href="#page094">94</a>, <a href="#page142">142</a>, <a href="#page254">254</a>, <a href="#page261">261</a>, <a href="#page263">263</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>i. 51 </td><td><a href="#page095">95</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ii. 3-5 </td><td><a href="#page097">97</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ii. 11 </td><td><a href="#page222">222</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ii. 12 </td><td><a href="#page097">97</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ii. 13 </td><td><a href="#page046">46</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ii. 13-22 </td><td><a href="#page043">43</a>, <a href="#page106">106</a>, <a href="#page288">288</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ii. 16 </td><td><a href="#page262">262</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ii. 20 </td><td><a href="#page049">49</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ii. 22 </td><td><a href="#page096">96</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ii. 23 to iii. 15 </td><td><a href="#page106">106</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ii. 25 </td><td><a href="#page068">68</a>, <a href="#page141">141</a>, <a href="#page234">234</a>, <a href="#page239">239</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iii. 2 </td><td><a href="#page226">226</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iii. 16-21,30-36 </td><td><a href="#page032">32</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iii. 22-30 </td><td><a href="#page106">106</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iii. 24 </td><td><a href="#page046">46</a>, <a href="#page101">101</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iii. 23 </td><td><a href="#page288">288</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iii. 24,35 </td><td><a href="#page113">113</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iii. 30 </td><td><a href="#page080">80</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iii. 34 </td><td><a href="#page085">85</a>, <a href="#page086">86</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iv. 1-3 </td><td><a href="#page113">113</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iv. 1-3, 44 </td><td><a href="#page112">112</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iv. 1-4 </td><td><a href="#page289">289</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iv. 1-42 </td><td><a href="#page106">106</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iv. 1-45 </td><td><a href="#page102">102</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iv. 21-24 </td><td><a href="#page109">109</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iv. 25 </td><td><a href="#page014">14</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iv. 26 </td><td><a href="#page254">254</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iv. 30 </td><td><a href="#page095">95</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iv. 34 </td><td><a href="#page265">265</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iv. 35 </td><td><a href="#page107">107</a>, <a href="#page288">288</a>, <a href="#page293">293</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iv. 42 </td><td><a href="#page040">40</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iv. 43-45 </td><td><a href="#page039">39</a>, <a href="#page106">106</a>, <a href="#page286">286</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iv. 46-54 </td><td><a href="#page102">102</a>, <a href="#page106">106</a>, <a href="#page115">115</a>, <a href="#page289">289</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>v. 1 </td><td><a href="#page040">40</a>, <a href="#page048">48</a>, <a href="#page293">293</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>v. 1-9 </td><td><a href="#page032">32</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>v. 1-47 </td><td><a href="#page102">102</a>, <a href="#page115">115</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>v. 17 </td><td><a href="#page262">262</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>v. 19 </td><td><a href="#page264">264</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>v. 25 </td><td><a href="#page263">263</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>v. 30 </td><td><a href="#page265">265</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>v. 39 </td><td><a href="#page229">229</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vi. 1-15 </td><td><a href="#page039">39</a>, <a href="#page116">116</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vi. 1-71 </td><td><a href="#page102">102</a></td></tr> +<tr><td><a class="newpage" name="page319" id="page319" title="319"></a>vi. 4 </td><td><a href="#page046">46</a>, <a href="#page138">138</a>, <a href="#page293">293</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vi. 14 </td><td><a href="#page025">25</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vi. 14f. </td><td><a href="#page119">119</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vi. 15 </td><td><a href="#page089">89</a>, <a href="#page120">120</a>, <a href="#page135">135</a>, <a href="#page170">170</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vi. 16-21 </td><td><a href="#page116">116</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vi. 22-71 </td><td><a href="#page116">116</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vi. 30-32 </td><td><a href="#page087">87</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vi. 38 </td><td><a href="#page189">189</a>, <a href="#page265">265</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vi. 64 </td><td><a href="#page178">178</a>, <a href="#page180">180</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vi. 66 </td><td><a href="#page136">136</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vi. 67 </td><td><a href="#page225">225</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vi. 67-71 </td><td><a href="#page298">298</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vi. 68 </td><td><a href="#page081">81</a>, <a href="#page123">123</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vi. 68f. </td><td><a href="#page142">142</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vi. 69 </td><td><a href="#page254">254</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vii. 1-10 </td><td><a href="#page039">39</a>, <a href="#page298">298</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vii. 1-52 </td><td><a href="#page117">117</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vii. 1 to viii. 59 </td><td><a href="#page103">103</a>, <a href="#page149">149</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vii. 2 </td><td><a href="#page138">138</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vii. 2-5 </td><td><a href="#page148">148</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vii. 5 </td><td><a href="#page064">64</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vii. 10 </td><td><a href="#page150">150</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vii. 15 </td><td><a href="#page235">235</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vii. 22 </td><td><a href="#page244">244</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vii. 23 </td><td><a href="#page032">32</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vii. 24 </td><td><a href="#page227">227</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vii. 25,32 </td><td><a href="#page160">160</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vii. 31 </td><td><a href="#page095">95</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vii. 32 </td><td><a href="#page299">299</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vii. 36 </td><td><a href="#page149">149</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vii. 40 </td><td><a href="#page254">254</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vii. 45-52 </td><td><a href="#page299">299</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vii. 49 </td><td><a href="#page013">13</a>, <a href="#page220">220</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vii. 50-52 </td><td><a href="#page111">111</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vii. 53 to viii. 11 </td><td><a href="#page037">37</a>, <a href="#page117">117</a>, <a href="#page149">149</a>, <a href="#page157">157</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>viii. 12-59 </td><td><a href="#page117">117</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>viii. 14 </td><td><a href="#page248">248</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>viii. 15 </td><td><a href="#page157">157</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>viii. 46 </td><td><a href="#page083">83</a>, <a href="#page266">266</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>viii. 59 </td><td><a href="#page160">160</a>, <a href="#page299">299</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ix. 1 to x. 39 </td><td><a href="#page153">153</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ix. 1 to xi. 57 </td><td><a href="#page104">104</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ix. 10 </td><td><a href="#page158">158</a>, <a href="#page159">159</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ix. 35 </td><td><a href="#page263">263</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ix. 35-38 </td><td><a href="#page156">156</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>x. 11-18 </td><td><a href="#page159">159</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>x. 18 </td><td><a href="#page089">89</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>x. 21 </td><td><a href="#page159">159</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>x. 22 </td><td><a href="#page150">150</a>, <a href="#page155">155</a>, <a href="#page298">298</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>x. 22, 40-42 </td><td><a href="#page058">58</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>x. 24-39 </td><td><a href="#page159">159</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>x. 25 </td><td><a href="#page161">161</a>, <a href="#page262">262</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>x. 29 </td><td><a href="#page265">265</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>x. 30 </td><td><a href="#page264">264</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>x. 31-39 </td><td><a href="#page160">160</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>x. 32 </td><td><a href="#page233">233</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>x. 34 </td><td><a href="#page261">261</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>x. 36 </td><td><a href="#page263">263</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>x. 39 </td><td><a href="#page156">156</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>x. 40 </td><td><a href="#page154">154</a>, <a href="#page155">155</a>, <a href="#page301">301</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>x. 40-42 </td><td><a href="#page153">153</a>, <a href="#page160">160</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xi. 1-7 </td><td><a href="#page155">155</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xi. 1-46 </td><td><a href="#page153">153</a>, <a href="#page161">161</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xi. 4 </td><td><a href="#page263">263</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xi. 6 </td><td><a href="#page161">161</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xi. 34 </td><td><a href="#page243">243</a>, <a href="#page258">258</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xi. 41f. </td><td><a href="#page161">161</a>, <a href="#page265">265</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xi. 47-50 </td><td><a href="#page193">193</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xi. 47-54 </td><td><a href="#page153">153</a>, <a href="#page161">161</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xi. 54 </td><td><a href="#page155">155</a>, <a href="#page162">162</a>, <a href="#page300">300</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xi. 55 to xii. 11 </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xi. 55 to xix. 42 </td><td><a href="#page104">104</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xii. 1 </td><td><a href="#page046">46</a>, <a href="#page102">102</a>, <a href="#page163">163</a>, <a href="#page301">301</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xii. 1 to xxi. 25 </td><td><a href="#page039">39</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xii. 2 </td><td><a href="#page169">169</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xii. 4-8 </td><td><a href="#page301">301</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xii. 6 </td><td><a href="#page178">178</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xii. 7 </td><td><a href="#page169">169</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xii. 12f. </td><td><a href="#page170">170</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xii. 12-19 </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xii. 20-36 </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a>, <a href="#page176">176</a>, <a href="#page302">302</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xii. 23-36 </td><td><a href="#page168">168</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xii. 36<sup>b</sup>(-50) </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xii. 37-43 </td><td><a href="#page032">32</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xiii. 1 </td><td><a href="#page181">181</a>, <a href="#page303">303</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xiii. 1-15 </td><td><a href="#page234">234</a>, <a href="#page304">304</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xiii. 1-30 </td><td><a href="#page167">167</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xiii. 21-30 </td><td><a href="#page184">184</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xiii. 23-26 </td><td><a href="#page185">185</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xiii. 29 </td><td><a href="#page178">178</a>, <a href="#page303">303</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xiii. 31 to xvi. 33 </td><td><a href="#page032">32</a>, <a href="#page167">167</a>, <a href="#page305">305</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xiii. 32f. </td><td><a href="#page305">305</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xiii. 36-38 </td><td><a href="#page305">305</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xiv. 6-11 </td><td><a href="#page264">264</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xiv. 10 </td><td><a href="#page161">161</a>, <a href="#page265">265</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xiv. 28 </td><td><a href="#page265">265</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xiv. 30f. </td><td><a href="#page032">32</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xv. </td><td><a href="#page032">32</a>, <a href="#page167">167</a>, <a href="#page305">305</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xv. 1 </td><td><a href="#page262">262</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xvi. </td><td><a href="#page032">32</a>, <a href="#page167">167</a>, <a href="#page305">305</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xvi. 25 </td><td><a href="#page264">264</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xvii. 1-26 </td><td><a href="#page167">167</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xvii. 21 </td><td><a href="#page264">264</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xviii. 1 </td><td><a href="#page167">167</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xviii. 1-12 </td><td><a href="#page167">167</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xviii. 8 </td><td><a href="#page190">190</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xviii. 11<sup>b</sup> </td><td><a href="#page189">189</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xviii. 12-27 </td><td><a href="#page167">167</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xviii. 15 </td><td><a href="#page193">193</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xviii. 28 </td><td><a href="#page182">182</a>, <a href="#page303">303</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xviii. 28 to xix. 16 </td><td><a href="#page167">167</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xviii. 31 </td><td><a href="#page192">192</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xviii. 33, 36f. </td><td><a href="#page254">254</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xix. 7-12 </td><td><a href="#page192">192</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xix. 12-16 </td><td><a href="#page193">193</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xix. 14 </td><td><a href="#page303">303</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xix. 16-37 </td><td><a href="#page167">167</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xix. 19-22 </td><td><a href="#page198">198</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xix. 25 </td><td><a href="#page097">97</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xix. 26 </td><td><a href="#page097">97</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xix. 26f. </td><td><a href="#page197">197</a>, <a href="#page306">306</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xix. 28 </td><td><a href="#page197">197</a>, <a href="#page306">306</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xix. 30 </td><td><a href="#page197">197</a>, <a href="#page306">306</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xix. 31 </td><td><a href="#page182">182</a>, <a href="#page199">199</a>, <a href="#page303">303</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xix. 31-37 </td><td><a href="#page198">198</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xix. 38 </td><td><a href="#page034">34</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xix. 38-42 </td><td><a href="#page167">167</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xix. 39 </td><td><a href="#page111">111</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xix. 42 </td><td><a href="#page303">303</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xx. 1-10 </td><td><a href="#page201">201</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xx. 2 </td><td><a href="#page206">206</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xx. 5-8 </td><td><a href="#page043">43</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xx. 8 </td><td><a href="#page203">203</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xx. 9 </td><td><a href="#page200">200</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xx. 9f., 24f. </td><td><a href="#page093">93</a>, <a href="#page094">94</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xx. 14-18 </td><td><a href="#page201">201</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xx. 17 </td><td><a href="#page209">209</a>, <a href="#page214">214</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xx 19-25 </td><td><a href="#page201">201</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xx. 21 </td><td><a href="#page023">23</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xx. 26-29 </td><td><a href="#page201">201</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xx. 30 </td><td><a href="#page049">49</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xx. 30f. </td><td><a href="#page032">32</a>, <a href="#page107">107</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxi. </td><td><a href="#page206">206</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxi. 2 </td><td><a href="#page092">92</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxi. 1-24 </td><td><a href="#page201">201</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxi. 3-14 </td><td><a href="#page293">293</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxi. 25 </td><td><a href="#page039">39</a></td></tr> + + + +<tr><th colspan="2">Acts.</th></tr> + + +<tr><td>i. 1-11 </td><td><a href="#page214">214</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>i. 1-12 </td><td><a href="#page201">201</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>i. 14 </td><td><a href="#page097">97</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ii. 36 </td><td><a href="#page202">202</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>v. 36 </td><td><a href="#page089">89</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>v. 37 </td><td><a href="#page053">53</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vii. 56 </td><td><a href="#page254">254</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xvii. 31 </td><td><a href="#page202">202</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xix. 1-7 </td><td><a href="#page080">80</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xx. 35 </td><td><a href="#page036">36</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxi. 38 </td><td><a href="#page089">89</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxiii. 8 </td><td><a href="#page302">302</a></td></tr> + + + +<tr><th colspan="2">Rom.</th></tr> + + +<tr><td>i. 3 </td><td><a href="#page021">21</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>i. 4 </td><td><a href="#page202">202</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>v. 19 </td><td><a href="#page021">21</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ix. 5 </td><td><a href="#page021">21</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xv. 3 </td><td><a href="#page021">21</a></td></tr> + + + +<tr><th colspan="2">I. Cor.</th></tr> + + +<tr><td>i. 23 </td><td><a href="#page190">190</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>v. 7 </td><td><a href="#page183">183</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ix. 1 </td><td><a href="#page202">202</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>x. 16 </td><td><a href="#page304">304</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xv. </td><td><a href="#page202">202</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xv. 3-8 </td><td><a href="#page021">21</a>, <a href="#page105">105</a>, <a href="#page204">204</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xv. 4 </td><td><a href="#page204">204</a>, <a href="#page213">213</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xv. 5 </td><td><a href="#page201">201</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xv. 6 </td><td><a href="#page201">201</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xv. 6f. </td><td><a href="#page162">162</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xv. 7 </td><td><a href="#page201">201</a></td></tr> + + + +<tr><th colspan="2">II. Cor.</th></tr> + + +<tr><td>v. 21 </td><td><a href="#page083">83</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>viii. 9 </td><td><a href="#page021">21</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>x. l </td><td><a href="#page021">21</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xii. </td><td><a href="#page212">212</a></td></tr> + + + +<tr><th colspan="2">Gal.</th></tr> + + +<tr><td>iii. 13 </td><td><a href="#page190">190</a></td></tr> + + + +<tr><th colspan="2"><a class="newpage" name="page320" id="page320" title="320"></a>Phil.</th></tr> + + +<tr><td>ii. 5-11 </td><td><a href="#page021">21</a>, <a href="#page269">269</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ii. 7f. </td><td><a href="#page190">190</a>, <a href="#page285">285</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ii. 8 </td><td><a href="#page196">196</a></td></tr> + + + +<tr><th colspan="2">II. Tim.</th></tr> + + +<tr><td>iii. 15 </td><td><a href="#page063">63</a></td></tr> + + + +<tr><th colspan="2">Heb.</th></tr> + + +<tr><td>ii. 17 </td><td><a href="#page061">61</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ii. 17f. </td><td><a href="#page064">64</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ii. 18 </td><td><a href="#page087">87</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iv. 15 </td><td><a href="#page061">61</a>, <a href="#page063">63</a>, <a href="#page067">67</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>v. 7 </td><td><a href="#page147">147</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>v. 7-9 </td><td><a href="#page087">87</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vii. 26 </td><td><a href="#page057">57</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xii. 2 </td><td><a href="#page190">190</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xii. 13 </td><td><a href="#page190">190</a></td></tr> + + + +<tr><th colspan="2">I. Pet.</th></tr> + + +<tr><td>ii. 22 </td><td><a href="#page083">83</a></td></tr> +</table> +</div></div> + +<div>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 13228 ***</div> +</body> +</html> + + + + diff --git a/13228-h/images/map.jpg b/13228-h/images/map.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..922e355 --- /dev/null +++ b/13228-h/images/map.jpg diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..ff9878c --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #13228 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/13228) diff --git a/old/13228-0.txt b/old/13228-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..5fd6a9c --- /dev/null +++ b/old/13228-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,10005 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Life of Jesus of Nazareth, by Rush Rhees + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Life of Jesus of Nazareth + +Author: Rush Rhees + +Release Date: August 20, 2004 [EBook #13228] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: UTF-8 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE LIFE OF JESUS OF NAZARETH *** + + + + +Produced by Distributed Proofreaders + + + + +[Transcriber's note: Superscripted letters and numbers have been marked +with a preceding caret (^).] + + + + +The Life of Jesus of Nazareth + +_A Study_ + +By + +Rush Rhees + +1902 + + + + +_Copyright, 1900,_ +By Charles Scribner's Sons + + + + +To + +C. W. McC. + +In Recognition of Wise Counsel, Generous Help and Loving Appreciation + + + + +"_I would preach ... the need to the world of the faith +in a Christ, the claim that Jesus is the Christ, and the demand +for an intelligent faith, which indeed shall transcend but shall +not despise knowledge, or neglect to have a knowledge to +transcend._"--John Patterson Coyle + + + + +Preface + + + +The aim of this book is to help thoughtful readers of the gospels to +discern more clearly the features of him whom those writings inimitably +portray. It is avowedly a study rather than a story, and as a companion to +the reading of the gospels it seeks to answer some of the questions which +are raised by a sympathetic consideration of those narratives. These +answers are offered in an unargumentative way, even where the questions +are still in debate among scholars. This method has been adopted because +technical discussion would be of interest to but few of those whom the +book hopes to serve. On some of the questions a non-committal attitude is +taken in the belief that for the understanding of the life of Jesus it is +of little importance which way the decision finally goes. Less attention +has been given to questions of geography and archæology than to those +which have a more vital biographical significance. + +A word concerning the point of view adopted. The church has inherited a +rich treasure of doctrine concerning its Lord, the result of patient study +and, frequently, of heated controversy. It is customary to approach the +gospels with this interpretation of Christ as a premise, and such a study +has some unquestionable advantages. With the apostles and evangelists, +however, the recognition of the divine nature of Jesus was a conclusion +from their acquaintance with him. The Man of Nazareth was for them +primarily a man, and they so regarded him until he showed them that he was +more. Their knowledge of him progressed in the natural way from the human +to the divine. The gospels, particularly the first three, are marvels of +simplicity and objectivity. Their authors clearly regarded Jesus as the +Man from heaven; yet in their thinking they were dominated by the +influence of a personal Lord rather than by the force of an accepted +doctrine. It is with no lack of reverence for the importance and truth of +the divinity of Christ that this book essays to bring the Man Jesus before +the mind in the reading of the gospels. The incarnation means that God +chose to reveal the divine through a human life, rather than through a +series of propositions which formulate truth (Heb. i. 1-4). The most +perennially refreshing influence for Christian life and thought is +personal discipleship to that Revealer who is able to-day as of old to +exhibit in his humanity those qualities which compel the recognition of +God manifest in the flesh. + +An Appendix is added to furnish references to the wide literature of the +subject for the aid of those who wish to study it more extensively and +technically; also to discuss some questions of detail which could not be +considered in the text. This appendix will indicate the extent of my +indebtedness to others. I would acknowledge special obligation to +Professor Ernest D. Burton, of the University of Chicago, for generous +help and permission to use material found in his "Notes on the Life of +Jesus;" to Professor Shailer Mathews, also of Chicago, for very valuable +criticisms; to my colleague, Professor Charles Rufus Brown, for most +serviceable assistance; and to the editors of this series for helpful +suggestions and criticism during the making of the book. An unmeasured +debt is due to another who has sat at my side during the writing of these +pages, and has given constant inspiration, most discerning criticism, and +practical aid. + +The Newton Theological Institution, April, 1900. + + + + +Contents + + + +Part I + +Preparatory + + + +I + +The Historical Situation + +Sections 1-19. Pages 1-20 + + Section 1. The Roman estimate of Judea. 2, 3. Herod the Great and his + sons. 4. Roman procurators in Palestine. 5. Taxes. 6. The army. 7. + Administration of justice. 8. The Sadducees. 9,10. The Pharisees. 11. + The Zealots. 12. The Essenes. 13. The Devout. 14. Herodians and + Samaritans. 15. The synagogue. 16. Life under the law. 17. The + Messianic hope. 18. Contemporary literature. 19. Language of Palestine. + + +II + +Sources of Our Knowledge of Jesus + +Sections 20-35. Pages 21-37 + + Section 20. The testimony of Paul. 21. Secular history. 22. The written + gospels. 23. Characteristics of the first gospel. 24. Of the second. + 25. Of the third. 26-30. The synoptic problem. 31-32. The Johannine + problem. 34. The two narrative sources. 35. Agrapha and Apocrypha. + + +III + +The Harmony of the Gospels + +Sections 36-44. Pages 38-14 + + Section 36. The value of four gospels. 37. Tatian's Diatessaron. 38. + Agreement of the gospels concerning the chief events. 39. The principal + problems. 40. Relation of Mark and John. 41, 42. Matthew and Luke. 43. + Doublets. 44. The degree of certainty attainable. + + +IV + +The Chronology + +Sections 45-57. Pages 45-56 + + Sections 45-48. The length of Jesus' public ministry. 49. Date of the + first Passover. 50. Date of the crucifixion. 51-56. Date of the + nativity. 57. Summary. + + +V + +The Early Years of Jesus + +Sections 58-71. Pages 57-69 + + Section 58. Apocryphal stories. 59. Silence of the New Testament + outside the gospels. 60-62. The miraculous birth. 63. The childhood of + Jesus. 64. Home. 65. Religion, Education. 66. Growth. 67. Religious + development. 68. The view from Nazareth. 69 The first visit to + Jerusalem. 70-71. The carpenter of Nazareth. + + +VI + +John the Baptist + +Sections 72-84. Pages 70-81 + + Section 72. The gospel picture. 73. Notice by Josephus. 74. + Characteristics of the prophet 75-78. John's relation to the Essenes; + the Pharisees; the Zealots; the Apocalyptists. 79. John and the + Prophets. 80-82. Origin of his baptism. 83. His greatness. 84. His + limitations and self-effacement. + + +VII + +The Messianic Call + +Sections 85-96. Pages 82-91 + + Sections 85, 86. John and Jesus. 87. The baptism of Jesus. 88, 89. The + Messianic call. 90. The gift of the Spirit. 91-94. The temptation. 95. + Source of the narrative. 96. The issue. + + +VIII + +The First Disciples + +Sections 97-105. Pages 92-97 + + Section 97. John at Bethany beyond Jordan. 98. The deputation from the + priests. 99. John's first testimony. 100. The first disciples. 101. The + early Messianic confessions. 102. The visit to Cana. 103. The miracles + as disclosures of the character of Jesus. 104. Jesus and his mother. + 105. Removal to Capernaum. + + + +Part II + +The Ministry + + +I + +General Survey of the Ministry + +Sections 106-112. Pages 101-105 + + Section 106. The early Judean ministry. 107. Withdrawal to Galilee; a + new beginning. 108. The ministry in Galilee a unit. 109. Best studied + topically. 110. The last journey to Jerusalem. 111. The last week. 112. + The resurrection and ascension. + + +II + +The Early Judean Ministry + +Sections 113-124. Pages 106-114 + + Outline of events in the Early Judean ministry. Section 113. The + opening ministry at Jerusalem. 114. The record incomplete. 115. The + cleansing of the temple. 116. Relation to synoptic account. 117. Jesus' + reply to the challenge of his authority. 118. The reserve of Jesus. + 119. Discourse with Nicodemus. 120. Measure of success in Jerusalem. + 121. The Baptist's last testimony. 122. The arrest of John. 123. The + second sign at Cana. 124. Summary. + + +III + +The Ministry in Galilee--Its Aim and Method + +Sections 125-149. Pages 115-137 + + Outline of events in the Galilean ministry. Section 125. General view. + 126, 127. Development of popular enthusiasm. 128. Pharisaic opposition. + 129, 130. Jesus and the Messianic hope. 131. Injunctions of silence. + 132-135. Jesus' twofold aim in Galilee. 136, 137. Character of the + teaching of this period: the sermon on the mount. 138. The parables. + 139. The instructions for the mission of the twelve. 140. Jesus' tone + of authority. 141. His mighty works. 142-144. Demoniac possession. 145. + Jesus' personal influence. 146. The feeding of the five thousand. 147, + 148. Revulsion of popular feeling. 149. Results of the work in Galilee. + + +IV + +The Ministry in Galilee--The New Lesson + +Sections 150-165. Pages 138-152 + + Section 150. The changed ministry. 151. The question of tradition. 152. + Further pharisaic opposition. 153. Jesus in PhÅ“nicia. 154. Confirmation + of the disciples' faith. 155. The question at Cæsarea Philippi. 156. + The corner-stone of the Church. 157-159. The new lesson. 160. The + transfiguration. 161. Cure of the epileptic boy. 162. The feast of + Tabernacles. 163. Story of Jesus and the adulteress. 164. The new note + in Jesus' teaching. 165. Summary of the Galilean ministry. + + +V + +The Journey through Perea to Jerusalem + +Sections 166-176. Pages 153-165 + + Outline of events. Section 166. The Perean ministry. 167. Account in + John. 168, 169. Account in Luke. 170. The mission of the seventy. 171. + The feast of Dedication. 172. Withdrawal beyond Jordan. 173. The + raising of Lazarus. 174. Ephraim and Jericho. 175,176. Summary. + + +VI + +The Final Controversies in Jerusalem + +Sections 177-188. Pages 166-180 + + Outline of events in the last week of Jesus' life. Section 177. The + cross in apostolic preaching. 178. The anointing in Bethany. 179. The + Messianic entry. 180. The barren fig-tree. 181. The Monday of Passion + week. 182-186. The controversies of Tuesday. 187. Judas. 188. + Wednesday, the day of seclusion. + + +VII + +The Last Supper + +Sections 189-195. Pages 181-187 + + Section 189. Preparations. 190,191. Date of the supper. 192. The lesson + of humility. 193. The new covenant. 194. The supper and the Passover. + 195. Farewell words of admonition and comfort; the intercessory prayer. + + +VIII + +The Shadow of Death + +Sections 196-208. Pages 188-200 + + Sections 196, 197. Gethsemane. 198. The betrayal. 199. The trial. 200. + Peter's denials. 201. The rejection of Jesus. 202. The greatness of + Jesus. 203, 204. The crucifixion. 205. The words from the cross. 206. + The death of Jesus. 207. The burial. 208. The Sabbath rest. + + +IX + +The Resurrection + +Sections 209-222. Pages 201-216 + + Section 209. The primary Christian fact. 210. The incredulity of the + disciples. 211-216. The appearances of the risen Lord. 217-220. Efforts + to explain the belief in the resurrection. 221. The ascension. 222. The + new faith of the disciples. + + + +Part III + +The Minister + + +I + +The Friend of Men + +Sections 223-229. Pages 219-225 + + Section 223. The contrast between Jesus' attitude and John's towards + common social life. 224. Contrast with the scribes. 225, 226. His + interest in simple manhood. 227. Regard for human need. 228, 229. + Sensitiveness to human sympathy. + + +II + +The Teacher with Authority + +Sections 230-241. Pages 226-237 + + Section 230. Contrast between Jesus and the scribes. 231. His appeal to + the conscience. His attitude to the Old Testament. 234. His teaching + occasional. 235. The patience of his method. 236. His use of + illustration. 237. Parable. 238. Irony and hyperbole. 239. Object + lessons. 240. Jesus' intellectual superiority. 241. His chief theme, + the kingdom of God. + + +III + +Jesus' Knowledge of Truth + +Sections 242-251. Pages 238-248 + + Sections 242, 243. Jesus' supernatural knowledge. 244. His predictions + of his death. 245. Of his resurrection. 246. His apocalyptic + predictions. 247, 248. Limitation of his knowledge. 249, 250. Jesus and + demoniac possession. 251. His certainty of his own mission. + + +IV + +Jesus' Conception of Himself + +Sections 252-275. Pages 249-269. + + Section 252. Jesus' confidence in his calling. 253. His independence in + teaching. 254. His self-assertions in response to pharisaic criticism. + 255. His desire to beget faith in himself. 256,257. His extraordinary + personal claim. 258. His acceptance of Messianic titles. 259-266. The + Son of Man. 267-269. The Son of God. 270, 271. His consciousness of + oneness with God. 272. His confession of dependence; his habit of + prayer. 273. No confession of sin. 274, 275. The Word made flesh. + + +Appendix + +Index of Names and Subjects + +Index of Biblical References + +Map of Palestine + + + + +Part I + + +Preparatory + + + + +I + +The Historical Situation + + + +1. When Tacitus, the Roman historian, records the attempt of Nero to +charge the Christians with the burning of Rome, he has patience for no +more than the cursory remark that the sect originated with a Jew who had +been put to death in Judea during the reign of Tiberius. This province was +small and despised, and Tacitus could account for the influence of the +sect which sprang thence only by the fact that all that was infamous and +abominable flowed into Rome. The Roman's scornful judgment failed to grasp +the nature and power of the movement whose unpopularity invited Nero's +lying accusation, yet it emphasizes the significance of him who did "not +strive, nor cry, nor cause his voice to be heard in the street," whose +influence, nevertheless, was working as leaven throughout the empire. + +2. Palestine was not under immediate Roman rule when Jesus was born. Herod +the Great was drawing near the close of the long reign during which, owing +to his skill in securing Roman favor, he had tyrannized over his unwilling +people. His claim was that of an adventurer who had power to succeed, even +as his method had been that of a suspicious tyrant, who murdered right and +left, lest one of the many with better right than he should rise to +dispute with him his throne. When Herod died, his kingdom was divided +into three parts, and Rome asserted a fuller sovereignty, allowing none of +his sons to take his royal title. Herod's successors ruled with a measure +of independence, however, and followed many of their father's ways, though +none of them had his ability. The best of them was Philip, who had the +territory farthest from Jerusalem, and least related to Jewish life. He +ruled over Iturea and Trachonitis, the country to the north and east of +the Sea of Galilee, having his capital at Cæsarea Philippi, a city built +and named by him on the site of an older town near the sources of the +Jordan. He also rebuilt the city of Bethsaida, at the point where the +Jordan flows into the Sea of Galilee, calling it Julias, after the +daughter of Augustus. Philip enters the story of the life of Jesus only as +the ruler of these towns and the intervening region, and as husband of +Salome, the daughter of Herodias. Living far from Jerusalem and the Jewish +people, he abandoned even the show of Judaism which characterized his +father, and lived as a frank heathen in his heathen capital. + +3. The other two who inherited Herod's dominion were brothers, Archelaus +and Antipas, sons of Malthace, one of Herod's many wives. Archelaus had +been designated king by Herod, with Judea, Samaria, and Idumea as his +kingdom; but the emperor allowed him only the territory, with the title +ethnarch. Antipas was named a tetrarch by Herod, and his territory was +Galilee and the land east of the Jordan to the southward of the Sea of +Galilee, called Perea. Antipas was the Herod under whose sway Jesus lived +in Galilee, and who executed John the Baptist. He was a man of passionate +temper, with the pride and love of luxury of his father. Having Jews to +govern, he held, as his father had done, to a show of Judaism, though at +heart he was as much of a pagan as Philip. He, too, loved building, and +Tiberias on the Sea of Galilee was built by him for his capital. His +unscrupulous tyranny and his gross disregard of common righteousness +appear in his relations with John the Baptist and with Herodias, his +paramour. Jesus described him well as "that fox" (Luke xiii. 32), for he +was sly, and worked often by indirection. While his father had energy and +ability which command a sort of admiration, Antipas was not only bad but +weak. + +4. Both Philip and Antipas reigned until after the death of Jesus, Philip +dying in A.D. 34, and Antipas being deposed several years later, probably +in 39. Archelaus had a much shorter rule, for he was deposed in A.D. 6, +having been accused by the Jews of unbearable barbarity and tyranny,--a +charge in which Antipas and Philip joined. The territory of Archelaus was +then made an imperial province of the second grade, ruled by a procurator +appointed from among the Roman knights. In provinces under an imperial +legate (propraetor) the procurator was an officer for the administration +of the revenues; in provinces of the rank of Judea he was, however, the +representative of the emperor in all the prerogatives of government, +having command of the army, and being the final resort in legal procedure, +as well as supervising the collection of the customs and taxes. Very +little is known of the procurators appointed after the deposition of +Archelaus, until Tiberius sent Pontius Pilate in A.D. 26. He held office +until he was deposed in 36. Josephus gives several examples of his wanton +disregard of Jewish prejudice, and of his extreme cruelty. His conduct at +the trial of Jesus was remarkably gentle and judicial in comparison with +other acts recorded of his government; yet the fear of trial at Rome, +which finally induced him to give Jesus over to be crucified, was +thoroughly characteristic; in fact, his downfall resulted from a complaint +lodged against him by certain Samaritans whom he had cruelly punished for +a Messianic uprising. + +5. There were two sorts of Roman taxes in Judea: direct, which were +collected by salaried officials; and customs, which were farmed out to the +highest bidder. The direct taxes consisted of a land tax and a poll tax, +in the collection of which the procurator made use of the local Jewish +courts; the customs consisted of various duties assessed on exports, and +they were gathered by representatives of men who had bought the right to +collect these dues. The chiefs as well as their underlings are called +publicans in our New Testament, although the name strictly applies only to +the chiefs. These tax-gatherers, small and great, were everywhere despised +and execrated, because, in addition to their subserviency to a hated +government, they had a reputation, usually deserved, for all sorts of +extortion. Because of this evil repute they were commonly drawn from the +unscrupulous among the people, so that the frequent coupling of publicans +and sinners in the gospels probably rested on fact as much as on +prejudice. + +6. In Samaria and Judea soldiers were under the command of the procurator; +they took orders from the tetrarch, in Galilee and Perea. The garrison of +Jerusalem consisted of one Roman cohort--from five to six hundred +men--which was reinforced at the time of the principal feasts. These and +the other forces at the disposal of the procurator were probably recruited +from the country itself, largely from among the Samaritans. The centurion +of Capernaum (Matt. viii. 5; Luke vii. 2-5) was an officer in the army of +Antipas, who, however, doubtless organized his army on the Roman pattern, +with officers who had had their training with the imperial forces. + +7. The administration of justice in Samaria and Judea was theoretically in +the hands of the procurator; practically, however, it was left with the +Jewish courts, either the local councils or the great sanhedrin at +Jerusalem. This last body consisted of seventy-one "elders." Its president +was the high-priest, and its members were drawn in large degree from the +most prominent representatives of the priestly aristocracy. The scribes, +however, had a controlling influence because of the reverence in which the +multitude held them. The sanhedrin of Jerusalem had jurisdiction only +within the province of Judea, where it tried all kinds of offences; its +judgment was final, except in capital cases, when it had to yield to the +procurator, who alone could sentence to death. It had great influence also +in Galilee, and among Jews everywhere, but this was due to the regard all +Jews had for the holy city. It was, in fact, a sort of Jewish senate, +which took cognizance of everything that seemed to affect the Jewish +interests. In Galilee and Perea, Antipas held in his hands the judicial as +well as the military and financial administration. + +8. To the majority of the priests religion had become chiefly a form. +They represented the worldly party among the Jews. Since the days of the +priest-princes who ruled in Jerusalem after the return from the exile, +they had constituted the Jewish aristocracy, and held most of the wealth +of the people. It was to their interest to maintain the ritual and the +traditional customs, and they were proud of their Jewish heritage; of +genuine interest in religion, however, they had little. This secular +priestly party was called the Sadducees, probably from Zadok, the +high-priest in Solomon's time. What theology the Sadducees had was for the +most part reactionary and negative. They were opposed to the more earnest +spirit and new thought of the scribes, and naturally produced some +champions who argued for their theological position; but the mass of them +cared for other things. + +9. The leaders of the popular thought, on the other hand, were chiefly +noted for their religious zeal and theological acumen. They represented +the outgrowth of that spirit which in the Maccabean time had risked all to +defend the sanctity of the temple and the right of God's people to worship +him according to his law. They were known as Pharisees, because, as the +name ("separated") indicates, they insisted on the separation of the +people of God from all the defilements and snares of the heathen life +round about them. The Pharisees constituted a fraternity devoted to the +scrupulous observance of law and tradition in all the concerns of daily +life. They were specialists in religion, and were the ideal +representatives of Judaism. Their distinguishing characteristic was +reverence for the law; their religion was the religion of a book. By +punctilious obedience of the law man might hope to gain a record of merit +which should stand to his credit and secure his reward when God should +finally judge the world. Because life furnished many situations not dealt +with in the written law, there was need of its authoritative +interpretation, in order that ignorance might not cause a man to +transgress. These interpretations constituted an oral law which +practically superseded the written code, and they were handed down from +generation to generation as "the traditions of the fathers." The existence +of this oral law made necessary a company of scribes and lawyers whose +business it was to know the traditions and transmit them to their pupils. +These scribes were the teachers of Israel, the leaders of the Pharisees, +and the most highly revered class in the community. Pharisaism at its +beginning was intensely earnest, but in the time of Jesus the earnest +spirit had died out in zealous formalism. This was the inevitable result +of their virtual substitution of the written law for the living God. Their +excessive reverence had banished God from practical relation to the daily +life. They held that he had declared his will once for all in the law. His +name was scrupulously revered, his worship was cultivated with minutest +care, his judgment was anticipated with dread; but he himself, like an +Oriental monarch, was kept far from common life in an isolation suitable +to his awful holiness. By a natural consequence conscience gave place to +scrupulous regard for tradition in the religion of the scribes. The chief +question with them was not, Is this right? but, What say the elders? The +soul's sensitiveness of response to God's will and God's truth was lost in +a maze of traditions which awoke no spontaneous Amen in the moral nature, +consequently there was frequent substitution of reputation for character. +The Pharisees could make void the command, Honor thy father, by an +ingenious application of the principle of dedication of property to God +(Mark vii. 8-13), and thus under the guise of scrupulous regard for law +discovered ways for legal disregard of law. Their theory of religion gave +abundant room for a piety which made broad its phylacteries and lengthened +its prayers, while neglecting judgment, mercy, and the love of God. + +10. Yet the earnest and true development in Jewish thinking was found +among the Pharisees. The early hope of Israel was almost exclusively +national. In the later books of the Old Testament, in connection with an +enlarged sense of the importance of the individual, the doctrine of a +personal resurrection to share the blessings of the Messiah's kingdom +began to appear. It had its clear development and definite adoption as +part of the faith of Judaism, however, under the influence of the +Pharisees. Along with this increased emphasis on the worth of the +individual came a large development of the doctrine of angels and spirits. +Towards both of these doctrines the Sadducees took a reactionary position. +Politically the Pharisees were theocratic in theory, but opportunists in +practice, accommodating themselves to the existing state of things so long +as the _de facto_ government did not interfere with the religious life of +the people. They looked for a kingdom in which God should be evidently the +king of his people; but they believed that his sovereignty was to be +realized through the law, hence their sole interest was in the obedience +of God's people to that law as interpreted by the traditions. + +11. The theocratic spirit was more aggressive in a party which originated +in the later years of Herod the Great, and found a reckless leader in +Judas of Galilee, who started a revolt when the governor of Syria +undertook to make a census of the Jews after the deposition of Archelaus. +This party bore the name Cananeans or Zealots. They regarded with +passionate resentment the subjection of God's people to a foreign power, +and waited eagerly for an opportune time to take the sword and set up the +kingdom of God; it was with them that the final war against Rome began. +They were found in largest numbers in Galilee, where the scholasticism of +the scribes was not so dominating an influence as in Judea. Dr. Edersheim +has called them the nationalist party. In matters belonging strictly to +the religious life they followed the Pharisees, only holding a more +material conception of the hope of Israel. + +12. Another development in Jewish religious life carried separatist +doctrines to the extreme. Its representatives were called Essenes, though +what the significance of the name was is no longer clear. Although they +were allied with the Pharisees in doctrine, they show in some particulars +the influence of Hellenistic Judaism. This is suggested not only by the +attention which Philo and Josephus give to them, but also by certain of +their views, which were very like the doctrines of the Pythagoreans. They +carried the pharisaic demand for separateness to the extreme of +asceticism. While they were found in nearly every town in Palestine, some +of them even practising marriage, the largest group of them lived a +celibate, monastic life near the shores of the Dead Sea. This community +was recruited by the initiation of converts, who only after a novitiate of +three years were admitted to full membership in the order. They were +characterized by an extreme scrupulousness concerning ceremonial purity, +their meals were regarded as sacrifices, and were prepared by members of +the order, who were looked upon as priests, nor were any allowed to +partake of the food until they had first bathed themselves. Their regular +garments were all white, and were regarded as vestments for use at the +sacrificial meals,--other clothing being assumed as they went out to their +work. They were industrious agriculturists, their life was communistic, +and they were renowned for their uprightness. They revered Moses as highly +as did the scribes; yet they were opposed to animal sacrifices, and, +although they sent gifts to the temple, were apparently excluded from its +worship. Their kinship with the Pythagoreans appears in that they +addressed an invocation to the sun at its rising, and conducted all their +natural functions with scrupulous modesty, "that they might not offend the +brightness of God" (Jos. Wars, ii. 8, 9). Their rejection of bloody +sacrifices, and their view that the soul is imprisoned in the body and at +death is freed for a better life, besides many features of their life that +are genuinely Jewish, such as their regard for ceremonial purity, also +show similarity to the Pythagoreans. It has always been a matter of +perplexity that these ascetics find no mention in the New Testament. They +seem to have lived a life too much apart, and to have had little sympathy +with the ideals of Jesus, or even of John the Baptist. + +13. The common people followed the lead of the Pharisees, though afar +off. They accepted the teaching concerning tradition, as well as that +concerning the resurrection, conforming their lives to the prescriptions +of the scribes more or less strictly, according as they were more or loss +ruled by religious considerations. It was in consequence of their hold on +the people that the scribes in the sanhedrin were able often to dictate a +policy to the Sadducean majority. Jesus voiced the popular opinion when he +said that "the scribes sit in Moses' seat" (Matt, xxiii. 2). Their leaders +despised "this multitude which knoweth not the law" (John vii. 49), yet +delighted to legislate for them, binding heavy burdens and grievous to be +borne. Many of the people were doubtless too intent on work and gain to be +very regardful of the _minutiæ_ of conduct as ordained by the scribes; +many more were too simple-minded to follow the theories of the rabbis +concerning the aloofness of God from the life of men. These last +reverenced the scribes, followed their directions, in the main, for the +conduct of life, yet lived in fellowship with God as their fathers had, +trusting in his faithfulness, and hoping in his mercy. They are +represented in the New Testament by such as Simeon and Anna, Zachariah and +Elizabeth, Joseph and Mary, and the majority of those who heard and heeded +John's call to repentance. They were Israel's remnant of pure and +undefiled religion, and constituted what there was of good soil among the +people for the reception of the seed sown by John's successor. They had no +name, for they did not constitute a party; for convenience they may be +called the Devout. + +14. Two other classes among the people are mentioned in the gospels,--the +Herodians and the Samaritans. The Herodians do not appear outside the New +Testament, and seem to have been hardly more than a group of men in whom +the secular spirit was dominant, who thought it best for their interests +and for the people's to champion the claims of the Herodian family. They +were probably more akin to the Pharisees than to the Sadducees, for the +latter were hostile to the Herodian claims, from the first; yet in spirit +they seem more like to the worldly aristocracy than to the pious scribes. +The Samaritans lived in the land, a people despising and despised. Their +territory separated Galilee from Judea, and they were a constant source of +irritation to the Jews. The hatred was inherited from the days of Ezra, +when the zealous Jews refused to allow any intercourse with the +inhabitants of Samaria. These Samaritans were spurned as of impure blood +and mixed religion (II. Kings xvii. 24-41). The severe attitude adopted +towards them by Ezra and Nehemiah led to the building of a temple on Mount +Gerizim, and the establishment of a worship which sought to rival that of +Jerusalem in all particulars. Very little is known of the tenets of the +Samaritans in the time of Jesus beyond their belief that Gerizim was the +place which, according to the law, God chose for his temple, and that a +Messiah should come to settle all questions of dispute (John iv. 25). + +15. Although the religious life of the Jews centred ideally in the temple, +it found its practical expression in the synagogue. This in itself is +evidence of the relative influence of priests and scribes. There was no +confessed rivalry. The Pharisee was most insistent on the sanctity of the +temple and the importance of its ritual. Yet with the growing sense of the +religious significance of the individual as distinct from the nation, +there arose of necessity a practical need for a system of worship possible +for the great majority of the people, who could at best visit Jerusalem +but once or twice a year. The synagogue seems to have been a development +of the exile, when there was no temple and no sacrifice. It was the +characteristic institution of Judaism as a religion of the law, furnishing +in every place opportunity for prayer and study. The elders of each +community seem ordinarily to have been in control of its synagogue, and to +have had authority to exclude from its fellowship persons who had come +under the ban. In addition to these officials there was a ruler of the +synagogue, who had the direction of all that concerned the worship; a +_chazzan_, or minister, who had the care of the sacred books, administered +discipline, and instructed the children in reading the scripture; and two +or more receivers of alms. The Sabbath services consisted of prayers, and +reading of the scriptures--both law and prophets,--and an address or +sermon. It was in the sermon that the people learned to know the +"traditions of the elders," whether as applications of the law to the +daily life, or as legendary embellishments of Hebrew history and prophecy. +The preacher might be any one whom the ruler of the synagague recognized +as worthy to address the congregation. + +16. The religious life which centred in the synagogue found daily +expression in the observance of the law and the traditions. In the measure +of its control by the scribes it was concerned chiefly with the Sabbath, +with the various ablutions needful to the maintenance of ceremonial +purity, with the distinctions between clean and unclean food, with the +times and ways of fasting, and with the wearing of fringes and +phylacteries. These lifeless ceremonies seem to our day wearisome and +petty in the extreme. It is probable, however, that the growth of the +various traditions had been so gradual that, as has been aptly said, the +whole usage seemed no more unreasonable to the Jews than the etiquette of +polite society does to its devotees. The evil was not so much in the +minuteness of the regulations as in the external and superficial notion of +religion which they induced. + +17. Optimism was the mood of Israel's prophets from the earliest times. +Every generation looked for the dawning of a day which should banish all +ill and realize the dreams inspired by the covenant in which God had +chosen Israel for his own. In proportion as the rabbinic formalism held +control of the hearts of the people, the Messianic hope lost its warmth +and vigor. Yet the scribes did not abandon the prophetic optimism; they +held to the letter of the hope, but as its fulfilment was for them +dependent on perfect obedience to the law, oral and written, their +interest was diverted to the traditions, and their strength was given to +legal disputations. Of the rest of the people, the Sadducees naturally +gave little thought to the promise of future deliverance, they were too +absorbed with regard for present concerns. Nor is there any evidence that +the Essenes, with all their reputed knowledge of the future, cherished the +hope of a Messiah. The other elements among the people who owned the +general leadership of the scribes looked eagerly for the coming time when +God should bring to pass what he had promised through the prophets. While +some expected God himself to come in judgment, and gave no thought to an +Anointed one who should represent the Most High to the people, the +majority looked for a Son of David to sit upon his father's throne. Even +so, however, there were wide differences in the nature of the hope which +was set on the coming of this Son of David. The Zealots were looking for a +victory, which should set Israel on high over all his foes. To the rest of +the people, however, the method of the consummation was not so clear, and +they were ready to leave God to work out his purpose in his own way, +longing meanwhile for the fulfilment of his promise. One class in +particular gave themselves to visionary representations of the promised +redemption. They differed from the Zealots in that they saw with unwelcome +clearness the futility of physical attack upon their enemies; but their +faith was strong, and at the moment when outward conditions seemed most +disheartening they looked for a revelation of God's power from heaven, +destroying all sinners in his wrath, and delivering and comforting his +people, giving them their lot in a veritable Canaan situated in a renewed +earth. Such visions are recorded in the Book of Daniel and the Revelation +of John. They are found in many other apocalypses not included in our +Bible, and indicate how persistently the minds of the people turned +towards the promises spoken by the prophets, and meditated on their +fulfilment. The Devout were midway between the Zealots and the +Apocalyptists. The songs of Zachariah and Mary and the thanksgiving of +Simeon express their faith. They hoped for a kingdom as tangible as the +Zealots sought, yet they preferred to _wait_ for the consolation of +Israel. They believed that God was still in his heaven, that he was not +disregardful of his people, and that in his own time he would raise up +unto them their king. They looked for a Son of David, yet his reign was to +be as remarkable for its purification of his own people as for its +victories over their foes. These victories indeed were to be largely +spiritual, for their Messiah was to conquer in the strength of the Spirit +of God and "by the word of his mouth." Such as these were ready for a +ministry like John's, and not unready for the new ideal which Jesus was +about to offer them, though their highest spiritualization of the +Messianic hope was but a shadow of the reality which Jesus asked them to +accept. + +18. This last conception of the Messiah is found in a group of psalms +written in the first century before Christ, during the early days of the +Roman interference in Judea. These Psalms of Solomon, as they are called, +are pharisaic in point of view, yet they are not rabbinic in their ideas. +Their feeling is too deep, and their reliance on God too immediate; they +fitly follow the psalms of the Old Testament, though afar off. Of another +type of contemporary literature, Apocalypse, at least two representatives +besides the Book of Daniel have come down to us from the time of Jesus or +earlier,--the so-called Book of Enoch, and the fragment known as the +Assumption of Moses. These writings have peculiar interest, because they +are probably the source of quotations found in the Epistle of Jude; +moreover, some sayings of Jesus reported in the gospels, and in particular +his chosen title, The Son of Man, are strikingly similar to expressions +found in Enoch. Can Jesus have read these books? The psalms of the Devout +were the kind of literature to pass rapidly from heart to heart, until all +who sympathized with their hope and faith had heard or seen them. The case +was different with the apocalypses. They are more elaborate and +enigmatical, and may have been only slightly known. Yet, as Jesus was +familiar with the canonical Book of Daniel, although it was not read in +the synagogue service in his time, it is possible that he may also have +read or heard other books which had not won recognition as canonical. If, +however, he knew nothing of them, the similarity between the apocalypses +and some of Jesus' ideas and expressions becomes all the more significant; +for it shows that these writings gave utterance to thoughts and feelings +shared by men who never read them, which were, therefore, no isolated +fancies, but characteristic of the religion of many of the people. With +these ideas Jesus was familiar; whether he ever read the books must remain +a question. + +19. This literature exists for us only in translations made in the days of +the early church. Most of these books were originally written in Hebrew, +the language of the Old Testament, or in Aramaic, the language of +Palestine in the time of Jesus. Traces of this language as spoken by Jesus +have been preserved in the gospels,--the name _Rabbi; Abba_, translated +Father; _Talitha cumi_, addressed to the daughter of Jairus; _Ephphatha_, +to the deaf man of Bethsaida; and the cry from the cross, _Eloi, Eloi, +lama sabachthani_ (John i. 38; Mark xiv. 36; v. 41; vii. 34; xv. 34). It +is altogether probable that in his common dealings with men and in his +teachings Jesus used this language. Greek was the language of the +government and of trade, and in a measure the Jews were a bilingual +people. Jesus may thus have had some knowledge of Greek, but it is +unlikely that he ever used it to any extent either in Galilee, or Judea, +or in the regions of Tyre and Sidon. + + + + +II + +Sources of Our Knowledge Of Jesus + + + +20. The earliest existing record of events in the life of Jesus is given +to us in the epistles of Paul. His account of the appearances of the Lord +after his death and resurrection (I. Cor. xv. 3-8) was written within +thirty years of these events. The date of the testimony, however, is much +earlier, since Paul refers to the experience which transformed his own +life, and so carries us back to within a few years of the crucifixion. +Other facts from Jesus' life may be gathered from Paul, as his descent +from Abraham and David (Rom. i. 3; ix. 5); his life of obedience (Rom. v. +19; xv. 3; Phil. ii. 5-11); his poverty (II. Cor. viii. 9); his meekness +and gentleness (II. Cor. x. 1); other New Testament writings outside of +our gospels add somewhat to this restricted but very clear testimony. + +21. Secular history knows little of the obscure Galilean. The testimony of +Tacitus is that the Christians "derived their name and origin from one +Christ, who in the reign of Tiberius had suffered death by the sentence of +the procurator, Pontius Pilate" (Annals, xv. 44). Suetonius makes an +obscure and seemingly ill-informed allusion to Christ in the reason he +assigns for the edict of Claudius expelling the Jews from Rome (Vit. +Claud. 25). The younger Pliny in the second century had learned that the +numerous Christian community in Bithynia was accustomed to honor Christ +as God; but he shows no knowledge of the life of Jesus beyond what must be +inferred concerning one who caused men "to bind themselves with an oath +not to enter into any wickedness, or commit thefts, robberies, or +adulteries, or falsify their word, or repudiate trusts committed to them" +(Epistles X. 96). This secular ignorance is not surprising; but the +silence of Josephus is. He mentions Jesus in but one clearly genuine +passage, when telling of the martyrdom of James, the "brother of Jesus, +who is called the Christ" (Ant. xx. 9. 1). Of John the Baptist, however, +he has a very appreciative notice (Ant, xviii. 5. 2), and it cannot be +that he was ignorant of Jesus. His appreciation of John suggests that he +could not have mentioned Jesus more fully without some approval of his +life and teaching. This would be a condemnation of his own people, whom he +desired to commend to Gentile regard; and he seems to have taken the +cowardly course of silence concerning a matter more noteworthy, even for +that generation, than much else of which he writes very fully. + +22. The reason for the lack of written Christian records of Jesus' life +from the earliest time seems to be, not that the apostles had a small +sense of the importance of his earthly ministry, but that the early +generation preferred what at a later time was called the "living voice" +(Papias in Euseb. Ch. Hist. iii. 39). The impression made by Jesus was +supremely personal; he wrote nothing, did not command his disciples to +write anything, preferring to influence men's minds by personal power, +appointing them, in turn, to represent him to men as he had represented +the Father to them (John xx. 21). But the time came when the first +witnesses were passing away, and they were not many who could say, "I saw +him." Our gospels are the result of the natural desire to preserve the +apostolic testimony for a generation that could no longer hear the +apostolic voice; and they are precisely what such a sense of need would +produce,--vivid pictures of Jesus, agreeing in general features, differing +more or less in details, reflecting individual feeling for the Master, and +written not simply to inform men but to convince them of that Master's +claims. One evidence of the reality of the gospel pictures is the fact +that we so seldom feel the individual characteristics of each gospel. This +is especially true of the first three, which, to the vividness of their +picture, add a remarkable similarity of detail. Tatian, in the second +century, felt it necessary to make a continuous narrative for the use of +the church by interweaving the four gospels into one, and he has had many +successors down to our day; but the fact that unity of impression has +practically resulted from the four pictures without recourse to such an +interweaving, invites consideration of the characteristics of these +remarkable documents. + +23. The first gospel impresses the careful reader with three things: (1) A +clear sense of the development of Jesus' ministry. The author introduces +his narrative by an account of the birth of Jesus, of the ministry of John +the Baptist, and of Jesus' baptism and temptation and withdrawal into +Galilee (i. 1 to iv. 17). He then depicts the public ministry by grouping +together, first, teachings of Jesus concerning the law of the kingdom of +heaven, then a series of great miracles confirming the new doctrine, then +the expansion of the ministry and deepening hostility of the Pharisees, +leading to the teaching by parables, and the final withdrawal from Galilee +to the north. This ministry resulted in the chilling of popular enthusiasm +which had been strong at the beginning, but in the winning of a few hearts +to Jesus' own ideals of the kingdom of God (iv. 18 to xvi. 20). From this +point the evangelist leads us to Jerusalem, where rejection culminates, +the sterner teachings of Jesus are massed, and his victory in seeming +defeat is exhibited (xvi. 21 to xxviii. 20). (2) The evangelist's interest +is not satisfied by this clear, strong, picture; he wishes to convince men +that Jesus is Israel's Messiah, hence, throughout, he indicates the +fulfilment of prophecy. The things in which he sees the fulfilment are +striking, for, with but one or two exceptions, they are features of the +life of Jesus objectionable to Jewish feeling. This fact, taken in +connection with the emphasis which the gospel gives to the death of Jesus +at the hands of the Jews, and to the resurrection as God's seal of +approval of him whom his people rejected, forms a forcible argument to +prove the Messiahship of Jesus, not simply in spite of his rejection by +the Jews, but by appeal to that rejection as leading to God's signal +vindication of the crucified one. (3) This evangelist, while proving that +Jesus is the Messiah promised to Israel, recognizes clearly the freedom of +the new faith from the exclusiveness of Jewish feeling. The choice of +Galilee for the Messianic ministry (iv. 12-17), the comment of Jesus on +the faith of the centurion (viii. 10-12), the rebuke of Israel in the +parable of the Wicked Husbandmen (xxi. 33-46), and especially the last +commission of the risen Lord (xxviii. 18-20), show that this gospel sought +to convince men of Jewish feeling not only that Jesus is Messiah, but also +that as Messiah he came to bring salvation to all the world. + +24. The second gospel is much simpler in construction than the first, +while presenting essentially the same picture of the ministry as is found +in Matthew. To its simplicity it adds a vividness of narration which +commends Mark's account as probably representing most nearly the actual +course of the life of Jesus. While it reports fewer incidents and +teachings than either of the others, a comparison with Matthew and Luke +shows a preference in Mark for Jesus' deeds, though addresses are not +wanting; and, while shorter as a whole, for matters which he reports +Mark's record is most rich in detail, most dramatic in presentation, and +actually longer than the parallel accounts in the other gospels. The whole +narrative is animated in style (note the oft-repeated "immediately") and +full of graphic traits. The story of Jesus seems to be reproduced from a +memory which retains fresh personal impressions of events as they +occurred. Hence the frequent comments on the effect of Jesus' ministry, +such as "We never saw it on this fashion" (ii. 12), or "He hath done all +things well" (vii. 37), and the introduction into the narrative of Aramaic +words,--_Boanerges_ (iii. 17), _Talitha, cumi_ (v. 41), and the like, +which immediately have to be translated. The gospel discloses no +artificial plan, the chief word of transition is "and." While some of the +incidents recorded, such as the second Sabbath controversy (iii. 1-6) and +the question about fasting (ii. 18-22), may owe their place to association +in memory with an event of like character, the book impresses us as a +collection of annals fresh from the living memory, which present the +actual Jesus teaching and healing, and going on his way to the cross and +resurrection. After the briefest possible reference to the ministry of +John the Baptist and the baptism and temptation of Jesus (i. 1-13), this +gospel proceeds to set forth the ministry in Galilee (i. 14 to ix. 50). +The narrative then follows Jesus to Jerusalem, by way of Perea, and closes +with his victory through death and resurrection (x. 1 to xvi. 8). + +25. The third gospel is more nearly a biography than any of its +companions. It opens with a preface stating that after a study of many +earlier attempts to record the life of Jesus the author has undertaken to +present as complete an account as possible of that life from the +beginning. The book is addressed to one Theophilus, doubtless a Greek +Christian, and its chief aim is practical,--to confirm conviction +concerning matters of faith (i. 1-4). The author's interest in the +completeness of his account appears in the fact that it begins with +incidents antecedent to the birth of John the Baptist and Jesus. Moreover, +to his desire for completeness we owe much of the story of Jesus, +otherwise unrecorded for us. Like the first two gospels, Luke represents +the ministry of Jesus as inaugurated in Galilee, and carried on there +until the approach of the tragedy at Jerusalem (iv. 14 to ix. 50). It is +in connection with the journey to Jerusalem (ix. 51 to xix. 27) that he +inserts most of that which is peculiar to his gospel. His account of the +rejection at Jerusalem, the crucifixion, and resurrection, follows in the +main the same lines as Matthew and Mark; but he gained his knowledge of +many particulars from different sources (xix. 28 to xxiv. 53). It is +characteristic of Luke to name Jesus "Lord" more often than either of his +predecessors. With this exalted conception is coupled a noticeable +emphasis on Jesus' ministry of compassion; here more than in any other +gospel he is pictured as the friend of sinners. Moreover, we owe chiefly +to Luke our knowledge of him as a man of prayer and as subject to repeated +temptation. An artificial exaltation of Christ, such as is often +attributed to the later apostolic thought, would tend to reduce, not +multiply, such evidences of human dependence on God. This fact increases +our confidence in the accuracy of Luke's picture. The gospel is very full +of comfort to those under the pressure of poverty, and of rebuke to +unbelieving wealth, though the parable of the Unjust Steward and story of +Zacchæus show that it does not exalt poverty for its own sake. If our +first gospel pictures Jesus as the fulfilment of God's promises to his +people, and Mark, as the man of power at work before our very eyes, +astonishing the multitude while winning the few, Luke sets before us the +Lord ministering with divine compassion to men subject to like temptations +with himself, though, unlike them, he knew no sin. + +26. The first three gospels, differing as they do in point of view and +aim, present essentially one picture of the ministry of Jesus; for they +agree concerning the locality and progress of his Messianic work, and the +form and contents of his teaching, showing, in fact, verbal identity in +many parts of their narrative. For this reason they are commonly known as +the Synoptic Gospels. Yet these gospels exhibit differences as remarkable +as their likenesses. They differ perplexingly in the order in which they +arrange some of the events in Jesus' life. Which of them should be given +preference in constructing a harmonious picture of his ministry? They +often agree to the letter in their report of deeds or words of Jesus, yet +from beginning to end remarkable verbal differences stand side by side +with remarkable verbal identities. Some of the identities of language +suggest irresistibly that the evangelists have used, at least in part, the +same previously existing written record. One of the clearest evidences of +this is found in the introduction, at the same place in the parallel +accounts, of the parenthesis "then saith he to the sick of the palsy" +which interrupts the words of Jesus in the cure of the paralytic (Mark ii. +10; Matt. ix. 6; Luke v. 24). When the three gospels are carefully +compared it appears that Mark contains very little that is not found in +Matthew and Luke, and that, with one or two exceptions, Luke presents in +Mark's order the matter that he has in common with the second gospel. The +same is also true of the relation between the latter part of the Gospel of +Matthew (Matt. xiv. 1 to the end) and the parallel portion of Mark; while +the comparison of Matthew's arrangement of his earlier half with Mark +suggests that the order in the first gospel has been determined by other +than chronological considerations. In a sense, therefore, we may say that +the Gospel of Mark reveals the chronological framework on which all three +of these gospels are constructed. Comparison discloses further the +interesting fact that the matter which Matthew and Luke have in common, +after subtracting their parallels to Mark, consists almost entirely of +teachings and addresses. Each gospel, however, has some matter peculiar to +itself. + +27. In considering the problem presented by these facts, it is well to +remember that no one of these gospels contains within itself any statement +concerning the identity of its author. We are indebted to tradition for +the names by which we know them, and no one of them makes any claim to +apostolic origin. The earliest reference in Christian literature which may +be applied to our gospels comes from Papias, a Christian of Asia Minor in +the second century. He reports that an earlier teacher had said, "Mark, +having become the interpreter of Peter, wrote down accurately, though not, +indeed, in order, whatsoever he remembered of the things said or done by +Christ, for he neither heard the Lord nor followed him, but afterward, as +I said, he followed Peter, who adapted his teachings to the needs of his +hearers, but with no intention of giving a connected account of the Lord's +discourses. So that Mark committed no error when he thus wrote some things +as he remembered them, for he was careful of one thing, not to omit any of +the things which he had heard and not to state any of them falsely.... +Matthew wrote the oracles [of the Lord] in the Hebrew language [Aramaic], +and every one interpreted them as he was able" (Euseb. Ch. Hist. iii. 39). +The result of many years' study by scholars of all shades of opinion is +the very general conclusion that the writing which Papias attributed to +Mark was essentially what we have in our second gospel. + +28. It is almost as universally acknowledged that the work ascribed by the +second century elder to the apostle Matthew cannot be our first gospel; +for its language has not the characteristics which other translations from +Hebrew or Aramaic lead us to expect, while the completeness of its +narrative exceeds what is suggested by the words of Papias. If, however, +the matter which Matthew and Luke have in such rich measure in addition to +Mark's narrative be considered, the likeness between this and the writing +attributed by Papias to the apostle Matthew is noteworthy. The conclusion +is now very general, that that apostolic writing is in large measure +preserved in the discourses in our first and third gospels. The relation +of our gospels to the two books mentioned by Papias may be conceived, +then, somewhat as follows: The earliest gospel writing of which we know +anything was a collection of the teachings of Jesus made by the apostle +Matthew, in which he collected with simple narrative introductions, those +sayings of the Lord which from the beginning had passed from mouth to +mouth in the circle of the disciples. At a later time Mark wrote down the +account of the ministry of Jesus which Peter had been accustomed to relate +in his apostolic preaching. The work of the apostle Matthew, while much +richer in the sayings of Jesus, lacked the completeness that characterizes +a narrative; hence it occurred to some early disciple to blend together +these two primitive gospel records, adding such other items of knowledge +as came to his hand from oral tradition or written memoranda. As his aim +was practical rather than historical, he added such editorial comments as +would make of the new gospel an argument for the Messiahship of Jesus, as +we have seen. Since the most precious element in this new gospel was the +apostolic record of the teachings of the Lord, the name of Matthew and not +of his literary successor, was given to the book. + +29. The third gospel is ascribed, by a probably trustworthy tradition, to +Luke, the companion of Paul. The author himself says that he made use of +such earlier records as were accessible, among which the chief seem to +have been the writings of Mark and the apostle Matthew. To Luke's +industry, however, we owe our knowledge of many incidents and teachings +from the life of Jesus which were not contained in these two records, and +with which we could ill afford to part. Some of these he doubtless found +in written form, and some he gathered from oral testimony. His close +agreement with Mark in the arrangement of his narrative suggests that he +found no clear evidence of a ministry of wider extent in time and place. +He therefore used Mark as his narrative framework, and of the rich +materials which he had gathered made a gospel, the completest of any +written up to his time. + +30. Such in the main is the conclusion of modern study of our first three +gospels; it explains the general identity of their picture of Jesus and of +their report of his teaching; it leaves room for those individual +characteristics which give them so much of their charm; and it traces the +materials of the gospels far back of the writings as we have them, +bringing us nearer to the events which they describe. The dates of these +documents can be only approximately known. It is probable that the +"logia" collected by the apostle Matthew were written not later than 60 to +65 A.D., while the Gospel of Mark dates from before the fall of Jerusalem +in 70. Our first gospel must have been made between 70 and 100, and the +Gospel of Luke may be dated about the year 80,--all within sixty or +seventy years after the death of Jesus. + +31. The fourth gospel gives us a picture of Jesus in striking contrast to +that of the other three. These present chiefly the works of the Master and +his teachings concerning the kingdom of God and human conduct, leaving the +truth concerning the teacher himself to be inferred. John opens the heart +of Jesus and makes him disclose his thought about himself in a remarkable +series of teachings of which he is the prime topic. This gospel is +avowedly an argument (xx. 30, 31); its selection of material is +confessedly partial; its aim is to confirm the faith of Christians in the +heavenly nature and saving power of their Lord; and its method is that of +appeal to testimony, to signs, and to his own self-disclosures. The +opening verses of the gospel have a somewhat abstract theological +character; the body of the book, however, consists of a succession of +incidents and teachings which follow each other in unstudied fashion like +a collection of annals. This impression is not compromised by the +recognition, at some points, of accidental displacements, like that which +has placed xiv. 30, 31 before xv. and xvi., or that which has left a long +gap between vii. 23 and the incident of v. 1-9, to which it refers. The +theme of the gospel is the self-disclosure of Jesus. This seems to have +determined the evangelist's choice of material, and, as the gospel is an +argument, he does not hesitate to mingle his own comments with his report +of Jesus' words, for example (iii. 16-21, 30-36; xii. 37-43). The book is +characterized by a vividness of detail which indicates a clear memory of +personal experience. While it is evident that the author has the most +exalted conception of the nature of his Lord, this seems to have been the +result of loving meditation on a friend who had early won the mastery over +his heart and life, and who through long years of contemplation had forced +upon his disciple's mind the conviction of his transcendent nature. The +book discloses a profoundly objective attitude; the Christ whom John +portrays is not the creature of his speculations, but the Master who has +entered into his experience as a living influence and has compelled +recognition of his significance. The Son of God is for John the human +Jesus who, though named at the outset the Word--the Logos,--is the Word +who was made flesh, that men through him might become the sons of God. + +32. The contrast which the Gospel of John presents to the other three +concerns not only the teaching of Jesus, but the scene of his ministry and +its historic development as well. Whatever may be the final judgment +concerning the fourth gospel, it is manifestly constructed as a simple +collection of incidents following each other in what was meant to appear a +chronological sequence. It has been seen that the biographical framework +of the first three gospels is principally Mark's report of Peter's +narrative. Now it is a fact that in portions of Matthew and Luke, derived +elsewhere than from Mark, there are various allusions most easily +understood if it be assumed that Jesus visited Jerusalem before his +appearance there at the end of his ministry. Such, for instance, are the +parable of the Good Samaritan (Luke x. 25-37), the story of the visit to +Mary and Martha (Luke x. 38-42), and the lamentation of Jesus over +Jerusalem (Luke xiii. 34, 35; Matt, xxiii. 37-39). All three gospels, +moreover, agree in attributing to emissaries from Jerusalem much of the +hostility manifested against Jesus in his Galilean ministry (Luke v. 17; +Mark iii. 22; Matt. xv. 1; Mark vii. 1), and presuppose such an +acquaintance of Jesus with households in and near Jerusalem as is not easy +to explain if he never visited Judea before his passion (Mark xi. 2, 3; +xiv. 14; xv. 43 and parallels; compare especially Matt, xxvii. 57; John +xix. 38). These all suggest that the narrative of Mark does not tell the +whole story, a conclusion quite in accordance with the account of his work +given by Papias. It has been assumed that Peter was a Galilean, a man of +family living in Capernaum. It is not impossible that on some of the +earlier visits of Jesus to Jerusalem he did not accompany his Master, and +in reporting the things which he knew he naturally confined himself to his +own experiences. If this can explain the predominance of Galilean +incidents in the ministry as depicted in Mark, it will explain the +predominance of Galilee in the first three gospels, and the contradiction +between John and the three is reduced to a divergence between two accounts +of Jesus' ministry written from two different points of view. + +33. The question of the trustworthiness of the fourth gospel is greatly +simplified by the consideration of the one-sidedness of Mark's +representation. It is further relieved by the fact that a ministry by +Jesus in Jerusalem must have been one of constant self-assertion, for +Jerusalem represented at its highest those aspects of thought and practice +which were fundamentally opposed to all that Jesus did and taught. +Whenever in Galilee, in the ministry pictured by the first three gospels, +Jesus came in contact with the spirit and feeling characteristic of +Jerusalem, we find him meeting it by unqualified assertion of his own +independence and exalted claim to authority, altogether similar to that +emphasis of his own significance and importance which is the chief +characteristic of his teachings in the fourth gospel. If it be remembered +that that gospel was avowedly an argument written to commend to others the +reverent conclusion concerning the Lord reached by a disciple whose +thought had dwelt for long years on the marvel of that life, and if we +recognize that for such an argument the author would select the instances +and teachings most telling for his own purpose, and would do this as +naturally as the magnet draws to itself iron filings which are mingled +with a pile of sand, the exclusively personal character of the teachings +of Jesus in this gospel need cause little perplexity. Nor need it seem +surprising that the words of Jesus as reported in John share the +peculiarities of style which mark the work of the evangelist in the +prologue to the gospel and in his epistles. His purpose was not primarily +biographical but argumentative, and he has set forth the picture of his +Lord as it rose before his own heart, his memory of events being +interwoven with contemplation on the significance of that life with which +his had been so blessedly associated. In a gospel written avowedly to +produce in others a conviction like his own, the evangelist would not have +been sensible of any obligation to draw sharp lines between his +recollection of his Lord's words and his own contemplations upon them and +upon their significance for his life. If these considerations be kept in +mind we may accept the uniform tradition of antiquity, confirmed by the +plain intimation of the gospel itself, that it is essentially the work of +John, the son of Zebedee, written near the close of his life in Ephesus, +in the last decade of the first century. + +34. We have in our gospel records, therefore, two authorities for the +general course of the ministry of Jesus,--Mark and John. Even if the +fourth gospel should be proved not to be the work of John, its picture of +the ministry of Jesus must be recognized as coming from some apostolic +source. A forger would hardly have invited the rejection of his work by +inventing a narrative which seems to contradict at so many points the +tradition of the other gospels. The first and third gospels furnish us +from various sources rich additions to Mark's narrative, and it is to +these two with the fourth that we turn chiefly for the teachings of Jesus. +Each gospel should be read, therefore, remembering its incompleteness, +remembering also the particular purpose and individual enthusiasm for +Jesus which produced it. + +35. A word may be due to two other claimants to recognition as original +records from the life of Jesus. One class is represented by that word of +the Lord which Paul quoted to the Ephesian elders at Miletus (Acts xx. +35). Scattered here and there in writings of the apostolic and succeeding +ages are other sayings attributed to Jesus which cannot be found in our +gospels. A few of these so-called Agrapha seem worthy of him, and are +recognized as probably genuine. The most important of them is the story of +the woman taken in adultery (John vii. 53 to viii. 11), which, though not +a part of the gospel of John, doubtless gives a true incident from Jesus' +life. They represent the "many other" things which John and the other +gospels have omitted, but their small number proves that our gospels have +preserved for us practically all that was known of Jesus after the first +witnesses fell asleep. It is certainly surprising that so little exists to +supplement the story of the gospels, for they are manifestly fragmentary, +and leave much of Jesus' public life without any record. The other class +of claimants is of a quite different character,--the so-called Apocryphal +Gospels. These consist chiefly of legends connected with the birth and +early years of Jesus, and with his death and resurrection. They are for +the most part crude tales that have entirely mistaken the real character +of him whom they seek to exalt, and need only to be read to be rejected. + + + + +III + +The Harmony of the Gospels + + + +36. The church early appreciated the value and the difficulty of having +four different pictures of the life and teachings of the Lord. Irenæus at +the close of the second century felt it to be as essential that there +should be four gospels as that there should be "four zones of the world, +four principal winds, and four faces of the cherubim" (Against Heresies +III. ii. 8). + +37. Before Irenæus, however, another had sought to obviate the difficulty +of having four records which seem at some points to disagree, by making a +combination of the gospels, to which he gave the title "Diatessaron." +Tatian, the author of this work, was converted from paganism about 152 +A.D., and prepared his unified gospel, probably for the use of the Syrian +churches, sometime after 172. His work is one of the treasures of the +early Christian literature recovered for us within the last +quarter-century. It seems to have won great popularity in the Syrian +churches, having practically displaced the canonical gospels for nearly +three centuries, when, owing to its supposed heretical tendency, it was +suppressed by the determined effort of the church authorities. It is a +continuous record of Jesus' ministry, beginning with the first six verses +of the Gospel of John, passing then to the early chapters of Luke. It +closes with an account of the resurrection interwoven from all four +gospels, concluding with John xxi. 25. The arrangement follows generally +the order of Matthew, additional matter from the other gospels being +inserted at places which approved themselves to Tatian's judgment. Some +portions--in particular the genealogies of Jesus--were omitted altogether, +in accordance with views held by the compiler. + +38. From Tatian's time to the present there have been repeated attempts to +construct a harmonious representation of events and teachings in the +ministry of Jesus, generally by setting the parallel accounts side by +side, following such a succession of events as seemed most probable. Our +evangelists cared little, if they thought at all, about the requirements +of strict biography, and they have left us records not easy to arrange on +any one chronological scheme. Concerning the chief events, however, the +gospels agree. All four report, for instance, the beginning of the work in +Galilee (Matt. iv. 12, 17; Mark i. 14, 15; Luke iv. 14, 15; John iv. +43-45); the feeding of the five thousand when Jesus' popularity in Galilee +passed its climax (Matt. xiv. 13-23; Mark vi. 30-46; Luke ix. 10-17; John +vi. 1-15); the departure from Galilee for the final visit to Jerusalem +(Matt. xix. 1, 2; Mark x. 1; Luke ix. 51; John vii. 1-10); and the week of +suffering and victory at the end (Matt. xxi. 1 to xxviii. 20; Mark xi. 1 +to xvi. 8 [20]; Luke xix. 29 to xxiv. 53; John xii. 1 to xxi. 25). + +39. These facts are enough to give us a clear and unified impression of +the course of Jesus' ministry. When, however, we seek to fill in the +details given in the different gospels, difficulties at once arise. Thus, +first, what shall be done with the long section which John introduces (i. +19 to iv. 42) before Jesus' withdrawal into Galilee? The other gospels +make that withdrawal the beginning of his public work. A second difficulty +arises from the unnamed feast of John v. 1. By one or another scholar this +feast has been identified with almost every Jewish festival known to us. +Another problem is furnished by the long section in Luke which is so +nearly peculiar to his gospel (ix. 51 to xviii. 14). If the section had no +parallels in the other gospels we might easily conclude that it all +belongs to a time subsequent to the final departure for Jerusalem; but it +contains at least one incident from the earlier ministry in Galilee (Luke +xi. 14-36; compare Mark iii. 19-30), and many teachings of Jesus given by +Matthew in an earlier connection appear here in Luke. Furthermore, the +section has to be adjusted to that portion of the Gospel of John which +deals with the same period and yet reports none of the same details. + +40. If Mark has furnished the narrative framework adopted in the main by +the first and third gospels, the problem of the order of events in Jesus' +life becomes a question of the chronological value of Mark, and of the +estimate to be placed on the narrative of John. If the fourth gospel is +held to be of apostolic origin and trustworthy, the task of the harmonist +is chiefly that of combining these two records of Mark and John. The +testimony of the Baptist, with which the fourth gospel opens, must have +been given some time after he had baptized Jesus, and the ministry which +preceded Jesus' return to Galilee (i. 19 to iv. 42) belongs to a period +ignored by the other gospels. The first three gospels contain indications +that Jesus must have visited Judea before the close of his life. They give +no hint, however, of the time or circumstances of such earlier Judean +labor. In giving the emphasis they do to the work in Galilee, they present +a one-sided picture. When, therefore, we find in John a narrative of work +in Judea, confirmed by hints in the other gospels, we may justly assume +that the arrangement which fills out the ministry of Jesus by inserting at +the proper places in Mark's record the events found in John is essentially +true. + +41. The consideration of the one-sidedness of Mark's narrative simplifies +the problem of harmony, but it does not solve all of the perplexities. +Matthew and Luke have much matter, some of it narrative, which Mark has +not, and for which he suggests no place. Where shall we put, for instance, +the cure of the centurion's servant (Matt. viii. 5-13; Luke vii. 1-10), or +John the Baptist's last message (Matt. xi. 2-19; Luke vii. 18-35)? It +would simplify matters if we could take Luke's statement that he had +"traced the course of all things accurately from the first" (Luke i. 3), +as indicating that he had arrived at exact certainty concerning the order +of events of Jesus' life. It is probable, however, that his statement was +simply a claim that he had carefully gathered material for a record of the +whole life of Jesus, from the annunciation of his birth to his ascension. +While we may believe that some trustworthy tradition led him to give the +place he has to many of the incidents which he adds to Mark's story, it +seems impossible to follow him in all respects; for instance, in severing +the account of the blasphemy of the Pharisees (xi. 14-36) from the place +which it holds in Mark (iii. 19-30). + +42. Still more uncertainty exists concerning the historic connection of +teachings of Jesus to which Matthew and Luke give different settings; for +example, the Lord's Prayer (Matt. vi. 9-15; Luke xi. 1-4), and the +exhortations against anxiety (Matt. vi. 25-34; Luke xii. 22-31). We have +seen that much of the teaching common to these gospels is probably derived +from the collection of the "oracles" of the Lord made by the apostle +Matthew. Everything that we can infer concerning such a collection of +oracles indicates that, while some of the teachings may have been +connected with particular historic situations (compare Luke xi. 1), many +would altogether lack such introductory words. A later example of what +such a collection may have been has come to light recently in the +so-called "Sayings of Jesus," discovered in Egypt and published in 1897. +In these the occasion for the teaching has been quite lost; the sole +interest centres in the fact that Jesus is supposed to have said the +things recorded. If Matthew's book contained such "logia" or "oracles," it +is probable that the original connection in which most of them were spoken +was a matter of no concern to the apostle, and consequently has been lost +This in no way compromises the genuineness of these sayings of Jesus. The +treatment of Luke ix. 51 to xviii. 14 is much simplified by this +consideration. To Luke's industry (i. 1-4) we owe the preservation of some +events and very many teachings which no other evangelist has recorded. +Some of this new material (for instance, vii. 11-17, 36-50) he has +assigned a place in the midst of Mark's narrative. Most of it, however, +he has gathered together in what seems to be a sort of appendix, which he +has inserted between the close of the ministry in Galilee and the final +arrival in Judea. For many of the teachings it is now impossible to assign +a time or place. That this is so will cause no surprise or difficulty if +we remember that in the earliest days the report of what Jesus said and +did circulated in the form of oral tradition only. It was the knowledge +that first-hand witnesses were passing away that led to the writing of the +gospels. During the period of oral tradition many teachings of the Lord +were doubtless kept clearly and accurately in memory after the historic +situations which led to their first utterance were quite forgotten. + +43. This fact helps to explain another perplexity in our gospel +narratives. A comparison of the two accounts of the cure of the +centurion's servant reveals differences of detail most perplexing, if we +ask for minute agreement in records of the same events. When we see that +of two accounts evidently reporting the same incident, one can say that +the centurion himself sought Jesus and asked the cure of his servant +(Matt. viii. 5, 8), while the other makes him declare himself unworthy to +come in person to the Lord (Luke vii. 7), the question arises whether +other accounts, similar in the main but differing in detail, should not be +identified as independent records of one event. Were there two cleansings +of the temple (John ii. 13-22; Mark xi. 15-19), two miraculous draughts of +fishes (Luke v. 4-11; John xxi. 5-8), two rejections at Nazareth (Mark vi. +1-6; Luke iv. 16-30), two parables of the Leaven, of the Mustard Seed +(Matt. xiii. 31-33; Luke xiii. 18-21), and of the Lost Sheep (Matt, xviii. +12-14; Luke xv. 4-7)? Such similar records are often called doublets, and +the question of identity or distinctness can be answered only after a +special study of each case. It is important to notice that a given +teaching, particularly if it took the form of an illustration, would +naturally be used by Jesus on many different occasions. When, on the other +hand, we find two accounts of specific doings of Jesus similar in detail +it is needful to recognize that definite historic situations do not so +often repeat themselves as do occasions for similar or identical +teachings. + +44. All these considerations show that while the general order of events +in the life of Jesus may be determined with a good degree of probability, +we must be content to remain uncertain concerning the place to be given to +many incidents and to more teachings. Such uncertainty is of small +concern, since our unharmonized gospels have not failed during all these +centuries to produce one fair picture, to the total impression of which +each teaching and deed make definite contribution quite independently of +our ability to give to each its particular place in relation to the whole. +The degree of certainty attainable justifies, however, a continued +interest in the old study of harmony, because of the more comprehensive +idea it gives of the ministry depicted in the partial narratives of our +several gospels. + + + + +IV + +The Chronology + + + +45. The length of the public ministry of Jesus was one of the earliest +questions which arose in the study of the four gospels. In the second and +third centuries it was not uncommon to find the answer in the passage from +Isaiah (lxi. 1, 2), which Jesus declared was fulfilled in himself. "The +acceptable year of the Lord" was taken to indicate that the ministry +covered little more than a year. The fact that the first three gospels +mention but one Passover (that at the end), and but one journey to +Jerusalem, seems at first to be favorable to this conclusion, and to make +peculiarly significant the care taken by Luke to give the exact date for +the opening of Jesus' ministry (iii. 1, 2). In fact, the second century +Gnostics, relying apparently on Luke, assigned both the ministry and death +of Jesus to the fifteenth year of Tiberius Cæsar,--an interpretation which +may have given rise to the widely spread, early tradition, found, for +example, in Tertullian (Ante-nicene Fathers, in. 160), which placed the +death of Jesus in A.D. 29, during the consulship of L. Rubellius Geminus +and C. Fufius Geminus. + +46. The theory that the ministry of Jesus extended over but little more +than one year is beset, however, by difficulties that seem insuperable. +The first is presented by the three Passovers distinctly mentioned in the +Gospel of John (ii. 13; vi. 4; xii. 1). The last of these is plainly +identical with the one named in the other gospels. The second gives the +time of year for the feeding of the five thousand, and agrees with the +mention of "the green grass" in the account of Mark and Matthew (Mark vi. +39; Matt. xiv. 19). John's first Passover falls in a section which demands +a place before Mark i. 14 (compare John iii. 24). Hence it must be shown +that this first Passover is chronologically out of order in the Gospel of +John, or the one year ministry advocated by the second century Gnostics, +by Clement of Alexandria, by Origen, and of late years by Keim and others, +is seen to be impossible. The fact that at this Passover Jesus cleansed +the temple, and that the other gospels assign such a cleansing to the +close of the ministry, suggests the possibility that John has set it at +the opening of his narrative for reasons connected with his argument. This +interpretation falls, however, before the perfect simplicity of structure +of John's narrative. The transitions from incident to incident in this +gospel are those of simple succession, and indicate, on the writer's part, +no suspicion that he was contradicting notions concerning the ministry of +Jesus familiar to his contemporaries. Whatever the conclusion reached +concerning the authorship of the gospel, the fact that it gained currency +very early as apostolic would seem to prove that its conception of the +length of Jesus' ministry was not opposed to the recognized apostolic +testimony. It is safe to conclude, therefore, that time must be allowed in +Jesus' ministry for at least three Passover seasons. + +47. With this conclusion most modern discussions of the question rest, and +it is possible that it may finally win common consent. The order of +Mark's narrative, however, challenges it. This gospel records near the +beginning (ii. 23) a controversy with the Pharisees occasioned by the fact +that Jesus' disciples plucked and ate the ripening grain as they passed on +a Sabbath day through the fields. As Mark places much later (vi. 30-34) +the feeding of the five thousand, which occurred at a Passover, that is +the beginning of the harvest (Lev. xxiii. 5-11), his order suggests the +necessity of including two harvest seasons in the ministry in Galilee, and +consequently four Passovers in the public life of Jesus. Two +considerations are urged against this conclusion. (1) Papias in his +reference to the Gospel of Mark criticises the order of the gospel; (2) +Mark ii. 1 to iii. 6 contains a group of five conflicts with the critics +of Jesus, which represents a massing of opposition that seems unlikely at +the outset of his Galilean work. The remark of Papias must remain obscure +until his standard of comparison is known. Some suggest that he knew +John's order and preferred it, others that he agreed with that adopted by +Tatian in his Diatessaron. Mark is in accord with neither of these. No +one, however, knows what order Papias preferred. The early conflict group +does appear like a collection drawn from different parts of the ministry. +Yet the nucleus of the group--the cure of the paralytic (ii. 1-12) and the +call of Levi (ii. 13-17)--is clearly in its right place in Mark (see +Holtzmann, Hand-commentar, I. 10). The question about fasting (ii. 18-22) +may have been asked much later, and its present place may be due to +association in tradition with the criticism of Jesus' fellowship with +publicans (ii. 16). In like manner the cure of the withered hand (iii. +1-6) may have become artificially grouped with the incident of the +cornfields. It is possible, also, that both Sabbath controversies owe +their early place in the gospel to traditional association with the early +conflicts (ii. 1-17). If so, the plucking of the grain actually occurred +some weeks after the feeding of the five thousand, and probably after the +controversy about tradition (vii. 1-23), with which, according to Mark, +Jesus' activity in Galilee practically closed. It is not clear, however, +what principle of association drew forward to the early group the Sabbath +conflict, and left in its place the controversy about tradition. It is +thus possible that the incident of the cornfields belongs also to the +early nucleus of the group; and in this case the longer ministry, +including four Passovers, must be accepted. The decision of the question +is not of vital importance, but it affects the determination of the +sequence of events in Jesus' life. Whatever the explanation of the remark +of Papias, the more the gospels are studied the more does Mark's order of +events commend itself in general as representing the probable fact. Many +students have inferred the three year ministry from the Gospel of John +alone, identifying the unnamed feast in John v. 1 with a Passover. But +John's allusion to that feast is so indefinite that the length of Jesus' +ministry must be determined quite independently of it. + +48. So long a ministry as three years presents some difficulties, for all +that is told us in the four gospels would cover but a small fraction of +this time. John's statement (xx. 30) that he omitted many things from +Jesus' life in making his book is evidently true of all the evangelists, +and long gaps, such as are evident in the fourth gospel, must be assumed +in the other three. Recalling the character of the gospels as pictures of +Jesus rather than narratives of his life, we may easily acknowledge the +incompleteness of our record of the three years of ministry, and wonder +the more at the vividness of impression produced with such economy of +material. This meagreness of material is not decisive for the shorter +rather than the longer ministry, for it is evident that to effect such a +change in conviction and feeling as Jesus wrought in the minds of the +ardent Galileans who were his disciples, required time. Three years are +better suited to effect this change than two. + +49. Closely related to the question of the length of Jesus' ministry is +another: Can definite dates be given for the chief events in his life? For +the year of the opening of his public activity the gospels furnish two +independent testimonies: the remark of the Jews on the occasion of Jesus' +first visit to Jerusalem, "Forty and six years was this temple in +building" (John ii. 20), and Luke's careful dating of the appearance of +John the Baptist, "in the fifteenth year of Tiberius Cæsar" (iii. 1, 2). +John ii. 20 leads to the conclusion that the first Passover fell in the +spring of A.D. 26 or 27, since we learn from Josephus (Ant. xv. 11. 1) +that Herod began to rebuild the temple in the eighteenth year of his +reign, which closed in the spring of B.C. 19. Luke iii. 1 gives a date +contradictory to the one just found, if the fifteenth year of Tiberius is +to be counted from the death of his predecessor, for Augustus died August +19, A.D. 14. Reckoned from this time the opening of John's work falls in +the year A.D. 28, and the first Passover of Jesus' ministry could not be +earlier than the spring of 29. This is at least two years later than is +indicated by the statement in John. The remark in John is, however, so +incidental and so lacking in significance for his argument that its +definiteness can be explained only as due to a clear historic +reminiscence; but it does not follow that Luke has erred in the date given +by him. Although Augustus did not die until A.D. 14, there is evidence +that Tiberius was associated with him in authority over the army and the +provinces not later than January, A.D. 12. One who lived and wrote in the +reign of Titus may possibly have applied to the reign of Tiberius a mode +of reckoning customary in the case of Titus, as Professor Ramsay has shown +(Was Christ born at Bethlehem, 202). If this is the fact, Luke reckoned +from the co-regency of Tiberius; hence the fifteenth year would be A.D. 25 +or 26, according as the co-regency began before or after the first of +January, A.D. 12. This would place the first Passover of Jesus' ministry +in the spring of 26 or 27, in agreement with the hint found in John. + +50. If the public ministry of Jesus began with the spring of 26 or 27, the +close of three years of activity would, come at the Passover of 29 or 30. +The former of these dates agrees with the early Christian tradition +already mentioned. But before accepting that traditional date another +matter must be considered. Jesus was crucified on the Friday at the +opening of the feast of the Passover. Whether it was the day of the +sacrifice of the Passover (14 Nisan) or the day following (15 Nisan), is +not essential for the present question. As the Jewish month began with the +first appearance of the new moon, it is evident that, in the year of +Jesus' death, the month of Nisan must have begun on a day that would make +the 14th or the 15th fall on Friday. Now it can be shown that in the year +30 the 14th of Nisan was Thursday (April 6) or Friday (April 7), for at +best only approximate certainty is attainable. The tradition which assigns +the passion to 29, generally names March 25 as the day of the month. This +date is impossible, because it does not coincide with the full moon of +that month. The choice of March 25 by a late tradition may be explained by +the fact that it was commonly regarded as the date of the spring equinox, +the turning of the year towards its renewing. Mr. Turner has shown +(HastBD. I. 415) that another date found in an early document cannot be so +explained. Epiphanius was familiar with copies of the Acts of Pilate, +which gave March 18 as the date of the crucifixion; and it is remarkable +that this date coincides with the full moon, and also falls on Friday. +Such a combination gives unusual weight to the tradition, particularly as +there is no ready way to account for its rise, as in the case of March 25. +From this supplementary tradition the year 29 gains in probability as the +year of the passion. Without attempting to arrive at a final +conclusion,--a task which must be left for chronological specialists,--it +is safe to assume that Jesus died at the Passover of A.D. 29 or 30. + +51. Concluding that Jesus' active ministry fell within the years A.D. 26 +to 30, is it possible to determine the date of his birth? Four hints are +furnished by the gospels: he was born before the death of Herod (Matt. ii. +1; Luke i. 5); he was about thirty years of age at his baptism (Luke iii. +23); he was born during a census conducted in Judea in accordance with +the decree of Augustus at a time when Quirinius was in authority in Syria +(Luke ii. 1, 2); after his birth wise men from the East were led to visit +him by observing "his star" (Matt. ii. 1, 2). From these facts it follows +that the birth of Jesus cannot be placed later than B.C. 4, since Herod +died about the first of April in that year (Jos. Ant. xvii. 6. 4; 8. 1, +4). The awkwardness of having to find a date _Before Christ_ for the birth +of Jesus is due to the miscalculation of the monk, Dionysius the Little, +who in the sixth century introduced our modern reckoning from "the year of +our Lord." + +52. But is it impossible to determine the time of Jesus' birth more +exactly? Luke (ii. 1, 2) offers what seems to be more definite +information, but his reference to the decree of Augustus and the enrolment +under Quirinius are among the most seriously challenged statements in the +gospels. It has been said (1) that history knows of no edict of Augustus +ordering a general enrolment of "the world;" (2) that a Roman census could +not have been taken in Palestine before the death of Herod; (3) that if +such an enrolment had been taken it would have been unnecessary for Joseph +and Mary to journey from Nazareth to Bethlehem; (4) that the census taken +when Quirinius was governor of Syria is definitely assigned by Josephus to +the year after the deposition of Archelaus, A.D. 6 (Ant. xviii. 1. 1; see +also Acts v. 37); (5) that if Luke's reference to this census as the +"first" be appealed to, it must be replied that Quirinius was not governor +of Syria at any time during the lifetime of Herod. This array of +difficulties is impressive, and has persuaded many conservative students +to concede that in his reference to the census Luke has fallen into error. +Some recent discoveries in Egypt, however, have furnished new information +concerning the imperial administration of that province. Inferring that a +policy adopted in Egypt may have prevailed also in Syria, Professor Ramsay +has recently put forth a strong argument for Luke's accuracy in respect of +this census (Was Christ born at Bethlehem, 95-248). That argument may be +condensed as follows: We have evidence of a system of Roman enrolments in +Egypt taken every fourteen years, and already traced back to the time of +Augustus, the earliest document so far recovered belonging, apparently, to +the census of A.D. 20. It is at least possible that this system of +Egyptian enrolments may have been part of an imperial policy, of which all +other trace is lost excepting the statement of Luke. It is significant +that the date of the census referred to by Josephus (A.D. 6) fits exactly +the fourteen-year cycle which obtained in Egypt. If the census of A.D. 6 +was preceded by an earlier one its date would be B.C. 8; that is, it would +be actually taken in B.C. 7, in order to secure the full acts for B.C. 8. + +53. The statement of Tertullian (Against Marcion, iv. 19) that a census +had been taken in Judea under Augustus by Sentius Saturninus, who was +governor of Syria about 9 to 7 B.C., certainly comes from some source +independent of the gospels, and tends to confirm Luke's account of a +census before the death of Herod. That a Roman census might have been +taken in Palestine during Herod's life is seen from the fact that in A.D. +36 Vitellius, the governor of Syria, had to send Roman forces into +Cilicia Trachæa to assist Archelaus, the king of that country, to quell a +revolt caused by native resistance to a census taken after the Roman +fashion (Tacitus, Ann. vi. 41). Herod would almost certainly resent as a +mark of subjection the order to enrol his people; and the fact that he was +in disfavor with Augustus during the governorship of Saturninus (Josephus, +Ant. xvi. 9. 1-3), suggests to Professor Ramsay that he may have sought to +avoid obedience to the imperial will in the matter of the census. If after +some delay Herod was forced to obey, the enrolment may have been taken in +the year 7-6. Since it is probable that the Romans would allow Herod to +give the census as distinctly Jewish a character as possible, it is easy +to credit the order that all Jews should be registered, so far as +possible, in their ancestral homes. Hence the journey of Joseph to +Bethlehem; and if Mary wished to have her child also registered as from +David's line, her removal with Joseph to Bethlehem is explained. Such a +delay in the taking of the census would have postponed it until after the +recall of Saturninus. The statement of Tertullian may therefore indicate +simply that he knew that a census was taken in Syria by Saturninus. + +54. The successor of Saturninus was Varus, who held the governorship until +after the death of Herod. How then does Luke refer to the enrolment as +taken when Quirinius was in authority? It has for a long time been known +that this man was in Syria before he was there as legate of the emperor in +A.D. 6. There seems to be evidence that Quirinius was in the East about +the year B.C. 6, putting down a rebellion on the borders of Cilicia, a +district joined with Syria into one province under the early empire. +Varus was at this time governor, but Quirinius might easily have been +looked upon as representing for the time the power of the Roman arms. If +Herod was forced to yield to the imperial wish by the presence in Syria of +this renowned captain, the statement of Luke is confirmed, and the census +at which Jesus was born was taken, according to a Jewish fashion, during +the life of Herod, but under compulsion of Rome exacted by Quirinius, +while he was in command of the Roman forces in the province of +Syria-Cilicia. This gives as a probable date for the birth of Jesus B.C. +6, which accords well with the hints previously considered, inasmuch as it +is earlier than the death of Herod, and, if born in B.C. 6, Jesus would +have been thirty-two at his baptism in A.D. 26. + +55. The account given in Matthew of "the star" which drew the wise men to +Judea gives no sure help in determining the date of the birth of Jesus, +but it is at least suggestive that in the spring and autumn of B.C. 7 +there occurred a remarkable conjunction of the planets Jupiter and Saturn. +This was first noticed by Kepler in consequence of a similar conjunction +observed by him in A.D. 1603. Men much influenced by astrology must have +been impressed by such a celestial phenomenon, but that it furnishes an +explanation of the star of the wise men is not clear. If it does, it +confirms the date otherwise probable for the nativity, that is, not far +from B.C. 6. + +56. Can we go further and determine the time of year or the month and day +of the nativity? It should be borne in mind that our Christmas festival +was not observed earlier than the fourth century, and that the evidence +is well-nigh conclusive that December 25th was finally selected for the +Nativity in order to hallow a much earlier and widely spread pagan +festival coincident with the winter solstice. If anything exists to +suggest the time of year it is Luke's mention of "shepherds in the field +keeping watch by night over their flock" (ii. 8). This seems to indicate +that it must have been the summer season. In winter the flocks would be +folded, not pastured, by night. + +57. It therefore seems probable that Jesus was born in the summer of B.C. +6; that he was baptized in A.D. 26; that the first Passover of his +ministry was in the spring of 26 or 27; and that he was crucified in the +spring of 29 or 30. + + + + +V + +The Early Years of Jesus + +Matt. i. 1 to ii. 23; Luke i. 5 to ii. 52; iii. 23-38 + + + +58. It is surprising that within a century of the life of the apostles, +Christian imagination could have so completely mistaken the real greatness +of Jesus as to let its thirst for wonder fill his early years with scenes +in which his conduct is as unlovely as it is shocking. That he who in +manhood was "holy, harmless, undefiled, separate from sinners" (Heb. vii. +26), could in youth, in a fit of ill-temper, strike a companion with death +and then meet remonstrance by cursing his accusers with blindness (Gospel +of Thomas, 4, 5); that he could mock his teachers and spitefully resent +their control (Pseudo-Matthew, 30, 31); that it could be thought worthy of +him to exhibit his superiority to common human conditions by carrying +water in his mantle when his pitcher had been broken (same, 33), or by +making clay birds in play on the Sabbath and causing them to fly when he +was rebuked for naughtiness (same, 27);--these and many like legends +exhibit incredible blindness to the real glory of the Lord. Yet such +things abound in the early attempts of the pious imagination to write the +story of the youth of Jesus, and the account of the nativity and its +antecedents fares as ill, being pitifully trivial where it is not +revolting. + +59. How completely foreign all this is to the apostolic thought and +feeling is clear when we notice that excepting the first two chapters of +Matthew and Luke the New Testament tells us nothing whatever of the years +which preceded John the Baptist's ministry in the wilderness. The gospels +are books of testimony to what men had seen and heard (John i. 14); and +the epistles are practical interpretations of the same in its bearing on +religious life and hope. The apostles found no difficulty in recognizing +the divinity and sinlessness of their Lord without inquiring how he came +into the world or how he spent his early years; it was what he showed +himself to be, not how he came to be, that formed their conception of him. +Yet the early chapters of Matthew and Luke should not be classed with the +later legends. Notwithstanding the attempts of Keim to associate the +narratives of the infancy in the canonical and apocryphal gospels, a great +gulf separates them: on the one side there is a reverent and beautiful +reserve, on the other indelicate, unlovely, and trivial audacity. + +60. The gospel narratives have, however, perplexities of their own, for +the two accounts agree only in the main features,--the miraculous birth in +Bethlehem in the days of Herod, Mary being the mother and Joseph the +foster-father, and Nazareth the subsequent residence. In further details +they are quite different, and at first sight seem contradictory. Moreover, +while Matthew sheds a halo of glory over the birth of Jesus, Luke draws a +picture of humble circumstances and obscurity. These differences, taken +with the silence of the rest of the New Testament concerning a miraculous +birth, constitute a real difficulty. To many it seems strange that the +disciples and the brethren of Jesus did not refer to these things if they +knew them to be true. But it must not be overlooked that any familiar +reference to the circumstances of the birth of Jesus which are narrated in +the gospels would have invited from the Jews simply a challenge of the +honor of his home. Moreover, as the knowledge of these wonders did not +keep Mary from misunderstanding her son (Luke ii. 19, 51; compare Mark in. +21, 31-35), the publication of them could hardly have helped greatly the +belief of others. The fact that Mary was so perplexed by the course of +Jesus in his ministry makes it probable that even until quite late in her +life she "kept these things and pondered them in her heart." + +61. No parts of the New Testament are challenged so widely and so +confidently as these narratives of the infancy. But if they are not to be +credited with essential truth it is necessary to show what ideas cherished +in the apostolic church could have led to their invention. That John and +Paul maintain the divinity of their Lord, yet give no hint that this +involved a miraculous birth, shows that these stories are no necessary +outgrowth of that doctrine. The early Christians whether Jewish or Gentile +would not naturally choose to give pictorial form to their belief in their +Lord's divinity by the story of an incarnation. The heathen myths +concerning sons of the gods were in all their associations revolting to +Christian feeling, and, while the Jewish mind was ready to see divine +influence at work in the birth of great men in Israel (as Isaac, and +Samson, and Samuel), the whole tendency of later Judaism was hostile to +any such idea as actual incarnation. Some would explain the story of the +miraculous birth as a conclusion drawn by the Christian consciousness +from the doctrine of the sinlessness of Jesus. Yet neither Paul nor John, +who are both clear concerning the doctrine, give any idea that a +miraculous birth was essential for a sinless being. Some appeal to the +eagerness of the early Christians to exalt the virginity of Mary, This is +certainly the animus of many apocryphal legends. But the feeling is as +foreign to Jewish sentiment and New Testament teaching as it is +contradictory to the evidence in the gospels that Mary had other children +born after Jesus. + +62. Moreover, the songs of Mary (Luke i. 46-55) and Zachariah (Luke i. +68--79) bear in themselves the evidence of origin before the doctrine of +the cross had transformed the Christian idea of the Messiah. That +transformed idea abounds in the Epistles and the Acts, and it is difficult +to conceive how these songs (if they were later inventions) could have +been left free of any trace of specifically Christian ideas. A Jewish +Christian would almost certainly have made them more Christian than they +are; a Gentile Christian could not have made them so strongly and +naturally Jewish as they are; while a non-Christian Jew would never have +invented them. Taken with the evidence in Ignatius (Ad Eph. xviii., xix.) +of the very early currency of the belief in a miraculous birth, they +confirm the impression that it is easier to accept the evidence offered +for the miracle than to account for the origin of the stories as legends. +The idea of a miraculous birth is very foreign to modern thought; it +becomes credible only as the transcendent nature of Jesus is recognized on +other grounds. It may not be said that the incarnation required a +miraculous conception, yet it may be acknowledged that a miraculous +conception is a most suitable method for a divine incarnation. + +63. These gospel stories are chiefly significant for us in that they show +that he in whom his disciples came to recognize a divine nature began his +earthly life in the utter helplessness and dependence of infancy, and grew +through boyhood and youth to manhood with such naturalness that his +neighbors, dull concerning the things of the spirit, could not credit his +exalted claims. He is shown as one in all points like unto his brethren +(Heb. ii. 17). Two statements in Luke (ii. 40, 52) describe the growth of +the divine child as simply as that of his forerunner (Luke i. 80), or that +of the prophet of old (I. Sam. ii. 26). The clear impression of these +statements is that Jesus had a normal growth from infancy to manhood, +while the whole course of the later life as set before us in the gospels +confirms the scripture doctrine that his normal growth was free from sin +(Heb. iv. 15). + +64. The knowledge of the probable conditions of his childhood is as +satisfying as the apocryphal stories are revolting. The lofty Jewish +conception of home and its relations is worthy of Jesus. The circumstances +of the home in Nazareth were humble (Matt. xiii. 55; Luke ii. 24; compare +Lev. xii. 8). Probably the house was not unlike those seen to-day, of but +one room, or at most two or three,--the tools of trade mingling with the +meagre furnishings for home-life. We should not think it a home of penury; +doubtless the circumstances of Joseph were like those of his neighbors. In +one respect this home was rich. The wife and mother had an exalted place +in the Jewish life, notwithstanding the trivial opinions of some +supercilious rabbis; and what the gospel tells of the chivalry of Joseph +renders it certain that love reigned in his home, making it fit for the +growth of the holy child. + +65. Religion held sway in all the phases of Jewish life. With some it was +a religion of ceremony,--of prayers and fastings, tithes and boastful +alms, fringes and phylacteries. But Joseph and Mary belonged to the +simpler folk, who, while they reverenced the scribes as teachers, knew not +enough of their subtlety to have substituted barren rites for sincere love +for the God of their fathers and childlike trust in his mercy. Jesus knew +not only home life at its fairest, but religion at its best. A father's +most sacred duty was the teaching of his child in the religion of his +people (Deut. vi. 4-9), and then, as ever since, the son learned at his +mother's side to know and love her God, to pray to him, and to know the +scriptures. No story more thrilling and full of interest, no prospect more +rich and full of glowing hope, could be found to satisfy the child's +spirit of wonder than the story of Israel's past and God's promises for +the future. Religious culture was not confined to the home, however. The +temple at Jerusalem was the ideal centre of religious life for this +Nazareth household (Luke ii. 41) as for all the people, yet practically +worship and instruction were cultivated chiefly by the synagogue (Luke iv. +16); there God was present in his Holy Word. Week after week the boy Jesus +heard the scripture in its original Hebrew form, followed by translation +into Aramaic, and received instruction from it for daily conduct. The +synagogue probably influenced the boy's intellectual life even more +directly. In the time of Jesus schools had been established in all the +important towns, and were apparently under the control of the synagogue. +To such a school he may have been sent from about six years of age to be +taught the scriptures (compare II. Tim. iii. 15), together with the +reading (Luke iv. 16-19), and perhaps the writing, of the Hebrew language. +Of his school experience we know nothing beyond the fact that he grew in +"wisdom and in stature and in favor with God and man" (Luke ii. 52),--a +sufficient contradiction of the repulsive legends of the apocryphal +gospels. + +66. The physical growth incident to Jesus' development from boyhood to +manhood is a familiar thought. The intellectual unfolding which belongs to +this development is readily recognized. Not so commonly acknowledged, but +none the less clearly essential to the gospel picture, is the gradual +unfolding of the child's moral life under circumstances and stimulus +similar to those with which other children meet (Heb. iv. 15). The man +Jesus was known as the carpenter (Matt. xiii. 55). The learning of such a +trade would contribute much to the boy's mastery of his own powers. Far +more discipline would come from his fellowship with brothers and sisters +who did not understand his ways nor appreciate the deepest realities of +his life. Without robbing boyhood days of their naturalness and reality, +we may be sure that long before Jesus knew how and why he differed from +his fellows he felt more or less clearly that they were not like him. The +resulting sense of isolation was a school for self-mastery, lest isolation +foster any such pride or unloveliness as that with which later legend +dared to stain the picture of the Lord's youth. Four brothers of Jesus +are named by Mark (vi. 3),--James, and Joses, and Judas, and Simon,--the +gospel adds also that he had sisters living at a later time in Nazareth. +They were all subject with him to the same home influences, and apparently +were not unresponsive to them. The similarity of thought and feeling +between the sermon on the mount and the Epistle of James is not readily +explained by the influence of master over disciple, since the days of +James's discipleship began after the resurrection of Jesus. In any case +there is no reason to think that the companions of Jesus' home were +uncommonly irritating or in any way irreligious, only Jesus was not +altogether like them (John vii. 5), and the fact of difference was a moral +discipline, which among other things led to that moral growth by which +innocence passed into positive goodness. If the home was such a school of +discipline, its neighbors, less earnest and less favored with spiritual +training, furnished more abundant occasion for self-mastery and growth. +The very fact that in his later years Jesus was no desert preacher, like +John, but social, and socially sought for, indicates that he did not win +his manhood's perfection in solitude, but in fellowship with common life +and in victory over the trials and temptations incident to it (Heb. ii. +17, 18). + +67. Yet he must have been familiar with the life which is in secret (Matt. +vi. 1-18). He who in his later years was a man of much prayer, who began +(Luke iii. 21) and closed (Luke xxiii. 46) his public life with prayer, as +a boy was certainly familiar not only with the prayers of home and +synagogue, but also with quiet, personal resort to the presence of God. It +would be unjust to think of any abnormal religious precocity. Jesus was +the best example the world has seen of perfect spiritual health, but we +must believe that he came early to know God and to live much with him. + +68. It is instructive in connection with this inwardness of Jesus' life to +recall the rich familiarity with the whole world of nature which appears +in his parables and other teachings. The prospect which met his eye if he +sought escape from the distractions of home and village life, has been +described by Renan: "The view from the town is limited; but if we ascend a +little to the plateau swept by a perpetual breeze, which stands above the +highest houses, the landscape is magnificent. On the west stretch the fine +outlines of Carmel, terminating in an abrupt spur which seems to run down +sheer to the sea. Next, one sees the double summit which towers above +Megiddo; the mountains of the country of Shechem, with their holy places +of the patriarchal period; the hills of Gilboa, the small picturesque +group to which is attached the graceful or terrible recollections of +Shunem and of Endor; and Tabor, with its beautiful rounded form, which +antiquity compared to a bosom. Through a gap between the mountains of +Shunem and Tabor are visible the valley of the Jordan and the high plains +of Perea, which form a continuous line from the eastern side. On the +north, the mountains of Safed, stretching towards the sea, conceal St. +Jean d'Acre, but leave the Gulf of Khaifa in sight. Such was the horizon, +of Jesus. This enchanted circle, cradle of the kingdom of God, was for +years his world. Indeed, during his whole life he went but little beyond +the familiar bounds of his childhood. For yonder, northwards, one can +almost see, on the flank of Hermon, Cæsarea-Philippi, his farthest point +of advance into the Gentile world; and to the south the less smiling +aspect of these Samaritan hills foreshadows the dreariness of Judea +beyond, parched as by a burning wind of desolation and death." In the +midst of such scenes we are to understand that, with the physical growth, +and opening of mind, and moral discipline which filled the early years of +Jesus, there came also the gradual spiritual unfolding in which the boy +rose step by step to the fuller knowledge of God and himself. + +69. That unfolding is pictured in an early stage in the story given us +from the youth of Jesus. It was customary for a Jewish boy not long after +passing his twelfth year to come under full adult obligation to the law. +The visit to Jerusalem was probably in preparation for such assumption of +obligation by Jesus. All his earlier training had filled his mind with the +sacredness of the Holy City and the glory of the temple. It is easy to +feel with what joy he would first look upon Zion from the shoulder of the +Mount of Olives, as he came over it on his journey from Galilee; to +conceive how the temple and the ritual would fill him with awe in his +readiness not to criticise, but to idealize everything he saw, and to +think only of the significance given by it all to the scripture; to +imagine how eagerly he would talk in the temple court with the learned men +of his people about the law and the promises with which in home and school +his youth had been made familiar. Nor is it difficult to appreciate his +surprise, when Joseph and Mary, only after long searching for him, at last +found him in the temple, for he felt that it was the most natural place +in which he could be found. In his wondering question to Mary, "Did not +you know that I must be in my Father's house?" (Luke ii. 49), there is a +premonition of his later consciousness of peculiarly intimate relation to +God. The question was, however, a sincere inquiry. It was no precocious +rebuke of Mary's anxiety. The knowledge of himself as Son of God was only +dawning within him, and was not yet full and clear. This is shown by his +immediate obedience and his subjection to his parents in Nazareth through +many years. It is safe, in the interpretation of the acts and words of +Jesus, to banish utterly as inconceivable anything that savors of the +theatrical. We must believe that he was always true to himself, and that +the subjection which he rendered to Joseph and Mary sprang from a real +sense of childhood's dependence, and was not a show of obedience for any +edifying end however high. + +70. That question "Did not you know?" is the only hint we possess of +Jesus' inner life before John's call to repentance rang through the land. +Meanwhile the carpenter's son became himself the carpenter. Joseph seems +to have died before the opening of Jesus' ministry. For Jesus as the +eldest son, this death made those years far other than a time of spiritual +retreat; responsibility for the home and the pressing duties of trade must +have filled most of the hours of his days. This is a welcome thought to +our healthiest sentiment, and true also to the earliest Christian feeling +(Heb. iv. 15). John the Baptist had his training in the wilderness, but +Jesus came from familiar intercourse with men, was welcomed in their +homes (John ii. 2), knew their life in its homely ongoing, and was the +friend of all sorts and conditions of men. After that visit to Jerusalem, +a few more years may have been spent in school, for, whether from school +instruction, or synagogue preaching, or simple daily experience, the young +man came to know the traditions of the elders and also to know that +observance of them is a mockery of the righteousness which God requires. +Yet he seems to have felt so fully in harmony with God as to be conscious +of nothing new in the fresh and vital conceptions of righteousness which +he found in the law and prophets. We may be certain that much of his +thought was given to Israel's hope of redemption, and that with the +prophets of old and the singer much nearer his own day (Ps. of Sol. xvii. +23), he longed that God, according to his promise, would raise up unto his +people, their King, the Son of David. + +71. He must also have read often from that other book open before him as +he walked upon the hills of Nazareth. The beauty of the grass and of the +lilies was surely not a new discovery to him after he began to preach the +coming kingdom, nor is it likely that he waited until after his baptism to +form his habit of spending the night in prayer upon the mountain. We may +be equally sure that he did not first learn to love men and women and long +for their good after he received the call, "Thou art my beloved son" (Mark +i. 11). He who in later life read hearts clearly (John ii. 25) doubtless +gained that skill, as well as the knowledge of human sin and need, early +in his intercourse with his friends and neighbors in Nazareth; while a +clear conviction that God's kingdom consists in his sovereignty over +loyal hearts must have filled much of his thought about the promised good +which God would bring to Israel in due time. Thus we may think that in +quietness and homely industry, in secret life with God and open love for +men, in study of history and prophecy, in longing for the actual sway of +God in human life, Jesus lived his life, did his work, and grew in "wisdom +and in stature and in favor with God and man" (Luke ii. 52). + + + + +VI + +John The Baptist + +Matt. iii. 1-17; iv. 12; xiv. 1-12; Mark i. 1-14; vi. 14-29; Luke i. 5-25, +57-80; iii. 1-22; ix. 7-9; John i. 19-37; iii. 22-30. + + + +72. The first reappearance of Jesus in the gospel story, after the temple +scene in his twelfth year, is on the banks of the Jordan seeking baptism +from the new prophet. One of the silent evidences of the greatness of +Jesus is the fact that so great a character as John the Baptist stands in +our thought simply as accessory to his life. For that the prophet of the +wilderness was great has been the opinion of all who have been willing to +seek him in his retirement. One reason for the common neglect of John is +doubtless the meagreness of information about him. But though details are +few, the picture of him is drawn in clearest lines: a rugged son of the +wilderness scorning the gentler things of life, threatening his people +with coming wrath and calling to repentance while yet there was time; a +preacher of practical righteousness heeded by publicans and harlots but +scorned by the elders of his people; a bold and fearless spirit, yet +subdued in the presence of another who did not strive, nor cry, nor cause +his voice to be heard in the streets. When the people thought to find in +John the promised Messiah, with unparalleled self-effacement he pointed +them to his rival and rejoiced in that rival's growing success. Side by +side they worked for a time; then the picture fails, but for a hint of a +royal audience, with a fearless rebuke of royal disgrace and sin; a prison +life, with its pathetic shaking of confidence in the early certainties; a +long and forced inaction, and the question put by a wavering faith, with +its patient and affectionate reply; then a lewd orgy, a king's oath, a +girl's demands, a martyr's release, the disciples' lamentation and their +report to that other who, though seeming a rival, was known to appreciate +best the greatness of this prophet. Such is the picture in the gospels. + +73. John, unlike his greater successor, has a highly appreciative notice +from Josephus: "Now some of the Jews thought that the destruction of +Herod's army came from God, and that very justly, as a punishment for what +he did against John, who was called the Baptist. For Herod had had him put +to death though he was a good man, and commanded the Jews to exercise +virtue, both as to justice towards one another, and piety towards God, and +so to come to baptism; for baptism would be acceptable to God, if they +made use of it not in order to expiate some sin, but for the purification +of the body, provided that the soul was thoroughly purified beforehand by +righteousness. Now, as many flocked to him, for they were greatly moved by +hearing his words, Herod, fearing that the great influence, John had over +the people might lead to some rebellion (for the people seemed likely to +do anything he should advise), thought it far best, by putting him to +death, to prevent any mischief he might cause, and not bring himself into +difficulties by sparing a man who might make him repent of his leniency +when it should be too late. Accordingly he was sent a prisoner, in +consequence of Herod's suspicious temper, to Machaerus, the fortress +before mentioned, and was there put to death. So the Jews had the opinion +that the destruction of this army [by Aretas] was sent as a punishment +upon Herod and was the mark of God's displeasure at him" (Ant. xviii. 5. +2). This section is commonly accepted as trustworthy. Superficially +different from the gospel record and assigning quite another cause for +John's imprisonment and death, it correctly describes his character and +his influence with the people, and leaves abundant room for a more +intimately personal motive on the part of Antipas for the imprisonment of +John. If the jealousy of Herodias was the actual reason for John's arrest, +it is highly probable that another cause would be named to the world, and +a likelier one than that given by Josephus could not be found. + +74. The first problem that offers itself in the study of this man is the +man himself. Whence did he come? Everything about him is surprising. He +appears as a dweller in the desert, an ascetic, holding aloof from common +life and content with the scanty fare the wilderness could offer; yet he +was keenly appreciative of his people's needs, and he knew their +sins,--the particular ones that beset Pharisees, publicans, soldiers. If a +recluse in habit, he was far from such in thought; he was therefore no +seeker for his own soul's peace in his desert life. His dress was +strikingly suggestive of the old prophet of judgment on national +infidelity (I. Kings xvii. 1; II. Kings i, 8), the Elijah whom John would +not claim to be. His message was commanding, with its double word "Repent" +and "The kingdom is near." His idea of the kingdom was definite, though +not at all developed; it signified to him God's dominion, inaugurated by a +divine judgment which should mean good for the penitent and utter +destruction for the ungodly; hence the prophet's call to repentance. His +ministry was one of grace, but the time was drawing near when the Greater +One would appear to complete by a swift judgment the work which his +forerunner was beginning. That Greater One would hew down the fruitless +tree, winnow the wheat from the chaff on the threshing floor, baptize the +penitent with divine power, and the wicked with the fire of judgment, +since his was to be a ministry of judgment, not of grace. + +75. Whence, then, came this strange prophet? Near the desert region where +he spent his youth and where he first proclaimed his message of repentance +and judgment was the chief settlement of that strange company of Jews +known as Essenes. It has long been customary to think that during his +early years John was associated with these fellow-dwellers in the desert, +if he did not actually join the order. He certainly may have learned from +them many things. Their sympathy with his ascetic life and with his +thorough moral earnestness would make them attractive to him, but he was +far too original a man to get from them more than some suggestions to be +worked out in his own fashion. The simplicity of his teaching of +repentance and the disregard of ceremonial in his preaching separate him +from these monks. John may have known his desert companions, may have +appreciated some things in their discipline, but he remained independent +of their guidance. + +76. The leaders of religious life and thought in his day were +unquestionably the Pharisees. The controlling idea with them, and +consequently with the people, was the sanctity of God's law. They were +conscious of the sinfulness of the people, and their demand for repentance +was constant. It is a rabbinic commonplace that the delay of the Messiah's +coming is due to lack of repentance in Israel. But near as this conception +is to John's, we need but to recall his words to the Pharisees (Matt. iii. +7) to realize how clearly he saw through the hollowness of their religious +pretence. With the quibbles of the scribes concerning small and great +commandments, Sabbaths and hand-washings, John shows no affinity. He may +have learned some things from these "sitters in Moses' seat," but he was +not of them. + +77. John's message announced the near approach of the kingdom of God. It +is probable that many of those who sought his baptism were ardent +nationalists,--eager to take a hand in realizing that consummation. +Josephus indicates that it was Herod's fear lest John should lead these +Zealots to revolt that furnished the ostensible cause of his death. But +similar as were the interests of John and these nationalists, the distance +between them was great. The prophet's replies to the publicans and to the +soldiers, which contain not a word of rebuke for the hated callings (Luke +iii. 13, 14), show how fundamentally he differed from the Zealots. + +78. But there was another branch of the Pharisees than that which quibbled +over Sabbath laws, traditions, and tithes, or that which itched to grasp +the sword; they were men who saw visions and dreamed dreams like those of +Daniel and the Revelation, and in their visions saw God bringing +deliverance to his people by swift and sudden judgment. There are some +marked likenesses between this type of thought and that of John,--the +impending judgment, the word of warning, the coming blessing, were all in +John; but one need only compare John's words with such an apocalypse as +the Assumption of Moses, probably written in Palestine during John's life +in the desert, to discover that the two messages do not move in the same +circle of thought at all; there is something practical, something severely +heart-searching, something at home in every-day life, about John's +announcement of the coming kingdom that is quite absent from the visions +of his contemporaries. John had not, like some of these seers, a coddling +sympathy for people steeped in sin. He traced their troubles to their own +doors, and would not let ceremonies pass in place of "fruits meet for +repentance." He came from the desert with rebuke and warning on his lips; +with no word against the hated Romans, but many against hypocritical +claimants to the privileges of Abraham; no apology for his message nor +artificial device of dream or ancient name to secure a hearing, but the +old-fashioned prophetic method of declaration of truth "whether men will +hear or whether they will forbear." "All was sharp and cutting, imperious +earnestness about final questions, unsparing overthrow of all fictitious +shams in individual as in national life. There are no theories of the law, +no new good works, no belief in the old, but simply and solely a prophetic +clutch at men's consciences, a mighty accusation, a crushing summons to +contrite repentance and speedy sanctification" (KeimJN. II. 228). We look +in vain for a parallel in any of John's contemporaries, except in that one +before whom he bowed, saying, "I have need to be baptized of thee." + +79. John had, however, predecessors whose work he revived. In Isaiah's +words, "Wash you, make you clean" (Isa. i 16), one recognizes the type +which reappeared in John. The great prophetic conception of the Day of the +Lord--the day of wrath and salvation (Joel ii. 1-14)--is revived in John, +free from all the fantastic accompaniments which his contemporaries loved. +The invitations to repentance and new fidelity which abound in Isaiah, +Ezekiel, Hosea, and Joel; the summons to simple righteousness, which rang +from the lips of Micah (vi. 8), and of the great prophet of the exile +(Isa. lviii.), these tell us where John went to school and how well he +learned his lesson. It is hard for us to realize how great a novelty such +simplicity was in John's day, or how much originality it required to +attain to this discipleship of the prophets. From the time when the +curtain rises on the later history of Israel in the days of the Maccabean +struggle to the coming of that "voice crying in the wilderness," Israel +had listened in vain for a prophet who could speak God's will with +authority. The last thing that people expected when John came was such a +simple message. He was not the creature of his time, but a revival of the +older type; yet, as in the days of Elijah God had kept him seven thousand +in Israel that had not bowed the knee to Baal, so, in the later time, not +all were bereft of living faith. These devout souls furnished the soil +which could produce a life like John's, gifted and chosen by God to +restore and advance the older and more genuine religion. + +80. If John was thus a revival of the older prophetic order, a second +question arises: Whence came his baptism, and what did it signify? The +gospels describe it as a "baptism of repentance for the remission of sins" +(Mark i. 4). John's declaration that his greater successor should baptize +with the Holy Spirit and fire (Matt. iii. 11) shows that he viewed his +baptism as a symbol, rather than as a means, of remission of sin. But it +was more than a sign of repentance, it was a confession of loyalty to the +kingdom which John's successor was to establish. It had thus a twofold +significance: (_a_) confession of and turning from the old life of sin, +and (_b_) consecration to the coming kingdom. Whence, then, came this +ordinance? Not from the Essenes, for, unlike John's baptism, the bath +required by these Jewish ascetics was an oft-repeated act. Further, John's +rite had a far deeper religious significance than the Essene washings. +These performed their ablutions to secure ritual cleanness as exemplary +disciples of the Mosaic ideal. The searching of heart which preceded +John's baptism, and the radical change of life it demanded, seem foreign +to Essenism. The baptism of John, considered as a ceremony of consecration +for the coming kingdom, was parallel rather to the initiatory oaths of the +Essene brotherhood than to their ablutions. Their custom may have served +to suggest to John a different application of the familiar sacred use of +the bath; indeed John could hardly have been uninfluenced by the usage of +his contemporaries; yet in this, as in his thought, he was not a product +of their school. + +81. John's baptism was equally independent of the pharisaic influence. The +scribes made much of "divers washings," but not with any such significance +as would furnish to John his baptism of repentance and of radical change +of life. That he was not following a pharisaic leading appears in the +question put to him by the Pharisees, "Why, then, baptizest thou?" (John +i. 25). They saw something unique in the ceremony as he conducted it. + +82. Many have held that he derived his baptism from the method of +admitting proselytes into the Jewish fellowship. It is clear, at least, +that the later ritual prescribed a ceremonial bath as well as circumcision +and sacrifice for all who came into Judaism from the Gentiles, and it is +difficult to conceive of a time when a ceremonial bath would not seem +indispensable, since Jews regarded all Gentile life as defiling. While +such an origin for John's baptism would give peculiar force to his rebuke +of Jewish confidence in the merits of Abraham (Matt. iii. 9), it is more +likely, as Keim has shown (JN. II. 243 and note), that in this as in his +other thought John learned of his predecessors rather than his +contemporaries. Before the giving of the older covenant from Sinai, it is +said that Moses was required "to sanctify the people and bid them wash +their garments" (Ex. xix. 10). John was proclaiming the establishment of a +new covenant, as the prophets had promised. That the people should prepare +for this by a similar bath of sanctification seems most natural. John +appeared with a revival of the older and simpler religious ideas of +Israel's past, deriving his rite as well as his thought from the springs +of his people's religious life. + +83. This revival of the prophetic past had nothing scholastic or +antiquarian about it. John was a disciple, not an imitator, of the great +men of Israel; his message was not learned from Isaiah or any other, +though he was educated by studying them. What he declared, he declared as +truth immediately seen by his own soul, the essence of his power being a +revival, not in letter but in spirit, of the old, direct cry, "Thus saith +the Lord." Inasmuch as John's day was otherwise hopelessly in bondage to +tradition and the study of the letter, by so much is his greatness +enhanced in bringing again God's direct message to the human conscience. +John's greatness was that of a pioneer. The Friend of publicans and +sinners also spoke a simple speech to human hearts; he built on and +advanced from the old prophets, but it was John who was appointed to +prepare the people for the new life, "to make ready the way of the Lord" +(Mark i. 3). The clearness of his perception of truth is not the least of +his claims to greatness. His knowledge of the simplicity of God's +requirements in contrast with the hopeless maze of pharisaic traditions, +and his insight into the characters with whom he had to deal, whether the +sinless Jesus or the hypocritical Pharisees, show a man marvellously +gifted by God who made good use of his gift. This greatness appears in +superlative degree in the self-effacement of him who possessed these +powers. Greatness always knows itself more or less fully. It was not +self-ignorance that led John to claim to be but a voice, nor was it mock +humility. The confession of his unworthiness in comparison with the +mightier one who should follow is unmistakably sincere, as is the +completed joy of this friend of the bridegroom rejoicing greatly because +of the bridegroom's voice, even when the bridegroom's presence meant the +recedence of the friend into ever deepening obscurity (John iii. 30). + +84. But John had marked limitations. He knew well the righteousness of +God; he knew, and, in effect, proclaimed God's readiness to forgive them +that would turn from their wicked ways; he knew the simplicity as well as +the exceeding breadth of the divine commandment; but beyond one flash of +insight (John i. 29-36), which did not avail to remould his thought, he +did not know the yearning love of God which seeks to save. It is not +strange that he did not. Some of the prophets had more knowledge of it +than he, his own favorite Isaiah knew more of it than he, but it was not +the thought of John's day. The wonder is that the Baptist so far freed +himself from current thought; yet he did not belong to the new order. He +thundered as from Sinai. The simplest child that has learned from the +heart its "Our Father" has reached a higher knowledge and entered a higher +privilege (Matt. xi. 11). John's self-effacement, wonderful as it was, +fell short of discipleship to his greater successor; in fact, at a much +later time there was still a circle of disciples of the Baptist who kept +themselves separate from the church (Acts xix. 1-7). He was doubtless too +strenuous a man readily to become a follower. He could yield his place +with unapproachable grace, but he remained the prophet of the wilderness +still. He seemed to belong consciously to the old order, and, by the very +circumstances ordained of God who sent him, he could not be of those who, +sitting at Jesus' feet, learned to surrender to him their preconceptions +and hopes, and in heart, if not in word, to say, "To whom shall we go, +thou hast the words of eternal life?" (John vi. 68). + + + + +VII + +The Messianic Call + +Matt. iii. 13 TO iv. 11; Mark i. 9-13; Luke iii. 21, 22; iv. 1-13; John i. +30-34 + + + +85. In the circle about John all classes of the people were represented: +Pharisees and Sadducees, jealous of innovation and apprehensive of popular +excitement; publicans and soldiers, interested in the new preacher or +touched in conscience; outcasts who came in penitence, and devout souls in +consecration. The wonder of the new message was carried throughout the +land and brought great multitudes to the Jordan. Jesus in Nazareth heard +it, and recognized in John a revival of the long-silent prophetic voice. +The summons appealed to his loyalty to God's truth, and after the +multitudes had been baptized (Luke iii. 21) he too sought the prophet of +the wilderness. + +86. The connection which Luke mentions (i. 36) between the families of +Jesus and John had not led to any intimacy between the two young men. John +certainly did not know of his kinsman's mission (John i. 31), nor was his +conception of the Messiah such that he would look for its fulfilment in +one like Jesus (Matt. iii. 10-12). One thing, however, was clear as soon +as they met,--John recognized in Jesus one holier than himself (Matt. iii. +14). With a prophet's spiritual insight he read the character of Jesus +at a glance, and although that character did not prove him to be the +Messiah, it prepared John for the revelation which was soon to follow. + +87. The reply of Jesus to the unwillingness of John to give him baptism +(Matt. iii. 15) was an expression of firm purpose to do God's will; the +absence of any confession of sin is therefore all the more noticeable. In +all generations the holiest men have been those most conscious of +imperfection, and in John's message and baptism confession and repentance +were primary demands; yet Jesus felt no need for repentance, and asked for +baptism with no word of confession. But for the fact that the total +impression of his life begat in his disciples the conviction that "he did +no sin" (I. Pet. ii. 22; compare John viii. 46; II. Cor. v. 21), this +silence of Jesus would offend the religious sense. Jesus, however, had no +air of self-sufficiency, he came to make surrender and "to fulfil +all-righteousness" (Matt. iii. 15). It was the positive aspect of John's +baptism that drew him to the Jordan. John was preaching the coming of +God's kingdom. The place held by the doctrine of that kingdom in the later +teaching of Jesus makes it all but certain that his thought had been +filled with it for many years. In his reading of the prophets Jesus +undoubtedly emphasized the spiritual phases of their promises, but it is +not likely that he had done much criticising of the ideas held by his +contemporaries before he came to John. As already remarked he seems to +have been quicker to discover his affinity with the older truth than to be +conscious of the novelty of his own ways of apprehending it (Matt. v. 17). +When, then, Jesus heard John's call for consecration to the approaching +kingdom he recognized the voice of duty, and he sought the baptism that he +might do all that he could to "make ready the way of the Lord." + +88. This act of consecration on Jesus' part was one of personal obedience. +There were no crowds present (Luke iii. 21), and his thoughts were full of +prayer. It was an experience which concerned his innermost life with God, +and it called him to communion with heaven like that in which he sought +for wisdom before choosing his apostles (Luke vi. 12), and for strength in +view of his approaching death (Luke ix. 28, 29). His outward declaration +of loyalty to the coming kingdom was thus not an act of righteousness "to +be seen of men," but one of personal devotion to him who is and who sees +in secret (Matt. vi. 1, 6). As the transfiguration followed the prayer on +Hermon, so this initial consecration was answered from heaven. A part of +the answer was evident to John, for he saw a visible token of the gift of +the divine Spirit which was granted to Jesus for the conduct of the work +he had to do, and he recognized in Jesus the greater successor for whom he +was simply making preparation (Mark i. 10; John i. 32-34). To Jesus there +came also with the gift of the Spirit a definite word from heaven, "Thou +art my beloved Son, in thee I am well pleased" (Mark i. 11). The language +in Mark and Luke, and the silence of the Baptist concerning the voice from +heaven (John i. 32-34), indicate that the word came to Jesus alone, and +was his summons to undertake the work of setting up that kingdom to which +he had just pledged his loyalty. The expression "My beloved Son" had clear +Messianic significance for Jesus' contemporaries (comp. Mark xiv. 62), +and the message can have signified for him nothing less than a Messianic +call. It implied more than that child-relation to God which was the +fundamental fact in his religious life from the beginning: it had an +official meaning. + +89. For Jesus the sense of being God's child was normally human, and in +his ministry he invited all men to a similar consciousness of sonship. Yet +his early years must have brought to him a realization that he was +different from his fellows. That in him which made a confession at the +baptism unnatural and which led to John's word, "I have need to be +baptized by thee," was ready to echo assent when God said, "Thou art my +Son." He accepted the call and the new office and mission which it +implied, and he must have recognized that it was for this moment that all +the past of his life had been making preparation. + +90. The gift of the Spirit to Jesus, which furnished to John the proof +that the Greater One had appeared, was not an arbitrary sign. The old +prophetic thought (Isa. xi. 2; xlii. 1; lxi. 1) as well as a later popular +expectation (Ps. of Sol. xvii. 42) provided for such an anointing of the +Messiah; and in the actual conduct of his life Jesus was constantly under +the leading of this Spirit (see Matt. xii. 28 and John iii. 34). The +temptation which followed the baptism, and in which he faced the +difficulties in his new task, was the first result of the Spirit's +control. Its later influence is not so clearly marked in the gospels, but +they imply that as the older servants of God were guided and strengthened +by him, so his Son also was aided,--with this difference, however, that he +possessed completely the heavenly gift (John iii. 34). Jesus' uniform +confession of dependence on God confirms this teaching of the gift of the +divine Spirit; and his uniform consciousness of complete power and +authority confirms the testimony that he had the Spirit "without measure." + +91. The temptation to which the Spirit "drove" Jesus after his baptism +gives proof that the call to assume the Messianic office came to him +unexpectedly; for the three temptations with which his long struggle ended +were echoes of the voice which he had heard at the Jordan, and subtle +insinuations of doubt of its meaning. Some withdrawal to contemplate the +significance of his appointment to a Messianic work was a mental and +spiritual necessity. As has often been said, if the gospels had not +recorded the temptation, we should have had to assume one. Jesus being the +man he was, could not have thought that his call was a summons to an +entire change in his ideals and his thoughts about God and duty. Yet he +must have been conscious of the wide differences between his conceptions +of God's kingdom and the popular expectation. Those differences, by the +measure of the definiteness of the popular thought and the ardor of the +popular hope, were the proof of the difficulty of his task. The call meant +that the Messiah could be such as he was; it meant that the kingdom could +be and must be a dominion of God primarily in the hearts of men and +consequently in their world; it meant that his work must be religious +rather than political, and gracious rather than judicial. These essentials +of the work which he could do contradicted at nearly every point the +expectations of his people. How could he succeed in the face of such +opposition? His long meditation during forty days doubtless showed him the +difficulty of his task in all its baldness, yet it did not shake his +certainty that the call had come to him from God, nor his faith that what +God had called him to do he could accomplish. + +92. The gospels show no hesitation in calling the experience of these days +a temptation, nor had the Christian feeling of the first century any +difficulty in thinking of its Lord as actually suffering temptation (Heb. +ii. 18; iv. 15). A temptation to be real cannot be hypothetical; evil must +actually present itself as attractive to the tempted soul. A suggestion of +evil that takes no hold concretely of the heart is no temptation, nor is +the resistance of it any victory. The sinlessness of him who sought +baptism with no confession on his lips nor sense of penitence in his heart +offers no barrier to his experience of genuine temptation, unless we think +him incapable of sin, and therefore not "like unto his brethren." Not only +do the gospels repeatedly refer to his temptations (Luke iv. 13; Mark +viii. 31-33; Luke xxii. 28; compare Heb. v. 7-9), but they also depict +clearly the reality of these initial testings. The account as given in +Matthew and Luke represents the experience with which the forty days' +struggle culminated. The absorption of Jesus' mind had been so complete +that he had neglected the needs of his body, and when he turned to think +of earthly things he was pressed by hunger. A popular notion at a later +time, and probably also in Jesus' day, was that the Messiah would be able +to feed his people as Moses had given them manna in the wilderness (John +vi. 30-32; see EdersLJM. I. 176). He had just been endowed with the +divine Spirit for the work before him; it was therefore no fantastic idea +when the suggestion came that he should use his power to supply his own +needs in the desert. Nor was the temptation without attractiveness; his +own physical nature urged its need, and Jesus was no ascetic who found +discomfort a way of holiness. The evil in the suggestion was that it asked +him to use his newly given powers for the supply of his own needs, as if +doubting that God would care for him as for any other of his children. +There was more than distrust of God suggested; the temptation came with a +hint of another doubt,--"_If_ thou art God's Son." A miracle would prove +to himself his appointment and his power. The suggested doubt of his call +he passed unnoticed; distrust of God he repudiated instantly, falling back +on his faith in the God he had served these many years (Deut. viii. 3). +His victory is remarkable because his spirit conquered unhesitatingly +after a long ecstasy which would naturally have induced a reaction and a +surrender for the moment to the demand of lower needs. + +93. This firmness of trust opened the way for another evil suggestion. In +the work before him as God's Anointed many difficulties were on either +side and across his path. He knew his people, their prejudices, and their +hardness of heart; and he knew how far he was from their ideal of a +Messiah. He knew also the watchful jealousy of Rome. Others before him, +like Judas of Galilee, had tried the Messianic rôle and had failed. He, +however, was confident of his divine call: should he not, therefore, press +forward with his work, heedless of all danger and regardless of the +dictates of prudence,--as heedless as if, trusting God's promised care, +he should cast himself down from a pinnacle of the temple to the rocks in +Kidron below? A fanatic would have yielded to such a temptation. Many +another than Jesus did so,--Theudas (Acts v. 36), the Egyptian (Acts xxi. +38); and Bar Cochba (Dio Cassius, lxix. 12-14; Euseb. Ch. Hist. iv. 6). +Jesus, however, showed his perfect mental health, repudiating the +temptation by declaring that while man may trust God's care, he must not +presumptuously put it to the test (Matt. iv. 7). The after life of Jesus +was a clear commentary on this reply. He constantly sought to avoid +situations which would compromise his mission or cut short his work (see +John vi. 15), and when at the end he suffered the death prepared for him +by his people's hatred, it was because his hour had come and he could say, +"I lay down my life of myself" (John x. 18). His marvellous control of +enthusiasm and his self-mastery in all circumstances separate Jesus from +all ecstatics and fanatics. Yet presumption must have seemed the easier +course, and could readily wear the mask of trust. He was tempted, yet +without sin. + +94. As the refusal to doubt led to the temptation to presume, so the +determination to be prudent opened the way for a third assault upon his +perfect loyalty to God. The world he was to seek to save was swayed by +passions; his own people were longing for a Messiah, but they must have +their kind of a Messiah. If he would acknowledge this actual supremacy of +evil and self-will in the world, the opposition of passion and prejudice +might be avoided. If he would own the evil inevitable for the time, and +accommodate his work to it, he might then be free to lead men to higher +and more spiritual views of God's kingdom. His knowledge of his people's +grossness of heart and materialism of hope made a real temptation of the +suggestion that he should not openly oppose but should accommodate himself +to them. Jesus did not underestimate the opposition of "the kingdoms of +the world," but he truly estimated God's intolerance of any rivalry (Matt. +iv. 10), and he was true to God and to his own soul. Again, in this as in +the preceding temptations, Jesus conquered the evil suggestions by +appropriating to himself truth spoken by God's servants to Israel. Tempted +in all points like his brethren, he resisted as any one of them could have +resisted, and won a victory possible, ideally considered, to any other of +the children of men. + +95. It is not idle curiosity which inquires whence the evangelists got +this story of the temptation of Jesus. Even if the whole transaction took +place on the plane of outer sensuous life, and Jesus was bodily carried to +Jerusalem and to the mountain-top, there is no probability that any +witnesses were at hand who could tell the tale. But the fact that in any +case the vision of the kingdoms of the world in a moment of time (Luke iv. +5) could have been spiritual only, since no mountain, however high (Matt. +iv. 8), could give, physically, that wide sweep of view, suggests that the +whole account tells in pictorial language an intensely real, inner +experience of Jesus. This in no respect reduces the truthfulness of the +narratives. Temptation never becomes temptation till it passes to that +inner scene of action and debate. Since Jesus shows in all his teaching a +natural use of parabolic language to set forth spiritual truth, the +inference is almost inevitable that the gospels have in like manner +adopted the language of vivid picture as alone adequate to depict the +essential reality of his inner struggle. In any case the narrative could +have come from no other source than himself. How he came to tell it we do +not know. On one of the days of private converse with his disciples after +the confession at Cæsarea Philippi he may have given them this account of +his own experience, in order to help his loyal Galileans to understand +more fully his work and the way of it, and to prepare them for that +disappointment of their expectations which they were so slow to +acknowledge as possible. + +96. From this struggle in the wilderness Jesus came forth with the clear +conviction that he was God's Anointed, and in all his after life no +hesitation appeared. The kingdom which he undertook to establish was that +dominion of simple righteousness which he had learned to know and love in +the years of quiet life in Nazareth. He set out to do his work fearlessly, +but prudently, seeking to win men in his Father's way to acknowledge that +Father's sovereignty. There is no evidence that, beyond such firm +conviction and purpose, he had any fixed plan for the work he was to do, +nor that he saw clearly as yet how his earthly career would end. The third +temptation, however, shows that he was not unprepared for seeming defeat. +The struggle had been long and serious,--for the three temptations of the +end are doubtless typical of the whole of the forty days,--and the victory +was great and final. With the light of victory as well as the marks of +warfare on his face, he took his way back towards Galilee. + + + + +VIII + +The First Disciples + +John i. 19 TO ii. 12 + + + +97. After the withdrawal of Jesus into the wilderness, John the Baptist +continued his ministry of preaching and baptizing, moving northward up the +Jordan valley to Bethany, on the eastern side of the river, near one of +the fords below the Sea of Galilee (John i. 28). Here Galilee, doubtless, +contributed more to his audience than Judea. It is certain that some from +the borders of the lake were at this time among his constant attendants: +Andrew and Simon of Bethsaida, John the son of Zebedee, and perhaps his +brother James, probably also Philip of Bethsaida and Nathanael of Cana +(John i. 40, 41, 43-45; compare xxi. 2). + +98. The leaders in Jerusalem, becoming apprehensive whither this work +would lead, sent an embassy to question John. They chose for this mission +priests and Levites of pharisaic leaning as most influential among the +people. The impression John and his message were making on the popular +mind is seen in the questions put to him, "Art thou the Messiah?" +"Elijah?" "The prophet?" (see Deut. xviii. 15), and in the challenge, +"Why, then, baptizest thou?" when John disclaimed the right to any of +these names. John's reply is the echo of his earlier proclamation of the +one mightier than he who should baptize with the Spirit (Mark i. 7, 8), +only now he added that this one was present among them (John i. 26, 27). + +99. This interview occurred several weeks after Jesus' baptism, for upon +the next day John saw Jesus (John i. 29), now returned from the +temptation, and pointed him out to a group of disciples. Something in +Jesus' face or in his bearing, as he came from his temptation, must have +impressed John even more than at their first meeting; for he was led to +think of a prophetic word for the most part ignored by the Messianic +thought of his day, "He was brought as a lamb to the slaughter" (Isa. +liii. 7). As he looked on Jesus the mysterious oracle was illuminated for +him, and he cried, "Behold the lamb of God which taketh away the sin of +the world." Once again on the next day the same thought rushed to his lips +when, with two disciples, he saw Jesus passing by (John i. 35, 36). Then +as Jesus left John's neighborhood and took up again the round of ordinary +life, John seems to have reverted to his more ordinary Messianic thought, +his momentary insight into highest truth standing as a thing apart in his +life. Such a moment's insight, caused by extraordinary circumstances, no +more requires that John should retain the high thought constantly than +does Peter's confession of Christ at Cæsarea Philippi exclude his later +rebuke of his Lord (Mark viii. 32, 33), or his denials (Mark xiv. 66-72). + +100. The disciples who heard these testimonies from John understood them +to be Messianic (John i. 30-34), though their later consternation, when +the cross seemed to shatter their hopes (John xx. 9, 10, 24, 25), shows +that they did not comprehend their deeper meaning. Two of these disciples +at once attached themselves to Jesus, and one of them, Andrew of +Bethsaida, was so impressed by the new master that, having sought out his +brother Simon, he declared that they had found the Messiah. The other of +these earliest followers was John the son of Zebedee, and it is possible +that he also found his brother and introduced James from the very first +into the circle of the disciples. Jesus was about to take his departure +for Galilee, and on the next day, as he was leaving, added Philip of +Bethsaida to the little company of followers. Philip, impressed as Andrew +had been, brought Nathanael of Cana to Jesus. The undefined something +about Jesus which drew noble hearts irresistibly to himself, and his +marvellous knowledge of this new comer, produced the same effect in +Nathanael, as was seen earlier in Andrew and Philip, and he acknowledged +the new master as "Son of God, King of Israel" (John i. 49). + +101. These early confessions in the fourth gospel present a difficulty in +view of Jesus' warm approval of Peter's acknowledgment of him at Cæsarea +Philippi (Matt. xvi. 13-20). Jesus saw in that confession a distinct +advance in the disciples' thought and faith. Yet the religious feeling +which early questioned whether the Baptist even were not the Messiah (Luke +iii. 15) would almost certainly have concluded that John's greater +successor must be God's anointed. The very fact that men's thoughts about +the Messiah were varied and complex made them ready for some modifications +of their preconceptions. One with such subtle personal power as Jesus had +exercised was almost sure to be hailed by some with enthusiasm as the +looked-for representative of God. In fact, it is probable that at any +time in the early days of his ministry Jesus could have been proclaimed +Messiah, provided he had accepted the people's terms. Such a confession +would have been merely the outcome of enthusiasm. The people, even the +disciples, did not know Jesus. They all had high hopes and somewhat fixed +ideas about the Messiah, nearly every one of which was destined to rude +shock. How little they knew him Jesus realized (John i. 51), and his +self-mastery is manifest in his attitude to this early enthusiasm. He was +no visionary; he had a great work to do and a long lesson to teach, and he +was patient enough to teach it little by little. He did not rebuke the +ill-informed faith of a Nathanael, but sought gradually to supplant the +old thought of the Messiah and of the kingdom by new truth, and to bind +men's affections to himself for his own sake and the truth's sake, not +simply for the idea which he impersonated to them. + +102. The visit to Cana seems to have found a place in the fourth gospel, +because there the new disciples discovered in their master miraculous +powers which were to them a sign that he was in truth God's anointed. It +is probable that at the time of this miracle the disciples thought only of +the power and the marvel, yet the sharp contrast between John's ascetic +habit and Jesus' use of his divine resources to relieve embarrassment at a +wedding feast must have impressed every man among them. Their minds, +however, were as yet too full of Messianic hopes to leave much room for +reflection. They were content to have a sign, for in the view of Jesus' +contemporaries signs were essential marks of the Messiah (John vi. 30; +vii. 31; Mark viii. 11). They did their reflecting later (John ii. 22). + +103. Miracles are as great a stumbling-block to modern thought as they +were a help to the contemporaries of Jesus. The study of Jesus' life +cannot ignore this fact, nor make little of it. It is fair to insist, +however, that the question is one of evidence, not of metaphysical +possibility. Men are wisely slow to-day to claim that they can tell what +are the limits of the possible. If the question is one of evidence, it is +in an important sense true that the evidence for miracle in the life of +Jesus is appreciable only when that life is viewed in its completeness. +The miracles attributed to Jesus may be studied, however, for the +disclosure which they give of his character, and of his relation to common +human need. So it is with this first sign at Cana. Jesus had just heard +the call to be Messiah, and in his lonely struggle in the wilderness had +given a loyal answer to that call, and had set out to do his Father's +business in his Father's way. He who by the Jordan still carried the marks +of struggle, so that the Baptist saw in him the suffering Saviour of +Isaiah liii., now returned to the ordinary daily life in Galilee, and as a +guest at a wedding feast he commenced that ministry of simple human +friendliness (Matt. xi. 19; compare Mark ii. 15-17; Luke xv. 1, 2), which +set him in sharp contrast alike with John's asceticism and with the +ritualism and pedantry of the Pharisees. + +104. His human friendliness is all the more worthy of note, inasmuch as on +his return to Cana Jesus did not take up again the old relations of life +as they existed before his baptism. This is clear from his reply to his +mother when she reported the scarcity of wine (John ii. 3-5). While it is +true that the title by which Jesus addressed Mary was neither +disrespectful nor unkind (John xix. 26), the reply itself was a warning +that now he was no longer hers in the old sense. A new mission had been +given him, which henceforth would determine all his conduct, and in that +mission she could not now share. Here is one of the many indications +(compare Mark iii. 21, 31-35; Luke ii. 48) that Mary did not understand +her son nor his work until much later (John xix. 25; Acts i. 14). That +with such a clear sense of his new and serious mission Jesus' first +official act was one of kindly relief for social embarrassment is most +significant. He chose to show his divine authority to his new disciples in +a way that brought joy to a festal company. Little as the disciples were +likely to appreciate it at the time, it was beautifully indicative of the +simplicity and everyday lovableness of Jesus' idea of the earnest service +of God. + +105. With the disciples thus strengthened in faith, and the mother not +separated from him though unable to know his deepest thoughts, and the +brethren who could not yet nor later understand their kinsman and his +work, Jesus went down to Capernaum (John ii. 12), which proved thenceforth +to be the centre of his greatest work and teaching. There for a time, how +long cannot be known, he continued in quiet fellowship with his new +friends, until the approach of the Passover drew him to Jerusalem to make +formal opening of his Messianic work in that centre of his people's +religious life. + + + + + + +Part II + +The Ministry + + + + +I + +General Survey of the Ministry + + + +106. The attempt to arrange an orderly account of the way in which Jesus +set about the work to which he was called at his baptism is met at the +outset by a problem. The vivid and familiar words of Mark (i. 14), +seconded by the representation in both Matthew (iv. 12) and Luke (iv. 14), +indicate the imprisonment of John as the occasion, and Galilee as the +scene of the inauguration of Jesus' public ministry. The fourth gospel, on +the other hand, tells of a work of Jesus and his disciples in Judea prior +to the imprisonment of John (in. 24), and makes this work follow at some +interval after the inauguration of the Messianic ministry in Jerusalem. +The minuteness of detail of time and place in the early chapters of John +(i. 19 to iv. 43), together with the vividness of their narrative, give +them strong claim to credence. They thus record a ministry earlier than +that narrated in the other gospels, proving that the actual inauguration +of Jesus' work occurred in Jerusalem at a Passover season previous to the +imprisonment of John. This is known as the Early Judean Ministry. + +107. The fact that Peter was wont to tell the story of Jesus' life in such +a way as to lead Mark to set the opening of the ministry after the close +of John's activity, indicates that that beginning of work in Galilee +seemed to the disciples to be in a way the actual inauguration of Jesus' +constructive and successful work. Peter cannot have been ignorant of the +labors in Judea, though he may not himself have accompanied Jesus to the +Passover. A new stage in the life of Jesus began, therefore, with his +withdrawal to Galilee. + +108. The story of the Galilean ministry is given chiefly by the first +three gospels, John contributing but two incidents to the period covered +by that ministry,--a second miracle at Cana (iv. 46-54), and a visit to +Judea (v. 1-47),--and relating more fully the story of the feeding of the +multitudes (vi. 1-71). The journey from Judea through Samaria (John iv. +1-45) should be identified with the removal to Galilee which stands at the +beginning of Mark's record (i. 14; Matt. iv. 12; Luke iv. 14). Mark's +account of the Galilean activity of Jesus (i. 14 to ix. 50) is one of such +simple and steady progress that the whole period must be considered as a +unit. + +109. In the use which Matthew (iv. 12 to xviii. 35) and Luke (iv. 14 to +ix. 50) make of Mark's record this unity is emphasized. Their treatment of +the matter which they add, however, makes it best to study the period +topically rather than attempt to follow closely a chronological sequence. +As it is probable that the early writing ascribed by Papias to the apostle +Matthew failed to preserve in many cases any record of the time and place +of the teachings of Jesus, so is it certain that the first and third +evangelists have distributed quite differently the material which they +seem to have derived from that apostolic document. Mention need only be +made of the exhortation against anxiety which Matthew places in the +sermon on the mount (vi. 19-34), and which Luke has given after the close +of the Galilean activity (xii. 22-34). It is possible to form some +judgment of the general relations of such discourses from the character of +their contents, but in the absence of positive statement by the +evangelists it is hopeless to seek to give them a more definite historical +setting. A topical study can consider them as contributions to the period +to which they belong, while a chronological study would be lost in +uncertain conjectures. A topical study may, however, disclose the fact +that sequence of time was identical with development of method. This is, +in general, the case with the Galilean ministry. The new lesson which +Jesus began to teach after the confession at Cæsarea Philippi marked the +supreme turning point in his whole public activity. Before that crisis the +work of Jesus was a constructive preparation for the question which called +forth Peter's confession. Subsequently his work was that of making ready +for the end, which from that time on he foretold. As has been stated, the +Galilean ministry is the story of the first three gospels, except for two +incidents and a discourse added by John. The visit to the feast of +Tabernacles (John vii. 1 to viii. 59) stands on the border between the +work in Galilee and that which followed. It was one of Jesus' many +attempts to win Jerusalem, and is evidence that the author of the fourth +gospel--either because of special interest in the capital, or because of +superior knowledge of the work of his Master in Judea--gave emphasis to a +side of the life of Jesus which the other gospels have neglected. + +110. With the close of the constructive ministry in Galilee, the account +of Mark (x. 1; compare Matt xix. 1; Luke ix. 51) turns towards Jerusalem +and the cross. The journey was not direct, but traversed Perea, the domain +of Antipas beyond Jordan, and was accompanied by continued ministry of +teaching and healing (Mark x. 1-52; Matt. xix. 1 to xx. 34). It is at this +point that Luke has inserted the long section peculiar to his gospel (ix. +51 to xviii. 14), becoming again parallel with Mark as Jesus drew near to +Jerusalem (xviii. 15 to xix. 28; compare Mark x. 13-52). Much of that +which Luke adds gives evidence that in all probability it should be placed +before the change in method at Cæsarea Philippi, while much of it +undoubtedly belongs to the last months of Jesus' life. Since the last +journey to Jerusalem is reported with considerable fulness, it is natural +in a study of Jesus' life to treat that journey by itself. At this point +John contributes important additions to the record (ix. 1 to xi. 57) +showing that the journey was not continuous, but was interrupted by +several more or less hurried visits to the capital, renewed efforts of +Jesus to win the city. + +111. With the final arrival in Jerusalem the four gospels come together in +a record of the last days and the crucifixion (Mark xi. 1 to xv. 47; Matt, +xxi 1 to xxvii. 66; Luke xix. 29 to xxiii. 56; John xi. 55 to xix. 42). +The evangelists, in their accounts of the last week, seem to have had +access to completer and more varied information than for any other part of +the ministry. This causes some difficulties in constructing an ordered +conception of the events, yet it greatly adds to the fulness of our +knowledge. It is easier, therefore, to consider the period in three +parts,--the final controversies in Jerusalem, the Last Supper, and the +betrayal, trial, and crucifixion. + +112. In a sense the resurrection and ascension form the conclusion of the +final visit to Jerusalem, and should be treated with the last week. In a +larger sense, however, they form the culmination of the whole ministry, +and therefore constitute a final stage in the study of Jesus' life. At +this point the record of the gospels is supplemented by the first chapter +of the Acts and by Paul's concise report of the appearances of the risen +Christ (I. Cor. xv. 3-8). The various accounts exhibit perplexing +independence of each other. In total impression, however, they agree, and +show that the tragedy, by which the enemies of Jesus thought to end his +career, was turned into signal triumph. + + Outline of Events in the Early Judean Ministry + + + The first Passover of the public ministry: Cleansing of the + temple--John ii. 13-22. + + Early results in Jerusalem: Discourse with Nicodemus--John ii. 23 to + iii. 15. + + Withdrawal into rural parts of Judea to preach and baptize--John in. + 22-30; iv. 1, 2. + + Imprisonment of John the Baptist--Matt. iv. 12; Mark i. 14. + + Withdrawal from Judea through Samaria--John iv. 1-42. + + Unlooked-for welcome in Galilee--John iv. 43-45. + + ? Second sign at Cana: Cure of the Nobleman's son--John iv. 46-54 (see + sect. A 41). + + [Retirement at Nazareth, the disciples resuming their accustomed + calling. Inferred from Matt. iv. 13; Luke iv. 31; Matt. iv. 18-22 and + ∥s.] + + Events marked ? should possibly be given a different place; ∥s stands + for "parallel accounts;" for sections marked A--as A 41--see Appendix. + + + + +II + +The Early Ministry in Judea + + + +113. We owe to the fourth gospel our knowledge of the fact that Jesus +began his general ministry in Jerusalem. The silence of the other records +concerning this beginning cannot discredit the testimony of John. For +these other records themselves indicate in various ways that Jesus had +repeatedly sought to win Jerusalem before his final visit at the end of +his life (compare Luke xiii. 34; Matt. xxiii. 37). Moreover, the fourth +gospel is confirmed by the probability, rising almost to necessity, that +such a mission as Jesus conceived his to be must seek first to win the +leaders of his people. The temple at Jerusalem was the centre of worship, +drawing all Jews sooner or later to itself--even as Jesus in early youth +was accustomed to go thither at the time of feasts (Luke ii. 41). +Worshippers of God throughout the world prayed with their faces towards +Jerusalem (Dan. vi. 10). Moreover, at Jerusalem the chief of the scribes, +as well as the chief of the priests, were to be found. Compared with +Jerusalem all other places were provincial and of small influence. A +Messiah, who had not from the outset given up hope of winning the capital, +cannot have long delayed his effort to find a following there. + +114. Arriving at Jerusalem at the Passover season, in the early spring, +Jesus remained in Judea until the following December (John iv. 35). +Evidently the record which John gives of these months is most fragmentary, +and from his own statement (xx. 30, 31) it seems highly probable that it +is one sided, emphasizing those events and teachings in which Jesus +disclosed more or less clearly his claim to be the Messiah. Doubtless the +full record would show a much closer similarity between this early work in +Judea and that later conducted in Galilee than a comparison of John with +the other gospels would suggest; yet it is evident that Jesus opened his +ministry in Jerusalem with an unrestrained frankness that is not found +later in Galilee. + +115. It is a mistake to think of the cleansing of the temple as a distinct +Messianic manifesto. The market in the temple was a licensed affront to +spiritual religion. It found its excuse for being in the requirement that +worshippers offer to the priests for sacrifice animals levitically clean +and acceptable, and that gifts for the temple treasury be made in no coin +other than the sacred "shekel of the sanctuary." The chief priests +appreciated the convenience which worshippers coming from a distance would +find if they could obtain all the means of worship within the temple +enclosure itself. The hierarchy or its representatives seem also to have +appreciated the opportunity to charge good prices for the accommodation so +afforded. The result was the intrusion of the spirit of the market-place, +with all its disputes and haggling, into the place set apart for worship. +In fact, the only part of the temple open to Gentiles who might wish to +worship Israel's God was filled with distraction, unseemly strife, and +extortion (compare Mark xi. 17). Such despite done the sanctity of God's +house must have outraged the pious sense of many a devout Israelite. There +is no doubt of what an Isaiah or a Micah would have said and done in such +a situation. This is exactly what Jesus did. His act was the assumption of +a full prophetic authority. In itself considered it was nothing more. In +his expulsion of the traders he had the conscience of the people for his +ally. There is no need to think of any use of miraculous power. His moral +earnestness, coupled with the underlying consciousness on the part of the +traders themselves that they had no business in God's house, readily +explains the confusion and departure of the intruders. Even those who +challenged Jesus' conduct did not venture to defend the presence of the +market in the temple. They only demanded that Jesus show his warrant for +disturbing a condition of things authorized by the priests. + +116. The temple cleansing is recorded in the other gospels at the end of +Jesus' ministry, just before the hostility of the Jews culminated in his +condemnation and death. Inasmuch as these gospels give no account of a +ministry by Jesus in Jerusalem before the last week of his life, it is +easy to see how this event came to be associated by them with the only +Jerusalem sojourn which they record. The definite place given to the event +in John, together with the seeming necessity that Jesus should condemn +such authorized affront to the very idea of worship, mark this cleansing +as the inaugural act of Jesus' ministry of spiritual religion, rather than +as a final stern rebuke closing his effort to win his people. Against the +conclusion commonly held that Jesus cleansed the temple both at the +opening and at the close of his course is the extreme improbability that +the traders would have been caught twice in the same way. The event fits +in closely with the story of the last week, because it actually led to the +beginning of opposition in Jerusalem to the prophet from Galilee. At the +first the opposition was doubtless of a scornful sort. Later it grew in +bitterness when it saw how Jesus was able to arouse a popular enthusiasm +that seemed to threaten the stability of existing conditions. + +117. The reply of Jesus to the challenge of his authority for his +high-handed act shows that he offered it to the people as an invitation; +he would lead them to a higher idea and practice of worship (compare John +iv. 21-24). When they demanded the warrant for his act, he saw that they +were not ready to follow him, and could not appreciate the only warrant he +needed for his course. He cleansed the temple because they were destroying +it as a place where men could worship God in spirit. In reply to the +challenge, he who later taught the Samaritan woman that the worship of God +is not dependent on any place however sacred, answered that they might +finish their work and destroy the temple as a house of God, yet he would +speedily re-establish a true means of approach to the Most High for the +souls of men. He clothed his reply in a figurative dress, as he was often +wont to do in his teaching,--"Destroy this temple, and in three days I +will raise it up." To his unsympathetic hearers it must have been +completely enigmatic. Even the disciples did not catch its meaning until +after the resurrection had taught them that in their Master a new chapter +in God's dealing with men had begun. + +118. The unreadiness of the Jewish leaders to receive the only kind of +message he had to offer produced in Jesus a decided reserve. He did not +lack a certain kind of success in Jerusalem. His cures of the sick won him +many followers who seemed ready to believe almost anything of him. But the +attitude taken by the leaders made it evident that Jesus must make +disciples who should understand in some measure at least his idea of God's +kingdom, and, understanding, must be ready to be loyal to it through good +report and evil. For the position taken by the leaders of the people had +an ominous significance. It could mean but one thing for +Jesus,--unrelenting conflict. If they could not be won, they who would so +legalize the desecration of God's house would not hesitate at any extreme +in opposing his messenger. This possibility confronted Jesus at the very +outset; therefore he held the popular enthusiasm in check, knowing that +as yet it had little of that kind of faith which could endure seeming +defeat. + +119. One of those who were drawn to him, however, gave Jesus opportunity +to lay aside his reserve and speak clearly of the truth lie came to +publish. He was a member of the Jewish sanhedrin, a rabbi apparently held +in high regard in Jerusalem. While his associates were dismissing the +claims of Jesus with a wave of the hand, Nicodemus sought out the new +teacher by night, and showed his desire to learn what Jesus held to be +truth concerning God's kingdom. Jesus first reminded the teacher of Israel +of the old doctrine of the prophets, that Israel must find a new heart +before God's kingdom can come (Jer. xxxi. 31-34; Ezek. xxxvi. 25-27), and +then declared that the heavenly truth which God now would reveal to men is +that all can have the needed new life as freely as the plague-stricken +Israelites found relief when Moses lifted up the brazen serpent. This +conversation serves to introduce the evangelist's interpretation of Jesus +as the only begotten Son of God sent in love to redeem the world (John +iii. 16-21). + +120. John's record suggests that Jesus left Jerusalem shortly after the +conversation with Nicodemus. His work there was not without success, for +Nicodemus seems to have been henceforth his loyal advocate (compare John +vii. 50-52; xix. 39); and it may be that at the time of this sojourn he +won the hearts of his friends in Bethany, for the first picture the +gospels give of this household seems to presuppose a somewhat intimate +relation of Jesus to the family (Luke x. 38-42). It would be idle to +speculate whether it was at this time or later that he became acquainted +with Joseph of Arimathea, or the friends who during the last week of his +life showed him hospitality (Mark xi. 2-6; xiv. 12-16). + +121. For a time after his withdrawal from Jerusalem he lingered in Judea, +carrying on a simple ministry of preparation like that of John the +Baptist. In this way the summer and early autumn seem to have passed, +Jesus growing more popular as a prophet than John himself had been. The +fact that Jesus' disciples administered baptism in connection with his +work roused the jealousy of some of John's followers, and attracted again +the attention of Jerusalem to the new activity of the bold disturber of +the temple market. John's disciples complained to him of Jesus' rivalry, +and received his self-effacing confession, "He must increase, I must +decrease." The Pharisees, on the other hand, made Jesus feel that further +work in Judea was for the time unwise, and he withdrew into Galilee for +retirement, since "a prophet has no honor in his own country" (John iv. +1-3, 44). Baffled in his first effort to win his people, this journey back +from the region of the holy city must have been one of no little sadness +for Jesus. Some urgency for haste led him by the direct road through +despised Samaria. A seemingly chance conversation with a woman at Jacob's +well, where he was resting at noonday, gave him an opportunity for +ministry which was more ingenuously received than any which he had been +able to render in Judea; and to this woman he declared himself even more +plainly than to Nicodemus, and preached to her that spiritual idea of +worship which he had sought to enforce by cleansing Jerusalem's temple. +Samaria was so isolated from all Jewish interest that Jesus felt no need +for reserve in this "strange" land. The few days spent there must have +been peculiarly welcome to his heart, fresh from rejection in Judea. + +122. One reason why he wished to hasten from Judea seems to have been his +knowledge of the hostile movement which was making against John the +Baptist. Either before or soon after Jesus started for Galilee Herod had +arrested John, ostensibly as a measure of public safety owing to John's +undue popularity (Jos. Ant. xviii. 5. 2). Herod may have been encouraged +to take this step by the hostility of the Pharisees to the plain-spoken +prophet of the desert (see John iv. 1-3). The fourth gospel leaves its +readers to infer that the imprisonment took place somewhere about this +time (compare iii. 24 and v. 35), while the other gospels unite in giving +this arrest as the occasion for Jesus' withdrawal into Galilee. + +123. Arrived in Galilee, Jesus seems to have returned to his home at +Nazareth, while his disciples went back to their customary occupations, +until he summoned them again to join him in a new ministry (see sect. +125). John assigns to this time the cure of a nobleman's son. The father +sought out Jesus at Cana, having left his son sick at Capernaum. At first +Jesus apparently repelled his approach, even as he had dealt with seekers +after marvels at Jerusalem; but on hearing the father's cry of need and +trust, he at once spoke the word of healing. This event is in so many ways +a duplicate of the cure of a centurion's servant recorded in Matthew and +Luke, that to many it seems but another version of the same incident. +Considering the variations in the story reported by Matthew and Luke, it +is clearly not possible to prove that John tells of a different case. Yet +the simple fact of similarity of some details in two events should not +exclude the possibility of their still being quite distinct. The reception +which Jesus gave the two requests for help is very different, and the case +reported in John is in keeping with the attitude of Jesus before he began +his new ministry in Galilee. On his arrival in Galilee he wished to avoid +a mere wonder faith begotten of the enthusiasm he excited in Jerusalem, +yet this wish yielded at once when a genuine need sought relief at his +hands. + +124. The apparent result of this first activity in Judea was +disappointment and failure. He had won no considerable following in the +capital. He had definitely excited the jealousy and opposition of the +leading men of his nation. Even such popular enthusiasm as had followed +his mighty works was of a sort that Jesus could not encourage. The +situation in Judea had at length become so nearly untenable that he +decided to withdraw into seclusion in Galilee, where, as a prophet, he +could be "without honor." He had gone to Jerusalem eager to begin there, +where God should have had readiest service, the ministry of the kingdom of +God. Challenge, cold criticism, and superficial faith were the results. A +new beginning must be made on other lines in other places. Meanwhile Jesus +retired to his home and his followers to theirs. + + Outline of Events in the Galilean Ministry (Chapters III. And IV.) + + + The imprisonment of John and the withdrawal of Jesus into + Galilee--Matt. iv. 12-17; Mark i. 14, 15; Luke iv. 14, 15. + + Removal from Nazareth to Capernaum--Matt. iv. 13-16; Luke iv. 31. + + The call of Simon and Andrew, James and John--Matt. iv. 18-22; Mark i. + 16-20; Luke v. 1-11. + + First work in Capernaum--Matt. viii. 14-17; Mark i. 21-34; Luke iv. + 31-41. + + First circuit of Galilee--Matt. iv. 23; viii. 2-4; Mark i. 35-45; Luke + iv. 42-44; v. 12-16. + + Cure of a paralytic in Capernaum--Matt. ix. 2-8; Mark ii. 1-12; Luke v. + 17-26. + + The call of Matthew--Matt. ix. 9-13; Mark ii. 13-17; Luke v. 27-32. + + ? The question about fasting--Matt ix. 14-17; Mark ii. 18-22; Luke v. + 33-39 (see sects. 47; A 54). + + ? Sabbath cure at Jerusalem at the unnamed feast--John v. 1-47 (see + sect. A 53). + + ? The Sabbath controversy in the Galilean grain fields--Matt. xii. 1-8; + Mark ii. 23-28; Luke vi. 1-5 (see sects. 47; A 54). + + ? Another Sabbath controversy: cure of a withered hand--Matt. xii. + 9-14; Mark iii. 1-6; Luke vi. 6-11 (see sects. 47; A 54). + + Jesus followed by multitudes from all parts--Matt. iv. 23-25; xii. + 15-21; Mark iii. 7-12; Luke vi. 17-19. + + The choosing of the twelve--Matt. x. 2-4; Mark iii. 13-19; Luke vi. + 12-19. + + The sermon on the mount--Matt. v. 1 to viii. 1; Luke vi. 20 to vii. 1 + (see sect. A 55). + + The cure of a centurion's servant--Matt. viii. 5-13; Luke vii. 1-10; + John iv. 46-54. + + The restoration of the widow's son at Nain--Luke vii. 11-17. + + The message from John in prison--Matt. xi. 2-19; Luke vii. 18-35. + + The anointing of Jesus by a sinful woman--Luke vii. 36-50. + + The companions of Jesus on his second circuit of Galilee--Luke viii. + 1-3. + + Cure of a demoniac in Capernaum and blasphemy by the Pharisees--Matt. + xii. 22-45; Mark iii. 19^a-30; Luke xi. 14-36. + + The true kindred of Jesus--Matt. xii. 46-50; Mark iii. 31-35; Luke + viii. 19-21. + + The parables by the sea--Matt. xiii. 1-53; Mark iv. 1-34; Luke viii. + 4-18 (see sect. A 56). + + The tempest stilled--Matt. viii. 18, 23-27; Mark iv. 35-41; Luke viii. + 22-25. + + Cure of the Gadarene demoniac--Matt. viii. 28-34; Mark v. 1-20; Luke + viii. 26-39. + + The restoration of the daughter of Jairus and cure of an invalid + woman--Matt. ix. 1, 18-26; Mark v. 21-43; Luke viii. 40-56. + + Cure of blind and dumb--Matt. ix. 27-34. + + Rejection at Nazareth--Matt. xiii. 54-58; Mark vi. 1-6^a; Luke iv. + 16-30 (see sect. A 52). + + Third circuit of Galilee--Matt. ix. 35; Mark vi. 6^b. + + The mission of the twelve--Matt. ix. 36 to xi. 1; Mark vi. 7-13; Luke + ix. 1-6 (see sect. A 57). + + The death of John the Baptist--Matt. xiv. 1-12; Mark vi. 14-29; Luke + ix. 7-9. + + Withdrawal of Jesus across the sea and feeding of the five + thousand--Matt. xiv. 13-23; Mark vi. 30-46; Luke ix. 10-17; John vi. + 1-15. + + Return to Capernaum, Jesus walking on the water--Matt. xiv. 24-36; Mark + vi. 47-56; John vi. 16-21. + + Teaching about the Bread of Life in the synagogue at Capernaum--John + vi. 22-71 (see sect. A 59). + + Controversy concerning tradition: handwashing, etc.--Matt. xv. 1-20; + Mark vii. 1-23. + + Withdrawal to regions of Tyre and Sidon: the SyrophÅ“nician woman's + daughter--Matt. xv. 21-28; Mark vii. 24-30. + + Return through Decapolis--Matt. xv. 29-31; Mark vii. 31-37. + + ? The feeding of the four thousand--Matt. xv. 32-38; Mark viii. 1-9 + (see sect. A 58). + + Pharisaic challenge in Galilee, and warning against the leaven of the + Pharisees--Matt xv. 39 to xvi. 12; Mark viii. 10-21. + + Cure of blind man near Bethsaida--Mark viii. 22-26. + + Peter's confession of Jesus as Christ near Cæsarea Philippi--Matt. xvi. + 13-20; Mark viii. 27-30; Luke ix. 18-21. + + The new lesson, that the Christ must die--Matt. xvi. 21-28; Mark viii. + 31 to ix. 1; Luke ix. 22-27. + + The transfiguration--Matt. xvii. 1-13; Mark ix. 2-13; Luke ix. 28-36. + + Cure of the epileptic boy--Matt. xvii. 14-20; Mark ix. 14-29; Luke ix. + 37-43^a. + + Second prediction of approaching death and resurrection--Matt. xvii. + 22, 23; Mark ix. 30-32; Luke ix. 43^b-45. + + Return to Capernaum: the temple tax--Matt. xvii. 24-27; Mark ix. 33^a. + + Teachings concerning humility and forgiveness--Matt. xviii. 1-35; Mark + ix. 33-50; Luke ix. 46-50. + + Visit of Jesus to Jerusalem at the feast of Tabernacles--John vii. + 1-52; viii. 12-59 (see sect. A 60). + + ? The woman taken in adultery--John vii. 53 to viii. 11 (see sect. + 163). + + The following probably belong to the Galilean ministry before the + confession at Cæsarea Philippi (see sect. 168):-- + + The disciples taught to pray--Matt. vi. 9-15; vii. 7-11; Luke xi. 1-13. + + The cure of an infirm woman on the Sabbath--Luke xiii. 10-17. + + Two parables: mustard-seed and leaven--Matt. xiii. 31-33; Luke xiii. + 18-21 (see sect. A 56). + + The parable of the rich fool--Luke xii. 13-21. + + Cure on a Sabbath and teaching at a Pharisee's table--Luke xiv. 1-24. + + Five parables--Luke xv. 1 to xvi. 31. + + Certain disconnected teachings--Luke xvii. 1-4. + + + + +III + +The Ministry In Galilee--its Aim And Method + + + +125. The work of Jesus in Galilee, which is the principal theme of the +first three gospels, began with a removal from Nazareth to Capernaum, and +the calling of four fishermen to be his constant followers. The ready +obedience which Simon and Andrew and James and John gave to this call is +an interesting evidence that they did not first come to know Jesus at the +time of this summons. The narrative presupposes some such earlier +association as is reported in John, followed by a temporary return to +their old homes and occupations, while Jesus sought seclusion after his +work in Judea. The first evangelist has most vividly indicated the +development of the Galilean ministry, directing attention to two points of +beginning,--the beginning of Jesus' preaching of the kingdom (Matt. iv. +17) and the beginning of his predictions of his own sufferings and death +(xvi. 21). Between these two beginnings lies the ministry of Jesus to the +enthusiastic multitudes, the second of them marking his choice of a more +restricted audience and a less popular message. Within the first of these +periods two events mark epochs,--the mission of the twelve (Matt. ix. 36; +x. I) to preach the coming kingdom of God and to multiply Jesus' ministry +of healing, and the feeding of the five thousand when the popular +enthusiasm reached its climax (John vi. 14, 15). These events fall not +far apart, and mark two different phases of the same stage of development +in his work. The first is emphasized by Matthew, the second by John; both +help to a clearer understanding of the narrative which Mark has furnished +to the other gospels for their story of the Galilean ministry. The table +at the head of this chapter indicates in outline the probable succession +of events in the Galilean period. The order adopted is that of Mark, +supplemented by the other gospels. Luke's additions are inserted in his +order where there is not some reason for believing that he himself +disregarded the exact sequence of events. Thus the rejection at Nazareth +is placed late, as in Mark. Much of the material in the long section +peculiar to Luke is assigned in general to this Galilean period, since all +knowledge of its precise location in time and place has been lost for us, +as it not unlikely was for Luke. Although Matthew is the gospel giving the +clearest general view of the Galilean work, it shows the greatest +disarrangement of details, and aids but little in determining the sequence +of events. The material from that gospel is assigned place in accordance +with such hints as are discoverable in parallel or associated parts of +Mark or Luke. Of John's contributions one--the feeding of the +multitudes--is clearly located by its identity with a narrative found in +all the other gospels. The visit to Jerusalem at the unnamed feast can be +only tentatively placed. + +126. Viewing this gospel story as a whole, the parallel development of +popular enthusiasm and official hostility at once attracts attention. +Jesus' first cures in the synagogue at Capernaum roused the interest and +wonder of the multitudes to such an extent that he felt constrained to +withdraw to other towns. On his return to Capernaum he was so beset with +crowds that the friends of the paralytic could get at him only by breaking +up the roof. It was when Jesus found himself followed by multitudes from +all parts of the land that he selected twelve of his disciples "that they +might be with him and that he might send them forth to preach," and +addressed to them in the hearing of the multitudes the exacting, although +unspeakably winsome teaching of the sermon on the mount. This condition of +things continued even after Herod had killed John the Baptist, for when +Jesus, having heard of John's fate, sought retirement with his disciples +across the sea of Galilee, he was robbed of his seclusion by throngs who +flocked to him to be healed and to hear of the kingdom of God. + +127. The popular enthusiasm was not indifferent to the question who this +new teacher might be. At first Jesus impressed the people by his +authoritative teaching and cures. After the raising of the widow's son at +Nain the popular feeling found a more definite declaration,--"a great +prophet has risen up among us." The cure of a demoniac in Capernaum raised +the further incredulous query, "Can this be the Son of David?" The notion +that he might be the Messiah seems to have gained acceptance more and more +as Jesus' popularity grew, for at the time of the feeding of the +multitudes the enthusiasm burst into a flame of determination to force him +to undertake the work for which he was so eminently fitted, but from which +for some inexplicable reason he seemed to shrink (John vi. 15). + +128. Parallel with the growth of popular enthusiasm, and in part because +of it, the religious leaders early assumed and consistently maintained an +attitude of opposition. The gospels connect the critics of Jesus now and +again with the Pharisees of the capital--the Galilean Pharisees being +represented as more or less friendly. At the first appearance of Jesus in +Capernaum even the Sabbath cure in the synagogue passed unchallenged; but +on the return from his first excursion to other towns, Jesus found critics +in his audience (Luke connects them directly with Jerusalem). From time to +time such censors as these objected to the forgiveness by Jesus of the +sins of the paralytic (Mark ii. 6, 7), criticised his social relations +with outcasts like the publicans (Mark ii. 16), took offence at his +carelessness of the Sabbath tradition in his instruction of his disciples +(Mark ii. 24), and sought to turn the tide of rising popular enthusiasm by +ascribing his power to cure to a league with the devil (Mark iii. 22). +Baffled in one charge, they would turn to another, until, after the +feeding of the multitudes, Jesus showed his complete disregard of all they +held most dear, replying to a criticism of his disciples for carelessness +of the ritual of hand-washing by an authoritative setting aside of the +whole body of their traditions, as well as of the Levitical ceremonial of +clean and unclean meats (Mark vii. 1-23). + +129. The wonder is, not that popular enthusiasm for Jesus was great, but +that it was so hesitating in its judgment about him. The province which +provided a following to Judas of Galilee a generation earlier than the +public ministry of Jesus, and which under John of Gischala furnished the +chief support to the revolt against Rome a generation later, could have +been excited to uncontrollable passion by the simple idea that a leader +was present who could be made to head a movement for Jewish liberty. But +there was something about Jesus which made it impossible to think of him +as such a Messiah. He was much more moved by sin lurking within than by +wrong inflicted from without. He looked for God's kingdom, as did the +Zealots, but he looked for it within the heart more than in outward +circumstances. Even the dreamers among the people, who were as unready as +Jesus for any uprising against Rome, and who waited for God to show his +own hand in judgment, found in Jesus--come to seek and to save that which +was lost--something so contradictory of their idea of the celestial judge +that they could not easily think of him as a Messiah. Jesus was a puzzle +to the people. They were sure that he was a prophet; but if at any time +some were tempted to query, "Can this be the Son of David?" the +incredulous folk expected ever a negative reply. + +130. This was as Jesus wished it to be. An unreasoning enthusiasm could +only hinder his work. When his early cures in Capernaum stirred the ardent +feelings of the multitudes, he took occasion to withdraw to other towns +and allow popular feeling to cool. When later he found himself pressed +upon by crowds from all quarters of the land, by the sermon on the mount +he set them thinking on strange and highly spiritual things, far removed +from the thoughts of Zealots and apocalyptic dreamers. + +131. The manifest contradiction of popular Messianic ideas which Jesus +presented in his own person usually served to check undue ardor as long +as he was present. But when some demoniac proclaimed the high station of +Jesus, and thus seemed to the people to give supernatural testimony; or +when some one in need sought him apart from the multitudes, Jesus +frequently enjoined silence. These injunctions of silence are enigmas +until they are viewed as a part of Jesus' effort to keep control of +popular feeling. In his absence the people might dwell on his power and +easily come to imagine him to be what he was not and could not be. Jesus +was able by these means to restrain unthinking enthusiasm until the +multitudes whom he fed on the east side of the sea determined to force him +to do their will as a Messiah. Then he refused to follow where they +called, and that happened which would doubtless have happened at an +earlier time but for Jesus' caution,--the popular enthusiasm subsided, and +his active work with the common people was at an end. But he had held off +this crisis until there were a few who did not follow the popular +defection, but rather clung to him from whom they had heard the words of +eternal life (John vi. 68). + +132. Jesus' caution brings to light one aspect of his aim in the Galilean +ministry,--he sought to win acceptance for the truth he proclaimed. His +message as reported in the synoptic gospels was the near approach of the +kingdom of God. Any such proclamation was sure of eager hearing. At first +he seems to have been content to gather and interest the multitudes by +this preaching and the works which accompanied it. But he early took +occasion to state his ideas in the hearing of the multitudes, and in terms +so simple, so concerned with every-day life, so exacting as respects +conduct, and so lacking in the customary glowing picture of the future, +that the people could not mistake such a teacher for a simple fulfiller of +their ideas. In this early sermon in effect, and later with increasing +plainness, he set forth his doctrine of a kingdom of heaven coming not +with observation, present actually among a people who knew it not, like a +seed growing secretly in the earth, or leaven quietly leavening a lump of +meal. By word and deed, in sermon and by parable, he insisted on this +simple and every-day conception of God's rule among men. With Pharisee, +Zealot, and dreamer, he held that "the best is yet to be," yet all three +classes found their most cherished ideals set at nought by the new +champion of the soul's inner life in fellowship with the living God. In +all his teaching there was a claim of authority and a manifest +independence which indicate certainty on his part concerning his own +mission. Yet so completely is the personal question retired for the time, +that in his rebuke of the blasphemy of the Pharisees he took pains to +declare that it was not because they had spoken against the Son of Man, +that they were in danger, but because they had spoken against the Spirit +of God, whose presence was manifest in his works. He wished, primarily, to +win disciples to the kingdom of God. + +133. Yet Jesus was not indifferent in Galilee to what the people thought +about himself. The question at Cæsarea Philippi shows more fully the aim +of his ministry. During all the period of the preaching of the kingdom he +never hesitated to assert himself whenever need for such self-assertion +arose. This was evident in his dealing with his pharisaic critics. He +rarely argued with them, and always assumed a tone of authority which was +above challenge, asserting that the Son of Man had authority to forgive +sins, was lord of the Sabbath, was greater than the temple or Jonah or +Solomon. Moreover, in his positive teaching of the new truth he assumed +such an authoritative tone that any who thought upon it could but remark +the extraordinary claim involved in his simple "I say unto you." He wished +also to win disciples to himself. + +134. The key to the ministry in Galilee is furnished in Jesus' answer to +the message from John the Baptist. John in prison had heard of the works +of his successor. Jesus did so much that promised a fulfilment of the +Messianic hope, yet left so much undone, contradicting in so many ways the +current idea of a Messiah by his studied avoidance of any demonstration, +that the older prophet felt a momentary doubt of the correctness of his +earlier conviction. It is in no way strange that he experienced a reaction +from that exalted moment of insight when he pointed out Jesus as the Lamb +of God, particularly after his restless activity had been caged within the +walls of his prison. Jesus showed that he did not count it strange, by his +treatment of John's quesestion and by his words about John after the +messengers had gone. Yet in his reply he gently suggested that the +question already had its answer if John would but look rightly for it. He +simply referred to the things that were being done before the eyes of all, +and asked John to form from them a conclusion concerning him who did them. +One aid he offered to the imprisoned prophet,--a word from the Book of +Isaiah (xxxv. 5f., lxi. 1f.),--and added a blessing for such as "should +find nothing to stumble at in him." Here Jesus emphasized his works, and +allowed his message to speak for itself; but he frankly indicated that he +expected people to pass from wonder at his ministry to an opinion about +himself. At Cæsarea Philippi he showed to his disciples that this opinion +about himself was the significant thing in his eyes. Throughout the +ministry in Galilee, therefore, this twofold aim appears. Jesus would +first divert attention from himself to his message, in order that he might +win disciples to the kingdom of God as he conceived it. Having so attached +them to his idea of the kingdom, he desired to be recognized as that +kingdom's prince, the Messiah promised by God for his people. He retired +behind his message in order that men might be drawn to the truth which he +held dear, knowing that thus they would find themselves led captive to +himself in a willing devotion. + +135. This aim explains his retirement when popularity pressed, his +exacting teaching about the spirituality of the kingdom of God, and his +injunctions of silence. He wished to be known, to be thought about, to be +accepted as God's anointed, but he would have this only by a genuine +surrender to his leadership. His disciples must own him master and follow +him, however much he might disappoint their misconceptions. This aim, too, +explains his frank self-assertions and exalted personal claims in +opposition to official criticism. He would not be false to his own sense +of masterhood, nor allow people to think him bold when his critics were +away, and cowardly in their presence. Therefore, when needful, he invited +attention to himself as greater than the temple or as lord of the +Sabbath. This kind of self-assertion, however, served his purpose as well +as his customary self-retirement, for it forced people to face the +contradiction which he offered to the accepted religious ideas of their +leaders. + +136. The method which Jesus chose has already been repeatedly +indicated,--teaching and preaching on the one hand, and works of +helpfulness to men on the other. The character of the teaching of this +period is shown in three discourses,--the Sermon on the Mount, the +Discourse in Parables, and the Instructions to the Twelve. The sermon on +the mount is given in different forms in Matthew and Luke, that in Matthew +being evidently the more complete, even after deduction has been made of +those parts which Luke has assigned with high probability to a later time. +This address was spoken to the disciples of Jesus found among the +multitudes who flocked to him from all quarters. It opened with words of +congratulation for those who, characterized by qualities often despised, +were yet heirs of God's kingdom. The thought then passed to the +responsibility of such heirs of the kingdom for the help of a needy world. +Next, since much in the words and works of Jesus hitherto might have +suggested to men that he was indifferent to the older religion of his +people, he carefully explained that he came, not to set aside the old, but +to realize the spiritual idea for which it stood, by establishing a more +exacting standard of righteousness. This more exacting righteousness Jesus +illustrated by a series of restatements of the older law, and then by a +group of criticisms of current religious practice. The sermon closed with +warnings against complacent censoriousness in judging other men's +failures, and a solemn declaration of the vital seriousness of "these +sayings of mine." The righteousness required by this new law is not only +more exacting but unspeakably worthier than the old, being more simply +manifested in common life, and demanding more intimate filial fellowship +with the living God. + +137. The teachings included in the sermon by the first gospel, but placed +later by Luke, supplement the sermon by bidding God's child to lead a +trustful life, knowing that the heavenly Father cares for him. That Luke +has omitted much which from Matthew's account clearly belonged to the +original sermon may be explained by the fact that Gentile readers did not +share the interest which Jesus' hearers had, and which the readers of the +first gospel had, in the relation of the new gospel to the older law. +Hence the restatement of older commands and the criticism of current +practice was omitted. Similar to the teachings which the first gospel has +included in the sermon, are many which Luke has preserved in the section +peculiar to himself. It is not unlikely that they belong also to the +Galilean ministry. They urge the same sincere, reverent life in the sight +of God, the same trust in the heavenly Father, the same certainty of his +love and care; and they do not have that peculiar note of impending +judgment which entered into the teachings of Jesus after the confession at +Cæsarea Philippi. + +138. In the story of Mark, which is reproduced in the first and third +gospels, the use of parable was first introduced in a way to attract the +attention of the disciples, after pharisaic opposition to Jesus had become +somewhat bitter and there was need of checking a too speedy culmination +of opposition. He chose at that time a form of parable which was enigmatic +to his disciples, and could but further puzzle hearers who had no sympathy +with him and his message. Mark (iv. 12) states that this perplexity was in +accordance with the purpose of Jesus. But it is equally clear that Jesus +meant to teach the teachable as well as to perplex the critical by these +illustrations, for in explaining the Sower he suggested that the disciples +should have understood it without explanation (Mark iv. 13). Many of +Jesus' parables, however, had no such enigmatic character, but were +intended simply to help his hearers to understand him. He made use of this +kind of teaching from first to last. The pictures of the wise and foolish +builders with which the sermon on the mount concludes show that it was not +the use of illustration which surprised the disciples in the parables +associated with the Sower, but his use of such puzzling illustrations. +Some of the parables of Luke's peculiar section may belong to the Galilean +ministry, and even to the earlier stages of it. These have none of the +enigmatic character; the parables of the last days of Jesus' life also +seem to have been simple and clear to his hearers. The Oriental mind +prefers the concrete to the abstract, and its teachers have ever made +large use of illustration. Jesus stands unique, not in that he used +parables, but in the simplicity and effective beauty of those which he +used. These illustrations, whether Jesus intended them for the moment to +enlighten or to confound, served always to set forth concretely some truth +concerning the relation of men to God, or concerning his kingdom and their +relation to it. The form of teaching was welcome to his hearers, and +served as one of the attractions to draw men to him. + +139. The first gospel assigns another extended discourse to this Galilean +period,--the Instructions to the Twelve. The mission of the twelve formed +a new departure as Jesus saw the Galilean crisis approaching. He sought +thereby to multiply his own work, and commissioned his disciples to heal +and preach as he was doing. The restriction of their field to Israel +(Matt. x. 5, 6) simply applied to them the rule he adopted for himself +during the Galilean period (Matt. xv. 24). Comparison with the accounts in +Mark and Luke, as well as the character of the instructions found in +Matthew, show that here the first evangelist has followed his habit of +gathering together teachings on the same general theme from different +periods in Jesus' life. Much in the tenth chapter of Matthew indicates +clearly that the ministry of Jesus had already passed the period of +popularity, and that his disciples could now look for little but scorn and +persecution. This was the situation at the end of Jesus' public life, and +parallel sayings are found in the record of the last week in Jerusalem. + +140. When the teaching of the sermon and the parables is compared with +Jesus' self-assertion in his replies to pharisaic criticism and blasphemy, +the difference is striking. Ordinarily he avoided calling attention to +himself, wishing men to form their opinion of him after they had learned +to know him as he was. Yet when one looks beneath the surface of his +teaching, the tone of authority which astonished the multitudes is +identical with the calm self-confidence which replied to pharisaic +censure: "The Son of Man hath authority on the earth to forgive sins." + +141. Jesus drew the multitudes after him not only by his teachings, but +also by his mighty works. He certainly was for his contemporaries a +wonder-worker and healer of disease, and, in order to appreciate the +impression which he made, the miracles recorded in the gospels must be +allowed to reveal what they can of his character. The mighty works which +enchained attention in Galilee were chiefly cures of disease, with +occasional exhibitions of power over physical nature,--such as the +stilling of the tempest and the feeding of the five thousand. The +significant thing about them is their uniform beneficence of purpose and +simplicity of method. Nothing of the spectacular attached itself to them. +Jesus repeatedly refused to the critical Pharisees a sign from heaven. +This was not because he disregarded the importance of signs for his +generation,--witness his appeal to his works in the reply to John (Matt. +xi. 4-6); but he felt that in his customary ministry to the needy +multitudes he had furnished signs in abundance, for his deeds both gave +evidence of heavenly power and revealed the character of the Father who +had sent him. + +142. One of the commonest of the ailments cured by Jesus is described in +the gospels as demoniac possession, the popular idea being that evil +spirits were accustomed to take up their abode in men, speaking with their +tongues and acting through their bodies, at the same time afflicting them +with various physical diseases. Six specific cures of such possession are +recorded in the story of the Galilean ministry, besides general references +to the cure of many that were possessed. Of these specific cases the +Gadarene demoniac shows symptoms of violent insanity; the boy cured near +Cæsarea Philippi, those of epilepsy; in other cases the disease was more +local, showing itself in deafness, or blindness, or both. In the cures +recorded Jesus addressed the possessed with a command to the invading +demon to depart. He was ordinarily greeted, either before or after such a +command, with a loud outcry, often accompanied with a recognition of him +as God's Holy One. + +143. The record of such maladies and their cure is not confined to the New +Testament. The evil spirit which came upon King Saul is a similar case, +and Josephus tells of Jewish exorcists who cured possessed persons by the +use of incantations handed down from King Solomon. The early Christian +fathers frequently argued the truth of Christianity from the way in which +demons departed at the command of Christian exorcists, while in the middle +ages and down to modern times belief in demoniac possession has been +common, particularly among some of the more superstitious of the peasantry +in Europe. Moreover, from missionaries in China and other eastern lands it +is learned that diseases closely resembling the cases of possession +recorded in the New Testament are frequently met with, and are often cured +by native Christian ministers. + +144. The similarity of the symptoms of so-called possession to recognized +mental and physical derangements such as insanity, epilepsy, and hysteria, +suggests the conclusion that possession should be classed with other +ailments due to ill adjustment of the relations of the mental and physical +life. If this conclusion is valid, the idea of actual possession by evil +spirits becomes only an ancient effort to interpret the mysterious +symptoms in accordance with wide-spread primitive beliefs. This +explanation would doubtless be generally adopted were it not that it seems +to compromise either the integrity or the knowledge of Jesus. The gospels +plainly represent him as treating the supposed demoniac influence as real, +addressing in his cures not the invalid, but the invading demon. If he did +this knowing that the whole view was a superstition, was he true to his +mission to release mankind from its bondage to evil and sin? If he shared +the superstition of his time, had he the complete knowledge necessary to +make him the deliverer he claimed to be? These questions are serious and +difficult, but they form a part of the general problem of the extent of +Jesus' knowledge, and can be more intelligently discussed in connection +with that whole problem (sects. 249-251). It is reasonable to demand, +however, that any conclusion reached concerning the nature of possession +in the time of Jesus must be considered valid for similar manifestations +of disease in our own day. + +145. What astonished people in Jesus' cures was not so much that he healed +the sick as that he did it with such evidence of personal authority. His +cures and his teachings alike served to attract attention to himself and +to invite question as to who he could be. Yet a far more powerful means to +the end he had in view was the subtle, unobtrusive, personal influence +which without their knowledge knit the hearts of a few to himself. In +reality both his teaching and his cures were only means of +self-disclosure. His permanent work during this Galilean period was the +winning of personal friends. His chief agency in accomplishing his work +was what Renan somewhat too romantically has called his "charm." It was +that in him which drew to his side and kept with him the fishermen of +Galilee and the publican of Capernaum, during months of constant +disappointment of their preconceived religious ideas and Messianic hopes; +it was that which won the confidence of the woman who was a sinner, and +the constant devotion of Mary Magdalene and Susanna and the others who +followed him "and ministered to him of their substance." The outstanding +wonder of early Christianity is the complete transformation not only of +life but of established religious ideas by the personal impress of Jesus +on a Peter, a John, and a Paul. The secret of the new element of the +Christian religion--salvation through personal attachment to Jesus +Christ--is simply this personal power of the man of Nazareth. The +multitudes followed because they saw wonderful works or heard wonderful +words; many because they hoped at length to find in the new prophet the +champion of their hopes in deliverance from Roman bondage. But these +sooner or later fell away, disappointed in their desire to use the new +leader for their own ends. It was only because from out the multitudes +there were a few who could answer, "To whom shall we go? thou hast the +words of eternal life," when Jesus asked, "Will ye also go away?" that the +work in Galilee did not end in complete failure. These few had felt his +personal power, and they became the nucleus of a new religion of love to a +personal Saviour. + +146. The test of the personal attachment of the few came shortly after the +execution of John the Baptist by Antipas. Word of this tragedy was +brought to Jesus by John's disciples about the time that he and the twelve +returned to Capernaum from their tour of preaching. At the suggestion of +Jesus they withdrew to the eastern side of the lake in search of rest. It +is not unlikely that the little company also wished to avoid for the time +the territory of the tyrant who had just put John to death, for Jesus was +not yet ready for the crisis of his own life. Such a desire for seclusion +would be intensified by the continued impetuous enthusiasm of the +multitudes who flocked about him again in Capernaum. In fact, so insistent +was their interest in Jesus that they would not allow him the quiet he +sought, but followed around the lake in great numbers when they learned +that he had taken ship for the other side. He who came not to be +ministered unto but to minister could not repel the crowds who came to +him, and he at once "welcomed them, and spake to them of the kingdom of +God, and them that had need of healing he healed" (Luke ix. 11). The day +having passed in this ministry, he multiplied the small store of bread and +fish brought by his disciples in order to feed the weary people. This work +of power seemed to some among the multitudes to be the last thing needed +to prove that Jesus was to be their promised deliverer, and they "were +about to come and take him by force and make him king" (John vi. 15), when +he withdrew from them and spent the night in prayer. + +147. This sudden determination on the part of the multitudes to force the +hand of Jesus was probably due to the prevalence of an idea, found also in +the later rabbinic writers, that the Messiah should feed his people as +Moses had provided them manna in the desert. The rebuff which Jesus +quietly gave them did not cool their ardor, until on the following day, in +the synagogue in Capernaum, he plainly taught them that they had quite +missed the significance of his miracle. They thought of loaves and +material sustenance. He would have had them find in these a sign that he +could also supply their spirits' need, and he insisted that this, and this +alone, was his actual mission. From the first the popular enthusiasm had +had to ignore many contradictions of its cherished notions. But his power +and the indescribable force of his personality had served hitherto to hold +them to a hope that he would soon discard the perplexing rôle which he had +chosen for the time to assume, and take up avowedly the proper work of the +Messiah. This last refusal to accept what seemed to them to be his evident +duty caused a revulsion in the popular feeling, and "many of his disciples +turned back and walked no more with him" (John vi. 66). The time of +sifting had come. Jesus had known that such a rash determination to make +him king was possible to the Galilean multitudes, and that whenever it +should come it must be followed by a disillusionment. Now the open +ministry had run its course. As the multitudes were turning back and +walking no more with him, he turned to the twelve with the question, "Will +ye also go away?" and found that with them his method had borne fruit. +They clung to him in spite of disillusionment, for in him they had found +what was better than their preconceptions. + +148. It is the fourth gospel that shows clearly the critical significance +of this event. The others tell nothing of the sudden determination of the +multitude, nor of the revulsion of feeling that followed Jesus' refusal to +yield to their will. Yet these other gospels indicate in their narratives +that from this time on Jesus avoided the scenes of his former labors, and +show that when from time to time he returned to the neighborhood of +Capernaum he was met by such a spirit of hostility that he withdrew again +immediately to regions where he and his disciples could have time for +quiet intercourse. + +149. The months of toil in Galilee show results hardly more significant +than the grain of mustard seed or the little leaven. Popular enthusiasm +had risen, increased, reached its climax, and waned. Official opposition +had early been aroused, and had continued with a steadily deepened +intensity. The wonderful teaching with authority, and the signs wrought on +them that were sick, had been as seed sown by the wayside or in thorny or +in stony ground, except for the little handful of hearers who had felt the +personal power of Jesus and had surrendered to it, ready henceforth to +follow where he should lead, whether or not it should be in a path of +their choice. These, however, were the proof that those months had been a +time of rewarded toil. + + + + +IV + +The Ministry in Galilee--The New Lesson + + + +150. With the crisis in Capernaum the ministry in Galilee may be said in +one sense to have come to an end. Yet Jesus did not immediately go up to +Jerusalem. Once and again he was found in or near Capernaum, while the +time between these visits was spent in regions to the north and northwest. +In fact, the disciples were far from ready for the trial their loyalty was +to meet before they had seen the end of the opposition to their Lord. The +time intervening between the collapse of popularity and Jesus' final +departure from Galilee may well be thought of, then, as a time of further +discipline of the faith of his followers and of added instruction +concerning the truth for which their Master stood. The length of this +supplementary period in Galilee is not definitely known. It extended from +the Passover to about the feast of Tabernacles (April to October, see John +vi. 4 and vii. 2). The record of what Jesus did and said in this time is +meagre, only enough being reported to show that it was a time of repeated +withdrawals from Galilee and of private instruction for the disciples. + +151. The disciples were trained in faith by further exhibitions of the +complete break between their Master and the leaders of the people. This +break appeared most clearly, soon after the feeding of the multitudes, in +his reply to a criticism of the disciples for disregard of pharisaic +traditions concerning hand-washing (Mark vii. 1-23). The critics insisted +on the sacredness of their traditions. Jesus in reply scored them for +disregard for the plain demands of God's law, and with a word freed men +from bondage to the whole ritual of ceremonial cleanness and uncleanness +(Mark vii. 19), thus attacking Judaism in its citadel. + +152. It was immediately after this that he withdrew with his disciples to +the regions of Tyre. On his return a little later to the west side of the +sea of Galilee he was met by hostile Pharisees with a demand for a sign +(Mark viii. 11-13), and after refusing to satisfy the unbelieving +challenge,--signs in plenty having been before their eyes since the +opening of his work among them,--he and his disciples withdrew again from +Galilee towards Cæsarea Philippi. As they went on their way, Jesus +distinctly warned them against the influence of their leaders, religious +and political (Mark viii. 14f.). So far as our records tell us Jesus was +but once again in Capernaum. Then he was met with the demand that he pay +the temple tax (Matt. xvii. 24-27). This tax was usually collected just +before the Passover. As this last visit to Capernaum was probably not far +from the feast of Tabernacles, Jesus seems to have been in arrears. This +may have been due to his absence from Capernaum at the time of the +collection. The prompt answer of Peter may indicate that he knew that in +other years Jesus had paid this tax, as it is altogether probable that he +did. The question, however, implies official suspicion that Jesus was +seeking to evade payment, and exhibits further the straining of the +relations between him and the Jewish leaders. The conversation of Jesus +with Peter served to show his clear consciousness of superiority, and was +a further summons to the disciples to choose between him and his +opponents. + +153. Within the limits of the Holy Land the faith of the disciples had +been constantly tested by the increasing opposition between their master +and their old leaders. When the little company withdrew to Gentile +regions, however, Jesus had regard for their Jewish feeling. The time +would come when he would send them forth to make disciples of all the +nations. For the present he made it his business to nurture their faith in +him, and when appealed to for help by one of these foreigners, he refused +to "take the children's bread and cast it to the dogs" (Mark vii. 27). +Jesus had assumed a different attitude to the Samaritans before the +opening of his work in Galilee, and in general had shown ready sympathy +for all in distress. In fact it seems as if he welcomed the SyrophÅ“nician +woman's great faith with a feeling of relief from a restriction that he +had felt it wise to adopt for his work in PhÅ“nicia. It appears from his +later attitude in the Gentile regions of the Decapolis (Mark vii. 31-37; +Matt. xv. 21-31) that, having once shown his regard for the limitations of +his disciples' faith in the case of the SyrophÅ“nician, he felt no longer +obliged to check his natural readiness to help the needy who sought him +out. Although in one instance, for reasons no longer known to us, Jesus +charged a man whom he had cured to keep it secret (Mark vii. 32-37), in +general his work in these heathen regions seems, after the visit to +PhÅ“nicia, to have been quite unrestrained, and to have produced the same +enthusiasm that had earlier brought the multitudes to him in Galilee (Mark +viii. 1f.). + +154. This continued activity of healing must have served greatly to +strengthen the determination of the disciples to cling to Jesus, let the +leaders say what they would. We can only conjecture what various teachings +filled the days, and what personal fellowship the disciples had with him +who spake as never man spake. There was need for advance in the faith of +these loyal friends. Their enthusiastic declaration when the multitudes +turned away could easily have been followed by reaction. Each new +exhibition of the irrevocableness of the break between Jesus and the +leaders was a severe test of their loyalty. These weeks of withdrawal were +doubtless filled, therefore, with new proofs that Jesus had the words of +eternal life. + +155. Before he put to his disciples the crucial question, he who knew what +was in man (John ii. 25) was confident that they were ready for it. It was +after the rebuff in Galilee, when the unbelieving Pharisees had again +demanded a sign of his authority, and after he had definitely warned the +disciples against the influence of their leaders, that Jesus led his +little company far to the north towards the slopes of Hermon. There, near +the recently built Cæsarea Philippi, Jesus plainly asked his disciples +what the people thought of him (Mark viii. 27-30). We have seen how +gradually sentiment in Galilee concerning the new teacher crystallized +until, from thinking him a prophet, the people, first timidly, then +boldly, concluded that such a teacher and worker of signs must be the +promised king. We have seen also how the popular estimate changed when +Jesus refused to be guided by the popular will. Now, after the lapse of a +few weeks, in answer to his inquiry concerning the common opinion of him, +he is told that the people look on him as a prophet, in whom the spirit of +the men of old had been revived; but not a whisper remains of the former +readiness to hail him as the Messiah. It was in the face of such a +definite revulsion in the popular feeling, in the face, too, of the +increasing hostility of all the great in the nation, that Peter answered +for the twelve that they believed Jesus to be the Messiah, God's appointed +Deliverer of his people (Matt. xvi. 16 ff.). In form this confession was +no more than Nathanael had rendered on his first meeting with Jesus (John +i. 49), and was practically the same as the report made by Andrew to Simon +his brother, and by Philip to Nathanael (John i. 41, 45). In both idea and +expression the reply to Jesus' question, "Will ye also go away?" (John vi. +68, 69), was virtually equivalent to this later confession of Peter. Yet +Jesus found in Peter's answer at Cæsarea Philippi something so significant +and remarkable that he declared that the faith that could answer thus +could spring only from a heavenly source (Matt. xvi. 17). The early +confessions were in fact no more than expressions of more or less +intelligent expectation that Jesus would fulfil the confessor's hopes. The +confession at Capernaum followed one of Jesus' mightiest exhibitions of +power, and was given before the disciples had had time to consider the +extent of the defection from their Master. Here at Cæsarea Philippi, +however, the word was spoken immediately after an acknowledgment that the +people had no more thought of finding in Jesus their Messiah. It was +spoken after the disciples had had repeated evidence of the determined +hostility of the leaders to Jesus. All the disappointment he had given to +their cherished ideas was emphasized by the isolation in which the little +company now found itself. One after another their ideas of how a Messiah +should act and what he should be had received contradiction in what Jesus +was and did. Yet after the weeks of withdrawal from Galilee, Peter could +only in effect assert anew what he had declared at Capernaum,--that Jesus +had the words of eternal life. It was a faith chastened by perplexity, and +taught at length to follow the Lord let him lead where he would. It was an +actual surrender to his mastery over thought and life. Here at length +Jesus had won what he had been seeking during all his work in Galilee,--a +corner-stone on which to build up the new community of the kingdom of God. +Peter was the first to confess openly to this simple surrender to the full +mastery of Jesus. He was the first stone in the foundation of the new +"building of God." + +156. In his commendation of Peter Jesus revealed the secret of his method +in the work which, because of this confession, he could now proceed to do +more rapidly. He cuts loose utterly from the method of the scribes. He, +the new teacher, commits to them no body of teaching which they are to +give to others as the key to eternal life. The salvation they are to +preach is a salvation by personal attachment; that is, by faith. The rock +on which he will build his church is personal attachment, faith that is +ready to leave all and follow him. Peter, not the substance of his +confession, was its corner-stone, but Peter, as the first clear confessor +of a faith that is ready to leave all, a faith whose very nature it is to +be contagious, and associate with itself others of "like precious faith." +His faith was as yet meagre, as he showed at once; but it was genuine, the +surrender of his heart to his Lord's guidance and control. This was the +distinctive mark of the new religious life inaugurated by Jesus of +Nazareth. + +157. If anything were needed to prove that the idea that he was the +Messiah was no new thought to Jesus, it could be found in the new lesson +which he at once began to teach his disciples. The confession of Peter +indicated to him simply that the first stage in his work had been +accomplished. He immediately began to prepare the disciples for the end +which for some time past he had seen to be inevitable. He taught them more +than that his death was inevitable; he declared that it was divinely +necessary that he should be put to death as a result of the hostility of +the Jews to him ("the Son of Man must suffer"). All the contradictions +which he had offered to the Messianic ideas of his disciples paled into +insignificance beside this one. When they saw how he failed to meet the +hopes that were commonly held, they needed only to urge themselves to +patience, expecting that in time he would cast off the strange mask and +take to himself his power and reign. But it was too much for the late +confessed and very genuine faith of Peter to hear that the Messiah must +die. So unthinkable was the idea, that he assumed that Jesus had become +unduly discouraged by the relentlessness of the opposition which had +driven him first out of Judea and later out of Galilee. Accordingly Peter +sought to turn his Master's mind to a brighter prospect, asserting that +his forebodings could not be true. It is hard for us to conceive the chill +of heart which must have followed the glow of his confession when he heard +the stern rebuke of Jesus, who found in Peter's later words the voice of +the Evil One, as before in his confession he had recognized the Spirit of +God. + +158. The sternness of Jesus' rebuke escapes extravagance only in view of +the fact that the words of Peter had greatly affected Jesus himself. At +the outset of his public life he had faced the difficulty of doing the +Messiah's work in his Father's way, and had withstood the temptation to +accommodate himself to the ideas of his world, declaring allegiance to God +alone (Matt. iv. 10). Yet once and again in the course of his ministry he +showed that this allegiance cost him much. Luke reports a saying in which +Jesus confessed that, in view of this prospect of death which Peter was +opposing so eagerly, he was greatly "straitened" (xii. 50), and at the +near approach of the end "his soul was exceeding sorrowful" (Mark xiv. +34). It should never be forgotten that Jesus was a Jew, and heir to all +the Messianic ideas of his people. In these, glory, not rejection and +death, was to be the Messiah's portion. That he was always superior to +current expectations is no sign that he did not feel their force. They +quite mistake who find the bitterness of Jesus' "cup" simply in his +physical shrinking from suffering. The temptation was ever with him to +find some other way to the goal of his work than that which led through +death. What Peter said hid a force greater than any word of the +disciple's. It voiced the crucial temptation of Jesus' life. The answer +addressed to Peter showed that his words had drawn the thought of Jesus +away from the disciple to that earlier temptation which was never absent +from him more than "for a season" (Luke iv. 13). + +159. Jesus was not content with a mere rebuke of his impulsive disciple. +In his first announcement of his death as necessary he had also declared +that it would not be a tragedy, but would be followed by a resurrection. +This the disciples could not appreciate, as they found the idea of the +Messiah's death unthinkable. Jesus, however, saw in it the general law, +that life must ever win its goal by disregard of itself, and called his +disciples also to walk in the path of self-sacrifice. In order that the +new lesson might not quite overwhelm the yet feeble faith of these +followers, Jesus assured them that after his death and resurrection he +would come as Messianic Judge and fulfil the hopes which his prediction of +death seemed to blot out utterly (Mark viii. 34 to ix. 1). + +160. That this new lesson was a difficult one for master as well as +disciple seems to be shown by the experience which came a few days later +to Jesus and his three closest friends. He had withdrawn with them to a +"high mountain" for prayer (Luke ix. 28f.). While he prayed the light of +heaven came into his face, and his disciples were granted a vision of him +in celestial glory, conversing with Moses and Elijah, representatives of +Old Testament law and prophecy. The theme of the discourse was that death +which had so troubled the disciples, and which then and later weighed +heavily on Jesus' own spirit (Luke ix. 31). At the conclusion of the +vision came a divine injunction to hear him who now was superseding law +and prophets. The effect of the transfiguration can only be inferred. It +doubtless brought strengthening to Jesus for his difficult task (compare +Heb. v. 7), and at least a silencing of remonstrance when he spoke again +to his disciples of his approaching death. This he did while the little +company was making its way back towards Capernaum (Mark ix. 30-32), and +repeatedly later before the end came (Mark x. 32-34; Matt. xxvi. 1f.). + +161. On Jesus' return from the mountain, he was met by the despairing plea +of a father and healed his epileptic son, out of whom the disciples were +unable to cast the demon (Mark ix. 14-29; compare vi. 7, 13). It may have +been the shock which the new lesson had given the disciples that accounted +for the reproof of their lack of faith. The new evidence of Jesus' power, +coupled with this reproof, seems to have restored their confidence in him. +Perhaps, too, there was something contagious about the spirit of hope with +which the three came from their vision of the Master's glory. For, +although they were not free to tell what they had seen (Mark ix. 9), they +could not have concealed the fact that their faith had received great +encouragement. Whatever the cause, hope revived for the disciples, for on +the way back to Capernaum a dispute arose among them concerning personal +precedence in the kingdom which their Master should soon set up. In this +rapid reaction from unbelief to faith the disciples seem to have forgotten +the lesson of self-denial recently given them (Mark viii. 34, 35). In +Peter's confession the corner-stone of the church was laid; but the +superstructure was yet far out of sight. Although his own soul, taking its +way down into the valley of shadows, might rightly have asked for sympathy +and complained of its lack, Jesus simply set a little child in the midst +of them, and taught them again the first lessons of faith,--gentle +humility and trust. Thereby he rebuked the spirit of rivalry and asked of +his disciples a generous, unselfish, and forgiving spirit (Matt, xviii. +1-35). + +162. It was possibly at this time, certainly near the end of the Galilean +ministry, that Jesus was approached by his own brethren, who urged him to +try to win the capital. Their attitude was not one of indifference, though +clearly not one of actual faith in his claim (John vii. 2-5). They seem to +have felt that Jesus had not made adequate effort to secure a following in +Jerusalem, and that he could not hope for success in his work if he +continued to confine his attention to Galilee. Jesus knew conditions in +Jerusalem far better than they did, and had no idea as yet of resuming a +general ministry there. He therefore dismissed the suggestion, and left +his brethren to go up to the feast disappointed in their desire that he +make a demonstration at that time. Yet Jesus still yearned over Jerusalem. +He knew in what organized opposition a general demonstration would result. +There were some, however, in the capital who had real faith in him. His +repeated efforts to win Jerusalem mean nothing if we do not recognize that +he hoped against hope that many of the people might yet turn and let him +lead them. With some such purpose, therefore, he went up a little later +without ostentation, and quietly appeared in the temple teaching. The +effect of this unannounced arrival was that the opposition was not ready +for him. The multitude was compelled to form an opinion of him for itself, +and he had opportunity to make his own impression for a time, +independently of official suggestion as to what ought to be thought of +him. This course resulted in a division of sentiment among the people, so +much so that when the leaders, both secular and religious, sought to +compass his arrest, the officers sent to take Jesus were themselves +entranced by his teaching. In spite of the wish of the leaders Jesus +continued to teach, and many of the people began to think of him with +favor. When, however, he tried to lead them on to become "disciples +indeed," they took offence, and showed that they were not ready yet to +follow him. This effort to "gather the children of Jerusalem" resulted in +new proof that they preferred his death to his message (John vii. 2 to +viii. 59). + +163. Interesting evidence of the fact that "Jesus did many other signs +which are not written" in our accepted gospels is found in the story of +his dealing with an adulteress whom the Pharisees brought to him for +judgment (John vii. 53 to viii. 11). This narrative had no secure place in +any of the gospels in the earliest days, yet was so highly regarded that +men would not let it go. Hence in the manuscripts which contain it, it is +found in various places. Some give it in Luke after chapter xxi., some at +the end of the Gospel of John, one placing it after John vii. 36. Many +considerations combine to prove that it was no part of the Gospel of John, +but as many show that it preserves a true incident in the ministry of +Jesus. In scene it belongs to the temple, therefore in time to one of the +Jerusalem visits. To which of those visits it should he assigned is not +now discoverable. The ancient copyists who assigned it to this feast of +Tabernacles, chose as well as later students can. If the incident belongs +to this visit, it illustrates the patience and the keen insight of Jesus +in his effort to win self-satisfied Jerusalem. + +164. John is silent concerning the doings of Jesus after the feast of +Tabernacles. In x. 22 he notes that Jesus was at Jerusalem at the feast of +Dedication, which followed two months later. It seems probable that after +his hurried and private journey to the feast of Tabernacles (John vii. 10) +he returned to Galilee and gathered to himself again the little company of +his loyal followers, preparatory to that final journey to Jerusalem which +should bring the end foreseen, unless, perchance, Israel should yet repent +and turn unto the Lord. As the shadow deepened over his own life, and the +persistency of the unbelief of his people appeared more and more clearly, +the teachings of Jesus took on a new note of tragedy which was not +characteristic of the earlier preaching in Galilee. Even when his topic +was similar and his treatment of it not unlike some earlier discourse, +there appeared in it here and there a warning of impending judgment. This +is seen as early as the reply to the criticism of the disciples for +disregard of traditions (Matt. xv. 13f.). Many discourses in the section +peculiar to Luke show by the presence of this note of doom that they +belong to this later time rather than to the Galilean period proper. (See +the table prefixed to Chapter V.) + +165. Two years had nearly passed since Jesus withdrew from Judea to start +his ministry anew in a different region and following a different method. +The fruit of that ministry was small, but significant. His proclamation of +the coming kingdom and his call to a deeper righteousness, coupled as they +were with his works of heavenly power, had won at first an enthusiastic +following. Realizing that an uncontrolled enthusiasm would thwart his +purpose to introduce a kingdom of the spirit, Jesus had kept his Messianic +claim in the background, seeking first to win disciples to the kingdom +that he was proclaiming. Yet emphasize his message as he would, he could +not conceal his personal significance. In fact he wished by winning +disciples to his doctrine of the kingdom to attach followers to himself, +the bearer of the words of eternal life. The great development of popular +enthusiasm did not deceive him, nor did he hesitate, when the multitude +would force him to do its will, to show clearly how far he was from being +a fulfiller of their desires. By successive disappointments of the popular +ideas he sifted his followers until a few were ready to follow him +whithersoever he might lead. With these he allowed time for the fact of +his unpopularity to appear, giving them opportunity to consider the +relentless hostility of their national leaders to the teacher from +Galilee. Then when the time was ripe he drew from the loyal few their +declaration that they would follow him in spite of disappointments and +unpopularity, their confession that he had come to be to them more than +their cherished preconceptions, that he had won the mastery over their +thought and life. He began then to prepare them for the end he had long +foreseen, and at length, after giving them time for that perplexing +mystery to find place in their hearts, he was ready to move on toward the +crisis which he knew his public appearance in Jerusalem would precipitate. +Before setting out on this journey his desire still to seek to win +Jerusalem, if perchance it would repent, led him to visit the capital +unannounced at the feast of Tabernacles. This taught him that, however +ready some might be superficially to believe in him, he could as yet win +in Jerusalem only hatred and plots against his life, and he returned to +his faithful friends in Galilee. + + Outline of Events in the Journey through Perea to Jerusalem + + + The final departure from Galilee--Matt. xix. 1, 2; viii. 19-22; Mark x. + 1; Luke ix. 51-62. + + The mission of the seventy--Matt. xi. 20-30; Luke x. 1-24. + + The visit to the feast of Dedication--John ix. 1 to x. 39. + + Possibly at this time: The parable of the Good Samaritan--Luke x. + 25-37. The visit to Mary and Martha--Luke x. 38-42. + + Return to Perea--John x. 40-42. + + The visit to Bethany and the raising of Lazarus--John xi. 1-46. + + The withdrawal to Ephraim--John xi. 47-54. + + Events connected with the last journey to Jerusalem, which cannot be + more definitely located: + + The question whether few are saved--Luke xiii. 22-30. + + Reply to the warning against Herod, probably near the close--Luke xiii. + 31-35. + + The cure of ten lepers--Luke xvii. 11-19. + + The question of the Pharisees concerning divorce--Matt. xix. 3-12; Mark + x. 2-12. + + The blessing of little children--Matt. xix. 13-15; Mark x. 13-16; Luke + xviii. 15-17. + + The question of the rich young ruler--Matt. xix. 16 to xx. 16; Mark x. + 17-31; Luke xviii. 18-30. + + The third prediction of death and resurrection--Matt xx. 17-19; Mark x. + 32-34; Luke xviii. 31-34. + + The ambitious request of the sons of Zebedee--Matt. xx. 20-28; Mark x. + 35-45. + + The last stage, Jericho to Jerusalem: + + The blind men near Jericho--Matt. xx. 29-34; Mark x. 46-52; Luke xviii. + 35-43. + + The visit to Zacchæus--Luke xix. 1-10. + + The parable of the pounds (minæ)--Luke xix. 11-28. Events and + discourses found in Luke ix. 51 to xviii. 14, which probably belong + after the confession of Peter, and very likely to some stage of the + journey to Jerusalem: + + Woes against the Pharisees, uttered at a Pharisee's table--Luke xi. + 37-54. + + Warnings against the spirit of pharisaism--Luke xii. 1-59. + + Comment on the slaughter of Galileans by Pilate--Luke xiii. 1-9. + + Discourse on counting the cost of discipleship--Luke xiv. 25-35. + + Discourse on the coming of the kingdom--Luke xvii. 20-37. + + Parable of the Unjust Judge--Luke xviii. 1-8. + + Parable of the Pharisee and the Publican--Luke xviii. 9-14. + + + + +V + +The Journey through Perea to Jerusalem + + + +166. The fourth gospel says that after the visit to Jerusalem at the feast +of Dedication Jesus withdrew beyond Jordan to the place where John at the +first was baptizing (x. 40). Matthew and Mark also say that at the close +of the ministry in Galilee Jesus departed and came into the borders of +Judea and beyond Jordan, and that in this new region the multitudes again +flocked to him, and he resumed his ministry of teaching (Matt. xix. 1f.; +Mark x. 1). What he did and taught at this time is not shown at all by +John, and only in scant fashion by the other two. They tell of a +discussion with the Pharisees concerning divorce (Mark x. 2-12); of the +welcome extended by Jesus to certain little children (Mark x. 13-16); of +the disappointment of a rich young ruler, who wished to learn from Jesus +the way of life, but loved better his great possessions (Mark x. 17-31); +of a further manifestation of the unlovely spirit of rivalry among the +disciples in the request of James and John for the best places in the +kingdom (Mark x. 35-45),--a request following in the records directly +after another prediction by Jesus of his death and resurrection (Mark x. +32-34). Then, after a visit to Jericho (Luke xviii. 35 to xix. 28), these +records come into coincidence with John in the account of the Messianic +entry into Jerusalem just before the last Passover. + +167. The fourth gospel tells in addition of a considerable activity of +Jesus in and near Jerusalem during this period. In making the journey +beyond Jordan start from Jerusalem (x. 40), John shows that Jesus must +have returned to the capital after his withdrawal from the feast of +Tabernacles. When and how this took place is not indicated. Later, after +his retirement from the feast of Dedication Jesus hastened at the summons +of his friends from beyond Jordan to Bethany when Lazarus died (xi. 1-7). +From Bethany he went not to the other side of Jordan again, but to Ephraim +(xi. 54), a town on the border between Judea and Samaria, and from there +he started towards Jerusalem when the Passover drew near. This record of +John has, as Dr. Sanday has recently remarked (HastBD II. 630), so many +marks of verisimilitude that it must be accepted as a true tradition. It +demands thus that in our conception of the last journey from Galilee room +be found for several excursions to Jerusalem or its neighborhood. One of +these at least--to the feast of Dedication (x. 22)--represents another +effort to "gather the children of Jerusalem." While not without success, +for at least the blind man restored by Jesus gave him the full faith he +sought (ix. 35-38), it showed with fuller clearness the determined +hostility to Jesus of the influential class (x. 39). + +168. It has been customary to find in the long section peculiar to Luke +(ix. 51 to xviii. 14) a fuller account of the Perean ministry, as it has +been called. For it opens with a final departure from Galilee, and comes +at its close into parallelism with the record of Matthew and Mark. Yet +some parts of this section in Luke belong in the earlier Galilean +ministry. The blasphemy of the Pharisees (xi. 14-36) is clearly identical +with the incident recorded in Mark iii. 22-30, and Matt. xii. 22-45; while +several incidents and discourses (see outline prefixed to Chapter III.) +bear so plainly the marks of the ministry before the revulsion of popular +favor, that it is easiest to think of them as actually belonging to the +earlier time, but assigned by Luke to this peculiar section because he +found no clear place offered for them in the record of Mark. Not a little, +however, of what Luke records here manifestly belongs to the time when +Jesus referred openly to his rejection by the Jewish people. The note of +tragedy characteristic of later discourses appears in the replies of Jesus +to certain would-be disciples (ix. 57-62), and in his warning that his +followers count the cost of discipleship (xiv. 25-35). The woes spoken at +a Pharisee's table (xi. 37-52), the warning to the disciples against +pharisaism (xii. 1-12), and the encouragement of the "little flock" (xii. +22-34), with many other paragraphs from this part of the gospel (see +outline at the head of this chapter), evidently were spoken at the time +of the approaching end. Some narratives reflect the neighborhood of +Jerusalem, and naturally corroborate the indications in the fourth gospel +that Jesus was repeatedly at the capital during this time. The parable of +the good Samaritan, for instance, must have been spoken in Judea, else why +choose the road from Jerusalem to Jericho for the illustration? The visit +to Mary and Martha shows Jesus at Bethany, and the parable of the Pharisee +and the Publican, naming the temple as the place of prayer, belongs +naturally to Judea. + +169. The effort to find the definite progress of events in this part of +Luke has not been successful. There are three hints of movement towards +Jerusalem,--the introductory mention of the departure from Galilee (ix. +51); a statement that Jesus went on his way through cities and villages, +journeying on unto Jerusalem (xiii. 22); and again a reference to passing +through the midst of Samaria and Galilee on the way to Jerusalem (xvii. +11). The attempt to make the third of these belong actually to the last +stages of the final journey seems artificial. Confessedly the expression +"through the midst of Samaria and Galilee" is obscure. It is much easier +to understand, however, if the journey so described is identified with the +visit to Samaria with which the departure from Galilee opened. It seems +probable that Luke found these records of events and teachings in Jesus' +life, and was unable to learn exactly their connection in time and place, +so placed them after the close of the Galilean story and before the +account of the passion, much as later some copyist found the story of the +adulteress (John vii. 53 to viii. 11), and, certain that it was a true +incident, gave it a place in connection with the visit to the feast of +Tabernacles (perhaps influenced by John viii. 15). It must always be +remembered that the earliest apostolic writing--Matthew's Logia--probably +consisted of just such disconnected records (see sects. 28, 42), and that, +as Jülicher (Einleitung i. d. NT. 235) has said, the early church was not +interested in _when_ Jesus said or did anything. Its interest was in +_what_ he said and did. + +170. The time of the departure from Galilee for Jerusalem may be set with +much probability not long before the feast of the Dedication in December; +for at that feast Jesus was again in Jerusalem, and from it he returned to +Perea (John x. 22, 40-42). He started southward through Samaria (Luke ix. +51 ff.), and probably in connection with the early stages of the journey +he sent out the seventy "into every city and place whither he himself was +about to come" (Luke x. 1). It is not unlikely that, after the sending out +of these heralds, he went with a few disciples to make one more effort to +turn the heart of Jerusalem to himself (John ix., x.). It is impossible to +determine whither the seventy were sent. The "towns and cities" whither +Jesus was about to come may have included some from all portions of the +land, not excepting Judea. The matter must be left in considerable +obscurity. This, however, may be said, that the reasons offered for +holding that the story of the sending out of the seventy is only a +"doublet" of the mission of the twelve are not conclusive (see sect. A +68). The connection in Luke of the woes against Capernaum, Bethsaida, and +Chorazin with the instruction of the seventy is very natural, and marks +this mission as belonging to the close of the Galilean period, while the +mission of the twelve belongs to the height of Jesus' popularity. + +171. Our knowledge of Jesus' visit to the feast of Dedication is due to +John's interest in the cure at about that time of one born blind (John +ix., x.). The prejudice of the sanhedrists who excommunicated the man for +his loyalty to Jesus led him in indignation to contrast their method of +caring for God's "sheep" with his own love and sympathy and genuine +ministry to their needs. He saw clearly that his course must end in death, +unless a great change should come over his enemies; yet, as the Good +Shepherd, he was ready to lay down his life for the sheep, rather than +leave them to the heartlessness of leaders who cared only for themselves +(x. 11-18). The critics of Jesus could not, or would not, understand his +charge against them, and accused him of madness for his extraordinary +claims. There were some, however, who could not credit the notion that +Jesus had a devil (John x. 21). It is possible that it was at this time +that the lawyer questioned him about the breadth of interpretation to be +given to the word "neighbor" in the law of love, and was answered by the +parable of the Good Samaritan (Luke x. 25-37). Possibly the parable of the +Pharisee and the Publican (Luke xviii. 9-14) belongs also to this time. In +general, however, the visit proved anew that Jerusalem was in no mood to +accept Jesus (John x. 24-39). His enemies sought to draw from him a +declaration of his claim to be the Messiah, and Jesus appealed to his +works, asserting that only their incorrigible prejudice prevented their +recognizing his claims. He added that his Father, with whom he was ever in +perfect accord, had drawn some faithful followers to him, and thereupon, +angered by his claim to close kinship with God, they appealed to the rough +logic of violence (John x. 31-39; compare viii. 59). + +172. After this added attempt to win Jerusalem Jesus withdrew to the +region beyond Jordan, where John had carried on his ministry to the eager +multitudes. Here he anew attracted great attention, causing people to +contrast his ministry with the less remarkable work of John, and to +acknowledge that John's testimony to him was true (John x. 40-42). +Possibly it was in this place that the seventy found Jesus when they +returned to report the success of their mission (Luke x. 17-24), for the +thanksgiving which Jesus rendered for the faith of the common people in +contrast with the unbelief of the "wise and prudent" might well express +his feeling after the fresh evidence he had at the feast of Dedication +that Jerusalem would none of his mission. The invitation to all the heavy +laden to take his yoke illustrates, though under another figure, his claim +to be the Good Shepherd (Matt. xi. 28-30). We have no means of knowing how +much more of what the gospels assign to the last journey to Jerusalem +should be put in connection with this sojourn across the Jordan. The +multitudes that came to him there may have included the Pharisees who +questioned him about divorce (Mark x. 2-12), and the young ruler who loved +his great possessions (Mark x. 17-31), as well as the parents who eagerly +sought the Lord's blessing for their children (Mark x. 13-16). Some parts +of Luke's narrative seem to belong still later in this journey, yet such a +section as the reply of Jesus to the report of Pilate's slaughter of the +Galileans (xiii. 1-9), or the parable of the Great Supper (xiv. 15-24), is +suitable to any stage of it. + +173. This sojourn on the other side of Jordan was brought to a close by +the summons to come to the aid of his friends in Bethany (John xi.). It is +not strange that the disciples feared his return to Judea, nor that Jesus +did not hesitate when he recognized the call of duty as well as of +friendship. In no recorded miracle of Jesus is his power more signally set +forth, yet here more clearly than anywhere else he is represented as +dependent on his Father in his exercise of that power. The words of Jesus +at the grave (John xi. 41, 42) show that he was confident of the +resurrection of Lazarus, because he had prayed and was sure he was heard. +It may be that his delay after hearing of the sickness of his friend (xi. +6) was a time of waiting for answer, and that this explains his confidence +of safety when the time came for him to expose himself again to the +hostility of Judea. Jesus indicated not only that on this occasion he had +help from above in doing his miracles, but that it was the rule in his +life to seek such help and guidance (xi. 42). In fact, at a later time he +ascribed all his works to the Father abiding in him (John xiv. 10; compare +x. 25). The effect of the resurrection of Lazarus was such as to intensify +the determination of the leaders in Jerusalem--both Pharisees and +Sadducees--to get rid of Jesus as dangerous to the quiet of the nation +(John xi. 47-54). In this it simply served to fix a determination already +present (John vii. 25, 32; viii. 59; x. 31, 39). The miracle does not +appear in John as the cause of the apprehension of Jesus, but rather as +one influence leading to it. It was indeed the total contradiction between +Jesus and all current and cherished ideas that led to his condemnation; +the raising of Lazarus only showed that he was becoming dangerously +popular, and made the priestly leaders feel the necessity of haste. The +silence of the first three gospels concerning this event is truly +perplexing, yet it is not any more difficult of explanation, as Beyschlag +(LJ I. 495) has shown, than the silence of all four evangelists concerning +the appearance of the risen Jesus to James, or to the five hundred +brethren (I. Cor. xv. 6, 7). Room must be allowed in our conception of the +life of Jesus for many things of which no record remains, all the more, +therefore, for incidents to which but one of the gospels is witness. +Moreover, after the collapse of popularity in Galilee, the great +enthusiasm of the multitudes over Jesus when he entered Jerusalem (Luke +xix. 37-40; Mark xi. 8-10) is most easily understood if he had made some +such manifestation of power as the restoration of Lazarus. + +174. After the visit to Bethany Jesus withdrew to a little town named +Ephraim, on the border between Judea and Samaria, and spent some time +there in seclusion with his disciples (John xi. 54), doubtless +strengthening his personal hold on them preparatory to the shock their +faith was about to receive. Of the length of this sojourn nothing is told +us, nor of the road by which Jesus left Ephraim for Jerusalem (John xii. +1). The first three gospels show that he began his final approach to the +Holy City at Jericho (Mark x. 46). It may be that he descended from +Ephraim direct to Jericho some days before the Passover, rejoining there +some of the people who had been impressed by his recent ministry in the +region "where John at the first was baptizing." It is natural to suppose +that it was on this journey to Jericho that he warned his disciples again +of the fate which he saw before him in Jerusalem (Mark x. 32-34), and +quite probably it was at this time that he rebuked the crude ambition of +the sons of Zebedee by reminding them that his disciples must be more +ambitious to serve than to rule, since even "the Son of Man came not to be +ministered unto but to minister, and to give his life a ransom for many" +(Mark x. 35-45). At Jericho he was at once crowded upon by enthusiastic +multitudes. The feeling they had for him may perhaps be inferred from the +cry of blind Bartimeus, "Thou son of David, have mercy on me" (Mark x. +48). This enthusiasm received a shock when Jesus chose to be guest in +Jericho of a chief of the publicans, a shock which Jesus probably intended +to give, for much the same reason that led him afterwards on his way up to +Jerusalem to teach his followers in the parable of the pounds that they +must be ready for long delay in his actual assumption of his kingly right +(Luke xix. 11-28). Finally, six days before the Passover, he and his +disciples left Jericho and went up to Bethany preparatory to his final +appearance in Jerusalem (John xii. 1). + +175. The interval between the final departure from Galilee and the public +entry into Jerusalem was given to three different tasks: the renewed +proclamation of the coming of the kingdom, further efforts to win +acceptance in Jerusalem, if perchance she might learn to know the things +that belonged to her peace; and continued training of the disciples, +specially needed because of the ill-considered enthusiasm with which they +were inclined to view the probable issue of this journey to Jerusalem. The +first of these tasks was conducted as the earlier work in Galilee had +been, both by teaching and healing, in which Jesus used his disciples even +more extensively than before. It proved that here as in Galilee the common +people were ready to hear him gladly, until he showed too radical a +disappointment of their hopes. In this new ministry to the people Jesus +spoke very frankly of the seriousness of the opposition which the leaders +of the people were manifesting, and of the need that those who would be +his disciples should count the cost of their allegiance (Luke xiii. 22-30; +xiv. 25-35; xii. 1-59). He did not hesitate to administer the most +scathing rebuke to the Pharisees for the superficiality and hypocrisy of +their religious life and teaching (Luke xi. 37-54),--a rebuke which is +emphasized by the parable in which, on another occasion, he taught God's +preference for a contrite sinner over a complacent saint (Luke xviii. +9-14). When reminded of Pilate's outrage upon certain Galilean +worshippers, he used the calamity to warn his hearers that personal +godliness was the only protection which could secure them against a more +serious outbreak of the hostility of the Roman power (Luke xiii. 1-9); and +it was probably in reply to such an appeal as accompanied this report of +Pilate's cruelty that Jesus spoke the parable of the Unjust Judge (Luke +xviii. 1-8), teaching that God's love may be trusted to be no less +regardful of his people's cry than a selfish man's love of ease would be. + +176. The second of these tasks must not be held to be perfunctory, even +though each new effort for Jerusalem proved that genuine acceptance of its +saviour was increasingly improbable. As the denunciations of the older +prophets ever left open a way of escape _if _ Israel would return and seek +the Lord, so the anticipation of rejection and death which filled the +heart of Jesus does not banish a like _if_ from his own thought of +Jerusalem in his repeated efforts to "gather her children." The +combination of the new popular enthusiasm and the fresh proofs of the +hopelessness of winning Jerusalem made more important the third task,--the +founding of the faith of the disciples on the rock of personal certainty, +from which the rising floods of hatred and seeming ruin for the Master's +cause could not sweep it. It was for them that much of his instruction of +the multitudes was doubtless primarily intended; they needed above all +others to count the cost of discipleship (Luke xiv. 25-35), and the +warnings against the spirit of Pharisaism (Luke xii.) were addressed +principally to them, even as it was to them that Jesus confessed the +"straitening" of his own soul in view of the "fire which he had come to +cast upon the earth" (Luke xii. 49-53),--a confession which had another +expression when he found it needful to rebuke the personal ambition of the +sons of Zebedee (Mark x. 35-45). As for Jesus himself, the popular +enthusiasm had not deceived him, nor the obdurate unbelief of Jerusalem +daunted him, nor his disciples' misconception of his kingdom disheartened +him; he still steadfastly set his face to go to Jerusalem. + + Outline of Events in the Last Week of Jesus' Life + + + _Saturday_ (?). The anointing in Bethany six days before the + Passover--Matt. xxvi. 6-13; Mark xiv. 3-9; John xi. 55 to xii. 11. + + _Sunday_ (?). The Messianic entry--Matt. xxi. 1-11; Mark xi. 1-11; Luke + six. 29-44; John xii. 12-19. + + _Monday_ (?). Visit to the temple: the cursing of the barren + fig-tree--Matt. xxi. 18-19, 12-17; Mark xi. 12-14, 15-18; Luke xix. 45, + 47, 48. + + Return to Bethany for the night--Matt. xxi. 17; Mark xi. 19; Luke xxi. + 37, 38. + + _Tuesday_ (?). Visit to the temple: the fig-tree found withered--Matt, + xxi 20-23; Mark xi. 20-27; Luke xx. 1. + + Challenge of Jesus' authority--Matt. xxi. 23-27; Mark xi. 27-33; Luke + xx. 1-8. + + Three parables against the religious leaders--Matt. xxi. 28 to xxii. + 14; Mark xii. 1-12; Luke xx. 9-19. + + The question about tribute--Matt. xxii. 15-22; Mark xii. 13-17; Luke + xx. 20-26. + + The question of the Sadducees about the resurrection--Matt. xxii. + 23-33; Mark xii. 18-27; Luke xx. 27-40. + + The question of the Pharisees about the great commandment--Matt. xxii. + 34-40; Mark xii. 28-34. + + Jesus' counter-question about David's son and Lord--Matt. xxii. 41-46; + Mark xii. 35-37; Luke xx. 41-44. + + Jesus' denunciation of the scribes and Pharisees--Matt, xxiii. 1-39; + Mark xii. 38-40; Luke xx. 45-47. + + The widow's two mites--Mark xii. 41-44; Luke xxi. 1-4. + + The visit of the Greeks--John xii. 20-36^a. + + Final departure from the temple--John xii. 36^b (-50). + + Discourse concerning the destruction of Jerusalem and the end of the + world--Matt. xxiv. 1 to xxvi. 2; Mark xiii. 1-37; Luke xxi. 5-38. + + Plot of Judas to betray Jesus--Matt. xxvi. 3-5, 14-16; Mark xiv. 1, 2, + 10, 11; Luke xxii. 1-6. + + _Wednesday_. Retirement at Bethany. (?) + + _Thursday_. The Last Supper--Matt. xxvi. 17-30; Mark xiv. 12-26; Luke + xxii. 7-30; John xiii. 1-30. + + The farewell words of admonition and comfort--John xiii. 31 to xvi. 33. + + The intercessory prayer--John xvii. 1-26. + + _Friday_. The agony in Gethsemane--Matt. xxvi. 30, 36-46; Mark xiv. 26, + 32-42; Luke xxii. 39-46; John xviii. 1. + + The betrayal and arrest--Matt xxvi. 47-56; Mark xiv. 43-52; Luke xxii. + 47-53; John xviii. 1-12. + + Trial before the high-priests and sanhedrin--Matt. xxvi. 57 to xxvii. + 10; Mark xiv. 53 to xv. 1^a; Luke xxii. 54-71; John xviii. 12-27. + + Trial before Pilate--Matt, xxvii. 11-31; Mark xv. 1-20; Luke xxiii. + 1-25; John xviii. 28 to xix. 16^a. + + The crucifixion--Matt, xxvii. 32-56; Mark xv. 21-41; Luke xxiii. 26-49; + John xix. 16-37. + + The burial--Matt, xxvii. 57-61; Mark xv. 42-47; Luke xxiii. 50-56; John + xix. 38-42. + + _Saturday_. The Sabbath rest--Luke xxiii. 56^b. + + The watch at the tomb--Matt, xxvii. 62-66. + + + + +VI + +The Final Controversies in Jerusalem + + + +177. The early Christians were greatly interested in the teachings of +Jesus and in his deeds, but they thought oftenest of the victory which by +his resurrection he won out of seeming defeat. This is proved by the fact +that of the first two gospels over one third, of Luke over one fifth, and +of the fourth gospel nearly one half are devoted to the story of the +passion and resurrection. This preponderance is not strange in view of the +shock which the death of Jesus caused his disciples, and the new life +which the resurrection brought to their hearts. The resurrection was the +fundamental theme of apostolic preaching, the supreme evidence that Jesus +was the Messiah. Hence the cross early became the object of exultant +Christian joy and boasting; and in this the church entered actually into +the Lord's own thought, for through the cross he looked for his exaltation +and glory (Mark viii. 31; John xii. 23-36). From the time of the +confession at Cæsarea Philippi, he had had his death avowedly in view, and +had repeatedly checked the ambitious and unthinking enthusiasm of his +disciples by reminding them of what he must receive at the hands of the +leaders of the people. The few months preceding his final appearance in +Jerusalem had been devoted to the journey to the cross. This explains the +note of tragedy which appears in his teachings at this period. The people +had shown that they would none of his ministry. In this they had written +their national and religious death warrant, and as he approached Jerusalem +for the final crisis he declared, though with almost breaking heart, "Your +house is left unto you desolate" (Luke xiii. 31-35). Each new effort of +Jesus to turn aside the impending judgment of his people by winning their +acceptance of himself and his message resulted in a new certainty of his +ultimate rejection, and thus in confirmation of the early recognized +necessity, that, if he continued the work God had given him to do, he +should suffer many things, and die at the hands of his own people. + +178. The last chapter in his public ministry began with his arrival at +Bethany six days before the Passover. It is probable that the caravan with +which Jesus was travelling reached Bethany not far from the sunset which +marked the beginning of the Sabbath preceding the feast. Jesus had friends +there who gladly gave him entertainment, and the Sabbath was doubtless +spent quietly in this retreat. The holy day closed with the setting sun, +and then his hosts were able to show him the special attention which they +desired. The general cordiality of welcome expressed itself in a feast +given in the house of one Simon, a leper who had probably experienced the +power of Jesus to heal. He may have been a relative also of Lazarus, for +Martha assisted in the entertainment, and Lazarus was one of the guests of +honor (Mark xiv. 3; John xii. 2). During the feast, Mary, the sister of +Lazarus, poured forth on the head and feet of Jesus a box of the rarest +perfume. This act of costly adoration seemed extravagant to some, +particularly to one of Jesus' disciples, who complained that the money +could have been better spent. This criticism of one who had not counted +cost in her service was rebuked by Jesus, who defended and commended Mary; +for in the act he recognized her fear that he might not be long with her +(Mark xiv. 8; John xii. 7). It is probable that this rebuke, with the +clear reference to his approaching death, led Judas to decide to abandon +the apparently waning cause of his Master, and bargain with the leaders in +Jerusalem to betray him (Mark xiv. 3-11). + +179. The day following the supper at Bethany--that is, the first day of +the week--witnessed the welcome of Jesus to Jerusalem by the jubilant +multitudes. His mode of entering the city affords a marked contrast to +his treatment of the determination to make him king after he had fed the +multitudes in Galilee (John vi. 15). In some respects the circumstances +were similar. A multitude of the visitors to the feast, hearing that Jesus +was at Bethany on his way to Jerusalem, went out to meet him with a +welcome that showed their enthusiastic confidence that at last he would +assume Messianic power and redeem Israel (John xii. 12, 13). Jesus was now +ready for a popular demonstration, for the rulers were unwilling longer to +tolerate his work and his teaching. He had never hesitated to assert his +superiority to official criticism, and at length the hour had come to +proclaim the full significance of his independence. In fact it was for +this that some months before he had set his face steadfastly to go to +Jerusalem. When, therefore, the crowd from Jerusalem appeared, Jesus took +the initiative in a genuine Messianic demonstration. He sent two of his +disciples to a place near by to borrow an ass's colt, on which he might +ride into the city, fulfilling Zechariah's prophecy of the "king that +cometh meek, and riding upon an ass" (see Matt. xxi. 4, 5). At this, the +enthusiasm of his followers, and of those who had come to meet him, became +unbounded, and without rebuke from Jesus they proceeded towards Jerusalem +crying, "Hosanna; Blessed _is_ he that cometh in the name of the Lord" +(Mark xi. 9, 10). Notwithstanding the remonstrances of certain Pharisees +among the multitude (Luke xix. 39), Jesus accepted the hosannas, for they +served to emphasize the claim which he now wished, without reserve or +ambiguity, to make in Jerusalem. The time for reserve had passed. The +mass of the people with their leaders had shown clearly that for his +truth, and himself as bearer of it, they had no liking; while the few had +become attached to him sufficiently to warrant the supreme test of their +faith. He could not continue longer his efforts to win the people, for +both Galilee and Judea were closed to him. Even if he had been content, +without contradicting popular ideas, to work wonders and proclaim promises +of coming good, he could with difficulty have continued this work, for +Herod had already been regarding him with suspicion (Luke xiii. 31). He +had run his course and must measure strength with the hostile forces in +Jerusalem. For the last encounter he assumed the aggressive, and entered +the city as its promised deliverer, the Prince of Peace. The very method +of his Messianic proclamation was a challenge of current Jewish ideas, for +they were not looking for so meek and peaceful a leader as Zechariah had +conceived; this entrance emphasized the old contradiction between Jesus +and his people's expectations. He accepted the popular welcome with full +knowledge of the transitoriness of the present enthusiasm. As he advanced +he saw in thought the fate to which the city and people were blindly +hurrying, and his day of popular triumph was a day of tears (Luke xix. +41-44). The city was stirred when the prophet of Nazareth thus entered it; +but he simply went into the temple, looked about with heavy heart, and, as +it was late, returned to Bethany with the twelve for the night. + +180. On the following day Jesus furnished to his disciples a parable in +action illustrating the fate awaiting the nation; for it is only as a +parable that the curse of the barren fig-tree can be understood. The idea +that Jesus showed resentment at disappointment of his hunger when he found +no figs on the tree out of season is too petty for consideration. He was +drawn to it by the early foliage, for it was not yet the season for either +fruit or leaves. One is tempted to believe, as Dr. Bruce has suggested, +that he had small expectation of finding fruit, and that even before he +reached the tree with its early leaves he felt a likeness between it and +the nation of hypocrites whose fate was so clear in his mind. The +withering of the fig-tree set his disciples thinking; and Jesus showed +that it was an object lesson, promising that the disciples, by the +exercise of but a little faith, could do more, even remove +mountains,--such mountains of difficulty as the opposition of the whole +Jewish nation would offer to the success of their work in their Master's +name. + +181. The curse upon the barren fig-tree was spoken as Jesus was going from +Bethany to Jerusalem on the morning after his Messianic entry, that is, on +Monday, and it was Tuesday when the disciples found it withered away (Mark +xi. 12-14, 20-25). On Monday Jesus entered into the temple and taught and +healed (Luke xix. 47; Matt. xxi. 14-16). It is at this point that Mark +inserts the cleansing of the temple which John shows to belong rather to +Jesus' first public visit to Jerusalem. The place which this incident +holds in the first three gospels has already been explained by the fact +that it furnished one cause for the official hostility to Jesus, and that +Mark's story included no earlier visit to the holy city (sect. 116; see A +39). + +182. Tuesday, the last day of public activity, exhibits Jesus in four +different lights, according as he had to do with his critics, with the +devout widow, with the inquiring Greeks, and with his own disciples. The +opposition to him expressed itself, after the general challenge of his +authority, in three questions put in succession by Pharisees and +Herodians, by Sadducees, and by a scribe, more earnest than most, whom the +Pharisees put forward after they had seen how Jesus silenced the +Sadducees. Jesus met the opening challenge by a question about John's +baptism (Mark xi. 29-33) which completely destroyed the complacency of his +critics, putting them on the defensive. This was more than a clever +stroke, they could not know what his authority was unless they had a quick +sense for spiritual things. His question would have served to bring this +to the surface if they had possessed it. Their reply showed them incapable +of receiving a real answer to their question. It also gave him opportunity +to say in three significant parables (Matt. xxi. 28 to xxii. 14) what +their spiritual blindness signified for them and their nation, giving thus +a turn to the interview not at all to their minds. As Jesus' rebuke was +spoken in the hearing of the people, a determined effort was at once made +to discredit him in the popular mind. The question (Mark xii. 13-17) with +which the Pharisees and Herodians hoped to ensnare him was most subtle, +for the popular feeling was as sensitive to the mark of subserviency which +the payment of tribute kept ever before them as the Roman authorities were +to the slightest suspicion of revolt against their sway. In none of his +words had Jesus so clearly asserted the simple other-worldliness of his +doctrine of the kingdom of God as in his answer to the question about +tribute. For him loyalty to the actual earthly sovereign was quite +compatible with loyalty to God, the lower obligation was in fact a summons +to be scrupulous also to render to God his due,--a duty in which this +nation was sadly delinquent. The reply gave no ground for an accusation +before the governor; but the popular feeling against Rome was so strong +that it is not unlikely that it contributed somewhat to the readiness of +the multitude a few days later to prefer Barabbas to Jesus. + +183. A second assault was made by some Sadducees who put to him a crude +question about the relations of a seven-times married woman in the +resurrection (Mark xii. 18-27). If this question was asked with the +expectation of making Jesus ridiculous in the sight of the people it was a +marked failure, for his reply was so simple and straightforward that he +won the admiration even of some of the Pharisees. The most significant +feature of it was his argument from God's reference to himself as God of +Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob; for in that he taught that the fact of +fellowship with God implies that God's servants share with him a life that +death cannot vanquish. The skill with which Jesus met these two questions +interested some of his hearers and showed to his opponents that they must +put forward their ablest champions to cope with him. The next test was +more purely academic in character,--as to what class of commands is +greatest in the law (Mark xii. 28-34). For the pharisaic scholars this was +a favorite problem. For Jesus, however, the question contained no problem, +since all the law is summed up in the two commandments of love. His +contemporaries were not without power to see the truth of his +generalization, and their champion in this last attack was moved with +admiration for the fineness and sufficiency of Jesus' answer. + +184. All of the assaults served only to show freshly the clearness and +profoundness of his thought; his critics were quite discomfited in their +effort to entangle him. They had done with him, but he had still a word +for them. The business of these scribes was the study of the scriptures. +They furnished the people with authoritative statements of truth. One of +the common-places of the current thought was that the Messiah should be +David's son. Jesus did not deny the truth of this view, yet he showed them +how partial their ideas were by quoting a word of scripture in which the +Messiah is shown as David's Lord. If they had been open-minded they might +have inferred from this that perhaps the man before them was not so +impossible a Messiah as they thought. This last question closed the +colloquy; there awaited yet, however, Jesus' calm, scathing arraignment of +the hypocrisy of these religious leaders. There was no longer any need for +prudence and every reason for a clear indication of the difference between +himself and the scribes in motive, in teaching, and in character. The +final conflict was on, and Jesus freely spoke his mind concerning their +whole life of piety without godliness. Never have sharper words of +reproach fallen from human lips than these which Jesus directed against +the scribes and Pharisees; they are burdened with indignation for the +misleading of the people, with rebuke for the misrepresentation of God's +truth, and with scorn for their hollow pretence of righteousness. Through +it all breathes a note of sorrow for the city whose house was now left to +her desolate. The change of scene which introduces the widow offering her +gift in the temple treasury heightens the significance of the +controversies through which Jesus had just passed. In his comment on the +worth of her two mites we hear again the preacher of the sermon on the +mount, and are assured that it is indeed from him that the severe rebukes +which have fallen on the scribes have come. There is again a reference to +the insight of him who sees in secret, and who judges as he sees; while +allusion is not lacking to the others whose larger gifts attracted a wider +attention. The whole scene is like a commentary on Matt. vi. 2-4. + +185. Still a different side of Jesus' life appears when the Greeks seek +him in the temple. They were probably proselytes from some of the Greek +cities about the Mediterranean where the synagogue offered to the +earnest-minded a welcome relief from the foolishness and corruption of +what was left of religion in the heathen world. Having visited Jerusalem +for the feast, they heard on every hand about the new teacher. They were +not so bound to rabbinic traditions as the Jews themselves, they had been +drawn by the finer features of Judaism,--its high morality and its noble +idea of God. What they heard of Jesus might well attract them, and they +sought out Philip, a disciple with a Greek name, to request an interview +with his Master. The evangelist who has preserved the incident (John xii. +20-36) evidently introduced it because of what it showed of Jesus' inner +life; hence we have no report of the conversation between him and his +visitors. The effect of their seeking him was marked, however, for it +offered sharp contrast to the rejection which he already felt in his +dealings with the people who but two days before had hailed him as +Messiah. This foreign interest in him did not suggest a new avenue for +Messianic work, it only brought before his mind the influence which was to +be his in the world which these inquirers represented, and immediately +with the thought of his glorification came that of the means thereto,--the +cross whose shadow was already darkening his path. Excepting Gethsemane, +no more solemn moment in Jesus' life is reported for us. A glimpse is +given into the inner currents of his soul, and the storm which tossed them +is seen. It is in marked contrast to the calmness of his controversy with +the leaders, and to the gentleness of his commendation of the widow. The +agitation passed almost at once, but it left Jesus in a mood which he had +not shown before on that day; in it his own thoughts had their way, and +the doctrine of the grain of wheat dying to appear in larger life, of the +Son of Man lifted up to draw all men unto him, had utterance, greatly to +the perplexity of his hearers. It seems to have been one of the few times +when Jesus spoke for his own soul's relief. + +186. In all the earlier events of the day the disciples of Jesus appear +but little. He is occupied with others, accepting the challenge of the +leaders, and completing his testimony to the truth they refused to hear. +The quieter hours of the later part of the day gave time for further words +with his friends. The comment on the widow's gift was meant for them, and +the uncovering of his own soul when the Greeks sought him was in their +presence. After he had left the temple and the city he gave himself to +them more exclusively. His disciples were perplexed by what they saw and +felt, for the temper of the people toward their Master could not be +mistaken. Yet they were sure of him. The leaders among them, therefore, +asked him privately to tell them when the catastrophe should come, to +which during the day he had made repeated reference. The conversation +which followed is reported for us in the discourse on the destruction of +Jerusalem and the end of the world (Mark xiii. and parallels), in which +Jesus taught his disciples to expect trouble in their ministry, as he was +meeting trouble in his; and to be ready for complete disappointment of +their inherited hopes for the glory of their holy city. He also taught +them to expect that his work would shortly be carried to perfection, and +to live in expectancy of his coming to complete all that he was now +seeming to leave undone. This lesson of patience and expectancy is +enforced in a group of parables preserved for us in Matthew (chap. xxv.), +closing with the remarkable picture of the end of all things when the +Master should return in glory as judge of all to make final announcement +of the simplicity of God's requirement of righteousness, as it had been +exhibited in the life which by the despite of men was now drawing to its +close. + +187. The bargain made by Judas to betray his Lord has always been +difficult to understand. The man must have had fine possibilities or Jesus +would not have chosen him for an apostle, nor would the little company +have made him its treasurer (John xii. 6; xiii. 29). The fact that Jesus +early discovered his character (John vi. 64) does not compel us to think +that his selection as an apostle was not perfectly sincere; the man must +have seemed to be still savable and worthy thus to be associated with the +eleven others who were Jesus' nearest companions. It has often been +noticed that he was probably the only Judean among the twelve, for +Kerioth, his home, was a town in southern Judea. The effort has frequently +been made to redeem his reputation by attributing his betrayal to some +high motive--such as a desire to force his Master to use his Messianic +power, and confound his opponents by escaping from their hands and setting +up the hoped-for kingdom. But the remorse of Judas, in which De Quincey +finds support for this theory of the betrayal, must be more simply and +sadly understood. It is more likely that the traitor illustrates Jesus' +words: "No man can serve two masters; for either he will hate the one and +love the other; or else he will hold to the one and despise the other. Ye +cannot serve God and mammon" (Matt. vi. 24). The beginning of his fall may +have been his disappointment when Jesus showed clearly that he would not +establish a kingdom conformed to the popular ideas. As the enthusiasm +which drew him to Jesus cooled, personal greed, with something of +resentment at the cause of his disappointment, seem to have taken +possession of him, and they led him on until the stinging rebuke which +Jesus administered to the criticism of Mary at Bethany prompted the man to +seek a bargain with the authorities which should insure him at least some +profit in the general wreck of his hopes. His remorse after he saw in its +bald hideousness what he had done was psychologically inevitable. Although +Jesus was aware of Judas' character from the beginning (John vi. 64), he +that came to seek and to save that which was lost was no fatalist; and +this knowledge was doubtless--like that which he had of the fate hanging +over Jerusalem--subject to the possibility that repentance might change +what was otherwise a certain destiny. As the event turned he could only +say, "Good were it for that man if he had not been born" (Mark xiv. 21). + +188. With this the curtain falls on the public ministry of Jesus. The +gospels suggest a day of quiet retirement following these controversies +and warnings, with their fresh demonstration of the irreconcilable +hostility of people of all classes to him and his work. After the +seclusion of that day, he returned to give final proof of complete +obedience to his Father's will. + + + + +VII + +The Last Supper + + + +189. On Thursday Jesus and his disciples returned to Jerusalem for the +last time. Knowing the temper of the leaders, and the danger of arrest at +any time, Jesus was particularly eager to eat the Passover with his +disciples (Luke xxii. 15), and he sent two of them--Luke names them as +Peter and John--to prepare for the supper. In a way which would give no +information to such a one as Judas, he directed them carefully how to find +the house where a friend would provide them the upper room that was needed +for an undisturbed meeting of the little band, and the two went on in +advance to make ready. When the hour was come Jesus with the others went +to the appointed place and sat down for the supper (Mark xiv. 17; Luke +xxii. 14; Matt. xxvi. 20). + +190. The gospels all report the last evening which the little company +spent together. There is a perplexing divergence, however, between John +and the others concerning the relation of this supper to the feast of the +Passover. In their introduction of the story, Mark and his companion +gospels indicate that the supper which Jesus ate was the Passover meal +itself. John, on the other hand, declares that it was "before the feast of +the Passover" (xiii. 1) that Jesus took this meal with his disciples. +John's account is consistent throughout, for he states that on the next +day the desire of the Jews to "eat the Passover" forbade them to enter the +house of the governor lest they should incur defilement (xviii. 28). The +other gospels, moreover, hint in several ways that the day of Jesus' death +could not have been the day after the Passover; that is, the first day of +the feast of unleavened bread. Dr. Sanday has recently enumerated these +afresh, remarking that "the Synoptists make the Sanhedrin say beforehand +that they will not arrest Jesus 'on the feast day,' and then actually +arrest him on that day; that not only the guards, but one of the disciples +(Mark xiv. 47), carries arms, which on the feast day was not allowed; that +the trial was also held on the feast day, which would be unlawful; that +the feast day would not be called simply Preparation (see Mark xv. 42, and +compare John xix. 31); that the phrase 'coming from the field' (Mark xv. +21 [Greek]) means properly 'coming from work;' that Joseph of Arimathea is +represented as buying a linen cloth (Mark xv. 46) and the women as +preparing spices and ointments (Luke xxiii. 56), all of which would be +contrary to law and custom" (HastBD ii. 634). In these particulars the +first three gospels seem to confirm the representation of the fourth that +the day of the last supper was earlier than the regular Jewish Passover. +On the other hand, a strong argument, though one that has not commended +itself to other specialists in Jewish archæology, has been put forth by +Dr. Edersheim (LJM ii. 567f.) to prove that John also indicates that the +last supper was eaten at the time of the regular Passover. In the present +condition of our knowledge certainty is impossible. If John does differ +from the others, his testimony has the greatest weight. While not +conclusive, it has some significance that Paul identified Christ with the +sacrifice of the passover (I. Cor. v. 7), a statement which may indicate +that he held that Jesus died about the time of the killing of the paschal +lamb. If John be taken to prove that the last supper occurred a day before +the regular Passover, Jesus must have felt that the anticipation was +necessary in order to avoid the publicity and consequent danger of a +celebration at the same time with all the rest of the city. + +191. Whatever the conclusion concerning the date of the last supper, and +consequently of the crucifixion, the last meal of Jesus with his disciples +was for that little company the equivalent of the Passover supper. Luke +states that the desire of Jesus had looked specially to eating this feast +with his disciples (xxii. 15). The reason must be found in his certainty +of the very near end, and in his wish to make the meal a preparation for +the bitter experiences which were overhanging him and them. + +192. It is customary to connect as occasion and consequence the dispute +concerning precedence which Luke reports (xxii. 24-30), and the rebuke +which Jesus administered by washing the disciples' feet (John xiii. 1-20). +The jealousies of the disciples may have arisen over the allotment of +seats at the table, as Dr. Edersheim has most fully shown (LJM ii. +492-503); such a controversy would be the natural sequel of earlier +disputes concerning greatness, and particularly of the request of James +and John for the best places in the coming kingdom (Mark x. 35-45), and +would lead as naturally to the distress of heart with which Jesus declared +that one of the disciples should betray him, and that another of them +should deny him. The narrative in Mark favors the withdrawal of Judas +before the new rite was appointed. This must seem to be the probability in +the case, for the presence of Judas would be most incongruous at such a +memorial service. John's mention of his departure before the announcement +of Peter's approaching fall confirms this interpretation of Mark (Mark +xiv. 18-21; John xiii. 21-30). + +193. The paschal memories furnished to Jesus an opportunity to establish +for his disciples an institution which should symbolize the new covenant +which he was soon to seal with his blood. Jesus regarded this new covenant +as that which was promised by the prophets, especially Jeremiah (xxxi. +31-34), and his thought, like that of the prophets, goes back to the story +of the covenant established at Sinai (Ex. xxiv. 1-11). In this way he gave +to his disciples a conception of his death, which later, if not +immediately, would help them to regard it as a necessary part of his work +as Messiah. They were now oppressed by the evident certainty that the near +future would bring their Master to death; he accordingly gave them a +sacred reminder of himself and of his death as an essential part of his +self-giving "for them;" for whatever the conclusion concerning the +disputed text of Luke (xxii. 19), the institutional character of the act +and words of Jesus is clear. As Holtzmann remarks (NtTh i. 304): "The +words 'this do in remembrance of me' were perhaps not spoken; all the more +certainly do they of themselves express what lay in the situation and made +itself felt with incontestable conclusiveness." + +194. Several hints in the records seem to connect the meal in various +details with what is known of ancient custom in the celebration of the +Passover. The hymn with which according to Mark and Matthew the supper +closed is easily identified with the last part (Psalms cxv. to cxviii.) of +the so called _Hallel_, which was sung at the close of the Passover meal. +The mention of two cups in the familiar text of Luke (xxii. 17-20) agrees +with the repeated cups of the Passover ritual; so also do the sop and the +dipping of it with which Jesus indicated to John who the traitor was (John +xiii. 23-26; Mark xiv. 20). If it could be proved that the customs +recorded in the Talmud correctly represent the usage in Jesus' time it +would be of extreme interest to seek to connect what is told us of the +last supper with that Passover ritual as Dr. Edersheim has done (LJM ii. +490-512). The antiquity of the rabbinic record is so uncertain, however, +that it is only useful as showing what possibly may have been the case. +All that can be asserted is that the rabbinic ritual probably originated +long before it was recorded, and that as the last supper was a meal which +Jesus and his disciples celebrated as a Passover, it is probable that some +such ritual was more or less closely followed. + +195. Luke and John give the fullest reports of what was said at the table. +All the gospels tell of Peter's declaration of superior loyalty and the +prediction of his threefold denial; Luke, however, adds that in connection +with it Jesus assured Peter of his restoration, and charged him to +strengthen his brethren (Luke xxii. 31-34). John alone gives the long and +full discourse of admonition and comfort, followed by Jesus' prayer for +his disciples (xiii. 31 to xvii. 26). It is evident from the words of +Jesus as he entered the garden of Gethsemane (Mark xiv. 33, 34), as from +those which had escaped him when the Greeks sought him the last day in the +temple (John xii. 27), that his own heart was greatly troubled during the +supper by the apparent defeat which was now close at hand. His quietness +and self-possession during the supper, particularly when tenderly +reproving his disciples for petty ambition, or when solemnly dismissing +the traitor, or warning Peter of his denials, must not blind us to the +depth of the emotion which was stirring his own soul. It is only as we +remember his trouble of heart that it is possible justly to value the +ministry which in varied ways he rendered to his disciples that night. In +the discourses reported by John he showed that he realized that the +approaching separation would sorely try the faith of his followers, and he +sought to strengthen them by showing his own calmness in view of it, and +by promising them another who should abide with them spiritually as his +representative, and continue for them the work which he had begun. He +therefore urged them to maintain their devotion to him, still to seek and +find the source of their life and secret of their strength in fellowship +with him--present, though unseen among them. He sought to convince them +that his departure was to be for their advantage, that fellowship with him +spiritually would be far more real and efficacious than the intercourse +they had already enjoyed. He whose own heart was "exceeding sorrowful even +unto death" bade his disciples not to let their hearts be troubled nor +afraid. How long the conversation continued, of when the company left the +upper chamber, cannot be told. At some time before the arrival at +Gethsemane Jesus turned to God in prayer for the disciples whom he was +about to leave to the severe trial of their faith, asking for them that +realization of eternal life which he had enjoyed and exemplified in his +own intimate life with his Father. With this his ministry to them closed +for the time, and, crossing the Kidron, he entered the garden of +Gethsemane weighed down by the sorrow of his own soul. + + + + +VIII + +The Shadow of Death + + + +196. Of the garden of Gethsemane it is only known that it was across the +Kidron, on the slope of the Mount of Olives. Tradition has long pointed to +an enclosure some fifty yards beyond the bridge that crosses the ravine on +the road leading eastward from St. Stephen's gate. Most students feel that +this is too near the city and the highway for the place of retreat chosen +by Jesus. Archæologically and sentimentally the identification of places +connected with the life of Jesus is of great interest. Practically, +however, it is easy to over-emphasize the importance of such an +identification. Granted the fact that in some olive grove on the +mountain-side, where an oil-press gave a name to the place (Gethsemane), +Jesus withdrew with his disciples on that last night, and all that is +important is known. It is of far higher importance to see rightly the +relation of what took place in that garden to the things which preceded +and followed it in the life of Jesus. At that time Jesus saw pressed to +his lips the "cup" from the bitterness of which his whole soul shrank. It +was not an unlooked-for trial; some time earlier he had sought to cool the +ardor of the ambition of James and John by telling them that they should +drink of his cup, and declared that even the Son of Man came not to be +ministered unto but to minister, and to give his life a ransom for many. +The fourth gospel, whose representation omits the agony of Gethsemane and +only reports its victory, tells how Jesus rebuked the violent impulse of +Peter with the word, "The cup which my Father hath given me to drink shall +I not drink it?" (John xviii. 11^b); and all the gospels exhibit the +marvellous quietness of spirit and dignity of self-surrender which +characterized Jesus throughout his trial and execution. In Gethsemane, +however, we see the struggle in which that calmness and self-mastery were +won. + +197. It is unbecoming to consider that scene with any vulgar curiosity to +know what it was that made Jesus so draw back from the drinking of his +"cup." It is not unfitting, however, to recognize that in his cry, "Abba, +Father, all things are possible unto thee; remove this cup from me" (Mark +xiv. 36), an intense longing of his own soul's life had expression. There +was something in the fate which he saw before him from which his whole +being shrank. But stronger than this was his fixed desire to do his +Father's will. Here was supremely illustrated the truth that "he came down +from heaven, not to do his own will, but the will of him that sent him" +(John vi. 38). The fullest allowance for the shrinking of the most +delicately constituted nature from pain and death completely fails to +account for this dread of Jesus. He was no coward, drawing back from +sufferings which for simple physical pain were over and again more than +matched by many of the martyrs to truth who preceded and followed him. He +himself declared to the sons of Zebedee that they should share a cup in +kind like unto his, suffering for the kingdom of God, for the salvation +of the world. Yet there is a difference evident between what others have +had to bear and the cup from which Jesus shrank. The death which now stood +before him in the path of obedience had in it a bitterness quite +unexplained by the pain and disappointment it entailed. That excess of +bitterness can probably never be understood by us. A hint of its nature +may be found in the "shame of the cross" which the author of Hebrews (xii. +2; xiii. 13) emphasizes, and in the "curse" of the cross which made it a +stumbling block to Paul and his Jewish brethren (Gal. iii. 13; I. Cor. i. +23). Jesus came from the garden ready to endure the cross in obedience to +his Father's will; but it was a costly obedience, a complete emptying of +himself (Phil. ii. 7, 8). + +198. The loneliness of Jesus in his struggle is emphasized in the gospels +of Mark and Matthew. In search of sympathy he had confessed to the +disciples his trouble of heart, and had taken his three intimates with him +when he withdrew from the others for prayer, asking them to watch with +him. They were too heavy of heart and weary of body to stand by in his +bitter hour, and instead of being in readiness to warn him of the approach +of the hostile band, he had to awake them to their danger. The fourth +gospel reports that after the struggle Jesus bore marks of majesty which +astonished and overawed his foes when he calmly told them that he was the +one they were seeking. Their fear was overcome, however, when Judas gave +the appointed sign by kissing his Master (Mark xiv. 45). The thought for +the disciples' safety which John records (xviii. 8) is another proof that +the fight had been won, and Jesus had fully resumed the self-emptying +ministry appointed to him by his Father. + +199. The band that arrested Jesus was accompanied by a Roman cohort from +the garrison of the city, but it was not needed, for the disciples offered +no appreciable resistance; on the contrary, "they all forsook him and +fled" (Mark xiv. 50). Having arrested Jesus, the band took him to Annas, +the actual leader of Jewish affairs, though not at the time the official +high-priest. He had held that office some time before, but had been +deposed by the Roman governor of Syria after being in power for nine +years. His influence continued, however, for although he was never +reinstated, he seems to have been able to secure the appointment for +members of his own family during a period of many years. Caiaphas, the +legal high-priest, was his son-in-law. Annas, as the leader of +aristocratic opinion in Jerusalem, had doubtless been foremost in the +secret counsels which led to the decision to get rid of Jesus, hence the +captive was, as a matter of course, taken first to his house. The trial by +the Jewish authorities was irregular. There seems to have been an informal +examination of Jesus and various witnesses, first before Annas, and then +before Caiaphas and a group of members of the sanhedrin, the outcome of +which was complete failure to secure evidence against Jesus from their +false witnesses, and the formulation of a charge of blasphemy in +consequence of his answer to the high-priest acknowledging himself to be +the Messiah (Mark xiv. 61-64). The early hours before the day were given +over to mockery and ill-usage of the captive Jesus. When morning was +come, the sanhedrin was convened, and he was condemned to death on the +charge of blasphemy (Mark xv. 1; Luke xxii. 66-71), and then was led in +bonds to the Roman governor for execution, since the Romans had taken from +the sanhedrin the authority to execute a death sentence (John xviii. 31). +Before Pilate the Jews had to name an offence recognized by Roman law; his +accusers therefore falsified his claim and made him out a political +Messiah, hostile to Roman rule (Luke xxiii. 1, 2). Pilate soon saw that +the charge was trumped up, and sought in every way, while keeping the +good-will of the people, to escape the responsibility of giving sentence +against Jesus. His first effort was a simple declaration that he found no +fault in the prisoner (Luke xxiii. 4); then, having heard that he was a +Galilean, he tried to transfer the case to Herod, who happened to be in +the city at the time (Luke xxiii. 5-12); he then sought to compromise by +agreeing to chastise Jesus and then release him (Luke xxiii. 13-16); next +he offered the people their choice between the innocent Jesus and +Barabbas, a convicted insurrectionist (Mark xv. 6-15; Luke xxiii. 16-24), +and the people, instructed by the priests, chose Barabbas, caring nothing +for a Messiah who would allow himself to be arrested without resistance; +the fourth gospel tells of Pilate's still further effort, by appealing to +the people's sympathy, to escape giving sentence, even after he had +delivered Jesus to the soldiers for the preliminary scourging. Finding the +Jews ready to urge, at length, a religious charge, Pilate's superstitious +fear was roused (John xix. 7-12), and he sought again to release him, but +was finally cowed by the threat of an accusation against him at Rome, +and, mocking the people by sitting in judgment to condemn Jesus as their +king, he gave sentence against the man whom he knew to be innocent (John +xix. 12-16). + +200. Some of Jesus' disciples and friends were witnesses of the early +stages of the informal trial, in particular, John (John xviii. 15) and +Peter. It was during the progress of the early examination that Peter was +drawn into his denials by the comments made by the bystanders on his +connection with the accused. It has been suggested that the house of the +high-priest where Jesus was tried was built, like other Oriental houses, +about a court so that the room where Jesus was examined was open to view +from the court. In this case it is easy to see how Jesus could overhear +his disciple's strenuous denials of any acquaintance with him, and could +turn and give him that look which sent him out to weep bitterly (Luke +xxii. 61, 62). If it be further assumed that Annas and Caiaphas occupied +different sides of the same high-priestly palace, the double examination +reported by John would still be within hearing from the one court in which +the faithless disciple was a fascinated witness of his Master's trial. + +201. Humanly speaking, it may be said that the fate of Jesus was sealed +when the Sadducean leaders came to look on him seriously as a danger to +the State (John xi. 47-50, note the mention of chief priests). The +religious opposition was serious, and might have brought trouble, in some +such way as it seems to have done to John the Baptist (see Matt. xvii. +10-13; Luke xiii. 31, 32); but it is doubtful whether the governor would +have given much attention to a charge not urged by the men of influence in +Jerusalem. The notable thing in connection with the last days of Jesus' +life is the joint opposition of Sadducean priests and Pharisaic scribes. +That the populace easily changed their cry from "hosanna" to "crucify him" +is not surprising. Their hosannas were due to a complete misconception of +Jesus' aim and purpose; disappointed in him, they would be the earliest to +cry out against him, especially when the choice lay between him and a +genuine insurrectionist. + +202. Each fresh study of the trial of Jesus gives a fresh impression of +his greatness. He who but a few hours before was pouring out his soul in +prayer that his cup might pass, stands forth as the one calm and +undisturbed actor among all those who took part in the tragic doings of +that day. His judges and foes were all swayed by passion and self-interest +and were ready to make travesty of justice, from the leaders of the +sanhedrin who condemned him on one charge and accused him to the governor +on another, to the governor himself, who appeared determined to release +him if he could do it without risk of personal popularity, and who yet, in +order to avoid accusation at Rome, gave sentence according to the people's +will. The fickle populace crying "crucify him," the disciples who forsook +him, the rock-apostle who denied even so much as knowledge of the man, +show how all the currents of life about him were stirred and full of +tumult. In all this, of which he was the occasion and centre, he stands +the supreme example of dignity, self-mastery, and quietness. This is seen +in his silence in the presence of Annas and Caiaphas, and later before +Pilate; in his frank avowal of his Messianic claim in reply to the +high-priest's challenge, and of his kingly rank in answer to the +governor's question; and in the look of reproof which he turned upon +Peter. Not that he was without feeling. There is strong sense of outrage +in his words, "If I have spoken evil, bear witness of the evil, but if +well, why smitest thou me?" It was not the quietness of stoic +indifference, but of perfect self-devotion to the Father's will. He +maintained it from the time of his arrest to the last cry of trust with +which he committed his spirit to his Father. + +203. The scourging over, the mock homage of the soldiers done, he was led +out beyond the city wall to be crucified. The exact place of the +crucifixion can be determined as little as that of Gethsemane, though +there is a tradition from the fourth century, and in addition there are +many conjectures. Jesus was led, apparently, to the ordinary place of +criminal execution, and with two others, probably insurrectionary robbers +like those with whom Barabbas had been associated, he was crucified. Two +episodes in the journey to the place of crucifixion are recorded,--the +help which Simon of Cyrene was compelled to give to Jesus in carrying his +cross (Mark xv. 21), and the word of Jesus to those who, following him, +bewailed his fate (Luke xxiii. 27-31). + +204. Of the cruelty and torture of crucifixion much has been written and +often. It would be difficult to exaggerate it. The death by the cross was +a death by hunger and exhaustion in ordinary cases; it was thus torture +prolonged for many hours. It is noticeable, however, that it is not the +suffering but the disgrace and shame of the cross that occupied the +thought of the apostolic days. Indeed, were physical suffering chiefly to +be considered, it would have to be owned that the fact that Jesus died +within a few hours released him from the most excruciating pains incident +to this barbarous form of execution. The later ascetic thought loved, and +still loves, to dwell on the physical torments of the Lord's death. They +were severe enough to give us awe; but the biblical writers show a much +healthier mind, and their thought does not invite comparison between the +pains endured by the Master and those which some of his martyred followers +bore with great fortitude. The disgrace of the cross was the uttermost; +for the Romans it was the death of a slave, for the Jews it was patent +proof of the curse of God (Deut. xxi. 23). The obedience of Jesus was +unlimited when he submitted to death (Phil. ii. 8). It is on the shame of +the cross, and on the sacrifice of himself for the life of the world when +in obedience to his Father's will he "despised the shame," that the +thought of the apostolic day laid emphasis. In this experience Jesus found +himself in truth numbered with the transgressors; he was the object of +scorn for all them that passed by, they mocked at him, at his works, and +at his confident trust in God. In this last extremity the darkness of +Gethsemane again swept over Jesus' soul, when he cried out "My God, my +God," recalling the words of one of the saints of old in his hour of +distress (Ps. xxii.). Yet, like him, Jesus kept hold on the certainty of +deliverance; the darkness passed at length. + +205. The evangelists preserve several sayings of Jesus from the cross, the +records of the different gospels being remarkably diverse. Mark and +Matthew record the exclamation, "My God, my God _(Eloi, Eloi_), why hast +thou forsaken me," which the bystander misconstrued as a call for Elijah, +thinking this pseudo-Messiah was reproaching Elijah for failing to come to +his help. The same gospels tell of the loud cry with which Jesus died. +Luke omits the call _Eloi_, and gives in place of the last expiring cry +the prayer of trust, "Father, into thy hands I commend my spirit" (xxiii. +46). Earlier, however, this gospel tells of Jesus' word to the penitent +robber, "To-day shalt thou be with me in Paradise" (xxiii. 43), and of the +prayer for his foes, that is, for the Jewish people who blindly condemned +him (xxiii. 34). The oldest manuscripts cause some doubt whether this last +saying was originally a part of the Gospel of Luke. If it was not it would +belong in the same class with the story of the sinful woman which we now +find in John, both being authentic records of the life of Jesus, though +from some other source than that in which we now find them. The fourth +gospel gives quite an independent group of sayings. It interprets the +dying cry as, "It is finished" (xix. 30), and preceding this it gives the +cry, "I thirst" (xix. 28), which led to the offering of the vinegar of +which the first two gospels speak. Earlier it tells of the committal of +Mary to the care of the beloved disciple (xix. 26, 27). Of these seven +sayings, "Eloi," "I thirst," "Father, into thy hand I commend my spirit," +and "It is finished" belong to the last hours of the life of the crucified +one, after the darkness of which the first three gospels speak had +overshadowed the land. Of the cause of that darkness they give no hint, +for Luke's expression cannot mean an eclipse, since an eclipse at Passover +time, that is, at full moon, is an impossibility. The conjecture that +dense clouds hid the sun is common, and is as suitable as any other. +Whatever the cause, the evangelists saw in it a token of nature's awe at +the death of the Son of God. During the hours of the darkness the waves +swept over his soul, as the cry "my God" shows to our reverent thought. +But the last word of trust proves that the dying Jesus was not forsaken, +and that Calvary, like Gethsemane, was a battle won. The earlier sayings +all express Jesus' continued spirit of ministry, showing even in his +bitter pain his accustomed thoughtfulness for others' need. + +206. It is futile to speculate on the cause of Jesus' early death. He +certainly suffered a much shorter time than was ordinarily the case, as +appears in the fact that at sunset it was necessary to break the legs of +the robbers so as to hasten death, Jesus having already been some time +dead. There is something attractive in the theory of Dr. Stroud (The +Physical Cause of Christ's Death) that Jesus died of rupture of the heart. +It may have been true, but the evidences on which he based his argument +are insufficient for proof. To the Jews the death of their victim did not +give all the satisfaction they desired. In the first place, Pilate +insisted on mocking them by posting over the head of Jesus the placard, +"The King of the Jews" (see John xix. 19-22); moreover, their haste had +brought the crime into close proximity to the feast which they were eager +to keep from defilement; so that they had still to beg of Pilate that he +would hasten the death of the victims, that their bodies might not remain +to desecrate the following Sabbath sanctity (John xix. 31-37); while for +those who witnessed it the death of Jesus deepened the impression that a +hideous crime had been committed in the slaughter of an innocent man (Mark +xv. 39). + +207. Among the bystanders few of the disciples of Jesus were to be +found--they were hiding in fear. Yet some faithful women, and two +courageous councillors of Jerusalem, were bold enough to make their +loyalty known. These two men, Joseph of Arimathea and Nicodemus, were +members of the sanhedrin, but they had had no part in the condemnation of +Jesus; and after knowing that he was dead, Joseph begged of Pilate the +body, and he and Nicodemus took Jesus down from the cross and laid him in +a tomb which Joseph owned near the place of crucifixion, rendering such +tender ministries as were possible in the closing hours of the day. The +women who had witnessed his end meanwhile were arranging also to anoint +the body. They took notice where the two friends had laid him, and then +went away to rest on the Sabbath day, according to the commandment. + +208. To the Jews it was a high day, the first Sabbath in the eight days of +their holy feast (John xix. 31). They had eagerly guarded their conduct +that no ceremonial defilement might prevent their sharing in the paschal +feast. They believed that they had rid their nation of a dangerous +disturber of its peace, and men whose conscience shrank not from making +God's house a house of merchandise, who would punish one who ventured to +cure a mortal disease if it chanced to cross their Sabbath traditions, who +had condemned to death the holiest man and godliest teacher the world had +ever seen because he did not square with their heartless formalism,--such +men hardly had conscience enough to feel repentance or remorse for the +cowardly injustice and crime with which of their own choice they had +reddened their hands (Matt, xxvii. 25). They doubtless kept their feast +with satisfaction. Not a few hearts, however, were heavy with grief and +disappointed hope. They had believed that Jesus "was he that should redeem +Israel" (Luke xxiv. 21). Stunned, they could not throw away the faith +which he had kindled in their hearts. Yet he was dead, and only faintly, +if at all, did they recall his prediction of suffering and his certainty +of triumph through it all (John xx. 9). What remained for them was the +last tender ministry to their dead Lord. + + Outline of Events after the Resurrection + + + _The day of the resurrection--Sunday_. The visit of the women to the + tomb--Matt. xxviii. 1-8; Mark xvi. 1-8; Luke xxiv. 1-12; John xx. 1-10. + + Jesus' first appearance; to Mary--Matt. xxviii. 9 10; [Mark xvi. 9-11]; + John xx. 11-18. + + The report of the watch--Matt. xxviii. 11-15. + + The appearance to Simon Peter--I. Cor. xv. 5. + + The walk to Emmaus--[Mark xvi 12,13]; Luke xxiv. 13-35. + + The appearance to the ten in the evening--[Mark xvi. 14]; Luke xxiv. + 36-43; John xx. 19-25; I. Cor. xv. 5. + + _One week later--Sunday_. The appearance to the eleven, with + Thomas--John xx. 26-29. + + _Later appearances_. To seven disciples by the sea of Galilee--John + xxi. 1-24. + + To a company of disciples in. Galilee--Matt, xxviii. 16-20; [Mark xvi. + 15-18]; I. Cor. xv. 6. + + The appearance to James--I. Cor. xv. 7. + + To the disciples in Jerusalem, followed by the ascension--Mark xvi. 19, + 20; Luke xxiv. 44-53; Acts i. 1-12; I. Cor. xv. 7. + + + +IX + +The Resurrection + + + +209. Christianity as a historic religious movement starts from the +resurrection of Jesus from the dead. This is very clear in the preaching +and writings of Paul. The first distinctively Christian feature in his +address at Athens is his statement that God had designated Jesus to be +the judge of men by having "raised him from the dead" (Acts xvii. 31), and +for him the resurrection was the demonstration of the divinity of Christ +(Rom. i. 4), and the confirmation of the Christian hope (I. Cor. xv.). +With him the prime qualification for an apostle was that he should have +seen the risen Lord (I. Cor. ix. 1). The early preaching as recorded in +Acts shows the same feature, for after repeated testimony to the fact that +God had raised up Jesus, Peter summed up his address with the declaration, +"Let all the house of Israel therefore know assuredly, that God hath made +him both Lord and Christ, this Jesus whom ye crucified" (Acts ii. 36). In +fact the buoyancy of hope and confidence of faith which gave to the +despised followers of the Nazarene their strength resulted directly from +the experiences of the days which followed the deep gloom that settled +over the disciples when Jesus died. + +210. It can but seem strange to us that after Jesus had so often foretold +his death and the resurrection which should follow it, his disciples were +thrown into despair by the cross. Joseph of Arimathea and Nicodemus when +they embalmed his body may not have known of these teachings which Jesus +gave to the nearer circle of his followers, but it is difficult to believe +that the women who prepared their spices to anoint his body (Mark xvi. 1) +had heard nothing of these predictions, and it is certain that the +apostles who received with incredulity the first news of the resurrection +were the men whom Jesus had sought to prepare for this glorious victory. +The disciples do not seem to have finished "questioning among themselves +what the rising again from the dead should mean" (Mark ix. 10, compare +Luke xviii. 34) until Jesus himself explained it by his return to them +after his crucifixion. It was formerly common to conclude from the +scepticism of the disciples that Jesus could not have told them, as he is +reported to have done, that he would rise again the third day. It is now +widely conceded, however, that if he foresaw and foretold his death, he +surely coupled with it a promise of resurrection, otherwise he must have +surrendered his own conviction that he was Messiah; for a Messiah taken +and held captive by death was apparently as foreign to Jesus' thought as +it was unthinkable for the men of his generation. The inability of the +disciples to adjust their Messianic ideas to the death of their Master was +not removed by the rebuke Jesus administered to Peter at Cæsarea Philippi; +their objections were only silenced. It would seem that even when they saw +his death to be inevitable, they were simply dumb with hope that in some +way he would come off victor; the cross and the tomb crushed out that +hope--at least from most of them. If one disciple, his closest friend, +recalled and believed his words when he saw the empty tomb (John xx. 8), +others were cast into still deeper sorrow by the report, and could only +say, "But we hoped that it was he which should redeem Israel" (Luke xxiv. +21). + +211. The light which banished the gloom from the hearts of Jesus' +followers dawned suddenly. There was no time for gradual readjustment of +ideas and the springing of hope from a faith which would not die. The +uniform early tradition is that Jesus showed himself alive to his +disciples "on the third day," that is, a little over thirty-six hours from +the time of his death. Not only the gospels, but Paul, who wrote many +years before our evangelists, testify to this (I. Cor. xv. 4), as does the +very early observance of the first day of the week as "the Lord's day," +and the substitution of "the third day" for "after three days" in the +gospels which made use of our Gospel of Mark (compare parallels with Mark +viii. 81; ix. 31; x. 34, and see Holtzmann, NtTh I. 309). Of the events +which occurred on that third day and after, our earliest account is that +of Paul. He gives a simple catalogue of the appearances of the risen Lord, +referring to them as well known, in fact as the familiar subject matter of +his earliest teaching (I. Cor. xv. 4-8). He gives definite date to none of +these appearances, indicating only their sequence. He tells of six +different manifestations, beginning with an appearance to Cephas on the +third day, then to the twelve, then to a large company of +disciples,--above five hundred,--then to James, then to all the apostles. +The sixth in the list is his own experience, which he puts in the same +class with the appearances of the first Easter morning. Two of these +instances are found only in Paul's account, the appearance to James and to +the five hundred brethren, though this last may probably be the same as is +referred to in the Gospel of Matthew (xxviii. 16-20). + +212. The gospel records are much fuller, but they differ from each other +even more than they do from Paul. Mark is unhappily incomplete, for the +last twelve verses in that gospel, as we have it, are lacking in the +oldest manuscripts, and were probably written by a second-century +Christian named Aristion, as a substitute for the proper end of the gospel +which seems by some accident to have been lost. These twelve verses are +clearly compiled from our other gospels. They have value as indicating the +currency of the complete tradition in the early second century, but they +contribute nothing to our knowledge of the resurrection. All, then, that +Mark tells is that the women who came early on the first day of the week +to anoint the body of Jesus found the tomb open and empty, and saw an +angel who bade them tell the disciples that the Lord had risen. How the +record originally continued no one knows, for Matthew and Luke use the +same general testimony up to the point where Mark breaks off, and then go +quite different ways. Of the two Matthew is closer to Mark than is Luke. +The first gospel adds to the record of the second an account of an +appearance of Jesus to the women as they went to report to the disciples, +and then tells of the meeting of Jesus with the disciples on a mountain in +Galilee, and his parting commission to them. It gives no account of the +ascension. Luke agrees with Mark in general concerning the visit of the +women to the tomb, the angelic vision, and the report to the disciples. He +says nothing of an appearance of Jesus to the women on their flight from +the tomb, but, if xxiv. 12 is genuine (see R.V. margin), he, like John, +tells of Peter's visit to the sepulchre. + +213. Luke further reports the appearances of Jesus to two on their way to +Emmaus, to Simon, and to the eleven in Jerusalem,--this last being blended +consciously or unconsciously with the final meeting of Jesus with the +disciples before his ascension. The genuine text of the gospel (xxiv. 50) +says nothing of the ascension itself, but clearly implies it. In contrast +with Matthew it is noticeable that Luke shows no knowledge of any +appearance of Jesus to his disciples in Galilee. John is quite independent +of Mark, as well as of Matthew and Luke. He mentions only Mary Magdalene +in connection with the early visit to the tomb, though perhaps he implies +the presence of others with her ("we" in xx. 2). He tells of a visit of +Peter and John to the tomb, of an appearance of Jesus to Mary Magdalene, +of an appearance to ten of the disciples in the evening, and a week later +to the eleven, including Thomas. So far this gospel makes no reference to +appearances in Galilee; but in the appendix (chapter xxi.) there is added +a manifestation to seven disciples as they were fishing on the Sea of +Galilee. + +214. Criticism which seeks to discredit the gospels, for instance most +recently Réville in his "Jésus de Nazareth," discovers two separate and +mutually exclusive lines of tradition,--one telling of appearances in +Galilee, represented by Mark and the last chapter in John, the other +telling of appearances in or near Jerusalem, and found in Luke and the +twentieth chapter of John. It is said that the gospels have sought to +blend the two cycles, as when Matthew tells of an appearance to the women +in Jerusalem on their way from the tomb, and when the last chapter of John +adds to the original gospel a Galilean appearance. Luke, however, who +makes no reference at all to Galilean manifestations, is taken to prove +that originally the one cycle knew nothing of the other. This theory +falls, however, before the uniform tradition of appearances on the third +day, which must have been in Jerusalem, and the very early testimony of +Paul to an appearance to above five hundred brethren at once, which could +not have been in Judea. It need not surprise us that there should have +been two cycles of tradition, not however mutually exclusive, if Jesus did +appear both in Jerusalem and in Galilee. The same kind of local interest +which is supposed to explain the one-sidedness of the synoptic story of +the public ministry would easily account for one line of tradition which +reported Galilean appearances, and another which reported those in +Jerusalem. Luke may have had access to information which furnished him +only the Jerusalem story. John and Peter, however, must have known the +wider facts. The very divergences and seeming contradictions of the +gospels, troublesome as they are, indicate how completely certainty +regarding the fact of the resurrection removed from the thought of the +apostolic day nice carefulness concerning the testimony to individual +manifestations of the risen Lord. Doubtless the first preaching rested, as +in the case of Paul, on a simple "I have seen the Lord." When later the +detailed testimony was wanted for written gospels, it had suffered the lot +common to orally transmitted records, and divergences had sprung up which +it is no longer possible for us to resolve. They do not, however, +challenge the fact which lies behind all the varied testimony. + +215. A general view of the events of that third day and those which +followed can be constructed from our gospels and Paul. Early on the first +day of the week certain women, including Mary Magdalene, Mary the mother +of James and Joses, Salome, Joanna, and others, came to anoint the body of +Jesus. On their arrival they found that the stone had been rolled back +from the tomb. Mary Magdalene saw that the grave was empty and ran to tell +Peter and John. The others saw also a vision of angels which said that +Jesus was alive and would see his disciples in Galilee, and ran to report +this to the disciples. Meanwhile Mary Magdalene returned, following Peter +and John who ran to see the tomb, and found it empty as she had said. She +lingered after they left, and Jesus appeared to her, she mistaking him at +first for the gardener. She then went to tell the disciples that she had +seen the Lord. These events evidently occurred in the early morning. The +next incident reported is that of the walk of two disciples, not of the +twelve, to Emmaus, and the appearance of Jesus to them. At first they did +not recognize him, not even when he taught them out of the scriptures the +necessity that the Messiah should die. He was made known when at evening +he sat down with them to a familiar meal. Either before or after this +event he had shown himself to Peter. This is the first manifestation +reported by Paul. If Luke xxiv. 12 is genuine (see R.V. margin), he also +tells that when the two again reached Jerusalem the apostles received them +with the news that Peter had seen the Lord. That same evening Jesus +appeared suddenly among the disciples in their well-guarded upper room. +His coming was such that he had to convince the disciples that he was not +simply a disembodied spirit. Luke says that he did this by bidding them +handle him, and by eating part of a fish before them. According to John, +Thomas was not with the others at this first meeting with the disciples. A +week later, presumably in Jerusalem, Jesus again manifested himself to the +little company, Thomas being with them, and dispelled the doubt of that +disciple who loved too deeply to indulge a hope which might only +disappoint. He had but to see in order to believe, and make supreme +confession of his faith. The next appearance was probably that to the +seven disciples by the Sea of Galilee, when Peter, who denied thrice, was +thrice tested concerning his love for his Lord. Then apparently followed +the meeting on the mountain reported in Matthew, which was probably the +same as the appearance to the five hundred brethren; then, probably still +in Galilee, Jesus appeared to his brother James, who from that time on was +a leader among the disciples. The next manifestation of which record is +preserved was the final one in Jerusalem, after which Jesus led his +disciples out as far as Bethany and was separated from them, henceforth to +be thought of by them as seated at the right hand of God. + +216. This construction of the story as given in the New Testament does +violence to the accounts in one particular. It holds that Matthew's report +of the meeting of Jesus with the women on their way from the tomb on +Easter morning is to be identified with his meeting with Mary Magdalene. +This can be done only if it is supposed that in the transmission of the +tradition the commission given the women by the angel (Mark xvi. 6f.) +became blended with the message given to Mary by the Lord (John xx. 17), +the result being virtually the same for the religious interest of the +first Christians, while for the historic interest of our days it +constitutes a discrepancy. The difficulty is less on this supposition than +on any other. It is highly significant that the account of the most +indubitable fact in the view of the early Christians is the most difficult +portion of the gospels for the exact harmonist to deal with. This is not +of serious moment for the historical student. It is rather a warning +against theoretical ideas of inspiration. + +217. The universal acknowledgment that the early Christians firmly +believed in the resurrection of their Lord has made the origin of that +firm conviction a question of primary importance. The simple facts as set +forth in the New Testament serve abundantly to account for the faith of +the early church, but they not only involve a large recognition of the +miraculous, they also contain perplexities for those who do not stumble at +the supernatural; hence there have been many attempts to find other +solutions of the problem. Some of the explanations offered may be +dismissed with a word: for instance, those which, in one form or other, +renew the old charge found in the first gospel, that the disciples stole +the body of Jesus, and then declared that he had risen; and those which +assume that the death of Jesus was apparent only, that he fainted on the +cross, and then the chill of the night air and of the sepulchre served to +revive him, so that in the morning he was able to leave the tomb and +appear to his disciples as one risen from the dead. This apparent-death +theory involves Jesus in an ugly deception, while the theory that the +disciples or any group of them removed the body of Jesus and then gave +currency to the notion that he had risen, builds the greatest ethical and +religious movement known to history on a lie. A slightly different +explanation which was very early suggested was that the Jews themselves, +or perhaps the gardener, had the body removed, and that when Mary found +the tomb empty she let her faith conclude that his absence must be due to +his resurrection. + +218. This last explanation has in recent times been revived in connection +with the so-called vision-hypothesis by Renan and Réville. Mary found the +tomb empty, and being herself of a highly strung nervous nature--she had +been cured by Jesus of seven devils--by thinking about the empty tomb she +soon worked herself into an ecstasy in which her eyes seemed to behold +what her heart desired to see. She communicated her vision to the others, +and by a sort of nervous contagion, they, too, fell to seeing visions, and +it is the report of these that we have in the gospels. The +vision-hypothesis takes with some, Strauss for instance, a different form. +These deny that the tomb was found empty at all, and regard this story as +a contribution of the later legend-making spirit. They hold that the +disciples fled from Jerusalem as soon as the death of Jesus was an assured +fact, and not until after they found themselves amid the familiar scenes +of Galilee, did their faith recover from the shock it had received in +Jerusalem. In Galilee the experiences of their life with Jesus were lived +over again, and the old confidence in him as Messiah revived. Thus +thinking about the Lord, their hearts would say, "He cannot have died," +and after a while their faith rose to the conviction which declared, "He +is not dead;" then they passed into an ecstatic mood and visions followed +which are the germ out of which the gospel stories have grown. + +219. These different forms of the vision-hypothesis have been subjected to +most searching criticism by Keim, who is all the more severe because his +own thought has so much that is akin to them. There are two objections +which refute the hypothesis. The first is that the uniform tradition +which connects the resurrection and the first appearances with the "third +day" after the crucifixion leaves far too short a time for the recovery of +faith and the growth of ecstatic feeling which are requisite for these +visions, even supposing that the disciples' faith had such recuperative +powers. The second is that once such an ecstatic mood was acquired it +would be according to experience in analogous cases for the visions to +continue, if not to increase, as the thought of the risen Lord grew more +clear and familiar; yet the tradition is uniform that the appearances of +the risen Christ ceased after, at most, a few weeks. The only later one +was that which led to the conversion of Paul; and though Paul was a man +somewhat given to ecstatic experiences (see II. Cor. xii.), he carefully +distinguishes in his own thought his seeing of the Lord and his heavenly +visions. In a word, the disciples of Jesus never showed a more healthy, +normal life than that which gave them strength to found a church of +believers in the resurrection in the face of persecution and scorn. + +220. Keim seeks to avoid the difficulties which his own acute criticism +disclosed in the ordinary vision-theory, by another which rejects the +gospel stories as legendary, yet frankly acknowledges that the faith of +the apostles in the resurrection was based on a miracle. Their certainty +was so unshakable, so uniform, so abiding, that it can be accounted for +only by acknowledging that they did actually see the Lord. This seeing, +however, was not with the eyes of sense, but with the spiritual vision, +which properly perceives what pertains to the spirit world into which the +glorified Lord had withdrawn when he died. In his spiritual estate he +manifested himself to his disciples, by a series of divinely caused and +therefore essentially objective visions, in which he proved to them +abundantly that he was alive, was victor over death, and had been exalted +by God to his right hand. This theory is not in itself offensive to faith. +It concedes that the belief of the disciples rested on actual disclosures +of himself to them by the glorified Lord. The difficulty with the theory +is that it relegates the empty tomb to the limbo of legend, though it is a +feature of the tradition which is found in all the gospels and clearly +implied in Paul (I. Cor. xv. 4; compare Rom. vi. 4); it also fails to show +how this glorified Christ came to be thought of by the disciples as +_risen_, rather than simply glorified in spirit. This criticism brings us +back to the necessity of recognizing a resurrection which was in some real +sense corporeal, difficult as that conception is for us. The gospels +assert this with great simplicity and delicate reserve. They represent +Jesus as returning to his disciples with a body which was superior to the +limitations which hedge our lives about. It may be well described by +Paul's words, "It is sown a natural body; it is raised a spiritual body." +Yet the records indicate that when he willed Jesus could offer himself to +the perception of other senses than sight and hearing--"handle me and see" +is not an invitation that we expect from a spiritual presence. If, +however, we have to confess an unsolved mystery here, and still more in +the record of his eating in the presence of the disciples (Luke xxiv. +41-43), it is permitted us to own that our knowledge of the possible +conditions of the fully perfected life are not such as to warrant great +dogmatism in criticising the account. The empty tomb, the objective +presence of the risen Jesus, the renewed faith of his followers, and their +new power are established data for our thought. With these, many of the +details may be left in mystery, because we have not yet light sufficient +to reveal to us all that we should like to know. + +221. The ascension of the risen Christ to his Father is the presupposition +of all the New Testament teaching. The Acts, the Epistles, and the +Apocalypse join in the representation that he is now at the right hand of +God. In fact it may be said that such a view is involved in the doctrine +of the resurrection, for the very idea of that victory was that death had +no more dominion over him. It is a fact, however, that none of our gospels +in their correct text (see Luke xxiv. 51, R.V. margin) tell of the +ascension. Luke clearly implies it, and John says that Jesus told Mary to +tell the disciples that he was about to ascend to his Father and their +Father. In Luke's later book, however (Acts i. 1-11), he gives a full +account of a last meeting of Jesus with the disciples, and of +his ascension to heaven before their eyes. This withdrawal in the cloud +must be understood as an acted parable; for, in reality, there is no +reason for thinking that the clouds which hung over Olivet that day were +any nearer God's presence than the ground on which the disciples stood. +For them, however, such a disappearance would signify vividly the +cessation of their earthly intercourse with their Lord, and his return to +his home with the Father. The word of Jesus to Mary (John xx. 17) may +fairly be interpreted to mean that Jesus had ascended to the Father on +the day of the resurrection, and that each of his subsequent +manifestations of himself were like that which later he granted to Paul +near Damascus. In fact it is easier to view the matter in this way than to +conceive of Jesus as sojourning in some hidden place for forty days after +his resurrection. What the disciples witnessed ten days before Pentecost +was a withdrawal similar to those which had separated him from them +frequently during the recent weeks, only now set before their eyes in such +a way as to tell them that these manifestations had reached an end; they +must henceforth wait for the other representative of God and Christ, the +Spirit, given to them at Pentecost. + +222. The faith with which the disciples waited for the promised spirit was +a very different faith from that which Peter confessed for his fellows at +Cæsarea Philippi. It had the same supreme attachment to a personal friend +who had proved to be God's Anointed; the same readiness to let him lead +whithersoever he would; the same firm expectation of a restitution of all +things, in which God should set up his kingdom visibly, with Jesus as the +King of men. Now, however, their trust was much fuller than before, and +they looked for a still more glorious kingdom when their friend and Lord +should come from heaven to assume his reign. They expected Christ to +return soon in glory, yet his death and victory made them ready to endure +any persecution for him, certain that, like the sufferings which he +endured, it would lead to victory. These disciples had no idea that in +preaching a religion of personal attachment to their Master, in filling +all men's thoughts with his name, in building all hope on his return, and +guiding all life by his teaching and spirit, they were cutting their +moorings from the religion of their fathers. They remained loyal to the +law, they were constant in the worship; but they had poured new wine into +the bottles, and in time it proved the inadequacy of the old forms and +revolutionized the world's religious life. + + + + + +Part III + +The Minister + + + + +I + +The Friend of Men + + + +223. In nothing does the contrast between Jesus and John the Baptist +appear more clearly than in their attitude towards common social life. +John had his training and did his work apart from the homes of men. The +wilderness was his chosen and fit scene of labor. From this solitude he +sent forth his summons and warning to his people. They who sought him for +fuller teaching went after him and found him where he was. They then +returned to their homes and their work, leaving the prophet with his few +disciples in their seclusion. With Jesus it was otherwise. His first act, +after attaching to himself a few followers, was to go into Galilee to the +town of Cana, and there with them to partake in the festivities of a +wedding. While it is true that most of his teaching was by the wayside, +among the hills, or by the sea, it is still a surprise to discover how +often his ministry found its occasion as he was sitting at table in the +house of some friend, real or feigned. The genuine friendships of Jesus as +they appear in the gospels are among the most characteristic features of +his life--witness the home at Bethany, the women who followed him even to +the cross, and ministered to him of their substance, and the "beloved +disciple." Jesus calls attention to this contrast between himself and +John, reminding the people how some of the scornful pointed the finger at +himself as "a gluttonous man and a wine-bibber, a friend of publicans and +sinners." He received his training as a carpenter while John was in his +wilderness solitude. Men who would probably have stood with admiration +before John had he visited their synagogue, found Jesus too much one of +themselves, and would none of him as a prophet (Mark vi. 2, 3). + +224. A like contrast sets Jesus apart from the scribes of his day. These +were revered by the people, in part perhaps because they held the common +folk in such contempt. Their attitude was frank--"this multitude which +knoweth not the law is accursed" (John vii. 49). The popular enthusiasm +for Jesus filled them with scorn, until it began to give them alarm. They +were glad to be reverenced by the people, to interpret the law for them +"binding heavy burdens and grievous to be borne;" but showed little +genuine interest in them. Jesus, on the other hand, not only had the +reverence of the multitudes, but welcomed them. First his words and his +works drew them, then he himself enchained their hearts. Outcasts, rich +and poor, crowded into his company, and found him not only a teacher, a +prophet of righteousness rebuking their sins and calling to repentance, +but a friend, who was not ashamed to be seen in their homes, to have them +among his closest attendants, and to be known as their champion. It was +when such as these were pressing upon him to hear him that Jesus replied +to the criticism of the scribes in the three parables of recovered +treasure which stand among the rarest gems of the Master's teaching (Luke +xv.). + +225. One class only in the community failed of his sympathy,--the +self-righteous hypocrites, who thought that godliness consisted in +scrupulous regard for pious ceremonies, and that zeal was most laudable +when directed to the removal of motes from their brothers' eyes. For these +Jesus had words of rebuke and burning scorn. It has been common with some +to emphasize his friendship for the poor as if he chose them for their +poverty, and the unlettered for their ignorance. Yet Jesus had no faster +friends than the women who followed from Galilee and ministered to him of +their substance, and the two sanhedrists, Joseph whose new tomb received +his body, and Nicodemus whose liberality provided the spices which +embalmed him; for these, and not the Galilean fishermen, were faithful to +the last at the cross and at the grave. In no home did Jesus find a fuller +or more welcome friendship than in Bethany, where all that is told us of +its conditions suggests the opposite of poverty. The rich young ruler, who +showed his too great devotion to his possessions, would hardly have sought +out Jesus with his question, if he was known as the champion of poverty as +in itself essential to godliness. The demand made of him surprised him, +and was suited to his special case. Jesus saw clearly the difficulties +which wealth puts in the way of faith, but he recognized the power of God +to overcome them, and when Zaccheus turned disciple, the demand for +complete surrender of possessions was not repeated. On the contrary Jesus +taught his disciples that even "the unrighteous mammon" should be used to +win friends (Luke xvi. 9), so ministering unto some of "the least of these +my brethren" (Matt. xxv. 40). The beatitude in Luke's report of the +sermon on the mount (Luke vi. 20) was not for the poor as poor simply, but +for those poor folk lightly esteemed who had spiritual sense enough to +follow Jesus, while the well-to-do as a class were content with the +"consolation" already in hand. Jesus' interest was in character, wherever +it was manifest, whether in the repentance of a chief of the publicans, or +in the widow woman's gift of "all her living;" whether it appeared in the +hunger for truth shown by Nicodemus, a teacher of Israel, or in the woman +that was a sinner who washed his feet with her tears. He was the great +revealer of the worth of simple humanity, in man, woman, or child. Our +world has never seen another who so surely penetrated all masks or +disguising circumstances and found the man himself, and having found him +loved him. + +226. This sympathy for simple manhood was manifested in a genuine interest +in the common life of men in business, pleasure, or trouble. It is +significant that the first exercise of his miraculous power should have +been to relieve the embarrassment of his host at a wedding feast. +Doubtless we are to understand that the miracle had a deeper purpose than +simply supplying the needed wine (John ii. 11); but the significant thing +is that Jesus should choose to manifest his glory in this way. It shows a +genuine appreciation of social life quite impossible to an ascetic like +the Baptist. The same appears in the way Jesus allowed his publican +apostle to introduce him to his former associates, to the great scandal of +the Pharisees; for a feast at which Jesus and a number of publicans were +the chief guests accorded not with religion as they understood it. Jesus, +however, seems to have found it a welcome opportunity to seek some of his +lost sheep. The illustrations which he used in his teaching were often his +best introduction to the common heart, for they were drawn from the +occupations of the people who came to listen; while the aid Jesus gave to +his disciples in their fishing showed not only his power, but also his +respect for their work, a respect further proved when he called them to be +fishers of men. + +227. Beyond this interest in life's joy and its occupations was that +unfailing sympathy with its troubles which drew the multitudes to him. He +was far more than a healer; he studied to rid the people of the idea that +he was a mere miracle-monger. He healed them because he loved them, and he +asked of those who sought his help that they too should feel the personal +relation into which his power had brought them. This seems to be in part +the significance of his uniform demand for faith. Doubtless Mary, out of +whom he had cast seven devils, and Simon the leper, who seems to have +experienced his power to heal, are only single instances of many who found +in him far more than at first they sought. No further record remains of +the paralytic who carried off his bed, but left the burden of his sins +behind, nor of the woman who loved much because she had been forgiven +much, nor of the Samaritan whose life he uncovered that he might be able +to give her the living water. Some who had his help for body or heart may +have gone away forgetful, after the fashion of men, but in the company of +those who were bold to bear his name after his resurrection there must +have been many who could not forget. + +228. Jesus' interest in common life was genuine, and he entered into it +with his heart. The incident of the anointing of his feet as he sat a +guest in a Pharisee's house shows that he was keenly sensitive to the +treatment he received at the hands of men. He had nothing to say of the +slights his host had shown him, until that host began mentally to +criticise the woman who was ministering to him in her love and penitence. +Then with quiet dignity Jesus mentioned the several omissions of courtesy +which he had noticed since he came in, contrasting the woman's attention +with Simon's neglect (Luke vii. 36-50). One of the saddest things about +Gethsemane was Jesus' vain pleading with his disciples for sympathy in his +awful hour. They were too much dazed with awe and fear to lend him their +hearts' support. He recognized indeed that it was only a weakness of the +flesh; yet he craved their friendship's help, and repeatedly asked them to +watch with him, for his soul was exceeding sorrowful. In contrast with +this disappointment stands the joy with which Jesus heard from Peter the +confession which proved that the falling off of popular enthusiasm had not +shaken the loyalty of his chosen companions,--"Blessed art thou, Simon +Bar-Jonah: for flesh and blood have not revealed it unto thee, but my +Father which is in heaven" (Matt. xvi. 17). There is the sorrow of +loneliness as well as rebuke in his complaint, "O faithless generation, +how long shall I be with you? how long shall I bear with you?" (Mark ix. +19), and the lamentation over Jerusalem comes from a longing heart (Luke +xiii. 34). + +229. The independence of human sympathy which Jesus often showed is all +the more glorious for the evidence the gospels give of his longing for +it. When he put the question to the twelve, "Would ye also go away?" (John +vi. 67), there is no hint in his manner that their defection with the rest +would turn him at all from faithfully fulfilling the task appointed to him +by his Father. In fact only now and then did he allow his own hunger to +appear. Ordinarily he showed himself as the friend longing to help, but +not seeking ministry from others; he rather sought to win his disciples to +unselfishness by showing as well as saying that he came not to be +ministered unto but to minister. He washed the feet of his disciples to +rebuke their petty jealousies, but we have no hint that he showed that he +felt personal neglect. His own heart was full of "sorrow even unto death," +but his word was, "Let not your heart be troubled;" he asked in vain for +the sympathy of his nearest friends in Gethsemane, yet when the band came +to arrest him he pleaded, "Let these, the disciples, go their way." + + + + +II + +The Teacher with Authority + + + +230. To his contemporaries Jesus was primarily a teacher. The name by +which he is oftenest named in the gospels is Teacher,--translated Master +in the English versions and the equivalent of Rabbi in the language used +by Jesus (John i. 38). People thought of him as a rabbi approved of God by +his power to work miracles (John iii. 2), but it was not the miracles that +most impressed them. The popular comment was, "He taught them as one +having authority, and not as the scribes" (Matt. vii. 29). Two leading +characteristics of the scribes were their pride of learning, and their +bondage to tradition. In fact the learning of which they were proud was +knowledge of the body of tradition on whose sanctity they insisted; their +teaching was scholastic and pedantic, an endless citing of precedents and +discussion of trifles. To all this Jesus presented a refreshing contrast. +In commending truth to the people, he was content with a simple "verily," +and in defining duty he rested on his unsupported "I say unto you," even +when his dictum stood opposed to that which had been said to them of old +time. + +231. In this freedom from the bondage of tradition Jesus was not alone. +John the Baptist's message had been as simple and unsupported by appeal to +the elders. Jesus and John both revived the method of the older prophets, +and it is in large measure due to this that the people distinguished them +clearly from their ordinary teachers, and held them both to be prophets. +One thing involved in this authoritative method was a frank appeal to the +conscience of men. So completely had the scribes substituted memory of +tradition for appeal to the simple sense of right, that they were utterly +dazed when Jesus undertook to settle questions of Sabbath observance and +ceremonial cleanliness by asking his hearers to use their religious common +sense, and consider whether a man is not much better than a sheep, or +whether a man is not defiled rather by what comes out of his mouth than by +what enters into it (Matt. xii. 12; Mark vii. 15). Jesus was for his +generation the great discoverer of the conscience, and for all time the +champion of its dignity against finespun theory and traditional practice. +All his teaching has this quality in greater or less degree. It appears +when by means of the parable of the Good Samaritan he makes the lawyer +answer his own question (Luke x. 25-37), when he bids the multitude in +Jerusalem "judge not according to the appearance, but judge righteous +judgment" (John vii. 24), when he asks his inquisitors in the temple whose +image and superscription the coin they used in common business bears (Mark +xii. 16). His whole work in Galilee was proof of his confidence that in +earnest souls the conscience would be his ally, and that he could impress +himself on them far more indelibly than any sign from heaven could enforce +his claim. + +232. Jesus was not only independent of the traditions of the scribes, he +was also very free at times with the letter of the Old Testament. When by +a word he "made all meats clean" (Mark vii. 19), he set himself against +the permanent validity of the Levitical ritual. When the Pharisees pleaded +Moses for their authority in the matter of divorce, Jesus referred them +back of Moses to the original constitution of mankind (Matt. xix. 3-9). +His general attitude to the Sabbath was not only opposed to the traditions +of the scribes, it also disregarded the Old Testament conception of the +Sabbath as an institution. Yet Jesus took pains to declare that he came +not to set aside the old but to fulfil it (Matt. v. 17). The contrasts +which he draws between things said to them of old and his new teachings +(Matt. v. 21-48) look at first much like a doing away of the old. Jesus +did not so conceive them. He rather thought of them as fresh statements of +the idea which underlay the old; they fulfilled the old by realizing more +fully that which it had set before an earlier generation. He was the most +radical teacher the men of his day could conceive, but his work was +clearing rubbish away from the roots of venerable truth that it might bear +fruit, rather than rooting up the old to put something else in its place. + +233. The Old Testament was for Jesus a holy book. His mind was filled with +its stories and its language. In the teachings which have been preserved +for us he has made use of writings from all parts of the Jewish +scriptures--Law, Prophets, and Psalms. The Old Testament furnished him the +weapons for his own soul's struggle with temptation (Matt. iv. 4, 7, 10), +it gave him arguments for use against his opponents (Mark xii. 24-27; ii. +25-27), and it was for him an inexhaustible storehouse of illustration in +his teaching. When inquirers sought the way of life he pointed them to the +scriptures (Mark x. 19; see also John v. 39), and declared that the rising +of one from the dead would not avail for the warning of those who were +unmoved by Moses and the prophets (Luke xvi. 31). When Jesus' personal +attitude to the Old Testament is considered it is noticeable that while +his quotations and allusions cover a wide range, and show very general +familiarity with the whole book, there appears a decided predominance of +Deuteronomy, the last part of Isaiah, and the Psalms. It is not difficult +to see that these books are closer in spirit to his own thought than much +else in the old writings; his use of the scripture shows that some parts +appealed to him more than others. + +234. Jesus as a teacher was popular and practical rather than systematic +and theoretical. The freshness of his ideas is proof that he was not +lacking in thorough and orderly thinking, for his complete departure from +current conceptions of the kingdom of God indicates perfect mastery of +ethical and theological truth. It is all the more remarkable, therefore, +that so much of his profoundest teaching seems to have been almost +accidental. The most formal discourse preserved to us is the sermon on the +mount, in which human conduct is regulated by the thought of God as Father +and Searcher of hearts. For the rest the great ideas of Jesus have +utterance in response to specific conditions presented to him in his +ministry. His most radical sayings concerning the Sabbath followed a +criticism of his disciples for plucking ears of grain as they passed +through the fields on the Sabbath day (Mark ii. 23-28); his authority to +forgive sins was announced when a paralytic was brought to him for +healing (Mark ii. 1-12); so far as the gospels indicate, we should have +missed Jesus' clearest statement of the significance of his own death but +for the ambitious request of James and John (Mark x. 35-45). Examples of +the occasional character of his teaching might be greatly multiplied. He +did not seek to be the founder of a school; important as his teachings +were, they take a place in his work second to his personal influence on +his followers. He desired to win disciples whose faith in him would +withstand all shocks, rather than to train experts who would pass on his +ideas to others. His disciples did become experts, for we owe to them the +vivid presentation we have of the exalted and unique teaching of their +Master; but they were thus skilful because they surrendered themselves to +his personal mastery, and learned to know the springs of his own life and +thought. + +235. Nothing in the teaching of Jesus is more remarkable than his +confidence that men who believed in him would adequately represent him and +his message to the world. The parable of the Leaven seems to have set +forth his own method. We owe our gospels to no injunction given by him to +write down what he said and did. He impressed himself on his followers, +filled them with a love to himself which made them sensitive to his ideas +as a photographic plate is to light, teaching them his truth in forms that +did not at first show any effect on their thought, but were developed into +strength and clearness by the experiences of the passing years. Christian +ethics and theology are far more than an orderly presentation of the +teaching of Jesus; in so far as they are purely Christian they are the +systematic setting forth of truth involved, though not expressed, in what +he said and did in his ministry among men. His ideas were radical and +thoroughly revolutionary. His method, however, had in it all the patience +of God's working in nature, and the hidden noiseless power of an evolution +is its characteristic. Hence it was that he chose to teach some things +exclusively in figure. So great and unfamiliar a truth as the gradual +development of God's kingdom was unwelcome to the thought of his time. He +made it, therefore, the theme of many of his parables; and although the +disciples did not understand what he meant, the picture remained with +them, and in after years they grew up to his idea. + +236. Jesus' use of illustration is one of the most marked features of his +teaching. In one sense this simply proves him to be a genuine Oriental, +for to contemplate and present abstract truths in concrete form is +characteristic of the Semitic mind. In the case of Jesus, however, it +proves more: the variety and homeliness of his illustrations show how +completely conversant he was alike with common life and with spiritual +truth. There is a freedom and ease about his use of figurative language +which suggests, as nothing else could, his own clear certainty concerning +the things of which he spoke. The fact, too, that his mind dealt so +naturally with the highest thoughts has made his illustrations unique for +profound truth and simple beauty. Nearly the whole range of figurative +speech is represented in his recorded words, including forms like irony +and hyperbole, often held to be unnatural to such serious speech as his. + +237. Another figure has become almost identified with the name of +Jesus,--such abundant and incomparable use did he make of it. Parable +was, however, no invention of his, for the rabbis of his own and later +times, as well as the sages and prophets who went before them, made use of +it. As distinguished from other forms of illustration, the parable is a +picture true to actual human life, used to enforce a religious truth. The +picture may be drawn in detail, as in the story of the Lost Son (Luke xv. +11-32), or it may be the concisest narration possible, as in the parable +of the Leaven (Matt. xiii. 33); but it always retains its character as a +narrative true to human experience. It is this that gives parable the +peculiar value it has for religious teaching, since it brings unfamiliar +truth close home to every-day life. Like all the illustrations used by +Jesus, the parable was ordinarily chosen as a means of making clear the +spiritual truth which he was presenting. Illustration never finds place as +mere ornament in his addresses. His parables, however, were sometimes used +to baffle the unteachable and critical. Such was the case on the occasion +in Jesus' life when attention is first called in the gospels to this mode +of teaching (Mark iv. 1-34). The parable of the Sower would mean little to +hearers who held the crude and material ideas of the kingdom which +prevailed among Jesus' contemporaries. It was used as an invitation to +consider a great truth, and for teachable disciples was full of suggestion +and meaning; while for the critical curiosity of unfriendly hearers it was +only a pointless story,--a means adopted by Jesus to save his pearls from +being trampled under foot, and perhaps also to prevent too early a +decision against him on the part of his opponents. + +238. In nothing is Jesus' ease in handling deepest truth more apparent +than in his use of irony and hyperbole in his illustrations. In his +reference to the Pharisees as "ninety and nine just persons which need no +repentance" (Luke xv. 7), and in his question, "Many good works have I +shewed you from the Father, for which of these works do you stone me?" +(John x. 32), the irony is plain, but not any plainer than the rhetorical +exaggeration of his accusation against the scribes, "You strain out a gnat +and swallow a camel" (Matt, xxiii. 24), or his declaration that "it is +easier for a camel to go through a needle's eye than for a rich man to +enter into the kingdom of God" (Mark x. 25), or his charge, "If a man +cometh unto me and hateth not his own father and mother ... he cannot be +my disciple" (Luke xiv. 26). The force of these statements is in their +hyperbole. Only to an interpretation which regards the letter above the +spirit can they cause difficulty. In so far as they remove Jesus utterly +from the pedantic carefulness for words which marked the scribes they are +among the rare treasures of his teachings. The simple spirit will not busy +itself about finding something that may be called a needle's eye through +which a camel can pass by squeezing, nor will it seek a camel which could +conceivably be swallowed, nor will it stumble at a seeming command to hate +those for whom God's law, as emphasized indeed by Jesus (Mark vii. 6-13), +demands peculiar love and honor. The childlike spirit which is heir of +God's kingdom readily understands this warning against the snare of +riches, this rebuke of the hypocritical life, and this demand for a love +for the Master which shall take the first place in the heart. + +239. Jesus sometimes used object lessons as well as illustrations, and +for the same purpose,--to make his thought transparently clear to his +hearers. The demand for a childlike faith in order to enter the kingdom of +God was enforced by the presence of a little child whom Jesus set in the +midst of the circle to whom he was talking (Mark ix. 35-37). The unworthy +ambitions of the disciples were rebuked by Jesus' taking himself the +menial place and washing their feet (John xiii. 1-15). + +240. The simplicity and homeliness of Jesus' teaching are not more +remarkable than the alertness of mind which he showed on all occasions. +The comment of the fourth gospel, "he needed not that any one should bear +witness concerning man, for he himself knew what was in man" (ii. 25), +doubtless refers to his supernatural insight, but it also tells of his +quick perception of what was involved in each situation in which he found +himself. Whether it was Nicodemus coming to him by night, or the lawyer +asking, "Who is my neighbor?" or a dissatisfied heir demanding that his +brother divide the inheritance with him, or a group of Pharisees seeking +to undermine his power by attributing his cures to the devil, or trying to +entrap him by a question about tribute, Jesus was never caught unawares. +His absorption in heavenly truth was not accompanied by any blindness to +earthly facts. He knew what the men of his day were thinking about, what +they hoped for, to what follies they gave their hearts, and what sins hid +God from them. He was eminently a man of the people, thoroughly acquainted +with all that interested his fellows, and in the most natural, human way. +Whatever of the supernatural there was in his knowledge did not make it +unnatural. As he was socially at ease with the best and most cultivated +of his day, so he was intellectually the master of every situation. This +appears nowhere more strikingly than in his dealing with his pharisaic +critics. When they were shocked by his forgiveness of sins, or offended by +his indifference to the Sabbath tradition, or goaded into blasphemy by his +growing influence over the people, or troubled by his disciples' disregard +of the traditional washings, or when later they conspired to entrap him in +his speech,--from first to last he was so manifestly superior to his +opponents that they withdrew discomfited, until at length they in madness +killed, without reason, him against whom they could find no adequate +charge. His lack of "learning" (John vii. 15) was simply his innocence of +rabbinic training; he had no diploma from their schools. In keenness of +argument, however, and invincibleness of reasoning, as well as in the +clearness of his insight, he was ever their unapproachable superior. His +reply to the charge of league with Beelzebub is as merciless an exposure +of feeble malice as can be found in human literature. He was as worthy to +be Master of his disciples' thinking as he was to be Lord of their hearts. + +241. In the teaching of Jesus two topics have the leading place,--the +Kingdom of God, and Himself. His thought about himself calls for separate +consideration, but it may be remarked here that as his ministry progressed +he spoke with increasing frankness about his own claims. It became more +and more apparent that he sought to be Lord rather than Teacher simply, +and to impress men with himself rather than with his ideas. Yet his ideas +were constantly urged on his disciples, and they were summed up in his +conception of the kingdom of God, or the kingdom of heaven. This was the +topic, directly or indirectly, of far the greater part of his teaching. +The phrase was as familiar to his contemporaries as it is common in his +words; but his understanding of it was radically different from theirs. He +and they took it to mean the realization on earth of heavenly conditions +(kingdom of heaven), or of God's actual sovereignty over the world +(kingdom of God); but of the God whose will was thus to be realized they +conceived quite differently. Strictly speaking there is nothing novel in +the idea of God as Father which abounds in the teaching of Jesus. He never +offers it as novel, but takes it for granted that his hearers are familiar +with the name. It appears in some earlier writers both in and out of the +Old Testament. Yet no one of them uses it as constantly, as naturally, and +as confidently as did Jesus. With him it was the simple equivalent of his +idea of God, and it was central for his personal religious life as well as +for his teaching. "My Father" always lies back of references in his +teaching to "your Father." This is the key to what is novel in Jesus' idea +of the kingdom of God. His contemporaries thought of God as the covenant +king of Israel who would in his own time make good his promises, rid his +people of their foes, set them on high among the nations, establish his +law in their hearts, and rule over them as their king. The whole +conception, while in a real sense religious, was concerned more with the +nation than with individuals, and looked rather for temporal blessings +than for spiritual good. With Jesus the kingdom is the realization of +God's fatherly sway over the hearts of his children. It begins when men +come to own God as their Father, and seek to do his will for the love +they bear him. It shows development towards its full manifestation when +men as children of God look on each other as brothers, and govern conduct +by love which will no more limit itself to friends than God shuts off his +sunlight from sinners. From this love to God and men it will grow into a +new order of things in which God's will shall be done as it is in heaven, +even as from the little leaven the whole lump is leavened. Jesus did not +set aside the idea of a judgment, but while his fellows commonly made it +the inauguration, he made it the consummation of the kingdom; they thought +of it as the day of confusion for apostates and Gentiles, he taught that +it would be the day of condemnation of all unbrotherliness (Matt. xxv. +31-46). This central idea--a new order of life in which men have come to +love and obey God as their Father, and to love and live for men as their +brothers--attaches to itself naturally all the various phases of the +teaching of Jesus, including his emphasis on himself; for he made that +emphasis in order that, as the Way, the Truth, and the Life, he might lead +men unto the Father. + + + + +III + +Jesus' Knowledge of Truth + + + +242. The note of authority in the teaching of Jesus is evidence of his own +clear knowledge of the things of which he spoke. As if by swift intuition, +his mind penetrated to the heart of things. In the scriptures he saw the +underlying truth which should stand till heaven and earth shall pass +(Matt. v. 18); in the ceremonies of his people's religion he saw so +clearly the spiritual significance that he did not hesitate to sacrifice +the passing form (Mark vii. 14-23); such a theological development as the +pharisaic doctrine of the resurrection he unhesitatingly adopted because +he saw that it was based on the ultimate significance of the soul's +fellowship with God (Mark xiii. 24-27); he reduced religion and ethics to +simplicity by summing up all commandments in one,--Thou shalt love (Matt. +xxii. 37-40); and at the same time insisted as no other prophet had done +on the finality of conduct and the necessity of obedience (Matt. vii. +21-27). His penetration to the heart of an idea was nowhere more clear +than in his doctrine of the kingdom of God as realized in the filial soul, +and as involving a judgment which should take cognizance only of +brotherliness of conduct. It would not be difficult to show that all these +different aspects of his teaching grew naturally out of his knowledge of +God as his Father and the Father of all men; they were the fruit, +therefore, of personal certainty of ultimate and all-dominating truth. + +243. If the knowledge of Jesus had been shown only in matters of spiritual +truth, it would still have marked him as one apart from ordinary men. +There were other directions, however, in which he surpassed the common +mind. The fourth gospel declares that "he knew what was in man" (ii. 25), +and all the evangelists give evidence of such knowledge. Not only the +designation of Judas as the traitor, and of Peter as the one who should +deny him, before their weakness and sin had shown themselves, but also +Jesus' quick reading of the heart of the paralytic who was brought to him +for healing, and of the woman who washed his feet with her tears (Mark ii. +5; Luke vii. 47), and his knowledge of the character of Simon and +Nathanael (John i. 42, 47,) as well as his sure perception of the intent +of the various questioners whom he met, indicate that he had powers of +insight unshared by his fellow men. + +244. Furthermore, the gospels state explicitly that Jesus predicted his +own death from a time at least six months before the end (Matt. xvi. 21), +and they indicate that the idea was not new to him when he first +communicated it to his disciples (Matt. xvi. 23; Mark ii. 20). He viewed +his approaching death, moreover, as a necessity (Mark viii. 31-33), yet he +was no fatalist concerning it. He could still in Gethsemane plead with his +Father, to whom all things are possible, to open to him some other way of +accomplishing his work (Mark xiv. 36). The old Testament picture of the +suffering and dying servant of Jehovah (Isa. liii.) was doubtless +familiar to Jesus. Although it was not interpreted Messianically by the +scribes, Jesus probably applied it to himself when thinking of his death; +yet the predictions of the prophets always provided for a non-fulfilment +in case Israel should turn unto the Lord in truth (see Ezek. xxxiii. +10-20). Moreover, the contradiction which Jesus felt between his ideas and +those cherished by the leaders of his people, whether priests or scribes, +was so radical that his death might well seem inevitable; yet it was +possible that his people might repent, and Jerusalem consent to accept him +as God's anointed. Neither prophecy, nor the actual conditions of his +life, therefore, would give Jesus any fatalistic certainty of his coming +death. In Gethsemane his heart pleaded against it, while his will bowed +still to God in perfect loyalty. It is not for us to explain his +prediction of death by appealing to the connection which the apostolic +thought established between the death of Christ and the salvation of men, +for we are not competent to say that God could not have effected +redemption in some other way if the repentance of the Jews had, humanly +speaking, removed from Jesus the necessity of death. All that can be said +is that he knew the prophetic picture, knew also the hardness of heart +which had taken possession of the Jews, and knew that he must not swerve +from his course of obedience to what he saw to be God's will for him. +Since that obedience brought him into fatal opposition to human prejudice +and passion, he saw that he must die, and that such a death was one of the +steps in his establishment of God's kingdom among men. So he went on his +way ready "not to be ministered unto but to minister, and to give his +life a ransom for many" (Mark x. 45). + +245. With his prediction of his death the gospels usually associate a +prophecy of his speedy resurrection. As has been already remarked (sect. +210), it is being generally recognized that if Jesus believed that he was +the Messiah, he must have associated with the thought of death that of +victory over death, which for all Jewish minds meant a resurrection from +the dead. Jesus certainly taught that his death was part of his Messianic +work, it could not therefore be his end. The prediction of the +resurrection is the necessary corollary of his expectation of death; and +it may reverently be believed that his knowledge of it was intimately +involved with his certainty that it was as Messiah that he was to die. + +246. From the time when he began to tell his disciples that he must die, +Jesus began also to teach that his earthly ministry was not to finish his +work, but that he should return in glory from heaven to realize fully all +that was involved in the idea of God's kingdom. His predictions resemble +in form the representations found in the Book of Daniel and the Book of +Enoch; and the understanding of them is involved in difficulties like +those which beset such apocalyptic writings. In general, apocalypses were +written in times of great distress for God's people, and represented the +deliverance which should usher in God's kingdom as near at hand. One +feature of them is a complete lack of perspective in the picture of the +future. It may be that this fact will in part account for one great +perplexity in the apocalyptic sayings of Jesus. In the chief of these +(Mark xiii. and parallels), predictions of the destruction of Jerusalem +are so mingled with promises of his own second coming and the end of all +things that many have sought to resolve the difficulty by separating the +discourse into two different ones,--one a short Jewish apocalypse +predicting the destruction of Jerusalem and the coming of the Son of Man +within the life of that generation; the other, Jesus' own prediction of +the end of all things, concerning which he warns his disciples that they +be not deceived, but watch diligently and patiently for God's full +salvation. The difficulties of this discourse as it stands are so great +that any solution which accounts for all the facts must be welcomed. So +far as this analysis seeks to remove from the account of Jesus' own words +the references to a fulfilment of the predictions within the life of that +generation, it is confronted by other sayings of Jesus (Mark ix. 1) and by +the problem of the uniform belief of the apostolic age that he would +speedily return. That belief must have had some ground. What more natural +than that words of Jesus, rightly or wrongly understood, led to the common +Christian expectation? Some such analysis may yet establish itself as the +true solution of the difficulties; it may be, however, that in adopting +the apocalyptic form of discourse, Jesus also adopted its lack of +perspective, and spoke coincidently of future events in the progress of +the kingdom, which, in their complete realization at least, were widely +separated in time. In such a case it would not be strange if the disciples +looked for the fulfilment of all of the predictions within the limit +assigned for the accomplishment of some of them. + +247. Whatever the explanation of these difficulties, the gospels clearly +represent Jesus as predicting his own return in glory to establish his +kingdom,--a crowning evidence of his claim to supernatural knowledge. It +is all the more significant, therefore, that it is in connection with his +prediction of his future coming that he made the most definite declaration +of his own ignorance: "Of that day or that hour knoweth no one, not even +the angels in heaven, neither the Son, but the Father" (Mark xiii. 32). +This confession of the limitation of his knowledge is conclusive. Yet it +is not isolated. With his undoubted power to read "what was in man," he +was not independent of ordinary ways of learning facts. When the woman was +healed who touched the hem of his garment, Jesus knew that his power had +been exercised, but he discovered the object of his healing by asking, +"Who touched me?" and calling the woman out from the crowd to acknowledge +her blessing (Mark v. 30-34); when the centurion urged Jesus to heal his +boy without taking the trouble to come to his house, Jesus "marvelled" at +his faith (Matt. viii. 10); when he came to Bethany, assured of his +Father's answer to his prayer for the raising of Lazarus, he asked as +simply as any other one in the company, "Where have ye laid him?" (John +xi. 34). It should not be forgotten that his knowledge of approaching +death, resurrection, and return in glory did not prevent the earnest +pleading in Gethsemane, and it may be that his reply to the ambition of +James and John, it "is not mine to give" (Mark x. 40), is a confession of +ignorance as well as subordination to his Father. + +248. The supernatural knowledge of Jesus, so far as its exercise is +apparent in the gospels, was concerned with the truths intimately related +to his religious teaching or his Messianic work. There is no evidence +that it occupied itself at all with facts of nature or of history +discovered by others at a later day. When he says of God that "he maketh +his sun to rise on the evil and the good" (Matt. v. 45), there is no +evidence that he thought of the earth and its relation to the sun +differently from his contemporaries; it is probable that his thought +anticipated Galileo's discovery no more than do his words. Much the same +may be said with reference to the purely literary or historical questions +of Old Testament criticism, now so much discussed. If it is proved by just +interpretation of all the facts that the Pentateuch is only in an ideal +sense to be attributed to Moses, and that many of the psalms inscribed +with his name cannot have been written by David, the propriety of Jesus' +references to what "Moses said" (Mark vii. 10), and the validity of his +argument for the relative unimportance of the Davidic descent of the +Messiah, will not suffer. Had Jesus had in mind the ultimate facts +concerning the literary structure of the Pentateuch, he could not have +hoped to hold the attention of his hearers upon the religious teaching he +was seeking to enforce, unless he referred to the early books of the Old +Testament as written by Moses. Jesus did repeatedly go back of Moses to +more primitive origins (Mark x. 5, 6; John vii. 22); yet there is no +likelihood that the literary question was ever present in his thinking. +This phase of his intellectual life, like that which concerned his +knowledge of the natural universe, was in all probability one of the +points in which he was made like unto his brethren, sharing, as matter of +course, their views on questions that were indifferent for the spiritual +mission he came to fulfil. If this was the case, his argument from the one +hundred and tenth Psalm (Mark xii. 35-37) would simply give evidence that +he accepted the views of his time concerning the Psalm, and proceeded to +use it to correct other views of his time concerning what was of most +importance in the doctrine of the Messiah. The last of these was of vital +importance for his teaching; the first was for this teaching quite as +indifferent a matter as the relations of the earth and the sun in the +solar system. + +249. A more perplexing difficulty arises from his handling of the cases of +so-called demoniac possession. He certainly treated these invalids as if +they were actually under the control of demons: he rebuked, banished, gave +commands to the demons, and in this way wrought his cures upon the +possessed. It has already been remarked that the symptoms shown in the +cases cured by Jesus can be duplicated from cases of hysteria, epilepsy, +or insanity, which have come under modern medical examination. Three +questions then arise concerning his treatment of the possessed. 1. Did he +unquestioningly share the interpretation which his contemporaries put upon +the symptoms, and simply bring relief by his miraculous power? 2. Did he +know that those whom he healed were not afflicted by evil spirits, and +accommodate himself in his cures to their notions? 3. Does he prove by his +treatment that the unfortunates actually were being tormented by +diabolical agencies, which he banished by his word? The last of these +possibilities should not be held to be impossible until much more is known +than we now know about the mysterious phenomena of abnormal psychical +states. If this is the explanation of the maladies for Jesus' day, +however, it should be accepted also as the explanation of similar abnormal +symptoms when they appear in our modern life, for the old hypothesis of a +special activity of evil spirits at the time of the incarnation is +inadequate to account for the fact that in some quarters similar maladies +have been similarly explained from the earliest times until the present +day. If, however, he knew his people to be in error in ascribing these +afflictions to diabolical influence, he need have felt no call to correct +it. If the disease had been the direct effect of such a delusion, Jesus +would have encouraged the error by accommodating himself to the popular +notion. The idea of possession, however, was only an attempt to explain +very real distress. Jesus desired to cure, not to inform his patients. The +notion in no way interfered with his turning the thought of those he +healed towards God, the centre of help and of health. He is not open, +therefore, to the charge of having failed to free men from the thraldom of +superstition if he accommodated himself to their belief concerning +demoniac possession. His cure, and his infusion of true thoughts of God +into the heart, furnished an antidote to superstition more efficacious +than any amount of discussion of the truth or falseness of the current +explanation of the disease. On the other hand, if we are not ready to +conclude that the action of Jesus has demonstrated the validity of the +ancient explanation, we may acknowledge that it would do no violence to +his power, or dignity, or integrity, if it should be held that he did not +concern himself with an inquiry into the cause of the disease which +presented itself to him for help, but adopted unquestioningly the +explanation held by all his contemporaries, even as he used their +language, dress, manner of life, and in one particular, at least, their +representation of the life after death (Luke xvi. 22--Abraham's bosom). +His own confession of ignorance of a large item of religious knowledge +(Mark xiii. 32) leaves open the possibility that in so minor a matter as +the explanation of a common disease he simply shared the ideas of his +time. In this case, when one so afflicted came under his treatment, he +applied his supernatural power, even as in cases of leprosy or fever, and +cured the trouble, needing no scientific knowledge of its cause. If +accommodation or ignorance led Jesus to treat these sick folk as +possessed, it does not challenge his integrity nor his trustworthiness in +all the matters which belong properly to his own peculiar work. + +250. There is one incident in the gospels which favors the conclusion that +Jesus definitely adopted the current idea,--the permission granted by him +to the demons to go from the Gadarene into the herd of swine, and the +consequent drowning of the herd (Mark v. 11-13). On any theory this +incident is full of difficulty. Bernhard Weiss (LXt II. 226 ff.) holds +that Jesus accommodated himself to current views, and that the man, having +received for the possessing demons permission to go into the swine, was at +once seized by a final paroxysm, and rushed among the swine, stampeding +them so that they ran down the hillside into the sea. + +251. In recent years the view has been somewhat widely advocated that his +power over demoniacs was to Jesus himself one of the chief proofs of his +Messiahship. His words are quoted: "If I, by the Spirit of God, cast out +demons, then is the kingdom of God come upon you" (Matt. xii. 28); and "I +beheld Satan falling as lightning from heaven" (Luke x. 18). The first of +these is in the midst of an _ad hominem_ reply of Jesus to the charge that +he owed his power to a league with the devil (Matt. xii. 28); and the +second was his remark when the seventy reported with joy that the demons +were subject unto them (Luke x. 18). The gospels, however, trace his +certainty of his Messiahship to quite other causes, primarily to his +knowledge of himself as God's child, then to the Voice which, coming at +the baptism, summoned him as God's beloved Son to do the work of the +Messiah. Throughout his ministry Jesus exhibits a certainty of his mission +quite independent of external evidences,--"Even if I bear witness of +myself, my witness is true; for I know whence I came and whither I go" +(John viii. 14). + + + + +IV + +Jesus' Conception of Himself + + + +252. When Jesus called forth the confession of Peter at Cæsarea Philippi +he brought into prominence the question which during the earlier stages of +the Galilean ministry he had studiously kept in the background. This is no +indication, however, that he was late in reaching a conclusion for himself +concerning his relation to the kingdom which he was preaching. From the +time of his baptism and temptation every manifestation of the inner facts +of his life shows unhesitating confidence in the reality of his call and +in his understanding of his mission. This is the case whether the fourth +gospel or the first three be appealed to for evidence. It is generally +felt that the Gospel of John presents its sharpest contrast to the +synoptic gospels in respect of the development of Jesus' self-disclosures. +A careful consideration of the first three gospels, however, shows that +the difference is not in Jesus' thought about himself. + +253. The first thing which impressed the people during the ministry in +Galilee was Jesus' assumption of authority, whether in teaching or in +action (Mark i. 27; Matt. vii. 28, 29). His method of teaching +distinguished him sharply from the scribes, who were constantly appealing +to the opinion of the elders to establish the validity of their +conclusions. Jesus taught with a simple "I say unto you." In this, +however, he differed not only from the scribes, but also from the +prophets, to whom in many ways he bore so strong a likeness. They +proclaimed their messages with the sanction of a "Thus saith the Lord;" he +did not hesitate to oppose the letter of scripture as well as the +tradition of the elders with his unsupported word (Matt. v. 38, 39; Mark +vii. 1-23). His teaching revealed his unhesitating certainty concerning +spiritual truth, and although he reverenced deeply the Jewish scriptures, +and knew that his work was the fulfilment of their promises, he used them +always as one whose superiority to God's earlier messengers was as +complete as his reverence for them. He was confident that what they +suggested of truth he was able to declare clearly; he used them as a +master does his tools. + +254. More striking than Jesus' independence in his teaching is the +calmness of his self-assertion when he was opposed by pharisaic criticism +and hostility. He preferred to teach the truth of the kingdom, working his +cures in such a way that men should think about God's goodness rather than +their healer's significance. Yet coincidently with this method of his +choice he did not hesitate to reply to pharisaic opposition with +unqualified self-assertion and exalted personal claim. Even if the +conflicts which Mark has gathered together at the opening of his gospel +(ii. 1 to iii. 6) did not all occur as early as he has placed them, the +nucleus of the group belongs to the early time. Since the people greatly +reverenced his critics, he felt it unnecessary to guard against arousing +undue enthusiasm by this frank avowal of his claims. He consequently +asserted his authority to forgive sins, his special mission to the sick in +soul whom the scribes shunned as defiling, his right to modify the +conception of Sabbath observance; even as, later, he warned his critics of +their fearful danger if they ascribed his good deeds to diabolical power +(Mark iii. 28-30), and as, after the collapse of popularity, he rebuked +them for making void the word of God by their tradition (Mark vii. 13). +His attitude to the scribes in Galilee from the beginning discloses as +definite Messianic claims as any ascribed by the fourth gospel to this +early period. + +255. These facts of the independence of Jesus in his teaching and his +self-assertion in response to criticism confirm the impression that his +answer to John the Baptist (Matt. xi. 2-6) gives the key to his method in +Galilee. In John's inquiry the question of Jesus' personal relation to the +kingdom was definitely asked. The answer, "Blessed is he whosoever shall +find none occasion of stumbling in me," showed plainly that Jesus was in +no doubt in the matter, although for the time he still preferred to let +his ministry be the means of leading men to form their conclusions +concerning him. What he brought into prominence at Cæsarea Philippi, +therefore, was that which had been the familiar subject of his own +thinking from the time of his baptism. + +256. In the ministry subsequent to the confession of Peter the +self-disclosures of Jesus became more frequent and clear. His predictions +of his approaching death were at the time the greatest difficulty to his +disciples; when considered in their significance for his own life, +however, they prove that his conviction of his Messiahship was as +independent of current and inherited ideas as was his teaching concerning +the kingdom. When he came to see that death was the inevitable issue of +his work, he at once discovered in it a divine necessity; it does not seem +to have shaken in the least his certainty that he was the Messiah. +Associated with this conception of his death is the conviction which +appears in all the later teachings, that in rejecting him his people were +pronouncing their own doom. Because she would not accept him as her +deliverer, Jerusalem's "house was left unto her desolate" (Luke xiii. 35). +His sense of his supreme significance appears most clearly in some of the +later parables, such as The Marriage of the King's Son (Matt. xxii. 1-14) +and The Wicked Husbandmen (Matt. xxi. 33-44), which definitely connect the +condemnation of the chosen people with their rejection of God's Son. Two +other sayings in the first three gospels express the personal claim of +Jesus in the most exalted form,--his declaration on the return of the +seventy: "All things have been delivered unto me of my Father, and no man +knoweth who the Son is save the Father, and who the Father is save the +Son, and he to whomsoever the Son willeth to reveal him" (Luke x. 22; +Matt. xi. 27); and his confession of the limits of his own knowledge: "But +of that day and hour knoweth no one, not even the angels in heaven, +neither the Son, but the Father" (Mark xiii. 32). The confession of +ignorance, by the position given to the Son in the climax which denied +that any save the Father had a knowledge of the time of the end, is quite +as extraordinary as the claim to sole qualification to reveal the Father. + +257. The similarity of these last two sayings to the discourses in the +fourth gospel has often been remarked; the likeness is particularly close +between them and the claims of Jesus recorded in the fifth chapter of +John. It is interesting to note that in the incident which introduces the +discourse in that chapter Jesus shows that he preferred, after healing the +man at the pool, to avoid the attention of the multitudes, precisely as in +Galilee he sought to check too great popular excitement by withdrawing +from Capernaum after his first ministry there (Mark i. 35-39), and +enjoining silence on the leper who had been healed by him (Mark ii. 44). +When, however, he found himself opposed by the criticism of the Pharisees +he spoke with unhesitating self-assertion and exalted personal claim, even +as he did in like situations in Galilee. During his earlier ministry in +Judea he had not shown this reserve. The cleansing of the temple, although +it was no more than any prophet sure of his divine commission would have +done, was a bold challenge to the people to consider who he was who +ventured thus to criticise the priestly administration of God's house. In +his subsequent dealings with Nicodemus and the Samaritan woman Jesus +manifested a like readiness to draw attention to himself. From the time of +the feeding of the multitudes all four of the gospels represent him as +asserting his claims, with this difference, however, that in John it is +the rule rather than the exception to find sayings similar to the two in +which the self-assertion in the other gospels reaches its highest +expression. Although the method of Jesus varied at different times and in +different localities, yet it is evident that he stood before the people +from the first with the consciousness that he had the right to claim +their allegiance as no one of the prophets who preceded him would have +been bold to do. + +258. During the course of his ministry Jesus used of himself, or suffered +others to use with reference to him, many of the titles by which his +people were accustomed to refer to the Messiah. Thus he was named "the +Messiah" (Mark viii. 29; xiv. 61; John iv. 26); "the King of the Jews" +(Mark xv. 2; John i. 49; xviii. 33, 36, 37); "the Son of David" (Mark x. +47, 48; Matt. xv. 22; xxi. 9, 15); "the Holy One of God" (John vi. 69; +compare Mark i. 24); "the Prophet" (John vi. 14; vii. 40). It is evident +that none of these titles was common; they represent, rather, the bold +venture of more or less intelligent faith on the part of men who were +impressed by him. There are two names, however, that are more significant +of Jesus' thought about himself,--"the Son of God" and "the Son of Man." + +259. The latter of these titles is unique in the use Jesus made of it. +Excepting Stephen's speech (Acts vii. 56), it is found in the New +Testament only in the sayings of Jesus, and its precise significance is +still a subject of learned debate. The expression is found in the Old +Testament as a poetical equivalent for Man, usually with emphasis on human +frailty (Ps. viii. 4; Num. xxiii. 19; Isa. li. 12), though sometimes it +signifies special dignity (Ps. lxxx. 17). Ezekiel was regularly addressed +in his visions as Son of Man (Ezek. ii. 1 and often; see also Dan. viii. +17), probably in contrast with the divine majesty. + +260. In one of Daniel's visions (vii. 1-14) the world-kingdoms which had +oppressed God's people and were to be destroyed were symbolized by beasts +that came up out of the sea,--a winged lion, a bear, a four-headed winged +leopard, and a terrible ten-horned beast; in contrast with these the +kingdom of the saints of the Most High was represented by "one like unto a +son of man," who came with the clouds of heaven (vii. 13, 14). Here the +language is obviously poetic, and is used to suggest the unapproachable +superiority of the kingdom of heaven to the kingdoms of the world. The +expression "one like unto a son of man" is equivalent, therefore, to "one +resembling mankind." The vision in Daniel had great influence over the +author of the so-called Similitudes of Enoch (Book of Enoch, chapters +xxxvii. to lxxi.). He, however, personified the "one like unto a son of +man," and gave the title "the Son of Man" to the heavenly man who will +come at the end of all things, seated on God's throne, to judge the world. +This author used also the titles "the Elect One" and "the Righteous One" +(or "the Holy One of God"), but "the Son of Man" is the prevalent name for +the Messiah in these Similitudes. + +261. The facts thus stated do not account for Jesus' use of the +expression. Many of his sayings undoubtedly suggest a development of the +Daniel vision resembling that in the Similitudes. This does not prove that +Jesus or his disciples had read these writings, though it does suggest the +possibility that they knew them. It is probable, however, that the +apocalypses gave formulated expression to thoughts that were more widely +current than those writings ever came to be. The likeness between the +language of Jesus and that found in the Similitudes may therefore prove no +more than that the Daniel vision was more or less commonly interpreted of +a personal Messiah in Jesus' day. + +262. Much of the use of the title by Jesus, however, is completely foreign +to the ideas suggested by Enoch and Daniel. Besides apocalyptic sayings +like those in Enoch (Mark viii. 38 and often), the name occurs in +predictions of his sufferings and death (Mark viii. 31 and often), and in +claims to extraordinary if not essentially divine authority (Mark ii. 10, +28 and parallels); it is also used sometimes simply as an emphatic "I" +(Matt. xi. 19 and often). Whatever relation Jesus bore to the Enoch +writings, therefore, the name "the Son of Man" as he used it was his own +creation. + +263. Students of Aramaic have in recent years asserted that it was not +customary in the dialect which Jesus spoke to make distinction between +"the son of man" and "man," since the expression commonly used for "man" +would be literally translated "son of man." It is asserted, moreover, that +if our gospels be read substituting "man" for "the Son of Man" wherever it +appears, it will be found that many supposed Messianic claims become +general statements of Jesus' conception of the high prerogatives of man, +while in other places the name stands simply as an emphatic substitute for +the personal pronoun. Thus, for instance, Jesus is found to assert that +authority on earth to forgive sins belongs to man (Mark ii. 10), and, +toward the end of his course, to have taught simply that he himself must +meet with suffering (Mark viii. 31), and will come on the clouds to judge +the world (Mark viii. 38). The proportion of cases in which the general +reference is possible is, however, very small; and even if the +equivalence of "man" and "son of man" should be established, most of the +statements of Jesus in which our gospels use the latter expression exhibit +a conception of himself which challenges attention, transcending that +which would be tolerated in any other man. The debate concerning the usage +in the language spoken by Jesus is not yet closed, however, and Dr. Gustaf +Dalman (WJ I. 191-197) has recently argued that the equivalence of the two +expressions holds only in poetic passages, precisely as it does in Hebrew, +and that our gospels represent correctly a distinction observed by Jesus +when they report him, for instance, as saying in one sentence, "the +Sabbath was made for man" (Mark ii. 27), and in the next, "the Son of Man +is lord even of the Sabbath." The antecedent probability is so great that +the dialect of Jesus' time would be capable of expressing a distinction +found in the Hebrew of the Old Testament and in the Syriac of the +second-century version of the New Testament, that Dalman's opinion carries +much weight. + +264. Many of those who look for a distinct significance in the title "the +Son of Man," find in it a claim by Jesus to be the ideal or typical man, +in whom humanity has found its highest expression. It thus stands sharply +in contrast with "the Son of God," which is held to express his claim to +divinity. So understood, the titles represent truth early recognized by +the church in its thought about its Lord. Yet it must be acknowledged that +the conception "the ideal man" is too Hellenic to have been at home in the +thought of those to whom Jesus addressed his teaching. If the phrase +suggested anything more to his hearers than the human frailty or the +human dignity of him who bore it, it probably had a Messianic meaning like +that found in the Similitudes of Enoch. A hint of this understanding of +the name appears in the perplexed question reported in John (xii. 34): "We +have heard out of the law that the Messiah abideth forever; and how sayest +thou, The Son of Man must be lifted up? who is this Son of Man?" Here the +difficulty arose because the people identified the Son of Man with the +Messiah, yet could not conceive how such a Messiah could die. In fact, if +the conception of the Son of Man which is found in Enoch had obtained any +general currency among the people, either from that book or independently +of it, it was so foreign to the earthly condition and manner of life of +the Galilean prophet, that it would not have occurred to his hearers to +treat his use of the title as a Messianic claim until after that claim had +been published in some other and more definite form. Their Son of Man was +to come with the clouds of heaven, seated on God's throne, to execute +judgment on all sinners and apostates; the Nazarene fulfilled none of +these conditions. The name, as used by Jesus, was probably always an +enigma to the people, at least until he openly declared its Messianic +significance in his reply to the high-priest's question at his trial (Mark +xiv. 62), and gave the council the ground it desired for a charge of +blasphemy against him. + +265. What did this title signify to Jesus? His use of it alone can furnish +answer, and in this the variety is so great that it causes perplexity. +"The Son of Man came eating and drinking" is his description of his own +life in contrast with John the Baptist (Matt. xi. 18, 19). "The Son of +Man hath not where to lay his head" was his reply to one over-zealous +follower (Matt. viii. 20). Unseemly rivalry among his disciples was +rebuked by the reminder that "even the Son of Man came not to be +ministered unto but to minister" (Mark x. 42-45). When it became needful +to prepare the disciples for his approaching death he taught them that +"the Son of Man must suffer many things ... and be killed, and after three +days rise again" (Mark viii. 31). On the other hand, the paralytic's cure +was made to demonstrate that "the Son of Man hath authority upon the earth +to forgive sins" (Mark ii. 10). Similarly it is the Son of Man who after +his exaltation shall come "in the glory of his Father with the holy +angels" (Mark viii. 38). In these typical cases the title expresses Jesus' +consciousness of heavenly authority as well as self-sacrificing ministry, +of coming exaltation as well as present lowliness; and the suffering and +death which were the common lot of other sons of men were appointed for +this Son of Man by a divine necessity. The name is, therefore, more than a +substitute for the personal pronoun; it expresses Jesus' consciousness of +a mission that set him apart from the rest of men. + +266. We do not know how Jesus came to adopt this title. Its association +with the predictions of his coming glory shows that he knew that in him +the Daniel vision was to have fulfilment. The predictions of suffering and +death, however, are completely foreign to that apocalyptic conception, +being akin rather, as Professor Charles has suggested, to the prophecies +of the suffering servant in the Book of Isaiah (Book of Enoch, p. +314-317). Moreover, it may not be fanciful to find in his claims to +heavenly authority a hint of the thought of the eighth Psalm, "Thou madest +him to have dominion over the works of thy hands; thou hast put all things +under his feet" (see Dalman WJ I. 218). Although the name expresses a +consciousness of dignity, vicarious ministry, and authority, similar to +thoughts found in Daniel, Isaiah, and the Psalms, it was not deduced from +these scriptures by any synthesis of diverse ideas. It rather indicates +that Jesus in his own nature realized a synthesis which no amount of study +of scripture would ever have suggested. He drew his conception of himself +from his own self-knowledge, not from his Messianic meditations. On his +lips, then, "the Son of Man" indicates that he knew himself to be the Man +whom God had chosen to be Lord over all (compare Dalman as above). The +lowly estate which contradicted the Daniel vision prevented Jesus' hearers +from recognizing in the title a Messianic claim; for him, however, it was +the expression of the very heart of his Messianic consciousness. + +267. If Jesus gave expression to his official consciousness when he used +the name "the Son of Man," the title "the Son of God" may be said to +express his more personal thought about himself. It is necessary to +distinguish between the meaning of this title to the contemporaries of +Jesus and his own conception of it. In the popular thought "the Son of +God" was the designation of that man whom God would at length raise up and +crown with dignity and power for the deliverance of his people. This +meaning followed from the Messianic interpretation of the second Psalm, in +which the theocratic king is called God's son (Ps. ii. 7). In another +psalm, which Jesus himself quotes (John x. 34), magistrates and judges are +called "sons of the Most High" (lxxxii. 6). Another Old Testament use +casts light on this,--the designation of Israel as God's son, his +firstborn (Ex. iv. 22; Hos. i. 10), with which may be compared a +remarkable expression in the so-called Psalms of Solomon (xviii. 4), "Thy +chastisement was upon us [that is, Israel] as upon a son, firstborn, only +begotten." In all these passages that which constitutes a man the son of +God is God's choice of him for a special work, while Israel collectively +bears the title to suggest God's fatherly love for the people he had taken +for his own. The Messianic title, therefore, described not a metaphysical, +but an official or ethical, relation to God. It is certainly in this sense +that the high-priest asked Jesus "Art thou the Messiah the son of the +Blessed?" (Mark xiv. 61), and that the crowd about the cross flung their +taunts at him (Matt, xxvii. 43), and the demoniacs proclaimed their +knowledge of him (Mark iii. 11; v. 7). The name must be interpreted in +this sense also in the confession of Nathanael (John i. 49); moreover, it +was not the coupling of the names "Messiah" and "son of the living God" in +Peter's confession that gave it its great significance for Jesus. In all +of these cases there is no evidence that there has been any advance over +the theocratic significance which made the title "the Son of God" fitting +for the man chosen by God for the fulfilment of his promises. + +268. The case is different with the name by which Jesus was called at his +baptism (Mark i. 11). The difference here, however, arises not from +anything in the name as used on this occasion, but from that in Jesus +which acknowledged and accepted the title. With Jesus the consciousness +that God was his Father preceded the knowledge that as "his Son" he was to +undertake the work of the Messiah. The force of the call at the baptism is +found in the response which his own soul gave to the word "Thou art my +Son." The nature of that response is seen in his habitual reference to God +as in a peculiar sense _his_ Father. The name "Father" for God was used by +him in all his teaching, and there is no evidence that he or any of his +hearers regarded it as a novelty. Psalm ciii. 13 and Isaiah lxiii. 16 +indicate that the conception was natural to Jewish thinking. The unique +feature in Jesus' usage is his careful distinction between the general +references to "your Father" and his constant personal allusions to "my +Father." Witness the reply to his mother in the temple (Luke ii. 49); his +word to Peter, "Flesh and blood hath not revealed it unto thee, but my +Father which is in heaven" (Matt. xvi. 17), his solemn warning, "Not every +one that saith unto me Lord, Lord, shall enter into the kingdom of heaven, +but he that doeth the will of my Father which is in heaven" (Matt. vii. +21), and the promise, "Every one who shall confess me before men ... him +will I also confess before my Father" (Matt. x. 32). In the fourth gospel +the same intimate reference is common: so, for example, the temple is "my +Father's house" (ii. 16), the Sabbath cure is defended because "my Father +worketh even until now" (v. 17), the cures are done "in My Father's name" +(x. 25), "I am the vine, and my Father is the husbandman" (xv. 1). This +mode of expression discloses a consciousness of unique filial relation to +God which is independent of, even as it was antecedent to, the +consciousness of official relation. + +269. The full name "the Son of God" was seldom applied by Jesus to +himself, the only recorded instances being found in the fourth gospel (v. +25; ix. 35?; x. 36; xi. 4). He frequently acquiesced in the use of the +title by others in addressing him (for example, John i. 49; Matt. xvi. 16; +xxvi. 63f.; Mark xiv. 61f.; Luke xxii. 70); but for himself he preferred +the simpler phrase "the Son." This mode of expression occurs often in +John, and is found also in the two passages, already noticed, in which the +other gospels give clearest expression to the extraordinary self-assertion +of Jesus (Matt. xi. 27; Luke x. 22; and Mark xiii. 32). In the first of +them his claim to be the only one who can adequately reveal God is founded +on the consciousness that the relation between himself and God is so +intimate that God alone adequately knows him, whom men were so ready to +set at nought, and he alone knows God. This relation, in which he and God +stand together in contrast with all other men, is expressed by the +unqualified names, "the Father" and "the Son." In the second passage Jesus +confessed the limitation of his knowledge, but again in such a way as to +set himself and God in contrast not only with men, but also with "the +angels in heaven." Such assertions as these indicate that he who, knowing +his full humanity, chose the title "the Son of Man" to express his +consciousness that he had been appointed by God to be the Messiah, was yet +aware in his inner heart that his relation to God was even closer than +that in which he stood to men. + +270. There is no word in John which goes beyond the two self-declarations +of Jesus which crown the record of the other evangelists, yet in the +fourth gospel the same claim to unique relation to God is more frequently +and frankly avowed. The most unqualified assertion of intimacy--"I and the +Father are one" (x. 30)--states what is clearly implied throughout the +gospel (so xiv. 6-11; xvi. 25; and particularly xvii. 21, "that they may +be one, even as we are one"). It has often been said, and truly, that this +claim to unity with the Father, taken by itself, signifies no more than +perfect spiritual and ethical harmony with God. Yet when the words are +considered in their connection, and more particularly when the two supreme +self-declarations in the synoptic gospels are associated with them, they +express a sense of relation to God so utterly unique, so strongly +contrasting the Father and the Son with all others, that we cannot +conceive of any other man, even the saintliest, taking like words upon his +lips. + +271. These titles in which Jesus gave expression to his official and his +personal consciousness present clearly the problem which he offers to +human thought. Jesus stands before us in the gospels as a man aware of +completest kinship with his brethren, yet conscious at the same time of +standing nearer to God than he does to men. + +272. It is highly significant that the gospel which records most fully the +claim of Jesus to be more closely related to God than he was to men, most +fully records also his definite acknowledgment of dependence on his +Father, and of that Father's supremacy over him and all others. "The Son +can do nothing of himself" (John v. 19), "I speak not from myself" (xiv. +10), "my Father is greater than all" (x. 29), "the Father is greater than +I" (xiv. 28),--these confessions join with the common reference to God as +"him that sent me" (v. 30 and often) in giving voice to his own spirit of +reverence. It appears as clearly in his habitual submission to his +Father's will,--"My meat is to do the will of him that sent me, and to +accomplish his work" (John iv. 34); "I am come down from heaven, not to do +mine own will, but the will of him that sent me" (John vi. 38). This +submission reached its fulness in the prayer of Gethsemane, recorded in +the earlier gospels,--"Father, all things are possible unto thee; remove +this cup from me: howbeit not what I will, but what thou wilt" (Mark xiv. +36). Jesus was a man of prayer; not only in Gethsemane, but also +throughout his ministry he habitually sought his Father in that communion +in which the soul of man finds its light and strength for life's duty. +When he was baptized (Luke iii. 21), after the first flush of success in +Capernaum (Mark i. 35), before choosing the twelve (Luke vi. 12), before +the question at Cæsarea Philippi (Luke ix. 18), at the transfiguration +(Luke ix. 29), on the cross (Luke xxiii. 46),--at all the crises of his +life he turned to God in prayer. Moreover, prayer was his habit, for it +was after a night of prayer which has no connection with any crisis +reported for us (Luke xi. 1), that he taught his disciples the Lord's +prayer in response to their requests. The prayer beside the grave of +Lazarus (John xi. 41, 42) suggests that his miracles were often, if not +always (compare Mark ix. 29), preceded by definite prayer to God. His +habit of prayer was the natural expression of his trust in God. From the +resistance to the temptations in the wilderness to the last cry, "Father, +into thy hands I commend my spirit," his life is an example of childlike +faith in God. + +273. Yet throughout his life of obedience and trust Jesus never gave one +indication that he felt the need of penitence when he came before God. He +perceived as no one else has ever done the searching inwardness of God's +law, and demanded of men that they tolerate no lower ambition than to be +like God, yet he never breathed a sigh of conscious failure, or gave sign +that he blushed when the eternal light shone into his own soul. He was +baptized, but without confession of sin. He challenged his enemies to +convict him of sin (John viii. 46). Such a challenge might have rested on +a man's certainty that his critics did not know his inner life; but +hypocrisy has no place in the character of Jesus. The reply to the rich +young ruler, "Why callest thou me good?" (Mark x. 18), even if it was a +confession that freedom from past sin was still far less than that +absolute goodness that God alone possesses, simply sets in stronger light +his silence concerning personal failure, and his omission in all his +praying to seek forgiveness. It is probable, however, that that reply +deals not with the "good" as the "ethically perfect," but as the +"supremely beneficent," so that Jesus simply reminded the seeker after +life that God alone is the one to be approached as the Gracious and +Merciful One by sinful men (see Dalman WJ I. 277). Thus the reply becomes +a fresh expression of the reverence of Jesus, and still further emphasizes +his failure to confess his sinfulness. + +274. In all this thought about himself Jesus stands before us as a man, +conscious of his close kinship with his fellows. Like them he hungered and +thirsted and grew weary, like them he longed for friendship and for +sympathy, like them he trusted God and prayed to God and learned still to +trust when his request was denied. He stands before us also as a man +conscious of being anointed by God for the great work which all the +prophets had foretold, and of being fully equipped with authority and +power and the promise of unapproachable dignity. Of deep religious spirit +and great reverence for the scriptures of his people, he yet used these +scriptures as a master does his tools, to serve his work rather than to +instruct him in it. He drew his knowledge from within and from above, and +proclaimed his own fulfilment of the scriptures when he filled them with +new meaning. A man always devout, always at prayer, he is never seen, like +Isaiah, prostrate before the Most High, crying, "I am undone" (Isa. vi. +5). In his moments of greatest seriousness and most manifest communion +with heaven he looked to God as his nearest of kin, and felt himself a +stranger on the earth fulfilling his Father's will. He felt heaven to be +his home not simply by God's gracious promise, but by the right of +previous possession. His kinship with men was a condescension, his natural +fellowship was with God. + +275. The miracles with which the gospels have filled the record of Jesus' +life have caused perplexity to many, and they belong with other mysterious +things recorded for us in the story of the past or occurring under the +incredulous observation of our scientific generation. They all pale, +however, before the unaccountable exception presented to universal human +experience by this Man of Nazareth. It confronts us when we think of the +unschooled Jew who, in his thought of God, rose not only above all of his +generation, but higher than all who had gone before him, or have come +after, one who built on the foundation of the past a superstructure of +religion new, and simple, and clearly heavenly. It confronts us when we +think of this Man who believed that it was given to him to establish the +kingdom that should fill the whole earth, and who had the boldness and the +faith to ignore the opposition of all the world's wisdom and of all its +enthroned power, and to fulfil his task as the woman does who hides her +leaven in the meal, content to wait for years, or millenniums, until his +truth shall conquer in the realization of God's will on earth even as it +is done in heaven. It confronts us when we consider that the Man who has +shown his brethren what obedience means, who has taught them to pray, who +has been for all these centuries the Way, the Truth, the Life, by whom +they come to God, habitually claimed without shadow of abashment or +slightest hint of conscious presumption, a nature, a relation to God, a +freedom from sin, that other men according to the measure of their +godliness would shun as blasphemy. If the personal claim was true, and not +the blind pretence of vanity, the Jesus of the gospels is the exception to +the uniform fact of human nature, but he is no longer unaccountable; and +if his claim was true, his knowledge of the absolute religion, and his +choice of the irresistible propaganda, are no less extraordinary, but they +are not unaccountable. Paul, whose life was transformed and his thinking +revolutionized by his meeting with the risen Jesus, thought on these +things and believed that "the name which, is above every name" was his by +right of nature as well as by the reward of obedience (Phil. ii. 5-11). +John, who leaned on Jesus' breast during his earthly life, and who +meditated on the meaning of that life through a ministry of many decades, +came to believe that he whom he had seen with his eyes, heard with his +ears, handled with his hands, was, indeed, "the Word made flesh" (John i. +14), through whom the very God revealed his love to men. Through all the +perplexities of doubt, amidst all the obscurings of irrelevant +speculations, the hearts of men to-day turn to this Jesus of Nazareth as +their supreme revelation of God, and find in him "the Master of their +thinking and the Lord of their lives." + +"Lord, to whom shall we go? Thou hast the words of eternal life. And we +have believed and know that thou art the Holy One of God." + + + + +Appendix + +Books of Reference on the Life of Jesus + + + +1. A concise account of the voluminous literature on this subject maybe +found at the close of the article JESUS CHRIST by Zockler in +_Schaff-Herzog, Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge_. Of the earlier of +the modern works it is well to mention David Friedrich Strauss, _Das Leben +Jesu_ (2 vols. 1835), in which he sought to reduce all the gospel miracles +to myths. August Neander, _Das Leben Jesu Christi_, 1837, wrote in +opposition to the attitude taken by Strauss. Both of these works have been +translated into English. Ernst Renan, _Vie de Jésus_ (1863, 16th ed. +1879), translated, _The Life of Jesus_ (1863), is a charming, though often +superficial and patronizing, presentation of the subject. For vivid word +pictures of scenes in the life of Jesus his book is unsurpassed. Renan's +inability to appreciate the more serious aspects of the work of Christ +appears constantly, while his effort to discover romance in the life of +Jesus is offensive. More important than any of these is Theodor Keim, +_Geschichte Jesu von Nazara_ (1867-72, 3 vols.), translated, _The History +of Jesus of Nazara_ (1876-81, 6 vols.). The author rejects the fourth +gospel and holds that Matthew is the most primitive of the synoptic +gospels; he does not reject the supernatural as such, but reduces it as +much as possible by recognizing a legendary element in the gospels. When +the work is read with these peculiarities in mind, it is one of the most +stimulating and spiritually illuminating treatments of the subject. + +2. Critically more trustworthy, and exegetically very valuable, is +Bernhard Weiss, _Das Leben Jesu_ (3d ed. 1889, 2 vols.), translated from +the first ed., _The Life of Christ_ (1883, 3 vols.). It is more helpful +for correct understanding of details than for a complete view of the Life +of Jesus. Rivalling Weiss in many ways, yet neither so exact nor so +trustworthy, though more interesting, is Willibald Beyschlag, _Das Leben +Jesu_ (3d ed. 1893, 2 vols.). The most important discussion in English is +Alfred Edersheim, _The Life and Times of Jesus the Messiah_ (1883 and +later editions, 2 vols.). This is valuable for its illustration of +conditions in Palestine in the time of Jesus by quotations from the +rabbinic literature. The material used is enormous, but is not always +treated with due criticism, and the book should be read with the fact in +mind that most of the rabbinic writings date from several centuries after +Christ. Schürer (see below) should be used wherever possible as a +counter-balance. Dr. Edersheim follows the gospel story in detail; his +book is, therefore, a commentary as well as a biography. + +3. Albert Réville, _Jesus de Nazareth_ (1897, 2 vols.), aims to bring the +work of Renan up to date, and to supply some of the lacks which are felt +in the earlier treatise. The book is pretentious and learned. In some +parts, as in the treatment of the youth of Jesus, and of the sermon on the +mount, it is helpfully suggestive. The Jesus whom the author admires, +however, is the Jesus of Galilee. The journey to Jerusalem was a sad +mistake, and the assumption of the Messianic rôle a fall from the high +ideal maintained in the teaching in Galilee. In criticism M. Réville +accepts the two document synoptic theory, and assigns the fourth gospel to +about 140 A.D. He rejects the supernatural, explaining many of the +miracles as legendary embellishments of actual events. + +4. The most important treatment of the subject is the article JESUS CHRIST +by William Sanday in the _Hastings Bible Dictionary_ (1899). It is of the +highest value, discussing the subject topically with great clearness and +with a rare combination of learning and common sense. S. T. Andrews, _The +Life of Our Lord_ (2d ed. 1892), is a thorough and very useful study of +the gospels, considering minutely all questions of chronology, harmony, +and geography. It presents the different views with fairness, and offers +conservative conclusions. G. H. Gilbert, _The Student's Life of Jesus_ +(1896), is complete in plan and careful in treatment, while being very +concise. Dr. Gilbert faces the problems of the subject frankly, and his +treatment is scholarly and reverent. James Stalker, _The Life of Jesus +Christ_ (1880), is a short work whose value lies in the good conception +which it gives of the ministry of Jesus viewed as a whole. In simplicity, +insight, and clearness the book is a classic, though now somewhat out of +date. _Studies in the Life of Christ_, by A.M. Fairbairn (1882), is of +great value for the topics considered. The title indicates that the +treatment is fragmentary. The long treatises of Farrar (1875, 2 vols.) and +Geikie (1877, 2 vols.) are useful as commentaries on the words and works +of Jesus. Farrar often interprets most helpfully the essence of an +incident, and Geikie furnishes a mass of illustrative material from +rabbinic sources, though with less criticism than even Edersheim has used. +Neither of these works, however, deals with the fundamental problems of +the composition of the gospels, nor are they satisfactory on other +perplexing questions, for example, the miraculous birth. + +5. The most important accessory for the study of the life of Jesus is Emil +Schürer, _Geschichte des Jüdischen Volkes im Zeitalter Jesu Christi_ (2d +ed. 1886, 1890, 2 vols. A 3d ed. of 2d part in 2 vols., 1898), translated, +_A History of the Jewish People in the Time of Jesus Christ_ (1885-6, 5 +vols.). The political history of the Jews from 175 B.C. to 135 A.D., and +the intellectual and religious life of the times in which Jesus lived, +with the Jewish literature of Palestine and the dispersion, are all +treated with thoroughness and masterful learning. W. Baldensperger, _Das +Selbstbewusstsein Jesu im Lichte der messianischen Hoffnungen seiner +Zeit_ (2d ed. 1892), furnishes in the first part a survey of the Messianic +hopes of the Jews which is in many respects the most satisfactory account +that is accessible. The second part discusses the problem of Jesus' +conception of himself in a reverent and learned way. George Adam Smith, +_The Historical Geography of the Holy Land_ (1894), is indispensable for +the study of the physical features of the land as they bear on its +history, and on the work of Jesus. The maps are the best that have yet +appeared. + +6. Discussions of the Teaching of Jesus in works on Biblical Theology have +much that is important for the study of Jesus' life. The most significant +is H. H. Wendt, _Die Lehre Jesu_ (1886, 2 vols.). The second volume has +been translated _The Teaching of Jesus_ (1892, 2 vols.); the first volume +of the original work is an elaborate discussion of the sources, and has +not been done into English. Reference may be made especially to H. J. +Holtzmann, _Lehrbuch der Neutestamentlichen Theologie_ (1897, 2 vols.), +and also to G. H. Gilbert, _The Revelation of Jesus_ (1899). Gustaf +Dalman, _Die Worte Jesu_ (1898), of which the first volume only has +appeared, is a study of the meaning of the most significant expressions +used in the gospel records of the teaching of Jesus, made with the aid of +thorough knowledge of Aramaic usage and of the language of post-canonical +Jewish literature. + +7. A good synopsis or Harmony of the gospels is most useful. The best +_Harmony is_ that of Stevens and Burton (1894), which exhibits the +divergencies of the parallel accounts in the gospels as faithfully as the +agreements. A good synopsis of the Greek text of the first three gospels +is Huck, _Synapse_ (1892). Robinson's _Greek Harmony of the Gospels_, +edited by M. B. Biddle, using Tischendorf's text, has also valuable notes +discussing questions of harmony. + + + + +Abbreviations + + + +AndLOL Andrews, The Life of Our Lord, 2d ed., 1892. +BaldSJ Baldensperger, Das Selbstbewusstsein Jesu, 2d ed., 1892. +BeysLJ Beyschlag, Das Leben Jesu, 3d ed., 2 vols., 1893. +BovonNTTh Bovon, Théologie du Nouveau Testament, 1892. +DalmanWJ Dalman, Die Worte Jesu, I., 1898. +EdersLJM Edersheim, The Life and Times of Jesus the Messiah, 2 vols., + 1883. +FairbSLX Fairbairn, Studies in the Life of Christ, 1882. +GilbertLJ Gilbert, The Student's Life of Jesus, 1896. +GilbertRJ Gilbert, The Revelation of Jesus, 1899. +HoltzNtTh Holtzmann, Neutestamentliche Theologie, 2 vols., 1897. +KeimJN Keim, The History of Jesus of Nazara, 6 vols., 1876-81. +RévilleJN Réville, Jésus de Nazareth, 2 vols., 1897. +SandayHastBD Sanday, the article JESUS CHRIST in the Hastings Bible + Dictionary, 1899. +SchürerJPTX Schürer, The History of the Jewish People in the Time of + Jesus Christ, 1885-86. Division I. vols. i. and ii.; Division + II. vols. i., ii., and iii. +SmithHGHL Smith, Historical Geography of the Holy Land, 1894. +SB Stevens and Burton, Harmony of the Gospels, 1894. +WeissLX Weiss, The Life of Christ, 3 vols., 1883. +WendtLJ Wendt, Die Lehre Jesu, 2 vols., 1886. +WendtTJ Wendt, The Teaching of Jesus, 2 vols., 1892. +EnBib Encyclopedia Biblica, 1899. +HastBD Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible, 1898. +SBD^2 Smith's Dictionary of the Bible, revision of the first volume + of the original English edition, 1893. + + + + +References + + + +Part I.--Preparatory + + +I + +The Historical Situation + +8. Read SandayHastBD II. 604-609. On the Land, its physical +characteristics, its political divisions, its climate, its roads, and its +varying civilization, SmithHGHL is unsurpassed. Its identifications of +disputed localities are cautions. Robinson, _Biblical Researches in +Palestine_, and Thomson, _The Land and the Book_, give fuller detail +concerning particular localities, but no such general view as Smith. + +9. On Political conditions, SchürerJPTX I. i. and ii. is the fullest and +most trustworthy treatise. More concise essays are Oscar Holtzmann, _Nt. +Zeitgeschichte_ (1895), 57-118; S. Mathews, _History of NT Times in +Palestine_ (1899), 1-158; Riggs, _Maccabean and Roman Periods of Jewish +History_ (1900), especially §§ 206-234, 257-267, 276-282. On the Religious +Life and Parties in Palestine, SchürerJPTX II. i. and ii.; O. Holtzmann, +_NtZeitg_, 136-177; Mathews, _NT Times_, see index; Riggs, _Mac. and Rom. +Periods_, §§ 235-256; Muirhead, _The Times of Christ_ (1898), 69-150. In +addition Wellhausen, _Die Pharisdäer und die Sadducäer_ (1874); on the +_Essenes_, Conybeare in HastBD I. 767-772, also Lightfoot, _Colossians_, +80-98, 347-419; Wellhausen, _Isr. u. jüd. Geschichte_^3 (1897), 258-262; +on the Samaritans, A. Cowley, in _Expos_. V. i. 161-174; Jew. Quar. Rev. +VIII. (1896) 562-575. + +10. On the Messianic hope, SchürerJPTX II. ii. 126-187; BaldSJ 3-122; +Muirhead, _Times of Xt._, 112-150; Briggs, _Messiah of the Gospels_ +(1894), 1-40; WendtTJ I. 33-84; Mathews, _NT Times_, 159-169; Riggs, _Mac. +and Rom. Periods_, §§ 251-256. + +11. On the language of Palestine see Arnold Meyer, _Jesu Muttersprache_ +(1896); DalmanWJ I. 1-57; SchürerJPTX II. i. 8-10, 47-51; Neubauer, +_Studia Biblica_, I. 39-74. + +12. On Jewish literature dating near the times of Jesus see SchürerJPTX +II. iii.; BaldSJ. 3-122; EdersLJM I. 31-39; Deane, _Pseudepigrapha_ +(1891); Thomson, _Books which influenced our Lord_, etc. (1891); and +special editions, such as Alexandre, _Sibylline Oracles_ (1869); Deane, +_The Wisdom of Solomon_ (1881); Charles, _The Book of Enoch_ (1893), _The +Apocalypse of Baruch_ (1896), _The Assumption of Moses_ (1897), and _The +Book of Jubilees_ (1895); Charles and Morfill, _The Secrets of Enoch_ +(1896); Ryle and James, _The Psalms of the Pharisees_ [Psalms of Solomon] +(1891); Bensly and James, _Fourth Esdras_ (1895); Charles, EnBib I. +213-250; HastBD I. 109f.; Porter, HastBD I. 110-123; James, EnBib I. +249-261. + + +II + +The Sources + +13. On the sources outside the gospels see Anthony, _Introduction to the +Life of Jesus_, 19-108; KeimJN I. 12-59; BeysLJ I. 59-72; GilbertLJ 74-78; +Knowling, _Witness of the Epistles_; Stevens, _Pauline Theol_. 204-208; +Sabatier, _Apostle Paul_, 76-85. On Josephus as a source see also +SchürerJPTX I. ii. 143-149; RévilleJN I. 272-280. On the individual +gospels see Burton, _The Purpose and Plan of the Four Gospels_ (Univ. +Chic. Press, 1900); Bruce, _With Open Face_, 1-61; Weiss, _Introduction to +N.T._, II. 239-386; Jülicher, _Einleitung i. d. NT_, 189-207. On Matthew, +Burton Bib. Wld. I. 1898, 37-44, 91-101; on Mark, Swete, _Comm. on Mark_, +ix-lxxxix; on Luke, Plummer, _Comm. on Luke_, xi-lxx; Mathews, Bib. Wld. +1895, I. 336-342, 448-455; on John, Burton, Bib. Wld. 1899, I. 16-41, +102-105; Westcott, _Comm. on John_, v-lxxvii; Rhees in Abbott's _The Bible +as Literature_, 281-297. On the synoptic question see Sanday SBD^2, +1217-1243, and Expositor, Feb.-June, 1891; Woods, _Studia Biblica_, II. +59-104; Salmon, _Introduction_^7, 99-151, 570-581; Stanton in HastBD II. +234-243; Jülicher, _Einl._ 207-227. A. Wright, _Composition of the Four +Gospels_ (1890) and _Some NT Problems_ (1898), defends the oral tradition +theory in a modified form. On possible dislocations in John see Spitta, +_Urchristentum_, I. 157-204; Bacon, Jour. Bib. Lit. 1894, 64-76; Burton, +Bib. Wld. 1899, I. 27-35. For the history of opinion see specially H. J. +Holtzmann, _Einl._^3 340-375. On the Johannine question see Sanday, +Expositor, Nov. 1891-May 1892; Schürer, Cont. Rev. Sept. 1891; Watkins +SBD^2 1739-1764; Burton, Bib. Wld. 1899, I. 16-41; Reynolds in HastBD II. +694-722; Zahn, _Einl._ II. 445-564 (defends Johannine authorship); +Jülicher, _Einl._ 238-250 (rejects Johannine authorship). For the history +of opinion see Watkins, _Bampton Lecture_ for 1890; Holtzmann, _Einl._^3 +433-438. P. Ewald, _Hauptproblem der evang. Frage_, argues the +authenticity of the fourth gospel from the one-sidedness of the synoptic +story. See also Jour. Bib. Lit. 1898, I. 87-102. + +14. Réville proposes to reconstruct Jos. Ant. xviii. 3. 3 thus: "'At that +time appeared Jesus, a wise man, who did astonishing things. That is why a +good number of Jews and also of Greeks attached themselves to him.' Then +follows some phrase probably signifying that these adherents had committed +the error of proclaiming him Christ, and then 'denounced by the leading +men of the nation, this Jesus was condemned by Pilate to die on the cross. +But those who had loved him before persevered in their sentiment, and +still to-day there exists a class of people who take from him their name +Christians.'" + +15. On the testimony of Papias (Euseb. _Ch. Hist_. iii. 39. 4) see +Lightfoot, Cont. Rev. 1875, II. 379 ff., and McGiffert's notes in his +_Eusebius_, 170 ff. + +16. For a collection of probably genuine Agrapha see Ropes, _Die Spruche +Jesu_, 154-161, and Amer. Jour. Theol. 1897, 758-776; Resch, _Agrapha_, +gives a much longer list. He is criticised by Ropes. On lost and +uncanonical gospels see Salmon, _Intr._^7 173-190, 580-591; Kruger, _Early +Christian Literature_, 50-57. For the recently discovered Gospel of Peter +see Swete, _The Gospel of Peter_; and on the so-called _Sayings of Jesus_ +found in Egypt in 1896 see Harnack, _Expositor_, V. vi. 321-340, 401-416, +and essay by Sanday and Lock. _Apocryphal Gospels_ are most conveniently +found in _Ante-nicene Fathers_, VIII. 361-476. + + +III + +The Harmony of the Gospels + +17. The Diatessaron of Tatian is translated with notes by Hill, _The +Earliest Life of Christ_. See also _Ante-nic. Fathers_, IX. 35-138. + +18. For the extreme position concerning Doublets see Holtzmann, +_Hand-commentar zum NT_ I. passim. E. Haupt, Studien u. Kritiken, 1884, +25, remarks that Jesus must often have repeated his teaching in +essentially the same form. + + +IV + +Chronology + +19. For data and discussion of the various problems see Wieseler, +_Chronological Synopsis_; Lewin, _Fasti Sacra; _ KeimJN II. 379-402; +AndLOL 1-52; SchürerJPTX I. ii. 30-32, 105-143; O. Holtzmann, _NtZeitg_, +118-124, 125-127, 131-132; Turner HastBD I. 403-415; Ramsay, _Was Christ +born at Bethlehem_; and von Soden in EnBib. I. 799-812. For patristic +opinion concerning the length of Jesus' ministry, see HastBD I. 410. For +the argument for a one-year ministry, see KeimJN II. 398; O. Holtzmann, +_NtZeitg_, 131f. For two years, see Wieseler, _Chron. Synop_. 204-220; +WeissLX I. 389-392; Turner, in HastBD. For three years, see AndLOL +189-198; note by Robertson in Broadus, _Harmony of the Gospels_, 241-244. +Compare RévilleJN II. 227-231; Zahn, _Einl._ II. 516f. + + +V + +The Early Years + +20. On the problem of the Virgin birth see GilbertLJ 79-89; WeissLX I. +211-233; Swete, _Apos. Creed_, 42-55; Bruce, _Apologetics_, 407-413; +Ropes, Andover Rev. 1893, 695-712; FairbSLX 30-45; Godet, _Comm. on Luke_, +Rem. on chaps. I. and II.; BovonNTTh I. 198-217. These maintain +historicity. The other side: BeysLJ I. 148-174; Meyer, _Comm. on Matt_., +Rem. on 1.18; Keim JN II. 38-101; Réville, New World, 1892, 695-723, and +JN I. 361-408; HoltzmannNtTh I. 409-415. On the early years of +Jesus see EdersLJM I. 217-254; WeissLX I. 275-293; Hughes, _Manliness of +Xt_, 35-60; WendtTJ I. 90-96; Stapfer, _Jesus Christ before his Ministry; +_ FairbSLX 46-63; BeysLJ II. 44-65; RévilleJN I. 409-438. + +21. For some of the early legends concerning the birth and childhood of +Jesus, see the so-called _Protevangelium of James_, the _Gospel of +Pseudo-Matthew_, and the _Gospel of Thomas_, Ante-nic. Fathers, VIII. +361-383, 395-398. For Jewish calumnies see Laible, _J. X. im Thalmud_, +9-39. + +22. On the two genealogies see AndLOL 62-68; WeissLX I. 211-221; Godet on +Luke, iii. 23-38. These refer Luke's genealogy to Marv. Hervey SBD^2 +1145-1148, Plummer on Luke, iii. 23, EdersLJM I. 149, GilbertLJ 81f., +with the early fathers (see Plummer), refer both to Joseph. For the view +that they are unauthentic see Holtzmann, _Hand-comm._ I. 39-41; Bacon in +HastBD II. 137-141. + +23. On the "brethren" of Jesus see Mayor, HastBD I. 320-326; +AndrewsLOL 111-123. These make the brethren sons of Joseph and +Mary. Lightfoot, _Galatians_^10, 252-291, regards them as sons of Joseph +by a former marriage. + + +VI + +John the Baptist + +24. On the character and work of John the Baptist see KeimJN II. 201-266 +and references in the index under John the Baptist. Keim's is much the +most satisfactory treatment; it is, moreover, Keim at his best. See also +Ewald, _Hist, of Israel_, VI. 160-200; WeissLX I. 307-316; FairbSLX 64-79; +W. A. Stevens, Homil. Rev. 1891, II. 163 ff.; Bebb in HastBD II. 677-680; +Wellhausen _Isr. u. judische Geschichte_, 342f.; Feather, _Last of the +Prophets_. Reynolds, _John the Baptist_, obscures its excellencies by a +vast amount of irrelevant discussion. + +25. On the existence of a separate company of disciples of John see Mk. +ii. 18, Mt. ix. 14, Lk. v. 33; Mk. vi. 29, Mt. xiv. 12; Mt. xi. 2f., Lk. +vii. 18f.; Lk. xi. 1; Jn. i. 35f.; iii. 25; Ac. xix. 1-3. Consult +Lightfoot, _Colossians_, 400 ff.; Baldensperger, _Der Prolog des vierten +Evangeliums_, 93-152. + + +VII + +The Messianic Call + +26. On the baptism of Jesus see WendtTJ I. 96-101; EdersLJM I. 278-287; +BaldSJ 219-229. WeissLX I. 316-336 says that the baptism meant for Jesus, +already conscious of his Messiahship, "the close of his former life and +the opening of one perfectly new" (322); KeimJN II. 290-299 makes it an +act of consecration, but eliminates the Voice and Dove; BeysLJ I. 215-231 +thinks that Jesus, conscious of no sin, yet not aware of his Messiahship, +sought the baptism carrying "the sins and guilt of his people on his +heart, as if they were his own" (229). Against Beyschlag see E. Haupt in +Studien u. Kritiken, 1887, 381. Baldensperger shows clearly that the +Messianic call was a revelation to Jesus, not a conclusion from a course +of reasoning. + +27. On the temptation see WendtTJ I. 101-105; WeissLX I. 337-354; EdersLJM +I. 299-307; FairbairnSLX 80-98; BaldSJ 230-236; BeysLJ I. +231-237; KeimJN II. 317-329. All these see in temptation the necessary +result of the Messianic call at the baptism. + +28. The locality of the baptism of Jesus cannot be determined. Tradition +has fixed on one of the fords of the Jordan near Jericho, see SmithHGHL +496, note 1. On the probable location of Bethany (Bethabarah) (Jn. i. 28) +see discussion in AndLOL 146-151; EnBib 548; and especially Smith's note +as above. + +29. On the anointing of Jesus with the Holy Spirit see WeissLX I. 323-336; +BeysLJ I. 230f. For the influence of the Spirit in the later life of Jesus +see Mk. i. 12; Mt. iv. 1; Lk. iv. 1; iv. 14, 18, 21; Mk. iii. 29, 30; Mt. +xii. 28; Jn. iii. 34; compare Ac. i. 2; x. 38. Clearly these refer not to +the ethical and religious indwelling of the Divine Spirit (comp. Rom. i. +4), but to the special equipment for official duty. This is the OT sense, +see Ex. xxxi. 2-5; Jud. iii. 10; I. Sam. xi. 6; Isa. xi. 1f.; xlii. 1; +lxi. 1; and consult Schultz, _Old Test. Theol._ II. 202f. Jesus seems to +have needed a like divine equipment, notwithstanding his divine nature. +See GilbertLJ 121f. + +30. How this Messianic anointing is to be related to the doctrine of +Jesus' essential divine nature cannot be determined with certainty. It +must not be forgotten, however, that it is a _datum_ for Christology, and +that it cannot be explained away. It indicates one of the particulars in +which Jesus was made like unto his brethren. What was involved when the +Son of God "emptied himself and was made in the likeness of men" (Phil. +ii. 7) we can only vaguely conceive. Two views of early heretical sects +seem rightly to have been rejected. The Docetic view, held by some +Gnostics of the 2d cent., dates the incarnation from the baptism, but +distinguishes Christ from the human Jesus, who only served as a vehicle +for the manifestation of the Son of God; the Christ descended on Jesus at +the baptism, ascending again to heaven from the cross, compare Mt. iii. 16 +and xxvii. 50 in the Greek; see Schaff _Hist. of Xn Church_^2, II. 455f. +The recently discovered Gospel of Peter presents this view, Gosp. Pet. § +5. The Nestorian view represents that the baptism was, in a sense, Jesus' +"birth from above" (Jn. iii. 3, 5); thus the incarnation was first +complete at the baptism though the Logos had been associated with Jesus +from the beginning. See Schaff, _Hist, of Xn Church_^2, III. 717 ff.; +Conybeare, _History of Xmas_, Amer. Jour. Theol. 1899, 1-21. + +31. The traditional locality of the temptation is a mountain near Jericho +called _Quarantana_, see AndLOL 155; the tradition seems to date no +further back than the crusades. It is, however, probable that the +"wilderness" (Mt. iv. 1, Mk. i. 12, Lk. iv. 1) is the same wilderness +mentioned in connection with John's earlier life and work (Mt. iii. 1, Mk. +i. 4), the region W and NW of the Dead Sea, see SmithHGHL 317. Others +(Stanley, _Sinai and Palestine_, 308; EdersLJM I. 300, 339 notes) hold +that the temptation took place in the desert regions SE of the sea of +Galilee; this is possibly correct, though the record in the gospels +suggests the wilderness of Judea. On the source of the temptation story +see WeissLX I. 339 ff.; BeysLJ I. 234; Bacon, Bib. Wld. 1900, I. 18-25. + + +VIII + +The First Disciples + +32. SandayHastBD II. 612f.; GilbertLJ 144-157; WeissLX I. 355-387; AndLOL +155-165; EdersLJM I. 336-363; BeysLJ II. 129-148 (assigns here a +considerable part of the synoptic account of work in Capernaum). + +33. _The early confessions_. On the genuineness of the Baptist's testimony +to "the Lamb of God" see M. Dods in _Expos. Gk. Test_. I .695f.; Westcott, +_Comm. on John_, 20; EdersLJM 1. 342 ff.; WeissLX 1. 362f. (thinks the +evangelist added "who taketh away the sin of the world"); Holtzmann, +_Hand-comm._ IV. 38f. holds that the evangelist has put in the mouth of +the Baptist a conception which was first current after the death of Jesus. +On the confessions of Nathanael and the others, see Jour. Bib. Lit. 1898, +21-30. + +34. _Cana_ is probably the modern Khirbet Kana, eight miles N of Nazareth. +A rival site is Kefr Kenna, three and one-half miles NE from Nazareth. See +EnBib and HastBD, also AndLOL 162-164. + +35. _The miracles of Jesus_ are challenged by modern thought. It is +customary in reading other documents than the N.T. instantly to relegate +the miraculous to the domain of legend. Miracles, however, are integral +parts of the story of Jesus' life, and those who attempt to write that +life eliminating the supernatural are constrained to recognize that he had +marvellous power as an exorcist and healer of some forms of nervous +disease. So E. A. Abbott, _The Spirit on the Waters_, 169-201. Our +knowledge of nature does not warrant a dogmatic definition of the limits +of the possible; see James, _The Will to Believe_, vii.-xiii., 299-327. +The question is confessedly one of adequate evidence. The evidence for the +supreme miracle--the transcendent character of Jesus--is clear, see Part +III. chap. iv.; and the miraculous element in the story of his life must +be considered in view of this supreme miracle. In association with him his +miracles gain in credibility. In estimating the evidence for them their +dignity and worthiness is important. What the devout imagination would do +in embellishing the story of Jesus is exhibited in the apocryphal gospels; +the miracles of the canonical gospels are of an entirely different type, +which commends them as authentic. By definition a miracle is an event not +explicable in terms of ordinary human experience. It is therefore futile +to attempt to picture the miracles of Jesus in their occurrence, for the +imagination has no material except that furnished by ordinary experience. +For our day the miracles are of importance chiefly for the exhibition they +give of the character of Jesus; they can be studied with this in view +without regard to the curious question how they happened. Read +SandayHastBD II. 624-628; and see Fisher, _Grounds of Christian and +Theistic Belief, _ chaps, iv.--vi., _Supernatural Origin of +Christianity_^3, chap, xi.; Bruce, _Miraculous Element in the Gospels; +Apologetics_, 409 ff.; Illingworth, _Divine Immanence_; Rainy, Orr, and +Dods, _The Supernatural in Christianity_. + + + +Part II.--The Ministry + + +I + +General Survey + +36. SandayHastBD II. 609f.; GilbertLJ 136-143; AndLOL 125-137; BeysLJ I. +256-295. + + +II + +The Early Ministry in Judea + +37. SandayHastBD II. 612^b-613^b; WeissLX II. 3-53; EdersLJM I. 364-429; +BeysLJ II. 147-168; GilbertLJ 158-179. + +38. On _the chronological significance of John iv_. 35 see AndLOL 183; +WeissLX II. 40; Wieseler, _Synop_. 212 ff, who find indication that the +journey was in December. EdersLJM I. 419f.; Turner in HastBD I. 408, find +indication of early summer. Some treat iv. 35 as a proverb with no +chronological significance; so Alford, _Comm. on John_. + +39. Geographical notes. _Aenon_ near Salim has not been identified. Most +favor a site in Samaria, seven miles from a place named Salim, which lay +four miles E of Shechem, see Conder, _Tent Work in Palestine_, II. 57, 58; +Stevens, Jour. Bib. Lit. 1883, 128-141. But can John have been baptizing +in Samaria? WeissLX II. 28 says "it is perfectly impossible that he [John] +can have taken up his station in Samaria." Other suggestions are: some +place in the Jordan valley (but then why remark on the abundance of water, +Jn. iii. 23?); near Jerusalem; and in the south of Judea. See AndLOL +173-175. _Sychar_ is the modern 'Askar, about a mile and three-quarters +from Nablus (Shechem), and half a mile N of Jacob's well. See SmithHGHL +367-375. + +40. General questions. _Was the temple twice cleansed?_ (see sect. 116). +Probably not. The two reports (Jn. ii. 13-22; Mk. xi. 15-18 ¶s) are +similar in respect of Jesus' indignation, its cause, its expression, its +result, and a consequent challenge of his authority. They differ in the +time of the event (John assigns to first Passover, synoptics to the last) +and in a possibly greater sternness in the synoptic account. These +differences are no greater than appear in other records of identical +events (compare Mt. viii. 5-13 with Lk. vii. 2-10), while the repetition +of such an act would probably have been met by serious opposition. If the +temple was cleansed but once, John indicates the true time. At the +beginning of the ministry it was a demand that the people follow the new +leader in the purification of God's house and the establishment of a truer +worship. At the end it could have had only a vindictive significance, +since the people had already signified to the clear insight of Jesus that +they would not accept his leadership. For two distinct cleansings see the +discussion in AndLOL 169f., 437; EdersLJM I. 373; Plummer on Luke xix. +45f. For one cleansing at the end see KeimJN V. 113-131. For one cleansing +at the beginning see WeissLX II. 6 ff.; BeysLJ II. 149 ff.; GilbertLJ 159 +ff. + +41. _The journey to Galilee_. Do John (iv. 1-4, 43-45) and Mark (i. 14 = +Mt. iv. 12; Lk. iv. 14) report the same journey? Both are journeys from +the south introducing work in Galilee; yet the reasons given for the +journey are different (compare Jn. iv. 1-3 with Mk. i. 14). If the +Pharisees had a hand in John's "delivering up" (Mk. i. 14; comp. Jos. Ant. +xviii. 5. 2), the same hostile movement may have impelled Jesus to leave +Judea. He may not have heard of John's imprisonment until after his +departure, or some time before he opened his new ministry in Galilee. See +GilbertLJ 173f. AndLOL 176-182 argues against the identification. + +42. _The nobleman's son_ (Jn. iv. 46-54). Is this a doublet of Mt. viii. +5-13; Lk. vii. 2-10? John differs from synoptics in the time, the place, +the disease, the suppliant, his plea, and Jesus' attitude. Matthew and +Mark differ from each other concerning the bearers of the centurion's +messages to Jesus. John's account is similar to synoptic superficially, +but is probably not a doublet. Compare Syro-PhÅ“nician's daughter (Mk. vii. +29f.). See GilbertLJ 202; Meyer on John iv. 51-54; Plummer on Luke vii. +10. WeissLX II. 45-51 identifies. Read SandayHastBD II. 613. + + + +III and IV + +The Ministry in Galilee + +43. Read SandayHastBD II. 613-630; GilbertLJ 180-283. Consult WeissLX II. +44 to III. 153; EdersLJM I. 472 to II. 125; BeysLJ II. 140-147,168-294. +See AndLOL 209-363 for discussion of details, and KeimJN III. 10 to IV. +346 for an illuminating, though not unprejudiced, topical treatment. + +44. Geographical notes. _Capernaum_. The site is not clearly identified, +two ruins on the NW of Sea of Galilee are rival claimants,--Tell Hum and +Khan Minyeh. Tell Hum is advocated by Thomson, _Land and Book, Central +Pal. and PhÅ“nicia_ (1882), 416-420; Khan Minyeh, by SmithHGHL 456, EnBib +I. 696 ff. Latter is probably correct. See AndLOL 224-237. + +_Bethsaida_. The full name is Bethsaida Julias, located at entrance of +Jordan into the Sea of Galilee. SmithEnBib I. 565f., SmithHGHL +457f., shows that there is no need of the hypothesis of a second Bethsaida +to meet the statement in Mk. vi. 45, or that in Jn. i. 44. See also AndLOL +230-236. Ewing HastBD I. 282f. renews the argument for two Bethsaidas. + +_Chorazin_ was probably the modern Kerazeh, about one mile N of Tell Hum, +and back from the lake. See SmithEnBib I. 751; SmithHGHL 456; +AndLOL 237f. + +45. _The mountain of the sermon on the mount_ (Mt. v. 1; Lk. vi. 12) +probably refers to the Galilean highlands as distinct from the shore of +the lake. More definite location is not possible. See AndLOL 268f.; +EdersLJM I. 524. The traditional site, the Horns of Hattin, is a hill +lying about seven miles SW from Khan Minyeh, which has near the top a +level place (Lk. vi. 17) flanked by two low peaks or "horns." + +46. _The country of the Gerasenes, Gadarenes, or Gergesenes_. Gadarenes is +the best attested reading in Mt. viii. 28, Gerasenes in Mk. v. 1 and Lk. +viii. 26; Gergesenes has only secondary attestation. Gadara is identified +with Um Keis on the Yarmuk, some six miles SE of the Sea of Galilee. This +cannot have been the site of the miracle, though it is possible that +Gadara may have controlled the country round about, including the shores +of the sea. Gerasa is the name of a city in the highlands of Gilead, +twenty miles E of Jordan, and thirty-five SE of the Sea of Galilee, and +it clearly cannot have been the scene of the miracle. Near the E shore of +the sea Thomson discovered the ruins of a village which now bears the name +Khersa. The formation of the land in the neighborhood closely suits the +narrative of the gospels. This is now accepted as the true identification. +See Thomson _Land and Book, Central Palestine_, 353-355; SBD^2 1097-1100; +HastBD II. 159f.; AndLOL 296-300. The name "Gadarenes" may indicate that +Gadara had jurisdiction over the region of Khersa; the names "Gerasenes" +and "Gergesenes" may be derived directly and independently from Khersa, or +may be corruptions due to the obscurity of Khersa. + +47. _The feeding of the five thousand_ took place on the E of the sea, in +a desert region, abundant in grass, and mountainous, and located in the +neighborhood of a place named Bethsaida. Near the ruins of Bethsaida +Julias is a plain called now Butaiha, "a smooth, grassy place near the sea +and the mountains," which meets the requirements of the narrative. See +AndLOL 322f. + +48. _The return of Jesus from the regions of Tyre "through Sidon"_ (Mk. +vii. 31) avoided Galilee, crossing N of Galilee to the territory of Philip +and "_the Decapolis_." This latter name applies to a group of free Greek +cities, situated for the most part E of the Jordan. Most of the cities of +the group were farther S than the Sea of Galilee; some, however, were E +and NE of that sea, hence Jesus' approach from Cæsarea Philippi or +Damascus could be described as "through Decapolis." See SmithHGHL 593-608; +En Bib I. 1051 ff.; SchürerJPTX II. i. 94-121. + +49. Of _Magadan_ (Mt. xv. 39) or _Dalmanutha_ (Mk. viii. 10) all that is +known is that they must have been on the W coast of the Sea of Galilee. +They have never been identified, though there are many conjectures. See +SBD^2, HastBD, and En Bib. + +50. _Cæsarea Philippi_ was situated at the easternmost and most important +of the sources of the Jordan, it is called Panias by Jos. Ant. xv. 10.3, +now Banias. Probably a sanctuary of the god Pan. Here Herod the Great +built a temple which he dedicated to Cæsar; Philip the Tetrarch enlarged +the town and called it Cæsarea Philippi. See SBD^2; HastBD; EnBib. + +51. _The mountain of the transfiguration_. The traditional site, since the +fourth century, is Tabor in Galilee. Most recent opinion has favored one +of the shoulders of Hermon, owing to the supposed connection of the event +with the sojourn near Cæsarea Philippi. WeissLX III. 98 points out that +there is no evidence that Jesus lingered for "six days" (Mk. ix. 2) near +that town, and that therefore the effort to locate the transfiguration is +futile. GilbertLJ 274 thinks that Mk. ix. 30 is decisive in favor of a +place outside Galilee; he therefore holds to the common view that Hermon +is the true locality. See AndLOL 357f. + +52. General questions. _Was Jesus twice rejected at Nazareth?_ (comp. Lk. +iv. 16-30 with Mk. vi. 1-6^a; Mt. xiii. 54-58). Here are two accounts that +read like independent traditions of the same event; they agree concerning +the place, the teaching in the synagogue on the Sabbath, the astonishment +of the Nazarenes, their scornful question, and Jesus' rejoinder. Luke +makes no reference to the disciples (Mk. vi. 1) nor to the working of +miracles (Mk. vi. 5); Matthew and Mark, on the other hand, say nothing of +an attempt at violence. These differences are no more serious, however, +than appear in the two accounts of the appeal of the centurion to Jesus +(Mt. viii. 5-8; Lk. vii. 3-7). Moreover, Lk. iv. 23 indicates a time after +the ministry in Capernaum had won renown, which agrees with the place +given the rejection in Mark. The general statement (Lk. iv. 14f.) suggests +that the visit to Nazareth is given at the beginning as an instance of +"preaching in their synagogues." The three accounts probably refer to one +event reported independently. For identification see WeissLX III. 34; +Plummer on Luke iv. 30; GilbertLJ 254f. For two rejections see Godet's +supplementary note on Lk. iv. 16-30; Meyer on Mt. xiii. 53-58; EdersLJM I. +457, note 1; Wieseler, _Synopsis_, 278. BeysLJ I. 270 identifies but +prefers Luke's date. + +53. _Were there two miraculous draughts of fish?_ Lk. v. 1-11 is sometimes +identified with Jn. xxi. 3-13. So WendtLJ I. 211f., WeissLX II. 57f., and +Meyer on Luke v. 1-11. Against the identification see Alford, Godet, and +Plummer on the passage in Luke. The two are alike in scene, the night of +bootless toil, the great catch at Jesus' word. They differ in personnel, +antecedent relations of the fishermen with Jesus, the effect of the +miracle on Peter, and the subsequent teaching of Jesus, as well as in +time. These differences make identification difficult. + +54. _Where in the synoptic story should the journey to the feast in +Jerusalem_ (Jn. v.) _be placed?_ There is nothing in John's narrative to +identify the feast, although it is his custom to name the festivals to +which he refers (Passover, ii. 13, 23; vi. 4; xi. 55; xii. 1; Tabernacles, +vii. 2; Dedication, x. 22). Even if John wrote "the feast," rather than "a +feast" (the MSS. vary, A B D and seven other uncials omit the article), it +would be impossible to decide between Passover and Tabernacles. The +omission of the article suggests either that the feast was of minor +importance, or that its identification was of no significance for the +understanding of the following discourse. Since a year and four months +probably elapsed between the journey into Galilee (Jn. iv. 35) and the +next Passover mentioned in John (vi. 4), v. 1 may refer to any one of the +feasts of the Jewish year. The commonest interpretation prefers Purim, a +festival of a secular and somewhat hilarious type, which occurred on the +14th and 15th of Adar, a month before the Passover. It is difficult to +believe that this feast would have called Jesus to Jerusalem. See WeissLX +II. 391; GilbertLJ 137-139, 142, 234-235. Against this interpretation see +EdersLJM II. 765. Edersheim advocates the feast of Wood Gathering on the +15th of Ab--about our August. On this day all the people were permitted to +offer wood for the use of the altar in the temple, while during the rest +of the year the privilege was reserved for special families. See LJM II +765f.; Westcott, _Comm. on John_, add. note on v. 1, argues for the feast +of Trumpets, or the new moon of the month Tisri,--about our +September,--which was celebrated as the beginning of the civil year. +Others have suggested Pentecost, fifty days after the Passover; the day of +Atonement--but this was a fast, not a feast; and Tabernacles. The majority +of those who do not favor Purim prefer the Passover, notwithstanding the +difficulty of thinking that John would refer to this feast simply as "a +feast of the Jews." Read AndLOL 193-198, remembering that the question +must be considered independently of the question of the length of Jesus' +ministry. The impossibility of determining the feast renders the +adjustment of this visit to the synoptic story very uncertain. It may be +that there was some connection between the Sabbath controversy in Galilee +(Mk. ii. 23-28) and the criticism Jesus aroused in Jerusalem (Jn. v.). If +so, one of the spring feasts, Passover or Pentecost, would best suit the +circumstances; but this arrangement is quite uncertain. + +55. _Do the five conflicts of Mk. ii. 1 to iii. 6 belong at the early +place in the ministry of Jesus to which that gospel assigns them_? It is +commonly held that they do not, and the argument for a two-year ministry +rests on this assumption (see SandayHastBD II. 613). Holtzmann, +_Hand-commentar_ I. 9f., remarks that at least for the cure of the +paralytic and for the call and feast of Levi (Mk. ii. 1, 13, 15) the +evangelist was confident that he was following the actual order of events; +note the call of the fifth disciple, Mk. ii. 13, between the call of the +four, Mk. i. 16-20, and that of the twelve, iii. 16-19. The question about +fasting may owe its place (Mk. ii. 18-22) to association with the +criticism of Jesus for eating with publicans (Mk. ii. 16). In like manner +the second Sabbath conflict (Mk. iii. 1-6) may be attached to the first +(ii. 23-28) as a result of the identity of subject, for it is noteworthy +that Mark records only these two Sabbath conflicts; moreover, the plot of +Herodians and Pharisees to kill Jesus strongly suggests a later time for +the actual occurrence of this criticism. The first Sabbath question, +however, may belong early, as Mark has placed it. Weiss, Markusevangelium, +76, LX II. 232 ff., places these conflicts late. Edersheim, LJM II. 51 +ff., discusses the Sabbath controversies after the feeding of the +multitudes. RévilleJN II. 229 places the first of them early. + +56. _The sermon on the mount._ Luke (vi. 12-19 = Mk. iii. +13-19^a indicates the place in the Galilean ministry; Matthew +has therefore anticipated in assigning it to the beginning. The identity +of the two sermons (Mt. v. 1 to vii. 27; Lk. vi. 20-49) is shown by the +fact that each begins with beatitudes, each closes with the parables of +the wise and foolish builders, each is followed by the cure of a +centurian's servant in Capernaum (Mt. viii. 5-13; Lk. vii. 1-10), and the +teachings which are found in each account are given in the same order. +Matthew is much fuller than Luke, many teachings given in the sermon in +Matthew being found in later contexts in Luke. Much of the sermon in +Matthew, however, evidently belonged to the original discourse, and was +omitted by Luke, perhaps because of less interest to Gentile than to +Jewish Christians. The following sections are found elsewhere in Luke, and +were probably associated with the sermon by the first evangelist: Mt. v. +25, 26; Lk. xii. 58, 59; Mt. vi. 9-13; Lk. xi. 2-4; Mt. vi. 19-34; Lk. +xii. 21-34; xi. 34-36; xvi. 13; Mt. vii. 7-11; Lk. xi. 9-13; Mt. vii. 13, +14; Lk. xiii. 24. The first evangelist's habit of grouping may explain +also the presence in his sermon of teachings which he himself has +duplicated later, thus: Mt. v. 29, 30 = xviii. 8,9; v. 32 = xix. 9, comp. +Mk. x. 11, ix. 43-47, Lk. xvi. 18; Mt. vi. 14, 15 = Mk. xi. 25. Matthew +vii. 22, 23 has the character of the teachings which follow the confession +at Cæsarea Phillipi, and is quite unlike the other early teachings. It may +belong to the later time, for it was natural for the early Christians to +associate together teachings which the Lord uttered on widely separated +occasions. The sermon as originally given may be analyzed as follows: The +privileges of the heirs of the kingdom of God, Mt. v. 3-13; Lk. vi. 20-26; +their responsibilities, Mt. v. 13-16; the relation of the new to the old, +Mt. v. 17-19; the text of the discourse, Mt. v. 20; the new conception of +morality, Mt. v. 21-48; Lk. vi. 27-36; the new practice of religion, Mt. +vi. 1-8, 16-18; warning against a censorious spirit, Mt. vii. 16-20; Lk. +vi. 43-46; the wise and foolish builders, Mt. vii. 24-27; Lk. vi. 47-49. + +57. _The discourse in parables._ Matthew gives seven parables at this +point (xiii.), Mark (iv. 1-34) has three, one of them is not given in +Matthew, Luke (viii. 4-18) gives in this connection but one,--the Sower. +Many think that the Tares of Matthew (xiii. 24-30, 36-43) is a doublet of +Mark's Seed growing secretly (iv. 26-29); so Weiss LX II. 209 note, +against which view see WendtLJ I. 178 f., and Bruce, _Parabolic Teaching +of Xt_, 119. Matthew has probably made here a group of parables, as in +chapters v. to vii. he has made a group of other teachings. The +interpretation of the Tares, and of the Draw-net (xiii. 40-43, 49, 50), +may indicate that these parables were spoken after Jesus began to teach +plainly concerning the end of the world (Mk. viii. 31 to ix. 1), Luke +gives the Mustard Seed and Leaven in another connection (xiii. 18-21), and +it may be that Matthew has taken them out of their true context to +associate them with the other parables of his group; yet in popular +teaching it must be recognized that illustrations are most likely to be +repeated in different situations. On the parables see Goebel, _The +Parables of Jesus_ (1890), Bruce, _The Parabolic Teaching of Christ_, 3d +ed. (1886), Jülicher, _Die Gleichnissreden Jesu_ (2 vols. 1899), and the +commentaries on the gospels. + +58. _The instructions to the twelve_. Mt. ix. 36 to xi. 1. x. 1, 5-14 +corresponds in general with Mk. vi. 7-11; Lk. ix. 1-5. The similarity is +closer, however, between x. 7-15 and Lk. x. 3-12--the instructions to the +seventy (see sect. A 68). The rest of Mt. x. (16-42) is paralleled by +teachings found in the closing discourses in the synoptic gospels, and in +teachings preserved in the section peculiar to Luke (ix. 51 to xviii. 14. +See SB sects. 88-92, footnotes). It is probable that here the first +evangelist has made a group of instructions to disciples gathered from all +parts of the Lord's teachings; such a collection was of great practical +value in the early time of persecution. + +59. _Did Jesus twice feed the multitudes_? All the gospels record the +feeding of the five thousand (Mt. xiv. 13-23; Mk. vi. 30-46; Lk. ix. +10-17; Jn. vi. 1-15), Matthew (xv. 32-38) and Mark (viii. 1-9) give also +the feeding of the four thousand. The similarities are so great that the +two accounts would be regarded as doublets if they occurred in different +gospels. The difficulty with such an identification is chiefly the +reference which in both Matthew (xvi. 9, 10) and Mark (viii. 19, 20) Jesus +is said to have made to the two feedings. The evangelists clearly +distinguished the two. In view of this fact the differences between the +accounts become important. These concern the occasion of the two miracles, +the number fed, the nationality of the multitudes (compare Jn. vi. 31 and +Mk. vii. 31), the number of loaves and of baskets of broken pieces (the +name for basket is different in the two cases, and is preserved +consistently in Mk. viii. 19, 20; Mt. xvi. 9, 10). See GilbertLJ 259-262, +Gould, and Swete, on Mk. viii. 1-9; Meyer, Alford, on Mt. xv. 32-38. +WeissLX II. 376f., BeysLJ I. 279f., WendtLJ I. 42, Holtzmann _Hand-comm._ +I. 186 ff., identify the accounts. See also SandayHastBD II. 629. + +60. _Did Peter twice confess faith in Jesus as Messiah_? Synoptics give +his confession at Cæesarea Philippi (Mk. viii. 27-30; Mt. xvi. 13-20; Lk. +ix. 18-21). John, however, gives a confession earlier at Capernaum (vi. +66-71). WeissLX III. 53 identifies the two, placing that in John at +Cæsarea Philippi, since there is no evidence that all of the long +discourse of Jn. vi. was spoken in Capernaum the day after the feeding of +the five thousand. This may be correct, yet the marked recognition which +Jesus gave to the confession at Cæsarea Philippi does not demand that he +first at that time received a confession of his disciples' faith. The +confession in Jn. vi. 68, 69 declared that the twelve were not shaken in +their faith by the recent defection of many disciples. At Cæsarea Philippi +the confession was made after the revulsion of popular feeling had been +made fully evident, and after the twelve had had time for reaction of +enthusiasm consequent upon the growing coldness of the multitudes and +active opposition of the leaders. The confession of Cæsarea Philippi holds +its unique significance, whether or not Jn. vi. 68 is identified with it. + +61. _The journey to Tabernacles_ (Jn. vii.). Where in the synoptic story +should it be placed? Lk. ix. 51 ff. records the final departure from +Galilee. The journey of Jn. vii. is the last journey from Galilee given in +John. Yet the two are very different. In John, Jesus went in haste, +unpremeditatedly, in secret, and unaccompanied, and confronted the people +with himself unexpectedly during the feast. In Luke (Mk. x. 1 and Mt. xix. +1 are so general that they give no aid) he advanced deliberately, with +careful plans, announcing his coming in advance, accompanied by many +disciples, with whom he went from place to place, arriving in Jerusalem +long after he had set out. The two journeys cannot be identified. John +seems to keep Jesus in the south after the Tabernacles, but his account +does not forbid a return to Galilee between Tabernacles and Dedication (x. +22). After the hurried visit to Tabernacles, Jesus probably went back to +Galilee, and gathered his disciples again for the final journey towards +his cross--for the visit to Jerusalem had given fresh evidence of the kind +of treatment he must expect in the capital (Jn. vii. 32, 45-52; viii. 59). +See AndLOL 369-379. Andrews suggests that the feast occurred before the +withdrawal to Cæsarea Philippi (376); this is possible, but it seems more +natural to place it during the sojourn in Capernaum after the return from +the north (Mk. ix. 33-50). See SB, sects. 82-85. + +62. On the phenomena and interpretation of _Demoniac Possession_ see J. L. +Nevius, _Demon Possession and allied Themes_; Conybeare, Jew. Quar. Rev. +VIII. (1896) 576-608, IX. (1896-7) 59-114, 444-470, 581-603; J. Weiss in +_Reälencyklopädie_,^3 Hauck-Herzog, IV. 408-419; Binet, _Alterations of +Personality_, 325-356; James, _Psychology, _ I. 373-400; and the articles +on DEMONS in EnBib and HastBD. + + +The Journey through Perea to Jerusalem + +63. Read SandayHastBD II. 630-632; see GilbertLJ 298-310: WeissLX III. +157-223; KeimJN V, 1-64; BeysLJ I. 287-294. II. 333-419; AndLOL 365-420; +EdersLJM II. 126-360. + +64. This journey began sometime between Tabernacles and Dedication +(October and December) of the last year of Jesus' life, and continued +until the arrival in Bethany six days before the last Passover. + +65. Geographical notes. _Perea_--a part of the domain of Antipas--was the +Jewish territory E of the Jordan. Its northern limit seems to have been +marked by Pella (Jos. Wars, iii 3. 3) or Gadara (Wars, iv. 7. 3), and its +E boundary was marked by Philadelphia (Ant. xx. 1. 1); it extended S to +the domain of Aretas, king of Arabia. The population was mixed, though +predominatingly Jewish. Cities of the Decapolis, however, lay within the +limits of Perea, and introduced Greek life and ideas to the people. On the +highlands back from the Jordan it was a fertile and well populated land. +See SmithHGHL 539f.; SchürerJPTX II. i. 2-4. + +66. On _Bethany and Jericho_ see BDs and, for the latter, SmithHGHL 266 +ff. + +67. _Ephraim_, (John xi. 54) is generally identified with the Ephron of +II. Chron. xiii. 19 (Jos. Wars, iv. 9. 9). Robinson located it at et +Taiyibeh, 4 m. NE of Bethel, and 14 from Jerusalem. See HastBD l. 728; +SBD^2 975. + +68. General questions. _The mission of the seventy_. Luke records two +missions, that of the twelve (ix. 1-6), and that of the seventy (x. 1-24). +Many regard these as doublets, similar to the two feedings in Mark. So +WeissLX II. 307 ff., BeysLJ I. 275, WendtLJ I. 84f. In favor of this +conclusion emphasis is given to the fact that in Jewish thought seventy +symbolized the nations of the world as twelve symbolized Israel. It is +suggested that in his search for full records Luke came upon an account of +the mission of disciples which had already been modified in the interests +of Gentile Christianity, and failing to recognize its identity with the +account of the mission furnished by Mark, he added it in his peculiar +section. The similarity of the instructions given follows from the nature +of the case. A second sending out of disciples is suitable in view of the +entrance into a region hitherto unvisited. As Dr. Sanday has remarked, the +sayings connected by Luke with this mission bear witness to the +authenticity of the account. There is therefore no need to identify the +two missions. See particularly SandayHastBD II. 614, also GilbertLJ +226-230, Plummer's _Comm. on Luke_, 269 ff. Luke probably gives the +correct place for the thanksgiving, self-declaration, and invitation of +Jesus, in which the synoptists approach most nearly to the thought of John +(Lk. x. 21, 22; Mt. xi. 25-30). The return of the seventy (Lk. x. 17-20) +followed the woes addressed to the unbelieving cities (Lk. x. 13-16; Mt. +xi. 20-24). + +69. _The destination of the seventy_. It is customary to think of them as +sent to the various cities of Perea (see AndLOL 381-383). Were it not for +the words "whither he himself was about to come" (Lk. x. I), it would be +natural to conclude that they were sent E to Gerasa and Philadelphia, and +S to the regions of the Dead Sea. If John's account is accepted, Jesus +spent not a little time of the interval between his departure from Galilee +and his final arrival in Bethany in and near Jerusalem. It may be that +after the withdrawal from the Dedication he went far into the Perean +districts. But John x. 40 is against it. The question must be left +unanswered. The messengers may have visited places in all parts of +Palestine. + + +VI + +The Controversies of the Last Week + +70. See GilbertLJ 311-335; WeissLX III. 224-270; AndLOL 421-450; KeimJN V. +65-275; BeysLJ II. 422-434; EdersLJM II. 363-478; SandayHastBD II 632f. + +71. _The supper at Bethany_. John is definite, "six days before the +passover" (xii. I). Synoptists place it after the day of controversy, on +the Wednesday preceding the Passover (Mk. xiv. I, 3-9; Mt. xxvi. 2, 6-13). +John is probably correct. The rebuke of Judas (Jn. xii. 4-8) was probably +associated in the thought of the disciples with his later treachery; +consequently the synoptists report the plot of Judas and this supper in +close connection. + +72. _The Messianic entry into Jerusalem_ is regarded by Réville as a +surrender by Jesus of his lofty Messianic ideal in response to the +temptation to seek a popular following. Keim with finer insight says, +"Even if it had certainly been his wish to bring the kingdom of heaven +near in Jerusalem quietly and gradually, and with a healthy mental +progress, as in Galilee, yet ... in the face of the irritability of his +opponents, in the face of the powerful means at their disposal of crushing +him ... there remained but one chance,--reckless publicity, the conquest +of the partially prepared nation by means, not of force, but of idea.... +He came staking his life upon the venture, but also believing that God +must finish his work through life or death" (JN V. 100f.). + +73. _The question about the resurrection_ was probably a familiar +Sadducean problem with which they made merry at the expense of the +scribes. On the resurrection in Jewish thought see Charles, _Eschatology, +Hebrew, Jewish, and Christian_, by index. For the scepticism of the +Sadducees see also Ac. xxiii. 8; Jos. Wars, ii, 8. 14. + +74. On the "_great commandment_" see EdersLJM II. 403 ff. + +75. The eschatological discourse presents serious exegetical difficulties. +Many cut the knot by assuming that Mk. xiii. and ∥s contain a little +Jewish apocalypse written shortly before the destruction of Jerusalem, +which has been blended with genuine predictions of Jesus concerning his +second coming. See Charles, _Eschatology_, 323-. 329; WendtLJ I. 9-21; +HoltzmannNtTH I. 325 ff.; and Bruce's criticism in _Expos. Gk. Test_. I. +287f., also Sanday's note in HastBD II. 635f. + +76. On _the relation of proselytes_ to Judaism see SchürerJPTX II. ii. +291-327. The synagogue in heathen lands drew to itself by its monotheism +and its pure ethics the finest spirits of paganism. But few of them, +however, submitted to circumcision, and became thus proselytes. Most of +them constituted the class of "them that fear God" to whom Paul constantly +appealed in his apostolic mission. The Greeks of Jn. xii. 20 ff. were +probably circumcised proselytes. + +77. On _Judas_ see Plummer in HastBD II. 796 ff.; EdersLJM II. 471-478; +WeissLX III. 285-289; AndLOL by index. De Quincey's essay on _Judas +Iscariot_ is an elaborate defence. + + +VII + +The Last Supper + +78. GilbertLJ 335-354; WeissLX III. 273-318; EdersLJM II. 479-532; AndLOL +450-497; KeimJN V. 275-343; BeysLJ II. 434-448; SandayHastBD II. 633-638. + +79. _The day of the last supper_. John seems clearly to place it on the +day before the Passover--13 Nisan. See xiii. I, 29; xviii. 28; xix. 14, +31, 42. Synoptists as clearly declare that the supper was prepared on the +"first day of unleavened bread, when they sacrificed the Passover" (Mk. +xiv. 12; see also Lk. xxii. 15); this is confirmed by the similarity +between the Passover ritual as tradition has preserved it, and the course +of events at the supper. Unless interpretation can remove the +contradiction, John must have the preference. WeissLX III. 273-282, BeysLJ +II. 390-399, accept John and correct the synoptists by him; thus the +supper anticipated the Passover. Some hold that John can be interpreted +harmoniously with synoptists, and be shown to indicate that the supper was +on the 14th Nisan. So EdersLJM II. 508, 566f., 612f.; AndLOL 452-481; +GilbertLJ 335-339. Others believe that a true interpretation of synoptists +shows that in calling the last supper a Passover they correctly represent +the character, but misapprehend the time, of the meal. For this argument +see Muirhead, _Times of Xt_, 163-169, and read SandayHastBD II. 633-636 +and his references. The debate is still on, but the advantage seems to be +with those who assign the supper to the 13th and the crucifixion to the +14th Nisan. + +80. _Did Jesus institute a memorial sacrament_? Read SandayHastBD II. +636-638, and Thayer, in Jour. Bib. Lit. 1899, 110-131; see also +McGiffert, _Apostolic Age_, 68 ff. note; HoltzmannNtTh I. 296-304. + +81. _The Passover ritual_. The order according to the rabbis was the +following: the first cup of wine and water was taken by the leader, who +gave thanks over it, and then it was shared by all (compare Lk. xxii. 17); +then the head of the company washed his hands--Dr. Edersheim connects with +this the washing of the disciples' feet, which changed the ceremony from +an act of distinction into one of humble service; after this the dishes +were brought on the table, then the leader dipped some of the bitter herbs +into salt water or vinegar, spoke a blessing, and partook of them, then +handed them to each of the company; then one of the loaves of unleavened +bread was broken; after this a second cup was filled, and before it was +drunk the significance of the Passover was explained by the leader in +reply to a question by the youngest of the company, after which the first +part of the Hallel (Ps. cxiii., cxiv.) was sung, and then the cup was +drunk; then followed the supper itself beginning with "the sop,"--a piece +of the paschal lamb, a piece of unleavened bread, and bitter herbs, +wrapped together and dipped in the vinegar,--which was passed around the +company (compare the sop which Jesus gave to Judas); after the supper came +a third cup, known as "the cup of blessing" (see I. Cor. x. 16); then +followed grace after meat; then a fourth cup, in connection with which the +remainder of the Hallel was sung (Ps. cxv. to cxviii.), followed by +certain other songs and prayers. See EdersLJM II. 496-512; AndLOL 488-494. + +82. _The washing of the disciples' feet_. John (xiii. 1-11) says this +occurred "during supper" (v. 2), and before the designation of the +traitor. Luke (xxii. 23-30) tells of a dispute about greatness among the +disciples. This dispute may have arisen over the assignment of places at +table (compare Lk. xiv. 7 ff.; Mk. x. 33-45); if so, the reason for the +lesson in humility is apparent. See AndLOL 482-484; EdersLJM II. 492-503. + +83. _Did Jesus twice predict Peter's denials_? Mark (xiv. 26-31) and +Matthew (xxvi. 30-35) place the prediction after the departure for +Gethsemane; Luke (xxii. 31-34) and John (xiii. 36-38), during the supper. +AndLOL 494 ff. thinks Peter was warned twice, EdersLJM. II. 535-537 holds +to one warning on the way to Gethsemane. Antecedent probability favors +this view. + +84. _Where in John should the institution of the sacrament be placed_? +Probably after the departure of Judas (Mark xiv. 21f.; Matt. xxvi. 26), +thus not before xiii. 30. The most likely place is between, verses 32 and +33. There is no break at this point, and it remains a mystery why John's +account of the passion omitted this central feature of early Christian +belief and practice. The omission argues for rather than against apostolic +authorship, as a forger would not have ventured to disregard the leading +service of the church in an account of the life of its Lord. See Westcott, +_Comm. on John_, 188. + +85. On the possible _disarrangement of the last discourses_ (xiii. 31 to +xvi. 33) in our text of John see Spitta, _Urchristentum_, I. 168-193; +Bacon, Jour. Bib. Lit. 1894, 64-76; Burton, Bib. Wld. 1899 I. 32. + + +VIII + +The Shadow of the Cross + +86. See GilbertLJ 354-384; AndLOL 497-588; WeissLX III. 319-381; BeysLJ I. +390-432, II. 448-473; EdersLJM II. 533-620; KeimJN VI. 1-274; SandayHastBD +II. 632f. + +87. On the location of _Gethsemane and Golgotha_ see AndLOL 499f., +575-588; and HastBD II. 164, 226f. + +88. On the progress of _Jesus' trial by the Jewish authorities, _ see +AndLOL 505-516; GilbertLJ 359-363. The _legality of the trial_ has been +carefully discussed by A. T. Innes, _The Trial of Jesus Christ_. + +89. On the form and sequence of _Peter's denials_, see Westcott, _Comm. +on John_, 263-266; AndLOL 516-521. + +90. The _Words from the Cross_. Matthew (xxvii. 46) and Mark (xv. 34) +report one; Luke (xxiii. 34?, 43, 46) adds three, omitting the one found +in Matthew and Mark; John adds three more (xix. 26f., 28, 30). Luke xxiii. +34 is bracketed by Westcott and Hort because omitted by a very important +group of MSS. ([Hebrew: aleph]^aBD*) and some early versions. The saying +is almost certainly authentic, though it may have been added to Luke by +some early copyist. See Westcott and Hort, _N.T. in Greek_, II. Appendix, +68; and Plummer, _Comm. on Luke_, 544f. + + +IX + +The Resurrection and Ascension + +91. Read SandayHastBD II. 638-643; see KeimJK VI. 274-383, for a still +valid criticism of the position of RévilleJN II. 428-478; see also WeissLX +III. 382-409; BeysLJ I. 433-481, II. 474-493; BovonNTTh I. 350-375; +GilbertLJ 385-405; Loofs, _Die Auferstehungsberichte und ihr Wert_; +EdersLJM II. 621-652; AndLOL 589-639. + +92. The last twelve verses of Mark (xvi. 9-20) are omitted by the oldest +MSS ([Hebrew: aleph]B) and by the recently discovered Sinaitic Syriac, as +well as by other versions and fathers. An Armenian MS. has been found +ascribing the section to one Ariston, or Aristion, a second century elder, +and this explanation of the origin of the verses is widely accepted. The +gospel cannot have ended with the words "for they were afraid," but no +satisfactory explanation of the condition of its text has been found. For +a recent hypothesis see Rohrbach, _Der Schluss des Markusevangeliums_; on +Aristion as the author, see Conybeare in Expos. IV. viii. (1893) 241, IV. +x. 219, V. ii. 401; see also SandayHastBD II. 638f., Bruce, _Expos. Gk. +Test_. I. 454f. For discussion of textual evidence see Westcott and Hort, +_NT in Greek_, II. Appendix, 28-51, and Burgon, _The last twelve verses +of St. Mark_ (a passionate defence). + +Luke xxiv. 51 is omitted by [Hebrew: aleph]*D and several old Latin MSS. +See Plummer and Bruce on the passage. + +93. "_After three days_." This formula, which appears often in Mark, is +altered in parallels in Matthew and Luke to "on the third day" (see +Concordance). Jesus died on Friday, lay in the tomb over Saturday, and +rose very early Sunday morning. Thus he spent a part of Friday, and a part +of Sunday, and all of Saturday in the grave. According to Jewish reckoning +this was counted three days. + +94. _Emmaus_. A village about 60 furlongs from Jerusalem. Cannot have been +the Emmaus in the Shephelah, 20 m. from Jerusalem. May have been el +Kubeibeh, 63 furlongs distant on the road from Jerusalem to Lydda. See +AndLOL 617-619; but also HastBD I. 700. + + + + +Part III.--The Minister + + +I + +The Friend of Men + +95. Head Mathews, _The Social Teachings of Jesus, _ especially 132-174; +see also Robinson, _The Saviour in the Newer Light_, 343 ff. + + +II + +The Teacher with Authority + +96. See WendtTJ I. 106-151; Stevens, _Theol. of the N.T._ 1-16; Beyschlag, +_N.T. Theology, I_. 31-34. In particular on the Parables see references in +sect. A 56. On the content of Jesus' teaching see WendtTJ 2 vols.; +Dalman, _Die Worte Jesu; Stevens, Theol. of the N.T._ 17-244; Beyschlag, +_N.T. Theol_. I. 27-299; Mathews, _Social Teaching of Jesus_; Gilbert, +_The Revelation of Jesus_; Bruce, _The Kingdom of God_. + + +III + +Jesus' Knowledge of Truth + +97. Adamson, _The Mind in Christ_; GilbertRJ 169f., 240-242; Schwartzkopf, +_The Prophecies of Jesus Christ_. + + +IV + +Jesus' Conception of Himself + +98. BaldSJ 125-282; Stalker, _Christology of Jesus_, HoltzmannNtTh I. +234-304; WendtTJ II. 122-183; GilbertRJ 167-228; Stevens, _Theol. of the +N.T._ 41-64, 199-212. On the title "Son of Man" see particularly DalmanWJ +I. 191-219; Charles, _Eschatology_, 214f. note; against, A. Meyer, _Jesu +Muttersprache_, 91-101, and others. See also HoltzmannNtTh I. +246-264. On the name "Son of God," see Dalman WJ I. 219-237; Holtzmann +NtTh I. 265-278; Stalker, _Christology_, 86-123; Gilbert, as above. On the +personal religion of Jesus see Burton, Bib. Wld. 1899, II. 394-403. For +the total impression of the character of Jesus, read Bushnell, _The +Character of Jesus_. + + + + +Indexes + + + + +Index of Names and Subjects + + + +[References are to pages.] + + +Ænon, site of, 288. +"After three days," 307. +Agrapha, 36, 149, 281. +Andrew, of Bethsaida, 92, 94, 118. +Angels, doctrine of, 10. +Annas, 191, 193, 194. +Antipas, 4, 192. +Apocalypse, 17f., 122, 124, 241. +Apocryphal gospels, 37, 281, 282. +Archelaus, 4, 5. +Aristion, author of Mark xvi. 9-20, 204f., 306f. +Assumption of Moses, 75 + +Baptism of John, see _John the Baptist_. +Baptism of Jesus, 83-86, 283f. +Barabbas, 174, 192. +Bethany beyond Jordan, 92, 284. +Bethany, supper at, 169, 301. +Bethsaida, site of, 290. +Books of reference, 273-277. +Brethren of Jesus, 63f., 283. + +Cæsarea Philippi;, 4, 291. + confession at, see _Peter_. +Caiaphas, 191, 193, 194. +Cana of Galilee, 95, 222, 286. +Cananeans or Zealots, party of, 11, 74. +Capernaum, site of, 290. +Census under Quirinius, 11, 52-55. +Chorazin, site of, 290. + +Dalmanutha, 291. +Dalmanutha, Books of, 17f., 241, 254f. +Decapolis, the, 140, 291. +Dedication, feast of, 150, 154. +Demoniac possession, 131-133, 245-248, 299. +Devout, the, 13, 17. +Diatessaron of Tatian, 38, 47, 281. +Doublets, 44, 281. +Draughts of fish, miraculous, 293. + +Emmaus, site of, 307. +Enoch, Book of, 241, 256-258. +Ephraim, site of, 300. +Essenes, manner of living, 11-12; + their hope of Messiah, 16; + their settlement, 73; + relation to John the Baptist, 73, 77. + +Five thousand, the feeding of, 135f., 291. + +Gadarenes, country of, 247, 290f. +Genealogies of Jesus, 282. +Gethsemane, 177, 186, 188f., 265, 305. +Golgotha, 305. + +Herod the Great, 3; + began to rebuild temple, 49; + census during his reign, 54. +Herod Antipas, 4, 192. +Herodians, 14, 173. + +James, brother of John, 92, 94, 118. +Jesus, language of, 19, 62, 279; + date of birth, 52-56; + the miraculous conception, 58-61; + growth, physical, intellectual, moral, and spiritual, 61-66; + his brothers and sisters, 64; + visit to Jerusalem in his twelfth year, 66-68; + life in Nazareth, 68f.; + his baptism, 83-86; + his temptation, 86-91; + his first disciples, 92-95; + at Cana, 95; + his social friendliness, 96, 219f.; + the cleansing of the temple, 108-110; + talk with Nicodemus, 111; + the woman of Samaria, 112; + cure of nobleman's son, 113; + in retirement in Galilee, 113f.; + call of four disciples, 118; + popular enthusiasm and pharisaic opposition, 119-121; + his withdrawals and injunctions of silence, 122 ff.; + blasphemy of the Pharisees, 124; + the reply to John's message, 125; + his twofold aim in Galilee, 126; + his method, 127; + the sermon on the mount, 127f.; + the parables, 128f., 231f., 296f.; + instruction of the twelve, 130, 297; + his mighty works, 131f.; + his personal influence, 133; + the feeding of the five thousand, 135f.; + the revulsion in popular feeling, 136; + the controversy about hand washing, 139; + the withdrawal to the north, 138; + the demand for a sign, 139; + disciples warned against the Pharisees, 139; + the question at Cæsarea Philippi, 141f.; + commendation of Peter, 143; + announcement of approaching death, 144; + rebuke of Peter, 145; + the transfiguration, 146f.; + the epileptic boy, 147; + rebuke of worldly ambition, 147f.; + Jesus and his brethren, 148; + at the feast of Tabernacles, 148; + return to Galilee, 150; + final departure from Galilee, 154; + the mission of the seventy, 158; + visit to the feast of Dedication, 159; + in Perea, 160; + the summons to Bethany, 161f.; + official determination to get rid of him, 161; + at Ephraim, 162; + question about divorce, 154; + blessing little children, 154; + the rich young ruler, 154; + request of Salome, 163; + Bartimeus, 163; + Zacchæus, 163; + anointing at Bethany, 169; + the Messianic entry, 170f.; + the barren fig-tree, 172; + the questions of the leaders, 173f.; + counter question, 175; + denunciation of scribes, 175; + the widow's mites, 176; + visit of the Greeks. 176f.; + the eschatological discourse, 178; + bargain of Judas, 169, 178f.; + the last supper, 181-184; + dispute and foot washing, 184; + withdrawal of Judas, 184; + prediction of Peter's denials, 185; + discourse and prayer, 185-187; + Gethsemane, 188-190; + betrayal and arrest, 190f.; + trial by Jews, 191f.; + trial by Pilate, 192-194; + crucifixion, 195-198; + burial of Jesus, 199; + the resurrection, 201-210; + the ascension, 214f.; + Jesus' attitude to common life, 219-223; + his hunger for sympathy, 223; + Jesus as a teacher, 226f.; + his attitude to Old Testament, 227-229; + his confidence in men, 230f.; + his use of illustration, 231-233; + his alertness of mind, 234; + his leading ideas, 235 ff.; + his supernatural knowledge, 239-244; + his confession of ignorance, 243; + his kinship with men, 244f.; + treatment of demoniac possession, 245-248; + his certainty of his Messianic call, 249-254; + his adoption of Messianic titles, 254-264; + his consciousness of dependence on God, 264-266; + the problem of Jesus, 267-269. +John, Gospel of, 32-36, 40f., 181, 280, 305. +John the Baptist, 70-81; + notice by Josephus, 71f., 279f.; + his idea of the kingdom of God, 73; + his relation to current thought, 73-76; + his baptism, 77f., 83; + baptism of Jesus, 82-84; + the embassy from the priests, 92; + testimony--"the Lamb of God," 93, 286; + baptizing at Ænon, 112; + his self-effacing witness to Jesus, 79, 112; + hostility of the Pharisees, 113, 289; + arrest by Antipas, 71f., 113; + his message to Jesus, 125; + death in prison, 134f.; his significance, 79-81, 226; + the disciples of John, 112, 283; + literature about John, 283. +John, son of Zebedee, 36, 92, 94, 118, 193,269. +John of Gischals, 121. +Joseph of Arimathea, 182, 199. +Josephus, 22; + notice of John the Baptist, 71, 279f. +Judas of Galilee, 11, 121. +Judas the betrayer, 169, 181, 302; + the bargain, 178; + his selection as an apostle, 179; + his criticism of Mary at Bethany, 179; + his kiss, 190; + his remorse, 179. +Judea, province of, 6f. + +Kingdom of God, 68, 86, 90, 173, 190, 231, 232, 235 ff., 238, 241. + +Language used by Jesus, 19, 62, 279. +Last supper, the, 181-187, 303-305. +Lawyers, see _Scribes_. +Length of Jesus' ministry, 45-49. +Literature of the Jews, 18f., 279. +"Logia," ascribed to Matthew, 32, 42, 158. +Luke, Gospel of, 26f., 31f., 280. + +Mark, Gospel of, 25f., 27, 29, 32, 40, 42, 280, 294f.; + last twelve verses of, 204f., 306f. +Mary Magdalene, 134, 208. +Mary, the mother of Jesus, 59; + had other children, 60, 63f., 283. +Matthew, Gospel of, 23 ff., 27, 30f., 32, 280. +Messianic entry into Jerusalem, 170, 301f. +Messianic hope, the, 16-18, 87, 175, 279. +Miracles of Jesus, 96, 267, 286f. +Miraculous birth, the, 57-61, 232. +Mission of the twelve, 130, 297. +Mission of the seventy, 158, 300f. + +Nathanael, of Cana, 92, 94, 286. +Nazareth, the view from, 65f. + rejection at, 292. +Nicodemus, 111, 199. + +Papias, 22, 29, 34, 47, 102, 281. +Parables of Jesus, 128f., 231f., 296f. +Passover, the, 181, 187, 304. +Paul, 21, 36, 201, 206, 268. +Pentateuch, Jesus' references to, 244. +Perea, 104, 153f., 158, 299f. +Peter, 29, 34, 92, 94, 118, 185, 193, 305, 306; + confession of, 136, 142 ff., 297f. +Pharisees, the, 8-10; + attitude to John the Baptist, 82, 113, 289; + their blasphemy, 124, 156; + question about divorce, 154; + about tribute, 173; + about the great commandment, 174, 302. +Philip of Bethsaida, 92, 94, 176. +Philip the tetrarch, 4. +Pliny the younger, 21. +Pontius Pilate, 5, 192, 195. +Priests, the, 7f., 107; + and the temple market, 108. +Proselytes, 78, 176, 302. +Psalms, Jesus' use of the, 244. +Psalms of Solomon, 18, 261. +Publicans, 6, 72, 222. + +Quirinius, census under, 52-55. + +Religion of Jesus, 264 ff., 308. +Resurrection, pharisaic doctrine of, 10, 241; + Sadducean rejection of 10, 174. + +Sadducees, the, 8, 16, 82; + the question about the resurrection, 174, 303; + attitude towards Jesus, 193. +Samaria, 6f. + Jesus' journey through, 112. +Samaritans, how regarded, 14. +Sanhedrin, the great, at Jerusalem, 7, 13, 192. +Scribes, their business, 9; + power in the sanhedrin, 13; + their influence over the religious life, 14; + their hope of a Messiah, 16; + their washings, 78; + chief of them at Jerusalem, 107; + their pride of learning and their bondage to tradition, 228. +Sermon on the mount, 127, 290, 295f. +Signs, essential marks of the Messiah, 95, 131. +Soldiers in Palestine, 6, 72, 191. +Son of Man, the, 124f., 130f., 254-260, 308. +Son of God, the, 260-264, 308. +Star of the wise men, 56. +Suetonius, 21. +Sychar, site of, 288. +Synagogue, the, 14. +Synoptic gospels, 28. +Synoptic problem, 27-32, 279f. + +Tabernacles, feast of, 148, 150, 298f. +Tacitus, 3, 21, 54. +Tatian, 23, 38, 47, 281. +Taxes, Roman, in Judea, 6. +Temple at Jerusalem, 107; + market in 107; + cleansing of, 107, 288f. +Temptation of Jesus, 86-91, 145, 284; + locality of, 285; + source of the record, 90, 285. +Tertullian, 45, 53. +Thomas, 208. +Tiberius, 1, 21, 50. +Traditions of the elders, 9, 15f., 68, 74, 139. +Transfiguration, the, 146f., 292. +Trial of Jesus, the, 191-195, 305. + +Words from the cross, 196 ff., 306. + +Zealots, the, 11, 74, 122, 124. + + + + +Index of Scripture References + + + +Ex. + +iv. 22 261 +xix. 10 78 +xxiv. 1-11 183 + + + +Lev. + +xii. 8 61 +xxiii. 5-11 47 + + + +Num. + +xxiii. 19 254 + + + +Deut. + +vi. 4-9 62 +viii. 3 88 +xviii. 15 92 +xxi. 23 196 + + + +I. Sam. + +ii. 26 61 + + + +I. Kings. + +xvii. 1 72 + + + +II. Kings. + +i. 8 +xvii. 24-41 14 + + + +Ps. + +ii. 7 261 +viii. 4 254 +xxii. 196 +lxxx. 17 254 +lxxxii. 6 261 +ciii. 13 262 +cxiii., cxiv. 304 +cxv. to cxviii. 185, 304 + + + +Isa. + +i. 16 76 +vi. 5 267 +xi. 2 85 +xxxv. 5f. 126 +xlii. 1 85 +li. 2 254 +liii. 96, 239 +liii. 7 93 +lviii. 76 +lxi. 1f. 45, 85, 126 +lxiii. 16 262 + + + +Jer. + +xxxi. 31-34 111, 183 + + + +Ezek. + +ii. 1 254 +xxxiii. 10-20 240 +xxxvi. 25-27 111 + + +Dan. + +vi. 10 107 +vii. 1-14 254 +vii. 13f. 255 +viii. 17 254 + + +Hos. + +i. 10 261 + + +Joel. + +ii. 1-14 76 + + +Micah. + +vi. 8 76 + + +Matt. + +i. 1 to iv. 17 23 +ii. 1, 2 52 +iii. 7 74 +iii. 9 78 +iii. 10-12 82 +iii. 11 77 +iii. 14 82 +iii. 15 83 +iii. 16 285 +iv. 4, 7, 10 228 +iv. 7 89 +iv. 8 90 +iv. 10 90, 145 +iv. 12 101, 102, 106, 289 +iv. 12-17 24, 39, 115 +iv. 12 to xviii. 35 102 +iv. 13 106 +iv. 13-16 115 +iv. 17 118 +iv. 18-22 106, 115 +iv. 18 to xvi. 20 24 +iv. 23 115 +iv. 23-25 115 +v. 1 290 +v. 3-12 296 +v. 13-16 296 +v. 17 83, 228 +v. 17-19 296 +v. 18 238 +v. 20 296 +v. 21-48 228, 296 +v. 25f. 295 +v. 29f. 295 +v. 32 295 +v. 38, 39 250 +v. 45 244 +vi. 1-6 84 +vi. 1-18 64, 296 +vi. 2-4 176 +vi. 9-15 4, 117, 295 +vi. 19-34 103, 295 +vi. 24 179 +vi. 25-34 42 +vii. 1-6 296 +vii. 7-11 117, 295 +vii. 13f. 295 +vii. 15-21 296 +vii. 21 262 +vii. 21-27 238 +vii. 22f. 295 +vii. 24-27 296 +vii. 28, 29 226, 249 +viii. 2-4 115 +viii. 5 7 +viii. 5, 8 43 +viii. 5-13 41, 115, 288, 289 +viii. 10 243 +viii. 10-12 24 +viii. 14-17 115 +viii. 18, 23-27 116 +viii. 19-22 153 +viii. 20 259 +viii. 28-34 116 +ix. 1, 18-26 116 +ix. 2-8 115 +ix. 9-13 115 +ix. 14-17 115 +ix. 27-34 116 +ix. 35 116 +ix. 36 to xi. 1 116, 118, 297 +x. 1, 5-15 297 +x. 5f. 130 +x. 7-15 297 +x. 16-42 297 +x. 32 262 +xi. 2-6 251 +xi. 2-19 41, 116 +xi. 4-6 131 +xi. 11 80 +xi. 18f. 259 +xi. 19 96, 220, 256 +xi. 20-24 301 +xi. 20-30 153 +xi. 25-30 300 +xi. 27 252, 263 +xi. 28-30 160 +xii. 1-8 115 +xii. 9-14 115 +xii. 12 227 +xii. 15-21 115 +xii. 22-45 116, 156 +xii. 28 85, 248 +xii. 46-50 116 +xii. 50 145 +xiii. 1-53 116, 296 +xiii. 24-30 296 +xiii. 31-33 44, 17 +xiii. 40-43, 49, 50 296 +xiii. 54-58 116, 292 +xiii. 55 61, 63 +xiv. 1-12 116 +xiv. 1 to xxviii. 20 28 +xiv. 13-23 39, 116, 297 +xiv. 19 46 +xiv. 21-36 116 +xv. 1 43 +xv. 1-20 116 +xv. 13f. 150 +xv. 21-28 116 +xv. 21-31 140 +xv. 22 254 +xv. 24 130 +xv. 29-31 117 +xv. 32-38 117, 297 +xv. 39 291 +xv. 39 to xvi. 12 17 +xvi. 9f. 297 +xvi. 13-20 94, 117, 298 +xvi. 16 263 +xvi. 16ff. 142 +xvi. 17 142, 224, 262 +xvi. 21 118, 239 +xvi. 21-28 117 +xvi. 21 to xxviii. 20 24 +xvi. 23 239 +xvii. 1-13 117 +xvii. 10-13 193 +xvii. 14-20 117 +xvi. 22-23 117 +xvii. 24-27 117, 139 +xviii. 1-35 117, 148 +xviii. 4 220 +xviii. 12-14 44 +xix. 1f. 39, 153, 154, 298 +xix. 1 to xx. 34 104 +xix. 3-9 228 +xix. 3-12 153 +xix. 13-15 153 +xix. 16 to xx. 16 153 +xx. 17-19 153 +xx. 20-28 153 +xx. 29-34 153 +xxi. 1-11 166 +xxi. 1 to xxvii. 66 104 +xxi. 1 to xxviii. 20 39 +xxi. 4f. 170 +xxi. 9-15 254 +xxi. 14-16 172 +xxi. 17 166 +xxi. 18-19, 12-17 166 +xxi. 20-23 166 +xxi. 23-27 166 +xxi. 28 to xxii. 14 166, 173 +xxi. 33-46 25, 252 +xxii. 1-14 252 +xxii. 15-22 166 +xxii. 23-33 166 +xxii. 34-46 166, 238 +xxii. 41-46 166 +xxiii. 1-39 166 +xxiii. 2 13 +xxiii. 24 233 +xxiii. 37-39 34, 106 +xxiv. 1 to xxvi. 2 167 +xxiv. 6-13 166 +xxv. 178 +xxv. 37-46 237 +xxv. 40 221 +xxvi. 1f. 147 +xxvi. 2, 6-13 301 +xxvi. 3-5, 14-16 167 +xxvi. 11-13 167 +xxvi. 20 181 +xxvi. 25 200 +xxvi. 26 305 +xxvi. 30, 36-46 167 +xxvi. 30-35 305 +xxvi. 47-56 167 +xxvi. 57 to xxvii. 10 167 +xxvi. 63f. 263 +xxvii. 11-31 167 +xxvii. 32-56 167 +xxvii. 43 261 +xxvii. 46 197, 306 +xxvii. 50 285 +xxvii. 57 34 +xxvii. 57-61 167 +xxvii. 62-66 167 +xxviii. 1-8 201 +xxviii. 9, 10 201 +xxviii. 11-15 201 +xxviii. 16-20 201, 204 +xxviii. 18-20 25 + + +Mark. + +i. 1-13 26 +i. 3 79 +i. 4 77 +i. 7f. 93 +i. 10 84 +i. 11 68, 84, 261 +i. 14 101, 102, 106, 289 +i. 14f. 39, 115 +i. 14 to ix. 50 26, 102 +i. 16-20 115 +i. 21-34 115 +i. 24 254 +i. 27 249 +i. 35 265 +i. 35-39 253 +i. 35-45 115 +ii. 1-12 47, 115, 230, 294 +ii. 1-17 48 +ii. 1 to iii. 6 47, 48, 250, 204f. +ii. 5 239 +ii. 6f. 121 +ii. 10 28, 256, 259 +ii. 10, 28 and ∥s 256 +ii. 12 25 +ii. 13-17 47, 115, 294 +ii. 15-17 96 +ii. 16 47, 121 +ii. 18-22 26, 47, 115 +ii. 20 239 +ii. 23 47 +ii. 23-28 115, 229, 294f. +ii. 25-27 228 +ii. 27 257 +ii. 44 253 +iii. 1-6 26, 115, 295 +iii. 7-12 115 +iii. 11 261 +iii. 13-19 115, 295 +iii. 17, 41 25 +iii. 19-30 40, 42, 116 +iii. 21, 31-35 59, 97 +iii. 22 34, 121 +iii. 22-30 156 +iii. 28-30 251 +iii. 31-35 59, 97, 116 +iv. 1-34 116, 232, 296 +iv. 3 64 +iv. 12 129 +iv. 13 129 +iv. 26-29 296 +iv. 35-41 116 +v. 1 290 +v. 1-20 116 +v. 7 261 +v. 11-13 139 +v. 21-43 116 +v. 30-34 243 +v. 41 20 +vi. 1-6 43, 116, 292 +vi. 2f. 220 +vi. 6b 116 +vi. 7-11 297 +vi. 7-13 116, 147 +vi. 14-29 116 +vi. 15 290 +vi. 30-34 47 +vi. 30-46 39, 40, 116, 297 +vi. 39 46 +vi. 47-56 116 +vii. 1 34 +vii. 1-23, 48 48, 116, 121, 139, 250 +vii. 6-13 233 +vii. 8-13 10 +vii. 10 244 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47f. 254 +x. 48 163 +xi. 1-11 166 +xi. 1 to xv. 47 104 +xi. 1 to xvi. 8 [20] 39 +xi. 2f. 34 +xi. 2-5 112 +xi. 8-10 162 +xi. 9f. 170 +xi. 12-14, 15-18 166 +xi. 12-14, 20-25 172 +xi. 14-36 42 +xi. 15-19 43, 288 +xi. 17 108 +xi. 19 166 +xi. 20-27 166 +xi. 25 295 +xi. 27-33 166 +xi. 29-33 173 +xii. 1-12 166 +xii. 13-17 166, 173 +xii. 16 227 +xii. 18-27 166, 174 +xii. 24-27 228 +xii. 27 186 +xii. 28-34 166, 174 +xii. 35-37 166, 245 +xii. 38-40 166 +xii. 41-44 166 +xiii. and ∥s 178, 241, 302 +xiii. 1-37 167 +xiii. 24-27 238 +xiii. 32 243, 247, 252, 263 +xiv. 1f., 10f. 167 +xiv. 3 169 +xiv. 3-9 166, 301 +xiv. 3-11 169 +xiv. 8 169 +xiv. 12 303 +xiv. 12-16 112 +xiv. 12-26 167 +xiv. 14 34 +xiv. 17 181 +xiv. 18-21 184 +xiv. 20 185 +xiv. 21 180 +xiv. 26, 32-42 167 +xiv. 26-31 305 +xiv. 33f. 186 +xiv. 34 145 +xiv. 36 20, 189, 239, 265 +xiv. 43-52 167 +xiv. 45 190 +xiv. 50 182 +xiv. 53 to xv. 1 190 +xiv. 61 167 +xiv. 61f. 254, 261 +xiv. 61-64 263 +xiv. 62 191 +xiv. 66-72 85, 258 +xv. 1 192 +xv. 1-20 167 +xv. 2 254 +xv. 6-15 192 +xv. 21 182, 195 +xv. 21-41 167 +xv. 22 305 +xv. 34 20, 197, 306 +xv. 42 182 +xv. 42-47 167 +xv. 43 34 +xv. 46 182 +xvi. 1 202 +xvi. 1-8 201 +xvi. 6f. 209 +xvi. [9-20] 204f., 306 +xvi. [9-11] 201 +xvi. [12f.] 201 +xvi. [14] 201 +xvi. [15-18] 201 +xvi. [19f.] 201 + + + +Luke. + + +i. 1-4 26, 42 +i. 3 41 +i. 5 52 +i. 36 82 +i. 46-55 60 +i. 68-79 68-79 +i. 80 61 +ii. 1f. 52 +ii. 8 56 +ii. 19-51 59 +ii. 24 61 +ii. 40-52 61 +ii. 41 62, 107 +ii. 48 97 +ii. 49 67, 262 +ii. 52 63, 69 +iii. 1f. 45, 49, 52 +iii. 13f. 74 +iii. 15 94 +iii. 21 64, 82, 85, 265 +iii. 23 52 +iv. 5 90 +iv. 13 87, 146 +iv. 14 101, 102, 289 +iv. 14, 15 39, 115, 292 +iv. 14 to ix. 50 26, 102 +iv. 16 62 +iv. 16-19 63 +iv. 16-30 43, 116, 292 +iv. 23 292 +iv. 31 106, 115 +iv. 31-41 115 +iv. 42-44 115 +v. 1-11 115, 293 +v. 4-11 43 +v. 12-16 115 +v. 17 34 +v. 17-26 115 +v. 24 28 +v. 27-32 115 +v. 33-39 115 +vi. 1-5 115 +vi. 6-11 115 +vi. 12 84, 265, 290 +vi. 12-19 115, 295 +vi. 17 290 +vi. 20 222 +vi. 20 to vii. 1 115, 295 +vi. 20-26 296 +vi. 27-42 296 +vi. 43-46 296 +vi. 47-49 296 +vii. 1-10 41, 115, 288, 289 +vii. 2-5 7 +vii. 7 43 +vii. 11-17 42, 116 +vii. 18-35 41, 116 +vii. 36-50 42, 116, 224 +vii. 47 239 +viii. 1-3 116 +viii. 4-18 116, 296 +viii. 19-21 116 +viii. 22-25 116 +viii. 26 290 +viii. 26-39 116 +viii. 40-56 116 +ix. 1-6 116, 297, 300 +ix. 7-9 116 +ix. 10-17 39, 116, 297 +ix. 11 135 +ix. 18 265 +ix. 18-21 117, 298 +ix. 22-27 117 +ix. 28f. 84, 146 +ix. 28-36 117 +ix. 29 265 +ix. 31 146 +ix. 37-42 117 +ix. 43-45 117 +ix. 46-50 117 +ix. 51 39, 157 +ix. 51f. 158, 298 +ix. 51-62 153 +ix. 51 to xviii. 40, 42, 104, 154, 156 +ix. 51 to xix. 27 26 +ix. 57-62 156 +x. 1 158, 301 +x. 3-12 297 +x. 1-24 153, 300 +x. 13-16 301 +x. 17-20 301 +x. 17-24 160 +x. 18 248 +x. 22 252, 263, 300 +x. 25-37 34, 153, 159, 227 +x. 28-37 159 +x. 38-42 34, 111, 153 +xi. 1 42, 265 +xi. 1-4 42, 295 +xi. 1-13 117 +xi. 9-13 295 +xi. 14-36 40, 116, 156 +xi. 34-36 295 +xi. 37-52 156 +xi. 37-54 154, 164 +xii. 1-12 156 +xii. 1-59 154, 164, 165 +xii. 13-21 117 +xii. 22-31 42 +xii. 22-34 103, 516, 295 +xii. 49-53 165 +xii. 58f. 295 +xiii. 1-9 154, 161, 164 +xiii. 10-17 117 +xiii. 18-21 44, 117, 296 +xiii. 22 157 +xiii. 22-30 153, 164 +xiii. 24 295 +xiii. 31f. 171, 193 +xiii. 31-35 153, 168 +xiii. 32 5 +xiii. 34f. 34, 106, 224 +xiii. 35 252 +xiv. 1-24 117 +xiv. 7ff. 304 +xiv. 15-24 161 +xiv. 25-35 154, 156, 164, 165 +xiv. 26 233 +xv. 1f. 96 +xv. 1 to xvi. 31 117 +xv. 4-7 44 +xv. 7 233 +xv. 11-32 232 +xvi. 13 295 +xvi. 22 247 +xvi. 31 229 +xvii. 1-4 117 +xvii. 11 157 +xvii. 11-19 153 +xvii. 20-37 154 +xviii. 1-8 154, 164 +xviii. 9-14 154, 159 +xviii. 15-17 153 +xviii. 15 to xix. 28 104 +xviii. 18-30 153 +xviii. 31-34 153 +xviii. 34 203 +xviii. 35-43 153 +xviii. 35 to xix. 28 155, 164 +xix. 1-10 154 +xix. 11-28 154, 163 +xix. 28 to xxiv. 53 27 +xix. 29-44 166 +xix. 29 to xxiii. 56 104 +xix. 29 to xxiii. 53 39 +xix. 37-40 162 +xix. 39 170 +xix. 41-44 170 +xix. 45f. 289 +xix. 45-47f. 166 +xix. 47 172 +xx. 1 166 +xx. 1-8 166 +xx. 9-19 166 +xx. 20-26 166 +xx. 27-40 166 +xx. 41-44 166 +xx. 45-47 166 +xxi. 1-4 166 +xxi. 5-38 167 +xxii. 37-38 166 +xxii. 1-6 167 +xxii. 7-30 167 +xxii. 14 181 +xxii. 15 181, 183, 303 +xxii. 17 304 +xxii. 17-20 185 +xxii. 19 184 +xxii. 23-30 304 +xxii. 28 87 +xxii. 31-34 185, 305 +xxii. 39-46 167 +xxii. 47-53 167 +xxii. 54-71 167 +xxii. 61f. 193 +xxii. 66-71 192 +xxii. 70 263 +xxiii. 1f. 192 +xxiii. 1-25 167 +xxiii. 4 192 +xxiii. 5-12 192 +xxiii. 13-16 192 +xxiii. 16-24 192 +xxiii. 26-49 167 +xxiii. 27-31 195 +xxiii. 34 197, 306, 307 +xxiii. 43 197, 306 +xxiii. 46 64, 197, 265, 306 +xxiii. 50-56 167 +xxiii. 56 182 +xxiv. 1-12 201 +xxiv. 12 205 +xxiv. 13-35 201 +xxiv. 21 200, 203 +xxiv. 36-43 201 +xxiv. 41-43 213 +xxiv. 44-53 201 +xxiv. 50 205 +xxiv. 51 214, 307 + + + +John. + + +i. 14 58, 269 +1. 19 to iv. 42 40, 101 +i. 25 78 +i. 26f. 93 +i. 28 92, 284 +i. 29 93 +i. 29-36 80 +i. 30-34 93 +i. 31 82 +i. 32-34 84 +i. 35f. 93 +i. 38 20, 226 +i. 40f., 43-45 92 +i. 41-45 142 +i. 42-47 239 +i. 44 290 +i. 49 94, 142, 254, 261, 263 +i. 51 95 +ii. 3-5 97 +ii. 11 222 +ii. 12 97 +ii. 13 46 +ii. 13-22 43, 106, 288 +ii. 16 262 +ii. 20 49 +ii. 22 96 +ii. 23 to iii. 15 106 +ii. 25 68, 141, 234, 239 +iii. 2 226 +iii. 16-21,30-36 32 +iii. 22-30 106 +iii. 24 46, 101 +iii. 23 288 +iii. 24,35 113 +iii. 30 80 +iii. 34 85, 86 +iv. 1-3 113 +iv. 1-3, 44 112 +iv. 1-4 289 +iv. 1-42 106 +iv. 1-45 102 +iv. 21-24 109 +iv. 25 14 +iv. 26 254 +iv. 30 95 +iv. 34 265 +iv. 35 107, 288, 293 +iv. 42 40 +iv. 43-45 39, 106, 286 +iv. 46-54 102, 106, 115, 289 +v. 1 40, 48, 293 +v. 1-9 32 +v. 1-47 102, 115 +v. 17 262 +v. 19 264 +v. 25 263 +v. 30 265 +v. 39 229 +vi. 1-15 39, 116 +vi. 1-71 102 +vi. 4 46, 138, 293 +vi. 14 25 +vi. 14f. 119 +vi. 15 89, 120, 135, 170 +vi. 16-21 116 +vi. 22-71 116 +vi. 30-32 87 +vi. 38 189, 265 +vi. 64 178, 180 +vi. 66 136 +vi. 67 225 +vi. 67-71 298 +vi. 68 81, 123 +vi. 68f. 142 +vi. 69 254 +vii. 1-10 39, 298 +vii. 1-52 117 +vii. 1 to viii. 59 103, 149 +vii. 2 138 +vii. 2-5 148 +vii. 5 64 +vii. 10 150 +vii. 15 235 +vii. 22 244 +vii. 23 32 +vii. 24 227 +vii. 25,32 160 +vii. 31 95 +vii. 32 299 +vii. 36 149 +vii. 40 254 +vii. 45-52 299 +vii. 49 13, 220 +vii. 50-52 111 +vii. 53 to viii. 11 37, 117, 149, 157 +viii. 12-59 117 +viii. 14 248 +viii. 15 157 +viii. 46 83, 266 +viii. 59 160, 299 +ix. 1 to x. 39 153 +ix. 1 to xi. 57 104 +ix. 10 158, 159 +ix. 35 263 +ix. 35-38 156 +x. 11-18 159 +x. 18 89 +x. 21 159 +x. 22 150, 155, 298 +x. 22, 40-42 58 +x. 24-39 159 +x. 25 161, 262 +x. 29 265 +x. 30 264 +x. 31-39 160 +x. 32 233 +x. 34 261 +x. 36 263 +x. 39 156 +x. 40 154, 155, 301 +x. 40-42 153, 160 +xi. 1-7 155 +xi. 1-46 153, 161 +xi. 4 263 +xi. 6 161 +xi. 34 243, 258 +xi. 41f. 161, 265 +xi. 47-50 193 +xi. 47-54 153, 161 +xi. 54 155, 162, 300 +xi. 55 to xii. 11 166 +xi. 55 to xix. 42 104 +xii. 1 46, 102, 163, 301 +xii. 1 to xxi. 25 39 +xii. 2 169 +xii. 4-8 301 +xii. 6 178 +xii. 7 169 +xii. 12f. 170 +xii. 12-19 166 +xii. 20-36 166, 176, 302 +xii. 23-36 168 +xii. 36^b(-50) 166 +xii. 37-43 32 +xiii. 1 181, 303 +xiii. 1-15 234, 304 +xiii. 1-30 167 +xiii. 21-30 184 +xiii. 23-26 185 +xiii. 29 178, 303 +xiii. 31 to xvi. 33 32, 167, 305 +xiii. 32f. 305 +xiii. 36-38 305 +xiv. 6-11 264 +xiv. 10 161, 265 +xiv. 28 265 +xiv. 30f. 32 +xv. 32, 167, 305 +xv. 1 262 +xvi. 32, 167, 305 +xvi. 25 264 +xvii. 1-26 167 +xvii. 21 264 +xviii. 1 167 +xviii. 1-12 167 +xviii. 8 190 +xviii. 11^b 189 +xviii. 12-27 167 +xviii. 15 193 +xviii. 28 182, 303 +xviii. 28 to xix. 16 167 +xviii. 31 192 +xviii. 33, 36f. 254 +xix. 7-12 192 +xix. 12-16 193 +xix. 14 606 +xix. 16-37 167 +xix. 19-22 198 +xix. 25 97 +xix. 26 97 +xix. 26f. 197, 306 +xix. 28 197, 306 +xix. 30 197, 306 +xix. 31 182, 199, 303 +xix. 31-37 198 +xix. 38 34 +xix. 38-42 167 +xix. 39 111 +xix. 42 303 +xx. 1-10 201 +xx. 2 206 +xx. 5-8 43 +xx. 8 203 +xx. 9 200 +xx. 9f., 24f. 93, 94 +xx. 14-18 201 +xx. 17 209, 214 +xx 19-25 201 +xx. 21 23 +xx. 26-29 201 +xx. 30 49 +xx. 30f. 32, 107 +xxi. 206 +xxi. 2 92 +xxi. 1-24 201 +xxi. 3-14 293 +xxi. 25 39 + + + +Acts. + + +i. 1-11 214 +i. 1-12 201 +i. 14 97 +ii. 36 202 +v. 36 89 +v. 37 53 +vii. 56 254 +xvii. 31 202 +xix. 1-7 80 +xx. 35 36 +xxi. 38 89 +xxiii. 8 302 + + + +Rom. + + +i. 3 21 +i. 4 202 +v. 19 21 +ix. 5 21 +xv. 3 21 + + + +I. Cor. + + +i. 23 190 +v. 7 183 +ix. 1 202 +x. 16 304 +xv. 202 +xv. 3-8 21, 105, 204 +xv. 4 204, 213 +xv. 5 201 +xv. 6 201 +xv. 6f. 162 +xv. 7 201 + + + +II. Cor. + + +v. 21 83 +viii. 9 21 +x. l 21 +xii. 212 + + + +Gal. + + +iii. 13 190 + + + +Phil. + + +ii. 5-11 21, 269 +ii. 7f. 190, 285 +ii. 8 196 + + + +II. Tim. + + +iii. 15 63 + + + +Heb. + + +ii. 17 61 +ii. 17f. 64 +ii. 18 87 +iv. 15 61, 63, 67 +v. 7 147 +v. 7-9 87 +vii. 26 57 +xii. 2 190 +xii. 13 190 + + + +I. Pet. + + +ii. 22 83 + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's The Life of Jesus of Nazareth, by Rush Rhees + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE LIFE OF JESUS OF NAZARETH *** + +***** This file should be named 13228-0.txt or 13228-0.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/1/3/2/2/13228/ + +Produced by Distributed Proofreaders + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, +set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to +copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to +protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. 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Thus, we do not necessarily +keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. + +Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: + + https://www.gutenberg.org + +This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, +including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary +Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to +subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. + + diff --git a/old/13228-0.zip b/old/13228-0.zip Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..69063e1 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/13228-0.zip diff --git a/old/13228-8.txt b/old/13228-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..1a0469d --- /dev/null +++ b/old/13228-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,10009 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Life of Jesus of Nazareth, by Rush Rhees + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Life of Jesus of Nazareth + +Author: Rush Rhees + +Release Date: August 20, 2004 [EBook #13228] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE LIFE OF JESUS OF NAZARETH *** + + + + +Produced by Distributed Proofreaders + + + + +[Transcriber's note: Superscripted letters and numbers have been marked +with a preceding caret (^).] + + + + +The Life of Jesus of Nazareth + +_A Study_ + +By + +Rush Rhees + +1902 + + + + +_Copyright, 1900,_ +By Charles Scribner's Sons + + + + +To + +C. W. McC. + +In Recognition of Wise Counsel, Generous Help and Loving Appreciation + + + + +"_I would preach ... the need to the world of the faith +in a Christ, the claim that Jesus is the Christ, and the demand +for an intelligent faith, which indeed shall transcend but shall +not despise knowledge, or neglect to have a knowledge to +transcend._"--John Patterson Coyle + + + + +Preface + + + +The aim of this book is to help thoughtful readers of the gospels to +discern more clearly the features of him whom those writings inimitably +portray. It is avowedly a study rather than a story, and as a companion to +the reading of the gospels it seeks to answer some of the questions which +are raised by a sympathetic consideration of those narratives. These +answers are offered in an unargumentative way, even where the questions +are still in debate among scholars. This method has been adopted because +technical discussion would be of interest to but few of those whom the +book hopes to serve. On some of the questions a non-committal attitude is +taken in the belief that for the understanding of the life of Jesus it is +of little importance which way the decision finally goes. Less attention +has been given to questions of geography and archæology than to those +which have a more vital biographical significance. + +A word concerning the point of view adopted. The church has inherited a +rich treasure of doctrine concerning its Lord, the result of patient study +and, frequently, of heated controversy. It is customary to approach the +gospels with this interpretation of Christ as a premise, and such a study +has some unquestionable advantages. With the apostles and evangelists, +however, the recognition of the divine nature of Jesus was a conclusion +from their acquaintance with him. The Man of Nazareth was for them +primarily a man, and they so regarded him until he showed them that he was +more. Their knowledge of him progressed in the natural way from the human +to the divine. The gospels, particularly the first three, are marvels of +simplicity and objectivity. Their authors clearly regarded Jesus as the +Man from heaven; yet in their thinking they were dominated by the +influence of a personal Lord rather than by the force of an accepted +doctrine. It is with no lack of reverence for the importance and truth of +the divinity of Christ that this book essays to bring the Man Jesus before +the mind in the reading of the gospels. The incarnation means that God +chose to reveal the divine through a human life, rather than through a +series of propositions which formulate truth (Heb. i. 1-4). The most +perennially refreshing influence for Christian life and thought is +personal discipleship to that Revealer who is able to-day as of old to +exhibit in his humanity those qualities which compel the recognition of +God manifest in the flesh. + +An Appendix is added to furnish references to the wide literature of the +subject for the aid of those who wish to study it more extensively and +technically; also to discuss some questions of detail which could not be +considered in the text. This appendix will indicate the extent of my +indebtedness to others. I would acknowledge special obligation to +Professor Ernest D. Burton, of the University of Chicago, for generous +help and permission to use material found in his "Notes on the Life of +Jesus;" to Professor Shailer Mathews, also of Chicago, for very valuable +criticisms; to my colleague, Professor Charles Rufus Brown, for most +serviceable assistance; and to the editors of this series for helpful +suggestions and criticism during the making of the book. An unmeasured +debt is due to another who has sat at my side during the writing of these +pages, and has given constant inspiration, most discerning criticism, and +practical aid. + +The Newton Theological Institution, April, 1900. + + + + +Contents + + + +Part I + +Preparatory + + + +I + +The Historical Situation + +Sections 1-19. Pages 1-20 + + Section 1. The Roman estimate of Judea. 2, 3. Herod the Great and his + sons. 4. Roman procurators in Palestine. 5. Taxes. 6. The army. 7. + Administration of justice. 8. The Sadducees. 9,10. The Pharisees. 11. + The Zealots. 12. The Essenes. 13. The Devout. 14. Herodians and + Samaritans. 15. The synagogue. 16. Life under the law. 17. The + Messianic hope. 18. Contemporary literature. 19. Language of Palestine. + + +II + +Sources of Our Knowledge of Jesus + +Sections 20-35. Pages 21-37 + + Section 20. The testimony of Paul. 21. Secular history. 22. The written + gospels. 23. Characteristics of the first gospel. 24. Of the second. + 25. Of the third. 26-30. The synoptic problem. 31-32. The Johannine + problem. 34. The two narrative sources. 35. Agrapha and Apocrypha. + + +III + +The Harmony of the Gospels + +Sections 36-44. Pages 38-14 + + Section 36. The value of four gospels. 37. Tatian's Diatessaron. 38. + Agreement of the gospels concerning the chief events. 39. The principal + problems. 40. Relation of Mark and John. 41, 42. Matthew and Luke. 43. + Doublets. 44. The degree of certainty attainable. + + +IV + +The Chronology + +Sections 45-57. Pages 45-56 + + Sections 45-48. The length of Jesus' public ministry. 49. Date of the + first Passover. 50. Date of the crucifixion. 51-56. Date of the + nativity. 57. Summary. + + +V + +The Early Years of Jesus + +Sections 58-71. Pages 57-69 + + Section 58. Apocryphal stories. 59. Silence of the New Testament + outside the gospels. 60-62. The miraculous birth. 63. The childhood of + Jesus. 64. Home. 65. Religion, Education. 66. Growth. 67. Religious + development. 68. The view from Nazareth. 69 The first visit to + Jerusalem. 70-71. The carpenter of Nazareth. + + +VI + +John the Baptist + +Sections 72-84. Pages 70-81 + + Section 72. The gospel picture. 73. Notice by Josephus. 74. + Characteristics of the prophet 75-78. John's relation to the Essenes; + the Pharisees; the Zealots; the Apocalyptists. 79. John and the + Prophets. 80-82. Origin of his baptism. 83. His greatness. 84. His + limitations and self-effacement. + + +VII + +The Messianic Call + +Sections 85-96. Pages 82-91 + + Sections 85, 86. John and Jesus. 87. The baptism of Jesus. 88, 89. The + Messianic call. 90. The gift of the Spirit. 91-94. The temptation. 95. + Source of the narrative. 96. The issue. + + +VIII + +The First Disciples + +Sections 97-105. Pages 92-97 + + Section 97. John at Bethany beyond Jordan. 98. The deputation from the + priests. 99. John's first testimony. 100. The first disciples. 101. The + early Messianic confessions. 102. The visit to Cana. 103. The miracles + as disclosures of the character of Jesus. 104. Jesus and his mother. + 105. Removal to Capernaum. + + + +Part II + +The Ministry + + +I + +General Survey of the Ministry + +Sections 106-112. Pages 101-105 + + Section 106. The early Judean ministry. 107. Withdrawal to Galilee; a + new beginning. 108. The ministry in Galilee a unit. 109. Best studied + topically. 110. The last journey to Jerusalem. 111. The last week. 112. + The resurrection and ascension. + + +II + +The Early Judean Ministry + +Sections 113-124. Pages 106-114 + + Outline of events in the Early Judean ministry. Section 113. The + opening ministry at Jerusalem. 114. The record incomplete. 115. The + cleansing of the temple. 116. Relation to synoptic account. 117. Jesus' + reply to the challenge of his authority. 118. The reserve of Jesus. + 119. Discourse with Nicodemus. 120. Measure of success in Jerusalem. + 121. The Baptist's last testimony. 122. The arrest of John. 123. The + second sign at Cana. 124. Summary. + + +III + +The Ministry in Galilee--Its Aim and Method + +Sections 125-149. Pages 115-137 + + Outline of events in the Galilean ministry. Section 125. General view. + 126, 127. Development of popular enthusiasm. 128. Pharisaic opposition. + 129, 130. Jesus and the Messianic hope. 131. Injunctions of silence. + 132-135. Jesus' twofold aim in Galilee. 136, 137. Character of the + teaching of this period: the sermon on the mount. 138. The parables. + 139. The instructions for the mission of the twelve. 140. Jesus' tone + of authority. 141. His mighty works. 142-144. Demoniac possession. 145. + Jesus' personal influence. 146. The feeding of the five thousand. 147, + 148. Revulsion of popular feeling. 149. Results of the work in Galilee. + + +IV + +The Ministry in Galilee--The New Lesson + +Sections 150-165. Pages 138-152 + + Section 150. The changed ministry. 151. The question of tradition. 152. + Further pharisaic opposition. 153. Jesus in Phoenicia. 154. Confirmation + of the disciples' faith. 155. The question at Cæsarea Philippi. 156. + The corner-stone of the Church. 157-159. The new lesson. 160. The + transfiguration. 161. Cure of the epileptic boy. 162. The feast of + Tabernacles. 163. Story of Jesus and the adulteress. 164. The new note + in Jesus' teaching. 165. Summary of the Galilean ministry. + + +V + +The Journey through Perea to Jerusalem + +Sections 166-176. Pages 153-165 + + Outline of events. Section 166. The Perean ministry. 167. Account in + John. 168, 169. Account in Luke. 170. The mission of the seventy. 171. + The feast of Dedication. 172. Withdrawal beyond Jordan. 173. The + raising of Lazarus. 174. Ephraim and Jericho. 175,176. Summary. + + +VI + +The Final Controversies in Jerusalem + +Sections 177-188. Pages 166-180 + + Outline of events in the last week of Jesus' life. Section 177. The + cross in apostolic preaching. 178. The anointing in Bethany. 179. The + Messianic entry. 180. The barren fig-tree. 181. The Monday of Passion + week. 182-186. The controversies of Tuesday. 187. Judas. 188. + Wednesday, the day of seclusion. + + +VII + +The Last Supper + +Sections 189-195. Pages 181-187 + + Section 189. Preparations. 190,191. Date of the supper. 192. The lesson + of humility. 193. The new covenant. 194. The supper and the Passover. + 195. Farewell words of admonition and comfort; the intercessory prayer. + + +VIII + +The Shadow of Death + +Sections 196-208. Pages 188-200 + + Sections 196, 197. Gethsemane. 198. The betrayal. 199. The trial. 200. + Peter's denials. 201. The rejection of Jesus. 202. The greatness of + Jesus. 203, 204. The crucifixion. 205. The words from the cross. 206. + The death of Jesus. 207. The burial. 208. The Sabbath rest. + + +IX + +The Resurrection + +Sections 209-222. Pages 201-216 + + Section 209. The primary Christian fact. 210. The incredulity of the + disciples. 211-216. The appearances of the risen Lord. 217-220. Efforts + to explain the belief in the resurrection. 221. The ascension. 222. The + new faith of the disciples. + + + +Part III + +The Minister + + +I + +The Friend of Men + +Sections 223-229. Pages 219-225 + + Section 223. The contrast between Jesus' attitude and John's towards + common social life. 224. Contrast with the scribes. 225, 226. His + interest in simple manhood. 227. Regard for human need. 228, 229. + Sensitiveness to human sympathy. + + +II + +The Teacher with Authority + +Sections 230-241. Pages 226-237 + + Section 230. Contrast between Jesus and the scribes. 231. His appeal to + the conscience. His attitude to the Old Testament. 234. His teaching + occasional. 235. The patience of his method. 236. His use of + illustration. 237. Parable. 238. Irony and hyperbole. 239. Object + lessons. 240. Jesus' intellectual superiority. 241. His chief theme, + the kingdom of God. + + +III + +Jesus' Knowledge of Truth + +Sections 242-251. Pages 238-248 + + Sections 242, 243. Jesus' supernatural knowledge. 244. His predictions + of his death. 245. Of his resurrection. 246. His apocalyptic + predictions. 247, 248. Limitation of his knowledge. 249, 250. Jesus and + demoniac possession. 251. His certainty of his own mission. + + +IV + +Jesus' Conception of Himself + +Sections 252-275. Pages 249-269. + + Section 252. Jesus' confidence in his calling. 253. His independence in + teaching. 254. His self-assertions in response to pharisaic criticism. + 255. His desire to beget faith in himself. 256,257. His extraordinary + personal claim. 258. His acceptance of Messianic titles. 259-266. The + Son of Man. 267-269. The Son of God. 270, 271. His consciousness of + oneness with God. 272. His confession of dependence; his habit of + prayer. 273. No confession of sin. 274, 275. The Word made flesh. + + +Appendix + +Index of Names and Subjects + +Index of Biblical References + +Map of Palestine + + + + +Part I + + +Preparatory + + + + +I + +The Historical Situation + + + +1. When Tacitus, the Roman historian, records the attempt of Nero to +charge the Christians with the burning of Rome, he has patience for no +more than the cursory remark that the sect originated with a Jew who had +been put to death in Judea during the reign of Tiberius. This province was +small and despised, and Tacitus could account for the influence of the +sect which sprang thence only by the fact that all that was infamous and +abominable flowed into Rome. The Roman's scornful judgment failed to grasp +the nature and power of the movement whose unpopularity invited Nero's +lying accusation, yet it emphasizes the significance of him who did "not +strive, nor cry, nor cause his voice to be heard in the street," whose +influence, nevertheless, was working as leaven throughout the empire. + +2. Palestine was not under immediate Roman rule when Jesus was born. Herod +the Great was drawing near the close of the long reign during which, owing +to his skill in securing Roman favor, he had tyrannized over his unwilling +people. His claim was that of an adventurer who had power to succeed, even +as his method had been that of a suspicious tyrant, who murdered right and +left, lest one of the many with better right than he should rise to +dispute with him his throne. When Herod died, his kingdom was divided +into three parts, and Rome asserted a fuller sovereignty, allowing none of +his sons to take his royal title. Herod's successors ruled with a measure +of independence, however, and followed many of their father's ways, though +none of them had his ability. The best of them was Philip, who had the +territory farthest from Jerusalem, and least related to Jewish life. He +ruled over Iturea and Trachonitis, the country to the north and east of +the Sea of Galilee, having his capital at Cæsarea Philippi, a city built +and named by him on the site of an older town near the sources of the +Jordan. He also rebuilt the city of Bethsaida, at the point where the +Jordan flows into the Sea of Galilee, calling it Julias, after the +daughter of Augustus. Philip enters the story of the life of Jesus only as +the ruler of these towns and the intervening region, and as husband of +Salome, the daughter of Herodias. Living far from Jerusalem and the Jewish +people, he abandoned even the show of Judaism which characterized his +father, and lived as a frank heathen in his heathen capital. + +3. The other two who inherited Herod's dominion were brothers, Archelaus +and Antipas, sons of Malthace, one of Herod's many wives. Archelaus had +been designated king by Herod, with Judea, Samaria, and Idumea as his +kingdom; but the emperor allowed him only the territory, with the title +ethnarch. Antipas was named a tetrarch by Herod, and his territory was +Galilee and the land east of the Jordan to the southward of the Sea of +Galilee, called Perea. Antipas was the Herod under whose sway Jesus lived +in Galilee, and who executed John the Baptist. He was a man of passionate +temper, with the pride and love of luxury of his father. Having Jews to +govern, he held, as his father had done, to a show of Judaism, though at +heart he was as much of a pagan as Philip. He, too, loved building, and +Tiberias on the Sea of Galilee was built by him for his capital. His +unscrupulous tyranny and his gross disregard of common righteousness +appear in his relations with John the Baptist and with Herodias, his +paramour. Jesus described him well as "that fox" (Luke xiii. 32), for he +was sly, and worked often by indirection. While his father had energy and +ability which command a sort of admiration, Antipas was not only bad but +weak. + +4. Both Philip and Antipas reigned until after the death of Jesus, Philip +dying in A.D. 34, and Antipas being deposed several years later, probably +in 39. Archelaus had a much shorter rule, for he was deposed in A.D. 6, +having been accused by the Jews of unbearable barbarity and tyranny,--a +charge in which Antipas and Philip joined. The territory of Archelaus was +then made an imperial province of the second grade, ruled by a procurator +appointed from among the Roman knights. In provinces under an imperial +legate (propraetor) the procurator was an officer for the administration +of the revenues; in provinces of the rank of Judea he was, however, the +representative of the emperor in all the prerogatives of government, +having command of the army, and being the final resort in legal procedure, +as well as supervising the collection of the customs and taxes. Very +little is known of the procurators appointed after the deposition of +Archelaus, until Tiberius sent Pontius Pilate in A.D. 26. He held office +until he was deposed in 36. Josephus gives several examples of his wanton +disregard of Jewish prejudice, and of his extreme cruelty. His conduct at +the trial of Jesus was remarkably gentle and judicial in comparison with +other acts recorded of his government; yet the fear of trial at Rome, +which finally induced him to give Jesus over to be crucified, was +thoroughly characteristic; in fact, his downfall resulted from a complaint +lodged against him by certain Samaritans whom he had cruelly punished for +a Messianic uprising. + +5. There were two sorts of Roman taxes in Judea: direct, which were +collected by salaried officials; and customs, which were farmed out to the +highest bidder. The direct taxes consisted of a land tax and a poll tax, +in the collection of which the procurator made use of the local Jewish +courts; the customs consisted of various duties assessed on exports, and +they were gathered by representatives of men who had bought the right to +collect these dues. The chiefs as well as their underlings are called +publicans in our New Testament, although the name strictly applies only to +the chiefs. These tax-gatherers, small and great, were everywhere despised +and execrated, because, in addition to their subserviency to a hated +government, they had a reputation, usually deserved, for all sorts of +extortion. Because of this evil repute they were commonly drawn from the +unscrupulous among the people, so that the frequent coupling of publicans +and sinners in the gospels probably rested on fact as much as on +prejudice. + +6. In Samaria and Judea soldiers were under the command of the procurator; +they took orders from the tetrarch, in Galilee and Perea. The garrison of +Jerusalem consisted of one Roman cohort--from five to six hundred +men--which was reinforced at the time of the principal feasts. These and +the other forces at the disposal of the procurator were probably recruited +from the country itself, largely from among the Samaritans. The centurion +of Capernaum (Matt. viii. 5; Luke vii. 2-5) was an officer in the army of +Antipas, who, however, doubtless organized his army on the Roman pattern, +with officers who had had their training with the imperial forces. + +7. The administration of justice in Samaria and Judea was theoretically in +the hands of the procurator; practically, however, it was left with the +Jewish courts, either the local councils or the great sanhedrin at +Jerusalem. This last body consisted of seventy-one "elders." Its president +was the high-priest, and its members were drawn in large degree from the +most prominent representatives of the priestly aristocracy. The scribes, +however, had a controlling influence because of the reverence in which the +multitude held them. The sanhedrin of Jerusalem had jurisdiction only +within the province of Judea, where it tried all kinds of offences; its +judgment was final, except in capital cases, when it had to yield to the +procurator, who alone could sentence to death. It had great influence also +in Galilee, and among Jews everywhere, but this was due to the regard all +Jews had for the holy city. It was, in fact, a sort of Jewish senate, +which took cognizance of everything that seemed to affect the Jewish +interests. In Galilee and Perea, Antipas held in his hands the judicial as +well as the military and financial administration. + +8. To the majority of the priests religion had become chiefly a form. +They represented the worldly party among the Jews. Since the days of the +priest-princes who ruled in Jerusalem after the return from the exile, +they had constituted the Jewish aristocracy, and held most of the wealth +of the people. It was to their interest to maintain the ritual and the +traditional customs, and they were proud of their Jewish heritage; of +genuine interest in religion, however, they had little. This secular +priestly party was called the Sadducees, probably from Zadok, the +high-priest in Solomon's time. What theology the Sadducees had was for the +most part reactionary and negative. They were opposed to the more earnest +spirit and new thought of the scribes, and naturally produced some +champions who argued for their theological position; but the mass of them +cared for other things. + +9. The leaders of the popular thought, on the other hand, were chiefly +noted for their religious zeal and theological acumen. They represented +the outgrowth of that spirit which in the Maccabean time had risked all to +defend the sanctity of the temple and the right of God's people to worship +him according to his law. They were known as Pharisees, because, as the +name ("separated") indicates, they insisted on the separation of the +people of God from all the defilements and snares of the heathen life +round about them. The Pharisees constituted a fraternity devoted to the +scrupulous observance of law and tradition in all the concerns of daily +life. They were specialists in religion, and were the ideal +representatives of Judaism. Their distinguishing characteristic was +reverence for the law; their religion was the religion of a book. By +punctilious obedience of the law man might hope to gain a record of merit +which should stand to his credit and secure his reward when God should +finally judge the world. Because life furnished many situations not dealt +with in the written law, there was need of its authoritative +interpretation, in order that ignorance might not cause a man to +transgress. These interpretations constituted an oral law which +practically superseded the written code, and they were handed down from +generation to generation as "the traditions of the fathers." The existence +of this oral law made necessary a company of scribes and lawyers whose +business it was to know the traditions and transmit them to their pupils. +These scribes were the teachers of Israel, the leaders of the Pharisees, +and the most highly revered class in the community. Pharisaism at its +beginning was intensely earnest, but in the time of Jesus the earnest +spirit had died out in zealous formalism. This was the inevitable result +of their virtual substitution of the written law for the living God. Their +excessive reverence had banished God from practical relation to the daily +life. They held that he had declared his will once for all in the law. His +name was scrupulously revered, his worship was cultivated with minutest +care, his judgment was anticipated with dread; but he himself, like an +Oriental monarch, was kept far from common life in an isolation suitable +to his awful holiness. By a natural consequence conscience gave place to +scrupulous regard for tradition in the religion of the scribes. The chief +question with them was not, Is this right? but, What say the elders? The +soul's sensitiveness of response to God's will and God's truth was lost in +a maze of traditions which awoke no spontaneous Amen in the moral nature, +consequently there was frequent substitution of reputation for character. +The Pharisees could make void the command, Honor thy father, by an +ingenious application of the principle of dedication of property to God +(Mark vii. 8-13), and thus under the guise of scrupulous regard for law +discovered ways for legal disregard of law. Their theory of religion gave +abundant room for a piety which made broad its phylacteries and lengthened +its prayers, while neglecting judgment, mercy, and the love of God. + +10. Yet the earnest and true development in Jewish thinking was found +among the Pharisees. The early hope of Israel was almost exclusively +national. In the later books of the Old Testament, in connection with an +enlarged sense of the importance of the individual, the doctrine of a +personal resurrection to share the blessings of the Messiah's kingdom +began to appear. It had its clear development and definite adoption as +part of the faith of Judaism, however, under the influence of the +Pharisees. Along with this increased emphasis on the worth of the +individual came a large development of the doctrine of angels and spirits. +Towards both of these doctrines the Sadducees took a reactionary position. +Politically the Pharisees were theocratic in theory, but opportunists in +practice, accommodating themselves to the existing state of things so long +as the _de facto_ government did not interfere with the religious life of +the people. They looked for a kingdom in which God should be evidently the +king of his people; but they believed that his sovereignty was to be +realized through the law, hence their sole interest was in the obedience +of God's people to that law as interpreted by the traditions. + +11. The theocratic spirit was more aggressive in a party which originated +in the later years of Herod the Great, and found a reckless leader in +Judas of Galilee, who started a revolt when the governor of Syria +undertook to make a census of the Jews after the deposition of Archelaus. +This party bore the name Cananeans or Zealots. They regarded with +passionate resentment the subjection of God's people to a foreign power, +and waited eagerly for an opportune time to take the sword and set up the +kingdom of God; it was with them that the final war against Rome began. +They were found in largest numbers in Galilee, where the scholasticism of +the scribes was not so dominating an influence as in Judea. Dr. Edersheim +has called them the nationalist party. In matters belonging strictly to +the religious life they followed the Pharisees, only holding a more +material conception of the hope of Israel. + +12. Another development in Jewish religious life carried separatist +doctrines to the extreme. Its representatives were called Essenes, though +what the significance of the name was is no longer clear. Although they +were allied with the Pharisees in doctrine, they show in some particulars +the influence of Hellenistic Judaism. This is suggested not only by the +attention which Philo and Josephus give to them, but also by certain of +their views, which were very like the doctrines of the Pythagoreans. They +carried the pharisaic demand for separateness to the extreme of +asceticism. While they were found in nearly every town in Palestine, some +of them even practising marriage, the largest group of them lived a +celibate, monastic life near the shores of the Dead Sea. This community +was recruited by the initiation of converts, who only after a novitiate of +three years were admitted to full membership in the order. They were +characterized by an extreme scrupulousness concerning ceremonial purity, +their meals were regarded as sacrifices, and were prepared by members of +the order, who were looked upon as priests, nor were any allowed to +partake of the food until they had first bathed themselves. Their regular +garments were all white, and were regarded as vestments for use at the +sacrificial meals,--other clothing being assumed as they went out to their +work. They were industrious agriculturists, their life was communistic, +and they were renowned for their uprightness. They revered Moses as highly +as did the scribes; yet they were opposed to animal sacrifices, and, +although they sent gifts to the temple, were apparently excluded from its +worship. Their kinship with the Pythagoreans appears in that they +addressed an invocation to the sun at its rising, and conducted all their +natural functions with scrupulous modesty, "that they might not offend the +brightness of God" (Jos. Wars, ii. 8, 9). Their rejection of bloody +sacrifices, and their view that the soul is imprisoned in the body and at +death is freed for a better life, besides many features of their life that +are genuinely Jewish, such as their regard for ceremonial purity, also +show similarity to the Pythagoreans. It has always been a matter of +perplexity that these ascetics find no mention in the New Testament. They +seem to have lived a life too much apart, and to have had little sympathy +with the ideals of Jesus, or even of John the Baptist. + +13. The common people followed the lead of the Pharisees, though afar +off. They accepted the teaching concerning tradition, as well as that +concerning the resurrection, conforming their lives to the prescriptions +of the scribes more or less strictly, according as they were more or loss +ruled by religious considerations. It was in consequence of their hold on +the people that the scribes in the sanhedrin were able often to dictate a +policy to the Sadducean majority. Jesus voiced the popular opinion when he +said that "the scribes sit in Moses' seat" (Matt, xxiii. 2). Their leaders +despised "this multitude which knoweth not the law" (John vii. 49), yet +delighted to legislate for them, binding heavy burdens and grievous to be +borne. Many of the people were doubtless too intent on work and gain to be +very regardful of the _minutiæ_ of conduct as ordained by the scribes; +many more were too simple-minded to follow the theories of the rabbis +concerning the aloofness of God from the life of men. These last +reverenced the scribes, followed their directions, in the main, for the +conduct of life, yet lived in fellowship with God as their fathers had, +trusting in his faithfulness, and hoping in his mercy. They are +represented in the New Testament by such as Simeon and Anna, Zachariah and +Elizabeth, Joseph and Mary, and the majority of those who heard and heeded +John's call to repentance. They were Israel's remnant of pure and +undefiled religion, and constituted what there was of good soil among the +people for the reception of the seed sown by John's successor. They had no +name, for they did not constitute a party; for convenience they may be +called the Devout. + +14. Two other classes among the people are mentioned in the gospels,--the +Herodians and the Samaritans. The Herodians do not appear outside the New +Testament, and seem to have been hardly more than a group of men in whom +the secular spirit was dominant, who thought it best for their interests +and for the people's to champion the claims of the Herodian family. They +were probably more akin to the Pharisees than to the Sadducees, for the +latter were hostile to the Herodian claims, from the first; yet in spirit +they seem more like to the worldly aristocracy than to the pious scribes. +The Samaritans lived in the land, a people despising and despised. Their +territory separated Galilee from Judea, and they were a constant source of +irritation to the Jews. The hatred was inherited from the days of Ezra, +when the zealous Jews refused to allow any intercourse with the +inhabitants of Samaria. These Samaritans were spurned as of impure blood +and mixed religion (II. Kings xvii. 24-41). The severe attitude adopted +towards them by Ezra and Nehemiah led to the building of a temple on Mount +Gerizim, and the establishment of a worship which sought to rival that of +Jerusalem in all particulars. Very little is known of the tenets of the +Samaritans in the time of Jesus beyond their belief that Gerizim was the +place which, according to the law, God chose for his temple, and that a +Messiah should come to settle all questions of dispute (John iv. 25). + +15. Although the religious life of the Jews centred ideally in the temple, +it found its practical expression in the synagogue. This in itself is +evidence of the relative influence of priests and scribes. There was no +confessed rivalry. The Pharisee was most insistent on the sanctity of the +temple and the importance of its ritual. Yet with the growing sense of the +religious significance of the individual as distinct from the nation, +there arose of necessity a practical need for a system of worship possible +for the great majority of the people, who could at best visit Jerusalem +but once or twice a year. The synagogue seems to have been a development +of the exile, when there was no temple and no sacrifice. It was the +characteristic institution of Judaism as a religion of the law, furnishing +in every place opportunity for prayer and study. The elders of each +community seem ordinarily to have been in control of its synagogue, and to +have had authority to exclude from its fellowship persons who had come +under the ban. In addition to these officials there was a ruler of the +synagogue, who had the direction of all that concerned the worship; a +_chazzan_, or minister, who had the care of the sacred books, administered +discipline, and instructed the children in reading the scripture; and two +or more receivers of alms. The Sabbath services consisted of prayers, and +reading of the scriptures--both law and prophets,--and an address or +sermon. It was in the sermon that the people learned to know the +"traditions of the elders," whether as applications of the law to the +daily life, or as legendary embellishments of Hebrew history and prophecy. +The preacher might be any one whom the ruler of the synagague recognized +as worthy to address the congregation. + +16. The religious life which centred in the synagogue found daily +expression in the observance of the law and the traditions. In the measure +of its control by the scribes it was concerned chiefly with the Sabbath, +with the various ablutions needful to the maintenance of ceremonial +purity, with the distinctions between clean and unclean food, with the +times and ways of fasting, and with the wearing of fringes and +phylacteries. These lifeless ceremonies seem to our day wearisome and +petty in the extreme. It is probable, however, that the growth of the +various traditions had been so gradual that, as has been aptly said, the +whole usage seemed no more unreasonable to the Jews than the etiquette of +polite society does to its devotees. The evil was not so much in the +minuteness of the regulations as in the external and superficial notion of +religion which they induced. + +17. Optimism was the mood of Israel's prophets from the earliest times. +Every generation looked for the dawning of a day which should banish all +ill and realize the dreams inspired by the covenant in which God had +chosen Israel for his own. In proportion as the rabbinic formalism held +control of the hearts of the people, the Messianic hope lost its warmth +and vigor. Yet the scribes did not abandon the prophetic optimism; they +held to the letter of the hope, but as its fulfilment was for them +dependent on perfect obedience to the law, oral and written, their +interest was diverted to the traditions, and their strength was given to +legal disputations. Of the rest of the people, the Sadducees naturally +gave little thought to the promise of future deliverance, they were too +absorbed with regard for present concerns. Nor is there any evidence that +the Essenes, with all their reputed knowledge of the future, cherished the +hope of a Messiah. The other elements among the people who owned the +general leadership of the scribes looked eagerly for the coming time when +God should bring to pass what he had promised through the prophets. While +some expected God himself to come in judgment, and gave no thought to an +Anointed one who should represent the Most High to the people, the +majority looked for a Son of David to sit upon his father's throne. Even +so, however, there were wide differences in the nature of the hope which +was set on the coming of this Son of David. The Zealots were looking for a +victory, which should set Israel on high over all his foes. To the rest of +the people, however, the method of the consummation was not so clear, and +they were ready to leave God to work out his purpose in his own way, +longing meanwhile for the fulfilment of his promise. One class in +particular gave themselves to visionary representations of the promised +redemption. They differed from the Zealots in that they saw with unwelcome +clearness the futility of physical attack upon their enemies; but their +faith was strong, and at the moment when outward conditions seemed most +disheartening they looked for a revelation of God's power from heaven, +destroying all sinners in his wrath, and delivering and comforting his +people, giving them their lot in a veritable Canaan situated in a renewed +earth. Such visions are recorded in the Book of Daniel and the Revelation +of John. They are found in many other apocalypses not included in our +Bible, and indicate how persistently the minds of the people turned +towards the promises spoken by the prophets, and meditated on their +fulfilment. The Devout were midway between the Zealots and the +Apocalyptists. The songs of Zachariah and Mary and the thanksgiving of +Simeon express their faith. They hoped for a kingdom as tangible as the +Zealots sought, yet they preferred to _wait_ for the consolation of +Israel. They believed that God was still in his heaven, that he was not +disregardful of his people, and that in his own time he would raise up +unto them their king. They looked for a Son of David, yet his reign was to +be as remarkable for its purification of his own people as for its +victories over their foes. These victories indeed were to be largely +spiritual, for their Messiah was to conquer in the strength of the Spirit +of God and "by the word of his mouth." Such as these were ready for a +ministry like John's, and not unready for the new ideal which Jesus was +about to offer them, though their highest spiritualization of the +Messianic hope was but a shadow of the reality which Jesus asked them to +accept. + +18. This last conception of the Messiah is found in a group of psalms +written in the first century before Christ, during the early days of the +Roman interference in Judea. These Psalms of Solomon, as they are called, +are pharisaic in point of view, yet they are not rabbinic in their ideas. +Their feeling is too deep, and their reliance on God too immediate; they +fitly follow the psalms of the Old Testament, though afar off. Of another +type of contemporary literature, Apocalypse, at least two representatives +besides the Book of Daniel have come down to us from the time of Jesus or +earlier,--the so-called Book of Enoch, and the fragment known as the +Assumption of Moses. These writings have peculiar interest, because they +are probably the source of quotations found in the Epistle of Jude; +moreover, some sayings of Jesus reported in the gospels, and in particular +his chosen title, The Son of Man, are strikingly similar to expressions +found in Enoch. Can Jesus have read these books? The psalms of the Devout +were the kind of literature to pass rapidly from heart to heart, until all +who sympathized with their hope and faith had heard or seen them. The case +was different with the apocalypses. They are more elaborate and +enigmatical, and may have been only slightly known. Yet, as Jesus was +familiar with the canonical Book of Daniel, although it was not read in +the synagogue service in his time, it is possible that he may also have +read or heard other books which had not won recognition as canonical. If, +however, he knew nothing of them, the similarity between the apocalypses +and some of Jesus' ideas and expressions becomes all the more significant; +for it shows that these writings gave utterance to thoughts and feelings +shared by men who never read them, which were, therefore, no isolated +fancies, but characteristic of the religion of many of the people. With +these ideas Jesus was familiar; whether he ever read the books must remain +a question. + +19. This literature exists for us only in translations made in the days of +the early church. Most of these books were originally written in Hebrew, +the language of the Old Testament, or in Aramaic, the language of +Palestine in the time of Jesus. Traces of this language as spoken by Jesus +have been preserved in the gospels,--the name _Rabbi; Abba_, translated +Father; _Talitha cumi_, addressed to the daughter of Jairus; _Ephphatha_, +to the deaf man of Bethsaida; and the cry from the cross, _Eloi, Eloi, +lama sabachthani_ (John i. 38; Mark xiv. 36; v. 41; vii. 34; xv. 34). It +is altogether probable that in his common dealings with men and in his +teachings Jesus used this language. Greek was the language of the +government and of trade, and in a measure the Jews were a bilingual +people. Jesus may thus have had some knowledge of Greek, but it is +unlikely that he ever used it to any extent either in Galilee, or Judea, +or in the regions of Tyre and Sidon. + + + + +II + +Sources of Our Knowledge Of Jesus + + + +20. The earliest existing record of events in the life of Jesus is given +to us in the epistles of Paul. His account of the appearances of the Lord +after his death and resurrection (I. Cor. xv. 3-8) was written within +thirty years of these events. The date of the testimony, however, is much +earlier, since Paul refers to the experience which transformed his own +life, and so carries us back to within a few years of the crucifixion. +Other facts from Jesus' life may be gathered from Paul, as his descent +from Abraham and David (Rom. i. 3; ix. 5); his life of obedience (Rom. v. +19; xv. 3; Phil. ii. 5-11); his poverty (II. Cor. viii. 9); his meekness +and gentleness (II. Cor. x. 1); other New Testament writings outside of +our gospels add somewhat to this restricted but very clear testimony. + +21. Secular history knows little of the obscure Galilean. The testimony of +Tacitus is that the Christians "derived their name and origin from one +Christ, who in the reign of Tiberius had suffered death by the sentence of +the procurator, Pontius Pilate" (Annals, xv. 44). Suetonius makes an +obscure and seemingly ill-informed allusion to Christ in the reason he +assigns for the edict of Claudius expelling the Jews from Rome (Vit. +Claud. 25). The younger Pliny in the second century had learned that the +numerous Christian community in Bithynia was accustomed to honor Christ +as God; but he shows no knowledge of the life of Jesus beyond what must be +inferred concerning one who caused men "to bind themselves with an oath +not to enter into any wickedness, or commit thefts, robberies, or +adulteries, or falsify their word, or repudiate trusts committed to them" +(Epistles X. 96). This secular ignorance is not surprising; but the +silence of Josephus is. He mentions Jesus in but one clearly genuine +passage, when telling of the martyrdom of James, the "brother of Jesus, +who is called the Christ" (Ant. xx. 9. 1). Of John the Baptist, however, +he has a very appreciative notice (Ant, xviii. 5. 2), and it cannot be +that he was ignorant of Jesus. His appreciation of John suggests that he +could not have mentioned Jesus more fully without some approval of his +life and teaching. This would be a condemnation of his own people, whom he +desired to commend to Gentile regard; and he seems to have taken the +cowardly course of silence concerning a matter more noteworthy, even for +that generation, than much else of which he writes very fully. + +22. The reason for the lack of written Christian records of Jesus' life +from the earliest time seems to be, not that the apostles had a small +sense of the importance of his earthly ministry, but that the early +generation preferred what at a later time was called the "living voice" +(Papias in Euseb. Ch. Hist. iii. 39). The impression made by Jesus was +supremely personal; he wrote nothing, did not command his disciples to +write anything, preferring to influence men's minds by personal power, +appointing them, in turn, to represent him to men as he had represented +the Father to them (John xx. 21). But the time came when the first +witnesses were passing away, and they were not many who could say, "I saw +him." Our gospels are the result of the natural desire to preserve the +apostolic testimony for a generation that could no longer hear the +apostolic voice; and they are precisely what such a sense of need would +produce,--vivid pictures of Jesus, agreeing in general features, differing +more or less in details, reflecting individual feeling for the Master, and +written not simply to inform men but to convince them of that Master's +claims. One evidence of the reality of the gospel pictures is the fact +that we so seldom feel the individual characteristics of each gospel. This +is especially true of the first three, which, to the vividness of their +picture, add a remarkable similarity of detail. Tatian, in the second +century, felt it necessary to make a continuous narrative for the use of +the church by interweaving the four gospels into one, and he has had many +successors down to our day; but the fact that unity of impression has +practically resulted from the four pictures without recourse to such an +interweaving, invites consideration of the characteristics of these +remarkable documents. + +23. The first gospel impresses the careful reader with three things: (1) A +clear sense of the development of Jesus' ministry. The author introduces +his narrative by an account of the birth of Jesus, of the ministry of John +the Baptist, and of Jesus' baptism and temptation and withdrawal into +Galilee (i. 1 to iv. 17). He then depicts the public ministry by grouping +together, first, teachings of Jesus concerning the law of the kingdom of +heaven, then a series of great miracles confirming the new doctrine, then +the expansion of the ministry and deepening hostility of the Pharisees, +leading to the teaching by parables, and the final withdrawal from Galilee +to the north. This ministry resulted in the chilling of popular enthusiasm +which had been strong at the beginning, but in the winning of a few hearts +to Jesus' own ideals of the kingdom of God (iv. 18 to xvi. 20). From this +point the evangelist leads us to Jerusalem, where rejection culminates, +the sterner teachings of Jesus are massed, and his victory in seeming +defeat is exhibited (xvi. 21 to xxviii. 20). (2) The evangelist's interest +is not satisfied by this clear, strong, picture; he wishes to convince men +that Jesus is Israel's Messiah, hence, throughout, he indicates the +fulfilment of prophecy. The things in which he sees the fulfilment are +striking, for, with but one or two exceptions, they are features of the +life of Jesus objectionable to Jewish feeling. This fact, taken in +connection with the emphasis which the gospel gives to the death of Jesus +at the hands of the Jews, and to the resurrection as God's seal of +approval of him whom his people rejected, forms a forcible argument to +prove the Messiahship of Jesus, not simply in spite of his rejection by +the Jews, but by appeal to that rejection as leading to God's signal +vindication of the crucified one. (3) This evangelist, while proving that +Jesus is the Messiah promised to Israel, recognizes clearly the freedom of +the new faith from the exclusiveness of Jewish feeling. The choice of +Galilee for the Messianic ministry (iv. 12-17), the comment of Jesus on +the faith of the centurion (viii. 10-12), the rebuke of Israel in the +parable of the Wicked Husbandmen (xxi. 33-46), and especially the last +commission of the risen Lord (xxviii. 18-20), show that this gospel sought +to convince men of Jewish feeling not only that Jesus is Messiah, but also +that as Messiah he came to bring salvation to all the world. + +24. The second gospel is much simpler in construction than the first, +while presenting essentially the same picture of the ministry as is found +in Matthew. To its simplicity it adds a vividness of narration which +commends Mark's account as probably representing most nearly the actual +course of the life of Jesus. While it reports fewer incidents and +teachings than either of the others, a comparison with Matthew and Luke +shows a preference in Mark for Jesus' deeds, though addresses are not +wanting; and, while shorter as a whole, for matters which he reports +Mark's record is most rich in detail, most dramatic in presentation, and +actually longer than the parallel accounts in the other gospels. The whole +narrative is animated in style (note the oft-repeated "immediately") and +full of graphic traits. The story of Jesus seems to be reproduced from a +memory which retains fresh personal impressions of events as they +occurred. Hence the frequent comments on the effect of Jesus' ministry, +such as "We never saw it on this fashion" (ii. 12), or "He hath done all +things well" (vii. 37), and the introduction into the narrative of Aramaic +words,--_Boanerges_ (iii. 17), _Talitha, cumi_ (v. 41), and the like, +which immediately have to be translated. The gospel discloses no +artificial plan, the chief word of transition is "and." While some of the +incidents recorded, such as the second Sabbath controversy (iii. 1-6) and +the question about fasting (ii. 18-22), may owe their place to association +in memory with an event of like character, the book impresses us as a +collection of annals fresh from the living memory, which present the +actual Jesus teaching and healing, and going on his way to the cross and +resurrection. After the briefest possible reference to the ministry of +John the Baptist and the baptism and temptation of Jesus (i. 1-13), this +gospel proceeds to set forth the ministry in Galilee (i. 14 to ix. 50). +The narrative then follows Jesus to Jerusalem, by way of Perea, and closes +with his victory through death and resurrection (x. 1 to xvi. 8). + +25. The third gospel is more nearly a biography than any of its +companions. It opens with a preface stating that after a study of many +earlier attempts to record the life of Jesus the author has undertaken to +present as complete an account as possible of that life from the +beginning. The book is addressed to one Theophilus, doubtless a Greek +Christian, and its chief aim is practical,--to confirm conviction +concerning matters of faith (i. 1-4). The author's interest in the +completeness of his account appears in the fact that it begins with +incidents antecedent to the birth of John the Baptist and Jesus. Moreover, +to his desire for completeness we owe much of the story of Jesus, +otherwise unrecorded for us. Like the first two gospels, Luke represents +the ministry of Jesus as inaugurated in Galilee, and carried on there +until the approach of the tragedy at Jerusalem (iv. 14 to ix. 50). It is +in connection with the journey to Jerusalem (ix. 51 to xix. 27) that he +inserts most of that which is peculiar to his gospel. His account of the +rejection at Jerusalem, the crucifixion, and resurrection, follows in the +main the same lines as Matthew and Mark; but he gained his knowledge of +many particulars from different sources (xix. 28 to xxiv. 53). It is +characteristic of Luke to name Jesus "Lord" more often than either of his +predecessors. With this exalted conception is coupled a noticeable +emphasis on Jesus' ministry of compassion; here more than in any other +gospel he is pictured as the friend of sinners. Moreover, we owe chiefly +to Luke our knowledge of him as a man of prayer and as subject to repeated +temptation. An artificial exaltation of Christ, such as is often +attributed to the later apostolic thought, would tend to reduce, not +multiply, such evidences of human dependence on God. This fact increases +our confidence in the accuracy of Luke's picture. The gospel is very full +of comfort to those under the pressure of poverty, and of rebuke to +unbelieving wealth, though the parable of the Unjust Steward and story of +Zacchæus show that it does not exalt poverty for its own sake. If our +first gospel pictures Jesus as the fulfilment of God's promises to his +people, and Mark, as the man of power at work before our very eyes, +astonishing the multitude while winning the few, Luke sets before us the +Lord ministering with divine compassion to men subject to like temptations +with himself, though, unlike them, he knew no sin. + +26. The first three gospels, differing as they do in point of view and +aim, present essentially one picture of the ministry of Jesus; for they +agree concerning the locality and progress of his Messianic work, and the +form and contents of his teaching, showing, in fact, verbal identity in +many parts of their narrative. For this reason they are commonly known as +the Synoptic Gospels. Yet these gospels exhibit differences as remarkable +as their likenesses. They differ perplexingly in the order in which they +arrange some of the events in Jesus' life. Which of them should be given +preference in constructing a harmonious picture of his ministry? They +often agree to the letter in their report of deeds or words of Jesus, yet +from beginning to end remarkable verbal differences stand side by side +with remarkable verbal identities. Some of the identities of language +suggest irresistibly that the evangelists have used, at least in part, the +same previously existing written record. One of the clearest evidences of +this is found in the introduction, at the same place in the parallel +accounts, of the parenthesis "then saith he to the sick of the palsy" +which interrupts the words of Jesus in the cure of the paralytic (Mark ii. +10; Matt. ix. 6; Luke v. 24). When the three gospels are carefully +compared it appears that Mark contains very little that is not found in +Matthew and Luke, and that, with one or two exceptions, Luke presents in +Mark's order the matter that he has in common with the second gospel. The +same is also true of the relation between the latter part of the Gospel of +Matthew (Matt. xiv. 1 to the end) and the parallel portion of Mark; while +the comparison of Matthew's arrangement of his earlier half with Mark +suggests that the order in the first gospel has been determined by other +than chronological considerations. In a sense, therefore, we may say that +the Gospel of Mark reveals the chronological framework on which all three +of these gospels are constructed. Comparison discloses further the +interesting fact that the matter which Matthew and Luke have in common, +after subtracting their parallels to Mark, consists almost entirely of +teachings and addresses. Each gospel, however, has some matter peculiar to +itself. + +27. In considering the problem presented by these facts, it is well to +remember that no one of these gospels contains within itself any statement +concerning the identity of its author. We are indebted to tradition for +the names by which we know them, and no one of them makes any claim to +apostolic origin. The earliest reference in Christian literature which may +be applied to our gospels comes from Papias, a Christian of Asia Minor in +the second century. He reports that an earlier teacher had said, "Mark, +having become the interpreter of Peter, wrote down accurately, though not, +indeed, in order, whatsoever he remembered of the things said or done by +Christ, for he neither heard the Lord nor followed him, but afterward, as +I said, he followed Peter, who adapted his teachings to the needs of his +hearers, but with no intention of giving a connected account of the Lord's +discourses. So that Mark committed no error when he thus wrote some things +as he remembered them, for he was careful of one thing, not to omit any of +the things which he had heard and not to state any of them falsely.... +Matthew wrote the oracles [of the Lord] in the Hebrew language [Aramaic], +and every one interpreted them as he was able" (Euseb. Ch. Hist. iii. 39). +The result of many years' study by scholars of all shades of opinion is +the very general conclusion that the writing which Papias attributed to +Mark was essentially what we have in our second gospel. + +28. It is almost as universally acknowledged that the work ascribed by the +second century elder to the apostle Matthew cannot be our first gospel; +for its language has not the characteristics which other translations from +Hebrew or Aramaic lead us to expect, while the completeness of its +narrative exceeds what is suggested by the words of Papias. If, however, +the matter which Matthew and Luke have in such rich measure in addition to +Mark's narrative be considered, the likeness between this and the writing +attributed by Papias to the apostle Matthew is noteworthy. The conclusion +is now very general, that that apostolic writing is in large measure +preserved in the discourses in our first and third gospels. The relation +of our gospels to the two books mentioned by Papias may be conceived, +then, somewhat as follows: The earliest gospel writing of which we know +anything was a collection of the teachings of Jesus made by the apostle +Matthew, in which he collected with simple narrative introductions, those +sayings of the Lord which from the beginning had passed from mouth to +mouth in the circle of the disciples. At a later time Mark wrote down the +account of the ministry of Jesus which Peter had been accustomed to relate +in his apostolic preaching. The work of the apostle Matthew, while much +richer in the sayings of Jesus, lacked the completeness that characterizes +a narrative; hence it occurred to some early disciple to blend together +these two primitive gospel records, adding such other items of knowledge +as came to his hand from oral tradition or written memoranda. As his aim +was practical rather than historical, he added such editorial comments as +would make of the new gospel an argument for the Messiahship of Jesus, as +we have seen. Since the most precious element in this new gospel was the +apostolic record of the teachings of the Lord, the name of Matthew and not +of his literary successor, was given to the book. + +29. The third gospel is ascribed, by a probably trustworthy tradition, to +Luke, the companion of Paul. The author himself says that he made use of +such earlier records as were accessible, among which the chief seem to +have been the writings of Mark and the apostle Matthew. To Luke's +industry, however, we owe our knowledge of many incidents and teachings +from the life of Jesus which were not contained in these two records, and +with which we could ill afford to part. Some of these he doubtless found +in written form, and some he gathered from oral testimony. His close +agreement with Mark in the arrangement of his narrative suggests that he +found no clear evidence of a ministry of wider extent in time and place. +He therefore used Mark as his narrative framework, and of the rich +materials which he had gathered made a gospel, the completest of any +written up to his time. + +30. Such in the main is the conclusion of modern study of our first three +gospels; it explains the general identity of their picture of Jesus and of +their report of his teaching; it leaves room for those individual +characteristics which give them so much of their charm; and it traces the +materials of the gospels far back of the writings as we have them, +bringing us nearer to the events which they describe. The dates of these +documents can be only approximately known. It is probable that the +"logia" collected by the apostle Matthew were written not later than 60 to +65 A.D., while the Gospel of Mark dates from before the fall of Jerusalem +in 70. Our first gospel must have been made between 70 and 100, and the +Gospel of Luke may be dated about the year 80,--all within sixty or +seventy years after the death of Jesus. + +31. The fourth gospel gives us a picture of Jesus in striking contrast to +that of the other three. These present chiefly the works of the Master and +his teachings concerning the kingdom of God and human conduct, leaving the +truth concerning the teacher himself to be inferred. John opens the heart +of Jesus and makes him disclose his thought about himself in a remarkable +series of teachings of which he is the prime topic. This gospel is +avowedly an argument (xx. 30, 31); its selection of material is +confessedly partial; its aim is to confirm the faith of Christians in the +heavenly nature and saving power of their Lord; and its method is that of +appeal to testimony, to signs, and to his own self-disclosures. The +opening verses of the gospel have a somewhat abstract theological +character; the body of the book, however, consists of a succession of +incidents and teachings which follow each other in unstudied fashion like +a collection of annals. This impression is not compromised by the +recognition, at some points, of accidental displacements, like that which +has placed xiv. 30, 31 before xv. and xvi., or that which has left a long +gap between vii. 23 and the incident of v. 1-9, to which it refers. The +theme of the gospel is the self-disclosure of Jesus. This seems to have +determined the evangelist's choice of material, and, as the gospel is an +argument, he does not hesitate to mingle his own comments with his report +of Jesus' words, for example (iii. 16-21, 30-36; xii. 37-43). The book is +characterized by a vividness of detail which indicates a clear memory of +personal experience. While it is evident that the author has the most +exalted conception of the nature of his Lord, this seems to have been the +result of loving meditation on a friend who had early won the mastery over +his heart and life, and who through long years of contemplation had forced +upon his disciple's mind the conviction of his transcendent nature. The +book discloses a profoundly objective attitude; the Christ whom John +portrays is not the creature of his speculations, but the Master who has +entered into his experience as a living influence and has compelled +recognition of his significance. The Son of God is for John the human +Jesus who, though named at the outset the Word--the Logos,--is the Word +who was made flesh, that men through him might become the sons of God. + +32. The contrast which the Gospel of John presents to the other three +concerns not only the teaching of Jesus, but the scene of his ministry and +its historic development as well. Whatever may be the final judgment +concerning the fourth gospel, it is manifestly constructed as a simple +collection of incidents following each other in what was meant to appear a +chronological sequence. It has been seen that the biographical framework +of the first three gospels is principally Mark's report of Peter's +narrative. Now it is a fact that in portions of Matthew and Luke, derived +elsewhere than from Mark, there are various allusions most easily +understood if it be assumed that Jesus visited Jerusalem before his +appearance there at the end of his ministry. Such, for instance, are the +parable of the Good Samaritan (Luke x. 25-37), the story of the visit to +Mary and Martha (Luke x. 38-42), and the lamentation of Jesus over +Jerusalem (Luke xiii. 34, 35; Matt, xxiii. 37-39). All three gospels, +moreover, agree in attributing to emissaries from Jerusalem much of the +hostility manifested against Jesus in his Galilean ministry (Luke v. 17; +Mark iii. 22; Matt. xv. 1; Mark vii. 1), and presuppose such an +acquaintance of Jesus with households in and near Jerusalem as is not easy +to explain if he never visited Judea before his passion (Mark xi. 2, 3; +xiv. 14; xv. 43 and parallels; compare especially Matt, xxvii. 57; John +xix. 38). These all suggest that the narrative of Mark does not tell the +whole story, a conclusion quite in accordance with the account of his work +given by Papias. It has been assumed that Peter was a Galilean, a man of +family living in Capernaum. It is not impossible that on some of the +earlier visits of Jesus to Jerusalem he did not accompany his Master, and +in reporting the things which he knew he naturally confined himself to his +own experiences. If this can explain the predominance of Galilean +incidents in the ministry as depicted in Mark, it will explain the +predominance of Galilee in the first three gospels, and the contradiction +between John and the three is reduced to a divergence between two accounts +of Jesus' ministry written from two different points of view. + +33. The question of the trustworthiness of the fourth gospel is greatly +simplified by the consideration of the one-sidedness of Mark's +representation. It is further relieved by the fact that a ministry by +Jesus in Jerusalem must have been one of constant self-assertion, for +Jerusalem represented at its highest those aspects of thought and practice +which were fundamentally opposed to all that Jesus did and taught. +Whenever in Galilee, in the ministry pictured by the first three gospels, +Jesus came in contact with the spirit and feeling characteristic of +Jerusalem, we find him meeting it by unqualified assertion of his own +independence and exalted claim to authority, altogether similar to that +emphasis of his own significance and importance which is the chief +characteristic of his teachings in the fourth gospel. If it be remembered +that that gospel was avowedly an argument written to commend to others the +reverent conclusion concerning the Lord reached by a disciple whose +thought had dwelt for long years on the marvel of that life, and if we +recognize that for such an argument the author would select the instances +and teachings most telling for his own purpose, and would do this as +naturally as the magnet draws to itself iron filings which are mingled +with a pile of sand, the exclusively personal character of the teachings +of Jesus in this gospel need cause little perplexity. Nor need it seem +surprising that the words of Jesus as reported in John share the +peculiarities of style which mark the work of the evangelist in the +prologue to the gospel and in his epistles. His purpose was not primarily +biographical but argumentative, and he has set forth the picture of his +Lord as it rose before his own heart, his memory of events being +interwoven with contemplation on the significance of that life with which +his had been so blessedly associated. In a gospel written avowedly to +produce in others a conviction like his own, the evangelist would not have +been sensible of any obligation to draw sharp lines between his +recollection of his Lord's words and his own contemplations upon them and +upon their significance for his life. If these considerations be kept in +mind we may accept the uniform tradition of antiquity, confirmed by the +plain intimation of the gospel itself, that it is essentially the work of +John, the son of Zebedee, written near the close of his life in Ephesus, +in the last decade of the first century. + +34. We have in our gospel records, therefore, two authorities for the +general course of the ministry of Jesus,--Mark and John. Even if the +fourth gospel should be proved not to be the work of John, its picture of +the ministry of Jesus must be recognized as coming from some apostolic +source. A forger would hardly have invited the rejection of his work by +inventing a narrative which seems to contradict at so many points the +tradition of the other gospels. The first and third gospels furnish us +from various sources rich additions to Mark's narrative, and it is to +these two with the fourth that we turn chiefly for the teachings of Jesus. +Each gospel should be read, therefore, remembering its incompleteness, +remembering also the particular purpose and individual enthusiasm for +Jesus which produced it. + +35. A word may be due to two other claimants to recognition as original +records from the life of Jesus. One class is represented by that word of +the Lord which Paul quoted to the Ephesian elders at Miletus (Acts xx. +35). Scattered here and there in writings of the apostolic and succeeding +ages are other sayings attributed to Jesus which cannot be found in our +gospels. A few of these so-called Agrapha seem worthy of him, and are +recognized as probably genuine. The most important of them is the story of +the woman taken in adultery (John vii. 53 to viii. 11), which, though not +a part of the gospel of John, doubtless gives a true incident from Jesus' +life. They represent the "many other" things which John and the other +gospels have omitted, but their small number proves that our gospels have +preserved for us practically all that was known of Jesus after the first +witnesses fell asleep. It is certainly surprising that so little exists to +supplement the story of the gospels, for they are manifestly fragmentary, +and leave much of Jesus' public life without any record. The other class +of claimants is of a quite different character,--the so-called Apocryphal +Gospels. These consist chiefly of legends connected with the birth and +early years of Jesus, and with his death and resurrection. They are for +the most part crude tales that have entirely mistaken the real character +of him whom they seek to exalt, and need only to be read to be rejected. + + + + +III + +The Harmony of the Gospels + + + +36. The church early appreciated the value and the difficulty of having +four different pictures of the life and teachings of the Lord. Irenæus at +the close of the second century felt it to be as essential that there +should be four gospels as that there should be "four zones of the world, +four principal winds, and four faces of the cherubim" (Against Heresies +III. ii. 8). + +37. Before Irenæus, however, another had sought to obviate the difficulty +of having four records which seem at some points to disagree, by making a +combination of the gospels, to which he gave the title "Diatessaron." +Tatian, the author of this work, was converted from paganism about 152 +A.D., and prepared his unified gospel, probably for the use of the Syrian +churches, sometime after 172. His work is one of the treasures of the +early Christian literature recovered for us within the last +quarter-century. It seems to have won great popularity in the Syrian +churches, having practically displaced the canonical gospels for nearly +three centuries, when, owing to its supposed heretical tendency, it was +suppressed by the determined effort of the church authorities. It is a +continuous record of Jesus' ministry, beginning with the first six verses +of the Gospel of John, passing then to the early chapters of Luke. It +closes with an account of the resurrection interwoven from all four +gospels, concluding with John xxi. 25. The arrangement follows generally +the order of Matthew, additional matter from the other gospels being +inserted at places which approved themselves to Tatian's judgment. Some +portions--in particular the genealogies of Jesus--were omitted altogether, +in accordance with views held by the compiler. + +38. From Tatian's time to the present there have been repeated attempts to +construct a harmonious representation of events and teachings in the +ministry of Jesus, generally by setting the parallel accounts side by +side, following such a succession of events as seemed most probable. Our +evangelists cared little, if they thought at all, about the requirements +of strict biography, and they have left us records not easy to arrange on +any one chronological scheme. Concerning the chief events, however, the +gospels agree. All four report, for instance, the beginning of the work in +Galilee (Matt. iv. 12, 17; Mark i. 14, 15; Luke iv. 14, 15; John iv. +43-45); the feeding of the five thousand when Jesus' popularity in Galilee +passed its climax (Matt. xiv. 13-23; Mark vi. 30-46; Luke ix. 10-17; John +vi. 1-15); the departure from Galilee for the final visit to Jerusalem +(Matt. xix. 1, 2; Mark x. 1; Luke ix. 51; John vii. 1-10); and the week of +suffering and victory at the end (Matt. xxi. 1 to xxviii. 20; Mark xi. 1 +to xvi. 8 [20]; Luke xix. 29 to xxiv. 53; John xii. 1 to xxi. 25). + +39. These facts are enough to give us a clear and unified impression of +the course of Jesus' ministry. When, however, we seek to fill in the +details given in the different gospels, difficulties at once arise. Thus, +first, what shall be done with the long section which John introduces (i. +19 to iv. 42) before Jesus' withdrawal into Galilee? The other gospels +make that withdrawal the beginning of his public work. A second difficulty +arises from the unnamed feast of John v. 1. By one or another scholar this +feast has been identified with almost every Jewish festival known to us. +Another problem is furnished by the long section in Luke which is so +nearly peculiar to his gospel (ix. 51 to xviii. 14). If the section had no +parallels in the other gospels we might easily conclude that it all +belongs to a time subsequent to the final departure for Jerusalem; but it +contains at least one incident from the earlier ministry in Galilee (Luke +xi. 14-36; compare Mark iii. 19-30), and many teachings of Jesus given by +Matthew in an earlier connection appear here in Luke. Furthermore, the +section has to be adjusted to that portion of the Gospel of John which +deals with the same period and yet reports none of the same details. + +40. If Mark has furnished the narrative framework adopted in the main by +the first and third gospels, the problem of the order of events in Jesus' +life becomes a question of the chronological value of Mark, and of the +estimate to be placed on the narrative of John. If the fourth gospel is +held to be of apostolic origin and trustworthy, the task of the harmonist +is chiefly that of combining these two records of Mark and John. The +testimony of the Baptist, with which the fourth gospel opens, must have +been given some time after he had baptized Jesus, and the ministry which +preceded Jesus' return to Galilee (i. 19 to iv. 42) belongs to a period +ignored by the other gospels. The first three gospels contain indications +that Jesus must have visited Judea before the close of his life. They give +no hint, however, of the time or circumstances of such earlier Judean +labor. In giving the emphasis they do to the work in Galilee, they present +a one-sided picture. When, therefore, we find in John a narrative of work +in Judea, confirmed by hints in the other gospels, we may justly assume +that the arrangement which fills out the ministry of Jesus by inserting at +the proper places in Mark's record the events found in John is essentially +true. + +41. The consideration of the one-sidedness of Mark's narrative simplifies +the problem of harmony, but it does not solve all of the perplexities. +Matthew and Luke have much matter, some of it narrative, which Mark has +not, and for which he suggests no place. Where shall we put, for instance, +the cure of the centurion's servant (Matt. viii. 5-13; Luke vii. 1-10), or +John the Baptist's last message (Matt. xi. 2-19; Luke vii. 18-35)? It +would simplify matters if we could take Luke's statement that he had +"traced the course of all things accurately from the first" (Luke i. 3), +as indicating that he had arrived at exact certainty concerning the order +of events of Jesus' life. It is probable, however, that his statement was +simply a claim that he had carefully gathered material for a record of the +whole life of Jesus, from the annunciation of his birth to his ascension. +While we may believe that some trustworthy tradition led him to give the +place he has to many of the incidents which he adds to Mark's story, it +seems impossible to follow him in all respects; for instance, in severing +the account of the blasphemy of the Pharisees (xi. 14-36) from the place +which it holds in Mark (iii. 19-30). + +42. Still more uncertainty exists concerning the historic connection of +teachings of Jesus to which Matthew and Luke give different settings; for +example, the Lord's Prayer (Matt. vi. 9-15; Luke xi. 1-4), and the +exhortations against anxiety (Matt. vi. 25-34; Luke xii. 22-31). We have +seen that much of the teaching common to these gospels is probably derived +from the collection of the "oracles" of the Lord made by the apostle +Matthew. Everything that we can infer concerning such a collection of +oracles indicates that, while some of the teachings may have been +connected with particular historic situations (compare Luke xi. 1), many +would altogether lack such introductory words. A later example of what +such a collection may have been has come to light recently in the +so-called "Sayings of Jesus," discovered in Egypt and published in 1897. +In these the occasion for the teaching has been quite lost; the sole +interest centres in the fact that Jesus is supposed to have said the +things recorded. If Matthew's book contained such "logia" or "oracles," it +is probable that the original connection in which most of them were spoken +was a matter of no concern to the apostle, and consequently has been lost +This in no way compromises the genuineness of these sayings of Jesus. The +treatment of Luke ix. 51 to xviii. 14 is much simplified by this +consideration. To Luke's industry (i. 1-4) we owe the preservation of some +events and very many teachings which no other evangelist has recorded. +Some of this new material (for instance, vii. 11-17, 36-50) he has +assigned a place in the midst of Mark's narrative. Most of it, however, +he has gathered together in what seems to be a sort of appendix, which he +has inserted between the close of the ministry in Galilee and the final +arrival in Judea. For many of the teachings it is now impossible to assign +a time or place. That this is so will cause no surprise or difficulty if +we remember that in the earliest days the report of what Jesus said and +did circulated in the form of oral tradition only. It was the knowledge +that first-hand witnesses were passing away that led to the writing of the +gospels. During the period of oral tradition many teachings of the Lord +were doubtless kept clearly and accurately in memory after the historic +situations which led to their first utterance were quite forgotten. + +43. This fact helps to explain another perplexity in our gospel +narratives. A comparison of the two accounts of the cure of the +centurion's servant reveals differences of detail most perplexing, if we +ask for minute agreement in records of the same events. When we see that +of two accounts evidently reporting the same incident, one can say that +the centurion himself sought Jesus and asked the cure of his servant +(Matt. viii. 5, 8), while the other makes him declare himself unworthy to +come in person to the Lord (Luke vii. 7), the question arises whether +other accounts, similar in the main but differing in detail, should not be +identified as independent records of one event. Were there two cleansings +of the temple (John ii. 13-22; Mark xi. 15-19), two miraculous draughts of +fishes (Luke v. 4-11; John xxi. 5-8), two rejections at Nazareth (Mark vi. +1-6; Luke iv. 16-30), two parables of the Leaven, of the Mustard Seed +(Matt. xiii. 31-33; Luke xiii. 18-21), and of the Lost Sheep (Matt, xviii. +12-14; Luke xv. 4-7)? Such similar records are often called doublets, and +the question of identity or distinctness can be answered only after a +special study of each case. It is important to notice that a given +teaching, particularly if it took the form of an illustration, would +naturally be used by Jesus on many different occasions. When, on the other +hand, we find two accounts of specific doings of Jesus similar in detail +it is needful to recognize that definite historic situations do not so +often repeat themselves as do occasions for similar or identical +teachings. + +44. All these considerations show that while the general order of events +in the life of Jesus may be determined with a good degree of probability, +we must be content to remain uncertain concerning the place to be given to +many incidents and to more teachings. Such uncertainty is of small +concern, since our unharmonized gospels have not failed during all these +centuries to produce one fair picture, to the total impression of which +each teaching and deed make definite contribution quite independently of +our ability to give to each its particular place in relation to the whole. +The degree of certainty attainable justifies, however, a continued +interest in the old study of harmony, because of the more comprehensive +idea it gives of the ministry depicted in the partial narratives of our +several gospels. + + + + +IV + +The Chronology + + + +45. The length of the public ministry of Jesus was one of the earliest +questions which arose in the study of the four gospels. In the second and +third centuries it was not uncommon to find the answer in the passage from +Isaiah (lxi. 1, 2), which Jesus declared was fulfilled in himself. "The +acceptable year of the Lord" was taken to indicate that the ministry +covered little more than a year. The fact that the first three gospels +mention but one Passover (that at the end), and but one journey to +Jerusalem, seems at first to be favorable to this conclusion, and to make +peculiarly significant the care taken by Luke to give the exact date for +the opening of Jesus' ministry (iii. 1, 2). In fact, the second century +Gnostics, relying apparently on Luke, assigned both the ministry and death +of Jesus to the fifteenth year of Tiberius Cæsar,--an interpretation which +may have given rise to the widely spread, early tradition, found, for +example, in Tertullian (Ante-nicene Fathers, in. 160), which placed the +death of Jesus in A.D. 29, during the consulship of L. Rubellius Geminus +and C. Fufius Geminus. + +46. The theory that the ministry of Jesus extended over but little more +than one year is beset, however, by difficulties that seem insuperable. +The first is presented by the three Passovers distinctly mentioned in the +Gospel of John (ii. 13; vi. 4; xii. 1). The last of these is plainly +identical with the one named in the other gospels. The second gives the +time of year for the feeding of the five thousand, and agrees with the +mention of "the green grass" in the account of Mark and Matthew (Mark vi. +39; Matt. xiv. 19). John's first Passover falls in a section which demands +a place before Mark i. 14 (compare John iii. 24). Hence it must be shown +that this first Passover is chronologically out of order in the Gospel of +John, or the one year ministry advocated by the second century Gnostics, +by Clement of Alexandria, by Origen, and of late years by Keim and others, +is seen to be impossible. The fact that at this Passover Jesus cleansed +the temple, and that the other gospels assign such a cleansing to the +close of the ministry, suggests the possibility that John has set it at +the opening of his narrative for reasons connected with his argument. This +interpretation falls, however, before the perfect simplicity of structure +of John's narrative. The transitions from incident to incident in this +gospel are those of simple succession, and indicate, on the writer's part, +no suspicion that he was contradicting notions concerning the ministry of +Jesus familiar to his contemporaries. Whatever the conclusion reached +concerning the authorship of the gospel, the fact that it gained currency +very early as apostolic would seem to prove that its conception of the +length of Jesus' ministry was not opposed to the recognized apostolic +testimony. It is safe to conclude, therefore, that time must be allowed in +Jesus' ministry for at least three Passover seasons. + +47. With this conclusion most modern discussions of the question rest, and +it is possible that it may finally win common consent. The order of +Mark's narrative, however, challenges it. This gospel records near the +beginning (ii. 23) a controversy with the Pharisees occasioned by the fact +that Jesus' disciples plucked and ate the ripening grain as they passed on +a Sabbath day through the fields. As Mark places much later (vi. 30-34) +the feeding of the five thousand, which occurred at a Passover, that is +the beginning of the harvest (Lev. xxiii. 5-11), his order suggests the +necessity of including two harvest seasons in the ministry in Galilee, and +consequently four Passovers in the public life of Jesus. Two +considerations are urged against this conclusion. (1) Papias in his +reference to the Gospel of Mark criticises the order of the gospel; (2) +Mark ii. 1 to iii. 6 contains a group of five conflicts with the critics +of Jesus, which represents a massing of opposition that seems unlikely at +the outset of his Galilean work. The remark of Papias must remain obscure +until his standard of comparison is known. Some suggest that he knew +John's order and preferred it, others that he agreed with that adopted by +Tatian in his Diatessaron. Mark is in accord with neither of these. No +one, however, knows what order Papias preferred. The early conflict group +does appear like a collection drawn from different parts of the ministry. +Yet the nucleus of the group--the cure of the paralytic (ii. 1-12) and the +call of Levi (ii. 13-17)--is clearly in its right place in Mark (see +Holtzmann, Hand-commentar, I. 10). The question about fasting (ii. 18-22) +may have been asked much later, and its present place may be due to +association in tradition with the criticism of Jesus' fellowship with +publicans (ii. 16). In like manner the cure of the withered hand (iii. +1-6) may have become artificially grouped with the incident of the +cornfields. It is possible, also, that both Sabbath controversies owe +their early place in the gospel to traditional association with the early +conflicts (ii. 1-17). If so, the plucking of the grain actually occurred +some weeks after the feeding of the five thousand, and probably after the +controversy about tradition (vii. 1-23), with which, according to Mark, +Jesus' activity in Galilee practically closed. It is not clear, however, +what principle of association drew forward to the early group the Sabbath +conflict, and left in its place the controversy about tradition. It is +thus possible that the incident of the cornfields belongs also to the +early nucleus of the group; and in this case the longer ministry, +including four Passovers, must be accepted. The decision of the question +is not of vital importance, but it affects the determination of the +sequence of events in Jesus' life. Whatever the explanation of the remark +of Papias, the more the gospels are studied the more does Mark's order of +events commend itself in general as representing the probable fact. Many +students have inferred the three year ministry from the Gospel of John +alone, identifying the unnamed feast in John v. 1 with a Passover. But +John's allusion to that feast is so indefinite that the length of Jesus' +ministry must be determined quite independently of it. + +48. So long a ministry as three years presents some difficulties, for all +that is told us in the four gospels would cover but a small fraction of +this time. John's statement (xx. 30) that he omitted many things from +Jesus' life in making his book is evidently true of all the evangelists, +and long gaps, such as are evident in the fourth gospel, must be assumed +in the other three. Recalling the character of the gospels as pictures of +Jesus rather than narratives of his life, we may easily acknowledge the +incompleteness of our record of the three years of ministry, and wonder +the more at the vividness of impression produced with such economy of +material. This meagreness of material is not decisive for the shorter +rather than the longer ministry, for it is evident that to effect such a +change in conviction and feeling as Jesus wrought in the minds of the +ardent Galileans who were his disciples, required time. Three years are +better suited to effect this change than two. + +49. Closely related to the question of the length of Jesus' ministry is +another: Can definite dates be given for the chief events in his life? For +the year of the opening of his public activity the gospels furnish two +independent testimonies: the remark of the Jews on the occasion of Jesus' +first visit to Jerusalem, "Forty and six years was this temple in +building" (John ii. 20), and Luke's careful dating of the appearance of +John the Baptist, "in the fifteenth year of Tiberius Cæsar" (iii. 1, 2). +John ii. 20 leads to the conclusion that the first Passover fell in the +spring of A.D. 26 or 27, since we learn from Josephus (Ant. xv. 11. 1) +that Herod began to rebuild the temple in the eighteenth year of his +reign, which closed in the spring of B.C. 19. Luke iii. 1 gives a date +contradictory to the one just found, if the fifteenth year of Tiberius is +to be counted from the death of his predecessor, for Augustus died August +19, A.D. 14. Reckoned from this time the opening of John's work falls in +the year A.D. 28, and the first Passover of Jesus' ministry could not be +earlier than the spring of 29. This is at least two years later than is +indicated by the statement in John. The remark in John is, however, so +incidental and so lacking in significance for his argument that its +definiteness can be explained only as due to a clear historic +reminiscence; but it does not follow that Luke has erred in the date given +by him. Although Augustus did not die until A.D. 14, there is evidence +that Tiberius was associated with him in authority over the army and the +provinces not later than January, A.D. 12. One who lived and wrote in the +reign of Titus may possibly have applied to the reign of Tiberius a mode +of reckoning customary in the case of Titus, as Professor Ramsay has shown +(Was Christ born at Bethlehem, 202). If this is the fact, Luke reckoned +from the co-regency of Tiberius; hence the fifteenth year would be A.D. 25 +or 26, according as the co-regency began before or after the first of +January, A.D. 12. This would place the first Passover of Jesus' ministry +in the spring of 26 or 27, in agreement with the hint found in John. + +50. If the public ministry of Jesus began with the spring of 26 or 27, the +close of three years of activity would, come at the Passover of 29 or 30. +The former of these dates agrees with the early Christian tradition +already mentioned. But before accepting that traditional date another +matter must be considered. Jesus was crucified on the Friday at the +opening of the feast of the Passover. Whether it was the day of the +sacrifice of the Passover (14 Nisan) or the day following (15 Nisan), is +not essential for the present question. As the Jewish month began with the +first appearance of the new moon, it is evident that, in the year of +Jesus' death, the month of Nisan must have begun on a day that would make +the 14th or the 15th fall on Friday. Now it can be shown that in the year +30 the 14th of Nisan was Thursday (April 6) or Friday (April 7), for at +best only approximate certainty is attainable. The tradition which assigns +the passion to 29, generally names March 25 as the day of the month. This +date is impossible, because it does not coincide with the full moon of +that month. The choice of March 25 by a late tradition may be explained by +the fact that it was commonly regarded as the date of the spring equinox, +the turning of the year towards its renewing. Mr. Turner has shown +(HastBD. I. 415) that another date found in an early document cannot be so +explained. Epiphanius was familiar with copies of the Acts of Pilate, +which gave March 18 as the date of the crucifixion; and it is remarkable +that this date coincides with the full moon, and also falls on Friday. +Such a combination gives unusual weight to the tradition, particularly as +there is no ready way to account for its rise, as in the case of March 25. +From this supplementary tradition the year 29 gains in probability as the +year of the passion. Without attempting to arrive at a final +conclusion,--a task which must be left for chronological specialists,--it +is safe to assume that Jesus died at the Passover of A.D. 29 or 30. + +51. Concluding that Jesus' active ministry fell within the years A.D. 26 +to 30, is it possible to determine the date of his birth? Four hints are +furnished by the gospels: he was born before the death of Herod (Matt. ii. +1; Luke i. 5); he was about thirty years of age at his baptism (Luke iii. +23); he was born during a census conducted in Judea in accordance with +the decree of Augustus at a time when Quirinius was in authority in Syria +(Luke ii. 1, 2); after his birth wise men from the East were led to visit +him by observing "his star" (Matt. ii. 1, 2). From these facts it follows +that the birth of Jesus cannot be placed later than B.C. 4, since Herod +died about the first of April in that year (Jos. Ant. xvii. 6. 4; 8. 1, +4). The awkwardness of having to find a date _Before Christ_ for the birth +of Jesus is due to the miscalculation of the monk, Dionysius the Little, +who in the sixth century introduced our modern reckoning from "the year of +our Lord." + +52. But is it impossible to determine the time of Jesus' birth more +exactly? Luke (ii. 1, 2) offers what seems to be more definite +information, but his reference to the decree of Augustus and the enrolment +under Quirinius are among the most seriously challenged statements in the +gospels. It has been said (1) that history knows of no edict of Augustus +ordering a general enrolment of "the world;" (2) that a Roman census could +not have been taken in Palestine before the death of Herod; (3) that if +such an enrolment had been taken it would have been unnecessary for Joseph +and Mary to journey from Nazareth to Bethlehem; (4) that the census taken +when Quirinius was governor of Syria is definitely assigned by Josephus to +the year after the deposition of Archelaus, A.D. 6 (Ant. xviii. 1. 1; see +also Acts v. 37); (5) that if Luke's reference to this census as the +"first" be appealed to, it must be replied that Quirinius was not governor +of Syria at any time during the lifetime of Herod. This array of +difficulties is impressive, and has persuaded many conservative students +to concede that in his reference to the census Luke has fallen into error. +Some recent discoveries in Egypt, however, have furnished new information +concerning the imperial administration of that province. Inferring that a +policy adopted in Egypt may have prevailed also in Syria, Professor Ramsay +has recently put forth a strong argument for Luke's accuracy in respect of +this census (Was Christ born at Bethlehem, 95-248). That argument may be +condensed as follows: We have evidence of a system of Roman enrolments in +Egypt taken every fourteen years, and already traced back to the time of +Augustus, the earliest document so far recovered belonging, apparently, to +the census of A.D. 20. It is at least possible that this system of +Egyptian enrolments may have been part of an imperial policy, of which all +other trace is lost excepting the statement of Luke. It is significant +that the date of the census referred to by Josephus (A.D. 6) fits exactly +the fourteen-year cycle which obtained in Egypt. If the census of A.D. 6 +was preceded by an earlier one its date would be B.C. 8; that is, it would +be actually taken in B.C. 7, in order to secure the full acts for B.C. 8. + +53. The statement of Tertullian (Against Marcion, iv. 19) that a census +had been taken in Judea under Augustus by Sentius Saturninus, who was +governor of Syria about 9 to 7 B.C., certainly comes from some source +independent of the gospels, and tends to confirm Luke's account of a +census before the death of Herod. That a Roman census might have been +taken in Palestine during Herod's life is seen from the fact that in A.D. +36 Vitellius, the governor of Syria, had to send Roman forces into +Cilicia Trachæa to assist Archelaus, the king of that country, to quell a +revolt caused by native resistance to a census taken after the Roman +fashion (Tacitus, Ann. vi. 41). Herod would almost certainly resent as a +mark of subjection the order to enrol his people; and the fact that he was +in disfavor with Augustus during the governorship of Saturninus (Josephus, +Ant. xvi. 9. 1-3), suggests to Professor Ramsay that he may have sought to +avoid obedience to the imperial will in the matter of the census. If after +some delay Herod was forced to obey, the enrolment may have been taken in +the year 7-6. Since it is probable that the Romans would allow Herod to +give the census as distinctly Jewish a character as possible, it is easy +to credit the order that all Jews should be registered, so far as +possible, in their ancestral homes. Hence the journey of Joseph to +Bethlehem; and if Mary wished to have her child also registered as from +David's line, her removal with Joseph to Bethlehem is explained. Such a +delay in the taking of the census would have postponed it until after the +recall of Saturninus. The statement of Tertullian may therefore indicate +simply that he knew that a census was taken in Syria by Saturninus. + +54. The successor of Saturninus was Varus, who held the governorship until +after the death of Herod. How then does Luke refer to the enrolment as +taken when Quirinius was in authority? It has for a long time been known +that this man was in Syria before he was there as legate of the emperor in +A.D. 6. There seems to be evidence that Quirinius was in the East about +the year B.C. 6, putting down a rebellion on the borders of Cilicia, a +district joined with Syria into one province under the early empire. +Varus was at this time governor, but Quirinius might easily have been +looked upon as representing for the time the power of the Roman arms. If +Herod was forced to yield to the imperial wish by the presence in Syria of +this renowned captain, the statement of Luke is confirmed, and the census +at which Jesus was born was taken, according to a Jewish fashion, during +the life of Herod, but under compulsion of Rome exacted by Quirinius, +while he was in command of the Roman forces in the province of +Syria-Cilicia. This gives as a probable date for the birth of Jesus B.C. +6, which accords well with the hints previously considered, inasmuch as it +is earlier than the death of Herod, and, if born in B.C. 6, Jesus would +have been thirty-two at his baptism in A.D. 26. + +55. The account given in Matthew of "the star" which drew the wise men to +Judea gives no sure help in determining the date of the birth of Jesus, +but it is at least suggestive that in the spring and autumn of B.C. 7 +there occurred a remarkable conjunction of the planets Jupiter and Saturn. +This was first noticed by Kepler in consequence of a similar conjunction +observed by him in A.D. 1603. Men much influenced by astrology must have +been impressed by such a celestial phenomenon, but that it furnishes an +explanation of the star of the wise men is not clear. If it does, it +confirms the date otherwise probable for the nativity, that is, not far +from B.C. 6. + +56. Can we go further and determine the time of year or the month and day +of the nativity? It should be borne in mind that our Christmas festival +was not observed earlier than the fourth century, and that the evidence +is well-nigh conclusive that December 25th was finally selected for the +Nativity in order to hallow a much earlier and widely spread pagan +festival coincident with the winter solstice. If anything exists to +suggest the time of year it is Luke's mention of "shepherds in the field +keeping watch by night over their flock" (ii. 8). This seems to indicate +that it must have been the summer season. In winter the flocks would be +folded, not pastured, by night. + +57. It therefore seems probable that Jesus was born in the summer of B.C. +6; that he was baptized in A.D. 26; that the first Passover of his +ministry was in the spring of 26 or 27; and that he was crucified in the +spring of 29 or 30. + + + + +V + +The Early Years of Jesus + +Matt. i. 1 to ii. 23; Luke i. 5 to ii. 52; iii. 23-38 + + + +58. It is surprising that within a century of the life of the apostles, +Christian imagination could have so completely mistaken the real greatness +of Jesus as to let its thirst for wonder fill his early years with scenes +in which his conduct is as unlovely as it is shocking. That he who in +manhood was "holy, harmless, undefiled, separate from sinners" (Heb. vii. +26), could in youth, in a fit of ill-temper, strike a companion with death +and then meet remonstrance by cursing his accusers with blindness (Gospel +of Thomas, 4, 5); that he could mock his teachers and spitefully resent +their control (Pseudo-Matthew, 30, 31); that it could be thought worthy of +him to exhibit his superiority to common human conditions by carrying +water in his mantle when his pitcher had been broken (same, 33), or by +making clay birds in play on the Sabbath and causing them to fly when he +was rebuked for naughtiness (same, 27);--these and many like legends +exhibit incredible blindness to the real glory of the Lord. Yet such +things abound in the early attempts of the pious imagination to write the +story of the youth of Jesus, and the account of the nativity and its +antecedents fares as ill, being pitifully trivial where it is not +revolting. + +59. How completely foreign all this is to the apostolic thought and +feeling is clear when we notice that excepting the first two chapters of +Matthew and Luke the New Testament tells us nothing whatever of the years +which preceded John the Baptist's ministry in the wilderness. The gospels +are books of testimony to what men had seen and heard (John i. 14); and +the epistles are practical interpretations of the same in its bearing on +religious life and hope. The apostles found no difficulty in recognizing +the divinity and sinlessness of their Lord without inquiring how he came +into the world or how he spent his early years; it was what he showed +himself to be, not how he came to be, that formed their conception of him. +Yet the early chapters of Matthew and Luke should not be classed with the +later legends. Notwithstanding the attempts of Keim to associate the +narratives of the infancy in the canonical and apocryphal gospels, a great +gulf separates them: on the one side there is a reverent and beautiful +reserve, on the other indelicate, unlovely, and trivial audacity. + +60. The gospel narratives have, however, perplexities of their own, for +the two accounts agree only in the main features,--the miraculous birth in +Bethlehem in the days of Herod, Mary being the mother and Joseph the +foster-father, and Nazareth the subsequent residence. In further details +they are quite different, and at first sight seem contradictory. Moreover, +while Matthew sheds a halo of glory over the birth of Jesus, Luke draws a +picture of humble circumstances and obscurity. These differences, taken +with the silence of the rest of the New Testament concerning a miraculous +birth, constitute a real difficulty. To many it seems strange that the +disciples and the brethren of Jesus did not refer to these things if they +knew them to be true. But it must not be overlooked that any familiar +reference to the circumstances of the birth of Jesus which are narrated in +the gospels would have invited from the Jews simply a challenge of the +honor of his home. Moreover, as the knowledge of these wonders did not +keep Mary from misunderstanding her son (Luke ii. 19, 51; compare Mark in. +21, 31-35), the publication of them could hardly have helped greatly the +belief of others. The fact that Mary was so perplexed by the course of +Jesus in his ministry makes it probable that even until quite late in her +life she "kept these things and pondered them in her heart." + +61. No parts of the New Testament are challenged so widely and so +confidently as these narratives of the infancy. But if they are not to be +credited with essential truth it is necessary to show what ideas cherished +in the apostolic church could have led to their invention. That John and +Paul maintain the divinity of their Lord, yet give no hint that this +involved a miraculous birth, shows that these stories are no necessary +outgrowth of that doctrine. The early Christians whether Jewish or Gentile +would not naturally choose to give pictorial form to their belief in their +Lord's divinity by the story of an incarnation. The heathen myths +concerning sons of the gods were in all their associations revolting to +Christian feeling, and, while the Jewish mind was ready to see divine +influence at work in the birth of great men in Israel (as Isaac, and +Samson, and Samuel), the whole tendency of later Judaism was hostile to +any such idea as actual incarnation. Some would explain the story of the +miraculous birth as a conclusion drawn by the Christian consciousness +from the doctrine of the sinlessness of Jesus. Yet neither Paul nor John, +who are both clear concerning the doctrine, give any idea that a +miraculous birth was essential for a sinless being. Some appeal to the +eagerness of the early Christians to exalt the virginity of Mary, This is +certainly the animus of many apocryphal legends. But the feeling is as +foreign to Jewish sentiment and New Testament teaching as it is +contradictory to the evidence in the gospels that Mary had other children +born after Jesus. + +62. Moreover, the songs of Mary (Luke i. 46-55) and Zachariah (Luke i. +68--79) bear in themselves the evidence of origin before the doctrine of +the cross had transformed the Christian idea of the Messiah. That +transformed idea abounds in the Epistles and the Acts, and it is difficult +to conceive how these songs (if they were later inventions) could have +been left free of any trace of specifically Christian ideas. A Jewish +Christian would almost certainly have made them more Christian than they +are; a Gentile Christian could not have made them so strongly and +naturally Jewish as they are; while a non-Christian Jew would never have +invented them. Taken with the evidence in Ignatius (Ad Eph. xviii., xix.) +of the very early currency of the belief in a miraculous birth, they +confirm the impression that it is easier to accept the evidence offered +for the miracle than to account for the origin of the stories as legends. +The idea of a miraculous birth is very foreign to modern thought; it +becomes credible only as the transcendent nature of Jesus is recognized on +other grounds. It may not be said that the incarnation required a +miraculous conception, yet it may be acknowledged that a miraculous +conception is a most suitable method for a divine incarnation. + +63. These gospel stories are chiefly significant for us in that they show +that he in whom his disciples came to recognize a divine nature began his +earthly life in the utter helplessness and dependence of infancy, and grew +through boyhood and youth to manhood with such naturalness that his +neighbors, dull concerning the things of the spirit, could not credit his +exalted claims. He is shown as one in all points like unto his brethren +(Heb. ii. 17). Two statements in Luke (ii. 40, 52) describe the growth of +the divine child as simply as that of his forerunner (Luke i. 80), or that +of the prophet of old (I. Sam. ii. 26). The clear impression of these +statements is that Jesus had a normal growth from infancy to manhood, +while the whole course of the later life as set before us in the gospels +confirms the scripture doctrine that his normal growth was free from sin +(Heb. iv. 15). + +64. The knowledge of the probable conditions of his childhood is as +satisfying as the apocryphal stories are revolting. The lofty Jewish +conception of home and its relations is worthy of Jesus. The circumstances +of the home in Nazareth were humble (Matt. xiii. 55; Luke ii. 24; compare +Lev. xii. 8). Probably the house was not unlike those seen to-day, of but +one room, or at most two or three,--the tools of trade mingling with the +meagre furnishings for home-life. We should not think it a home of penury; +doubtless the circumstances of Joseph were like those of his neighbors. In +one respect this home was rich. The wife and mother had an exalted place +in the Jewish life, notwithstanding the trivial opinions of some +supercilious rabbis; and what the gospel tells of the chivalry of Joseph +renders it certain that love reigned in his home, making it fit for the +growth of the holy child. + +65. Religion held sway in all the phases of Jewish life. With some it was +a religion of ceremony,--of prayers and fastings, tithes and boastful +alms, fringes and phylacteries. But Joseph and Mary belonged to the +simpler folk, who, while they reverenced the scribes as teachers, knew not +enough of their subtlety to have substituted barren rites for sincere love +for the God of their fathers and childlike trust in his mercy. Jesus knew +not only home life at its fairest, but religion at its best. A father's +most sacred duty was the teaching of his child in the religion of his +people (Deut. vi. 4-9), and then, as ever since, the son learned at his +mother's side to know and love her God, to pray to him, and to know the +scriptures. No story more thrilling and full of interest, no prospect more +rich and full of glowing hope, could be found to satisfy the child's +spirit of wonder than the story of Israel's past and God's promises for +the future. Religious culture was not confined to the home, however. The +temple at Jerusalem was the ideal centre of religious life for this +Nazareth household (Luke ii. 41) as for all the people, yet practically +worship and instruction were cultivated chiefly by the synagogue (Luke iv. +16); there God was present in his Holy Word. Week after week the boy Jesus +heard the scripture in its original Hebrew form, followed by translation +into Aramaic, and received instruction from it for daily conduct. The +synagogue probably influenced the boy's intellectual life even more +directly. In the time of Jesus schools had been established in all the +important towns, and were apparently under the control of the synagogue. +To such a school he may have been sent from about six years of age to be +taught the scriptures (compare II. Tim. iii. 15), together with the +reading (Luke iv. 16-19), and perhaps the writing, of the Hebrew language. +Of his school experience we know nothing beyond the fact that he grew in +"wisdom and in stature and in favor with God and man" (Luke ii. 52),--a +sufficient contradiction of the repulsive legends of the apocryphal +gospels. + +66. The physical growth incident to Jesus' development from boyhood to +manhood is a familiar thought. The intellectual unfolding which belongs to +this development is readily recognized. Not so commonly acknowledged, but +none the less clearly essential to the gospel picture, is the gradual +unfolding of the child's moral life under circumstances and stimulus +similar to those with which other children meet (Heb. iv. 15). The man +Jesus was known as the carpenter (Matt. xiii. 55). The learning of such a +trade would contribute much to the boy's mastery of his own powers. Far +more discipline would come from his fellowship with brothers and sisters +who did not understand his ways nor appreciate the deepest realities of +his life. Without robbing boyhood days of their naturalness and reality, +we may be sure that long before Jesus knew how and why he differed from +his fellows he felt more or less clearly that they were not like him. The +resulting sense of isolation was a school for self-mastery, lest isolation +foster any such pride or unloveliness as that with which later legend +dared to stain the picture of the Lord's youth. Four brothers of Jesus +are named by Mark (vi. 3),--James, and Joses, and Judas, and Simon,--the +gospel adds also that he had sisters living at a later time in Nazareth. +They were all subject with him to the same home influences, and apparently +were not unresponsive to them. The similarity of thought and feeling +between the sermon on the mount and the Epistle of James is not readily +explained by the influence of master over disciple, since the days of +James's discipleship began after the resurrection of Jesus. In any case +there is no reason to think that the companions of Jesus' home were +uncommonly irritating or in any way irreligious, only Jesus was not +altogether like them (John vii. 5), and the fact of difference was a moral +discipline, which among other things led to that moral growth by which +innocence passed into positive goodness. If the home was such a school of +discipline, its neighbors, less earnest and less favored with spiritual +training, furnished more abundant occasion for self-mastery and growth. +The very fact that in his later years Jesus was no desert preacher, like +John, but social, and socially sought for, indicates that he did not win +his manhood's perfection in solitude, but in fellowship with common life +and in victory over the trials and temptations incident to it (Heb. ii. +17, 18). + +67. Yet he must have been familiar with the life which is in secret (Matt. +vi. 1-18). He who in his later years was a man of much prayer, who began +(Luke iii. 21) and closed (Luke xxiii. 46) his public life with prayer, as +a boy was certainly familiar not only with the prayers of home and +synagogue, but also with quiet, personal resort to the presence of God. It +would be unjust to think of any abnormal religious precocity. Jesus was +the best example the world has seen of perfect spiritual health, but we +must believe that he came early to know God and to live much with him. + +68. It is instructive in connection with this inwardness of Jesus' life to +recall the rich familiarity with the whole world of nature which appears +in his parables and other teachings. The prospect which met his eye if he +sought escape from the distractions of home and village life, has been +described by Renan: "The view from the town is limited; but if we ascend a +little to the plateau swept by a perpetual breeze, which stands above the +highest houses, the landscape is magnificent. On the west stretch the fine +outlines of Carmel, terminating in an abrupt spur which seems to run down +sheer to the sea. Next, one sees the double summit which towers above +Megiddo; the mountains of the country of Shechem, with their holy places +of the patriarchal period; the hills of Gilboa, the small picturesque +group to which is attached the graceful or terrible recollections of +Shunem and of Endor; and Tabor, with its beautiful rounded form, which +antiquity compared to a bosom. Through a gap between the mountains of +Shunem and Tabor are visible the valley of the Jordan and the high plains +of Perea, which form a continuous line from the eastern side. On the +north, the mountains of Safed, stretching towards the sea, conceal St. +Jean d'Acre, but leave the Gulf of Khaifa in sight. Such was the horizon, +of Jesus. This enchanted circle, cradle of the kingdom of God, was for +years his world. Indeed, during his whole life he went but little beyond +the familiar bounds of his childhood. For yonder, northwards, one can +almost see, on the flank of Hermon, Cæsarea-Philippi, his farthest point +of advance into the Gentile world; and to the south the less smiling +aspect of these Samaritan hills foreshadows the dreariness of Judea +beyond, parched as by a burning wind of desolation and death." In the +midst of such scenes we are to understand that, with the physical growth, +and opening of mind, and moral discipline which filled the early years of +Jesus, there came also the gradual spiritual unfolding in which the boy +rose step by step to the fuller knowledge of God and himself. + +69. That unfolding is pictured in an early stage in the story given us +from the youth of Jesus. It was customary for a Jewish boy not long after +passing his twelfth year to come under full adult obligation to the law. +The visit to Jerusalem was probably in preparation for such assumption of +obligation by Jesus. All his earlier training had filled his mind with the +sacredness of the Holy City and the glory of the temple. It is easy to +feel with what joy he would first look upon Zion from the shoulder of the +Mount of Olives, as he came over it on his journey from Galilee; to +conceive how the temple and the ritual would fill him with awe in his +readiness not to criticise, but to idealize everything he saw, and to +think only of the significance given by it all to the scripture; to +imagine how eagerly he would talk in the temple court with the learned men +of his people about the law and the promises with which in home and school +his youth had been made familiar. Nor is it difficult to appreciate his +surprise, when Joseph and Mary, only after long searching for him, at last +found him in the temple, for he felt that it was the most natural place +in which he could be found. In his wondering question to Mary, "Did not +you know that I must be in my Father's house?" (Luke ii. 49), there is a +premonition of his later consciousness of peculiarly intimate relation to +God. The question was, however, a sincere inquiry. It was no precocious +rebuke of Mary's anxiety. The knowledge of himself as Son of God was only +dawning within him, and was not yet full and clear. This is shown by his +immediate obedience and his subjection to his parents in Nazareth through +many years. It is safe, in the interpretation of the acts and words of +Jesus, to banish utterly as inconceivable anything that savors of the +theatrical. We must believe that he was always true to himself, and that +the subjection which he rendered to Joseph and Mary sprang from a real +sense of childhood's dependence, and was not a show of obedience for any +edifying end however high. + +70. That question "Did not you know?" is the only hint we possess of +Jesus' inner life before John's call to repentance rang through the land. +Meanwhile the carpenter's son became himself the carpenter. Joseph seems +to have died before the opening of Jesus' ministry. For Jesus as the +eldest son, this death made those years far other than a time of spiritual +retreat; responsibility for the home and the pressing duties of trade must +have filled most of the hours of his days. This is a welcome thought to +our healthiest sentiment, and true also to the earliest Christian feeling +(Heb. iv. 15). John the Baptist had his training in the wilderness, but +Jesus came from familiar intercourse with men, was welcomed in their +homes (John ii. 2), knew their life in its homely ongoing, and was the +friend of all sorts and conditions of men. After that visit to Jerusalem, +a few more years may have been spent in school, for, whether from school +instruction, or synagogue preaching, or simple daily experience, the young +man came to know the traditions of the elders and also to know that +observance of them is a mockery of the righteousness which God requires. +Yet he seems to have felt so fully in harmony with God as to be conscious +of nothing new in the fresh and vital conceptions of righteousness which +he found in the law and prophets. We may be certain that much of his +thought was given to Israel's hope of redemption, and that with the +prophets of old and the singer much nearer his own day (Ps. of Sol. xvii. +23), he longed that God, according to his promise, would raise up unto his +people, their King, the Son of David. + +71. He must also have read often from that other book open before him as +he walked upon the hills of Nazareth. The beauty of the grass and of the +lilies was surely not a new discovery to him after he began to preach the +coming kingdom, nor is it likely that he waited until after his baptism to +form his habit of spending the night in prayer upon the mountain. We may +be equally sure that he did not first learn to love men and women and long +for their good after he received the call, "Thou art my beloved son" (Mark +i. 11). He who in later life read hearts clearly (John ii. 25) doubtless +gained that skill, as well as the knowledge of human sin and need, early +in his intercourse with his friends and neighbors in Nazareth; while a +clear conviction that God's kingdom consists in his sovereignty over +loyal hearts must have filled much of his thought about the promised good +which God would bring to Israel in due time. Thus we may think that in +quietness and homely industry, in secret life with God and open love for +men, in study of history and prophecy, in longing for the actual sway of +God in human life, Jesus lived his life, did his work, and grew in "wisdom +and in stature and in favor with God and man" (Luke ii. 52). + + + + +VI + +John The Baptist + +Matt. iii. 1-17; iv. 12; xiv. 1-12; Mark i. 1-14; vi. 14-29; Luke i. 5-25, +57-80; iii. 1-22; ix. 7-9; John i. 19-37; iii. 22-30. + + + +72. The first reappearance of Jesus in the gospel story, after the temple +scene in his twelfth year, is on the banks of the Jordan seeking baptism +from the new prophet. One of the silent evidences of the greatness of +Jesus is the fact that so great a character as John the Baptist stands in +our thought simply as accessory to his life. For that the prophet of the +wilderness was great has been the opinion of all who have been willing to +seek him in his retirement. One reason for the common neglect of John is +doubtless the meagreness of information about him. But though details are +few, the picture of him is drawn in clearest lines: a rugged son of the +wilderness scorning the gentler things of life, threatening his people +with coming wrath and calling to repentance while yet there was time; a +preacher of practical righteousness heeded by publicans and harlots but +scorned by the elders of his people; a bold and fearless spirit, yet +subdued in the presence of another who did not strive, nor cry, nor cause +his voice to be heard in the streets. When the people thought to find in +John the promised Messiah, with unparalleled self-effacement he pointed +them to his rival and rejoiced in that rival's growing success. Side by +side they worked for a time; then the picture fails, but for a hint of a +royal audience, with a fearless rebuke of royal disgrace and sin; a prison +life, with its pathetic shaking of confidence in the early certainties; a +long and forced inaction, and the question put by a wavering faith, with +its patient and affectionate reply; then a lewd orgy, a king's oath, a +girl's demands, a martyr's release, the disciples' lamentation and their +report to that other who, though seeming a rival, was known to appreciate +best the greatness of this prophet. Such is the picture in the gospels. + +73. John, unlike his greater successor, has a highly appreciative notice +from Josephus: "Now some of the Jews thought that the destruction of +Herod's army came from God, and that very justly, as a punishment for what +he did against John, who was called the Baptist. For Herod had had him put +to death though he was a good man, and commanded the Jews to exercise +virtue, both as to justice towards one another, and piety towards God, and +so to come to baptism; for baptism would be acceptable to God, if they +made use of it not in order to expiate some sin, but for the purification +of the body, provided that the soul was thoroughly purified beforehand by +righteousness. Now, as many flocked to him, for they were greatly moved by +hearing his words, Herod, fearing that the great influence, John had over +the people might lead to some rebellion (for the people seemed likely to +do anything he should advise), thought it far best, by putting him to +death, to prevent any mischief he might cause, and not bring himself into +difficulties by sparing a man who might make him repent of his leniency +when it should be too late. Accordingly he was sent a prisoner, in +consequence of Herod's suspicious temper, to Machaerus, the fortress +before mentioned, and was there put to death. So the Jews had the opinion +that the destruction of this army [by Aretas] was sent as a punishment +upon Herod and was the mark of God's displeasure at him" (Ant. xviii. 5. +2). This section is commonly accepted as trustworthy. Superficially +different from the gospel record and assigning quite another cause for +John's imprisonment and death, it correctly describes his character and +his influence with the people, and leaves abundant room for a more +intimately personal motive on the part of Antipas for the imprisonment of +John. If the jealousy of Herodias was the actual reason for John's arrest, +it is highly probable that another cause would be named to the world, and +a likelier one than that given by Josephus could not be found. + +74. The first problem that offers itself in the study of this man is the +man himself. Whence did he come? Everything about him is surprising. He +appears as a dweller in the desert, an ascetic, holding aloof from common +life and content with the scanty fare the wilderness could offer; yet he +was keenly appreciative of his people's needs, and he knew their +sins,--the particular ones that beset Pharisees, publicans, soldiers. If a +recluse in habit, he was far from such in thought; he was therefore no +seeker for his own soul's peace in his desert life. His dress was +strikingly suggestive of the old prophet of judgment on national +infidelity (I. Kings xvii. 1; II. Kings i, 8), the Elijah whom John would +not claim to be. His message was commanding, with its double word "Repent" +and "The kingdom is near." His idea of the kingdom was definite, though +not at all developed; it signified to him God's dominion, inaugurated by a +divine judgment which should mean good for the penitent and utter +destruction for the ungodly; hence the prophet's call to repentance. His +ministry was one of grace, but the time was drawing near when the Greater +One would appear to complete by a swift judgment the work which his +forerunner was beginning. That Greater One would hew down the fruitless +tree, winnow the wheat from the chaff on the threshing floor, baptize the +penitent with divine power, and the wicked with the fire of judgment, +since his was to be a ministry of judgment, not of grace. + +75. Whence, then, came this strange prophet? Near the desert region where +he spent his youth and where he first proclaimed his message of repentance +and judgment was the chief settlement of that strange company of Jews +known as Essenes. It has long been customary to think that during his +early years John was associated with these fellow-dwellers in the desert, +if he did not actually join the order. He certainly may have learned from +them many things. Their sympathy with his ascetic life and with his +thorough moral earnestness would make them attractive to him, but he was +far too original a man to get from them more than some suggestions to be +worked out in his own fashion. The simplicity of his teaching of +repentance and the disregard of ceremonial in his preaching separate him +from these monks. John may have known his desert companions, may have +appreciated some things in their discipline, but he remained independent +of their guidance. + +76. The leaders of religious life and thought in his day were +unquestionably the Pharisees. The controlling idea with them, and +consequently with the people, was the sanctity of God's law. They were +conscious of the sinfulness of the people, and their demand for repentance +was constant. It is a rabbinic commonplace that the delay of the Messiah's +coming is due to lack of repentance in Israel. But near as this conception +is to John's, we need but to recall his words to the Pharisees (Matt. iii. +7) to realize how clearly he saw through the hollowness of their religious +pretence. With the quibbles of the scribes concerning small and great +commandments, Sabbaths and hand-washings, John shows no affinity. He may +have learned some things from these "sitters in Moses' seat," but he was +not of them. + +77. John's message announced the near approach of the kingdom of God. It +is probable that many of those who sought his baptism were ardent +nationalists,--eager to take a hand in realizing that consummation. +Josephus indicates that it was Herod's fear lest John should lead these +Zealots to revolt that furnished the ostensible cause of his death. But +similar as were the interests of John and these nationalists, the distance +between them was great. The prophet's replies to the publicans and to the +soldiers, which contain not a word of rebuke for the hated callings (Luke +iii. 13, 14), show how fundamentally he differed from the Zealots. + +78. But there was another branch of the Pharisees than that which quibbled +over Sabbath laws, traditions, and tithes, or that which itched to grasp +the sword; they were men who saw visions and dreamed dreams like those of +Daniel and the Revelation, and in their visions saw God bringing +deliverance to his people by swift and sudden judgment. There are some +marked likenesses between this type of thought and that of John,--the +impending judgment, the word of warning, the coming blessing, were all in +John; but one need only compare John's words with such an apocalypse as +the Assumption of Moses, probably written in Palestine during John's life +in the desert, to discover that the two messages do not move in the same +circle of thought at all; there is something practical, something severely +heart-searching, something at home in every-day life, about John's +announcement of the coming kingdom that is quite absent from the visions +of his contemporaries. John had not, like some of these seers, a coddling +sympathy for people steeped in sin. He traced their troubles to their own +doors, and would not let ceremonies pass in place of "fruits meet for +repentance." He came from the desert with rebuke and warning on his lips; +with no word against the hated Romans, but many against hypocritical +claimants to the privileges of Abraham; no apology for his message nor +artificial device of dream or ancient name to secure a hearing, but the +old-fashioned prophetic method of declaration of truth "whether men will +hear or whether they will forbear." "All was sharp and cutting, imperious +earnestness about final questions, unsparing overthrow of all fictitious +shams in individual as in national life. There are no theories of the law, +no new good works, no belief in the old, but simply and solely a prophetic +clutch at men's consciences, a mighty accusation, a crushing summons to +contrite repentance and speedy sanctification" (KeimJN. II. 228). We look +in vain for a parallel in any of John's contemporaries, except in that one +before whom he bowed, saying, "I have need to be baptized of thee." + +79. John had, however, predecessors whose work he revived. In Isaiah's +words, "Wash you, make you clean" (Isa. i 16), one recognizes the type +which reappeared in John. The great prophetic conception of the Day of the +Lord--the day of wrath and salvation (Joel ii. 1-14)--is revived in John, +free from all the fantastic accompaniments which his contemporaries loved. +The invitations to repentance and new fidelity which abound in Isaiah, +Ezekiel, Hosea, and Joel; the summons to simple righteousness, which rang +from the lips of Micah (vi. 8), and of the great prophet of the exile +(Isa. lviii.), these tell us where John went to school and how well he +learned his lesson. It is hard for us to realize how great a novelty such +simplicity was in John's day, or how much originality it required to +attain to this discipleship of the prophets. From the time when the +curtain rises on the later history of Israel in the days of the Maccabean +struggle to the coming of that "voice crying in the wilderness," Israel +had listened in vain for a prophet who could speak God's will with +authority. The last thing that people expected when John came was such a +simple message. He was not the creature of his time, but a revival of the +older type; yet, as in the days of Elijah God had kept him seven thousand +in Israel that had not bowed the knee to Baal, so, in the later time, not +all were bereft of living faith. These devout souls furnished the soil +which could produce a life like John's, gifted and chosen by God to +restore and advance the older and more genuine religion. + +80. If John was thus a revival of the older prophetic order, a second +question arises: Whence came his baptism, and what did it signify? The +gospels describe it as a "baptism of repentance for the remission of sins" +(Mark i. 4). John's declaration that his greater successor should baptize +with the Holy Spirit and fire (Matt. iii. 11) shows that he viewed his +baptism as a symbol, rather than as a means, of remission of sin. But it +was more than a sign of repentance, it was a confession of loyalty to the +kingdom which John's successor was to establish. It had thus a twofold +significance: (_a_) confession of and turning from the old life of sin, +and (_b_) consecration to the coming kingdom. Whence, then, came this +ordinance? Not from the Essenes, for, unlike John's baptism, the bath +required by these Jewish ascetics was an oft-repeated act. Further, John's +rite had a far deeper religious significance than the Essene washings. +These performed their ablutions to secure ritual cleanness as exemplary +disciples of the Mosaic ideal. The searching of heart which preceded +John's baptism, and the radical change of life it demanded, seem foreign +to Essenism. The baptism of John, considered as a ceremony of consecration +for the coming kingdom, was parallel rather to the initiatory oaths of the +Essene brotherhood than to their ablutions. Their custom may have served +to suggest to John a different application of the familiar sacred use of +the bath; indeed John could hardly have been uninfluenced by the usage of +his contemporaries; yet in this, as in his thought, he was not a product +of their school. + +81. John's baptism was equally independent of the pharisaic influence. The +scribes made much of "divers washings," but not with any such significance +as would furnish to John his baptism of repentance and of radical change +of life. That he was not following a pharisaic leading appears in the +question put to him by the Pharisees, "Why, then, baptizest thou?" (John +i. 25). They saw something unique in the ceremony as he conducted it. + +82. Many have held that he derived his baptism from the method of +admitting proselytes into the Jewish fellowship. It is clear, at least, +that the later ritual prescribed a ceremonial bath as well as circumcision +and sacrifice for all who came into Judaism from the Gentiles, and it is +difficult to conceive of a time when a ceremonial bath would not seem +indispensable, since Jews regarded all Gentile life as defiling. While +such an origin for John's baptism would give peculiar force to his rebuke +of Jewish confidence in the merits of Abraham (Matt. iii. 9), it is more +likely, as Keim has shown (JN. II. 243 and note), that in this as in his +other thought John learned of his predecessors rather than his +contemporaries. Before the giving of the older covenant from Sinai, it is +said that Moses was required "to sanctify the people and bid them wash +their garments" (Ex. xix. 10). John was proclaiming the establishment of a +new covenant, as the prophets had promised. That the people should prepare +for this by a similar bath of sanctification seems most natural. John +appeared with a revival of the older and simpler religious ideas of +Israel's past, deriving his rite as well as his thought from the springs +of his people's religious life. + +83. This revival of the prophetic past had nothing scholastic or +antiquarian about it. John was a disciple, not an imitator, of the great +men of Israel; his message was not learned from Isaiah or any other, +though he was educated by studying them. What he declared, he declared as +truth immediately seen by his own soul, the essence of his power being a +revival, not in letter but in spirit, of the old, direct cry, "Thus saith +the Lord." Inasmuch as John's day was otherwise hopelessly in bondage to +tradition and the study of the letter, by so much is his greatness +enhanced in bringing again God's direct message to the human conscience. +John's greatness was that of a pioneer. The Friend of publicans and +sinners also spoke a simple speech to human hearts; he built on and +advanced from the old prophets, but it was John who was appointed to +prepare the people for the new life, "to make ready the way of the Lord" +(Mark i. 3). The clearness of his perception of truth is not the least of +his claims to greatness. His knowledge of the simplicity of God's +requirements in contrast with the hopeless maze of pharisaic traditions, +and his insight into the characters with whom he had to deal, whether the +sinless Jesus or the hypocritical Pharisees, show a man marvellously +gifted by God who made good use of his gift. This greatness appears in +superlative degree in the self-effacement of him who possessed these +powers. Greatness always knows itself more or less fully. It was not +self-ignorance that led John to claim to be but a voice, nor was it mock +humility. The confession of his unworthiness in comparison with the +mightier one who should follow is unmistakably sincere, as is the +completed joy of this friend of the bridegroom rejoicing greatly because +of the bridegroom's voice, even when the bridegroom's presence meant the +recedence of the friend into ever deepening obscurity (John iii. 30). + +84. But John had marked limitations. He knew well the righteousness of +God; he knew, and, in effect, proclaimed God's readiness to forgive them +that would turn from their wicked ways; he knew the simplicity as well as +the exceeding breadth of the divine commandment; but beyond one flash of +insight (John i. 29-36), which did not avail to remould his thought, he +did not know the yearning love of God which seeks to save. It is not +strange that he did not. Some of the prophets had more knowledge of it +than he, his own favorite Isaiah knew more of it than he, but it was not +the thought of John's day. The wonder is that the Baptist so far freed +himself from current thought; yet he did not belong to the new order. He +thundered as from Sinai. The simplest child that has learned from the +heart its "Our Father" has reached a higher knowledge and entered a higher +privilege (Matt. xi. 11). John's self-effacement, wonderful as it was, +fell short of discipleship to his greater successor; in fact, at a much +later time there was still a circle of disciples of the Baptist who kept +themselves separate from the church (Acts xix. 1-7). He was doubtless too +strenuous a man readily to become a follower. He could yield his place +with unapproachable grace, but he remained the prophet of the wilderness +still. He seemed to belong consciously to the old order, and, by the very +circumstances ordained of God who sent him, he could not be of those who, +sitting at Jesus' feet, learned to surrender to him their preconceptions +and hopes, and in heart, if not in word, to say, "To whom shall we go, +thou hast the words of eternal life?" (John vi. 68). + + + + +VII + +The Messianic Call + +Matt. iii. 13 TO iv. 11; Mark i. 9-13; Luke iii. 21, 22; iv. 1-13; John i. +30-34 + + + +85. In the circle about John all classes of the people were represented: +Pharisees and Sadducees, jealous of innovation and apprehensive of popular +excitement; publicans and soldiers, interested in the new preacher or +touched in conscience; outcasts who came in penitence, and devout souls in +consecration. The wonder of the new message was carried throughout the +land and brought great multitudes to the Jordan. Jesus in Nazareth heard +it, and recognized in John a revival of the long-silent prophetic voice. +The summons appealed to his loyalty to God's truth, and after the +multitudes had been baptized (Luke iii. 21) he too sought the prophet of +the wilderness. + +86. The connection which Luke mentions (i. 36) between the families of +Jesus and John had not led to any intimacy between the two young men. John +certainly did not know of his kinsman's mission (John i. 31), nor was his +conception of the Messiah such that he would look for its fulfilment in +one like Jesus (Matt. iii. 10-12). One thing, however, was clear as soon +as they met,--John recognized in Jesus one holier than himself (Matt. iii. +14). With a prophet's spiritual insight he read the character of Jesus +at a glance, and although that character did not prove him to be the +Messiah, it prepared John for the revelation which was soon to follow. + +87. The reply of Jesus to the unwillingness of John to give him baptism +(Matt. iii. 15) was an expression of firm purpose to do God's will; the +absence of any confession of sin is therefore all the more noticeable. In +all generations the holiest men have been those most conscious of +imperfection, and in John's message and baptism confession and repentance +were primary demands; yet Jesus felt no need for repentance, and asked for +baptism with no word of confession. But for the fact that the total +impression of his life begat in his disciples the conviction that "he did +no sin" (I. Pet. ii. 22; compare John viii. 46; II. Cor. v. 21), this +silence of Jesus would offend the religious sense. Jesus, however, had no +air of self-sufficiency, he came to make surrender and "to fulfil +all-righteousness" (Matt. iii. 15). It was the positive aspect of John's +baptism that drew him to the Jordan. John was preaching the coming of +God's kingdom. The place held by the doctrine of that kingdom in the later +teaching of Jesus makes it all but certain that his thought had been +filled with it for many years. In his reading of the prophets Jesus +undoubtedly emphasized the spiritual phases of their promises, but it is +not likely that he had done much criticising of the ideas held by his +contemporaries before he came to John. As already remarked he seems to +have been quicker to discover his affinity with the older truth than to be +conscious of the novelty of his own ways of apprehending it (Matt. v. 17). +When, then, Jesus heard John's call for consecration to the approaching +kingdom he recognized the voice of duty, and he sought the baptism that he +might do all that he could to "make ready the way of the Lord." + +88. This act of consecration on Jesus' part was one of personal obedience. +There were no crowds present (Luke iii. 21), and his thoughts were full of +prayer. It was an experience which concerned his innermost life with God, +and it called him to communion with heaven like that in which he sought +for wisdom before choosing his apostles (Luke vi. 12), and for strength in +view of his approaching death (Luke ix. 28, 29). His outward declaration +of loyalty to the coming kingdom was thus not an act of righteousness "to +be seen of men," but one of personal devotion to him who is and who sees +in secret (Matt. vi. 1, 6). As the transfiguration followed the prayer on +Hermon, so this initial consecration was answered from heaven. A part of +the answer was evident to John, for he saw a visible token of the gift of +the divine Spirit which was granted to Jesus for the conduct of the work +he had to do, and he recognized in Jesus the greater successor for whom he +was simply making preparation (Mark i. 10; John i. 32-34). To Jesus there +came also with the gift of the Spirit a definite word from heaven, "Thou +art my beloved Son, in thee I am well pleased" (Mark i. 11). The language +in Mark and Luke, and the silence of the Baptist concerning the voice from +heaven (John i. 32-34), indicate that the word came to Jesus alone, and +was his summons to undertake the work of setting up that kingdom to which +he had just pledged his loyalty. The expression "My beloved Son" had clear +Messianic significance for Jesus' contemporaries (comp. Mark xiv. 62), +and the message can have signified for him nothing less than a Messianic +call. It implied more than that child-relation to God which was the +fundamental fact in his religious life from the beginning: it had an +official meaning. + +89. For Jesus the sense of being God's child was normally human, and in +his ministry he invited all men to a similar consciousness of sonship. Yet +his early years must have brought to him a realization that he was +different from his fellows. That in him which made a confession at the +baptism unnatural and which led to John's word, "I have need to be +baptized by thee," was ready to echo assent when God said, "Thou art my +Son." He accepted the call and the new office and mission which it +implied, and he must have recognized that it was for this moment that all +the past of his life had been making preparation. + +90. The gift of the Spirit to Jesus, which furnished to John the proof +that the Greater One had appeared, was not an arbitrary sign. The old +prophetic thought (Isa. xi. 2; xlii. 1; lxi. 1) as well as a later popular +expectation (Ps. of Sol. xvii. 42) provided for such an anointing of the +Messiah; and in the actual conduct of his life Jesus was constantly under +the leading of this Spirit (see Matt. xii. 28 and John iii. 34). The +temptation which followed the baptism, and in which he faced the +difficulties in his new task, was the first result of the Spirit's +control. Its later influence is not so clearly marked in the gospels, but +they imply that as the older servants of God were guided and strengthened +by him, so his Son also was aided,--with this difference, however, that he +possessed completely the heavenly gift (John iii. 34). Jesus' uniform +confession of dependence on God confirms this teaching of the gift of the +divine Spirit; and his uniform consciousness of complete power and +authority confirms the testimony that he had the Spirit "without measure." + +91. The temptation to which the Spirit "drove" Jesus after his baptism +gives proof that the call to assume the Messianic office came to him +unexpectedly; for the three temptations with which his long struggle ended +were echoes of the voice which he had heard at the Jordan, and subtle +insinuations of doubt of its meaning. Some withdrawal to contemplate the +significance of his appointment to a Messianic work was a mental and +spiritual necessity. As has often been said, if the gospels had not +recorded the temptation, we should have had to assume one. Jesus being the +man he was, could not have thought that his call was a summons to an +entire change in his ideals and his thoughts about God and duty. Yet he +must have been conscious of the wide differences between his conceptions +of God's kingdom and the popular expectation. Those differences, by the +measure of the definiteness of the popular thought and the ardor of the +popular hope, were the proof of the difficulty of his task. The call meant +that the Messiah could be such as he was; it meant that the kingdom could +be and must be a dominion of God primarily in the hearts of men and +consequently in their world; it meant that his work must be religious +rather than political, and gracious rather than judicial. These essentials +of the work which he could do contradicted at nearly every point the +expectations of his people. How could he succeed in the face of such +opposition? His long meditation during forty days doubtless showed him the +difficulty of his task in all its baldness, yet it did not shake his +certainty that the call had come to him from God, nor his faith that what +God had called him to do he could accomplish. + +92. The gospels show no hesitation in calling the experience of these days +a temptation, nor had the Christian feeling of the first century any +difficulty in thinking of its Lord as actually suffering temptation (Heb. +ii. 18; iv. 15). A temptation to be real cannot be hypothetical; evil must +actually present itself as attractive to the tempted soul. A suggestion of +evil that takes no hold concretely of the heart is no temptation, nor is +the resistance of it any victory. The sinlessness of him who sought +baptism with no confession on his lips nor sense of penitence in his heart +offers no barrier to his experience of genuine temptation, unless we think +him incapable of sin, and therefore not "like unto his brethren." Not only +do the gospels repeatedly refer to his temptations (Luke iv. 13; Mark +viii. 31-33; Luke xxii. 28; compare Heb. v. 7-9), but they also depict +clearly the reality of these initial testings. The account as given in +Matthew and Luke represents the experience with which the forty days' +struggle culminated. The absorption of Jesus' mind had been so complete +that he had neglected the needs of his body, and when he turned to think +of earthly things he was pressed by hunger. A popular notion at a later +time, and probably also in Jesus' day, was that the Messiah would be able +to feed his people as Moses had given them manna in the wilderness (John +vi. 30-32; see EdersLJM. I. 176). He had just been endowed with the +divine Spirit for the work before him; it was therefore no fantastic idea +when the suggestion came that he should use his power to supply his own +needs in the desert. Nor was the temptation without attractiveness; his +own physical nature urged its need, and Jesus was no ascetic who found +discomfort a way of holiness. The evil in the suggestion was that it asked +him to use his newly given powers for the supply of his own needs, as if +doubting that God would care for him as for any other of his children. +There was more than distrust of God suggested; the temptation came with a +hint of another doubt,--"_If_ thou art God's Son." A miracle would prove +to himself his appointment and his power. The suggested doubt of his call +he passed unnoticed; distrust of God he repudiated instantly, falling back +on his faith in the God he had served these many years (Deut. viii. 3). +His victory is remarkable because his spirit conquered unhesitatingly +after a long ecstasy which would naturally have induced a reaction and a +surrender for the moment to the demand of lower needs. + +93. This firmness of trust opened the way for another evil suggestion. In +the work before him as God's Anointed many difficulties were on either +side and across his path. He knew his people, their prejudices, and their +hardness of heart; and he knew how far he was from their ideal of a +Messiah. He knew also the watchful jealousy of Rome. Others before him, +like Judas of Galilee, had tried the Messianic rôle and had failed. He, +however, was confident of his divine call: should he not, therefore, press +forward with his work, heedless of all danger and regardless of the +dictates of prudence,--as heedless as if, trusting God's promised care, +he should cast himself down from a pinnacle of the temple to the rocks in +Kidron below? A fanatic would have yielded to such a temptation. Many +another than Jesus did so,--Theudas (Acts v. 36), the Egyptian (Acts xxi. +38); and Bar Cochba (Dio Cassius, lxix. 12-14; Euseb. Ch. Hist. iv. 6). +Jesus, however, showed his perfect mental health, repudiating the +temptation by declaring that while man may trust God's care, he must not +presumptuously put it to the test (Matt. iv. 7). The after life of Jesus +was a clear commentary on this reply. He constantly sought to avoid +situations which would compromise his mission or cut short his work (see +John vi. 15), and when at the end he suffered the death prepared for him +by his people's hatred, it was because his hour had come and he could say, +"I lay down my life of myself" (John x. 18). His marvellous control of +enthusiasm and his self-mastery in all circumstances separate Jesus from +all ecstatics and fanatics. Yet presumption must have seemed the easier +course, and could readily wear the mask of trust. He was tempted, yet +without sin. + +94. As the refusal to doubt led to the temptation to presume, so the +determination to be prudent opened the way for a third assault upon his +perfect loyalty to God. The world he was to seek to save was swayed by +passions; his own people were longing for a Messiah, but they must have +their kind of a Messiah. If he would acknowledge this actual supremacy of +evil and self-will in the world, the opposition of passion and prejudice +might be avoided. If he would own the evil inevitable for the time, and +accommodate his work to it, he might then be free to lead men to higher +and more spiritual views of God's kingdom. His knowledge of his people's +grossness of heart and materialism of hope made a real temptation of the +suggestion that he should not openly oppose but should accommodate himself +to them. Jesus did not underestimate the opposition of "the kingdoms of +the world," but he truly estimated God's intolerance of any rivalry (Matt. +iv. 10), and he was true to God and to his own soul. Again, in this as in +the preceding temptations, Jesus conquered the evil suggestions by +appropriating to himself truth spoken by God's servants to Israel. Tempted +in all points like his brethren, he resisted as any one of them could have +resisted, and won a victory possible, ideally considered, to any other of +the children of men. + +95. It is not idle curiosity which inquires whence the evangelists got +this story of the temptation of Jesus. Even if the whole transaction took +place on the plane of outer sensuous life, and Jesus was bodily carried to +Jerusalem and to the mountain-top, there is no probability that any +witnesses were at hand who could tell the tale. But the fact that in any +case the vision of the kingdoms of the world in a moment of time (Luke iv. +5) could have been spiritual only, since no mountain, however high (Matt. +iv. 8), could give, physically, that wide sweep of view, suggests that the +whole account tells in pictorial language an intensely real, inner +experience of Jesus. This in no respect reduces the truthfulness of the +narratives. Temptation never becomes temptation till it passes to that +inner scene of action and debate. Since Jesus shows in all his teaching a +natural use of parabolic language to set forth spiritual truth, the +inference is almost inevitable that the gospels have in like manner +adopted the language of vivid picture as alone adequate to depict the +essential reality of his inner struggle. In any case the narrative could +have come from no other source than himself. How he came to tell it we do +not know. On one of the days of private converse with his disciples after +the confession at Cæsarea Philippi he may have given them this account of +his own experience, in order to help his loyal Galileans to understand +more fully his work and the way of it, and to prepare them for that +disappointment of their expectations which they were so slow to +acknowledge as possible. + +96. From this struggle in the wilderness Jesus came forth with the clear +conviction that he was God's Anointed, and in all his after life no +hesitation appeared. The kingdom which he undertook to establish was that +dominion of simple righteousness which he had learned to know and love in +the years of quiet life in Nazareth. He set out to do his work fearlessly, +but prudently, seeking to win men in his Father's way to acknowledge that +Father's sovereignty. There is no evidence that, beyond such firm +conviction and purpose, he had any fixed plan for the work he was to do, +nor that he saw clearly as yet how his earthly career would end. The third +temptation, however, shows that he was not unprepared for seeming defeat. +The struggle had been long and serious,--for the three temptations of the +end are doubtless typical of the whole of the forty days,--and the victory +was great and final. With the light of victory as well as the marks of +warfare on his face, he took his way back towards Galilee. + + + + +VIII + +The First Disciples + +John i. 19 TO ii. 12 + + + +97. After the withdrawal of Jesus into the wilderness, John the Baptist +continued his ministry of preaching and baptizing, moving northward up the +Jordan valley to Bethany, on the eastern side of the river, near one of +the fords below the Sea of Galilee (John i. 28). Here Galilee, doubtless, +contributed more to his audience than Judea. It is certain that some from +the borders of the lake were at this time among his constant attendants: +Andrew and Simon of Bethsaida, John the son of Zebedee, and perhaps his +brother James, probably also Philip of Bethsaida and Nathanael of Cana +(John i. 40, 41, 43-45; compare xxi. 2). + +98. The leaders in Jerusalem, becoming apprehensive whither this work +would lead, sent an embassy to question John. They chose for this mission +priests and Levites of pharisaic leaning as most influential among the +people. The impression John and his message were making on the popular +mind is seen in the questions put to him, "Art thou the Messiah?" +"Elijah?" "The prophet?" (see Deut. xviii. 15), and in the challenge, +"Why, then, baptizest thou?" when John disclaimed the right to any of +these names. John's reply is the echo of his earlier proclamation of the +one mightier than he who should baptize with the Spirit (Mark i. 7, 8), +only now he added that this one was present among them (John i. 26, 27). + +99. This interview occurred several weeks after Jesus' baptism, for upon +the next day John saw Jesus (John i. 29), now returned from the +temptation, and pointed him out to a group of disciples. Something in +Jesus' face or in his bearing, as he came from his temptation, must have +impressed John even more than at their first meeting; for he was led to +think of a prophetic word for the most part ignored by the Messianic +thought of his day, "He was brought as a lamb to the slaughter" (Isa. +liii. 7). As he looked on Jesus the mysterious oracle was illuminated for +him, and he cried, "Behold the lamb of God which taketh away the sin of +the world." Once again on the next day the same thought rushed to his lips +when, with two disciples, he saw Jesus passing by (John i. 35, 36). Then +as Jesus left John's neighborhood and took up again the round of ordinary +life, John seems to have reverted to his more ordinary Messianic thought, +his momentary insight into highest truth standing as a thing apart in his +life. Such a moment's insight, caused by extraordinary circumstances, no +more requires that John should retain the high thought constantly than +does Peter's confession of Christ at Cæsarea Philippi exclude his later +rebuke of his Lord (Mark viii. 32, 33), or his denials (Mark xiv. 66-72). + +100. The disciples who heard these testimonies from John understood them +to be Messianic (John i. 30-34), though their later consternation, when +the cross seemed to shatter their hopes (John xx. 9, 10, 24, 25), shows +that they did not comprehend their deeper meaning. Two of these disciples +at once attached themselves to Jesus, and one of them, Andrew of +Bethsaida, was so impressed by the new master that, having sought out his +brother Simon, he declared that they had found the Messiah. The other of +these earliest followers was John the son of Zebedee, and it is possible +that he also found his brother and introduced James from the very first +into the circle of the disciples. Jesus was about to take his departure +for Galilee, and on the next day, as he was leaving, added Philip of +Bethsaida to the little company of followers. Philip, impressed as Andrew +had been, brought Nathanael of Cana to Jesus. The undefined something +about Jesus which drew noble hearts irresistibly to himself, and his +marvellous knowledge of this new comer, produced the same effect in +Nathanael, as was seen earlier in Andrew and Philip, and he acknowledged +the new master as "Son of God, King of Israel" (John i. 49). + +101. These early confessions in the fourth gospel present a difficulty in +view of Jesus' warm approval of Peter's acknowledgment of him at Cæsarea +Philippi (Matt. xvi. 13-20). Jesus saw in that confession a distinct +advance in the disciples' thought and faith. Yet the religious feeling +which early questioned whether the Baptist even were not the Messiah (Luke +iii. 15) would almost certainly have concluded that John's greater +successor must be God's anointed. The very fact that men's thoughts about +the Messiah were varied and complex made them ready for some modifications +of their preconceptions. One with such subtle personal power as Jesus had +exercised was almost sure to be hailed by some with enthusiasm as the +looked-for representative of God. In fact, it is probable that at any +time in the early days of his ministry Jesus could have been proclaimed +Messiah, provided he had accepted the people's terms. Such a confession +would have been merely the outcome of enthusiasm. The people, even the +disciples, did not know Jesus. They all had high hopes and somewhat fixed +ideas about the Messiah, nearly every one of which was destined to rude +shock. How little they knew him Jesus realized (John i. 51), and his +self-mastery is manifest in his attitude to this early enthusiasm. He was +no visionary; he had a great work to do and a long lesson to teach, and he +was patient enough to teach it little by little. He did not rebuke the +ill-informed faith of a Nathanael, but sought gradually to supplant the +old thought of the Messiah and of the kingdom by new truth, and to bind +men's affections to himself for his own sake and the truth's sake, not +simply for the idea which he impersonated to them. + +102. The visit to Cana seems to have found a place in the fourth gospel, +because there the new disciples discovered in their master miraculous +powers which were to them a sign that he was in truth God's anointed. It +is probable that at the time of this miracle the disciples thought only of +the power and the marvel, yet the sharp contrast between John's ascetic +habit and Jesus' use of his divine resources to relieve embarrassment at a +wedding feast must have impressed every man among them. Their minds, +however, were as yet too full of Messianic hopes to leave much room for +reflection. They were content to have a sign, for in the view of Jesus' +contemporaries signs were essential marks of the Messiah (John vi. 30; +vii. 31; Mark viii. 11). They did their reflecting later (John ii. 22). + +103. Miracles are as great a stumbling-block to modern thought as they +were a help to the contemporaries of Jesus. The study of Jesus' life +cannot ignore this fact, nor make little of it. It is fair to insist, +however, that the question is one of evidence, not of metaphysical +possibility. Men are wisely slow to-day to claim that they can tell what +are the limits of the possible. If the question is one of evidence, it is +in an important sense true that the evidence for miracle in the life of +Jesus is appreciable only when that life is viewed in its completeness. +The miracles attributed to Jesus may be studied, however, for the +disclosure which they give of his character, and of his relation to common +human need. So it is with this first sign at Cana. Jesus had just heard +the call to be Messiah, and in his lonely struggle in the wilderness had +given a loyal answer to that call, and had set out to do his Father's +business in his Father's way. He who by the Jordan still carried the marks +of struggle, so that the Baptist saw in him the suffering Saviour of +Isaiah liii., now returned to the ordinary daily life in Galilee, and as a +guest at a wedding feast he commenced that ministry of simple human +friendliness (Matt. xi. 19; compare Mark ii. 15-17; Luke xv. 1, 2), which +set him in sharp contrast alike with John's asceticism and with the +ritualism and pedantry of the Pharisees. + +104. His human friendliness is all the more worthy of note, inasmuch as on +his return to Cana Jesus did not take up again the old relations of life +as they existed before his baptism. This is clear from his reply to his +mother when she reported the scarcity of wine (John ii. 3-5). While it is +true that the title by which Jesus addressed Mary was neither +disrespectful nor unkind (John xix. 26), the reply itself was a warning +that now he was no longer hers in the old sense. A new mission had been +given him, which henceforth would determine all his conduct, and in that +mission she could not now share. Here is one of the many indications +(compare Mark iii. 21, 31-35; Luke ii. 48) that Mary did not understand +her son nor his work until much later (John xix. 25; Acts i. 14). That +with such a clear sense of his new and serious mission Jesus' first +official act was one of kindly relief for social embarrassment is most +significant. He chose to show his divine authority to his new disciples in +a way that brought joy to a festal company. Little as the disciples were +likely to appreciate it at the time, it was beautifully indicative of the +simplicity and everyday lovableness of Jesus' idea of the earnest service +of God. + +105. With the disciples thus strengthened in faith, and the mother not +separated from him though unable to know his deepest thoughts, and the +brethren who could not yet nor later understand their kinsman and his +work, Jesus went down to Capernaum (John ii. 12), which proved thenceforth +to be the centre of his greatest work and teaching. There for a time, how +long cannot be known, he continued in quiet fellowship with his new +friends, until the approach of the Passover drew him to Jerusalem to make +formal opening of his Messianic work in that centre of his people's +religious life. + + + + + + +Part II + +The Ministry + + + + +I + +General Survey of the Ministry + + + +106. The attempt to arrange an orderly account of the way in which Jesus +set about the work to which he was called at his baptism is met at the +outset by a problem. The vivid and familiar words of Mark (i. 14), +seconded by the representation in both Matthew (iv. 12) and Luke (iv. 14), +indicate the imprisonment of John as the occasion, and Galilee as the +scene of the inauguration of Jesus' public ministry. The fourth gospel, on +the other hand, tells of a work of Jesus and his disciples in Judea prior +to the imprisonment of John (in. 24), and makes this work follow at some +interval after the inauguration of the Messianic ministry in Jerusalem. +The minuteness of detail of time and place in the early chapters of John +(i. 19 to iv. 43), together with the vividness of their narrative, give +them strong claim to credence. They thus record a ministry earlier than +that narrated in the other gospels, proving that the actual inauguration +of Jesus' work occurred in Jerusalem at a Passover season previous to the +imprisonment of John. This is known as the Early Judean Ministry. + +107. The fact that Peter was wont to tell the story of Jesus' life in such +a way as to lead Mark to set the opening of the ministry after the close +of John's activity, indicates that that beginning of work in Galilee +seemed to the disciples to be in a way the actual inauguration of Jesus' +constructive and successful work. Peter cannot have been ignorant of the +labors in Judea, though he may not himself have accompanied Jesus to the +Passover. A new stage in the life of Jesus began, therefore, with his +withdrawal to Galilee. + +108. The story of the Galilean ministry is given chiefly by the first +three gospels, John contributing but two incidents to the period covered +by that ministry,--a second miracle at Cana (iv. 46-54), and a visit to +Judea (v. 1-47),--and relating more fully the story of the feeding of the +multitudes (vi. 1-71). The journey from Judea through Samaria (John iv. +1-45) should be identified with the removal to Galilee which stands at the +beginning of Mark's record (i. 14; Matt. iv. 12; Luke iv. 14). Mark's +account of the Galilean activity of Jesus (i. 14 to ix. 50) is one of such +simple and steady progress that the whole period must be considered as a +unit. + +109. In the use which Matthew (iv. 12 to xviii. 35) and Luke (iv. 14 to +ix. 50) make of Mark's record this unity is emphasized. Their treatment of +the matter which they add, however, makes it best to study the period +topically rather than attempt to follow closely a chronological sequence. +As it is probable that the early writing ascribed by Papias to the apostle +Matthew failed to preserve in many cases any record of the time and place +of the teachings of Jesus, so is it certain that the first and third +evangelists have distributed quite differently the material which they +seem to have derived from that apostolic document. Mention need only be +made of the exhortation against anxiety which Matthew places in the +sermon on the mount (vi. 19-34), and which Luke has given after the close +of the Galilean activity (xii. 22-34). It is possible to form some +judgment of the general relations of such discourses from the character of +their contents, but in the absence of positive statement by the +evangelists it is hopeless to seek to give them a more definite historical +setting. A topical study can consider them as contributions to the period +to which they belong, while a chronological study would be lost in +uncertain conjectures. A topical study may, however, disclose the fact +that sequence of time was identical with development of method. This is, +in general, the case with the Galilean ministry. The new lesson which +Jesus began to teach after the confession at Cæsarea Philippi marked the +supreme turning point in his whole public activity. Before that crisis the +work of Jesus was a constructive preparation for the question which called +forth Peter's confession. Subsequently his work was that of making ready +for the end, which from that time on he foretold. As has been stated, the +Galilean ministry is the story of the first three gospels, except for two +incidents and a discourse added by John. The visit to the feast of +Tabernacles (John vii. 1 to viii. 59) stands on the border between the +work in Galilee and that which followed. It was one of Jesus' many +attempts to win Jerusalem, and is evidence that the author of the fourth +gospel--either because of special interest in the capital, or because of +superior knowledge of the work of his Master in Judea--gave emphasis to a +side of the life of Jesus which the other gospels have neglected. + +110. With the close of the constructive ministry in Galilee, the account +of Mark (x. 1; compare Matt xix. 1; Luke ix. 51) turns towards Jerusalem +and the cross. The journey was not direct, but traversed Perea, the domain +of Antipas beyond Jordan, and was accompanied by continued ministry of +teaching and healing (Mark x. 1-52; Matt. xix. 1 to xx. 34). It is at this +point that Luke has inserted the long section peculiar to his gospel (ix. +51 to xviii. 14), becoming again parallel with Mark as Jesus drew near to +Jerusalem (xviii. 15 to xix. 28; compare Mark x. 13-52). Much of that +which Luke adds gives evidence that in all probability it should be placed +before the change in method at Cæsarea Philippi, while much of it +undoubtedly belongs to the last months of Jesus' life. Since the last +journey to Jerusalem is reported with considerable fulness, it is natural +in a study of Jesus' life to treat that journey by itself. At this point +John contributes important additions to the record (ix. 1 to xi. 57) +showing that the journey was not continuous, but was interrupted by +several more or less hurried visits to the capital, renewed efforts of +Jesus to win the city. + +111. With the final arrival in Jerusalem the four gospels come together in +a record of the last days and the crucifixion (Mark xi. 1 to xv. 47; Matt, +xxi 1 to xxvii. 66; Luke xix. 29 to xxiii. 56; John xi. 55 to xix. 42). +The evangelists, in their accounts of the last week, seem to have had +access to completer and more varied information than for any other part of +the ministry. This causes some difficulties in constructing an ordered +conception of the events, yet it greatly adds to the fulness of our +knowledge. It is easier, therefore, to consider the period in three +parts,--the final controversies in Jerusalem, the Last Supper, and the +betrayal, trial, and crucifixion. + +112. In a sense the resurrection and ascension form the conclusion of the +final visit to Jerusalem, and should be treated with the last week. In a +larger sense, however, they form the culmination of the whole ministry, +and therefore constitute a final stage in the study of Jesus' life. At +this point the record of the gospels is supplemented by the first chapter +of the Acts and by Paul's concise report of the appearances of the risen +Christ (I. Cor. xv. 3-8). The various accounts exhibit perplexing +independence of each other. In total impression, however, they agree, and +show that the tragedy, by which the enemies of Jesus thought to end his +career, was turned into signal triumph. + + Outline of Events in the Early Judean Ministry + + + The first Passover of the public ministry: Cleansing of the + temple--John ii. 13-22. + + Early results in Jerusalem: Discourse with Nicodemus--John ii. 23 to + iii. 15. + + Withdrawal into rural parts of Judea to preach and baptize--John in. + 22-30; iv. 1, 2. + + Imprisonment of John the Baptist--Matt. iv. 12; Mark i. 14. + + Withdrawal from Judea through Samaria--John iv. 1-42. + + Unlooked-for welcome in Galilee--John iv. 43-45. + + ? Second sign at Cana: Cure of the Nobleman's son--John iv. 46-54 (see + sect. A 41). + + [Retirement at Nazareth, the disciples resuming their accustomed + calling. Inferred from Matt. iv. 13; Luke iv. 31; Matt. iv. 18-22 and + ||s.] + + Events marked ? should possibly be given a different place; ||s stands + for "parallel accounts;" for sections marked A--as A 41--see Appendix. + + + + +II + +The Early Ministry in Judea + + + +113. We owe to the fourth gospel our knowledge of the fact that Jesus +began his general ministry in Jerusalem. The silence of the other records +concerning this beginning cannot discredit the testimony of John. For +these other records themselves indicate in various ways that Jesus had +repeatedly sought to win Jerusalem before his final visit at the end of +his life (compare Luke xiii. 34; Matt. xxiii. 37). Moreover, the fourth +gospel is confirmed by the probability, rising almost to necessity, that +such a mission as Jesus conceived his to be must seek first to win the +leaders of his people. The temple at Jerusalem was the centre of worship, +drawing all Jews sooner or later to itself--even as Jesus in early youth +was accustomed to go thither at the time of feasts (Luke ii. 41). +Worshippers of God throughout the world prayed with their faces towards +Jerusalem (Dan. vi. 10). Moreover, at Jerusalem the chief of the scribes, +as well as the chief of the priests, were to be found. Compared with +Jerusalem all other places were provincial and of small influence. A +Messiah, who had not from the outset given up hope of winning the capital, +cannot have long delayed his effort to find a following there. + +114. Arriving at Jerusalem at the Passover season, in the early spring, +Jesus remained in Judea until the following December (John iv. 35). +Evidently the record which John gives of these months is most fragmentary, +and from his own statement (xx. 30, 31) it seems highly probable that it +is one sided, emphasizing those events and teachings in which Jesus +disclosed more or less clearly his claim to be the Messiah. Doubtless the +full record would show a much closer similarity between this early work in +Judea and that later conducted in Galilee than a comparison of John with +the other gospels would suggest; yet it is evident that Jesus opened his +ministry in Jerusalem with an unrestrained frankness that is not found +later in Galilee. + +115. It is a mistake to think of the cleansing of the temple as a distinct +Messianic manifesto. The market in the temple was a licensed affront to +spiritual religion. It found its excuse for being in the requirement that +worshippers offer to the priests for sacrifice animals levitically clean +and acceptable, and that gifts for the temple treasury be made in no coin +other than the sacred "shekel of the sanctuary." The chief priests +appreciated the convenience which worshippers coming from a distance would +find if they could obtain all the means of worship within the temple +enclosure itself. The hierarchy or its representatives seem also to have +appreciated the opportunity to charge good prices for the accommodation so +afforded. The result was the intrusion of the spirit of the market-place, +with all its disputes and haggling, into the place set apart for worship. +In fact, the only part of the temple open to Gentiles who might wish to +worship Israel's God was filled with distraction, unseemly strife, and +extortion (compare Mark xi. 17). Such despite done the sanctity of God's +house must have outraged the pious sense of many a devout Israelite. There +is no doubt of what an Isaiah or a Micah would have said and done in such +a situation. This is exactly what Jesus did. His act was the assumption of +a full prophetic authority. In itself considered it was nothing more. In +his expulsion of the traders he had the conscience of the people for his +ally. There is no need to think of any use of miraculous power. His moral +earnestness, coupled with the underlying consciousness on the part of the +traders themselves that they had no business in God's house, readily +explains the confusion and departure of the intruders. Even those who +challenged Jesus' conduct did not venture to defend the presence of the +market in the temple. They only demanded that Jesus show his warrant for +disturbing a condition of things authorized by the priests. + +116. The temple cleansing is recorded in the other gospels at the end of +Jesus' ministry, just before the hostility of the Jews culminated in his +condemnation and death. Inasmuch as these gospels give no account of a +ministry by Jesus in Jerusalem before the last week of his life, it is +easy to see how this event came to be associated by them with the only +Jerusalem sojourn which they record. The definite place given to the event +in John, together with the seeming necessity that Jesus should condemn +such authorized affront to the very idea of worship, mark this cleansing +as the inaugural act of Jesus' ministry of spiritual religion, rather than +as a final stern rebuke closing his effort to win his people. Against the +conclusion commonly held that Jesus cleansed the temple both at the +opening and at the close of his course is the extreme improbability that +the traders would have been caught twice in the same way. The event fits +in closely with the story of the last week, because it actually led to the +beginning of opposition in Jerusalem to the prophet from Galilee. At the +first the opposition was doubtless of a scornful sort. Later it grew in +bitterness when it saw how Jesus was able to arouse a popular enthusiasm +that seemed to threaten the stability of existing conditions. + +117. The reply of Jesus to the challenge of his authority for his +high-handed act shows that he offered it to the people as an invitation; +he would lead them to a higher idea and practice of worship (compare John +iv. 21-24). When they demanded the warrant for his act, he saw that they +were not ready to follow him, and could not appreciate the only warrant he +needed for his course. He cleansed the temple because they were destroying +it as a place where men could worship God in spirit. In reply to the +challenge, he who later taught the Samaritan woman that the worship of God +is not dependent on any place however sacred, answered that they might +finish their work and destroy the temple as a house of God, yet he would +speedily re-establish a true means of approach to the Most High for the +souls of men. He clothed his reply in a figurative dress, as he was often +wont to do in his teaching,--"Destroy this temple, and in three days I +will raise it up." To his unsympathetic hearers it must have been +completely enigmatic. Even the disciples did not catch its meaning until +after the resurrection had taught them that in their Master a new chapter +in God's dealing with men had begun. + +118. The unreadiness of the Jewish leaders to receive the only kind of +message he had to offer produced in Jesus a decided reserve. He did not +lack a certain kind of success in Jerusalem. His cures of the sick won him +many followers who seemed ready to believe almost anything of him. But the +attitude taken by the leaders made it evident that Jesus must make +disciples who should understand in some measure at least his idea of God's +kingdom, and, understanding, must be ready to be loyal to it through good +report and evil. For the position taken by the leaders of the people had +an ominous significance. It could mean but one thing for +Jesus,--unrelenting conflict. If they could not be won, they who would so +legalize the desecration of God's house would not hesitate at any extreme +in opposing his messenger. This possibility confronted Jesus at the very +outset; therefore he held the popular enthusiasm in check, knowing that +as yet it had little of that kind of faith which could endure seeming +defeat. + +119. One of those who were drawn to him, however, gave Jesus opportunity +to lay aside his reserve and speak clearly of the truth lie came to +publish. He was a member of the Jewish sanhedrin, a rabbi apparently held +in high regard in Jerusalem. While his associates were dismissing the +claims of Jesus with a wave of the hand, Nicodemus sought out the new +teacher by night, and showed his desire to learn what Jesus held to be +truth concerning God's kingdom. Jesus first reminded the teacher of Israel +of the old doctrine of the prophets, that Israel must find a new heart +before God's kingdom can come (Jer. xxxi. 31-34; Ezek. xxxvi. 25-27), and +then declared that the heavenly truth which God now would reveal to men is +that all can have the needed new life as freely as the plague-stricken +Israelites found relief when Moses lifted up the brazen serpent. This +conversation serves to introduce the evangelist's interpretation of Jesus +as the only begotten Son of God sent in love to redeem the world (John +iii. 16-21). + +120. John's record suggests that Jesus left Jerusalem shortly after the +conversation with Nicodemus. His work there was not without success, for +Nicodemus seems to have been henceforth his loyal advocate (compare John +vii. 50-52; xix. 39); and it may be that at the time of this sojourn he +won the hearts of his friends in Bethany, for the first picture the +gospels give of this household seems to presuppose a somewhat intimate +relation of Jesus to the family (Luke x. 38-42). It would be idle to +speculate whether it was at this time or later that he became acquainted +with Joseph of Arimathea, or the friends who during the last week of his +life showed him hospitality (Mark xi. 2-6; xiv. 12-16). + +121. For a time after his withdrawal from Jerusalem he lingered in Judea, +carrying on a simple ministry of preparation like that of John the +Baptist. In this way the summer and early autumn seem to have passed, +Jesus growing more popular as a prophet than John himself had been. The +fact that Jesus' disciples administered baptism in connection with his +work roused the jealousy of some of John's followers, and attracted again +the attention of Jerusalem to the new activity of the bold disturber of +the temple market. John's disciples complained to him of Jesus' rivalry, +and received his self-effacing confession, "He must increase, I must +decrease." The Pharisees, on the other hand, made Jesus feel that further +work in Judea was for the time unwise, and he withdrew into Galilee for +retirement, since "a prophet has no honor in his own country" (John iv. +1-3, 44). Baffled in his first effort to win his people, this journey back +from the region of the holy city must have been one of no little sadness +for Jesus. Some urgency for haste led him by the direct road through +despised Samaria. A seemingly chance conversation with a woman at Jacob's +well, where he was resting at noonday, gave him an opportunity for +ministry which was more ingenuously received than any which he had been +able to render in Judea; and to this woman he declared himself even more +plainly than to Nicodemus, and preached to her that spiritual idea of +worship which he had sought to enforce by cleansing Jerusalem's temple. +Samaria was so isolated from all Jewish interest that Jesus felt no need +for reserve in this "strange" land. The few days spent there must have +been peculiarly welcome to his heart, fresh from rejection in Judea. + +122. One reason why he wished to hasten from Judea seems to have been his +knowledge of the hostile movement which was making against John the +Baptist. Either before or soon after Jesus started for Galilee Herod had +arrested John, ostensibly as a measure of public safety owing to John's +undue popularity (Jos. Ant. xviii. 5. 2). Herod may have been encouraged +to take this step by the hostility of the Pharisees to the plain-spoken +prophet of the desert (see John iv. 1-3). The fourth gospel leaves its +readers to infer that the imprisonment took place somewhere about this +time (compare iii. 24 and v. 35), while the other gospels unite in giving +this arrest as the occasion for Jesus' withdrawal into Galilee. + +123. Arrived in Galilee, Jesus seems to have returned to his home at +Nazareth, while his disciples went back to their customary occupations, +until he summoned them again to join him in a new ministry (see sect. +125). John assigns to this time the cure of a nobleman's son. The father +sought out Jesus at Cana, having left his son sick at Capernaum. At first +Jesus apparently repelled his approach, even as he had dealt with seekers +after marvels at Jerusalem; but on hearing the father's cry of need and +trust, he at once spoke the word of healing. This event is in so many ways +a duplicate of the cure of a centurion's servant recorded in Matthew and +Luke, that to many it seems but another version of the same incident. +Considering the variations in the story reported by Matthew and Luke, it +is clearly not possible to prove that John tells of a different case. Yet +the simple fact of similarity of some details in two events should not +exclude the possibility of their still being quite distinct. The reception +which Jesus gave the two requests for help is very different, and the case +reported in John is in keeping with the attitude of Jesus before he began +his new ministry in Galilee. On his arrival in Galilee he wished to avoid +a mere wonder faith begotten of the enthusiasm he excited in Jerusalem, +yet this wish yielded at once when a genuine need sought relief at his +hands. + +124. The apparent result of this first activity in Judea was +disappointment and failure. He had won no considerable following in the +capital. He had definitely excited the jealousy and opposition of the +leading men of his nation. Even such popular enthusiasm as had followed +his mighty works was of a sort that Jesus could not encourage. The +situation in Judea had at length become so nearly untenable that he +decided to withdraw into seclusion in Galilee, where, as a prophet, he +could be "without honor." He had gone to Jerusalem eager to begin there, +where God should have had readiest service, the ministry of the kingdom of +God. Challenge, cold criticism, and superficial faith were the results. A +new beginning must be made on other lines in other places. Meanwhile Jesus +retired to his home and his followers to theirs. + + Outline of Events in the Galilean Ministry (Chapters III. And IV.) + + + The imprisonment of John and the withdrawal of Jesus into + Galilee--Matt. iv. 12-17; Mark i. 14, 15; Luke iv. 14, 15. + + Removal from Nazareth to Capernaum--Matt. iv. 13-16; Luke iv. 31. + + The call of Simon and Andrew, James and John--Matt. iv. 18-22; Mark i. + 16-20; Luke v. 1-11. + + First work in Capernaum--Matt. viii. 14-17; Mark i. 21-34; Luke iv. + 31-41. + + First circuit of Galilee--Matt. iv. 23; viii. 2-4; Mark i. 35-45; Luke + iv. 42-44; v. 12-16. + + Cure of a paralytic in Capernaum--Matt. ix. 2-8; Mark ii. 1-12; Luke v. + 17-26. + + The call of Matthew--Matt. ix. 9-13; Mark ii. 13-17; Luke v. 27-32. + + ? The question about fasting--Matt ix. 14-17; Mark ii. 18-22; Luke v. + 33-39 (see sects. 47; A 54). + + ? Sabbath cure at Jerusalem at the unnamed feast--John v. 1-47 (see + sect. A 53). + + ? The Sabbath controversy in the Galilean grain fields--Matt. xii. 1-8; + Mark ii. 23-28; Luke vi. 1-5 (see sects. 47; A 54). + + ? Another Sabbath controversy: cure of a withered hand--Matt. xii. + 9-14; Mark iii. 1-6; Luke vi. 6-11 (see sects. 47; A 54). + + Jesus followed by multitudes from all parts--Matt. iv. 23-25; xii. + 15-21; Mark iii. 7-12; Luke vi. 17-19. + + The choosing of the twelve--Matt. x. 2-4; Mark iii. 13-19; Luke vi. + 12-19. + + The sermon on the mount--Matt. v. 1 to viii. 1; Luke vi. 20 to vii. 1 + (see sect. A 55). + + The cure of a centurion's servant--Matt. viii. 5-13; Luke vii. 1-10; + John iv. 46-54. + + The restoration of the widow's son at Nain--Luke vii. 11-17. + + The message from John in prison--Matt. xi. 2-19; Luke vii. 18-35. + + The anointing of Jesus by a sinful woman--Luke vii. 36-50. + + The companions of Jesus on his second circuit of Galilee--Luke viii. + 1-3. + + Cure of a demoniac in Capernaum and blasphemy by the Pharisees--Matt. + xii. 22-45; Mark iii. 19^a-30; Luke xi. 14-36. + + The true kindred of Jesus--Matt. xii. 46-50; Mark iii. 31-35; Luke + viii. 19-21. + + The parables by the sea--Matt. xiii. 1-53; Mark iv. 1-34; Luke viii. + 4-18 (see sect. A 56). + + The tempest stilled--Matt. viii. 18, 23-27; Mark iv. 35-41; Luke viii. + 22-25. + + Cure of the Gadarene demoniac--Matt. viii. 28-34; Mark v. 1-20; Luke + viii. 26-39. + + The restoration of the daughter of Jairus and cure of an invalid + woman--Matt. ix. 1, 18-26; Mark v. 21-43; Luke viii. 40-56. + + Cure of blind and dumb--Matt. ix. 27-34. + + Rejection at Nazareth--Matt. xiii. 54-58; Mark vi. 1-6^a; Luke iv. + 16-30 (see sect. A 52). + + Third circuit of Galilee--Matt. ix. 35; Mark vi. 6^b. + + The mission of the twelve--Matt. ix. 36 to xi. 1; Mark vi. 7-13; Luke + ix. 1-6 (see sect. A 57). + + The death of John the Baptist--Matt. xiv. 1-12; Mark vi. 14-29; Luke + ix. 7-9. + + Withdrawal of Jesus across the sea and feeding of the five + thousand--Matt. xiv. 13-23; Mark vi. 30-46; Luke ix. 10-17; John vi. + 1-15. + + Return to Capernaum, Jesus walking on the water--Matt. xiv. 24-36; Mark + vi. 47-56; John vi. 16-21. + + Teaching about the Bread of Life in the synagogue at Capernaum--John + vi. 22-71 (see sect. A 59). + + Controversy concerning tradition: handwashing, etc.--Matt. xv. 1-20; + Mark vii. 1-23. + + Withdrawal to regions of Tyre and Sidon: the Syrophoenician woman's + daughter--Matt. xv. 21-28; Mark vii. 24-30. + + Return through Decapolis--Matt. xv. 29-31; Mark vii. 31-37. + + ? The feeding of the four thousand--Matt. xv. 32-38; Mark viii. 1-9 + (see sect. A 58). + + Pharisaic challenge in Galilee, and warning against the leaven of the + Pharisees--Matt xv. 39 to xvi. 12; Mark viii. 10-21. + + Cure of blind man near Bethsaida--Mark viii. 22-26. + + Peter's confession of Jesus as Christ near Cæsarea Philippi--Matt. xvi. + 13-20; Mark viii. 27-30; Luke ix. 18-21. + + The new lesson, that the Christ must die--Matt. xvi. 21-28; Mark viii. + 31 to ix. 1; Luke ix. 22-27. + + The transfiguration--Matt. xvii. 1-13; Mark ix. 2-13; Luke ix. 28-36. + + Cure of the epileptic boy--Matt. xvii. 14-20; Mark ix. 14-29; Luke ix. + 37-43^a. + + Second prediction of approaching death and resurrection--Matt. xvii. + 22, 23; Mark ix. 30-32; Luke ix. 43^b-45. + + Return to Capernaum: the temple tax--Matt. xvii. 24-27; Mark ix. 33^a. + + Teachings concerning humility and forgiveness--Matt. xviii. 1-35; Mark + ix. 33-50; Luke ix. 46-50. + + Visit of Jesus to Jerusalem at the feast of Tabernacles--John vii. + 1-52; viii. 12-59 (see sect. A 60). + + ? The woman taken in adultery--John vii. 53 to viii. 11 (see sect. + 163). + + The following probably belong to the Galilean ministry before the + confession at Cæsarea Philippi (see sect. 168):-- + + The disciples taught to pray--Matt. vi. 9-15; vii. 7-11; Luke xi. 1-13. + + The cure of an infirm woman on the Sabbath--Luke xiii. 10-17. + + Two parables: mustard-seed and leaven--Matt. xiii. 31-33; Luke xiii. + 18-21 (see sect. A 56). + + The parable of the rich fool--Luke xii. 13-21. + + Cure on a Sabbath and teaching at a Pharisee's table--Luke xiv. 1-24. + + Five parables--Luke xv. 1 to xvi. 31. + + Certain disconnected teachings--Luke xvii. 1-4. + + + + +III + +The Ministry In Galilee--its Aim And Method + + + +125. The work of Jesus in Galilee, which is the principal theme of the +first three gospels, began with a removal from Nazareth to Capernaum, and +the calling of four fishermen to be his constant followers. The ready +obedience which Simon and Andrew and James and John gave to this call is +an interesting evidence that they did not first come to know Jesus at the +time of this summons. The narrative presupposes some such earlier +association as is reported in John, followed by a temporary return to +their old homes and occupations, while Jesus sought seclusion after his +work in Judea. The first evangelist has most vividly indicated the +development of the Galilean ministry, directing attention to two points of +beginning,--the beginning of Jesus' preaching of the kingdom (Matt. iv. +17) and the beginning of his predictions of his own sufferings and death +(xvi. 21). Between these two beginnings lies the ministry of Jesus to the +enthusiastic multitudes, the second of them marking his choice of a more +restricted audience and a less popular message. Within the first of these +periods two events mark epochs,--the mission of the twelve (Matt. ix. 36; +x. I) to preach the coming kingdom of God and to multiply Jesus' ministry +of healing, and the feeding of the five thousand when the popular +enthusiasm reached its climax (John vi. 14, 15). These events fall not +far apart, and mark two different phases of the same stage of development +in his work. The first is emphasized by Matthew, the second by John; both +help to a clearer understanding of the narrative which Mark has furnished +to the other gospels for their story of the Galilean ministry. The table +at the head of this chapter indicates in outline the probable succession +of events in the Galilean period. The order adopted is that of Mark, +supplemented by the other gospels. Luke's additions are inserted in his +order where there is not some reason for believing that he himself +disregarded the exact sequence of events. Thus the rejection at Nazareth +is placed late, as in Mark. Much of the material in the long section +peculiar to Luke is assigned in general to this Galilean period, since all +knowledge of its precise location in time and place has been lost for us, +as it not unlikely was for Luke. Although Matthew is the gospel giving the +clearest general view of the Galilean work, it shows the greatest +disarrangement of details, and aids but little in determining the sequence +of events. The material from that gospel is assigned place in accordance +with such hints as are discoverable in parallel or associated parts of +Mark or Luke. Of John's contributions one--the feeding of the +multitudes--is clearly located by its identity with a narrative found in +all the other gospels. The visit to Jerusalem at the unnamed feast can be +only tentatively placed. + +126. Viewing this gospel story as a whole, the parallel development of +popular enthusiasm and official hostility at once attracts attention. +Jesus' first cures in the synagogue at Capernaum roused the interest and +wonder of the multitudes to such an extent that he felt constrained to +withdraw to other towns. On his return to Capernaum he was so beset with +crowds that the friends of the paralytic could get at him only by breaking +up the roof. It was when Jesus found himself followed by multitudes from +all parts of the land that he selected twelve of his disciples "that they +might be with him and that he might send them forth to preach," and +addressed to them in the hearing of the multitudes the exacting, although +unspeakably winsome teaching of the sermon on the mount. This condition of +things continued even after Herod had killed John the Baptist, for when +Jesus, having heard of John's fate, sought retirement with his disciples +across the sea of Galilee, he was robbed of his seclusion by throngs who +flocked to him to be healed and to hear of the kingdom of God. + +127. The popular enthusiasm was not indifferent to the question who this +new teacher might be. At first Jesus impressed the people by his +authoritative teaching and cures. After the raising of the widow's son at +Nain the popular feeling found a more definite declaration,--"a great +prophet has risen up among us." The cure of a demoniac in Capernaum raised +the further incredulous query, "Can this be the Son of David?" The notion +that he might be the Messiah seems to have gained acceptance more and more +as Jesus' popularity grew, for at the time of the feeding of the +multitudes the enthusiasm burst into a flame of determination to force him +to undertake the work for which he was so eminently fitted, but from which +for some inexplicable reason he seemed to shrink (John vi. 15). + +128. Parallel with the growth of popular enthusiasm, and in part because +of it, the religious leaders early assumed and consistently maintained an +attitude of opposition. The gospels connect the critics of Jesus now and +again with the Pharisees of the capital--the Galilean Pharisees being +represented as more or less friendly. At the first appearance of Jesus in +Capernaum even the Sabbath cure in the synagogue passed unchallenged; but +on the return from his first excursion to other towns, Jesus found critics +in his audience (Luke connects them directly with Jerusalem). From time to +time such censors as these objected to the forgiveness by Jesus of the +sins of the paralytic (Mark ii. 6, 7), criticised his social relations +with outcasts like the publicans (Mark ii. 16), took offence at his +carelessness of the Sabbath tradition in his instruction of his disciples +(Mark ii. 24), and sought to turn the tide of rising popular enthusiasm by +ascribing his power to cure to a league with the devil (Mark iii. 22). +Baffled in one charge, they would turn to another, until, after the +feeding of the multitudes, Jesus showed his complete disregard of all they +held most dear, replying to a criticism of his disciples for carelessness +of the ritual of hand-washing by an authoritative setting aside of the +whole body of their traditions, as well as of the Levitical ceremonial of +clean and unclean meats (Mark vii. 1-23). + +129. The wonder is, not that popular enthusiasm for Jesus was great, but +that it was so hesitating in its judgment about him. The province which +provided a following to Judas of Galilee a generation earlier than the +public ministry of Jesus, and which under John of Gischala furnished the +chief support to the revolt against Rome a generation later, could have +been excited to uncontrollable passion by the simple idea that a leader +was present who could be made to head a movement for Jewish liberty. But +there was something about Jesus which made it impossible to think of him +as such a Messiah. He was much more moved by sin lurking within than by +wrong inflicted from without. He looked for God's kingdom, as did the +Zealots, but he looked for it within the heart more than in outward +circumstances. Even the dreamers among the people, who were as unready as +Jesus for any uprising against Rome, and who waited for God to show his +own hand in judgment, found in Jesus--come to seek and to save that which +was lost--something so contradictory of their idea of the celestial judge +that they could not easily think of him as a Messiah. Jesus was a puzzle +to the people. They were sure that he was a prophet; but if at any time +some were tempted to query, "Can this be the Son of David?" the +incredulous folk expected ever a negative reply. + +130. This was as Jesus wished it to be. An unreasoning enthusiasm could +only hinder his work. When his early cures in Capernaum stirred the ardent +feelings of the multitudes, he took occasion to withdraw to other towns +and allow popular feeling to cool. When later he found himself pressed +upon by crowds from all quarters of the land, by the sermon on the mount +he set them thinking on strange and highly spiritual things, far removed +from the thoughts of Zealots and apocalyptic dreamers. + +131. The manifest contradiction of popular Messianic ideas which Jesus +presented in his own person usually served to check undue ardor as long +as he was present. But when some demoniac proclaimed the high station of +Jesus, and thus seemed to the people to give supernatural testimony; or +when some one in need sought him apart from the multitudes, Jesus +frequently enjoined silence. These injunctions of silence are enigmas +until they are viewed as a part of Jesus' effort to keep control of +popular feeling. In his absence the people might dwell on his power and +easily come to imagine him to be what he was not and could not be. Jesus +was able by these means to restrain unthinking enthusiasm until the +multitudes whom he fed on the east side of the sea determined to force him +to do their will as a Messiah. Then he refused to follow where they +called, and that happened which would doubtless have happened at an +earlier time but for Jesus' caution,--the popular enthusiasm subsided, and +his active work with the common people was at an end. But he had held off +this crisis until there were a few who did not follow the popular +defection, but rather clung to him from whom they had heard the words of +eternal life (John vi. 68). + +132. Jesus' caution brings to light one aspect of his aim in the Galilean +ministry,--he sought to win acceptance for the truth he proclaimed. His +message as reported in the synoptic gospels was the near approach of the +kingdom of God. Any such proclamation was sure of eager hearing. At first +he seems to have been content to gather and interest the multitudes by +this preaching and the works which accompanied it. But he early took +occasion to state his ideas in the hearing of the multitudes, and in terms +so simple, so concerned with every-day life, so exacting as respects +conduct, and so lacking in the customary glowing picture of the future, +that the people could not mistake such a teacher for a simple fulfiller of +their ideas. In this early sermon in effect, and later with increasing +plainness, he set forth his doctrine of a kingdom of heaven coming not +with observation, present actually among a people who knew it not, like a +seed growing secretly in the earth, or leaven quietly leavening a lump of +meal. By word and deed, in sermon and by parable, he insisted on this +simple and every-day conception of God's rule among men. With Pharisee, +Zealot, and dreamer, he held that "the best is yet to be," yet all three +classes found their most cherished ideals set at nought by the new +champion of the soul's inner life in fellowship with the living God. In +all his teaching there was a claim of authority and a manifest +independence which indicate certainty on his part concerning his own +mission. Yet so completely is the personal question retired for the time, +that in his rebuke of the blasphemy of the Pharisees he took pains to +declare that it was not because they had spoken against the Son of Man, +that they were in danger, but because they had spoken against the Spirit +of God, whose presence was manifest in his works. He wished, primarily, to +win disciples to the kingdom of God. + +133. Yet Jesus was not indifferent in Galilee to what the people thought +about himself. The question at Cæsarea Philippi shows more fully the aim +of his ministry. During all the period of the preaching of the kingdom he +never hesitated to assert himself whenever need for such self-assertion +arose. This was evident in his dealing with his pharisaic critics. He +rarely argued with them, and always assumed a tone of authority which was +above challenge, asserting that the Son of Man had authority to forgive +sins, was lord of the Sabbath, was greater than the temple or Jonah or +Solomon. Moreover, in his positive teaching of the new truth he assumed +such an authoritative tone that any who thought upon it could but remark +the extraordinary claim involved in his simple "I say unto you." He wished +also to win disciples to himself. + +134. The key to the ministry in Galilee is furnished in Jesus' answer to +the message from John the Baptist. John in prison had heard of the works +of his successor. Jesus did so much that promised a fulfilment of the +Messianic hope, yet left so much undone, contradicting in so many ways the +current idea of a Messiah by his studied avoidance of any demonstration, +that the older prophet felt a momentary doubt of the correctness of his +earlier conviction. It is in no way strange that he experienced a reaction +from that exalted moment of insight when he pointed out Jesus as the Lamb +of God, particularly after his restless activity had been caged within the +walls of his prison. Jesus showed that he did not count it strange, by his +treatment of John's quesestion and by his words about John after the +messengers had gone. Yet in his reply he gently suggested that the +question already had its answer if John would but look rightly for it. He +simply referred to the things that were being done before the eyes of all, +and asked John to form from them a conclusion concerning him who did them. +One aid he offered to the imprisoned prophet,--a word from the Book of +Isaiah (xxxv. 5f., lxi. 1f.),--and added a blessing for such as "should +find nothing to stumble at in him." Here Jesus emphasized his works, and +allowed his message to speak for itself; but he frankly indicated that he +expected people to pass from wonder at his ministry to an opinion about +himself. At Cæsarea Philippi he showed to his disciples that this opinion +about himself was the significant thing in his eyes. Throughout the +ministry in Galilee, therefore, this twofold aim appears. Jesus would +first divert attention from himself to his message, in order that he might +win disciples to the kingdom of God as he conceived it. Having so attached +them to his idea of the kingdom, he desired to be recognized as that +kingdom's prince, the Messiah promised by God for his people. He retired +behind his message in order that men might be drawn to the truth which he +held dear, knowing that thus they would find themselves led captive to +himself in a willing devotion. + +135. This aim explains his retirement when popularity pressed, his +exacting teaching about the spirituality of the kingdom of God, and his +injunctions of silence. He wished to be known, to be thought about, to be +accepted as God's anointed, but he would have this only by a genuine +surrender to his leadership. His disciples must own him master and follow +him, however much he might disappoint their misconceptions. This aim, too, +explains his frank self-assertions and exalted personal claims in +opposition to official criticism. He would not be false to his own sense +of masterhood, nor allow people to think him bold when his critics were +away, and cowardly in their presence. Therefore, when needful, he invited +attention to himself as greater than the temple or as lord of the +Sabbath. This kind of self-assertion, however, served his purpose as well +as his customary self-retirement, for it forced people to face the +contradiction which he offered to the accepted religious ideas of their +leaders. + +136. The method which Jesus chose has already been repeatedly +indicated,--teaching and preaching on the one hand, and works of +helpfulness to men on the other. The character of the teaching of this +period is shown in three discourses,--the Sermon on the Mount, the +Discourse in Parables, and the Instructions to the Twelve. The sermon on +the mount is given in different forms in Matthew and Luke, that in Matthew +being evidently the more complete, even after deduction has been made of +those parts which Luke has assigned with high probability to a later time. +This address was spoken to the disciples of Jesus found among the +multitudes who flocked to him from all quarters. It opened with words of +congratulation for those who, characterized by qualities often despised, +were yet heirs of God's kingdom. The thought then passed to the +responsibility of such heirs of the kingdom for the help of a needy world. +Next, since much in the words and works of Jesus hitherto might have +suggested to men that he was indifferent to the older religion of his +people, he carefully explained that he came, not to set aside the old, but +to realize the spiritual idea for which it stood, by establishing a more +exacting standard of righteousness. This more exacting righteousness Jesus +illustrated by a series of restatements of the older law, and then by a +group of criticisms of current religious practice. The sermon closed with +warnings against complacent censoriousness in judging other men's +failures, and a solemn declaration of the vital seriousness of "these +sayings of mine." The righteousness required by this new law is not only +more exacting but unspeakably worthier than the old, being more simply +manifested in common life, and demanding more intimate filial fellowship +with the living God. + +137. The teachings included in the sermon by the first gospel, but placed +later by Luke, supplement the sermon by bidding God's child to lead a +trustful life, knowing that the heavenly Father cares for him. That Luke +has omitted much which from Matthew's account clearly belonged to the +original sermon may be explained by the fact that Gentile readers did not +share the interest which Jesus' hearers had, and which the readers of the +first gospel had, in the relation of the new gospel to the older law. +Hence the restatement of older commands and the criticism of current +practice was omitted. Similar to the teachings which the first gospel has +included in the sermon, are many which Luke has preserved in the section +peculiar to himself. It is not unlikely that they belong also to the +Galilean ministry. They urge the same sincere, reverent life in the sight +of God, the same trust in the heavenly Father, the same certainty of his +love and care; and they do not have that peculiar note of impending +judgment which entered into the teachings of Jesus after the confession at +Cæsarea Philippi. + +138. In the story of Mark, which is reproduced in the first and third +gospels, the use of parable was first introduced in a way to attract the +attention of the disciples, after pharisaic opposition to Jesus had become +somewhat bitter and there was need of checking a too speedy culmination +of opposition. He chose at that time a form of parable which was enigmatic +to his disciples, and could but further puzzle hearers who had no sympathy +with him and his message. Mark (iv. 12) states that this perplexity was in +accordance with the purpose of Jesus. But it is equally clear that Jesus +meant to teach the teachable as well as to perplex the critical by these +illustrations, for in explaining the Sower he suggested that the disciples +should have understood it without explanation (Mark iv. 13). Many of +Jesus' parables, however, had no such enigmatic character, but were +intended simply to help his hearers to understand him. He made use of this +kind of teaching from first to last. The pictures of the wise and foolish +builders with which the sermon on the mount concludes show that it was not +the use of illustration which surprised the disciples in the parables +associated with the Sower, but his use of such puzzling illustrations. +Some of the parables of Luke's peculiar section may belong to the Galilean +ministry, and even to the earlier stages of it. These have none of the +enigmatic character; the parables of the last days of Jesus' life also +seem to have been simple and clear to his hearers. The Oriental mind +prefers the concrete to the abstract, and its teachers have ever made +large use of illustration. Jesus stands unique, not in that he used +parables, but in the simplicity and effective beauty of those which he +used. These illustrations, whether Jesus intended them for the moment to +enlighten or to confound, served always to set forth concretely some truth +concerning the relation of men to God, or concerning his kingdom and their +relation to it. The form of teaching was welcome to his hearers, and +served as one of the attractions to draw men to him. + +139. The first gospel assigns another extended discourse to this Galilean +period,--the Instructions to the Twelve. The mission of the twelve formed +a new departure as Jesus saw the Galilean crisis approaching. He sought +thereby to multiply his own work, and commissioned his disciples to heal +and preach as he was doing. The restriction of their field to Israel +(Matt. x. 5, 6) simply applied to them the rule he adopted for himself +during the Galilean period (Matt. xv. 24). Comparison with the accounts in +Mark and Luke, as well as the character of the instructions found in +Matthew, show that here the first evangelist has followed his habit of +gathering together teachings on the same general theme from different +periods in Jesus' life. Much in the tenth chapter of Matthew indicates +clearly that the ministry of Jesus had already passed the period of +popularity, and that his disciples could now look for little but scorn and +persecution. This was the situation at the end of Jesus' public life, and +parallel sayings are found in the record of the last week in Jerusalem. + +140. When the teaching of the sermon and the parables is compared with +Jesus' self-assertion in his replies to pharisaic criticism and blasphemy, +the difference is striking. Ordinarily he avoided calling attention to +himself, wishing men to form their opinion of him after they had learned +to know him as he was. Yet when one looks beneath the surface of his +teaching, the tone of authority which astonished the multitudes is +identical with the calm self-confidence which replied to pharisaic +censure: "The Son of Man hath authority on the earth to forgive sins." + +141. Jesus drew the multitudes after him not only by his teachings, but +also by his mighty works. He certainly was for his contemporaries a +wonder-worker and healer of disease, and, in order to appreciate the +impression which he made, the miracles recorded in the gospels must be +allowed to reveal what they can of his character. The mighty works which +enchained attention in Galilee were chiefly cures of disease, with +occasional exhibitions of power over physical nature,--such as the +stilling of the tempest and the feeding of the five thousand. The +significant thing about them is their uniform beneficence of purpose and +simplicity of method. Nothing of the spectacular attached itself to them. +Jesus repeatedly refused to the critical Pharisees a sign from heaven. +This was not because he disregarded the importance of signs for his +generation,--witness his appeal to his works in the reply to John (Matt. +xi. 4-6); but he felt that in his customary ministry to the needy +multitudes he had furnished signs in abundance, for his deeds both gave +evidence of heavenly power and revealed the character of the Father who +had sent him. + +142. One of the commonest of the ailments cured by Jesus is described in +the gospels as demoniac possession, the popular idea being that evil +spirits were accustomed to take up their abode in men, speaking with their +tongues and acting through their bodies, at the same time afflicting them +with various physical diseases. Six specific cures of such possession are +recorded in the story of the Galilean ministry, besides general references +to the cure of many that were possessed. Of these specific cases the +Gadarene demoniac shows symptoms of violent insanity; the boy cured near +Cæsarea Philippi, those of epilepsy; in other cases the disease was more +local, showing itself in deafness, or blindness, or both. In the cures +recorded Jesus addressed the possessed with a command to the invading +demon to depart. He was ordinarily greeted, either before or after such a +command, with a loud outcry, often accompanied with a recognition of him +as God's Holy One. + +143. The record of such maladies and their cure is not confined to the New +Testament. The evil spirit which came upon King Saul is a similar case, +and Josephus tells of Jewish exorcists who cured possessed persons by the +use of incantations handed down from King Solomon. The early Christian +fathers frequently argued the truth of Christianity from the way in which +demons departed at the command of Christian exorcists, while in the middle +ages and down to modern times belief in demoniac possession has been +common, particularly among some of the more superstitious of the peasantry +in Europe. Moreover, from missionaries in China and other eastern lands it +is learned that diseases closely resembling the cases of possession +recorded in the New Testament are frequently met with, and are often cured +by native Christian ministers. + +144. The similarity of the symptoms of so-called possession to recognized +mental and physical derangements such as insanity, epilepsy, and hysteria, +suggests the conclusion that possession should be classed with other +ailments due to ill adjustment of the relations of the mental and physical +life. If this conclusion is valid, the idea of actual possession by evil +spirits becomes only an ancient effort to interpret the mysterious +symptoms in accordance with wide-spread primitive beliefs. This +explanation would doubtless be generally adopted were it not that it seems +to compromise either the integrity or the knowledge of Jesus. The gospels +plainly represent him as treating the supposed demoniac influence as real, +addressing in his cures not the invalid, but the invading demon. If he did +this knowing that the whole view was a superstition, was he true to his +mission to release mankind from its bondage to evil and sin? If he shared +the superstition of his time, had he the complete knowledge necessary to +make him the deliverer he claimed to be? These questions are serious and +difficult, but they form a part of the general problem of the extent of +Jesus' knowledge, and can be more intelligently discussed in connection +with that whole problem (sects. 249-251). It is reasonable to demand, +however, that any conclusion reached concerning the nature of possession +in the time of Jesus must be considered valid for similar manifestations +of disease in our own day. + +145. What astonished people in Jesus' cures was not so much that he healed +the sick as that he did it with such evidence of personal authority. His +cures and his teachings alike served to attract attention to himself and +to invite question as to who he could be. Yet a far more powerful means to +the end he had in view was the subtle, unobtrusive, personal influence +which without their knowledge knit the hearts of a few to himself. In +reality both his teaching and his cures were only means of +self-disclosure. His permanent work during this Galilean period was the +winning of personal friends. His chief agency in accomplishing his work +was what Renan somewhat too romantically has called his "charm." It was +that in him which drew to his side and kept with him the fishermen of +Galilee and the publican of Capernaum, during months of constant +disappointment of their preconceived religious ideas and Messianic hopes; +it was that which won the confidence of the woman who was a sinner, and +the constant devotion of Mary Magdalene and Susanna and the others who +followed him "and ministered to him of their substance." The outstanding +wonder of early Christianity is the complete transformation not only of +life but of established religious ideas by the personal impress of Jesus +on a Peter, a John, and a Paul. The secret of the new element of the +Christian religion--salvation through personal attachment to Jesus +Christ--is simply this personal power of the man of Nazareth. The +multitudes followed because they saw wonderful works or heard wonderful +words; many because they hoped at length to find in the new prophet the +champion of their hopes in deliverance from Roman bondage. But these +sooner or later fell away, disappointed in their desire to use the new +leader for their own ends. It was only because from out the multitudes +there were a few who could answer, "To whom shall we go? thou hast the +words of eternal life," when Jesus asked, "Will ye also go away?" that the +work in Galilee did not end in complete failure. These few had felt his +personal power, and they became the nucleus of a new religion of love to a +personal Saviour. + +146. The test of the personal attachment of the few came shortly after the +execution of John the Baptist by Antipas. Word of this tragedy was +brought to Jesus by John's disciples about the time that he and the twelve +returned to Capernaum from their tour of preaching. At the suggestion of +Jesus they withdrew to the eastern side of the lake in search of rest. It +is not unlikely that the little company also wished to avoid for the time +the territory of the tyrant who had just put John to death, for Jesus was +not yet ready for the crisis of his own life. Such a desire for seclusion +would be intensified by the continued impetuous enthusiasm of the +multitudes who flocked about him again in Capernaum. In fact, so insistent +was their interest in Jesus that they would not allow him the quiet he +sought, but followed around the lake in great numbers when they learned +that he had taken ship for the other side. He who came not to be +ministered unto but to minister could not repel the crowds who came to +him, and he at once "welcomed them, and spake to them of the kingdom of +God, and them that had need of healing he healed" (Luke ix. 11). The day +having passed in this ministry, he multiplied the small store of bread and +fish brought by his disciples in order to feed the weary people. This work +of power seemed to some among the multitudes to be the last thing needed +to prove that Jesus was to be their promised deliverer, and they "were +about to come and take him by force and make him king" (John vi. 15), when +he withdrew from them and spent the night in prayer. + +147. This sudden determination on the part of the multitudes to force the +hand of Jesus was probably due to the prevalence of an idea, found also in +the later rabbinic writers, that the Messiah should feed his people as +Moses had provided them manna in the desert. The rebuff which Jesus +quietly gave them did not cool their ardor, until on the following day, in +the synagogue in Capernaum, he plainly taught them that they had quite +missed the significance of his miracle. They thought of loaves and +material sustenance. He would have had them find in these a sign that he +could also supply their spirits' need, and he insisted that this, and this +alone, was his actual mission. From the first the popular enthusiasm had +had to ignore many contradictions of its cherished notions. But his power +and the indescribable force of his personality had served hitherto to hold +them to a hope that he would soon discard the perplexing rôle which he had +chosen for the time to assume, and take up avowedly the proper work of the +Messiah. This last refusal to accept what seemed to them to be his evident +duty caused a revulsion in the popular feeling, and "many of his disciples +turned back and walked no more with him" (John vi. 66). The time of +sifting had come. Jesus had known that such a rash determination to make +him king was possible to the Galilean multitudes, and that whenever it +should come it must be followed by a disillusionment. Now the open +ministry had run its course. As the multitudes were turning back and +walking no more with him, he turned to the twelve with the question, "Will +ye also go away?" and found that with them his method had borne fruit. +They clung to him in spite of disillusionment, for in him they had found +what was better than their preconceptions. + +148. It is the fourth gospel that shows clearly the critical significance +of this event. The others tell nothing of the sudden determination of the +multitude, nor of the revulsion of feeling that followed Jesus' refusal to +yield to their will. Yet these other gospels indicate in their narratives +that from this time on Jesus avoided the scenes of his former labors, and +show that when from time to time he returned to the neighborhood of +Capernaum he was met by such a spirit of hostility that he withdrew again +immediately to regions where he and his disciples could have time for +quiet intercourse. + +149. The months of toil in Galilee show results hardly more significant +than the grain of mustard seed or the little leaven. Popular enthusiasm +had risen, increased, reached its climax, and waned. Official opposition +had early been aroused, and had continued with a steadily deepened +intensity. The wonderful teaching with authority, and the signs wrought on +them that were sick, had been as seed sown by the wayside or in thorny or +in stony ground, except for the little handful of hearers who had felt the +personal power of Jesus and had surrendered to it, ready henceforth to +follow where he should lead, whether or not it should be in a path of +their choice. These, however, were the proof that those months had been a +time of rewarded toil. + + + + +IV + +The Ministry in Galilee--The New Lesson + + + +150. With the crisis in Capernaum the ministry in Galilee may be said in +one sense to have come to an end. Yet Jesus did not immediately go up to +Jerusalem. Once and again he was found in or near Capernaum, while the +time between these visits was spent in regions to the north and northwest. +In fact, the disciples were far from ready for the trial their loyalty was +to meet before they had seen the end of the opposition to their Lord. The +time intervening between the collapse of popularity and Jesus' final +departure from Galilee may well be thought of, then, as a time of further +discipline of the faith of his followers and of added instruction +concerning the truth for which their Master stood. The length of this +supplementary period in Galilee is not definitely known. It extended from +the Passover to about the feast of Tabernacles (April to October, see John +vi. 4 and vii. 2). The record of what Jesus did and said in this time is +meagre, only enough being reported to show that it was a time of repeated +withdrawals from Galilee and of private instruction for the disciples. + +151. The disciples were trained in faith by further exhibitions of the +complete break between their Master and the leaders of the people. This +break appeared most clearly, soon after the feeding of the multitudes, in +his reply to a criticism of the disciples for disregard of pharisaic +traditions concerning hand-washing (Mark vii. 1-23). The critics insisted +on the sacredness of their traditions. Jesus in reply scored them for +disregard for the plain demands of God's law, and with a word freed men +from bondage to the whole ritual of ceremonial cleanness and uncleanness +(Mark vii. 19), thus attacking Judaism in its citadel. + +152. It was immediately after this that he withdrew with his disciples to +the regions of Tyre. On his return a little later to the west side of the +sea of Galilee he was met by hostile Pharisees with a demand for a sign +(Mark viii. 11-13), and after refusing to satisfy the unbelieving +challenge,--signs in plenty having been before their eyes since the +opening of his work among them,--he and his disciples withdrew again from +Galilee towards Cæsarea Philippi. As they went on their way, Jesus +distinctly warned them against the influence of their leaders, religious +and political (Mark viii. 14f.). So far as our records tell us Jesus was +but once again in Capernaum. Then he was met with the demand that he pay +the temple tax (Matt. xvii. 24-27). This tax was usually collected just +before the Passover. As this last visit to Capernaum was probably not far +from the feast of Tabernacles, Jesus seems to have been in arrears. This +may have been due to his absence from Capernaum at the time of the +collection. The prompt answer of Peter may indicate that he knew that in +other years Jesus had paid this tax, as it is altogether probable that he +did. The question, however, implies official suspicion that Jesus was +seeking to evade payment, and exhibits further the straining of the +relations between him and the Jewish leaders. The conversation of Jesus +with Peter served to show his clear consciousness of superiority, and was +a further summons to the disciples to choose between him and his +opponents. + +153. Within the limits of the Holy Land the faith of the disciples had +been constantly tested by the increasing opposition between their master +and their old leaders. When the little company withdrew to Gentile +regions, however, Jesus had regard for their Jewish feeling. The time +would come when he would send them forth to make disciples of all the +nations. For the present he made it his business to nurture their faith in +him, and when appealed to for help by one of these foreigners, he refused +to "take the children's bread and cast it to the dogs" (Mark vii. 27). +Jesus had assumed a different attitude to the Samaritans before the +opening of his work in Galilee, and in general had shown ready sympathy +for all in distress. In fact it seems as if he welcomed the Syrophoenician +woman's great faith with a feeling of relief from a restriction that he +had felt it wise to adopt for his work in Phoenicia. It appears from his +later attitude in the Gentile regions of the Decapolis (Mark vii. 31-37; +Matt. xv. 21-31) that, having once shown his regard for the limitations of +his disciples' faith in the case of the Syrophoenician, he felt no longer +obliged to check his natural readiness to help the needy who sought him +out. Although in one instance, for reasons no longer known to us, Jesus +charged a man whom he had cured to keep it secret (Mark vii. 32-37), in +general his work in these heathen regions seems, after the visit to +Phoenicia, to have been quite unrestrained, and to have produced the same +enthusiasm that had earlier brought the multitudes to him in Galilee (Mark +viii. 1f.). + +154. This continued activity of healing must have served greatly to +strengthen the determination of the disciples to cling to Jesus, let the +leaders say what they would. We can only conjecture what various teachings +filled the days, and what personal fellowship the disciples had with him +who spake as never man spake. There was need for advance in the faith of +these loyal friends. Their enthusiastic declaration when the multitudes +turned away could easily have been followed by reaction. Each new +exhibition of the irrevocableness of the break between Jesus and the +leaders was a severe test of their loyalty. These weeks of withdrawal were +doubtless filled, therefore, with new proofs that Jesus had the words of +eternal life. + +155. Before he put to his disciples the crucial question, he who knew what +was in man (John ii. 25) was confident that they were ready for it. It was +after the rebuff in Galilee, when the unbelieving Pharisees had again +demanded a sign of his authority, and after he had definitely warned the +disciples against the influence of their leaders, that Jesus led his +little company far to the north towards the slopes of Hermon. There, near +the recently built Cæsarea Philippi, Jesus plainly asked his disciples +what the people thought of him (Mark viii. 27-30). We have seen how +gradually sentiment in Galilee concerning the new teacher crystallized +until, from thinking him a prophet, the people, first timidly, then +boldly, concluded that such a teacher and worker of signs must be the +promised king. We have seen also how the popular estimate changed when +Jesus refused to be guided by the popular will. Now, after the lapse of a +few weeks, in answer to his inquiry concerning the common opinion of him, +he is told that the people look on him as a prophet, in whom the spirit of +the men of old had been revived; but not a whisper remains of the former +readiness to hail him as the Messiah. It was in the face of such a +definite revulsion in the popular feeling, in the face, too, of the +increasing hostility of all the great in the nation, that Peter answered +for the twelve that they believed Jesus to be the Messiah, God's appointed +Deliverer of his people (Matt. xvi. 16 ff.). In form this confession was +no more than Nathanael had rendered on his first meeting with Jesus (John +i. 49), and was practically the same as the report made by Andrew to Simon +his brother, and by Philip to Nathanael (John i. 41, 45). In both idea and +expression the reply to Jesus' question, "Will ye also go away?" (John vi. +68, 69), was virtually equivalent to this later confession of Peter. Yet +Jesus found in Peter's answer at Cæsarea Philippi something so significant +and remarkable that he declared that the faith that could answer thus +could spring only from a heavenly source (Matt. xvi. 17). The early +confessions were in fact no more than expressions of more or less +intelligent expectation that Jesus would fulfil the confessor's hopes. The +confession at Capernaum followed one of Jesus' mightiest exhibitions of +power, and was given before the disciples had had time to consider the +extent of the defection from their Master. Here at Cæsarea Philippi, +however, the word was spoken immediately after an acknowledgment that the +people had no more thought of finding in Jesus their Messiah. It was +spoken after the disciples had had repeated evidence of the determined +hostility of the leaders to Jesus. All the disappointment he had given to +their cherished ideas was emphasized by the isolation in which the little +company now found itself. One after another their ideas of how a Messiah +should act and what he should be had received contradiction in what Jesus +was and did. Yet after the weeks of withdrawal from Galilee, Peter could +only in effect assert anew what he had declared at Capernaum,--that Jesus +had the words of eternal life. It was a faith chastened by perplexity, and +taught at length to follow the Lord let him lead where he would. It was an +actual surrender to his mastery over thought and life. Here at length +Jesus had won what he had been seeking during all his work in Galilee,--a +corner-stone on which to build up the new community of the kingdom of God. +Peter was the first to confess openly to this simple surrender to the full +mastery of Jesus. He was the first stone in the foundation of the new +"building of God." + +156. In his commendation of Peter Jesus revealed the secret of his method +in the work which, because of this confession, he could now proceed to do +more rapidly. He cuts loose utterly from the method of the scribes. He, +the new teacher, commits to them no body of teaching which they are to +give to others as the key to eternal life. The salvation they are to +preach is a salvation by personal attachment; that is, by faith. The rock +on which he will build his church is personal attachment, faith that is +ready to leave all and follow him. Peter, not the substance of his +confession, was its corner-stone, but Peter, as the first clear confessor +of a faith that is ready to leave all, a faith whose very nature it is to +be contagious, and associate with itself others of "like precious faith." +His faith was as yet meagre, as he showed at once; but it was genuine, the +surrender of his heart to his Lord's guidance and control. This was the +distinctive mark of the new religious life inaugurated by Jesus of +Nazareth. + +157. If anything were needed to prove that the idea that he was the +Messiah was no new thought to Jesus, it could be found in the new lesson +which he at once began to teach his disciples. The confession of Peter +indicated to him simply that the first stage in his work had been +accomplished. He immediately began to prepare the disciples for the end +which for some time past he had seen to be inevitable. He taught them more +than that his death was inevitable; he declared that it was divinely +necessary that he should be put to death as a result of the hostility of +the Jews to him ("the Son of Man must suffer"). All the contradictions +which he had offered to the Messianic ideas of his disciples paled into +insignificance beside this one. When they saw how he failed to meet the +hopes that were commonly held, they needed only to urge themselves to +patience, expecting that in time he would cast off the strange mask and +take to himself his power and reign. But it was too much for the late +confessed and very genuine faith of Peter to hear that the Messiah must +die. So unthinkable was the idea, that he assumed that Jesus had become +unduly discouraged by the relentlessness of the opposition which had +driven him first out of Judea and later out of Galilee. Accordingly Peter +sought to turn his Master's mind to a brighter prospect, asserting that +his forebodings could not be true. It is hard for us to conceive the chill +of heart which must have followed the glow of his confession when he heard +the stern rebuke of Jesus, who found in Peter's later words the voice of +the Evil One, as before in his confession he had recognized the Spirit of +God. + +158. The sternness of Jesus' rebuke escapes extravagance only in view of +the fact that the words of Peter had greatly affected Jesus himself. At +the outset of his public life he had faced the difficulty of doing the +Messiah's work in his Father's way, and had withstood the temptation to +accommodate himself to the ideas of his world, declaring allegiance to God +alone (Matt. iv. 10). Yet once and again in the course of his ministry he +showed that this allegiance cost him much. Luke reports a saying in which +Jesus confessed that, in view of this prospect of death which Peter was +opposing so eagerly, he was greatly "straitened" (xii. 50), and at the +near approach of the end "his soul was exceeding sorrowful" (Mark xiv. +34). It should never be forgotten that Jesus was a Jew, and heir to all +the Messianic ideas of his people. In these, glory, not rejection and +death, was to be the Messiah's portion. That he was always superior to +current expectations is no sign that he did not feel their force. They +quite mistake who find the bitterness of Jesus' "cup" simply in his +physical shrinking from suffering. The temptation was ever with him to +find some other way to the goal of his work than that which led through +death. What Peter said hid a force greater than any word of the +disciple's. It voiced the crucial temptation of Jesus' life. The answer +addressed to Peter showed that his words had drawn the thought of Jesus +away from the disciple to that earlier temptation which was never absent +from him more than "for a season" (Luke iv. 13). + +159. Jesus was not content with a mere rebuke of his impulsive disciple. +In his first announcement of his death as necessary he had also declared +that it would not be a tragedy, but would be followed by a resurrection. +This the disciples could not appreciate, as they found the idea of the +Messiah's death unthinkable. Jesus, however, saw in it the general law, +that life must ever win its goal by disregard of itself, and called his +disciples also to walk in the path of self-sacrifice. In order that the +new lesson might not quite overwhelm the yet feeble faith of these +followers, Jesus assured them that after his death and resurrection he +would come as Messianic Judge and fulfil the hopes which his prediction of +death seemed to blot out utterly (Mark viii. 34 to ix. 1). + +160. That this new lesson was a difficult one for master as well as +disciple seems to be shown by the experience which came a few days later +to Jesus and his three closest friends. He had withdrawn with them to a +"high mountain" for prayer (Luke ix. 28f.). While he prayed the light of +heaven came into his face, and his disciples were granted a vision of him +in celestial glory, conversing with Moses and Elijah, representatives of +Old Testament law and prophecy. The theme of the discourse was that death +which had so troubled the disciples, and which then and later weighed +heavily on Jesus' own spirit (Luke ix. 31). At the conclusion of the +vision came a divine injunction to hear him who now was superseding law +and prophets. The effect of the transfiguration can only be inferred. It +doubtless brought strengthening to Jesus for his difficult task (compare +Heb. v. 7), and at least a silencing of remonstrance when he spoke again +to his disciples of his approaching death. This he did while the little +company was making its way back towards Capernaum (Mark ix. 30-32), and +repeatedly later before the end came (Mark x. 32-34; Matt. xxvi. 1f.). + +161. On Jesus' return from the mountain, he was met by the despairing plea +of a father and healed his epileptic son, out of whom the disciples were +unable to cast the demon (Mark ix. 14-29; compare vi. 7, 13). It may have +been the shock which the new lesson had given the disciples that accounted +for the reproof of their lack of faith. The new evidence of Jesus' power, +coupled with this reproof, seems to have restored their confidence in him. +Perhaps, too, there was something contagious about the spirit of hope with +which the three came from their vision of the Master's glory. For, +although they were not free to tell what they had seen (Mark ix. 9), they +could not have concealed the fact that their faith had received great +encouragement. Whatever the cause, hope revived for the disciples, for on +the way back to Capernaum a dispute arose among them concerning personal +precedence in the kingdom which their Master should soon set up. In this +rapid reaction from unbelief to faith the disciples seem to have forgotten +the lesson of self-denial recently given them (Mark viii. 34, 35). In +Peter's confession the corner-stone of the church was laid; but the +superstructure was yet far out of sight. Although his own soul, taking its +way down into the valley of shadows, might rightly have asked for sympathy +and complained of its lack, Jesus simply set a little child in the midst +of them, and taught them again the first lessons of faith,--gentle +humility and trust. Thereby he rebuked the spirit of rivalry and asked of +his disciples a generous, unselfish, and forgiving spirit (Matt, xviii. +1-35). + +162. It was possibly at this time, certainly near the end of the Galilean +ministry, that Jesus was approached by his own brethren, who urged him to +try to win the capital. Their attitude was not one of indifference, though +clearly not one of actual faith in his claim (John vii. 2-5). They seem to +have felt that Jesus had not made adequate effort to secure a following in +Jerusalem, and that he could not hope for success in his work if he +continued to confine his attention to Galilee. Jesus knew conditions in +Jerusalem far better than they did, and had no idea as yet of resuming a +general ministry there. He therefore dismissed the suggestion, and left +his brethren to go up to the feast disappointed in their desire that he +make a demonstration at that time. Yet Jesus still yearned over Jerusalem. +He knew in what organized opposition a general demonstration would result. +There were some, however, in the capital who had real faith in him. His +repeated efforts to win Jerusalem mean nothing if we do not recognize that +he hoped against hope that many of the people might yet turn and let him +lead them. With some such purpose, therefore, he went up a little later +without ostentation, and quietly appeared in the temple teaching. The +effect of this unannounced arrival was that the opposition was not ready +for him. The multitude was compelled to form an opinion of him for itself, +and he had opportunity to make his own impression for a time, +independently of official suggestion as to what ought to be thought of +him. This course resulted in a division of sentiment among the people, so +much so that when the leaders, both secular and religious, sought to +compass his arrest, the officers sent to take Jesus were themselves +entranced by his teaching. In spite of the wish of the leaders Jesus +continued to teach, and many of the people began to think of him with +favor. When, however, he tried to lead them on to become "disciples +indeed," they took offence, and showed that they were not ready yet to +follow him. This effort to "gather the children of Jerusalem" resulted in +new proof that they preferred his death to his message (John vii. 2 to +viii. 59). + +163. Interesting evidence of the fact that "Jesus did many other signs +which are not written" in our accepted gospels is found in the story of +his dealing with an adulteress whom the Pharisees brought to him for +judgment (John vii. 53 to viii. 11). This narrative had no secure place in +any of the gospels in the earliest days, yet was so highly regarded that +men would not let it go. Hence in the manuscripts which contain it, it is +found in various places. Some give it in Luke after chapter xxi., some at +the end of the Gospel of John, one placing it after John vii. 36. Many +considerations combine to prove that it was no part of the Gospel of John, +but as many show that it preserves a true incident in the ministry of +Jesus. In scene it belongs to the temple, therefore in time to one of the +Jerusalem visits. To which of those visits it should he assigned is not +now discoverable. The ancient copyists who assigned it to this feast of +Tabernacles, chose as well as later students can. If the incident belongs +to this visit, it illustrates the patience and the keen insight of Jesus +in his effort to win self-satisfied Jerusalem. + +164. John is silent concerning the doings of Jesus after the feast of +Tabernacles. In x. 22 he notes that Jesus was at Jerusalem at the feast of +Dedication, which followed two months later. It seems probable that after +his hurried and private journey to the feast of Tabernacles (John vii. 10) +he returned to Galilee and gathered to himself again the little company of +his loyal followers, preparatory to that final journey to Jerusalem which +should bring the end foreseen, unless, perchance, Israel should yet repent +and turn unto the Lord. As the shadow deepened over his own life, and the +persistency of the unbelief of his people appeared more and more clearly, +the teachings of Jesus took on a new note of tragedy which was not +characteristic of the earlier preaching in Galilee. Even when his topic +was similar and his treatment of it not unlike some earlier discourse, +there appeared in it here and there a warning of impending judgment. This +is seen as early as the reply to the criticism of the disciples for +disregard of traditions (Matt. xv. 13f.). Many discourses in the section +peculiar to Luke show by the presence of this note of doom that they +belong to this later time rather than to the Galilean period proper. (See +the table prefixed to Chapter V.) + +165. Two years had nearly passed since Jesus withdrew from Judea to start +his ministry anew in a different region and following a different method. +The fruit of that ministry was small, but significant. His proclamation of +the coming kingdom and his call to a deeper righteousness, coupled as they +were with his works of heavenly power, had won at first an enthusiastic +following. Realizing that an uncontrolled enthusiasm would thwart his +purpose to introduce a kingdom of the spirit, Jesus had kept his Messianic +claim in the background, seeking first to win disciples to the kingdom +that he was proclaiming. Yet emphasize his message as he would, he could +not conceal his personal significance. In fact he wished by winning +disciples to his doctrine of the kingdom to attach followers to himself, +the bearer of the words of eternal life. The great development of popular +enthusiasm did not deceive him, nor did he hesitate, when the multitude +would force him to do its will, to show clearly how far he was from being +a fulfiller of their desires. By successive disappointments of the popular +ideas he sifted his followers until a few were ready to follow him +whithersoever he might lead. With these he allowed time for the fact of +his unpopularity to appear, giving them opportunity to consider the +relentless hostility of their national leaders to the teacher from +Galilee. Then when the time was ripe he drew from the loyal few their +declaration that they would follow him in spite of disappointments and +unpopularity, their confession that he had come to be to them more than +their cherished preconceptions, that he had won the mastery over their +thought and life. He began then to prepare them for the end he had long +foreseen, and at length, after giving them time for that perplexing +mystery to find place in their hearts, he was ready to move on toward the +crisis which he knew his public appearance in Jerusalem would precipitate. +Before setting out on this journey his desire still to seek to win +Jerusalem, if perchance it would repent, led him to visit the capital +unannounced at the feast of Tabernacles. This taught him that, however +ready some might be superficially to believe in him, he could as yet win +in Jerusalem only hatred and plots against his life, and he returned to +his faithful friends in Galilee. + + Outline of Events in the Journey through Perea to Jerusalem + + + The final departure from Galilee--Matt. xix. 1, 2; viii. 19-22; Mark x. + 1; Luke ix. 51-62. + + The mission of the seventy--Matt. xi. 20-30; Luke x. 1-24. + + The visit to the feast of Dedication--John ix. 1 to x. 39. + + Possibly at this time: The parable of the Good Samaritan--Luke x. + 25-37. The visit to Mary and Martha--Luke x. 38-42. + + Return to Perea--John x. 40-42. + + The visit to Bethany and the raising of Lazarus--John xi. 1-46. + + The withdrawal to Ephraim--John xi. 47-54. + + Events connected with the last journey to Jerusalem, which cannot be + more definitely located: + + The question whether few are saved--Luke xiii. 22-30. + + Reply to the warning against Herod, probably near the close--Luke xiii. + 31-35. + + The cure of ten lepers--Luke xvii. 11-19. + + The question of the Pharisees concerning divorce--Matt. xix. 3-12; Mark + x. 2-12. + + The blessing of little children--Matt. xix. 13-15; Mark x. 13-16; Luke + xviii. 15-17. + + The question of the rich young ruler--Matt. xix. 16 to xx. 16; Mark x. + 17-31; Luke xviii. 18-30. + + The third prediction of death and resurrection--Matt xx. 17-19; Mark x. + 32-34; Luke xviii. 31-34. + + The ambitious request of the sons of Zebedee--Matt. xx. 20-28; Mark x. + 35-45. + + The last stage, Jericho to Jerusalem: + + The blind men near Jericho--Matt. xx. 29-34; Mark x. 46-52; Luke xviii. + 35-43. + + The visit to Zacchæus--Luke xix. 1-10. + + The parable of the pounds (minæ)--Luke xix. 11-28. Events and + discourses found in Luke ix. 51 to xviii. 14, which probably belong + after the confession of Peter, and very likely to some stage of the + journey to Jerusalem: + + Woes against the Pharisees, uttered at a Pharisee's table--Luke xi. + 37-54. + + Warnings against the spirit of pharisaism--Luke xii. 1-59. + + Comment on the slaughter of Galileans by Pilate--Luke xiii. 1-9. + + Discourse on counting the cost of discipleship--Luke xiv. 25-35. + + Discourse on the coming of the kingdom--Luke xvii. 20-37. + + Parable of the Unjust Judge--Luke xviii. 1-8. + + Parable of the Pharisee and the Publican--Luke xviii. 9-14. + + + + +V + +The Journey through Perea to Jerusalem + + + +166. The fourth gospel says that after the visit to Jerusalem at the feast +of Dedication Jesus withdrew beyond Jordan to the place where John at the +first was baptizing (x. 40). Matthew and Mark also say that at the close +of the ministry in Galilee Jesus departed and came into the borders of +Judea and beyond Jordan, and that in this new region the multitudes again +flocked to him, and he resumed his ministry of teaching (Matt. xix. 1f.; +Mark x. 1). What he did and taught at this time is not shown at all by +John, and only in scant fashion by the other two. They tell of a +discussion with the Pharisees concerning divorce (Mark x. 2-12); of the +welcome extended by Jesus to certain little children (Mark x. 13-16); of +the disappointment of a rich young ruler, who wished to learn from Jesus +the way of life, but loved better his great possessions (Mark x. 17-31); +of a further manifestation of the unlovely spirit of rivalry among the +disciples in the request of James and John for the best places in the +kingdom (Mark x. 35-45),--a request following in the records directly +after another prediction by Jesus of his death and resurrection (Mark x. +32-34). Then, after a visit to Jericho (Luke xviii. 35 to xix. 28), these +records come into coincidence with John in the account of the Messianic +entry into Jerusalem just before the last Passover. + +167. The fourth gospel tells in addition of a considerable activity of +Jesus in and near Jerusalem during this period. In making the journey +beyond Jordan start from Jerusalem (x. 40), John shows that Jesus must +have returned to the capital after his withdrawal from the feast of +Tabernacles. When and how this took place is not indicated. Later, after +his retirement from the feast of Dedication Jesus hastened at the summons +of his friends from beyond Jordan to Bethany when Lazarus died (xi. 1-7). +From Bethany he went not to the other side of Jordan again, but to Ephraim +(xi. 54), a town on the border between Judea and Samaria, and from there +he started towards Jerusalem when the Passover drew near. This record of +John has, as Dr. Sanday has recently remarked (HastBD II. 630), so many +marks of verisimilitude that it must be accepted as a true tradition. It +demands thus that in our conception of the last journey from Galilee room +be found for several excursions to Jerusalem or its neighborhood. One of +these at least--to the feast of Dedication (x. 22)--represents another +effort to "gather the children of Jerusalem." While not without success, +for at least the blind man restored by Jesus gave him the full faith he +sought (ix. 35-38), it showed with fuller clearness the determined +hostility to Jesus of the influential class (x. 39). + +168. It has been customary to find in the long section peculiar to Luke +(ix. 51 to xviii. 14) a fuller account of the Perean ministry, as it has +been called. For it opens with a final departure from Galilee, and comes +at its close into parallelism with the record of Matthew and Mark. Yet +some parts of this section in Luke belong in the earlier Galilean +ministry. The blasphemy of the Pharisees (xi. 14-36) is clearly identical +with the incident recorded in Mark iii. 22-30, and Matt. xii. 22-45; while +several incidents and discourses (see outline prefixed to Chapter III.) +bear so plainly the marks of the ministry before the revulsion of popular +favor, that it is easiest to think of them as actually belonging to the +earlier time, but assigned by Luke to this peculiar section because he +found no clear place offered for them in the record of Mark. Not a little, +however, of what Luke records here manifestly belongs to the time when +Jesus referred openly to his rejection by the Jewish people. The note of +tragedy characteristic of later discourses appears in the replies of Jesus +to certain would-be disciples (ix. 57-62), and in his warning that his +followers count the cost of discipleship (xiv. 25-35). The woes spoken at +a Pharisee's table (xi. 37-52), the warning to the disciples against +pharisaism (xii. 1-12), and the encouragement of the "little flock" (xii. +22-34), with many other paragraphs from this part of the gospel (see +outline at the head of this chapter), evidently were spoken at the time +of the approaching end. Some narratives reflect the neighborhood of +Jerusalem, and naturally corroborate the indications in the fourth gospel +that Jesus was repeatedly at the capital during this time. The parable of +the good Samaritan, for instance, must have been spoken in Judea, else why +choose the road from Jerusalem to Jericho for the illustration? The visit +to Mary and Martha shows Jesus at Bethany, and the parable of the Pharisee +and the Publican, naming the temple as the place of prayer, belongs +naturally to Judea. + +169. The effort to find the definite progress of events in this part of +Luke has not been successful. There are three hints of movement towards +Jerusalem,--the introductory mention of the departure from Galilee (ix. +51); a statement that Jesus went on his way through cities and villages, +journeying on unto Jerusalem (xiii. 22); and again a reference to passing +through the midst of Samaria and Galilee on the way to Jerusalem (xvii. +11). The attempt to make the third of these belong actually to the last +stages of the final journey seems artificial. Confessedly the expression +"through the midst of Samaria and Galilee" is obscure. It is much easier +to understand, however, if the journey so described is identified with the +visit to Samaria with which the departure from Galilee opened. It seems +probable that Luke found these records of events and teachings in Jesus' +life, and was unable to learn exactly their connection in time and place, +so placed them after the close of the Galilean story and before the +account of the passion, much as later some copyist found the story of the +adulteress (John vii. 53 to viii. 11), and, certain that it was a true +incident, gave it a place in connection with the visit to the feast of +Tabernacles (perhaps influenced by John viii. 15). It must always be +remembered that the earliest apostolic writing--Matthew's Logia--probably +consisted of just such disconnected records (see sects. 28, 42), and that, +as Jülicher (Einleitung i. d. NT. 235) has said, the early church was not +interested in _when_ Jesus said or did anything. Its interest was in +_what_ he said and did. + +170. The time of the departure from Galilee for Jerusalem may be set with +much probability not long before the feast of the Dedication in December; +for at that feast Jesus was again in Jerusalem, and from it he returned to +Perea (John x. 22, 40-42). He started southward through Samaria (Luke ix. +51 ff.), and probably in connection with the early stages of the journey +he sent out the seventy "into every city and place whither he himself was +about to come" (Luke x. 1). It is not unlikely that, after the sending out +of these heralds, he went with a few disciples to make one more effort to +turn the heart of Jerusalem to himself (John ix., x.). It is impossible to +determine whither the seventy were sent. The "towns and cities" whither +Jesus was about to come may have included some from all portions of the +land, not excepting Judea. The matter must be left in considerable +obscurity. This, however, may be said, that the reasons offered for +holding that the story of the sending out of the seventy is only a +"doublet" of the mission of the twelve are not conclusive (see sect. A +68). The connection in Luke of the woes against Capernaum, Bethsaida, and +Chorazin with the instruction of the seventy is very natural, and marks +this mission as belonging to the close of the Galilean period, while the +mission of the twelve belongs to the height of Jesus' popularity. + +171. Our knowledge of Jesus' visit to the feast of Dedication is due to +John's interest in the cure at about that time of one born blind (John +ix., x.). The prejudice of the sanhedrists who excommunicated the man for +his loyalty to Jesus led him in indignation to contrast their method of +caring for God's "sheep" with his own love and sympathy and genuine +ministry to their needs. He saw clearly that his course must end in death, +unless a great change should come over his enemies; yet, as the Good +Shepherd, he was ready to lay down his life for the sheep, rather than +leave them to the heartlessness of leaders who cared only for themselves +(x. 11-18). The critics of Jesus could not, or would not, understand his +charge against them, and accused him of madness for his extraordinary +claims. There were some, however, who could not credit the notion that +Jesus had a devil (John x. 21). It is possible that it was at this time +that the lawyer questioned him about the breadth of interpretation to be +given to the word "neighbor" in the law of love, and was answered by the +parable of the Good Samaritan (Luke x. 25-37). Possibly the parable of the +Pharisee and the Publican (Luke xviii. 9-14) belongs also to this time. In +general, however, the visit proved anew that Jerusalem was in no mood to +accept Jesus (John x. 24-39). His enemies sought to draw from him a +declaration of his claim to be the Messiah, and Jesus appealed to his +works, asserting that only their incorrigible prejudice prevented their +recognizing his claims. He added that his Father, with whom he was ever in +perfect accord, had drawn some faithful followers to him, and thereupon, +angered by his claim to close kinship with God, they appealed to the rough +logic of violence (John x. 31-39; compare viii. 59). + +172. After this added attempt to win Jerusalem Jesus withdrew to the +region beyond Jordan, where John had carried on his ministry to the eager +multitudes. Here he anew attracted great attention, causing people to +contrast his ministry with the less remarkable work of John, and to +acknowledge that John's testimony to him was true (John x. 40-42). +Possibly it was in this place that the seventy found Jesus when they +returned to report the success of their mission (Luke x. 17-24), for the +thanksgiving which Jesus rendered for the faith of the common people in +contrast with the unbelief of the "wise and prudent" might well express +his feeling after the fresh evidence he had at the feast of Dedication +that Jerusalem would none of his mission. The invitation to all the heavy +laden to take his yoke illustrates, though under another figure, his claim +to be the Good Shepherd (Matt. xi. 28-30). We have no means of knowing how +much more of what the gospels assign to the last journey to Jerusalem +should be put in connection with this sojourn across the Jordan. The +multitudes that came to him there may have included the Pharisees who +questioned him about divorce (Mark x. 2-12), and the young ruler who loved +his great possessions (Mark x. 17-31), as well as the parents who eagerly +sought the Lord's blessing for their children (Mark x. 13-16). Some parts +of Luke's narrative seem to belong still later in this journey, yet such a +section as the reply of Jesus to the report of Pilate's slaughter of the +Galileans (xiii. 1-9), or the parable of the Great Supper (xiv. 15-24), is +suitable to any stage of it. + +173. This sojourn on the other side of Jordan was brought to a close by +the summons to come to the aid of his friends in Bethany (John xi.). It is +not strange that the disciples feared his return to Judea, nor that Jesus +did not hesitate when he recognized the call of duty as well as of +friendship. In no recorded miracle of Jesus is his power more signally set +forth, yet here more clearly than anywhere else he is represented as +dependent on his Father in his exercise of that power. The words of Jesus +at the grave (John xi. 41, 42) show that he was confident of the +resurrection of Lazarus, because he had prayed and was sure he was heard. +It may be that his delay after hearing of the sickness of his friend (xi. +6) was a time of waiting for answer, and that this explains his confidence +of safety when the time came for him to expose himself again to the +hostility of Judea. Jesus indicated not only that on this occasion he had +help from above in doing his miracles, but that it was the rule in his +life to seek such help and guidance (xi. 42). In fact, at a later time he +ascribed all his works to the Father abiding in him (John xiv. 10; compare +x. 25). The effect of the resurrection of Lazarus was such as to intensify +the determination of the leaders in Jerusalem--both Pharisees and +Sadducees--to get rid of Jesus as dangerous to the quiet of the nation +(John xi. 47-54). In this it simply served to fix a determination already +present (John vii. 25, 32; viii. 59; x. 31, 39). The miracle does not +appear in John as the cause of the apprehension of Jesus, but rather as +one influence leading to it. It was indeed the total contradiction between +Jesus and all current and cherished ideas that led to his condemnation; +the raising of Lazarus only showed that he was becoming dangerously +popular, and made the priestly leaders feel the necessity of haste. The +silence of the first three gospels concerning this event is truly +perplexing, yet it is not any more difficult of explanation, as Beyschlag +(LJ I. 495) has shown, than the silence of all four evangelists concerning +the appearance of the risen Jesus to James, or to the five hundred +brethren (I. Cor. xv. 6, 7). Room must be allowed in our conception of the +life of Jesus for many things of which no record remains, all the more, +therefore, for incidents to which but one of the gospels is witness. +Moreover, after the collapse of popularity in Galilee, the great +enthusiasm of the multitudes over Jesus when he entered Jerusalem (Luke +xix. 37-40; Mark xi. 8-10) is most easily understood if he had made some +such manifestation of power as the restoration of Lazarus. + +174. After the visit to Bethany Jesus withdrew to a little town named +Ephraim, on the border between Judea and Samaria, and spent some time +there in seclusion with his disciples (John xi. 54), doubtless +strengthening his personal hold on them preparatory to the shock their +faith was about to receive. Of the length of this sojourn nothing is told +us, nor of the road by which Jesus left Ephraim for Jerusalem (John xii. +1). The first three gospels show that he began his final approach to the +Holy City at Jericho (Mark x. 46). It may be that he descended from +Ephraim direct to Jericho some days before the Passover, rejoining there +some of the people who had been impressed by his recent ministry in the +region "where John at the first was baptizing." It is natural to suppose +that it was on this journey to Jericho that he warned his disciples again +of the fate which he saw before him in Jerusalem (Mark x. 32-34), and +quite probably it was at this time that he rebuked the crude ambition of +the sons of Zebedee by reminding them that his disciples must be more +ambitious to serve than to rule, since even "the Son of Man came not to be +ministered unto but to minister, and to give his life a ransom for many" +(Mark x. 35-45). At Jericho he was at once crowded upon by enthusiastic +multitudes. The feeling they had for him may perhaps be inferred from the +cry of blind Bartimeus, "Thou son of David, have mercy on me" (Mark x. +48). This enthusiasm received a shock when Jesus chose to be guest in +Jericho of a chief of the publicans, a shock which Jesus probably intended +to give, for much the same reason that led him afterwards on his way up to +Jerusalem to teach his followers in the parable of the pounds that they +must be ready for long delay in his actual assumption of his kingly right +(Luke xix. 11-28). Finally, six days before the Passover, he and his +disciples left Jericho and went up to Bethany preparatory to his final +appearance in Jerusalem (John xii. 1). + +175. The interval between the final departure from Galilee and the public +entry into Jerusalem was given to three different tasks: the renewed +proclamation of the coming of the kingdom, further efforts to win +acceptance in Jerusalem, if perchance she might learn to know the things +that belonged to her peace; and continued training of the disciples, +specially needed because of the ill-considered enthusiasm with which they +were inclined to view the probable issue of this journey to Jerusalem. The +first of these tasks was conducted as the earlier work in Galilee had +been, both by teaching and healing, in which Jesus used his disciples even +more extensively than before. It proved that here as in Galilee the common +people were ready to hear him gladly, until he showed too radical a +disappointment of their hopes. In this new ministry to the people Jesus +spoke very frankly of the seriousness of the opposition which the leaders +of the people were manifesting, and of the need that those who would be +his disciples should count the cost of their allegiance (Luke xiii. 22-30; +xiv. 25-35; xii. 1-59). He did not hesitate to administer the most +scathing rebuke to the Pharisees for the superficiality and hypocrisy of +their religious life and teaching (Luke xi. 37-54),--a rebuke which is +emphasized by the parable in which, on another occasion, he taught God's +preference for a contrite sinner over a complacent saint (Luke xviii. +9-14). When reminded of Pilate's outrage upon certain Galilean +worshippers, he used the calamity to warn his hearers that personal +godliness was the only protection which could secure them against a more +serious outbreak of the hostility of the Roman power (Luke xiii. 1-9); and +it was probably in reply to such an appeal as accompanied this report of +Pilate's cruelty that Jesus spoke the parable of the Unjust Judge (Luke +xviii. 1-8), teaching that God's love may be trusted to be no less +regardful of his people's cry than a selfish man's love of ease would be. + +176. The second of these tasks must not be held to be perfunctory, even +though each new effort for Jerusalem proved that genuine acceptance of its +saviour was increasingly improbable. As the denunciations of the older +prophets ever left open a way of escape _if _ Israel would return and seek +the Lord, so the anticipation of rejection and death which filled the +heart of Jesus does not banish a like _if_ from his own thought of +Jerusalem in his repeated efforts to "gather her children." The +combination of the new popular enthusiasm and the fresh proofs of the +hopelessness of winning Jerusalem made more important the third task,--the +founding of the faith of the disciples on the rock of personal certainty, +from which the rising floods of hatred and seeming ruin for the Master's +cause could not sweep it. It was for them that much of his instruction of +the multitudes was doubtless primarily intended; they needed above all +others to count the cost of discipleship (Luke xiv. 25-35), and the +warnings against the spirit of Pharisaism (Luke xii.) were addressed +principally to them, even as it was to them that Jesus confessed the +"straitening" of his own soul in view of the "fire which he had come to +cast upon the earth" (Luke xii. 49-53),--a confession which had another +expression when he found it needful to rebuke the personal ambition of the +sons of Zebedee (Mark x. 35-45). As for Jesus himself, the popular +enthusiasm had not deceived him, nor the obdurate unbelief of Jerusalem +daunted him, nor his disciples' misconception of his kingdom disheartened +him; he still steadfastly set his face to go to Jerusalem. + + Outline of Events in the Last Week of Jesus' Life + + + _Saturday_ (?). The anointing in Bethany six days before the + Passover--Matt. xxvi. 6-13; Mark xiv. 3-9; John xi. 55 to xii. 11. + + _Sunday_ (?). The Messianic entry--Matt. xxi. 1-11; Mark xi. 1-11; Luke + six. 29-44; John xii. 12-19. + + _Monday_ (?). Visit to the temple: the cursing of the barren + fig-tree--Matt. xxi. 18-19, 12-17; Mark xi. 12-14, 15-18; Luke xix. 45, + 47, 48. + + Return to Bethany for the night--Matt. xxi. 17; Mark xi. 19; Luke xxi. + 37, 38. + + _Tuesday_ (?). Visit to the temple: the fig-tree found withered--Matt, + xxi 20-23; Mark xi. 20-27; Luke xx. 1. + + Challenge of Jesus' authority--Matt. xxi. 23-27; Mark xi. 27-33; Luke + xx. 1-8. + + Three parables against the religious leaders--Matt. xxi. 28 to xxii. + 14; Mark xii. 1-12; Luke xx. 9-19. + + The question about tribute--Matt. xxii. 15-22; Mark xii. 13-17; Luke + xx. 20-26. + + The question of the Sadducees about the resurrection--Matt. xxii. + 23-33; Mark xii. 18-27; Luke xx. 27-40. + + The question of the Pharisees about the great commandment--Matt. xxii. + 34-40; Mark xii. 28-34. + + Jesus' counter-question about David's son and Lord--Matt. xxii. 41-46; + Mark xii. 35-37; Luke xx. 41-44. + + Jesus' denunciation of the scribes and Pharisees--Matt, xxiii. 1-39; + Mark xii. 38-40; Luke xx. 45-47. + + The widow's two mites--Mark xii. 41-44; Luke xxi. 1-4. + + The visit of the Greeks--John xii. 20-36^a. + + Final departure from the temple--John xii. 36^b (-50). + + Discourse concerning the destruction of Jerusalem and the end of the + world--Matt. xxiv. 1 to xxvi. 2; Mark xiii. 1-37; Luke xxi. 5-38. + + Plot of Judas to betray Jesus--Matt. xxvi. 3-5, 14-16; Mark xiv. 1, 2, + 10, 11; Luke xxii. 1-6. + + _Wednesday_. Retirement at Bethany. (?) + + _Thursday_. The Last Supper--Matt. xxvi. 17-30; Mark xiv. 12-26; Luke + xxii. 7-30; John xiii. 1-30. + + The farewell words of admonition and comfort--John xiii. 31 to xvi. 33. + + The intercessory prayer--John xvii. 1-26. + + _Friday_. The agony in Gethsemane--Matt. xxvi. 30, 36-46; Mark xiv. 26, + 32-42; Luke xxii. 39-46; John xviii. 1. + + The betrayal and arrest--Matt xxvi. 47-56; Mark xiv. 43-52; Luke xxii. + 47-53; John xviii. 1-12. + + Trial before the high-priests and sanhedrin--Matt. xxvi. 57 to xxvii. + 10; Mark xiv. 53 to xv. 1^a; Luke xxii. 54-71; John xviii. 12-27. + + Trial before Pilate--Matt, xxvii. 11-31; Mark xv. 1-20; Luke xxiii. + 1-25; John xviii. 28 to xix. 16^a. + + The crucifixion--Matt, xxvii. 32-56; Mark xv. 21-41; Luke xxiii. 26-49; + John xix. 16-37. + + The burial--Matt, xxvii. 57-61; Mark xv. 42-47; Luke xxiii. 50-56; John + xix. 38-42. + + _Saturday_. The Sabbath rest--Luke xxiii. 56^b. + + The watch at the tomb--Matt, xxvii. 62-66. + + + + +VI + +The Final Controversies in Jerusalem + + + +177. The early Christians were greatly interested in the teachings of +Jesus and in his deeds, but they thought oftenest of the victory which by +his resurrection he won out of seeming defeat. This is proved by the fact +that of the first two gospels over one third, of Luke over one fifth, and +of the fourth gospel nearly one half are devoted to the story of the +passion and resurrection. This preponderance is not strange in view of the +shock which the death of Jesus caused his disciples, and the new life +which the resurrection brought to their hearts. The resurrection was the +fundamental theme of apostolic preaching, the supreme evidence that Jesus +was the Messiah. Hence the cross early became the object of exultant +Christian joy and boasting; and in this the church entered actually into +the Lord's own thought, for through the cross he looked for his exaltation +and glory (Mark viii. 31; John xii. 23-36). From the time of the +confession at Cæsarea Philippi, he had had his death avowedly in view, and +had repeatedly checked the ambitious and unthinking enthusiasm of his +disciples by reminding them of what he must receive at the hands of the +leaders of the people. The few months preceding his final appearance in +Jerusalem had been devoted to the journey to the cross. This explains the +note of tragedy which appears in his teachings at this period. The people +had shown that they would none of his ministry. In this they had written +their national and religious death warrant, and as he approached Jerusalem +for the final crisis he declared, though with almost breaking heart, "Your +house is left unto you desolate" (Luke xiii. 31-35). Each new effort of +Jesus to turn aside the impending judgment of his people by winning their +acceptance of himself and his message resulted in a new certainty of his +ultimate rejection, and thus in confirmation of the early recognized +necessity, that, if he continued the work God had given him to do, he +should suffer many things, and die at the hands of his own people. + +178. The last chapter in his public ministry began with his arrival at +Bethany six days before the Passover. It is probable that the caravan with +which Jesus was travelling reached Bethany not far from the sunset which +marked the beginning of the Sabbath preceding the feast. Jesus had friends +there who gladly gave him entertainment, and the Sabbath was doubtless +spent quietly in this retreat. The holy day closed with the setting sun, +and then his hosts were able to show him the special attention which they +desired. The general cordiality of welcome expressed itself in a feast +given in the house of one Simon, a leper who had probably experienced the +power of Jesus to heal. He may have been a relative also of Lazarus, for +Martha assisted in the entertainment, and Lazarus was one of the guests of +honor (Mark xiv. 3; John xii. 2). During the feast, Mary, the sister of +Lazarus, poured forth on the head and feet of Jesus a box of the rarest +perfume. This act of costly adoration seemed extravagant to some, +particularly to one of Jesus' disciples, who complained that the money +could have been better spent. This criticism of one who had not counted +cost in her service was rebuked by Jesus, who defended and commended Mary; +for in the act he recognized her fear that he might not be long with her +(Mark xiv. 8; John xii. 7). It is probable that this rebuke, with the +clear reference to his approaching death, led Judas to decide to abandon +the apparently waning cause of his Master, and bargain with the leaders in +Jerusalem to betray him (Mark xiv. 3-11). + +179. The day following the supper at Bethany--that is, the first day of +the week--witnessed the welcome of Jesus to Jerusalem by the jubilant +multitudes. His mode of entering the city affords a marked contrast to +his treatment of the determination to make him king after he had fed the +multitudes in Galilee (John vi. 15). In some respects the circumstances +were similar. A multitude of the visitors to the feast, hearing that Jesus +was at Bethany on his way to Jerusalem, went out to meet him with a +welcome that showed their enthusiastic confidence that at last he would +assume Messianic power and redeem Israel (John xii. 12, 13). Jesus was now +ready for a popular demonstration, for the rulers were unwilling longer to +tolerate his work and his teaching. He had never hesitated to assert his +superiority to official criticism, and at length the hour had come to +proclaim the full significance of his independence. In fact it was for +this that some months before he had set his face steadfastly to go to +Jerusalem. When, therefore, the crowd from Jerusalem appeared, Jesus took +the initiative in a genuine Messianic demonstration. He sent two of his +disciples to a place near by to borrow an ass's colt, on which he might +ride into the city, fulfilling Zechariah's prophecy of the "king that +cometh meek, and riding upon an ass" (see Matt. xxi. 4, 5). At this, the +enthusiasm of his followers, and of those who had come to meet him, became +unbounded, and without rebuke from Jesus they proceeded towards Jerusalem +crying, "Hosanna; Blessed _is_ he that cometh in the name of the Lord" +(Mark xi. 9, 10). Notwithstanding the remonstrances of certain Pharisees +among the multitude (Luke xix. 39), Jesus accepted the hosannas, for they +served to emphasize the claim which he now wished, without reserve or +ambiguity, to make in Jerusalem. The time for reserve had passed. The +mass of the people with their leaders had shown clearly that for his +truth, and himself as bearer of it, they had no liking; while the few had +become attached to him sufficiently to warrant the supreme test of their +faith. He could not continue longer his efforts to win the people, for +both Galilee and Judea were closed to him. Even if he had been content, +without contradicting popular ideas, to work wonders and proclaim promises +of coming good, he could with difficulty have continued this work, for +Herod had already been regarding him with suspicion (Luke xiii. 31). He +had run his course and must measure strength with the hostile forces in +Jerusalem. For the last encounter he assumed the aggressive, and entered +the city as its promised deliverer, the Prince of Peace. The very method +of his Messianic proclamation was a challenge of current Jewish ideas, for +they were not looking for so meek and peaceful a leader as Zechariah had +conceived; this entrance emphasized the old contradiction between Jesus +and his people's expectations. He accepted the popular welcome with full +knowledge of the transitoriness of the present enthusiasm. As he advanced +he saw in thought the fate to which the city and people were blindly +hurrying, and his day of popular triumph was a day of tears (Luke xix. +41-44). The city was stirred when the prophet of Nazareth thus entered it; +but he simply went into the temple, looked about with heavy heart, and, as +it was late, returned to Bethany with the twelve for the night. + +180. On the following day Jesus furnished to his disciples a parable in +action illustrating the fate awaiting the nation; for it is only as a +parable that the curse of the barren fig-tree can be understood. The idea +that Jesus showed resentment at disappointment of his hunger when he found +no figs on the tree out of season is too petty for consideration. He was +drawn to it by the early foliage, for it was not yet the season for either +fruit or leaves. One is tempted to believe, as Dr. Bruce has suggested, +that he had small expectation of finding fruit, and that even before he +reached the tree with its early leaves he felt a likeness between it and +the nation of hypocrites whose fate was so clear in his mind. The +withering of the fig-tree set his disciples thinking; and Jesus showed +that it was an object lesson, promising that the disciples, by the +exercise of but a little faith, could do more, even remove +mountains,--such mountains of difficulty as the opposition of the whole +Jewish nation would offer to the success of their work in their Master's +name. + +181. The curse upon the barren fig-tree was spoken as Jesus was going from +Bethany to Jerusalem on the morning after his Messianic entry, that is, on +Monday, and it was Tuesday when the disciples found it withered away (Mark +xi. 12-14, 20-25). On Monday Jesus entered into the temple and taught and +healed (Luke xix. 47; Matt. xxi. 14-16). It is at this point that Mark +inserts the cleansing of the temple which John shows to belong rather to +Jesus' first public visit to Jerusalem. The place which this incident +holds in the first three gospels has already been explained by the fact +that it furnished one cause for the official hostility to Jesus, and that +Mark's story included no earlier visit to the holy city (sect. 116; see A +39). + +182. Tuesday, the last day of public activity, exhibits Jesus in four +different lights, according as he had to do with his critics, with the +devout widow, with the inquiring Greeks, and with his own disciples. The +opposition to him expressed itself, after the general challenge of his +authority, in three questions put in succession by Pharisees and +Herodians, by Sadducees, and by a scribe, more earnest than most, whom the +Pharisees put forward after they had seen how Jesus silenced the +Sadducees. Jesus met the opening challenge by a question about John's +baptism (Mark xi. 29-33) which completely destroyed the complacency of his +critics, putting them on the defensive. This was more than a clever +stroke, they could not know what his authority was unless they had a quick +sense for spiritual things. His question would have served to bring this +to the surface if they had possessed it. Their reply showed them incapable +of receiving a real answer to their question. It also gave him opportunity +to say in three significant parables (Matt. xxi. 28 to xxii. 14) what +their spiritual blindness signified for them and their nation, giving thus +a turn to the interview not at all to their minds. As Jesus' rebuke was +spoken in the hearing of the people, a determined effort was at once made +to discredit him in the popular mind. The question (Mark xii. 13-17) with +which the Pharisees and Herodians hoped to ensnare him was most subtle, +for the popular feeling was as sensitive to the mark of subserviency which +the payment of tribute kept ever before them as the Roman authorities were +to the slightest suspicion of revolt against their sway. In none of his +words had Jesus so clearly asserted the simple other-worldliness of his +doctrine of the kingdom of God as in his answer to the question about +tribute. For him loyalty to the actual earthly sovereign was quite +compatible with loyalty to God, the lower obligation was in fact a summons +to be scrupulous also to render to God his due,--a duty in which this +nation was sadly delinquent. The reply gave no ground for an accusation +before the governor; but the popular feeling against Rome was so strong +that it is not unlikely that it contributed somewhat to the readiness of +the multitude a few days later to prefer Barabbas to Jesus. + +183. A second assault was made by some Sadducees who put to him a crude +question about the relations of a seven-times married woman in the +resurrection (Mark xii. 18-27). If this question was asked with the +expectation of making Jesus ridiculous in the sight of the people it was a +marked failure, for his reply was so simple and straightforward that he +won the admiration even of some of the Pharisees. The most significant +feature of it was his argument from God's reference to himself as God of +Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob; for in that he taught that the fact of +fellowship with God implies that God's servants share with him a life that +death cannot vanquish. The skill with which Jesus met these two questions +interested some of his hearers and showed to his opponents that they must +put forward their ablest champions to cope with him. The next test was +more purely academic in character,--as to what class of commands is +greatest in the law (Mark xii. 28-34). For the pharisaic scholars this was +a favorite problem. For Jesus, however, the question contained no problem, +since all the law is summed up in the two commandments of love. His +contemporaries were not without power to see the truth of his +generalization, and their champion in this last attack was moved with +admiration for the fineness and sufficiency of Jesus' answer. + +184. All of the assaults served only to show freshly the clearness and +profoundness of his thought; his critics were quite discomfited in their +effort to entangle him. They had done with him, but he had still a word +for them. The business of these scribes was the study of the scriptures. +They furnished the people with authoritative statements of truth. One of +the common-places of the current thought was that the Messiah should be +David's son. Jesus did not deny the truth of this view, yet he showed them +how partial their ideas were by quoting a word of scripture in which the +Messiah is shown as David's Lord. If they had been open-minded they might +have inferred from this that perhaps the man before them was not so +impossible a Messiah as they thought. This last question closed the +colloquy; there awaited yet, however, Jesus' calm, scathing arraignment of +the hypocrisy of these religious leaders. There was no longer any need for +prudence and every reason for a clear indication of the difference between +himself and the scribes in motive, in teaching, and in character. The +final conflict was on, and Jesus freely spoke his mind concerning their +whole life of piety without godliness. Never have sharper words of +reproach fallen from human lips than these which Jesus directed against +the scribes and Pharisees; they are burdened with indignation for the +misleading of the people, with rebuke for the misrepresentation of God's +truth, and with scorn for their hollow pretence of righteousness. Through +it all breathes a note of sorrow for the city whose house was now left to +her desolate. The change of scene which introduces the widow offering her +gift in the temple treasury heightens the significance of the +controversies through which Jesus had just passed. In his comment on the +worth of her two mites we hear again the preacher of the sermon on the +mount, and are assured that it is indeed from him that the severe rebukes +which have fallen on the scribes have come. There is again a reference to +the insight of him who sees in secret, and who judges as he sees; while +allusion is not lacking to the others whose larger gifts attracted a wider +attention. The whole scene is like a commentary on Matt. vi. 2-4. + +185. Still a different side of Jesus' life appears when the Greeks seek +him in the temple. They were probably proselytes from some of the Greek +cities about the Mediterranean where the synagogue offered to the +earnest-minded a welcome relief from the foolishness and corruption of +what was left of religion in the heathen world. Having visited Jerusalem +for the feast, they heard on every hand about the new teacher. They were +not so bound to rabbinic traditions as the Jews themselves, they had been +drawn by the finer features of Judaism,--its high morality and its noble +idea of God. What they heard of Jesus might well attract them, and they +sought out Philip, a disciple with a Greek name, to request an interview +with his Master. The evangelist who has preserved the incident (John xii. +20-36) evidently introduced it because of what it showed of Jesus' inner +life; hence we have no report of the conversation between him and his +visitors. The effect of their seeking him was marked, however, for it +offered sharp contrast to the rejection which he already felt in his +dealings with the people who but two days before had hailed him as +Messiah. This foreign interest in him did not suggest a new avenue for +Messianic work, it only brought before his mind the influence which was to +be his in the world which these inquirers represented, and immediately +with the thought of his glorification came that of the means thereto,--the +cross whose shadow was already darkening his path. Excepting Gethsemane, +no more solemn moment in Jesus' life is reported for us. A glimpse is +given into the inner currents of his soul, and the storm which tossed them +is seen. It is in marked contrast to the calmness of his controversy with +the leaders, and to the gentleness of his commendation of the widow. The +agitation passed almost at once, but it left Jesus in a mood which he had +not shown before on that day; in it his own thoughts had their way, and +the doctrine of the grain of wheat dying to appear in larger life, of the +Son of Man lifted up to draw all men unto him, had utterance, greatly to +the perplexity of his hearers. It seems to have been one of the few times +when Jesus spoke for his own soul's relief. + +186. In all the earlier events of the day the disciples of Jesus appear +but little. He is occupied with others, accepting the challenge of the +leaders, and completing his testimony to the truth they refused to hear. +The quieter hours of the later part of the day gave time for further words +with his friends. The comment on the widow's gift was meant for them, and +the uncovering of his own soul when the Greeks sought him was in their +presence. After he had left the temple and the city he gave himself to +them more exclusively. His disciples were perplexed by what they saw and +felt, for the temper of the people toward their Master could not be +mistaken. Yet they were sure of him. The leaders among them, therefore, +asked him privately to tell them when the catastrophe should come, to +which during the day he had made repeated reference. The conversation +which followed is reported for us in the discourse on the destruction of +Jerusalem and the end of the world (Mark xiii. and parallels), in which +Jesus taught his disciples to expect trouble in their ministry, as he was +meeting trouble in his; and to be ready for complete disappointment of +their inherited hopes for the glory of their holy city. He also taught +them to expect that his work would shortly be carried to perfection, and +to live in expectancy of his coming to complete all that he was now +seeming to leave undone. This lesson of patience and expectancy is +enforced in a group of parables preserved for us in Matthew (chap. xxv.), +closing with the remarkable picture of the end of all things when the +Master should return in glory as judge of all to make final announcement +of the simplicity of God's requirement of righteousness, as it had been +exhibited in the life which by the despite of men was now drawing to its +close. + +187. The bargain made by Judas to betray his Lord has always been +difficult to understand. The man must have had fine possibilities or Jesus +would not have chosen him for an apostle, nor would the little company +have made him its treasurer (John xii. 6; xiii. 29). The fact that Jesus +early discovered his character (John vi. 64) does not compel us to think +that his selection as an apostle was not perfectly sincere; the man must +have seemed to be still savable and worthy thus to be associated with the +eleven others who were Jesus' nearest companions. It has often been +noticed that he was probably the only Judean among the twelve, for +Kerioth, his home, was a town in southern Judea. The effort has frequently +been made to redeem his reputation by attributing his betrayal to some +high motive--such as a desire to force his Master to use his Messianic +power, and confound his opponents by escaping from their hands and setting +up the hoped-for kingdom. But the remorse of Judas, in which De Quincey +finds support for this theory of the betrayal, must be more simply and +sadly understood. It is more likely that the traitor illustrates Jesus' +words: "No man can serve two masters; for either he will hate the one and +love the other; or else he will hold to the one and despise the other. Ye +cannot serve God and mammon" (Matt. vi. 24). The beginning of his fall may +have been his disappointment when Jesus showed clearly that he would not +establish a kingdom conformed to the popular ideas. As the enthusiasm +which drew him to Jesus cooled, personal greed, with something of +resentment at the cause of his disappointment, seem to have taken +possession of him, and they led him on until the stinging rebuke which +Jesus administered to the criticism of Mary at Bethany prompted the man to +seek a bargain with the authorities which should insure him at least some +profit in the general wreck of his hopes. His remorse after he saw in its +bald hideousness what he had done was psychologically inevitable. Although +Jesus was aware of Judas' character from the beginning (John vi. 64), he +that came to seek and to save that which was lost was no fatalist; and +this knowledge was doubtless--like that which he had of the fate hanging +over Jerusalem--subject to the possibility that repentance might change +what was otherwise a certain destiny. As the event turned he could only +say, "Good were it for that man if he had not been born" (Mark xiv. 21). + +188. With this the curtain falls on the public ministry of Jesus. The +gospels suggest a day of quiet retirement following these controversies +and warnings, with their fresh demonstration of the irreconcilable +hostility of people of all classes to him and his work. After the +seclusion of that day, he returned to give final proof of complete +obedience to his Father's will. + + + + +VII + +The Last Supper + + + +189. On Thursday Jesus and his disciples returned to Jerusalem for the +last time. Knowing the temper of the leaders, and the danger of arrest at +any time, Jesus was particularly eager to eat the Passover with his +disciples (Luke xxii. 15), and he sent two of them--Luke names them as +Peter and John--to prepare for the supper. In a way which would give no +information to such a one as Judas, he directed them carefully how to find +the house where a friend would provide them the upper room that was needed +for an undisturbed meeting of the little band, and the two went on in +advance to make ready. When the hour was come Jesus with the others went +to the appointed place and sat down for the supper (Mark xiv. 17; Luke +xxii. 14; Matt. xxvi. 20). + +190. The gospels all report the last evening which the little company +spent together. There is a perplexing divergence, however, between John +and the others concerning the relation of this supper to the feast of the +Passover. In their introduction of the story, Mark and his companion +gospels indicate that the supper which Jesus ate was the Passover meal +itself. John, on the other hand, declares that it was "before the feast of +the Passover" (xiii. 1) that Jesus took this meal with his disciples. +John's account is consistent throughout, for he states that on the next +day the desire of the Jews to "eat the Passover" forbade them to enter the +house of the governor lest they should incur defilement (xviii. 28). The +other gospels, moreover, hint in several ways that the day of Jesus' death +could not have been the day after the Passover; that is, the first day of +the feast of unleavened bread. Dr. Sanday has recently enumerated these +afresh, remarking that "the Synoptists make the Sanhedrin say beforehand +that they will not arrest Jesus 'on the feast day,' and then actually +arrest him on that day; that not only the guards, but one of the disciples +(Mark xiv. 47), carries arms, which on the feast day was not allowed; that +the trial was also held on the feast day, which would be unlawful; that +the feast day would not be called simply Preparation (see Mark xv. 42, and +compare John xix. 31); that the phrase 'coming from the field' (Mark xv. +21 [Greek]) means properly 'coming from work;' that Joseph of Arimathea is +represented as buying a linen cloth (Mark xv. 46) and the women as +preparing spices and ointments (Luke xxiii. 56), all of which would be +contrary to law and custom" (HastBD ii. 634). In these particulars the +first three gospels seem to confirm the representation of the fourth that +the day of the last supper was earlier than the regular Jewish Passover. +On the other hand, a strong argument, though one that has not commended +itself to other specialists in Jewish archæology, has been put forth by +Dr. Edersheim (LJM ii. 567f.) to prove that John also indicates that the +last supper was eaten at the time of the regular Passover. In the present +condition of our knowledge certainty is impossible. If John does differ +from the others, his testimony has the greatest weight. While not +conclusive, it has some significance that Paul identified Christ with the +sacrifice of the passover (I. Cor. v. 7), a statement which may indicate +that he held that Jesus died about the time of the killing of the paschal +lamb. If John be taken to prove that the last supper occurred a day before +the regular Passover, Jesus must have felt that the anticipation was +necessary in order to avoid the publicity and consequent danger of a +celebration at the same time with all the rest of the city. + +191. Whatever the conclusion concerning the date of the last supper, and +consequently of the crucifixion, the last meal of Jesus with his disciples +was for that little company the equivalent of the Passover supper. Luke +states that the desire of Jesus had looked specially to eating this feast +with his disciples (xxii. 15). The reason must be found in his certainty +of the very near end, and in his wish to make the meal a preparation for +the bitter experiences which were overhanging him and them. + +192. It is customary to connect as occasion and consequence the dispute +concerning precedence which Luke reports (xxii. 24-30), and the rebuke +which Jesus administered by washing the disciples' feet (John xiii. 1-20). +The jealousies of the disciples may have arisen over the allotment of +seats at the table, as Dr. Edersheim has most fully shown (LJM ii. +492-503); such a controversy would be the natural sequel of earlier +disputes concerning greatness, and particularly of the request of James +and John for the best places in the coming kingdom (Mark x. 35-45), and +would lead as naturally to the distress of heart with which Jesus declared +that one of the disciples should betray him, and that another of them +should deny him. The narrative in Mark favors the withdrawal of Judas +before the new rite was appointed. This must seem to be the probability in +the case, for the presence of Judas would be most incongruous at such a +memorial service. John's mention of his departure before the announcement +of Peter's approaching fall confirms this interpretation of Mark (Mark +xiv. 18-21; John xiii. 21-30). + +193. The paschal memories furnished to Jesus an opportunity to establish +for his disciples an institution which should symbolize the new covenant +which he was soon to seal with his blood. Jesus regarded this new covenant +as that which was promised by the prophets, especially Jeremiah (xxxi. +31-34), and his thought, like that of the prophets, goes back to the story +of the covenant established at Sinai (Ex. xxiv. 1-11). In this way he gave +to his disciples a conception of his death, which later, if not +immediately, would help them to regard it as a necessary part of his work +as Messiah. They were now oppressed by the evident certainty that the near +future would bring their Master to death; he accordingly gave them a +sacred reminder of himself and of his death as an essential part of his +self-giving "for them;" for whatever the conclusion concerning the +disputed text of Luke (xxii. 19), the institutional character of the act +and words of Jesus is clear. As Holtzmann remarks (NtTh i. 304): "The +words 'this do in remembrance of me' were perhaps not spoken; all the more +certainly do they of themselves express what lay in the situation and made +itself felt with incontestable conclusiveness." + +194. Several hints in the records seem to connect the meal in various +details with what is known of ancient custom in the celebration of the +Passover. The hymn with which according to Mark and Matthew the supper +closed is easily identified with the last part (Psalms cxv. to cxviii.) of +the so called _Hallel_, which was sung at the close of the Passover meal. +The mention of two cups in the familiar text of Luke (xxii. 17-20) agrees +with the repeated cups of the Passover ritual; so also do the sop and the +dipping of it with which Jesus indicated to John who the traitor was (John +xiii. 23-26; Mark xiv. 20). If it could be proved that the customs +recorded in the Talmud correctly represent the usage in Jesus' time it +would be of extreme interest to seek to connect what is told us of the +last supper with that Passover ritual as Dr. Edersheim has done (LJM ii. +490-512). The antiquity of the rabbinic record is so uncertain, however, +that it is only useful as showing what possibly may have been the case. +All that can be asserted is that the rabbinic ritual probably originated +long before it was recorded, and that as the last supper was a meal which +Jesus and his disciples celebrated as a Passover, it is probable that some +such ritual was more or less closely followed. + +195. Luke and John give the fullest reports of what was said at the table. +All the gospels tell of Peter's declaration of superior loyalty and the +prediction of his threefold denial; Luke, however, adds that in connection +with it Jesus assured Peter of his restoration, and charged him to +strengthen his brethren (Luke xxii. 31-34). John alone gives the long and +full discourse of admonition and comfort, followed by Jesus' prayer for +his disciples (xiii. 31 to xvii. 26). It is evident from the words of +Jesus as he entered the garden of Gethsemane (Mark xiv. 33, 34), as from +those which had escaped him when the Greeks sought him the last day in the +temple (John xii. 27), that his own heart was greatly troubled during the +supper by the apparent defeat which was now close at hand. His quietness +and self-possession during the supper, particularly when tenderly +reproving his disciples for petty ambition, or when solemnly dismissing +the traitor, or warning Peter of his denials, must not blind us to the +depth of the emotion which was stirring his own soul. It is only as we +remember his trouble of heart that it is possible justly to value the +ministry which in varied ways he rendered to his disciples that night. In +the discourses reported by John he showed that he realized that the +approaching separation would sorely try the faith of his followers, and he +sought to strengthen them by showing his own calmness in view of it, and +by promising them another who should abide with them spiritually as his +representative, and continue for them the work which he had begun. He +therefore urged them to maintain their devotion to him, still to seek and +find the source of their life and secret of their strength in fellowship +with him--present, though unseen among them. He sought to convince them +that his departure was to be for their advantage, that fellowship with him +spiritually would be far more real and efficacious than the intercourse +they had already enjoyed. He whose own heart was "exceeding sorrowful even +unto death" bade his disciples not to let their hearts be troubled nor +afraid. How long the conversation continued, of when the company left the +upper chamber, cannot be told. At some time before the arrival at +Gethsemane Jesus turned to God in prayer for the disciples whom he was +about to leave to the severe trial of their faith, asking for them that +realization of eternal life which he had enjoyed and exemplified in his +own intimate life with his Father. With this his ministry to them closed +for the time, and, crossing the Kidron, he entered the garden of +Gethsemane weighed down by the sorrow of his own soul. + + + + +VIII + +The Shadow of Death + + + +196. Of the garden of Gethsemane it is only known that it was across the +Kidron, on the slope of the Mount of Olives. Tradition has long pointed to +an enclosure some fifty yards beyond the bridge that crosses the ravine on +the road leading eastward from St. Stephen's gate. Most students feel that +this is too near the city and the highway for the place of retreat chosen +by Jesus. Archæologically and sentimentally the identification of places +connected with the life of Jesus is of great interest. Practically, +however, it is easy to over-emphasize the importance of such an +identification. Granted the fact that in some olive grove on the +mountain-side, where an oil-press gave a name to the place (Gethsemane), +Jesus withdrew with his disciples on that last night, and all that is +important is known. It is of far higher importance to see rightly the +relation of what took place in that garden to the things which preceded +and followed it in the life of Jesus. At that time Jesus saw pressed to +his lips the "cup" from the bitterness of which his whole soul shrank. It +was not an unlooked-for trial; some time earlier he had sought to cool the +ardor of the ambition of James and John by telling them that they should +drink of his cup, and declared that even the Son of Man came not to be +ministered unto but to minister, and to give his life a ransom for many. +The fourth gospel, whose representation omits the agony of Gethsemane and +only reports its victory, tells how Jesus rebuked the violent impulse of +Peter with the word, "The cup which my Father hath given me to drink shall +I not drink it?" (John xviii. 11^b); and all the gospels exhibit the +marvellous quietness of spirit and dignity of self-surrender which +characterized Jesus throughout his trial and execution. In Gethsemane, +however, we see the struggle in which that calmness and self-mastery were +won. + +197. It is unbecoming to consider that scene with any vulgar curiosity to +know what it was that made Jesus so draw back from the drinking of his +"cup." It is not unfitting, however, to recognize that in his cry, "Abba, +Father, all things are possible unto thee; remove this cup from me" (Mark +xiv. 36), an intense longing of his own soul's life had expression. There +was something in the fate which he saw before him from which his whole +being shrank. But stronger than this was his fixed desire to do his +Father's will. Here was supremely illustrated the truth that "he came down +from heaven, not to do his own will, but the will of him that sent him" +(John vi. 38). The fullest allowance for the shrinking of the most +delicately constituted nature from pain and death completely fails to +account for this dread of Jesus. He was no coward, drawing back from +sufferings which for simple physical pain were over and again more than +matched by many of the martyrs to truth who preceded and followed him. He +himself declared to the sons of Zebedee that they should share a cup in +kind like unto his, suffering for the kingdom of God, for the salvation +of the world. Yet there is a difference evident between what others have +had to bear and the cup from which Jesus shrank. The death which now stood +before him in the path of obedience had in it a bitterness quite +unexplained by the pain and disappointment it entailed. That excess of +bitterness can probably never be understood by us. A hint of its nature +may be found in the "shame of the cross" which the author of Hebrews (xii. +2; xiii. 13) emphasizes, and in the "curse" of the cross which made it a +stumbling block to Paul and his Jewish brethren (Gal. iii. 13; I. Cor. i. +23). Jesus came from the garden ready to endure the cross in obedience to +his Father's will; but it was a costly obedience, a complete emptying of +himself (Phil. ii. 7, 8). + +198. The loneliness of Jesus in his struggle is emphasized in the gospels +of Mark and Matthew. In search of sympathy he had confessed to the +disciples his trouble of heart, and had taken his three intimates with him +when he withdrew from the others for prayer, asking them to watch with +him. They were too heavy of heart and weary of body to stand by in his +bitter hour, and instead of being in readiness to warn him of the approach +of the hostile band, he had to awake them to their danger. The fourth +gospel reports that after the struggle Jesus bore marks of majesty which +astonished and overawed his foes when he calmly told them that he was the +one they were seeking. Their fear was overcome, however, when Judas gave +the appointed sign by kissing his Master (Mark xiv. 45). The thought for +the disciples' safety which John records (xviii. 8) is another proof that +the fight had been won, and Jesus had fully resumed the self-emptying +ministry appointed to him by his Father. + +199. The band that arrested Jesus was accompanied by a Roman cohort from +the garrison of the city, but it was not needed, for the disciples offered +no appreciable resistance; on the contrary, "they all forsook him and +fled" (Mark xiv. 50). Having arrested Jesus, the band took him to Annas, +the actual leader of Jewish affairs, though not at the time the official +high-priest. He had held that office some time before, but had been +deposed by the Roman governor of Syria after being in power for nine +years. His influence continued, however, for although he was never +reinstated, he seems to have been able to secure the appointment for +members of his own family during a period of many years. Caiaphas, the +legal high-priest, was his son-in-law. Annas, as the leader of +aristocratic opinion in Jerusalem, had doubtless been foremost in the +secret counsels which led to the decision to get rid of Jesus, hence the +captive was, as a matter of course, taken first to his house. The trial by +the Jewish authorities was irregular. There seems to have been an informal +examination of Jesus and various witnesses, first before Annas, and then +before Caiaphas and a group of members of the sanhedrin, the outcome of +which was complete failure to secure evidence against Jesus from their +false witnesses, and the formulation of a charge of blasphemy in +consequence of his answer to the high-priest acknowledging himself to be +the Messiah (Mark xiv. 61-64). The early hours before the day were given +over to mockery and ill-usage of the captive Jesus. When morning was +come, the sanhedrin was convened, and he was condemned to death on the +charge of blasphemy (Mark xv. 1; Luke xxii. 66-71), and then was led in +bonds to the Roman governor for execution, since the Romans had taken from +the sanhedrin the authority to execute a death sentence (John xviii. 31). +Before Pilate the Jews had to name an offence recognized by Roman law; his +accusers therefore falsified his claim and made him out a political +Messiah, hostile to Roman rule (Luke xxiii. 1, 2). Pilate soon saw that +the charge was trumped up, and sought in every way, while keeping the +good-will of the people, to escape the responsibility of giving sentence +against Jesus. His first effort was a simple declaration that he found no +fault in the prisoner (Luke xxiii. 4); then, having heard that he was a +Galilean, he tried to transfer the case to Herod, who happened to be in +the city at the time (Luke xxiii. 5-12); he then sought to compromise by +agreeing to chastise Jesus and then release him (Luke xxiii. 13-16); next +he offered the people their choice between the innocent Jesus and +Barabbas, a convicted insurrectionist (Mark xv. 6-15; Luke xxiii. 16-24), +and the people, instructed by the priests, chose Barabbas, caring nothing +for a Messiah who would allow himself to be arrested without resistance; +the fourth gospel tells of Pilate's still further effort, by appealing to +the people's sympathy, to escape giving sentence, even after he had +delivered Jesus to the soldiers for the preliminary scourging. Finding the +Jews ready to urge, at length, a religious charge, Pilate's superstitious +fear was roused (John xix. 7-12), and he sought again to release him, but +was finally cowed by the threat of an accusation against him at Rome, +and, mocking the people by sitting in judgment to condemn Jesus as their +king, he gave sentence against the man whom he knew to be innocent (John +xix. 12-16). + +200. Some of Jesus' disciples and friends were witnesses of the early +stages of the informal trial, in particular, John (John xviii. 15) and +Peter. It was during the progress of the early examination that Peter was +drawn into his denials by the comments made by the bystanders on his +connection with the accused. It has been suggested that the house of the +high-priest where Jesus was tried was built, like other Oriental houses, +about a court so that the room where Jesus was examined was open to view +from the court. In this case it is easy to see how Jesus could overhear +his disciple's strenuous denials of any acquaintance with him, and could +turn and give him that look which sent him out to weep bitterly (Luke +xxii. 61, 62). If it be further assumed that Annas and Caiaphas occupied +different sides of the same high-priestly palace, the double examination +reported by John would still be within hearing from the one court in which +the faithless disciple was a fascinated witness of his Master's trial. + +201. Humanly speaking, it may be said that the fate of Jesus was sealed +when the Sadducean leaders came to look on him seriously as a danger to +the State (John xi. 47-50, note the mention of chief priests). The +religious opposition was serious, and might have brought trouble, in some +such way as it seems to have done to John the Baptist (see Matt. xvii. +10-13; Luke xiii. 31, 32); but it is doubtful whether the governor would +have given much attention to a charge not urged by the men of influence in +Jerusalem. The notable thing in connection with the last days of Jesus' +life is the joint opposition of Sadducean priests and Pharisaic scribes. +That the populace easily changed their cry from "hosanna" to "crucify him" +is not surprising. Their hosannas were due to a complete misconception of +Jesus' aim and purpose; disappointed in him, they would be the earliest to +cry out against him, especially when the choice lay between him and a +genuine insurrectionist. + +202. Each fresh study of the trial of Jesus gives a fresh impression of +his greatness. He who but a few hours before was pouring out his soul in +prayer that his cup might pass, stands forth as the one calm and +undisturbed actor among all those who took part in the tragic doings of +that day. His judges and foes were all swayed by passion and self-interest +and were ready to make travesty of justice, from the leaders of the +sanhedrin who condemned him on one charge and accused him to the governor +on another, to the governor himself, who appeared determined to release +him if he could do it without risk of personal popularity, and who yet, in +order to avoid accusation at Rome, gave sentence according to the people's +will. The fickle populace crying "crucify him," the disciples who forsook +him, the rock-apostle who denied even so much as knowledge of the man, +show how all the currents of life about him were stirred and full of +tumult. In all this, of which he was the occasion and centre, he stands +the supreme example of dignity, self-mastery, and quietness. This is seen +in his silence in the presence of Annas and Caiaphas, and later before +Pilate; in his frank avowal of his Messianic claim in reply to the +high-priest's challenge, and of his kingly rank in answer to the +governor's question; and in the look of reproof which he turned upon +Peter. Not that he was without feeling. There is strong sense of outrage +in his words, "If I have spoken evil, bear witness of the evil, but if +well, why smitest thou me?" It was not the quietness of stoic +indifference, but of perfect self-devotion to the Father's will. He +maintained it from the time of his arrest to the last cry of trust with +which he committed his spirit to his Father. + +203. The scourging over, the mock homage of the soldiers done, he was led +out beyond the city wall to be crucified. The exact place of the +crucifixion can be determined as little as that of Gethsemane, though +there is a tradition from the fourth century, and in addition there are +many conjectures. Jesus was led, apparently, to the ordinary place of +criminal execution, and with two others, probably insurrectionary robbers +like those with whom Barabbas had been associated, he was crucified. Two +episodes in the journey to the place of crucifixion are recorded,--the +help which Simon of Cyrene was compelled to give to Jesus in carrying his +cross (Mark xv. 21), and the word of Jesus to those who, following him, +bewailed his fate (Luke xxiii. 27-31). + +204. Of the cruelty and torture of crucifixion much has been written and +often. It would be difficult to exaggerate it. The death by the cross was +a death by hunger and exhaustion in ordinary cases; it was thus torture +prolonged for many hours. It is noticeable, however, that it is not the +suffering but the disgrace and shame of the cross that occupied the +thought of the apostolic days. Indeed, were physical suffering chiefly to +be considered, it would have to be owned that the fact that Jesus died +within a few hours released him from the most excruciating pains incident +to this barbarous form of execution. The later ascetic thought loved, and +still loves, to dwell on the physical torments of the Lord's death. They +were severe enough to give us awe; but the biblical writers show a much +healthier mind, and their thought does not invite comparison between the +pains endured by the Master and those which some of his martyred followers +bore with great fortitude. The disgrace of the cross was the uttermost; +for the Romans it was the death of a slave, for the Jews it was patent +proof of the curse of God (Deut. xxi. 23). The obedience of Jesus was +unlimited when he submitted to death (Phil. ii. 8). It is on the shame of +the cross, and on the sacrifice of himself for the life of the world when +in obedience to his Father's will he "despised the shame," that the +thought of the apostolic day laid emphasis. In this experience Jesus found +himself in truth numbered with the transgressors; he was the object of +scorn for all them that passed by, they mocked at him, at his works, and +at his confident trust in God. In this last extremity the darkness of +Gethsemane again swept over Jesus' soul, when he cried out "My God, my +God," recalling the words of one of the saints of old in his hour of +distress (Ps. xxii.). Yet, like him, Jesus kept hold on the certainty of +deliverance; the darkness passed at length. + +205. The evangelists preserve several sayings of Jesus from the cross, the +records of the different gospels being remarkably diverse. Mark and +Matthew record the exclamation, "My God, my God _(Eloi, Eloi_), why hast +thou forsaken me," which the bystander misconstrued as a call for Elijah, +thinking this pseudo-Messiah was reproaching Elijah for failing to come to +his help. The same gospels tell of the loud cry with which Jesus died. +Luke omits the call _Eloi_, and gives in place of the last expiring cry +the prayer of trust, "Father, into thy hands I commend my spirit" (xxiii. +46). Earlier, however, this gospel tells of Jesus' word to the penitent +robber, "To-day shalt thou be with me in Paradise" (xxiii. 43), and of the +prayer for his foes, that is, for the Jewish people who blindly condemned +him (xxiii. 34). The oldest manuscripts cause some doubt whether this last +saying was originally a part of the Gospel of Luke. If it was not it would +belong in the same class with the story of the sinful woman which we now +find in John, both being authentic records of the life of Jesus, though +from some other source than that in which we now find them. The fourth +gospel gives quite an independent group of sayings. It interprets the +dying cry as, "It is finished" (xix. 30), and preceding this it gives the +cry, "I thirst" (xix. 28), which led to the offering of the vinegar of +which the first two gospels speak. Earlier it tells of the committal of +Mary to the care of the beloved disciple (xix. 26, 27). Of these seven +sayings, "Eloi," "I thirst," "Father, into thy hand I commend my spirit," +and "It is finished" belong to the last hours of the life of the crucified +one, after the darkness of which the first three gospels speak had +overshadowed the land. Of the cause of that darkness they give no hint, +for Luke's expression cannot mean an eclipse, since an eclipse at Passover +time, that is, at full moon, is an impossibility. The conjecture that +dense clouds hid the sun is common, and is as suitable as any other. +Whatever the cause, the evangelists saw in it a token of nature's awe at +the death of the Son of God. During the hours of the darkness the waves +swept over his soul, as the cry "my God" shows to our reverent thought. +But the last word of trust proves that the dying Jesus was not forsaken, +and that Calvary, like Gethsemane, was a battle won. The earlier sayings +all express Jesus' continued spirit of ministry, showing even in his +bitter pain his accustomed thoughtfulness for others' need. + +206. It is futile to speculate on the cause of Jesus' early death. He +certainly suffered a much shorter time than was ordinarily the case, as +appears in the fact that at sunset it was necessary to break the legs of +the robbers so as to hasten death, Jesus having already been some time +dead. There is something attractive in the theory of Dr. Stroud (The +Physical Cause of Christ's Death) that Jesus died of rupture of the heart. +It may have been true, but the evidences on which he based his argument +are insufficient for proof. To the Jews the death of their victim did not +give all the satisfaction they desired. In the first place, Pilate +insisted on mocking them by posting over the head of Jesus the placard, +"The King of the Jews" (see John xix. 19-22); moreover, their haste had +brought the crime into close proximity to the feast which they were eager +to keep from defilement; so that they had still to beg of Pilate that he +would hasten the death of the victims, that their bodies might not remain +to desecrate the following Sabbath sanctity (John xix. 31-37); while for +those who witnessed it the death of Jesus deepened the impression that a +hideous crime had been committed in the slaughter of an innocent man (Mark +xv. 39). + +207. Among the bystanders few of the disciples of Jesus were to be +found--they were hiding in fear. Yet some faithful women, and two +courageous councillors of Jerusalem, were bold enough to make their +loyalty known. These two men, Joseph of Arimathea and Nicodemus, were +members of the sanhedrin, but they had had no part in the condemnation of +Jesus; and after knowing that he was dead, Joseph begged of Pilate the +body, and he and Nicodemus took Jesus down from the cross and laid him in +a tomb which Joseph owned near the place of crucifixion, rendering such +tender ministries as were possible in the closing hours of the day. The +women who had witnessed his end meanwhile were arranging also to anoint +the body. They took notice where the two friends had laid him, and then +went away to rest on the Sabbath day, according to the commandment. + +208. To the Jews it was a high day, the first Sabbath in the eight days of +their holy feast (John xix. 31). They had eagerly guarded their conduct +that no ceremonial defilement might prevent their sharing in the paschal +feast. They believed that they had rid their nation of a dangerous +disturber of its peace, and men whose conscience shrank not from making +God's house a house of merchandise, who would punish one who ventured to +cure a mortal disease if it chanced to cross their Sabbath traditions, who +had condemned to death the holiest man and godliest teacher the world had +ever seen because he did not square with their heartless formalism,--such +men hardly had conscience enough to feel repentance or remorse for the +cowardly injustice and crime with which of their own choice they had +reddened their hands (Matt, xxvii. 25). They doubtless kept their feast +with satisfaction. Not a few hearts, however, were heavy with grief and +disappointed hope. They had believed that Jesus "was he that should redeem +Israel" (Luke xxiv. 21). Stunned, they could not throw away the faith +which he had kindled in their hearts. Yet he was dead, and only faintly, +if at all, did they recall his prediction of suffering and his certainty +of triumph through it all (John xx. 9). What remained for them was the +last tender ministry to their dead Lord. + + Outline of Events after the Resurrection + + + _The day of the resurrection--Sunday_. The visit of the women to the + tomb--Matt. xxviii. 1-8; Mark xvi. 1-8; Luke xxiv. 1-12; John xx. 1-10. + + Jesus' first appearance; to Mary--Matt. xxviii. 9 10; [Mark xvi. 9-11]; + John xx. 11-18. + + The report of the watch--Matt. xxviii. 11-15. + + The appearance to Simon Peter--I. Cor. xv. 5. + + The walk to Emmaus--[Mark xvi 12,13]; Luke xxiv. 13-35. + + The appearance to the ten in the evening--[Mark xvi. 14]; Luke xxiv. + 36-43; John xx. 19-25; I. Cor. xv. 5. + + _One week later--Sunday_. The appearance to the eleven, with + Thomas--John xx. 26-29. + + _Later appearances_. To seven disciples by the sea of Galilee--John + xxi. 1-24. + + To a company of disciples in. Galilee--Matt, xxviii. 16-20; [Mark xvi. + 15-18]; I. Cor. xv. 6. + + The appearance to James--I. Cor. xv. 7. + + To the disciples in Jerusalem, followed by the ascension--Mark xvi. 19, + 20; Luke xxiv. 44-53; Acts i. 1-12; I. Cor. xv. 7. + + + +IX + +The Resurrection + + + +209. Christianity as a historic religious movement starts from the +resurrection of Jesus from the dead. This is very clear in the preaching +and writings of Paul. The first distinctively Christian feature in his +address at Athens is his statement that God had designated Jesus to be +the judge of men by having "raised him from the dead" (Acts xvii. 31), and +for him the resurrection was the demonstration of the divinity of Christ +(Rom. i. 4), and the confirmation of the Christian hope (I. Cor. xv.). +With him the prime qualification for an apostle was that he should have +seen the risen Lord (I. Cor. ix. 1). The early preaching as recorded in +Acts shows the same feature, for after repeated testimony to the fact that +God had raised up Jesus, Peter summed up his address with the declaration, +"Let all the house of Israel therefore know assuredly, that God hath made +him both Lord and Christ, this Jesus whom ye crucified" (Acts ii. 36). In +fact the buoyancy of hope and confidence of faith which gave to the +despised followers of the Nazarene their strength resulted directly from +the experiences of the days which followed the deep gloom that settled +over the disciples when Jesus died. + +210. It can but seem strange to us that after Jesus had so often foretold +his death and the resurrection which should follow it, his disciples were +thrown into despair by the cross. Joseph of Arimathea and Nicodemus when +they embalmed his body may not have known of these teachings which Jesus +gave to the nearer circle of his followers, but it is difficult to believe +that the women who prepared their spices to anoint his body (Mark xvi. 1) +had heard nothing of these predictions, and it is certain that the +apostles who received with incredulity the first news of the resurrection +were the men whom Jesus had sought to prepare for this glorious victory. +The disciples do not seem to have finished "questioning among themselves +what the rising again from the dead should mean" (Mark ix. 10, compare +Luke xviii. 34) until Jesus himself explained it by his return to them +after his crucifixion. It was formerly common to conclude from the +scepticism of the disciples that Jesus could not have told them, as he is +reported to have done, that he would rise again the third day. It is now +widely conceded, however, that if he foresaw and foretold his death, he +surely coupled with it a promise of resurrection, otherwise he must have +surrendered his own conviction that he was Messiah; for a Messiah taken +and held captive by death was apparently as foreign to Jesus' thought as +it was unthinkable for the men of his generation. The inability of the +disciples to adjust their Messianic ideas to the death of their Master was +not removed by the rebuke Jesus administered to Peter at Cæsarea Philippi; +their objections were only silenced. It would seem that even when they saw +his death to be inevitable, they were simply dumb with hope that in some +way he would come off victor; the cross and the tomb crushed out that +hope--at least from most of them. If one disciple, his closest friend, +recalled and believed his words when he saw the empty tomb (John xx. 8), +others were cast into still deeper sorrow by the report, and could only +say, "But we hoped that it was he which should redeem Israel" (Luke xxiv. +21). + +211. The light which banished the gloom from the hearts of Jesus' +followers dawned suddenly. There was no time for gradual readjustment of +ideas and the springing of hope from a faith which would not die. The +uniform early tradition is that Jesus showed himself alive to his +disciples "on the third day," that is, a little over thirty-six hours from +the time of his death. Not only the gospels, but Paul, who wrote many +years before our evangelists, testify to this (I. Cor. xv. 4), as does the +very early observance of the first day of the week as "the Lord's day," +and the substitution of "the third day" for "after three days" in the +gospels which made use of our Gospel of Mark (compare parallels with Mark +viii. 81; ix. 31; x. 34, and see Holtzmann, NtTh I. 309). Of the events +which occurred on that third day and after, our earliest account is that +of Paul. He gives a simple catalogue of the appearances of the risen Lord, +referring to them as well known, in fact as the familiar subject matter of +his earliest teaching (I. Cor. xv. 4-8). He gives definite date to none of +these appearances, indicating only their sequence. He tells of six +different manifestations, beginning with an appearance to Cephas on the +third day, then to the twelve, then to a large company of +disciples,--above five hundred,--then to James, then to all the apostles. +The sixth in the list is his own experience, which he puts in the same +class with the appearances of the first Easter morning. Two of these +instances are found only in Paul's account, the appearance to James and to +the five hundred brethren, though this last may probably be the same as is +referred to in the Gospel of Matthew (xxviii. 16-20). + +212. The gospel records are much fuller, but they differ from each other +even more than they do from Paul. Mark is unhappily incomplete, for the +last twelve verses in that gospel, as we have it, are lacking in the +oldest manuscripts, and were probably written by a second-century +Christian named Aristion, as a substitute for the proper end of the gospel +which seems by some accident to have been lost. These twelve verses are +clearly compiled from our other gospels. They have value as indicating the +currency of the complete tradition in the early second century, but they +contribute nothing to our knowledge of the resurrection. All, then, that +Mark tells is that the women who came early on the first day of the week +to anoint the body of Jesus found the tomb open and empty, and saw an +angel who bade them tell the disciples that the Lord had risen. How the +record originally continued no one knows, for Matthew and Luke use the +same general testimony up to the point where Mark breaks off, and then go +quite different ways. Of the two Matthew is closer to Mark than is Luke. +The first gospel adds to the record of the second an account of an +appearance of Jesus to the women as they went to report to the disciples, +and then tells of the meeting of Jesus with the disciples on a mountain in +Galilee, and his parting commission to them. It gives no account of the +ascension. Luke agrees with Mark in general concerning the visit of the +women to the tomb, the angelic vision, and the report to the disciples. He +says nothing of an appearance of Jesus to the women on their flight from +the tomb, but, if xxiv. 12 is genuine (see R.V. margin), he, like John, +tells of Peter's visit to the sepulchre. + +213. Luke further reports the appearances of Jesus to two on their way to +Emmaus, to Simon, and to the eleven in Jerusalem,--this last being blended +consciously or unconsciously with the final meeting of Jesus with the +disciples before his ascension. The genuine text of the gospel (xxiv. 50) +says nothing of the ascension itself, but clearly implies it. In contrast +with Matthew it is noticeable that Luke shows no knowledge of any +appearance of Jesus to his disciples in Galilee. John is quite independent +of Mark, as well as of Matthew and Luke. He mentions only Mary Magdalene +in connection with the early visit to the tomb, though perhaps he implies +the presence of others with her ("we" in xx. 2). He tells of a visit of +Peter and John to the tomb, of an appearance of Jesus to Mary Magdalene, +of an appearance to ten of the disciples in the evening, and a week later +to the eleven, including Thomas. So far this gospel makes no reference to +appearances in Galilee; but in the appendix (chapter xxi.) there is added +a manifestation to seven disciples as they were fishing on the Sea of +Galilee. + +214. Criticism which seeks to discredit the gospels, for instance most +recently Réville in his "Jésus de Nazareth," discovers two separate and +mutually exclusive lines of tradition,--one telling of appearances in +Galilee, represented by Mark and the last chapter in John, the other +telling of appearances in or near Jerusalem, and found in Luke and the +twentieth chapter of John. It is said that the gospels have sought to +blend the two cycles, as when Matthew tells of an appearance to the women +in Jerusalem on their way from the tomb, and when the last chapter of John +adds to the original gospel a Galilean appearance. Luke, however, who +makes no reference at all to Galilean manifestations, is taken to prove +that originally the one cycle knew nothing of the other. This theory +falls, however, before the uniform tradition of appearances on the third +day, which must have been in Jerusalem, and the very early testimony of +Paul to an appearance to above five hundred brethren at once, which could +not have been in Judea. It need not surprise us that there should have +been two cycles of tradition, not however mutually exclusive, if Jesus did +appear both in Jerusalem and in Galilee. The same kind of local interest +which is supposed to explain the one-sidedness of the synoptic story of +the public ministry would easily account for one line of tradition which +reported Galilean appearances, and another which reported those in +Jerusalem. Luke may have had access to information which furnished him +only the Jerusalem story. John and Peter, however, must have known the +wider facts. The very divergences and seeming contradictions of the +gospels, troublesome as they are, indicate how completely certainty +regarding the fact of the resurrection removed from the thought of the +apostolic day nice carefulness concerning the testimony to individual +manifestations of the risen Lord. Doubtless the first preaching rested, as +in the case of Paul, on a simple "I have seen the Lord." When later the +detailed testimony was wanted for written gospels, it had suffered the lot +common to orally transmitted records, and divergences had sprung up which +it is no longer possible for us to resolve. They do not, however, +challenge the fact which lies behind all the varied testimony. + +215. A general view of the events of that third day and those which +followed can be constructed from our gospels and Paul. Early on the first +day of the week certain women, including Mary Magdalene, Mary the mother +of James and Joses, Salome, Joanna, and others, came to anoint the body of +Jesus. On their arrival they found that the stone had been rolled back +from the tomb. Mary Magdalene saw that the grave was empty and ran to tell +Peter and John. The others saw also a vision of angels which said that +Jesus was alive and would see his disciples in Galilee, and ran to report +this to the disciples. Meanwhile Mary Magdalene returned, following Peter +and John who ran to see the tomb, and found it empty as she had said. She +lingered after they left, and Jesus appeared to her, she mistaking him at +first for the gardener. She then went to tell the disciples that she had +seen the Lord. These events evidently occurred in the early morning. The +next incident reported is that of the walk of two disciples, not of the +twelve, to Emmaus, and the appearance of Jesus to them. At first they did +not recognize him, not even when he taught them out of the scriptures the +necessity that the Messiah should die. He was made known when at evening +he sat down with them to a familiar meal. Either before or after this +event he had shown himself to Peter. This is the first manifestation +reported by Paul. If Luke xxiv. 12 is genuine (see R.V. margin), he also +tells that when the two again reached Jerusalem the apostles received them +with the news that Peter had seen the Lord. That same evening Jesus +appeared suddenly among the disciples in their well-guarded upper room. +His coming was such that he had to convince the disciples that he was not +simply a disembodied spirit. Luke says that he did this by bidding them +handle him, and by eating part of a fish before them. According to John, +Thomas was not with the others at this first meeting with the disciples. A +week later, presumably in Jerusalem, Jesus again manifested himself to the +little company, Thomas being with them, and dispelled the doubt of that +disciple who loved too deeply to indulge a hope which might only +disappoint. He had but to see in order to believe, and make supreme +confession of his faith. The next appearance was probably that to the +seven disciples by the Sea of Galilee, when Peter, who denied thrice, was +thrice tested concerning his love for his Lord. Then apparently followed +the meeting on the mountain reported in Matthew, which was probably the +same as the appearance to the five hundred brethren; then, probably still +in Galilee, Jesus appeared to his brother James, who from that time on was +a leader among the disciples. The next manifestation of which record is +preserved was the final one in Jerusalem, after which Jesus led his +disciples out as far as Bethany and was separated from them, henceforth to +be thought of by them as seated at the right hand of God. + +216. This construction of the story as given in the New Testament does +violence to the accounts in one particular. It holds that Matthew's report +of the meeting of Jesus with the women on their way from the tomb on +Easter morning is to be identified with his meeting with Mary Magdalene. +This can be done only if it is supposed that in the transmission of the +tradition the commission given the women by the angel (Mark xvi. 6f.) +became blended with the message given to Mary by the Lord (John xx. 17), +the result being virtually the same for the religious interest of the +first Christians, while for the historic interest of our days it +constitutes a discrepancy. The difficulty is less on this supposition than +on any other. It is highly significant that the account of the most +indubitable fact in the view of the early Christians is the most difficult +portion of the gospels for the exact harmonist to deal with. This is not +of serious moment for the historical student. It is rather a warning +against theoretical ideas of inspiration. + +217. The universal acknowledgment that the early Christians firmly +believed in the resurrection of their Lord has made the origin of that +firm conviction a question of primary importance. The simple facts as set +forth in the New Testament serve abundantly to account for the faith of +the early church, but they not only involve a large recognition of the +miraculous, they also contain perplexities for those who do not stumble at +the supernatural; hence there have been many attempts to find other +solutions of the problem. Some of the explanations offered may be +dismissed with a word: for instance, those which, in one form or other, +renew the old charge found in the first gospel, that the disciples stole +the body of Jesus, and then declared that he had risen; and those which +assume that the death of Jesus was apparent only, that he fainted on the +cross, and then the chill of the night air and of the sepulchre served to +revive him, so that in the morning he was able to leave the tomb and +appear to his disciples as one risen from the dead. This apparent-death +theory involves Jesus in an ugly deception, while the theory that the +disciples or any group of them removed the body of Jesus and then gave +currency to the notion that he had risen, builds the greatest ethical and +religious movement known to history on a lie. A slightly different +explanation which was very early suggested was that the Jews themselves, +or perhaps the gardener, had the body removed, and that when Mary found +the tomb empty she let her faith conclude that his absence must be due to +his resurrection. + +218. This last explanation has in recent times been revived in connection +with the so-called vision-hypothesis by Renan and Réville. Mary found the +tomb empty, and being herself of a highly strung nervous nature--she had +been cured by Jesus of seven devils--by thinking about the empty tomb she +soon worked herself into an ecstasy in which her eyes seemed to behold +what her heart desired to see. She communicated her vision to the others, +and by a sort of nervous contagion, they, too, fell to seeing visions, and +it is the report of these that we have in the gospels. The +vision-hypothesis takes with some, Strauss for instance, a different form. +These deny that the tomb was found empty at all, and regard this story as +a contribution of the later legend-making spirit. They hold that the +disciples fled from Jerusalem as soon as the death of Jesus was an assured +fact, and not until after they found themselves amid the familiar scenes +of Galilee, did their faith recover from the shock it had received in +Jerusalem. In Galilee the experiences of their life with Jesus were lived +over again, and the old confidence in him as Messiah revived. Thus +thinking about the Lord, their hearts would say, "He cannot have died," +and after a while their faith rose to the conviction which declared, "He +is not dead;" then they passed into an ecstatic mood and visions followed +which are the germ out of which the gospel stories have grown. + +219. These different forms of the vision-hypothesis have been subjected to +most searching criticism by Keim, who is all the more severe because his +own thought has so much that is akin to them. There are two objections +which refute the hypothesis. The first is that the uniform tradition +which connects the resurrection and the first appearances with the "third +day" after the crucifixion leaves far too short a time for the recovery of +faith and the growth of ecstatic feeling which are requisite for these +visions, even supposing that the disciples' faith had such recuperative +powers. The second is that once such an ecstatic mood was acquired it +would be according to experience in analogous cases for the visions to +continue, if not to increase, as the thought of the risen Lord grew more +clear and familiar; yet the tradition is uniform that the appearances of +the risen Christ ceased after, at most, a few weeks. The only later one +was that which led to the conversion of Paul; and though Paul was a man +somewhat given to ecstatic experiences (see II. Cor. xii.), he carefully +distinguishes in his own thought his seeing of the Lord and his heavenly +visions. In a word, the disciples of Jesus never showed a more healthy, +normal life than that which gave them strength to found a church of +believers in the resurrection in the face of persecution and scorn. + +220. Keim seeks to avoid the difficulties which his own acute criticism +disclosed in the ordinary vision-theory, by another which rejects the +gospel stories as legendary, yet frankly acknowledges that the faith of +the apostles in the resurrection was based on a miracle. Their certainty +was so unshakable, so uniform, so abiding, that it can be accounted for +only by acknowledging that they did actually see the Lord. This seeing, +however, was not with the eyes of sense, but with the spiritual vision, +which properly perceives what pertains to the spirit world into which the +glorified Lord had withdrawn when he died. In his spiritual estate he +manifested himself to his disciples, by a series of divinely caused and +therefore essentially objective visions, in which he proved to them +abundantly that he was alive, was victor over death, and had been exalted +by God to his right hand. This theory is not in itself offensive to faith. +It concedes that the belief of the disciples rested on actual disclosures +of himself to them by the glorified Lord. The difficulty with the theory +is that it relegates the empty tomb to the limbo of legend, though it is a +feature of the tradition which is found in all the gospels and clearly +implied in Paul (I. Cor. xv. 4; compare Rom. vi. 4); it also fails to show +how this glorified Christ came to be thought of by the disciples as +_risen_, rather than simply glorified in spirit. This criticism brings us +back to the necessity of recognizing a resurrection which was in some real +sense corporeal, difficult as that conception is for us. The gospels +assert this with great simplicity and delicate reserve. They represent +Jesus as returning to his disciples with a body which was superior to the +limitations which hedge our lives about. It may be well described by +Paul's words, "It is sown a natural body; it is raised a spiritual body." +Yet the records indicate that when he willed Jesus could offer himself to +the perception of other senses than sight and hearing--"handle me and see" +is not an invitation that we expect from a spiritual presence. If, +however, we have to confess an unsolved mystery here, and still more in +the record of his eating in the presence of the disciples (Luke xxiv. +41-43), it is permitted us to own that our knowledge of the possible +conditions of the fully perfected life are not such as to warrant great +dogmatism in criticising the account. The empty tomb, the objective +presence of the risen Jesus, the renewed faith of his followers, and their +new power are established data for our thought. With these, many of the +details may be left in mystery, because we have not yet light sufficient +to reveal to us all that we should like to know. + +221. The ascension of the risen Christ to his Father is the presupposition +of all the New Testament teaching. The Acts, the Epistles, and the +Apocalypse join in the representation that he is now at the right hand of +God. In fact it may be said that such a view is involved in the doctrine +of the resurrection, for the very idea of that victory was that death had +no more dominion over him. It is a fact, however, that none of our gospels +in their correct text (see Luke xxiv. 51, R.V. margin) tell of the +ascension. Luke clearly implies it, and John says that Jesus told Mary to +tell the disciples that he was about to ascend to his Father and their +Father. In Luke's later book, however (Acts i. 1-11), he gives a full +account of a last meeting of Jesus with the disciples, and of +his ascension to heaven before their eyes. This withdrawal in the cloud +must be understood as an acted parable; for, in reality, there is no +reason for thinking that the clouds which hung over Olivet that day were +any nearer God's presence than the ground on which the disciples stood. +For them, however, such a disappearance would signify vividly the +cessation of their earthly intercourse with their Lord, and his return to +his home with the Father. The word of Jesus to Mary (John xx. 17) may +fairly be interpreted to mean that Jesus had ascended to the Father on +the day of the resurrection, and that each of his subsequent +manifestations of himself were like that which later he granted to Paul +near Damascus. In fact it is easier to view the matter in this way than to +conceive of Jesus as sojourning in some hidden place for forty days after +his resurrection. What the disciples witnessed ten days before Pentecost +was a withdrawal similar to those which had separated him from them +frequently during the recent weeks, only now set before their eyes in such +a way as to tell them that these manifestations had reached an end; they +must henceforth wait for the other representative of God and Christ, the +Spirit, given to them at Pentecost. + +222. The faith with which the disciples waited for the promised spirit was +a very different faith from that which Peter confessed for his fellows at +Cæsarea Philippi. It had the same supreme attachment to a personal friend +who had proved to be God's Anointed; the same readiness to let him lead +whithersoever he would; the same firm expectation of a restitution of all +things, in which God should set up his kingdom visibly, with Jesus as the +King of men. Now, however, their trust was much fuller than before, and +they looked for a still more glorious kingdom when their friend and Lord +should come from heaven to assume his reign. They expected Christ to +return soon in glory, yet his death and victory made them ready to endure +any persecution for him, certain that, like the sufferings which he +endured, it would lead to victory. These disciples had no idea that in +preaching a religion of personal attachment to their Master, in filling +all men's thoughts with his name, in building all hope on his return, and +guiding all life by his teaching and spirit, they were cutting their +moorings from the religion of their fathers. They remained loyal to the +law, they were constant in the worship; but they had poured new wine into +the bottles, and in time it proved the inadequacy of the old forms and +revolutionized the world's religious life. + + + + + +Part III + +The Minister + + + + +I + +The Friend of Men + + + +223. In nothing does the contrast between Jesus and John the Baptist +appear more clearly than in their attitude towards common social life. +John had his training and did his work apart from the homes of men. The +wilderness was his chosen and fit scene of labor. From this solitude he +sent forth his summons and warning to his people. They who sought him for +fuller teaching went after him and found him where he was. They then +returned to their homes and their work, leaving the prophet with his few +disciples in their seclusion. With Jesus it was otherwise. His first act, +after attaching to himself a few followers, was to go into Galilee to the +town of Cana, and there with them to partake in the festivities of a +wedding. While it is true that most of his teaching was by the wayside, +among the hills, or by the sea, it is still a surprise to discover how +often his ministry found its occasion as he was sitting at table in the +house of some friend, real or feigned. The genuine friendships of Jesus as +they appear in the gospels are among the most characteristic features of +his life--witness the home at Bethany, the women who followed him even to +the cross, and ministered to him of their substance, and the "beloved +disciple." Jesus calls attention to this contrast between himself and +John, reminding the people how some of the scornful pointed the finger at +himself as "a gluttonous man and a wine-bibber, a friend of publicans and +sinners." He received his training as a carpenter while John was in his +wilderness solitude. Men who would probably have stood with admiration +before John had he visited their synagogue, found Jesus too much one of +themselves, and would none of him as a prophet (Mark vi. 2, 3). + +224. A like contrast sets Jesus apart from the scribes of his day. These +were revered by the people, in part perhaps because they held the common +folk in such contempt. Their attitude was frank--"this multitude which +knoweth not the law is accursed" (John vii. 49). The popular enthusiasm +for Jesus filled them with scorn, until it began to give them alarm. They +were glad to be reverenced by the people, to interpret the law for them +"binding heavy burdens and grievous to be borne;" but showed little +genuine interest in them. Jesus, on the other hand, not only had the +reverence of the multitudes, but welcomed them. First his words and his +works drew them, then he himself enchained their hearts. Outcasts, rich +and poor, crowded into his company, and found him not only a teacher, a +prophet of righteousness rebuking their sins and calling to repentance, +but a friend, who was not ashamed to be seen in their homes, to have them +among his closest attendants, and to be known as their champion. It was +when such as these were pressing upon him to hear him that Jesus replied +to the criticism of the scribes in the three parables of recovered +treasure which stand among the rarest gems of the Master's teaching (Luke +xv.). + +225. One class only in the community failed of his sympathy,--the +self-righteous hypocrites, who thought that godliness consisted in +scrupulous regard for pious ceremonies, and that zeal was most laudable +when directed to the removal of motes from their brothers' eyes. For these +Jesus had words of rebuke and burning scorn. It has been common with some +to emphasize his friendship for the poor as if he chose them for their +poverty, and the unlettered for their ignorance. Yet Jesus had no faster +friends than the women who followed from Galilee and ministered to him of +their substance, and the two sanhedrists, Joseph whose new tomb received +his body, and Nicodemus whose liberality provided the spices which +embalmed him; for these, and not the Galilean fishermen, were faithful to +the last at the cross and at the grave. In no home did Jesus find a fuller +or more welcome friendship than in Bethany, where all that is told us of +its conditions suggests the opposite of poverty. The rich young ruler, who +showed his too great devotion to his possessions, would hardly have sought +out Jesus with his question, if he was known as the champion of poverty as +in itself essential to godliness. The demand made of him surprised him, +and was suited to his special case. Jesus saw clearly the difficulties +which wealth puts in the way of faith, but he recognized the power of God +to overcome them, and when Zaccheus turned disciple, the demand for +complete surrender of possessions was not repeated. On the contrary Jesus +taught his disciples that even "the unrighteous mammon" should be used to +win friends (Luke xvi. 9), so ministering unto some of "the least of these +my brethren" (Matt. xxv. 40). The beatitude in Luke's report of the +sermon on the mount (Luke vi. 20) was not for the poor as poor simply, but +for those poor folk lightly esteemed who had spiritual sense enough to +follow Jesus, while the well-to-do as a class were content with the +"consolation" already in hand. Jesus' interest was in character, wherever +it was manifest, whether in the repentance of a chief of the publicans, or +in the widow woman's gift of "all her living;" whether it appeared in the +hunger for truth shown by Nicodemus, a teacher of Israel, or in the woman +that was a sinner who washed his feet with her tears. He was the great +revealer of the worth of simple humanity, in man, woman, or child. Our +world has never seen another who so surely penetrated all masks or +disguising circumstances and found the man himself, and having found him +loved him. + +226. This sympathy for simple manhood was manifested in a genuine interest +in the common life of men in business, pleasure, or trouble. It is +significant that the first exercise of his miraculous power should have +been to relieve the embarrassment of his host at a wedding feast. +Doubtless we are to understand that the miracle had a deeper purpose than +simply supplying the needed wine (John ii. 11); but the significant thing +is that Jesus should choose to manifest his glory in this way. It shows a +genuine appreciation of social life quite impossible to an ascetic like +the Baptist. The same appears in the way Jesus allowed his publican +apostle to introduce him to his former associates, to the great scandal of +the Pharisees; for a feast at which Jesus and a number of publicans were +the chief guests accorded not with religion as they understood it. Jesus, +however, seems to have found it a welcome opportunity to seek some of his +lost sheep. The illustrations which he used in his teaching were often his +best introduction to the common heart, for they were drawn from the +occupations of the people who came to listen; while the aid Jesus gave to +his disciples in their fishing showed not only his power, but also his +respect for their work, a respect further proved when he called them to be +fishers of men. + +227. Beyond this interest in life's joy and its occupations was that +unfailing sympathy with its troubles which drew the multitudes to him. He +was far more than a healer; he studied to rid the people of the idea that +he was a mere miracle-monger. He healed them because he loved them, and he +asked of those who sought his help that they too should feel the personal +relation into which his power had brought them. This seems to be in part +the significance of his uniform demand for faith. Doubtless Mary, out of +whom he had cast seven devils, and Simon the leper, who seems to have +experienced his power to heal, are only single instances of many who found +in him far more than at first they sought. No further record remains of +the paralytic who carried off his bed, but left the burden of his sins +behind, nor of the woman who loved much because she had been forgiven +much, nor of the Samaritan whose life he uncovered that he might be able +to give her the living water. Some who had his help for body or heart may +have gone away forgetful, after the fashion of men, but in the company of +those who were bold to bear his name after his resurrection there must +have been many who could not forget. + +228. Jesus' interest in common life was genuine, and he entered into it +with his heart. The incident of the anointing of his feet as he sat a +guest in a Pharisee's house shows that he was keenly sensitive to the +treatment he received at the hands of men. He had nothing to say of the +slights his host had shown him, until that host began mentally to +criticise the woman who was ministering to him in her love and penitence. +Then with quiet dignity Jesus mentioned the several omissions of courtesy +which he had noticed since he came in, contrasting the woman's attention +with Simon's neglect (Luke vii. 36-50). One of the saddest things about +Gethsemane was Jesus' vain pleading with his disciples for sympathy in his +awful hour. They were too much dazed with awe and fear to lend him their +hearts' support. He recognized indeed that it was only a weakness of the +flesh; yet he craved their friendship's help, and repeatedly asked them to +watch with him, for his soul was exceeding sorrowful. In contrast with +this disappointment stands the joy with which Jesus heard from Peter the +confession which proved that the falling off of popular enthusiasm had not +shaken the loyalty of his chosen companions,--"Blessed art thou, Simon +Bar-Jonah: for flesh and blood have not revealed it unto thee, but my +Father which is in heaven" (Matt. xvi. 17). There is the sorrow of +loneliness as well as rebuke in his complaint, "O faithless generation, +how long shall I be with you? how long shall I bear with you?" (Mark ix. +19), and the lamentation over Jerusalem comes from a longing heart (Luke +xiii. 34). + +229. The independence of human sympathy which Jesus often showed is all +the more glorious for the evidence the gospels give of his longing for +it. When he put the question to the twelve, "Would ye also go away?" (John +vi. 67), there is no hint in his manner that their defection with the rest +would turn him at all from faithfully fulfilling the task appointed to him +by his Father. In fact only now and then did he allow his own hunger to +appear. Ordinarily he showed himself as the friend longing to help, but +not seeking ministry from others; he rather sought to win his disciples to +unselfishness by showing as well as saying that he came not to be +ministered unto but to minister. He washed the feet of his disciples to +rebuke their petty jealousies, but we have no hint that he showed that he +felt personal neglect. His own heart was full of "sorrow even unto death," +but his word was, "Let not your heart be troubled;" he asked in vain for +the sympathy of his nearest friends in Gethsemane, yet when the band came +to arrest him he pleaded, "Let these, the disciples, go their way." + + + + +II + +The Teacher with Authority + + + +230. To his contemporaries Jesus was primarily a teacher. The name by +which he is oftenest named in the gospels is Teacher,--translated Master +in the English versions and the equivalent of Rabbi in the language used +by Jesus (John i. 38). People thought of him as a rabbi approved of God by +his power to work miracles (John iii. 2), but it was not the miracles that +most impressed them. The popular comment was, "He taught them as one +having authority, and not as the scribes" (Matt. vii. 29). Two leading +characteristics of the scribes were their pride of learning, and their +bondage to tradition. In fact the learning of which they were proud was +knowledge of the body of tradition on whose sanctity they insisted; their +teaching was scholastic and pedantic, an endless citing of precedents and +discussion of trifles. To all this Jesus presented a refreshing contrast. +In commending truth to the people, he was content with a simple "verily," +and in defining duty he rested on his unsupported "I say unto you," even +when his dictum stood opposed to that which had been said to them of old +time. + +231. In this freedom from the bondage of tradition Jesus was not alone. +John the Baptist's message had been as simple and unsupported by appeal to +the elders. Jesus and John both revived the method of the older prophets, +and it is in large measure due to this that the people distinguished them +clearly from their ordinary teachers, and held them both to be prophets. +One thing involved in this authoritative method was a frank appeal to the +conscience of men. So completely had the scribes substituted memory of +tradition for appeal to the simple sense of right, that they were utterly +dazed when Jesus undertook to settle questions of Sabbath observance and +ceremonial cleanliness by asking his hearers to use their religious common +sense, and consider whether a man is not much better than a sheep, or +whether a man is not defiled rather by what comes out of his mouth than by +what enters into it (Matt. xii. 12; Mark vii. 15). Jesus was for his +generation the great discoverer of the conscience, and for all time the +champion of its dignity against finespun theory and traditional practice. +All his teaching has this quality in greater or less degree. It appears +when by means of the parable of the Good Samaritan he makes the lawyer +answer his own question (Luke x. 25-37), when he bids the multitude in +Jerusalem "judge not according to the appearance, but judge righteous +judgment" (John vii. 24), when he asks his inquisitors in the temple whose +image and superscription the coin they used in common business bears (Mark +xii. 16). His whole work in Galilee was proof of his confidence that in +earnest souls the conscience would be his ally, and that he could impress +himself on them far more indelibly than any sign from heaven could enforce +his claim. + +232. Jesus was not only independent of the traditions of the scribes, he +was also very free at times with the letter of the Old Testament. When by +a word he "made all meats clean" (Mark vii. 19), he set himself against +the permanent validity of the Levitical ritual. When the Pharisees pleaded +Moses for their authority in the matter of divorce, Jesus referred them +back of Moses to the original constitution of mankind (Matt. xix. 3-9). +His general attitude to the Sabbath was not only opposed to the traditions +of the scribes, it also disregarded the Old Testament conception of the +Sabbath as an institution. Yet Jesus took pains to declare that he came +not to set aside the old but to fulfil it (Matt. v. 17). The contrasts +which he draws between things said to them of old and his new teachings +(Matt. v. 21-48) look at first much like a doing away of the old. Jesus +did not so conceive them. He rather thought of them as fresh statements of +the idea which underlay the old; they fulfilled the old by realizing more +fully that which it had set before an earlier generation. He was the most +radical teacher the men of his day could conceive, but his work was +clearing rubbish away from the roots of venerable truth that it might bear +fruit, rather than rooting up the old to put something else in its place. + +233. The Old Testament was for Jesus a holy book. His mind was filled with +its stories and its language. In the teachings which have been preserved +for us he has made use of writings from all parts of the Jewish +scriptures--Law, Prophets, and Psalms. The Old Testament furnished him the +weapons for his own soul's struggle with temptation (Matt. iv. 4, 7, 10), +it gave him arguments for use against his opponents (Mark xii. 24-27; ii. +25-27), and it was for him an inexhaustible storehouse of illustration in +his teaching. When inquirers sought the way of life he pointed them to the +scriptures (Mark x. 19; see also John v. 39), and declared that the rising +of one from the dead would not avail for the warning of those who were +unmoved by Moses and the prophets (Luke xvi. 31). When Jesus' personal +attitude to the Old Testament is considered it is noticeable that while +his quotations and allusions cover a wide range, and show very general +familiarity with the whole book, there appears a decided predominance of +Deuteronomy, the last part of Isaiah, and the Psalms. It is not difficult +to see that these books are closer in spirit to his own thought than much +else in the old writings; his use of the scripture shows that some parts +appealed to him more than others. + +234. Jesus as a teacher was popular and practical rather than systematic +and theoretical. The freshness of his ideas is proof that he was not +lacking in thorough and orderly thinking, for his complete departure from +current conceptions of the kingdom of God indicates perfect mastery of +ethical and theological truth. It is all the more remarkable, therefore, +that so much of his profoundest teaching seems to have been almost +accidental. The most formal discourse preserved to us is the sermon on the +mount, in which human conduct is regulated by the thought of God as Father +and Searcher of hearts. For the rest the great ideas of Jesus have +utterance in response to specific conditions presented to him in his +ministry. His most radical sayings concerning the Sabbath followed a +criticism of his disciples for plucking ears of grain as they passed +through the fields on the Sabbath day (Mark ii. 23-28); his authority to +forgive sins was announced when a paralytic was brought to him for +healing (Mark ii. 1-12); so far as the gospels indicate, we should have +missed Jesus' clearest statement of the significance of his own death but +for the ambitious request of James and John (Mark x. 35-45). Examples of +the occasional character of his teaching might be greatly multiplied. He +did not seek to be the founder of a school; important as his teachings +were, they take a place in his work second to his personal influence on +his followers. He desired to win disciples whose faith in him would +withstand all shocks, rather than to train experts who would pass on his +ideas to others. His disciples did become experts, for we owe to them the +vivid presentation we have of the exalted and unique teaching of their +Master; but they were thus skilful because they surrendered themselves to +his personal mastery, and learned to know the springs of his own life and +thought. + +235. Nothing in the teaching of Jesus is more remarkable than his +confidence that men who believed in him would adequately represent him and +his message to the world. The parable of the Leaven seems to have set +forth his own method. We owe our gospels to no injunction given by him to +write down what he said and did. He impressed himself on his followers, +filled them with a love to himself which made them sensitive to his ideas +as a photographic plate is to light, teaching them his truth in forms that +did not at first show any effect on their thought, but were developed into +strength and clearness by the experiences of the passing years. Christian +ethics and theology are far more than an orderly presentation of the +teaching of Jesus; in so far as they are purely Christian they are the +systematic setting forth of truth involved, though not expressed, in what +he said and did in his ministry among men. His ideas were radical and +thoroughly revolutionary. His method, however, had in it all the patience +of God's working in nature, and the hidden noiseless power of an evolution +is its characteristic. Hence it was that he chose to teach some things +exclusively in figure. So great and unfamiliar a truth as the gradual +development of God's kingdom was unwelcome to the thought of his time. He +made it, therefore, the theme of many of his parables; and although the +disciples did not understand what he meant, the picture remained with +them, and in after years they grew up to his idea. + +236. Jesus' use of illustration is one of the most marked features of his +teaching. In one sense this simply proves him to be a genuine Oriental, +for to contemplate and present abstract truths in concrete form is +characteristic of the Semitic mind. In the case of Jesus, however, it +proves more: the variety and homeliness of his illustrations show how +completely conversant he was alike with common life and with spiritual +truth. There is a freedom and ease about his use of figurative language +which suggests, as nothing else could, his own clear certainty concerning +the things of which he spoke. The fact, too, that his mind dealt so +naturally with the highest thoughts has made his illustrations unique for +profound truth and simple beauty. Nearly the whole range of figurative +speech is represented in his recorded words, including forms like irony +and hyperbole, often held to be unnatural to such serious speech as his. + +237. Another figure has become almost identified with the name of +Jesus,--such abundant and incomparable use did he make of it. Parable +was, however, no invention of his, for the rabbis of his own and later +times, as well as the sages and prophets who went before them, made use of +it. As distinguished from other forms of illustration, the parable is a +picture true to actual human life, used to enforce a religious truth. The +picture may be drawn in detail, as in the story of the Lost Son (Luke xv. +11-32), or it may be the concisest narration possible, as in the parable +of the Leaven (Matt. xiii. 33); but it always retains its character as a +narrative true to human experience. It is this that gives parable the +peculiar value it has for religious teaching, since it brings unfamiliar +truth close home to every-day life. Like all the illustrations used by +Jesus, the parable was ordinarily chosen as a means of making clear the +spiritual truth which he was presenting. Illustration never finds place as +mere ornament in his addresses. His parables, however, were sometimes used +to baffle the unteachable and critical. Such was the case on the occasion +in Jesus' life when attention is first called in the gospels to this mode +of teaching (Mark iv. 1-34). The parable of the Sower would mean little to +hearers who held the crude and material ideas of the kingdom which +prevailed among Jesus' contemporaries. It was used as an invitation to +consider a great truth, and for teachable disciples was full of suggestion +and meaning; while for the critical curiosity of unfriendly hearers it was +only a pointless story,--a means adopted by Jesus to save his pearls from +being trampled under foot, and perhaps also to prevent too early a +decision against him on the part of his opponents. + +238. In nothing is Jesus' ease in handling deepest truth more apparent +than in his use of irony and hyperbole in his illustrations. In his +reference to the Pharisees as "ninety and nine just persons which need no +repentance" (Luke xv. 7), and in his question, "Many good works have I +shewed you from the Father, for which of these works do you stone me?" +(John x. 32), the irony is plain, but not any plainer than the rhetorical +exaggeration of his accusation against the scribes, "You strain out a gnat +and swallow a camel" (Matt, xxiii. 24), or his declaration that "it is +easier for a camel to go through a needle's eye than for a rich man to +enter into the kingdom of God" (Mark x. 25), or his charge, "If a man +cometh unto me and hateth not his own father and mother ... he cannot be +my disciple" (Luke xiv. 26). The force of these statements is in their +hyperbole. Only to an interpretation which regards the letter above the +spirit can they cause difficulty. In so far as they remove Jesus utterly +from the pedantic carefulness for words which marked the scribes they are +among the rare treasures of his teachings. The simple spirit will not busy +itself about finding something that may be called a needle's eye through +which a camel can pass by squeezing, nor will it seek a camel which could +conceivably be swallowed, nor will it stumble at a seeming command to hate +those for whom God's law, as emphasized indeed by Jesus (Mark vii. 6-13), +demands peculiar love and honor. The childlike spirit which is heir of +God's kingdom readily understands this warning against the snare of +riches, this rebuke of the hypocritical life, and this demand for a love +for the Master which shall take the first place in the heart. + +239. Jesus sometimes used object lessons as well as illustrations, and +for the same purpose,--to make his thought transparently clear to his +hearers. The demand for a childlike faith in order to enter the kingdom of +God was enforced by the presence of a little child whom Jesus set in the +midst of the circle to whom he was talking (Mark ix. 35-37). The unworthy +ambitions of the disciples were rebuked by Jesus' taking himself the +menial place and washing their feet (John xiii. 1-15). + +240. The simplicity and homeliness of Jesus' teaching are not more +remarkable than the alertness of mind which he showed on all occasions. +The comment of the fourth gospel, "he needed not that any one should bear +witness concerning man, for he himself knew what was in man" (ii. 25), +doubtless refers to his supernatural insight, but it also tells of his +quick perception of what was involved in each situation in which he found +himself. Whether it was Nicodemus coming to him by night, or the lawyer +asking, "Who is my neighbor?" or a dissatisfied heir demanding that his +brother divide the inheritance with him, or a group of Pharisees seeking +to undermine his power by attributing his cures to the devil, or trying to +entrap him by a question about tribute, Jesus was never caught unawares. +His absorption in heavenly truth was not accompanied by any blindness to +earthly facts. He knew what the men of his day were thinking about, what +they hoped for, to what follies they gave their hearts, and what sins hid +God from them. He was eminently a man of the people, thoroughly acquainted +with all that interested his fellows, and in the most natural, human way. +Whatever of the supernatural there was in his knowledge did not make it +unnatural. As he was socially at ease with the best and most cultivated +of his day, so he was intellectually the master of every situation. This +appears nowhere more strikingly than in his dealing with his pharisaic +critics. When they were shocked by his forgiveness of sins, or offended by +his indifference to the Sabbath tradition, or goaded into blasphemy by his +growing influence over the people, or troubled by his disciples' disregard +of the traditional washings, or when later they conspired to entrap him in +his speech,--from first to last he was so manifestly superior to his +opponents that they withdrew discomfited, until at length they in madness +killed, without reason, him against whom they could find no adequate +charge. His lack of "learning" (John vii. 15) was simply his innocence of +rabbinic training; he had no diploma from their schools. In keenness of +argument, however, and invincibleness of reasoning, as well as in the +clearness of his insight, he was ever their unapproachable superior. His +reply to the charge of league with Beelzebub is as merciless an exposure +of feeble malice as can be found in human literature. He was as worthy to +be Master of his disciples' thinking as he was to be Lord of their hearts. + +241. In the teaching of Jesus two topics have the leading place,--the +Kingdom of God, and Himself. His thought about himself calls for separate +consideration, but it may be remarked here that as his ministry progressed +he spoke with increasing frankness about his own claims. It became more +and more apparent that he sought to be Lord rather than Teacher simply, +and to impress men with himself rather than with his ideas. Yet his ideas +were constantly urged on his disciples, and they were summed up in his +conception of the kingdom of God, or the kingdom of heaven. This was the +topic, directly or indirectly, of far the greater part of his teaching. +The phrase was as familiar to his contemporaries as it is common in his +words; but his understanding of it was radically different from theirs. He +and they took it to mean the realization on earth of heavenly conditions +(kingdom of heaven), or of God's actual sovereignty over the world +(kingdom of God); but of the God whose will was thus to be realized they +conceived quite differently. Strictly speaking there is nothing novel in +the idea of God as Father which abounds in the teaching of Jesus. He never +offers it as novel, but takes it for granted that his hearers are familiar +with the name. It appears in some earlier writers both in and out of the +Old Testament. Yet no one of them uses it as constantly, as naturally, and +as confidently as did Jesus. With him it was the simple equivalent of his +idea of God, and it was central for his personal religious life as well as +for his teaching. "My Father" always lies back of references in his +teaching to "your Father." This is the key to what is novel in Jesus' idea +of the kingdom of God. His contemporaries thought of God as the covenant +king of Israel who would in his own time make good his promises, rid his +people of their foes, set them on high among the nations, establish his +law in their hearts, and rule over them as their king. The whole +conception, while in a real sense religious, was concerned more with the +nation than with individuals, and looked rather for temporal blessings +than for spiritual good. With Jesus the kingdom is the realization of +God's fatherly sway over the hearts of his children. It begins when men +come to own God as their Father, and seek to do his will for the love +they bear him. It shows development towards its full manifestation when +men as children of God look on each other as brothers, and govern conduct +by love which will no more limit itself to friends than God shuts off his +sunlight from sinners. From this love to God and men it will grow into a +new order of things in which God's will shall be done as it is in heaven, +even as from the little leaven the whole lump is leavened. Jesus did not +set aside the idea of a judgment, but while his fellows commonly made it +the inauguration, he made it the consummation of the kingdom; they thought +of it as the day of confusion for apostates and Gentiles, he taught that +it would be the day of condemnation of all unbrotherliness (Matt. xxv. +31-46). This central idea--a new order of life in which men have come to +love and obey God as their Father, and to love and live for men as their +brothers--attaches to itself naturally all the various phases of the +teaching of Jesus, including his emphasis on himself; for he made that +emphasis in order that, as the Way, the Truth, and the Life, he might lead +men unto the Father. + + + + +III + +Jesus' Knowledge of Truth + + + +242. The note of authority in the teaching of Jesus is evidence of his own +clear knowledge of the things of which he spoke. As if by swift intuition, +his mind penetrated to the heart of things. In the scriptures he saw the +underlying truth which should stand till heaven and earth shall pass +(Matt. v. 18); in the ceremonies of his people's religion he saw so +clearly the spiritual significance that he did not hesitate to sacrifice +the passing form (Mark vii. 14-23); such a theological development as the +pharisaic doctrine of the resurrection he unhesitatingly adopted because +he saw that it was based on the ultimate significance of the soul's +fellowship with God (Mark xiii. 24-27); he reduced religion and ethics to +simplicity by summing up all commandments in one,--Thou shalt love (Matt. +xxii. 37-40); and at the same time insisted as no other prophet had done +on the finality of conduct and the necessity of obedience (Matt. vii. +21-27). His penetration to the heart of an idea was nowhere more clear +than in his doctrine of the kingdom of God as realized in the filial soul, +and as involving a judgment which should take cognizance only of +brotherliness of conduct. It would not be difficult to show that all these +different aspects of his teaching grew naturally out of his knowledge of +God as his Father and the Father of all men; they were the fruit, +therefore, of personal certainty of ultimate and all-dominating truth. + +243. If the knowledge of Jesus had been shown only in matters of spiritual +truth, it would still have marked him as one apart from ordinary men. +There were other directions, however, in which he surpassed the common +mind. The fourth gospel declares that "he knew what was in man" (ii. 25), +and all the evangelists give evidence of such knowledge. Not only the +designation of Judas as the traitor, and of Peter as the one who should +deny him, before their weakness and sin had shown themselves, but also +Jesus' quick reading of the heart of the paralytic who was brought to him +for healing, and of the woman who washed his feet with her tears (Mark ii. +5; Luke vii. 47), and his knowledge of the character of Simon and +Nathanael (John i. 42, 47,) as well as his sure perception of the intent +of the various questioners whom he met, indicate that he had powers of +insight unshared by his fellow men. + +244. Furthermore, the gospels state explicitly that Jesus predicted his +own death from a time at least six months before the end (Matt. xvi. 21), +and they indicate that the idea was not new to him when he first +communicated it to his disciples (Matt. xvi. 23; Mark ii. 20). He viewed +his approaching death, moreover, as a necessity (Mark viii. 31-33), yet he +was no fatalist concerning it. He could still in Gethsemane plead with his +Father, to whom all things are possible, to open to him some other way of +accomplishing his work (Mark xiv. 36). The old Testament picture of the +suffering and dying servant of Jehovah (Isa. liii.) was doubtless +familiar to Jesus. Although it was not interpreted Messianically by the +scribes, Jesus probably applied it to himself when thinking of his death; +yet the predictions of the prophets always provided for a non-fulfilment +in case Israel should turn unto the Lord in truth (see Ezek. xxxiii. +10-20). Moreover, the contradiction which Jesus felt between his ideas and +those cherished by the leaders of his people, whether priests or scribes, +was so radical that his death might well seem inevitable; yet it was +possible that his people might repent, and Jerusalem consent to accept him +as God's anointed. Neither prophecy, nor the actual conditions of his +life, therefore, would give Jesus any fatalistic certainty of his coming +death. In Gethsemane his heart pleaded against it, while his will bowed +still to God in perfect loyalty. It is not for us to explain his +prediction of death by appealing to the connection which the apostolic +thought established between the death of Christ and the salvation of men, +for we are not competent to say that God could not have effected +redemption in some other way if the repentance of the Jews had, humanly +speaking, removed from Jesus the necessity of death. All that can be said +is that he knew the prophetic picture, knew also the hardness of heart +which had taken possession of the Jews, and knew that he must not swerve +from his course of obedience to what he saw to be God's will for him. +Since that obedience brought him into fatal opposition to human prejudice +and passion, he saw that he must die, and that such a death was one of the +steps in his establishment of God's kingdom among men. So he went on his +way ready "not to be ministered unto but to minister, and to give his +life a ransom for many" (Mark x. 45). + +245. With his prediction of his death the gospels usually associate a +prophecy of his speedy resurrection. As has been already remarked (sect. +210), it is being generally recognized that if Jesus believed that he was +the Messiah, he must have associated with the thought of death that of +victory over death, which for all Jewish minds meant a resurrection from +the dead. Jesus certainly taught that his death was part of his Messianic +work, it could not therefore be his end. The prediction of the +resurrection is the necessary corollary of his expectation of death; and +it may reverently be believed that his knowledge of it was intimately +involved with his certainty that it was as Messiah that he was to die. + +246. From the time when he began to tell his disciples that he must die, +Jesus began also to teach that his earthly ministry was not to finish his +work, but that he should return in glory from heaven to realize fully all +that was involved in the idea of God's kingdom. His predictions resemble +in form the representations found in the Book of Daniel and the Book of +Enoch; and the understanding of them is involved in difficulties like +those which beset such apocalyptic writings. In general, apocalypses were +written in times of great distress for God's people, and represented the +deliverance which should usher in God's kingdom as near at hand. One +feature of them is a complete lack of perspective in the picture of the +future. It may be that this fact will in part account for one great +perplexity in the apocalyptic sayings of Jesus. In the chief of these +(Mark xiii. and parallels), predictions of the destruction of Jerusalem +are so mingled with promises of his own second coming and the end of all +things that many have sought to resolve the difficulty by separating the +discourse into two different ones,--one a short Jewish apocalypse +predicting the destruction of Jerusalem and the coming of the Son of Man +within the life of that generation; the other, Jesus' own prediction of +the end of all things, concerning which he warns his disciples that they +be not deceived, but watch diligently and patiently for God's full +salvation. The difficulties of this discourse as it stands are so great +that any solution which accounts for all the facts must be welcomed. So +far as this analysis seeks to remove from the account of Jesus' own words +the references to a fulfilment of the predictions within the life of that +generation, it is confronted by other sayings of Jesus (Mark ix. 1) and by +the problem of the uniform belief of the apostolic age that he would +speedily return. That belief must have had some ground. What more natural +than that words of Jesus, rightly or wrongly understood, led to the common +Christian expectation? Some such analysis may yet establish itself as the +true solution of the difficulties; it may be, however, that in adopting +the apocalyptic form of discourse, Jesus also adopted its lack of +perspective, and spoke coincidently of future events in the progress of +the kingdom, which, in their complete realization at least, were widely +separated in time. In such a case it would not be strange if the disciples +looked for the fulfilment of all of the predictions within the limit +assigned for the accomplishment of some of them. + +247. Whatever the explanation of these difficulties, the gospels clearly +represent Jesus as predicting his own return in glory to establish his +kingdom,--a crowning evidence of his claim to supernatural knowledge. It +is all the more significant, therefore, that it is in connection with his +prediction of his future coming that he made the most definite declaration +of his own ignorance: "Of that day or that hour knoweth no one, not even +the angels in heaven, neither the Son, but the Father" (Mark xiii. 32). +This confession of the limitation of his knowledge is conclusive. Yet it +is not isolated. With his undoubted power to read "what was in man," he +was not independent of ordinary ways of learning facts. When the woman was +healed who touched the hem of his garment, Jesus knew that his power had +been exercised, but he discovered the object of his healing by asking, +"Who touched me?" and calling the woman out from the crowd to acknowledge +her blessing (Mark v. 30-34); when the centurion urged Jesus to heal his +boy without taking the trouble to come to his house, Jesus "marvelled" at +his faith (Matt. viii. 10); when he came to Bethany, assured of his +Father's answer to his prayer for the raising of Lazarus, he asked as +simply as any other one in the company, "Where have ye laid him?" (John +xi. 34). It should not be forgotten that his knowledge of approaching +death, resurrection, and return in glory did not prevent the earnest +pleading in Gethsemane, and it may be that his reply to the ambition of +James and John, it "is not mine to give" (Mark x. 40), is a confession of +ignorance as well as subordination to his Father. + +248. The supernatural knowledge of Jesus, so far as its exercise is +apparent in the gospels, was concerned with the truths intimately related +to his religious teaching or his Messianic work. There is no evidence +that it occupied itself at all with facts of nature or of history +discovered by others at a later day. When he says of God that "he maketh +his sun to rise on the evil and the good" (Matt. v. 45), there is no +evidence that he thought of the earth and its relation to the sun +differently from his contemporaries; it is probable that his thought +anticipated Galileo's discovery no more than do his words. Much the same +may be said with reference to the purely literary or historical questions +of Old Testament criticism, now so much discussed. If it is proved by just +interpretation of all the facts that the Pentateuch is only in an ideal +sense to be attributed to Moses, and that many of the psalms inscribed +with his name cannot have been written by David, the propriety of Jesus' +references to what "Moses said" (Mark vii. 10), and the validity of his +argument for the relative unimportance of the Davidic descent of the +Messiah, will not suffer. Had Jesus had in mind the ultimate facts +concerning the literary structure of the Pentateuch, he could not have +hoped to hold the attention of his hearers upon the religious teaching he +was seeking to enforce, unless he referred to the early books of the Old +Testament as written by Moses. Jesus did repeatedly go back of Moses to +more primitive origins (Mark x. 5, 6; John vii. 22); yet there is no +likelihood that the literary question was ever present in his thinking. +This phase of his intellectual life, like that which concerned his +knowledge of the natural universe, was in all probability one of the +points in which he was made like unto his brethren, sharing, as matter of +course, their views on questions that were indifferent for the spiritual +mission he came to fulfil. If this was the case, his argument from the one +hundred and tenth Psalm (Mark xii. 35-37) would simply give evidence that +he accepted the views of his time concerning the Psalm, and proceeded to +use it to correct other views of his time concerning what was of most +importance in the doctrine of the Messiah. The last of these was of vital +importance for his teaching; the first was for this teaching quite as +indifferent a matter as the relations of the earth and the sun in the +solar system. + +249. A more perplexing difficulty arises from his handling of the cases of +so-called demoniac possession. He certainly treated these invalids as if +they were actually under the control of demons: he rebuked, banished, gave +commands to the demons, and in this way wrought his cures upon the +possessed. It has already been remarked that the symptoms shown in the +cases cured by Jesus can be duplicated from cases of hysteria, epilepsy, +or insanity, which have come under modern medical examination. Three +questions then arise concerning his treatment of the possessed. 1. Did he +unquestioningly share the interpretation which his contemporaries put upon +the symptoms, and simply bring relief by his miraculous power? 2. Did he +know that those whom he healed were not afflicted by evil spirits, and +accommodate himself in his cures to their notions? 3. Does he prove by his +treatment that the unfortunates actually were being tormented by +diabolical agencies, which he banished by his word? The last of these +possibilities should not be held to be impossible until much more is known +than we now know about the mysterious phenomena of abnormal psychical +states. If this is the explanation of the maladies for Jesus' day, +however, it should be accepted also as the explanation of similar abnormal +symptoms when they appear in our modern life, for the old hypothesis of a +special activity of evil spirits at the time of the incarnation is +inadequate to account for the fact that in some quarters similar maladies +have been similarly explained from the earliest times until the present +day. If, however, he knew his people to be in error in ascribing these +afflictions to diabolical influence, he need have felt no call to correct +it. If the disease had been the direct effect of such a delusion, Jesus +would have encouraged the error by accommodating himself to the popular +notion. The idea of possession, however, was only an attempt to explain +very real distress. Jesus desired to cure, not to inform his patients. The +notion in no way interfered with his turning the thought of those he +healed towards God, the centre of help and of health. He is not open, +therefore, to the charge of having failed to free men from the thraldom of +superstition if he accommodated himself to their belief concerning +demoniac possession. His cure, and his infusion of true thoughts of God +into the heart, furnished an antidote to superstition more efficacious +than any amount of discussion of the truth or falseness of the current +explanation of the disease. On the other hand, if we are not ready to +conclude that the action of Jesus has demonstrated the validity of the +ancient explanation, we may acknowledge that it would do no violence to +his power, or dignity, or integrity, if it should be held that he did not +concern himself with an inquiry into the cause of the disease which +presented itself to him for help, but adopted unquestioningly the +explanation held by all his contemporaries, even as he used their +language, dress, manner of life, and in one particular, at least, their +representation of the life after death (Luke xvi. 22--Abraham's bosom). +His own confession of ignorance of a large item of religious knowledge +(Mark xiii. 32) leaves open the possibility that in so minor a matter as +the explanation of a common disease he simply shared the ideas of his +time. In this case, when one so afflicted came under his treatment, he +applied his supernatural power, even as in cases of leprosy or fever, and +cured the trouble, needing no scientific knowledge of its cause. If +accommodation or ignorance led Jesus to treat these sick folk as +possessed, it does not challenge his integrity nor his trustworthiness in +all the matters which belong properly to his own peculiar work. + +250. There is one incident in the gospels which favors the conclusion that +Jesus definitely adopted the current idea,--the permission granted by him +to the demons to go from the Gadarene into the herd of swine, and the +consequent drowning of the herd (Mark v. 11-13). On any theory this +incident is full of difficulty. Bernhard Weiss (LXt II. 226 ff.) holds +that Jesus accommodated himself to current views, and that the man, having +received for the possessing demons permission to go into the swine, was at +once seized by a final paroxysm, and rushed among the swine, stampeding +them so that they ran down the hillside into the sea. + +251. In recent years the view has been somewhat widely advocated that his +power over demoniacs was to Jesus himself one of the chief proofs of his +Messiahship. His words are quoted: "If I, by the Spirit of God, cast out +demons, then is the kingdom of God come upon you" (Matt. xii. 28); and "I +beheld Satan falling as lightning from heaven" (Luke x. 18). The first of +these is in the midst of an _ad hominem_ reply of Jesus to the charge that +he owed his power to a league with the devil (Matt. xii. 28); and the +second was his remark when the seventy reported with joy that the demons +were subject unto them (Luke x. 18). The gospels, however, trace his +certainty of his Messiahship to quite other causes, primarily to his +knowledge of himself as God's child, then to the Voice which, coming at +the baptism, summoned him as God's beloved Son to do the work of the +Messiah. Throughout his ministry Jesus exhibits a certainty of his mission +quite independent of external evidences,--"Even if I bear witness of +myself, my witness is true; for I know whence I came and whither I go" +(John viii. 14). + + + + +IV + +Jesus' Conception of Himself + + + +252. When Jesus called forth the confession of Peter at Cæsarea Philippi +he brought into prominence the question which during the earlier stages of +the Galilean ministry he had studiously kept in the background. This is no +indication, however, that he was late in reaching a conclusion for himself +concerning his relation to the kingdom which he was preaching. From the +time of his baptism and temptation every manifestation of the inner facts +of his life shows unhesitating confidence in the reality of his call and +in his understanding of his mission. This is the case whether the fourth +gospel or the first three be appealed to for evidence. It is generally +felt that the Gospel of John presents its sharpest contrast to the +synoptic gospels in respect of the development of Jesus' self-disclosures. +A careful consideration of the first three gospels, however, shows that +the difference is not in Jesus' thought about himself. + +253. The first thing which impressed the people during the ministry in +Galilee was Jesus' assumption of authority, whether in teaching or in +action (Mark i. 27; Matt. vii. 28, 29). His method of teaching +distinguished him sharply from the scribes, who were constantly appealing +to the opinion of the elders to establish the validity of their +conclusions. Jesus taught with a simple "I say unto you." In this, +however, he differed not only from the scribes, but also from the +prophets, to whom in many ways he bore so strong a likeness. They +proclaimed their messages with the sanction of a "Thus saith the Lord;" he +did not hesitate to oppose the letter of scripture as well as the +tradition of the elders with his unsupported word (Matt. v. 38, 39; Mark +vii. 1-23). His teaching revealed his unhesitating certainty concerning +spiritual truth, and although he reverenced deeply the Jewish scriptures, +and knew that his work was the fulfilment of their promises, he used them +always as one whose superiority to God's earlier messengers was as +complete as his reverence for them. He was confident that what they +suggested of truth he was able to declare clearly; he used them as a +master does his tools. + +254. More striking than Jesus' independence in his teaching is the +calmness of his self-assertion when he was opposed by pharisaic criticism +and hostility. He preferred to teach the truth of the kingdom, working his +cures in such a way that men should think about God's goodness rather than +their healer's significance. Yet coincidently with this method of his +choice he did not hesitate to reply to pharisaic opposition with +unqualified self-assertion and exalted personal claim. Even if the +conflicts which Mark has gathered together at the opening of his gospel +(ii. 1 to iii. 6) did not all occur as early as he has placed them, the +nucleus of the group belongs to the early time. Since the people greatly +reverenced his critics, he felt it unnecessary to guard against arousing +undue enthusiasm by this frank avowal of his claims. He consequently +asserted his authority to forgive sins, his special mission to the sick in +soul whom the scribes shunned as defiling, his right to modify the +conception of Sabbath observance; even as, later, he warned his critics of +their fearful danger if they ascribed his good deeds to diabolical power +(Mark iii. 28-30), and as, after the collapse of popularity, he rebuked +them for making void the word of God by their tradition (Mark vii. 13). +His attitude to the scribes in Galilee from the beginning discloses as +definite Messianic claims as any ascribed by the fourth gospel to this +early period. + +255. These facts of the independence of Jesus in his teaching and his +self-assertion in response to criticism confirm the impression that his +answer to John the Baptist (Matt. xi. 2-6) gives the key to his method in +Galilee. In John's inquiry the question of Jesus' personal relation to the +kingdom was definitely asked. The answer, "Blessed is he whosoever shall +find none occasion of stumbling in me," showed plainly that Jesus was in +no doubt in the matter, although for the time he still preferred to let +his ministry be the means of leading men to form their conclusions +concerning him. What he brought into prominence at Cæsarea Philippi, +therefore, was that which had been the familiar subject of his own +thinking from the time of his baptism. + +256. In the ministry subsequent to the confession of Peter the +self-disclosures of Jesus became more frequent and clear. His predictions +of his approaching death were at the time the greatest difficulty to his +disciples; when considered in their significance for his own life, +however, they prove that his conviction of his Messiahship was as +independent of current and inherited ideas as was his teaching concerning +the kingdom. When he came to see that death was the inevitable issue of +his work, he at once discovered in it a divine necessity; it does not seem +to have shaken in the least his certainty that he was the Messiah. +Associated with this conception of his death is the conviction which +appears in all the later teachings, that in rejecting him his people were +pronouncing their own doom. Because she would not accept him as her +deliverer, Jerusalem's "house was left unto her desolate" (Luke xiii. 35). +His sense of his supreme significance appears most clearly in some of the +later parables, such as The Marriage of the King's Son (Matt. xxii. 1-14) +and The Wicked Husbandmen (Matt. xxi. 33-44), which definitely connect the +condemnation of the chosen people with their rejection of God's Son. Two +other sayings in the first three gospels express the personal claim of +Jesus in the most exalted form,--his declaration on the return of the +seventy: "All things have been delivered unto me of my Father, and no man +knoweth who the Son is save the Father, and who the Father is save the +Son, and he to whomsoever the Son willeth to reveal him" (Luke x. 22; +Matt. xi. 27); and his confession of the limits of his own knowledge: "But +of that day and hour knoweth no one, not even the angels in heaven, +neither the Son, but the Father" (Mark xiii. 32). The confession of +ignorance, by the position given to the Son in the climax which denied +that any save the Father had a knowledge of the time of the end, is quite +as extraordinary as the claim to sole qualification to reveal the Father. + +257. The similarity of these last two sayings to the discourses in the +fourth gospel has often been remarked; the likeness is particularly close +between them and the claims of Jesus recorded in the fifth chapter of +John. It is interesting to note that in the incident which introduces the +discourse in that chapter Jesus shows that he preferred, after healing the +man at the pool, to avoid the attention of the multitudes, precisely as in +Galilee he sought to check too great popular excitement by withdrawing +from Capernaum after his first ministry there (Mark i. 35-39), and +enjoining silence on the leper who had been healed by him (Mark ii. 44). +When, however, he found himself opposed by the criticism of the Pharisees +he spoke with unhesitating self-assertion and exalted personal claim, even +as he did in like situations in Galilee. During his earlier ministry in +Judea he had not shown this reserve. The cleansing of the temple, although +it was no more than any prophet sure of his divine commission would have +done, was a bold challenge to the people to consider who he was who +ventured thus to criticise the priestly administration of God's house. In +his subsequent dealings with Nicodemus and the Samaritan woman Jesus +manifested a like readiness to draw attention to himself. From the time of +the feeding of the multitudes all four of the gospels represent him as +asserting his claims, with this difference, however, that in John it is +the rule rather than the exception to find sayings similar to the two in +which the self-assertion in the other gospels reaches its highest +expression. Although the method of Jesus varied at different times and in +different localities, yet it is evident that he stood before the people +from the first with the consciousness that he had the right to claim +their allegiance as no one of the prophets who preceded him would have +been bold to do. + +258. During the course of his ministry Jesus used of himself, or suffered +others to use with reference to him, many of the titles by which his +people were accustomed to refer to the Messiah. Thus he was named "the +Messiah" (Mark viii. 29; xiv. 61; John iv. 26); "the King of the Jews" +(Mark xv. 2; John i. 49; xviii. 33, 36, 37); "the Son of David" (Mark x. +47, 48; Matt. xv. 22; xxi. 9, 15); "the Holy One of God" (John vi. 69; +compare Mark i. 24); "the Prophet" (John vi. 14; vii. 40). It is evident +that none of these titles was common; they represent, rather, the bold +venture of more or less intelligent faith on the part of men who were +impressed by him. There are two names, however, that are more significant +of Jesus' thought about himself,--"the Son of God" and "the Son of Man." + +259. The latter of these titles is unique in the use Jesus made of it. +Excepting Stephen's speech (Acts vii. 56), it is found in the New +Testament only in the sayings of Jesus, and its precise significance is +still a subject of learned debate. The expression is found in the Old +Testament as a poetical equivalent for Man, usually with emphasis on human +frailty (Ps. viii. 4; Num. xxiii. 19; Isa. li. 12), though sometimes it +signifies special dignity (Ps. lxxx. 17). Ezekiel was regularly addressed +in his visions as Son of Man (Ezek. ii. 1 and often; see also Dan. viii. +17), probably in contrast with the divine majesty. + +260. In one of Daniel's visions (vii. 1-14) the world-kingdoms which had +oppressed God's people and were to be destroyed were symbolized by beasts +that came up out of the sea,--a winged lion, a bear, a four-headed winged +leopard, and a terrible ten-horned beast; in contrast with these the +kingdom of the saints of the Most High was represented by "one like unto a +son of man," who came with the clouds of heaven (vii. 13, 14). Here the +language is obviously poetic, and is used to suggest the unapproachable +superiority of the kingdom of heaven to the kingdoms of the world. The +expression "one like unto a son of man" is equivalent, therefore, to "one +resembling mankind." The vision in Daniel had great influence over the +author of the so-called Similitudes of Enoch (Book of Enoch, chapters +xxxvii. to lxxi.). He, however, personified the "one like unto a son of +man," and gave the title "the Son of Man" to the heavenly man who will +come at the end of all things, seated on God's throne, to judge the world. +This author used also the titles "the Elect One" and "the Righteous One" +(or "the Holy One of God"), but "the Son of Man" is the prevalent name for +the Messiah in these Similitudes. + +261. The facts thus stated do not account for Jesus' use of the +expression. Many of his sayings undoubtedly suggest a development of the +Daniel vision resembling that in the Similitudes. This does not prove that +Jesus or his disciples had read these writings, though it does suggest the +possibility that they knew them. It is probable, however, that the +apocalypses gave formulated expression to thoughts that were more widely +current than those writings ever came to be. The likeness between the +language of Jesus and that found in the Similitudes may therefore prove no +more than that the Daniel vision was more or less commonly interpreted of +a personal Messiah in Jesus' day. + +262. Much of the use of the title by Jesus, however, is completely foreign +to the ideas suggested by Enoch and Daniel. Besides apocalyptic sayings +like those in Enoch (Mark viii. 38 and often), the name occurs in +predictions of his sufferings and death (Mark viii. 31 and often), and in +claims to extraordinary if not essentially divine authority (Mark ii. 10, +28 and parallels); it is also used sometimes simply as an emphatic "I" +(Matt. xi. 19 and often). Whatever relation Jesus bore to the Enoch +writings, therefore, the name "the Son of Man" as he used it was his own +creation. + +263. Students of Aramaic have in recent years asserted that it was not +customary in the dialect which Jesus spoke to make distinction between +"the son of man" and "man," since the expression commonly used for "man" +would be literally translated "son of man." It is asserted, moreover, that +if our gospels be read substituting "man" for "the Son of Man" wherever it +appears, it will be found that many supposed Messianic claims become +general statements of Jesus' conception of the high prerogatives of man, +while in other places the name stands simply as an emphatic substitute for +the personal pronoun. Thus, for instance, Jesus is found to assert that +authority on earth to forgive sins belongs to man (Mark ii. 10), and, +toward the end of his course, to have taught simply that he himself must +meet with suffering (Mark viii. 31), and will come on the clouds to judge +the world (Mark viii. 38). The proportion of cases in which the general +reference is possible is, however, very small; and even if the +equivalence of "man" and "son of man" should be established, most of the +statements of Jesus in which our gospels use the latter expression exhibit +a conception of himself which challenges attention, transcending that +which would be tolerated in any other man. The debate concerning the usage +in the language spoken by Jesus is not yet closed, however, and Dr. Gustaf +Dalman (WJ I. 191-197) has recently argued that the equivalence of the two +expressions holds only in poetic passages, precisely as it does in Hebrew, +and that our gospels represent correctly a distinction observed by Jesus +when they report him, for instance, as saying in one sentence, "the +Sabbath was made for man" (Mark ii. 27), and in the next, "the Son of Man +is lord even of the Sabbath." The antecedent probability is so great that +the dialect of Jesus' time would be capable of expressing a distinction +found in the Hebrew of the Old Testament and in the Syriac of the +second-century version of the New Testament, that Dalman's opinion carries +much weight. + +264. Many of those who look for a distinct significance in the title "the +Son of Man," find in it a claim by Jesus to be the ideal or typical man, +in whom humanity has found its highest expression. It thus stands sharply +in contrast with "the Son of God," which is held to express his claim to +divinity. So understood, the titles represent truth early recognized by +the church in its thought about its Lord. Yet it must be acknowledged that +the conception "the ideal man" is too Hellenic to have been at home in the +thought of those to whom Jesus addressed his teaching. If the phrase +suggested anything more to his hearers than the human frailty or the +human dignity of him who bore it, it probably had a Messianic meaning like +that found in the Similitudes of Enoch. A hint of this understanding of +the name appears in the perplexed question reported in John (xii. 34): "We +have heard out of the law that the Messiah abideth forever; and how sayest +thou, The Son of Man must be lifted up? who is this Son of Man?" Here the +difficulty arose because the people identified the Son of Man with the +Messiah, yet could not conceive how such a Messiah could die. In fact, if +the conception of the Son of Man which is found in Enoch had obtained any +general currency among the people, either from that book or independently +of it, it was so foreign to the earthly condition and manner of life of +the Galilean prophet, that it would not have occurred to his hearers to +treat his use of the title as a Messianic claim until after that claim had +been published in some other and more definite form. Their Son of Man was +to come with the clouds of heaven, seated on God's throne, to execute +judgment on all sinners and apostates; the Nazarene fulfilled none of +these conditions. The name, as used by Jesus, was probably always an +enigma to the people, at least until he openly declared its Messianic +significance in his reply to the high-priest's question at his trial (Mark +xiv. 62), and gave the council the ground it desired for a charge of +blasphemy against him. + +265. What did this title signify to Jesus? His use of it alone can furnish +answer, and in this the variety is so great that it causes perplexity. +"The Son of Man came eating and drinking" is his description of his own +life in contrast with John the Baptist (Matt. xi. 18, 19). "The Son of +Man hath not where to lay his head" was his reply to one over-zealous +follower (Matt. viii. 20). Unseemly rivalry among his disciples was +rebuked by the reminder that "even the Son of Man came not to be +ministered unto but to minister" (Mark x. 42-45). When it became needful +to prepare the disciples for his approaching death he taught them that +"the Son of Man must suffer many things ... and be killed, and after three +days rise again" (Mark viii. 31). On the other hand, the paralytic's cure +was made to demonstrate that "the Son of Man hath authority upon the earth +to forgive sins" (Mark ii. 10). Similarly it is the Son of Man who after +his exaltation shall come "in the glory of his Father with the holy +angels" (Mark viii. 38). In these typical cases the title expresses Jesus' +consciousness of heavenly authority as well as self-sacrificing ministry, +of coming exaltation as well as present lowliness; and the suffering and +death which were the common lot of other sons of men were appointed for +this Son of Man by a divine necessity. The name is, therefore, more than a +substitute for the personal pronoun; it expresses Jesus' consciousness of +a mission that set him apart from the rest of men. + +266. We do not know how Jesus came to adopt this title. Its association +with the predictions of his coming glory shows that he knew that in him +the Daniel vision was to have fulfilment. The predictions of suffering and +death, however, are completely foreign to that apocalyptic conception, +being akin rather, as Professor Charles has suggested, to the prophecies +of the suffering servant in the Book of Isaiah (Book of Enoch, p. +314-317). Moreover, it may not be fanciful to find in his claims to +heavenly authority a hint of the thought of the eighth Psalm, "Thou madest +him to have dominion over the works of thy hands; thou hast put all things +under his feet" (see Dalman WJ I. 218). Although the name expresses a +consciousness of dignity, vicarious ministry, and authority, similar to +thoughts found in Daniel, Isaiah, and the Psalms, it was not deduced from +these scriptures by any synthesis of diverse ideas. It rather indicates +that Jesus in his own nature realized a synthesis which no amount of study +of scripture would ever have suggested. He drew his conception of himself +from his own self-knowledge, not from his Messianic meditations. On his +lips, then, "the Son of Man" indicates that he knew himself to be the Man +whom God had chosen to be Lord over all (compare Dalman as above). The +lowly estate which contradicted the Daniel vision prevented Jesus' hearers +from recognizing in the title a Messianic claim; for him, however, it was +the expression of the very heart of his Messianic consciousness. + +267. If Jesus gave expression to his official consciousness when he used +the name "the Son of Man," the title "the Son of God" may be said to +express his more personal thought about himself. It is necessary to +distinguish between the meaning of this title to the contemporaries of +Jesus and his own conception of it. In the popular thought "the Son of +God" was the designation of that man whom God would at length raise up and +crown with dignity and power for the deliverance of his people. This +meaning followed from the Messianic interpretation of the second Psalm, in +which the theocratic king is called God's son (Ps. ii. 7). In another +psalm, which Jesus himself quotes (John x. 34), magistrates and judges are +called "sons of the Most High" (lxxxii. 6). Another Old Testament use +casts light on this,--the designation of Israel as God's son, his +firstborn (Ex. iv. 22; Hos. i. 10), with which may be compared a +remarkable expression in the so-called Psalms of Solomon (xviii. 4), "Thy +chastisement was upon us [that is, Israel] as upon a son, firstborn, only +begotten." In all these passages that which constitutes a man the son of +God is God's choice of him for a special work, while Israel collectively +bears the title to suggest God's fatherly love for the people he had taken +for his own. The Messianic title, therefore, described not a metaphysical, +but an official or ethical, relation to God. It is certainly in this sense +that the high-priest asked Jesus "Art thou the Messiah the son of the +Blessed?" (Mark xiv. 61), and that the crowd about the cross flung their +taunts at him (Matt, xxvii. 43), and the demoniacs proclaimed their +knowledge of him (Mark iii. 11; v. 7). The name must be interpreted in +this sense also in the confession of Nathanael (John i. 49); moreover, it +was not the coupling of the names "Messiah" and "son of the living God" in +Peter's confession that gave it its great significance for Jesus. In all +of these cases there is no evidence that there has been any advance over +the theocratic significance which made the title "the Son of God" fitting +for the man chosen by God for the fulfilment of his promises. + +268. The case is different with the name by which Jesus was called at his +baptism (Mark i. 11). The difference here, however, arises not from +anything in the name as used on this occasion, but from that in Jesus +which acknowledged and accepted the title. With Jesus the consciousness +that God was his Father preceded the knowledge that as "his Son" he was to +undertake the work of the Messiah. The force of the call at the baptism is +found in the response which his own soul gave to the word "Thou art my +Son." The nature of that response is seen in his habitual reference to God +as in a peculiar sense _his_ Father. The name "Father" for God was used by +him in all his teaching, and there is no evidence that he or any of his +hearers regarded it as a novelty. Psalm ciii. 13 and Isaiah lxiii. 16 +indicate that the conception was natural to Jewish thinking. The unique +feature in Jesus' usage is his careful distinction between the general +references to "your Father" and his constant personal allusions to "my +Father." Witness the reply to his mother in the temple (Luke ii. 49); his +word to Peter, "Flesh and blood hath not revealed it unto thee, but my +Father which is in heaven" (Matt. xvi. 17), his solemn warning, "Not every +one that saith unto me Lord, Lord, shall enter into the kingdom of heaven, +but he that doeth the will of my Father which is in heaven" (Matt. vii. +21), and the promise, "Every one who shall confess me before men ... him +will I also confess before my Father" (Matt. x. 32). In the fourth gospel +the same intimate reference is common: so, for example, the temple is "my +Father's house" (ii. 16), the Sabbath cure is defended because "my Father +worketh even until now" (v. 17), the cures are done "in My Father's name" +(x. 25), "I am the vine, and my Father is the husbandman" (xv. 1). This +mode of expression discloses a consciousness of unique filial relation to +God which is independent of, even as it was antecedent to, the +consciousness of official relation. + +269. The full name "the Son of God" was seldom applied by Jesus to +himself, the only recorded instances being found in the fourth gospel (v. +25; ix. 35?; x. 36; xi. 4). He frequently acquiesced in the use of the +title by others in addressing him (for example, John i. 49; Matt. xvi. 16; +xxvi. 63f.; Mark xiv. 61f.; Luke xxii. 70); but for himself he preferred +the simpler phrase "the Son." This mode of expression occurs often in +John, and is found also in the two passages, already noticed, in which the +other gospels give clearest expression to the extraordinary self-assertion +of Jesus (Matt. xi. 27; Luke x. 22; and Mark xiii. 32). In the first of +them his claim to be the only one who can adequately reveal God is founded +on the consciousness that the relation between himself and God is so +intimate that God alone adequately knows him, whom men were so ready to +set at nought, and he alone knows God. This relation, in which he and God +stand together in contrast with all other men, is expressed by the +unqualified names, "the Father" and "the Son." In the second passage Jesus +confessed the limitation of his knowledge, but again in such a way as to +set himself and God in contrast not only with men, but also with "the +angels in heaven." Such assertions as these indicate that he who, knowing +his full humanity, chose the title "the Son of Man" to express his +consciousness that he had been appointed by God to be the Messiah, was yet +aware in his inner heart that his relation to God was even closer than +that in which he stood to men. + +270. There is no word in John which goes beyond the two self-declarations +of Jesus which crown the record of the other evangelists, yet in the +fourth gospel the same claim to unique relation to God is more frequently +and frankly avowed. The most unqualified assertion of intimacy--"I and the +Father are one" (x. 30)--states what is clearly implied throughout the +gospel (so xiv. 6-11; xvi. 25; and particularly xvii. 21, "that they may +be one, even as we are one"). It has often been said, and truly, that this +claim to unity with the Father, taken by itself, signifies no more than +perfect spiritual and ethical harmony with God. Yet when the words are +considered in their connection, and more particularly when the two supreme +self-declarations in the synoptic gospels are associated with them, they +express a sense of relation to God so utterly unique, so strongly +contrasting the Father and the Son with all others, that we cannot +conceive of any other man, even the saintliest, taking like words upon his +lips. + +271. These titles in which Jesus gave expression to his official and his +personal consciousness present clearly the problem which he offers to +human thought. Jesus stands before us in the gospels as a man aware of +completest kinship with his brethren, yet conscious at the same time of +standing nearer to God than he does to men. + +272. It is highly significant that the gospel which records most fully the +claim of Jesus to be more closely related to God than he was to men, most +fully records also his definite acknowledgment of dependence on his +Father, and of that Father's supremacy over him and all others. "The Son +can do nothing of himself" (John v. 19), "I speak not from myself" (xiv. +10), "my Father is greater than all" (x. 29), "the Father is greater than +I" (xiv. 28),--these confessions join with the common reference to God as +"him that sent me" (v. 30 and often) in giving voice to his own spirit of +reverence. It appears as clearly in his habitual submission to his +Father's will,--"My meat is to do the will of him that sent me, and to +accomplish his work" (John iv. 34); "I am come down from heaven, not to do +mine own will, but the will of him that sent me" (John vi. 38). This +submission reached its fulness in the prayer of Gethsemane, recorded in +the earlier gospels,--"Father, all things are possible unto thee; remove +this cup from me: howbeit not what I will, but what thou wilt" (Mark xiv. +36). Jesus was a man of prayer; not only in Gethsemane, but also +throughout his ministry he habitually sought his Father in that communion +in which the soul of man finds its light and strength for life's duty. +When he was baptized (Luke iii. 21), after the first flush of success in +Capernaum (Mark i. 35), before choosing the twelve (Luke vi. 12), before +the question at Cæsarea Philippi (Luke ix. 18), at the transfiguration +(Luke ix. 29), on the cross (Luke xxiii. 46),--at all the crises of his +life he turned to God in prayer. Moreover, prayer was his habit, for it +was after a night of prayer which has no connection with any crisis +reported for us (Luke xi. 1), that he taught his disciples the Lord's +prayer in response to their requests. The prayer beside the grave of +Lazarus (John xi. 41, 42) suggests that his miracles were often, if not +always (compare Mark ix. 29), preceded by definite prayer to God. His +habit of prayer was the natural expression of his trust in God. From the +resistance to the temptations in the wilderness to the last cry, "Father, +into thy hands I commend my spirit," his life is an example of childlike +faith in God. + +273. Yet throughout his life of obedience and trust Jesus never gave one +indication that he felt the need of penitence when he came before God. He +perceived as no one else has ever done the searching inwardness of God's +law, and demanded of men that they tolerate no lower ambition than to be +like God, yet he never breathed a sigh of conscious failure, or gave sign +that he blushed when the eternal light shone into his own soul. He was +baptized, but without confession of sin. He challenged his enemies to +convict him of sin (John viii. 46). Such a challenge might have rested on +a man's certainty that his critics did not know his inner life; but +hypocrisy has no place in the character of Jesus. The reply to the rich +young ruler, "Why callest thou me good?" (Mark x. 18), even if it was a +confession that freedom from past sin was still far less than that +absolute goodness that God alone possesses, simply sets in stronger light +his silence concerning personal failure, and his omission in all his +praying to seek forgiveness. It is probable, however, that that reply +deals not with the "good" as the "ethically perfect," but as the +"supremely beneficent," so that Jesus simply reminded the seeker after +life that God alone is the one to be approached as the Gracious and +Merciful One by sinful men (see Dalman WJ I. 277). Thus the reply becomes +a fresh expression of the reverence of Jesus, and still further emphasizes +his failure to confess his sinfulness. + +274. In all this thought about himself Jesus stands before us as a man, +conscious of his close kinship with his fellows. Like them he hungered and +thirsted and grew weary, like them he longed for friendship and for +sympathy, like them he trusted God and prayed to God and learned still to +trust when his request was denied. He stands before us also as a man +conscious of being anointed by God for the great work which all the +prophets had foretold, and of being fully equipped with authority and +power and the promise of unapproachable dignity. Of deep religious spirit +and great reverence for the scriptures of his people, he yet used these +scriptures as a master does his tools, to serve his work rather than to +instruct him in it. He drew his knowledge from within and from above, and +proclaimed his own fulfilment of the scriptures when he filled them with +new meaning. A man always devout, always at prayer, he is never seen, like +Isaiah, prostrate before the Most High, crying, "I am undone" (Isa. vi. +5). In his moments of greatest seriousness and most manifest communion +with heaven he looked to God as his nearest of kin, and felt himself a +stranger on the earth fulfilling his Father's will. He felt heaven to be +his home not simply by God's gracious promise, but by the right of +previous possession. His kinship with men was a condescension, his natural +fellowship was with God. + +275. The miracles with which the gospels have filled the record of Jesus' +life have caused perplexity to many, and they belong with other mysterious +things recorded for us in the story of the past or occurring under the +incredulous observation of our scientific generation. They all pale, +however, before the unaccountable exception presented to universal human +experience by this Man of Nazareth. It confronts us when we think of the +unschooled Jew who, in his thought of God, rose not only above all of his +generation, but higher than all who had gone before him, or have come +after, one who built on the foundation of the past a superstructure of +religion new, and simple, and clearly heavenly. It confronts us when we +think of this Man who believed that it was given to him to establish the +kingdom that should fill the whole earth, and who had the boldness and the +faith to ignore the opposition of all the world's wisdom and of all its +enthroned power, and to fulfil his task as the woman does who hides her +leaven in the meal, content to wait for years, or millenniums, until his +truth shall conquer in the realization of God's will on earth even as it +is done in heaven. It confronts us when we consider that the Man who has +shown his brethren what obedience means, who has taught them to pray, who +has been for all these centuries the Way, the Truth, the Life, by whom +they come to God, habitually claimed without shadow of abashment or +slightest hint of conscious presumption, a nature, a relation to God, a +freedom from sin, that other men according to the measure of their +godliness would shun as blasphemy. If the personal claim was true, and not +the blind pretence of vanity, the Jesus of the gospels is the exception to +the uniform fact of human nature, but he is no longer unaccountable; and +if his claim was true, his knowledge of the absolute religion, and his +choice of the irresistible propaganda, are no less extraordinary, but they +are not unaccountable. Paul, whose life was transformed and his thinking +revolutionized by his meeting with the risen Jesus, thought on these +things and believed that "the name which, is above every name" was his by +right of nature as well as by the reward of obedience (Phil. ii. 5-11). +John, who leaned on Jesus' breast during his earthly life, and who +meditated on the meaning of that life through a ministry of many decades, +came to believe that he whom he had seen with his eyes, heard with his +ears, handled with his hands, was, indeed, "the Word made flesh" (John i. +14), through whom the very God revealed his love to men. Through all the +perplexities of doubt, amidst all the obscurings of irrelevant +speculations, the hearts of men to-day turn to this Jesus of Nazareth as +their supreme revelation of God, and find in him "the Master of their +thinking and the Lord of their lives." + +"Lord, to whom shall we go? Thou hast the words of eternal life. And we +have believed and know that thou art the Holy One of God." + + + + +Appendix + +Books of Reference on the Life of Jesus + + + +1. A concise account of the voluminous literature on this subject maybe +found at the close of the article JESUS CHRIST by Zockler in +_Schaff-Herzog, Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge_. Of the earlier of +the modern works it is well to mention David Friedrich Strauss, _Das Leben +Jesu_ (2 vols. 1835), in which he sought to reduce all the gospel miracles +to myths. August Neander, _Das Leben Jesu Christi_, 1837, wrote in +opposition to the attitude taken by Strauss. Both of these works have been +translated into English. Ernst Renan, _Vie de Jésus_ (1863, 16th ed. +1879), translated, _The Life of Jesus_ (1863), is a charming, though often +superficial and patronizing, presentation of the subject. For vivid word +pictures of scenes in the life of Jesus his book is unsurpassed. Renan's +inability to appreciate the more serious aspects of the work of Christ +appears constantly, while his effort to discover romance in the life of +Jesus is offensive. More important than any of these is Theodor Keim, +_Geschichte Jesu von Nazara_ (1867-72, 3 vols.), translated, _The History +of Jesus of Nazara_ (1876-81, 6 vols.). The author rejects the fourth +gospel and holds that Matthew is the most primitive of the synoptic +gospels; he does not reject the supernatural as such, but reduces it as +much as possible by recognizing a legendary element in the gospels. When +the work is read with these peculiarities in mind, it is one of the most +stimulating and spiritually illuminating treatments of the subject. + +2. Critically more trustworthy, and exegetically very valuable, is +Bernhard Weiss, _Das Leben Jesu_ (3d ed. 1889, 2 vols.), translated from +the first ed., _The Life of Christ_ (1883, 3 vols.). It is more helpful +for correct understanding of details than for a complete view of the Life +of Jesus. Rivalling Weiss in many ways, yet neither so exact nor so +trustworthy, though more interesting, is Willibald Beyschlag, _Das Leben +Jesu_ (3d ed. 1893, 2 vols.). The most important discussion in English is +Alfred Edersheim, _The Life and Times of Jesus the Messiah_ (1883 and +later editions, 2 vols.). This is valuable for its illustration of +conditions in Palestine in the time of Jesus by quotations from the +rabbinic literature. The material used is enormous, but is not always +treated with due criticism, and the book should be read with the fact in +mind that most of the rabbinic writings date from several centuries after +Christ. Schürer (see below) should be used wherever possible as a +counter-balance. Dr. Edersheim follows the gospel story in detail; his +book is, therefore, a commentary as well as a biography. + +3. Albert Réville, _Jesus de Nazareth_ (1897, 2 vols.), aims to bring the +work of Renan up to date, and to supply some of the lacks which are felt +in the earlier treatise. The book is pretentious and learned. In some +parts, as in the treatment of the youth of Jesus, and of the sermon on the +mount, it is helpfully suggestive. The Jesus whom the author admires, +however, is the Jesus of Galilee. The journey to Jerusalem was a sad +mistake, and the assumption of the Messianic rôle a fall from the high +ideal maintained in the teaching in Galilee. In criticism M. Réville +accepts the two document synoptic theory, and assigns the fourth gospel to +about 140 A.D. He rejects the supernatural, explaining many of the +miracles as legendary embellishments of actual events. + +4. The most important treatment of the subject is the article JESUS CHRIST +by William Sanday in the _Hastings Bible Dictionary_ (1899). It is of the +highest value, discussing the subject topically with great clearness and +with a rare combination of learning and common sense. S. T. Andrews, _The +Life of Our Lord_ (2d ed. 1892), is a thorough and very useful study of +the gospels, considering minutely all questions of chronology, harmony, +and geography. It presents the different views with fairness, and offers +conservative conclusions. G. H. Gilbert, _The Student's Life of Jesus_ +(1896), is complete in plan and careful in treatment, while being very +concise. Dr. Gilbert faces the problems of the subject frankly, and his +treatment is scholarly and reverent. James Stalker, _The Life of Jesus +Christ_ (1880), is a short work whose value lies in the good conception +which it gives of the ministry of Jesus viewed as a whole. In simplicity, +insight, and clearness the book is a classic, though now somewhat out of +date. _Studies in the Life of Christ_, by A.M. Fairbairn (1882), is of +great value for the topics considered. The title indicates that the +treatment is fragmentary. The long treatises of Farrar (1875, 2 vols.) and +Geikie (1877, 2 vols.) are useful as commentaries on the words and works +of Jesus. Farrar often interprets most helpfully the essence of an +incident, and Geikie furnishes a mass of illustrative material from +rabbinic sources, though with less criticism than even Edersheim has used. +Neither of these works, however, deals with the fundamental problems of +the composition of the gospels, nor are they satisfactory on other +perplexing questions, for example, the miraculous birth. + +5. The most important accessory for the study of the life of Jesus is Emil +Schürer, _Geschichte des Jüdischen Volkes im Zeitalter Jesu Christi_ (2d +ed. 1886, 1890, 2 vols. A 3d ed. of 2d part in 2 vols., 1898), translated, +_A History of the Jewish People in the Time of Jesus Christ_ (1885-6, 5 +vols.). The political history of the Jews from 175 B.C. to 135 A.D., and +the intellectual and religious life of the times in which Jesus lived, +with the Jewish literature of Palestine and the dispersion, are all +treated with thoroughness and masterful learning. W. Baldensperger, _Das +Selbstbewusstsein Jesu im Lichte der messianischen Hoffnungen seiner +Zeit_ (2d ed. 1892), furnishes in the first part a survey of the Messianic +hopes of the Jews which is in many respects the most satisfactory account +that is accessible. The second part discusses the problem of Jesus' +conception of himself in a reverent and learned way. George Adam Smith, +_The Historical Geography of the Holy Land_ (1894), is indispensable for +the study of the physical features of the land as they bear on its +history, and on the work of Jesus. The maps are the best that have yet +appeared. + +6. Discussions of the Teaching of Jesus in works on Biblical Theology have +much that is important for the study of Jesus' life. The most significant +is H. H. Wendt, _Die Lehre Jesu_ (1886, 2 vols.). The second volume has +been translated _The Teaching of Jesus_ (1892, 2 vols.); the first volume +of the original work is an elaborate discussion of the sources, and has +not been done into English. Reference may be made especially to H. J. +Holtzmann, _Lehrbuch der Neutestamentlichen Theologie_ (1897, 2 vols.), +and also to G. H. Gilbert, _The Revelation of Jesus_ (1899). Gustaf +Dalman, _Die Worte Jesu_ (1898), of which the first volume only has +appeared, is a study of the meaning of the most significant expressions +used in the gospel records of the teaching of Jesus, made with the aid of +thorough knowledge of Aramaic usage and of the language of post-canonical +Jewish literature. + +7. A good synopsis or Harmony of the gospels is most useful. The best +_Harmony is_ that of Stevens and Burton (1894), which exhibits the +divergencies of the parallel accounts in the gospels as faithfully as the +agreements. A good synopsis of the Greek text of the first three gospels +is Huck, _Synapse_ (1892). Robinson's _Greek Harmony of the Gospels_, +edited by M. B. Biddle, using Tischendorf's text, has also valuable notes +discussing questions of harmony. + + + + +Abbreviations + + + +AndLOL Andrews, The Life of Our Lord, 2d ed., 1892. +BaldSJ Baldensperger, Das Selbstbewusstsein Jesu, 2d ed., 1892. +BeysLJ Beyschlag, Das Leben Jesu, 3d ed., 2 vols., 1893. +BovonNTTh Bovon, Théologie du Nouveau Testament, 1892. +DalmanWJ Dalman, Die Worte Jesu, I., 1898. +EdersLJM Edersheim, The Life and Times of Jesus the Messiah, 2 vols., + 1883. +FairbSLX Fairbairn, Studies in the Life of Christ, 1882. +GilbertLJ Gilbert, The Student's Life of Jesus, 1896. +GilbertRJ Gilbert, The Revelation of Jesus, 1899. +HoltzNtTh Holtzmann, Neutestamentliche Theologie, 2 vols., 1897. +KeimJN Keim, The History of Jesus of Nazara, 6 vols., 1876-81. +RévilleJN Réville, Jésus de Nazareth, 2 vols., 1897. +SandayHastBD Sanday, the article JESUS CHRIST in the Hastings Bible + Dictionary, 1899. +SchürerJPTX Schürer, The History of the Jewish People in the Time of + Jesus Christ, 1885-86. Division I. vols. i. and ii.; Division + II. vols. i., ii., and iii. +SmithHGHL Smith, Historical Geography of the Holy Land, 1894. +SB Stevens and Burton, Harmony of the Gospels, 1894. +WeissLX Weiss, The Life of Christ, 3 vols., 1883. +WendtLJ Wendt, Die Lehre Jesu, 2 vols., 1886. +WendtTJ Wendt, The Teaching of Jesus, 2 vols., 1892. +EnBib Encyclopedia Biblica, 1899. +HastBD Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible, 1898. +SBD^2 Smith's Dictionary of the Bible, revision of the first volume + of the original English edition, 1893. + + + + +References + + + +Part I.--Preparatory + + +I + +The Historical Situation + +8. Read SandayHastBD II. 604-609. On the Land, its physical +characteristics, its political divisions, its climate, its roads, and its +varying civilization, SmithHGHL is unsurpassed. Its identifications of +disputed localities are cautions. Robinson, _Biblical Researches in +Palestine_, and Thomson, _The Land and the Book_, give fuller detail +concerning particular localities, but no such general view as Smith. + +9. On Political conditions, SchürerJPTX I. i. and ii. is the fullest and +most trustworthy treatise. More concise essays are Oscar Holtzmann, _Nt. +Zeitgeschichte_ (1895), 57-118; S. Mathews, _History of NT Times in +Palestine_ (1899), 1-158; Riggs, _Maccabean and Roman Periods of Jewish +History_ (1900), especially §§ 206-234, 257-267, 276-282. On the Religious +Life and Parties in Palestine, SchürerJPTX II. i. and ii.; O. Holtzmann, +_NtZeitg_, 136-177; Mathews, _NT Times_, see index; Riggs, _Mac. and Rom. +Periods_, §§ 235-256; Muirhead, _The Times of Christ_ (1898), 69-150. In +addition Wellhausen, _Die Pharisdäer und die Sadducäer_ (1874); on the +_Essenes_, Conybeare in HastBD I. 767-772, also Lightfoot, _Colossians_, +80-98, 347-419; Wellhausen, _Isr. u. jüd. Geschichte_^3 (1897), 258-262; +on the Samaritans, A. Cowley, in _Expos_. V. i. 161-174; Jew. Quar. Rev. +VIII. (1896) 562-575. + +10. On the Messianic hope, SchürerJPTX II. ii. 126-187; BaldSJ 3-122; +Muirhead, _Times of Xt._, 112-150; Briggs, _Messiah of the Gospels_ +(1894), 1-40; WendtTJ I. 33-84; Mathews, _NT Times_, 159-169; Riggs, _Mac. +and Rom. Periods_, §§ 251-256. + +11. On the language of Palestine see Arnold Meyer, _Jesu Muttersprache_ +(1896); DalmanWJ I. 1-57; SchürerJPTX II. i. 8-10, 47-51; Neubauer, +_Studia Biblica_, I. 39-74. + +12. On Jewish literature dating near the times of Jesus see SchürerJPTX +II. iii.; BaldSJ. 3-122; EdersLJM I. 31-39; Deane, _Pseudepigrapha_ +(1891); Thomson, _Books which influenced our Lord_, etc. (1891); and +special editions, such as Alexandre, _Sibylline Oracles_ (1869); Deane, +_The Wisdom of Solomon_ (1881); Charles, _The Book of Enoch_ (1893), _The +Apocalypse of Baruch_ (1896), _The Assumption of Moses_ (1897), and _The +Book of Jubilees_ (1895); Charles and Morfill, _The Secrets of Enoch_ +(1896); Ryle and James, _The Psalms of the Pharisees_ [Psalms of Solomon] +(1891); Bensly and James, _Fourth Esdras_ (1895); Charles, EnBib I. +213-250; HastBD I. 109f.; Porter, HastBD I. 110-123; James, EnBib I. +249-261. + + +II + +The Sources + +13. On the sources outside the gospels see Anthony, _Introduction to the +Life of Jesus_, 19-108; KeimJN I. 12-59; BeysLJ I. 59-72; GilbertLJ 74-78; +Knowling, _Witness of the Epistles_; Stevens, _Pauline Theol_. 204-208; +Sabatier, _Apostle Paul_, 76-85. On Josephus as a source see also +SchürerJPTX I. ii. 143-149; RévilleJN I. 272-280. On the individual +gospels see Burton, _The Purpose and Plan of the Four Gospels_ (Univ. +Chic. Press, 1900); Bruce, _With Open Face_, 1-61; Weiss, _Introduction to +N.T._, II. 239-386; Jülicher, _Einleitung i. d. NT_, 189-207. On Matthew, +Burton Bib. Wld. I. 1898, 37-44, 91-101; on Mark, Swete, _Comm. on Mark_, +ix-lxxxix; on Luke, Plummer, _Comm. on Luke_, xi-lxx; Mathews, Bib. Wld. +1895, I. 336-342, 448-455; on John, Burton, Bib. Wld. 1899, I. 16-41, +102-105; Westcott, _Comm. on John_, v-lxxvii; Rhees in Abbott's _The Bible +as Literature_, 281-297. On the synoptic question see Sanday SBD^2, +1217-1243, and Expositor, Feb.-June, 1891; Woods, _Studia Biblica_, II. +59-104; Salmon, _Introduction_^7, 99-151, 570-581; Stanton in HastBD II. +234-243; Jülicher, _Einl._ 207-227. A. Wright, _Composition of the Four +Gospels_ (1890) and _Some NT Problems_ (1898), defends the oral tradition +theory in a modified form. On possible dislocations in John see Spitta, +_Urchristentum_, I. 157-204; Bacon, Jour. Bib. Lit. 1894, 64-76; Burton, +Bib. Wld. 1899, I. 27-35. For the history of opinion see specially H. J. +Holtzmann, _Einl._^3 340-375. On the Johannine question see Sanday, +Expositor, Nov. 1891-May 1892; Schürer, Cont. Rev. Sept. 1891; Watkins +SBD^2 1739-1764; Burton, Bib. Wld. 1899, I. 16-41; Reynolds in HastBD II. +694-722; Zahn, _Einl._ II. 445-564 (defends Johannine authorship); +Jülicher, _Einl._ 238-250 (rejects Johannine authorship). For the history +of opinion see Watkins, _Bampton Lecture_ for 1890; Holtzmann, _Einl._^3 +433-438. P. Ewald, _Hauptproblem der evang. Frage_, argues the +authenticity of the fourth gospel from the one-sidedness of the synoptic +story. See also Jour. Bib. Lit. 1898, I. 87-102. + +14. Réville proposes to reconstruct Jos. Ant. xviii. 3. 3 thus: "'At that +time appeared Jesus, a wise man, who did astonishing things. That is why a +good number of Jews and also of Greeks attached themselves to him.' Then +follows some phrase probably signifying that these adherents had committed +the error of proclaiming him Christ, and then 'denounced by the leading +men of the nation, this Jesus was condemned by Pilate to die on the cross. +But those who had loved him before persevered in their sentiment, and +still to-day there exists a class of people who take from him their name +Christians.'" + +15. On the testimony of Papias (Euseb. _Ch. Hist_. iii. 39. 4) see +Lightfoot, Cont. Rev. 1875, II. 379 ff., and McGiffert's notes in his +_Eusebius_, 170 ff. + +16. For a collection of probably genuine Agrapha see Ropes, _Die Spruche +Jesu_, 154-161, and Amer. Jour. Theol. 1897, 758-776; Resch, _Agrapha_, +gives a much longer list. He is criticised by Ropes. On lost and +uncanonical gospels see Salmon, _Intr._^7 173-190, 580-591; Kruger, _Early +Christian Literature_, 50-57. For the recently discovered Gospel of Peter +see Swete, _The Gospel of Peter_; and on the so-called _Sayings of Jesus_ +found in Egypt in 1896 see Harnack, _Expositor_, V. vi. 321-340, 401-416, +and essay by Sanday and Lock. _Apocryphal Gospels_ are most conveniently +found in _Ante-nicene Fathers_, VIII. 361-476. + + +III + +The Harmony of the Gospels + +17. The Diatessaron of Tatian is translated with notes by Hill, _The +Earliest Life of Christ_. See also _Ante-nic. Fathers_, IX. 35-138. + +18. For the extreme position concerning Doublets see Holtzmann, +_Hand-commentar zum NT_ I. passim. E. Haupt, Studien u. Kritiken, 1884, +25, remarks that Jesus must often have repeated his teaching in +essentially the same form. + + +IV + +Chronology + +19. For data and discussion of the various problems see Wieseler, +_Chronological Synopsis_; Lewin, _Fasti Sacra; _ KeimJN II. 379-402; +AndLOL 1-52; SchürerJPTX I. ii. 30-32, 105-143; O. Holtzmann, _NtZeitg_, +118-124, 125-127, 131-132; Turner HastBD I. 403-415; Ramsay, _Was Christ +born at Bethlehem_; and von Soden in EnBib. I. 799-812. For patristic +opinion concerning the length of Jesus' ministry, see HastBD I. 410. For +the argument for a one-year ministry, see KeimJN II. 398; O. Holtzmann, +_NtZeitg_, 131f. For two years, see Wieseler, _Chron. Synop_. 204-220; +WeissLX I. 389-392; Turner, in HastBD. For three years, see AndLOL +189-198; note by Robertson in Broadus, _Harmony of the Gospels_, 241-244. +Compare RévilleJN II. 227-231; Zahn, _Einl._ II. 516f. + + +V + +The Early Years + +20. On the problem of the Virgin birth see GilbertLJ 79-89; WeissLX I. +211-233; Swete, _Apos. Creed_, 42-55; Bruce, _Apologetics_, 407-413; +Ropes, Andover Rev. 1893, 695-712; FairbSLX 30-45; Godet, _Comm. on Luke_, +Rem. on chaps. I. and II.; BovonNTTh I. 198-217. These maintain +historicity. The other side: BeysLJ I. 148-174; Meyer, _Comm. on Matt_., +Rem. on 1.18; Keim JN II. 38-101; Réville, New World, 1892, 695-723, and +JN I. 361-408; HoltzmannNtTh I. 409-415. On the early years of +Jesus see EdersLJM I. 217-254; WeissLX I. 275-293; Hughes, _Manliness of +Xt_, 35-60; WendtTJ I. 90-96; Stapfer, _Jesus Christ before his Ministry; +_ FairbSLX 46-63; BeysLJ II. 44-65; RévilleJN I. 409-438. + +21. For some of the early legends concerning the birth and childhood of +Jesus, see the so-called _Protevangelium of James_, the _Gospel of +Pseudo-Matthew_, and the _Gospel of Thomas_, Ante-nic. Fathers, VIII. +361-383, 395-398. For Jewish calumnies see Laible, _J. X. im Thalmud_, +9-39. + +22. On the two genealogies see AndLOL 62-68; WeissLX I. 211-221; Godet on +Luke, iii. 23-38. These refer Luke's genealogy to Marv. Hervey SBD^2 +1145-1148, Plummer on Luke, iii. 23, EdersLJM I. 149, GilbertLJ 81f., +with the early fathers (see Plummer), refer both to Joseph. For the view +that they are unauthentic see Holtzmann, _Hand-comm._ I. 39-41; Bacon in +HastBD II. 137-141. + +23. On the "brethren" of Jesus see Mayor, HastBD I. 320-326; +AndrewsLOL 111-123. These make the brethren sons of Joseph and +Mary. Lightfoot, _Galatians_^10, 252-291, regards them as sons of Joseph +by a former marriage. + + +VI + +John the Baptist + +24. On the character and work of John the Baptist see KeimJN II. 201-266 +and references in the index under John the Baptist. Keim's is much the +most satisfactory treatment; it is, moreover, Keim at his best. See also +Ewald, _Hist, of Israel_, VI. 160-200; WeissLX I. 307-316; FairbSLX 64-79; +W. A. Stevens, Homil. Rev. 1891, II. 163 ff.; Bebb in HastBD II. 677-680; +Wellhausen _Isr. u. judische Geschichte_, 342f.; Feather, _Last of the +Prophets_. Reynolds, _John the Baptist_, obscures its excellencies by a +vast amount of irrelevant discussion. + +25. On the existence of a separate company of disciples of John see Mk. +ii. 18, Mt. ix. 14, Lk. v. 33; Mk. vi. 29, Mt. xiv. 12; Mt. xi. 2f., Lk. +vii. 18f.; Lk. xi. 1; Jn. i. 35f.; iii. 25; Ac. xix. 1-3. Consult +Lightfoot, _Colossians_, 400 ff.; Baldensperger, _Der Prolog des vierten +Evangeliums_, 93-152. + + +VII + +The Messianic Call + +26. On the baptism of Jesus see WendtTJ I. 96-101; EdersLJM I. 278-287; +BaldSJ 219-229. WeissLX I. 316-336 says that the baptism meant for Jesus, +already conscious of his Messiahship, "the close of his former life and +the opening of one perfectly new" (322); KeimJN II. 290-299 makes it an +act of consecration, but eliminates the Voice and Dove; BeysLJ I. 215-231 +thinks that Jesus, conscious of no sin, yet not aware of his Messiahship, +sought the baptism carrying "the sins and guilt of his people on his +heart, as if they were his own" (229). Against Beyschlag see E. Haupt in +Studien u. Kritiken, 1887, 381. Baldensperger shows clearly that the +Messianic call was a revelation to Jesus, not a conclusion from a course +of reasoning. + +27. On the temptation see WendtTJ I. 101-105; WeissLX I. 337-354; EdersLJM +I. 299-307; FairbairnSLX 80-98; BaldSJ 230-236; BeysLJ I. +231-237; KeimJN II. 317-329. All these see in temptation the necessary +result of the Messianic call at the baptism. + +28. The locality of the baptism of Jesus cannot be determined. Tradition +has fixed on one of the fords of the Jordan near Jericho, see SmithHGHL +496, note 1. On the probable location of Bethany (Bethabarah) (Jn. i. 28) +see discussion in AndLOL 146-151; EnBib 548; and especially Smith's note +as above. + +29. On the anointing of Jesus with the Holy Spirit see WeissLX I. 323-336; +BeysLJ I. 230f. For the influence of the Spirit in the later life of Jesus +see Mk. i. 12; Mt. iv. 1; Lk. iv. 1; iv. 14, 18, 21; Mk. iii. 29, 30; Mt. +xii. 28; Jn. iii. 34; compare Ac. i. 2; x. 38. Clearly these refer not to +the ethical and religious indwelling of the Divine Spirit (comp. Rom. i. +4), but to the special equipment for official duty. This is the OT sense, +see Ex. xxxi. 2-5; Jud. iii. 10; I. Sam. xi. 6; Isa. xi. 1f.; xlii. 1; +lxi. 1; and consult Schultz, _Old Test. Theol._ II. 202f. Jesus seems to +have needed a like divine equipment, notwithstanding his divine nature. +See GilbertLJ 121f. + +30. How this Messianic anointing is to be related to the doctrine of +Jesus' essential divine nature cannot be determined with certainty. It +must not be forgotten, however, that it is a _datum_ for Christology, and +that it cannot be explained away. It indicates one of the particulars in +which Jesus was made like unto his brethren. What was involved when the +Son of God "emptied himself and was made in the likeness of men" (Phil. +ii. 7) we can only vaguely conceive. Two views of early heretical sects +seem rightly to have been rejected. The Docetic view, held by some +Gnostics of the 2d cent., dates the incarnation from the baptism, but +distinguishes Christ from the human Jesus, who only served as a vehicle +for the manifestation of the Son of God; the Christ descended on Jesus at +the baptism, ascending again to heaven from the cross, compare Mt. iii. 16 +and xxvii. 50 in the Greek; see Schaff _Hist. of Xn Church_^2, II. 455f. +The recently discovered Gospel of Peter presents this view, Gosp. Pet. § +5. The Nestorian view represents that the baptism was, in a sense, Jesus' +"birth from above" (Jn. iii. 3, 5); thus the incarnation was first +complete at the baptism though the Logos had been associated with Jesus +from the beginning. See Schaff, _Hist, of Xn Church_^2, III. 717 ff.; +Conybeare, _History of Xmas_, Amer. Jour. Theol. 1899, 1-21. + +31. The traditional locality of the temptation is a mountain near Jericho +called _Quarantana_, see AndLOL 155; the tradition seems to date no +further back than the crusades. It is, however, probable that the +"wilderness" (Mt. iv. 1, Mk. i. 12, Lk. iv. 1) is the same wilderness +mentioned in connection with John's earlier life and work (Mt. iii. 1, Mk. +i. 4), the region W and NW of the Dead Sea, see SmithHGHL 317. Others +(Stanley, _Sinai and Palestine_, 308; EdersLJM I. 300, 339 notes) hold +that the temptation took place in the desert regions SE of the sea of +Galilee; this is possibly correct, though the record in the gospels +suggests the wilderness of Judea. On the source of the temptation story +see WeissLX I. 339 ff.; BeysLJ I. 234; Bacon, Bib. Wld. 1900, I. 18-25. + + +VIII + +The First Disciples + +32. SandayHastBD II. 612f.; GilbertLJ 144-157; WeissLX I. 355-387; AndLOL +155-165; EdersLJM I. 336-363; BeysLJ II. 129-148 (assigns here a +considerable part of the synoptic account of work in Capernaum). + +33. _The early confessions_. On the genuineness of the Baptist's testimony +to "the Lamb of God" see M. Dods in _Expos. Gk. Test_. I .695f.; Westcott, +_Comm. on John_, 20; EdersLJM 1. 342 ff.; WeissLX 1. 362f. (thinks the +evangelist added "who taketh away the sin of the world"); Holtzmann, +_Hand-comm._ IV. 38f. holds that the evangelist has put in the mouth of +the Baptist a conception which was first current after the death of Jesus. +On the confessions of Nathanael and the others, see Jour. Bib. Lit. 1898, +21-30. + +34. _Cana_ is probably the modern Khirbet Kana, eight miles N of Nazareth. +A rival site is Kefr Kenna, three and one-half miles NE from Nazareth. See +EnBib and HastBD, also AndLOL 162-164. + +35. _The miracles of Jesus_ are challenged by modern thought. It is +customary in reading other documents than the N.T. instantly to relegate +the miraculous to the domain of legend. Miracles, however, are integral +parts of the story of Jesus' life, and those who attempt to write that +life eliminating the supernatural are constrained to recognize that he had +marvellous power as an exorcist and healer of some forms of nervous +disease. So E. A. Abbott, _The Spirit on the Waters_, 169-201. Our +knowledge of nature does not warrant a dogmatic definition of the limits +of the possible; see James, _The Will to Believe_, vii.-xiii., 299-327. +The question is confessedly one of adequate evidence. The evidence for the +supreme miracle--the transcendent character of Jesus--is clear, see Part +III. chap. iv.; and the miraculous element in the story of his life must +be considered in view of this supreme miracle. In association with him his +miracles gain in credibility. In estimating the evidence for them their +dignity and worthiness is important. What the devout imagination would do +in embellishing the story of Jesus is exhibited in the apocryphal gospels; +the miracles of the canonical gospels are of an entirely different type, +which commends them as authentic. By definition a miracle is an event not +explicable in terms of ordinary human experience. It is therefore futile +to attempt to picture the miracles of Jesus in their occurrence, for the +imagination has no material except that furnished by ordinary experience. +For our day the miracles are of importance chiefly for the exhibition they +give of the character of Jesus; they can be studied with this in view +without regard to the curious question how they happened. Read +SandayHastBD II. 624-628; and see Fisher, _Grounds of Christian and +Theistic Belief, _ chaps, iv.--vi., _Supernatural Origin of +Christianity_^3, chap, xi.; Bruce, _Miraculous Element in the Gospels; +Apologetics_, 409 ff.; Illingworth, _Divine Immanence_; Rainy, Orr, and +Dods, _The Supernatural in Christianity_. + + + +Part II.--The Ministry + + +I + +General Survey + +36. SandayHastBD II. 609f.; GilbertLJ 136-143; AndLOL 125-137; BeysLJ I. +256-295. + + +II + +The Early Ministry in Judea + +37. SandayHastBD II. 612^b-613^b; WeissLX II. 3-53; EdersLJM I. 364-429; +BeysLJ II. 147-168; GilbertLJ 158-179. + +38. On _the chronological significance of John iv_. 35 see AndLOL 183; +WeissLX II. 40; Wieseler, _Synop_. 212 ff, who find indication that the +journey was in December. EdersLJM I. 419f.; Turner in HastBD I. 408, find +indication of early summer. Some treat iv. 35 as a proverb with no +chronological significance; so Alford, _Comm. on John_. + +39. Geographical notes. _Aenon_ near Salim has not been identified. Most +favor a site in Samaria, seven miles from a place named Salim, which lay +four miles E of Shechem, see Conder, _Tent Work in Palestine_, II. 57, 58; +Stevens, Jour. Bib. Lit. 1883, 128-141. But can John have been baptizing +in Samaria? WeissLX II. 28 says "it is perfectly impossible that he [John] +can have taken up his station in Samaria." Other suggestions are: some +place in the Jordan valley (but then why remark on the abundance of water, +Jn. iii. 23?); near Jerusalem; and in the south of Judea. See AndLOL +173-175. _Sychar_ is the modern 'Askar, about a mile and three-quarters +from Nablus (Shechem), and half a mile N of Jacob's well. See SmithHGHL +367-375. + +40. General questions. _Was the temple twice cleansed?_ (see sect. 116). +Probably not. The two reports (Jn. ii. 13-22; Mk. xi. 15-18 ¶s) are +similar in respect of Jesus' indignation, its cause, its expression, its +result, and a consequent challenge of his authority. They differ in the +time of the event (John assigns to first Passover, synoptics to the last) +and in a possibly greater sternness in the synoptic account. These +differences are no greater than appear in other records of identical +events (compare Mt. viii. 5-13 with Lk. vii. 2-10), while the repetition +of such an act would probably have been met by serious opposition. If the +temple was cleansed but once, John indicates the true time. At the +beginning of the ministry it was a demand that the people follow the new +leader in the purification of God's house and the establishment of a truer +worship. At the end it could have had only a vindictive significance, +since the people had already signified to the clear insight of Jesus that +they would not accept his leadership. For two distinct cleansings see the +discussion in AndLOL 169f., 437; EdersLJM I. 373; Plummer on Luke xix. +45f. For one cleansing at the end see KeimJN V. 113-131. For one cleansing +at the beginning see WeissLX II. 6 ff.; BeysLJ II. 149 ff.; GilbertLJ 159 +ff. + +41. _The journey to Galilee_. Do John (iv. 1-4, 43-45) and Mark (i. 14 = +Mt. iv. 12; Lk. iv. 14) report the same journey? Both are journeys from +the south introducing work in Galilee; yet the reasons given for the +journey are different (compare Jn. iv. 1-3 with Mk. i. 14). If the +Pharisees had a hand in John's "delivering up" (Mk. i. 14; comp. Jos. Ant. +xviii. 5. 2), the same hostile movement may have impelled Jesus to leave +Judea. He may not have heard of John's imprisonment until after his +departure, or some time before he opened his new ministry in Galilee. See +GilbertLJ 173f. AndLOL 176-182 argues against the identification. + +42. _The nobleman's son_ (Jn. iv. 46-54). Is this a doublet of Mt. viii. +5-13; Lk. vii. 2-10? John differs from synoptics in the time, the place, +the disease, the suppliant, his plea, and Jesus' attitude. Matthew and +Mark differ from each other concerning the bearers of the centurion's +messages to Jesus. John's account is similar to synoptic superficially, +but is probably not a doublet. Compare Syro-Phoenician's daughter (Mk. vii. +29f.). See GilbertLJ 202; Meyer on John iv. 51-54; Plummer on Luke vii. +10. WeissLX II. 45-51 identifies. Read SandayHastBD II. 613. + + + +III and IV + +The Ministry in Galilee + +43. Read SandayHastBD II. 613-630; GilbertLJ 180-283. Consult WeissLX II. +44 to III. 153; EdersLJM I. 472 to II. 125; BeysLJ II. 140-147,168-294. +See AndLOL 209-363 for discussion of details, and KeimJN III. 10 to IV. +346 for an illuminating, though not unprejudiced, topical treatment. + +44. Geographical notes. _Capernaum_. The site is not clearly identified, +two ruins on the NW of Sea of Galilee are rival claimants,--Tell Hum and +Khan Minyeh. Tell Hum is advocated by Thomson, _Land and Book, Central +Pal. and Phoenicia_ (1882), 416-420; Khan Minyeh, by SmithHGHL 456, EnBib +I. 696 ff. Latter is probably correct. See AndLOL 224-237. + +_Bethsaida_. The full name is Bethsaida Julias, located at entrance of +Jordan into the Sea of Galilee. SmithEnBib I. 565f., SmithHGHL +457f., shows that there is no need of the hypothesis of a second Bethsaida +to meet the statement in Mk. vi. 45, or that in Jn. i. 44. See also AndLOL +230-236. Ewing HastBD I. 282f. renews the argument for two Bethsaidas. + +_Chorazin_ was probably the modern Kerazeh, about one mile N of Tell Hum, +and back from the lake. See SmithEnBib I. 751; SmithHGHL 456; +AndLOL 237f. + +45. _The mountain of the sermon on the mount_ (Mt. v. 1; Lk. vi. 12) +probably refers to the Galilean highlands as distinct from the shore of +the lake. More definite location is not possible. See AndLOL 268f.; +EdersLJM I. 524. The traditional site, the Horns of Hattin, is a hill +lying about seven miles SW from Khan Minyeh, which has near the top a +level place (Lk. vi. 17) flanked by two low peaks or "horns." + +46. _The country of the Gerasenes, Gadarenes, or Gergesenes_. Gadarenes is +the best attested reading in Mt. viii. 28, Gerasenes in Mk. v. 1 and Lk. +viii. 26; Gergesenes has only secondary attestation. Gadara is identified +with Um Keis on the Yarmuk, some six miles SE of the Sea of Galilee. This +cannot have been the site of the miracle, though it is possible that +Gadara may have controlled the country round about, including the shores +of the sea. Gerasa is the name of a city in the highlands of Gilead, +twenty miles E of Jordan, and thirty-five SE of the Sea of Galilee, and +it clearly cannot have been the scene of the miracle. Near the E shore of +the sea Thomson discovered the ruins of a village which now bears the name +Khersa. The formation of the land in the neighborhood closely suits the +narrative of the gospels. This is now accepted as the true identification. +See Thomson _Land and Book, Central Palestine_, 353-355; SBD^2 1097-1100; +HastBD II. 159f.; AndLOL 296-300. The name "Gadarenes" may indicate that +Gadara had jurisdiction over the region of Khersa; the names "Gerasenes" +and "Gergesenes" may be derived directly and independently from Khersa, or +may be corruptions due to the obscurity of Khersa. + +47. _The feeding of the five thousand_ took place on the E of the sea, in +a desert region, abundant in grass, and mountainous, and located in the +neighborhood of a place named Bethsaida. Near the ruins of Bethsaida +Julias is a plain called now Butaiha, "a smooth, grassy place near the sea +and the mountains," which meets the requirements of the narrative. See +AndLOL 322f. + +48. _The return of Jesus from the regions of Tyre "through Sidon"_ (Mk. +vii. 31) avoided Galilee, crossing N of Galilee to the territory of Philip +and "_the Decapolis_." This latter name applies to a group of free Greek +cities, situated for the most part E of the Jordan. Most of the cities of +the group were farther S than the Sea of Galilee; some, however, were E +and NE of that sea, hence Jesus' approach from Cæsarea Philippi or +Damascus could be described as "through Decapolis." See SmithHGHL 593-608; +En Bib I. 1051 ff.; SchürerJPTX II. i. 94-121. + +49. Of _Magadan_ (Mt. xv. 39) or _Dalmanutha_ (Mk. viii. 10) all that is +known is that they must have been on the W coast of the Sea of Galilee. +They have never been identified, though there are many conjectures. See +SBD^2, HastBD, and En Bib. + +50. _Cæsarea Philippi_ was situated at the easternmost and most important +of the sources of the Jordan, it is called Panias by Jos. Ant. xv. 10.3, +now Banias. Probably a sanctuary of the god Pan. Here Herod the Great +built a temple which he dedicated to Cæsar; Philip the Tetrarch enlarged +the town and called it Cæsarea Philippi. See SBD^2; HastBD; EnBib. + +51. _The mountain of the transfiguration_. The traditional site, since the +fourth century, is Tabor in Galilee. Most recent opinion has favored one +of the shoulders of Hermon, owing to the supposed connection of the event +with the sojourn near Cæsarea Philippi. WeissLX III. 98 points out that +there is no evidence that Jesus lingered for "six days" (Mk. ix. 2) near +that town, and that therefore the effort to locate the transfiguration is +futile. GilbertLJ 274 thinks that Mk. ix. 30 is decisive in favor of a +place outside Galilee; he therefore holds to the common view that Hermon +is the true locality. See AndLOL 357f. + +52. General questions. _Was Jesus twice rejected at Nazareth?_ (comp. Lk. +iv. 16-30 with Mk. vi. 1-6^a; Mt. xiii. 54-58). Here are two accounts that +read like independent traditions of the same event; they agree concerning +the place, the teaching in the synagogue on the Sabbath, the astonishment +of the Nazarenes, their scornful question, and Jesus' rejoinder. Luke +makes no reference to the disciples (Mk. vi. 1) nor to the working of +miracles (Mk. vi. 5); Matthew and Mark, on the other hand, say nothing of +an attempt at violence. These differences are no more serious, however, +than appear in the two accounts of the appeal of the centurion to Jesus +(Mt. viii. 5-8; Lk. vii. 3-7). Moreover, Lk. iv. 23 indicates a time after +the ministry in Capernaum had won renown, which agrees with the place +given the rejection in Mark. The general statement (Lk. iv. 14f.) suggests +that the visit to Nazareth is given at the beginning as an instance of +"preaching in their synagogues." The three accounts probably refer to one +event reported independently. For identification see WeissLX III. 34; +Plummer on Luke iv. 30; GilbertLJ 254f. For two rejections see Godet's +supplementary note on Lk. iv. 16-30; Meyer on Mt. xiii. 53-58; EdersLJM I. +457, note 1; Wieseler, _Synopsis_, 278. BeysLJ I. 270 identifies but +prefers Luke's date. + +53. _Were there two miraculous draughts of fish?_ Lk. v. 1-11 is sometimes +identified with Jn. xxi. 3-13. So WendtLJ I. 211f., WeissLX II. 57f., and +Meyer on Luke v. 1-11. Against the identification see Alford, Godet, and +Plummer on the passage in Luke. The two are alike in scene, the night of +bootless toil, the great catch at Jesus' word. They differ in personnel, +antecedent relations of the fishermen with Jesus, the effect of the +miracle on Peter, and the subsequent teaching of Jesus, as well as in +time. These differences make identification difficult. + +54. _Where in the synoptic story should the journey to the feast in +Jerusalem_ (Jn. v.) _be placed?_ There is nothing in John's narrative to +identify the feast, although it is his custom to name the festivals to +which he refers (Passover, ii. 13, 23; vi. 4; xi. 55; xii. 1; Tabernacles, +vii. 2; Dedication, x. 22). Even if John wrote "the feast," rather than "a +feast" (the MSS. vary, A B D and seven other uncials omit the article), it +would be impossible to decide between Passover and Tabernacles. The +omission of the article suggests either that the feast was of minor +importance, or that its identification was of no significance for the +understanding of the following discourse. Since a year and four months +probably elapsed between the journey into Galilee (Jn. iv. 35) and the +next Passover mentioned in John (vi. 4), v. 1 may refer to any one of the +feasts of the Jewish year. The commonest interpretation prefers Purim, a +festival of a secular and somewhat hilarious type, which occurred on the +14th and 15th of Adar, a month before the Passover. It is difficult to +believe that this feast would have called Jesus to Jerusalem. See WeissLX +II. 391; GilbertLJ 137-139, 142, 234-235. Against this interpretation see +EdersLJM II. 765. Edersheim advocates the feast of Wood Gathering on the +15th of Ab--about our August. On this day all the people were permitted to +offer wood for the use of the altar in the temple, while during the rest +of the year the privilege was reserved for special families. See LJM II +765f.; Westcott, _Comm. on John_, add. note on v. 1, argues for the feast +of Trumpets, or the new moon of the month Tisri,--about our +September,--which was celebrated as the beginning of the civil year. +Others have suggested Pentecost, fifty days after the Passover; the day of +Atonement--but this was a fast, not a feast; and Tabernacles. The majority +of those who do not favor Purim prefer the Passover, notwithstanding the +difficulty of thinking that John would refer to this feast simply as "a +feast of the Jews." Read AndLOL 193-198, remembering that the question +must be considered independently of the question of the length of Jesus' +ministry. The impossibility of determining the feast renders the +adjustment of this visit to the synoptic story very uncertain. It may be +that there was some connection between the Sabbath controversy in Galilee +(Mk. ii. 23-28) and the criticism Jesus aroused in Jerusalem (Jn. v.). If +so, one of the spring feasts, Passover or Pentecost, would best suit the +circumstances; but this arrangement is quite uncertain. + +55. _Do the five conflicts of Mk. ii. 1 to iii. 6 belong at the early +place in the ministry of Jesus to which that gospel assigns them_? It is +commonly held that they do not, and the argument for a two-year ministry +rests on this assumption (see SandayHastBD II. 613). Holtzmann, +_Hand-commentar_ I. 9f., remarks that at least for the cure of the +paralytic and for the call and feast of Levi (Mk. ii. 1, 13, 15) the +evangelist was confident that he was following the actual order of events; +note the call of the fifth disciple, Mk. ii. 13, between the call of the +four, Mk. i. 16-20, and that of the twelve, iii. 16-19. The question about +fasting may owe its place (Mk. ii. 18-22) to association with the +criticism of Jesus for eating with publicans (Mk. ii. 16). In like manner +the second Sabbath conflict (Mk. iii. 1-6) may be attached to the first +(ii. 23-28) as a result of the identity of subject, for it is noteworthy +that Mark records only these two Sabbath conflicts; moreover, the plot of +Herodians and Pharisees to kill Jesus strongly suggests a later time for +the actual occurrence of this criticism. The first Sabbath question, +however, may belong early, as Mark has placed it. Weiss, Markusevangelium, +76, LX II. 232 ff., places these conflicts late. Edersheim, LJM II. 51 +ff., discusses the Sabbath controversies after the feeding of the +multitudes. RévilleJN II. 229 places the first of them early. + +56. _The sermon on the mount._ Luke (vi. 12-19 = Mk. iii. 13-19^a +indicates the place in the Galilean ministry; Matthew has therefore +anticipated in assigning it to the beginning. The identity of the two +sermons (Mt. v. 1 to vii. 27; Lk. vi. 20-49) is shown by the fact that +each begins with beatitudes, each closes with the parables of the wise and +foolish builders, each is followed by the cure of a centurian's servant in +Capernaum (Mt. viii. 5-13; Lk. vii. 1-10), and the teachings which are +found in each account are given in the same order. Matthew is much fuller +than Luke, many teachings given in the sermon in Matthew being found in +later contexts in Luke. Much of the sermon in Matthew, however, evidently +belonged to the original discourse, and was omitted by Luke, perhaps +because of less interest to Gentile than to Jewish Christians. The +following sections are found elsewhere in Luke, and were probably +associated with the sermon by the first evangelist: Mt. v. 25, 26; Lk. +xii. 58, 59; Mt. vi. 9-13; Lk. xi. 2-4; Mt. vi. 19-34; Lk. xii. 21-34; xi. +34-36; xvi. 13; Mt. vii. 7-11; Lk. xi. 9-13; Mt. vii. 13, 14; Lk. xiii. +24. The first evangelist's habit of grouping may explain also the presence +in his sermon of teachings which he himself has duplicated later, thus: +Mt. v. 29, 30 = xviii. 8,9; v. 32 = xix. 9, comp. Mk. x. 11, ix. 43-47, +Lk. xvi. 18; Mt. vi. 14, 15 = Mk. xi. 25. Matthew vii. 22, 23 has the +character of the teachings which follow the confession at Cæsarea +Phillipi, and is quite unlike the other early teachings. It may belong to +the later time, for it was natural for the early Christians to associate +together teachings which the Lord uttered on widely separated occasions. +The sermon as originally given may be analyzed as follows: The privileges +of the heirs of the kingdom of God, Mt. v. 3-13; Lk. vi. 20-26; their +responsibilities, Mt. v. 13-16; the relation of the new to the old, Mt. v. +17-19; the text of the discourse, Mt. v. 20; the new conception of +morality, Mt. v. 21-48; Lk. vi. 27-36; the new practice of religion, Mt. +vi. 1-8, 16-18; warning against a censorious spirit, Mt. vii. 16-20; Lk. +vi. 43-46; the wise and foolish builders, Mt. vii. 24-27; Lk. vi. 47-49. + +57. _The discourse in parables._ Matthew gives seven parables at this +point (xiii.), Mark (iv. 1-34) has three, one of them is not given in +Matthew, Luke (viii. 4-18) gives in this connection but one,--the Sower. +Many think that the Tares of Matthew (xiii. 24-30, 36-43) is a doublet of +Mark's Seed growing secretly (iv. 26-29); so Weiss LX II. 209 note, +against which view see WendtLJ I. 178 f., and Bruce, _Parabolic Teaching +of Xt_, 119. Matthew has probably made here a group of parables, as in +chapters v. to vii. he has made a group of other teachings. The +interpretation of the Tares, and of the Draw-net (xiii. 40-43, 49, 50), +may indicate that these parables were spoken after Jesus began to teach +plainly concerning the end of the world (Mk. viii. 31 to ix. 1), Luke +gives the Mustard Seed and Leaven in another connection (xiii. 18-21), and +it may be that Matthew has taken them out of their true context to +associate them with the other parables of his group; yet in popular +teaching it must be recognized that illustrations are most likely to be +repeated in different situations. On the parables see Goebel, _The +Parables of Jesus_ (1890), Bruce, _The Parabolic Teaching of Christ_, 3d +ed. (1886), Jülicher, _Die Gleichnissreden Jesu_ (2 vols. 1899), and +the commentaries on the gospels. + +58. _The instructions to the twelve_. Mt. ix. 36 to xi. 1. x. 1, 5-14 +corresponds in general with Mk. vi. 7-11; Lk. ix. 1-5. The similarity is +closer, however, between x. 7-15 and Lk. x. 3-12--the instructions to the +seventy (see sect. A 68). The rest of Mt. x. (16-42) is paralleled by +teachings found in the closing discourses in the synoptic gospels, and in +teachings preserved in the section peculiar to Luke (ix. 51 to xviii. 14. +See SB sects. 88-92, footnotes). It is probable that here the first +evangelist has made a group of instructions to disciples gathered from all +parts of the Lord's teachings; such a collection was of great practical +value in the early time of persecution. + +59. _Did Jesus twice feed the multitudes_? All the gospels record the +feeding of the five thousand (Mt. xiv. 13-23; Mk. vi. 30-46; Lk. ix. +10-17; Jn. vi. 1-15), Matthew (xv. 32-38) and Mark (viii. 1-9) give also +the feeding of the four thousand. The similarities are so great that the +two accounts would be regarded as doublets if they occurred in different +gospels. The difficulty with such an identification is chiefly the +reference which in both Matthew (xvi. 9, 10) and Mark (viii. 19, 20) Jesus +is said to have made to the two feedings. The evangelists clearly +distinguished the two. In view of this fact the differences between the +accounts become important. These concern the occasion of the two miracles, +the number fed, the nationality of the multitudes (compare Jn. vi. 31 and +Mk. vii. 31), the number of loaves and of baskets of broken pieces (the +name for basket is different in the two cases, and is preserved +consistently in Mk. viii. 19, 20; Mt. xvi. 9, 10). See GilbertLJ 259-262, +Gould, and Swete, on Mk. viii. 1-9; Meyer, Alford, on Mt. xv. 32-38. +WeissLX II. 376f., BeysLJ I. 279f., WendtLJ I. 42, Holtzmann _Hand-comm._ +I. 186 ff., identify the accounts. See also SandayHastBD II. 629. + +60. _Did Peter twice confess faith in Jesus as Messiah_? Synoptics give +his confession at Cæesarea Philippi (Mk. viii. 27-30; Mt. xvi. 13-20; Lk. +ix. 18-21). John, however, gives a confession earlier at Capernaum (vi. +66-71). WeissLX III. 53 identifies the two, placing that in John at +Cæsarea Philippi, since there is no evidence that all of the long +discourse of Jn. vi. was spoken in Capernaum the day after the feeding of +the five thousand. This may be correct, yet the marked recognition which +Jesus gave to the confession at Cæsarea Philippi does not demand that he +first at that time received a confession of his disciples' faith. The +confession in Jn. vi. 68, 69 declared that the twelve were not shaken in +their faith by the recent defection of many disciples. At Cæsarea Philippi +the confession was made after the revulsion of popular feeling had been +made fully evident, and after the twelve had had time for reaction of +enthusiasm consequent upon the growing coldness of the multitudes and +active opposition of the leaders. The confession of Cæsarea Philippi holds +its unique significance, whether or not Jn. vi. 68 is identified with it. + +61. _The journey to Tabernacles_ (Jn. vii.). Where in the synoptic story +should it be placed? Lk. ix. 51 ff. records the final departure from +Galilee. The journey of Jn. vii. is the last journey from Galilee given in +John. Yet the two are very different. In John, Jesus went in haste, +unpremeditatedly, in secret, and unaccompanied, and confronted the people +with himself unexpectedly during the feast. In Luke (Mk. x. 1 and Mt. xix. +1 are so general that they give no aid) he advanced deliberately, with +careful plans, announcing his coming in advance, accompanied by many +disciples, with whom he went from place to place, arriving in Jerusalem +long after he had set out. The two journeys cannot be identified. John +seems to keep Jesus in the south after the Tabernacles, but his account +does not forbid a return to Galilee between Tabernacles and Dedication (x. +22). After the hurried visit to Tabernacles, Jesus probably went back to +Galilee, and gathered his disciples again for the final journey towards +his cross--for the visit to Jerusalem had given fresh evidence of the kind +of treatment he must expect in the capital (Jn. vii. 32, 45-52; viii. 59). +See AndLOL 369-379. Andrews suggests that the feast occurred before the +withdrawal to Cæsarea Philippi (376); this is possible, but it seems more +natural to place it during the sojourn in Capernaum after the return from +the north (Mk. ix. 33-50). See SB, sects. 82-85. + +62. On the phenomena and interpretation of _Demoniac Possession_ see J. L. +Nevius, _Demon Possession and allied Themes_; Conybeare, Jew. Quar. Rev. +VIII. (1896) 576-608, IX. (1896-7) 59-114, 444-470, 581-603; J. Weiss in +_Reälencyklopädie_,^3 Hauck-Herzog, IV. 408-419; Binet, _Alterations of +Personality_, 325-356; James, _Psychology, _ I. 373-400; and the articles +on DEMONS in EnBib and HastBD. + + +The Journey through Perea to Jerusalem + +63. Read SandayHastBD II. 630-632; see GilbertLJ 298-310: WeissLX III. +157-223; KeimJN V, 1-64; BeysLJ I. 287-294. II. 333-419; AndLOL 365-420; +EdersLJM II. 126-360. + +64. This journey began sometime between Tabernacles and Dedication +(October and December) of the last year of Jesus' life, and continued +until the arrival in Bethany six days before the last Passover. + +65. Geographical notes. _Perea_--a part of the domain of Antipas--was the +Jewish territory E of the Jordan. Its northern limit seems to have been +marked by Pella (Jos. Wars, iii 3. 3) or Gadara (Wars, iv. 7. 3), and its +E boundary was marked by Philadelphia (Ant. xx. 1. 1); it extended S to +the domain of Aretas, king of Arabia. The population was mixed, though +predominatingly Jewish. Cities of the Decapolis, however, lay within the +limits of Perea, and introduced Greek life and ideas to the people. On the +highlands back from the Jordan it was a fertile and well populated land. +See SmithHGHL 539f.; SchürerJPTX II. i. 2-4. + +66. On _Bethany and Jericho_ see BDs and, for the latter, SmithHGHL 266 +ff. + +67. _Ephraim_, (John xi. 54) is generally identified with the Ephron of +II. Chron. xiii. 19 (Jos. Wars, iv. 9. 9). Robinson located it at et +Taiyibeh, 4 m. NE of Bethel, and 14 from Jerusalem. See HastBD l. 728; +SBD^2 975. + +68. General questions. _The mission of the seventy_. Luke records two +missions, that of the twelve (ix. 1-6), and that of the seventy (x. 1-24). +Many regard these as doublets, similar to the two feedings in Mark. So +WeissLX II. 307 ff., BeysLJ I. 275, WendtLJ I. 84f. In favor of this +conclusion emphasis is given to the fact that in Jewish thought seventy +symbolized the nations of the world as twelve symbolized Israel. It is +suggested that in his search for full records Luke came upon an account of +the mission of disciples which had already been modified in the interests +of Gentile Christianity, and failing to recognize its identity with the +account of the mission furnished by Mark, he added it in his peculiar +section. The similarity of the instructions given follows from the nature +of the case. A second sending out of disciples is suitable in view of the +entrance into a region hitherto unvisited. As Dr. Sanday has remarked, the +sayings connected by Luke with this mission bear witness to the +authenticity of the account. There is therefore no need to identify the +two missions. See particularly SandayHastBD II. 614, also GilbertLJ +226-230, Plummer's _Comm. on Luke_, 269 ff. Luke probably gives the +correct place for the thanksgiving, self-declaration, and invitation of +Jesus, in which the synoptists approach most nearly to the thought of John +(Lk. x. 21, 22; Mt. xi. 25-30). The return of the seventy (Lk. x. 17-20) +followed the woes addressed to the unbelieving cities (Lk. x. 13-16; Mt. +xi. 20-24). + +69. _The destination of the seventy_. It is customary to think of them as +sent to the various cities of Perea (see AndLOL 381-383). Were it not for +the words "whither he himself was about to come" (Lk. x. I), it would be +natural to conclude that they were sent E to Gerasa and Philadelphia, and +S to the regions of the Dead Sea. If John's account is accepted, Jesus +spent not a little time of the interval between his departure from Galilee +and his final arrival in Bethany in and near Jerusalem. It may be that +after the withdrawal from the Dedication he went far into the Perean +districts. But John x. 40 is against it. The question must be left +unanswered. The messengers may have visited places in all parts of +Palestine. + + +VI + +The Controversies of the Last Week + +70. See GilbertLJ 311-335; WeissLX III. 224-270; AndLOL 421-450; KeimJN V. +65-275; BeysLJ II. 422-434; EdersLJM II. 363-478; SandayHastBD II 632f. + +71. _The supper at Bethany_. John is definite, "six days before the +passover" (xii. I). Synoptists place it after the day of controversy, on +the Wednesday preceding the Passover (Mk. xiv. I, 3-9; Mt. xxvi. 2, 6-13). +John is probably correct. The rebuke of Judas (Jn. xii. 4-8) was probably +associated in the thought of the disciples with his later treachery; +consequently the synoptists report the plot of Judas and this supper in +close connection. + +72. _The Messianic entry into Jerusalem_ is regarded by Réville as a +surrender by Jesus of his lofty Messianic ideal in response to the +temptation to seek a popular following. Keim with finer insight says, +"Even if it had certainly been his wish to bring the kingdom of heaven +near in Jerusalem quietly and gradually, and with a healthy mental +progress, as in Galilee, yet ... in the face of the irritability of his +opponents, in the face of the powerful means at their disposal of crushing +him ... there remained but one chance,--reckless publicity, the conquest +of the partially prepared nation by means, not of force, but of idea.... +He came staking his life upon the venture, but also believing that God +must finish his work through life or death" (JN V. 100f.). + +73. _The question about the resurrection_ was probably a familiar +Sadducean problem with which they made merry at the expense of the +scribes. On the resurrection in Jewish thought see Charles, _Eschatology, +Hebrew, Jewish, and Christian_, by index. For the scepticism of the +Sadducees see also Ac. xxiii. 8; Jos. Wars, ii, 8. 14. + +74. On the "_great commandment_" see EdersLJM II. 403 ff. + +75. The eschatological discourse presents serious exegetical difficulties. +Many cut the knot by assuming that Mk. xiii. and ||s contain a little +Jewish apocalypse written shortly before the destruction of Jerusalem, +which has been blended with genuine predictions of Jesus concerning his +second coming. See Charles, _Eschatology_, 323-. 329; WendtLJ I. 9-21; +HoltzmannNtTH I. 325 ff.; and Bruce's criticism in _Expos. Gk. Test_. I. +287f., also Sanday's note in HastBD II. 635f. + +76. On _the relation of proselytes_ to Judaism see SchürerJPTX II. ii. +291-327. The synagogue in heathen lands drew to itself by its monotheism +and its pure ethics the finest spirits of paganism. But few of them, +however, submitted to circumcision, and became thus proselytes. Most of +them constituted the class of "them that fear God" to whom Paul constantly +appealed in his apostolic mission. The Greeks of Jn. xii. 20 ff. were +probably circumcised proselytes. + +77. On _Judas_ see Plummer in HastBD II. 796 ff.; EdersLJM II. 471-478; +WeissLX III. 285-289; AndLOL by index. De Quincey's essay on _Judas +Iscariot_ is an elaborate defence. + + +VII + +The Last Supper + +78. GilbertLJ 335-354; WeissLX III. 273-318; EdersLJM II. 479-532; AndLOL +450-497; KeimJN V. 275-343; BeysLJ II. 434-448; SandayHastBD II. 633-638. + +79. _The day of the last supper_. John seems clearly to place it on the +day before the Passover--13 Nisan. See xiii. I, 29; xviii. 28; xix. 14, +31, 42. Synoptists as clearly declare that the supper was prepared on the +"first day of unleavened bread, when they sacrificed the Passover" (Mk. +xiv. 12; see also Lk. xxii. 15); this is confirmed by the similarity +between the Passover ritual as tradition has preserved it, and the course +of events at the supper. Unless interpretation can remove the +contradiction, John must have the preference. WeissLX III. 273-282, BeysLJ +II. 390-399, accept John and correct the synoptists by him; thus the +supper anticipated the Passover. Some hold that John can be interpreted +harmoniously with synoptists, and be shown to indicate that the supper was +on the 14th Nisan. So EdersLJM II. 508, 566f., 612f.; AndLOL 452-481; +GilbertLJ 335-339. Others believe that a true interpretation of synoptists +shows that in calling the last supper a Passover they correctly represent +the character, but misapprehend the time, of the meal. For this argument +see Muirhead, _Times of Xt_, 163-169, and read SandayHastBD II. 633-636 +and his references. The debate is still on, but the advantage seems to be +with those who assign the supper to the 13th and the crucifixion to the +14th Nisan. + +80. _Did Jesus institute a memorial sacrament_? Read SandayHastBD II. +636-638, and Thayer, in Jour. Bib. Lit. 1899, 110-131; see also +McGiffert, _Apostolic Age_, 68 ff. note; HoltzmannNtTh I. 296-304. + +81. _The Passover ritual_. The order according to the rabbis was the +following: the first cup of wine and water was taken by the leader, who +gave thanks over it, and then it was shared by all (compare Lk. xxii. 17); +then the head of the company washed his hands--Dr. Edersheim connects with +this the washing of the disciples' feet, which changed the ceremony from +an act of distinction into one of humble service; after this the dishes +were brought on the table, then the leader dipped some of the bitter herbs +into salt water or vinegar, spoke a blessing, and partook of them, then +handed them to each of the company; then one of the loaves of unleavened +bread was broken; after this a second cup was filled, and before it was +drunk the significance of the Passover was explained by the leader in +reply to a question by the youngest of the company, after which the first +part of the Hallel (Ps. cxiii., cxiv.) was sung, and then the cup was +drunk; then followed the supper itself beginning with "the sop,"--a piece +of the paschal lamb, a piece of unleavened bread, and bitter herbs, +wrapped together and dipped in the vinegar,--which was passed around the +company (compare the sop which Jesus gave to Judas); after the supper came +a third cup, known as "the cup of blessing" (see I. Cor. x. 16); then +followed grace after meat; then a fourth cup, in connection with which the +remainder of the Hallel was sung (Ps. cxv. to cxviii.), followed by +certain other songs and prayers. See EdersLJM II. 496-512; AndLOL 488-494. + +82. _The washing of the disciples' feet_. John (xiii. 1-11) says this +occurred "during supper" (v. 2), and before the designation of the +traitor. Luke (xxii. 23-30) tells of a dispute about greatness among the +disciples. This dispute may have arisen over the assignment of places at +table (compare Lk. xiv. 7 ff.; Mk. x. 33-45); if so, the reason for the +lesson in humility is apparent. See AndLOL 482-484; EdersLJM II. 492-503. + +83. _Did Jesus twice predict Peter's denials_? Mark (xiv. 26-31) and +Matthew (xxvi. 30-35) place the prediction after the departure for +Gethsemane; Luke (xxii. 31-34) and John (xiii. 36-38), during the supper. +AndLOL 494 ff. thinks Peter was warned twice, EdersLJM. II. 535-537 holds +to one warning on the way to Gethsemane. Antecedent probability favors +this view. + +84. _Where in John should the institution of the sacrament be placed_? +Probably after the departure of Judas (Mark xiv. 21f.; Matt. xxvi. 26), +thus not before xiii. 30. The most likely place is between, verses 32 and +33. There is no break at this point, and it remains a mystery why John's +account of the passion omitted this central feature of early Christian +belief and practice. The omission argues for rather than against apostolic +authorship, as a forger would not have ventured to disregard the leading +service of the church in an account of the life of its Lord. See Westcott, +_Comm. on John_, 188. + +85. On the possible _disarrangement of the last discourses_ (xiii. 31 to +xvi. 33) in our text of John see Spitta, _Urchristentum_, I. 168-193; +Bacon, Jour. Bib. Lit. 1894, 64-76; Burton, Bib. Wld. 1899 I. 32. + + +VIII + +The Shadow of the Cross + +86. See GilbertLJ 354-384; AndLOL 497-588; WeissLX III. 319-381; BeysLJ I. +390-432, II. 448-473; EdersLJM II. 533-620; KeimJN VI. 1-274; SandayHastBD +II. 632f. + +87. On the location of _Gethsemane and Golgotha_ see AndLOL 499f., +575-588; and HastBD II. 164, 226f. + +88. On the progress of _Jesus' trial by the Jewish authorities, _ see +AndLOL 505-516; GilbertLJ 359-363. The _legality of the trial_ has been +carefully discussed by A. T. Innes, _The Trial of Jesus Christ_. + +89. On the form and sequence of _Peter's denials_, see Westcott, _Comm. +on John_, 263-266; AndLOL 516-521. + +90. The _Words from the Cross_. Matthew (xxvii. 46) and Mark (xv. 34) +report one; Luke (xxiii. 34?, 43, 46) adds three, omitting the one found +in Matthew and Mark; John adds three more (xix. 26f., 28, 30). Luke xxiii. +34 is bracketed by Westcott and Hort because omitted by a very important +group of MSS. ([Hebrew: aleph]^aBD*) and some early versions. The saying +is almost certainly authentic, though it may have been added to Luke by +some early copyist. See Westcott and Hort, _N.T. in Greek_, II. Appendix, +68; and Plummer, _Comm. on Luke_, 544f. + + +IX + +The Resurrection and Ascension + +91. Read SandayHastBD II. 638-643; see KeimJK VI. 274-383, for a still +valid criticism of the position of RévilleJN II. 428-478; see also WeissLX +III. 382-409; BeysLJ I. 433-481, II. 474-493; BovonNTTh I. 350-375; +GilbertLJ 385-405; Loofs, _Die Auferstehungsberichte und ihr Wert_; +EdersLJM II. 621-652; AndLOL 589-639. + +92. The last twelve verses of Mark (xvi. 9-20) are omitted by the oldest +MSS ([Hebrew: aleph]B) and by the recently discovered Sinaitic Syriac, as +well as by other versions and fathers. An Armenian MS. has been found +ascribing the section to one Ariston, or Aristion, a second century elder, +and this explanation of the origin of the verses is widely accepted. The +gospel cannot have ended with the words "for they were afraid," but no +satisfactory explanation of the condition of its text has been found. For +a recent hypothesis see Rohrbach, _Der Schluss des Markusevangeliums_; on +Aristion as the author, see Conybeare in Expos. IV. viii. (1893) 241, IV. +x. 219, V. ii. 401; see also SandayHastBD II. 638f., Bruce, _Expos. Gk. +Test_. I. 454f. For discussion of textual evidence see Westcott and Hort, +_NT in Greek_, II. Appendix, 28-51, and Burgon, _The last twelve verses +of St. Mark_ (a passionate defence). + +Luke xxiv. 51 is omitted by [Hebrew: aleph]*D and several old Latin MSS. +See Plummer and Bruce on the passage. + +93. "_After three days_." This formula, which appears often in Mark, is +altered in parallels in Matthew and Luke to "on the third day" (see +Concordance). Jesus died on Friday, lay in the tomb over Saturday, and +rose very early Sunday morning. Thus he spent a part of Friday, and a part +of Sunday, and all of Saturday in the grave. According to Jewish reckoning +this was counted three days. + +94. _Emmaus_. A village about 60 furlongs from Jerusalem. Cannot have been +the Emmaus in the Shephelah, 20 m. from Jerusalem. May have been el +Kubeibeh, 63 furlongs distant on the road from Jerusalem to Lydda. See +AndLOL 617-619; but also HastBD I. 700. + + + + +Part III.--The Minister + + +I + +The Friend of Men + +95. Head Mathews, _The Social Teachings of Jesus, _ especially 132-174; +see also Robinson, _The Saviour in the Newer Light_, 343 ff. + + +II + +The Teacher with Authority + +96. See WendtTJ I. 106-151; Stevens, _Theol. of the N.T._ 1-16; Beyschlag, +_N.T. Theology, I_. 31-34. In particular on the Parables see references in +sect. A 56. On the content of Jesus' teaching see WendtTJ 2 vols.; +Dalman, _Die Worte Jesu; Stevens, Theol. of the N.T._ 17-244; Beyschlag, +_N.T. Theol_. I. 27-299; Mathews, _Social Teaching of Jesus_; Gilbert, +_The Revelation of Jesus_; Bruce, _The Kingdom of God_. + + +III + +Jesus' Knowledge of Truth + +97. Adamson, _The Mind in Christ_; GilbertRJ 169f., 240-242; Schwartzkopf, +_The Prophecies of Jesus Christ_. + + +IV + +Jesus' Conception of Himself + +98. BaldSJ 125-282; Stalker, _Christology of Jesus_, HoltzmannNtTh I. +234-304; WendtTJ II. 122-183; GilbertRJ 167-228; Stevens, _Theol. of the +N.T._ 41-64, 199-212. On the title "Son of Man" see particularly DalmanWJ +I. 191-219; Charles, _Eschatology_, 214f. note; against, A. Meyer, _Jesu +Muttersprache_, 91-101, and others. See also HoltzmannNtTh I. +246-264. On the name "Son of God," see Dalman WJ I. 219-237; Holtzmann +NtTh I. 265-278; Stalker, _Christology_, 86-123; Gilbert, as above. On the +personal religion of Jesus see Burton, Bib. Wld. 1899, II. 394-403. For +the total impression of the character of Jesus, read Bushnell, _The +Character of Jesus_. + + + + +Indexes + + + + +Index of Names and Subjects + + + +[References are to pages.] + + +Ænon, site of, 288. +"After three days," 307. +Agrapha, 36, 149, 281. +Andrew, of Bethsaida, 92, 94, 118. +Angels, doctrine of, 10. +Annas, 191, 193, 194. +Antipas, 4, 192. +Apocalypse, 17f., 122, 124, 241. +Apocryphal gospels, 37, 281, 282. +Archelaus, 4, 5. +Aristion, author of Mark xvi. 9-20, 204f., 306f. +Assumption of Moses, 75 + +Baptism of John, see _John the Baptist_. +Baptism of Jesus, 83-86, 283f. +Barabbas, 174, 192. +Bethany beyond Jordan, 92, 284. +Bethany, supper at, 169, 301. +Bethsaida, site of, 290. +Books of reference, 273-277. +Brethren of Jesus, 63f., 283. + +Cæsarea Philippi;, 4, 291. + confession at, see _Peter_. +Caiaphas, 191, 193, 194. +Cana of Galilee, 95, 222, 286. +Cananeans or Zealots, party of, 11, 74. +Capernaum, site of, 290. +Census under Quirinius, 11, 52-55. +Chorazin, site of, 290. + +Dalmanutha, 291. +Dalmanutha, Books of, 17f., 241, 254f. +Decapolis, the, 140, 291. +Dedication, feast of, 150, 154. +Demoniac possession, 131-133, 245-248, 299. +Devout, the, 13, 17. +Diatessaron of Tatian, 38, 47, 281. +Doublets, 44, 281. +Draughts of fish, miraculous, 293. + +Emmaus, site of, 307. +Enoch, Book of, 241, 256-258. +Ephraim, site of, 300. +Essenes, manner of living, 11-12; + their hope of Messiah, 16; + their settlement, 73; + relation to John the Baptist, 73, 77. + +Five thousand, the feeding of, 135f., 291. + +Gadarenes, country of, 247, 290f. +Genealogies of Jesus, 282. +Gethsemane, 177, 186, 188f., 265, 305. +Golgotha, 305. + +Herod the Great, 3; + began to rebuild temple, 49; + census during his reign, 54. +Herod Antipas, 4, 192. +Herodians, 14, 173. + +James, brother of John, 92, 94, 118. +Jesus, language of, 19, 62, 279; + date of birth, 52-56; + the miraculous conception, 58-61; + growth, physical, intellectual, moral, and spiritual, 61-66; + his brothers and sisters, 64; + visit to Jerusalem in his twelfth year, 66-68; + life in Nazareth, 68f.; + his baptism, 83-86; + his temptation, 86-91; + his first disciples, 92-95; + at Cana, 95; + his social friendliness, 96, 219f.; + the cleansing of the temple, 108-110; + talk with Nicodemus, 111; + the woman of Samaria, 112; + cure of nobleman's son, 113; + in retirement in Galilee, 113f.; + call of four disciples, 118; + popular enthusiasm and pharisaic opposition, 119-121; + his withdrawals and injunctions of silence, 122 ff.; + blasphemy of the Pharisees, 124; + the reply to John's message, 125; + his twofold aim in Galilee, 126; + his method, 127; + the sermon on the mount, 127f.; + the parables, 128f., 231f., 296f.; + instruction of the twelve, 130, 297; + his mighty works, 131f.; + his personal influence, 133; + the feeding of the five thousand, 135f.; + the revulsion in popular feeling, 136; + the controversy about hand washing, 139; + the withdrawal to the north, 138; + the demand for a sign, 139; + disciples warned against the Pharisees, 139; + the question at Cæsarea Philippi, 141f.; + commendation of Peter, 143; + announcement of approaching death, 144; + rebuke of Peter, 145; + the transfiguration, 146f.; + the epileptic boy, 147; + rebuke of worldly ambition, 147f.; + Jesus and his brethren, 148; + at the feast of Tabernacles, 148; + return to Galilee, 150; + final departure from Galilee, 154; + the mission of the seventy, 158; + visit to the feast of Dedication, 159; + in Perea, 160; + the summons to Bethany, 161f.; + official determination to get rid of him, 161; + at Ephraim, 162; + question about divorce, 154; + blessing little children, 154; + the rich young ruler, 154; + request of Salome, 163; + Bartimeus, 163; + Zacchæus, 163; + anointing at Bethany, 169; + the Messianic entry, 170f.; + the barren fig-tree, 172; + the questions of the leaders, 173f.; + counter question, 175; + denunciation of scribes, 175; + the widow's mites, 176; + visit of the Greeks. 176f.; + the eschatological discourse, 178; + bargain of Judas, 169, 178f.; + the last supper, 181-184; + dispute and foot washing, 184; + withdrawal of Judas, 184; + prediction of Peter's denials, 185; + discourse and prayer, 185-187; + Gethsemane, 188-190; + betrayal and arrest, 190f.; + trial by Jews, 191f.; + trial by Pilate, 192-194; + crucifixion, 195-198; + burial of Jesus, 199; + the resurrection, 201-210; + the ascension, 214f.; + Jesus' attitude to common life, 219-223; + his hunger for sympathy, 223; + Jesus as a teacher, 226f.; + his attitude to Old Testament, 227-229; + his confidence in men, 230f.; + his use of illustration, 231-233; + his alertness of mind, 234; + his leading ideas, 235 ff.; + his supernatural knowledge, 239-244; + his confession of ignorance, 243; + his kinship with men, 244f.; + treatment of demoniac possession, 245-248; + his certainty of his Messianic call, 249-254; + his adoption of Messianic titles, 254-264; + his consciousness of dependence on God, 264-266; + the problem of Jesus, 267-269. +John, Gospel of, 32-36, 40f., 181, 280, 305. +John the Baptist, 70-81; + notice by Josephus, 71f., 279f.; + his idea of the kingdom of God, 73; + his relation to current thought, 73-76; + his baptism, 77f., 83; + baptism of Jesus, 82-84; + the embassy from the priests, 92; + testimony--"the Lamb of God," 93, 286; + baptizing at Ænon, 112; + his self-effacing witness to Jesus, 79, 112; + hostility of the Pharisees, 113, 289; + arrest by Antipas, 71f., 113; + his message to Jesus, 125; + death in prison, 134f.; his significance, 79-81, 226; + the disciples of John, 112, 283; + literature about John, 283. +John, son of Zebedee, 36, 92, 94, 118, 193,269. +John of Gischals, 121. +Joseph of Arimathea, 182, 199. +Josephus, 22; + notice of John the Baptist, 71, 279f. +Judas of Galilee, 11, 121. +Judas the betrayer, 169, 181, 302; + the bargain, 178; + his selection as an apostle, 179; + his criticism of Mary at Bethany, 179; + his kiss, 190; + his remorse, 179. +Judea, province of, 6f. + +Kingdom of God, 68, 86, 90, 173, 190, 231, 232, 235 ff., 238, 241. + +Language used by Jesus, 19, 62, 279. +Last supper, the, 181-187, 303-305. +Lawyers, see _Scribes_. +Length of Jesus' ministry, 45-49. +Literature of the Jews, 18f., 279. +"Logia," ascribed to Matthew, 32, 42, 158. +Luke, Gospel of, 26f., 31f., 280. + +Mark, Gospel of, 25f., 27, 29, 32, 40, 42, 280, 294f.; + last twelve verses of, 204f., 306f. +Mary Magdalene, 134, 208. +Mary, the mother of Jesus, 59; + had other children, 60, 63f., 283. +Matthew, Gospel of, 23 ff., 27, 30f., 32, 280. +Messianic entry into Jerusalem, 170, 301f. +Messianic hope, the, 16-18, 87, 175, 279. +Miracles of Jesus, 96, 267, 286f. +Miraculous birth, the, 57-61, 232. +Mission of the twelve, 130, 297. +Mission of the seventy, 158, 300f. + +Nathanael, of Cana, 92, 94, 286. +Nazareth, the view from, 65f. + rejection at, 292. +Nicodemus, 111, 199. + +Papias, 22, 29, 34, 47, 102, 281. +Parables of Jesus, 128f., 231f., 296f. +Passover, the, 181, 187, 304. +Paul, 21, 36, 201, 206, 268. +Pentateuch, Jesus' references to, 244. +Perea, 104, 153f., 158, 299f. +Peter, 29, 34, 92, 94, 118, 185, 193, 305, 306; + confession of, 136, 142 ff., 297f. +Pharisees, the, 8-10; + attitude to John the Baptist, 82, 113, 289; + their blasphemy, 124, 156; + question about divorce, 154; + about tribute, 173; + about the great commandment, 174, 302. +Philip of Bethsaida, 92, 94, 176. +Philip the tetrarch, 4. +Pliny the younger, 21. +Pontius Pilate, 5, 192, 195. +Priests, the, 7f., 107; + and the temple market, 108. +Proselytes, 78, 176, 302. +Psalms, Jesus' use of the, 244. +Psalms of Solomon, 18, 261. +Publicans, 6, 72, 222. + +Quirinius, census under, 52-55. + +Religion of Jesus, 264 ff., 308. +Resurrection, pharisaic doctrine of, 10, 241; + Sadducean rejection of 10, 174. + +Sadducees, the, 8, 16, 82; + the question about the resurrection, 174, 303; + attitude towards Jesus, 193. +Samaria, 6f. + Jesus' journey through, 112. +Samaritans, how regarded, 14. +Sanhedrin, the great, at Jerusalem, 7, 13, 192. +Scribes, their business, 9; + power in the sanhedrin, 13; + their influence over the religious life, 14; + their hope of a Messiah, 16; + their washings, 78; + chief of them at Jerusalem, 107; + their pride of learning and their bondage to tradition, 228. +Sermon on the mount, 127, 290, 295f. +Signs, essential marks of the Messiah, 95, 131. +Soldiers in Palestine, 6, 72, 191. +Son of Man, the, 124f., 130f., 254-260, 308. +Son of God, the, 260-264, 308. +Star of the wise men, 56. +Suetonius, 21. +Sychar, site of, 288. +Synagogue, the, 14. +Synoptic gospels, 28. +Synoptic problem, 27-32, 279f. + +Tabernacles, feast of, 148, 150, 298f. +Tacitus, 3, 21, 54. +Tatian, 23, 38, 47, 281. +Taxes, Roman, in Judea, 6. +Temple at Jerusalem, 107; + market in 107; + cleansing of, 107, 288f. +Temptation of Jesus, 86-91, 145, 284; + locality of, 285; + source of the record, 90, 285. +Tertullian, 45, 53. +Thomas, 208. +Tiberius, 1, 21, 50. +Traditions of the elders, 9, 15f., 68, 74, 139. +Transfiguration, the, 146f., 292. +Trial of Jesus, the, 191-195, 305. + +Words from the cross, 196 ff., 306. + +Zealots, the, 11, 74, 122, 124. + + + + +Index of Scripture References + + + +Ex. + +iv. 22 261 +xix. 10 78 +xxiv. 1-11 183 + + + +Lev. + +xii. 8 61 +xxiii. 5-11 47 + + + +Num. + +xxiii. 19 254 + + + +Deut. + +vi. 4-9 62 +viii. 3 88 +xviii. 15 92 +xxi. 23 196 + + + +I. Sam. + +ii. 26 61 + + + +I. Kings. + +xvii. 1 72 + + + +II. Kings. + +i. 8 +xvii. 24-41 14 + + + +Ps. + +ii. 7 261 +viii. 4 254 +xxii. 196 +lxxx. 17 254 +lxxxii. 6 261 +ciii. 13 262 +cxiii., cxiv. 304 +cxv. to cxviii. 185, 304 + + + +Isa. + +i. 16 76 +vi. 5 267 +xi. 2 85 +xxxv. 5f. 126 +xlii. 1 85 +li. 2 254 +liii. 96, 239 +liii. 7 93 +lviii. 76 +lxi. 1f. 45, 85, 126 +lxiii. 16 262 + + + +Jer. + +xxxi. 31-34 111, 183 + + + +Ezek. + +ii. 1 254 +xxxiii. 10-20 240 +xxxvi. 25-27 111 + + +Dan. + +vi. 10 107 +vii. 1-14 254 +vii. 13f. 255 +viii. 17 254 + + +Hos. + +i. 10 261 + + +Joel. + +ii. 1-14 76 + + +Micah. + +vi. 8 76 + + +Matt. + +i. 1 to iv. 17 23 +ii. 1, 2 52 +iii. 7 74 +iii. 9 78 +iii. 10-12 82 +iii. 11 77 +iii. 14 82 +iii. 15 83 +iii. 16 285 +iv. 4, 7, 10 228 +iv. 7 89 +iv. 8 90 +iv. 10 90, 145 +iv. 12 101, 102, 106, 289 +iv. 12-17 24, 39, 115 +iv. 12 to xviii. 35 102 +iv. 13 106 +iv. 13-16 115 +iv. 17 118 +iv. 18-22 106, 115 +iv. 18 to xvi. 20 24 +iv. 23 115 +iv. 23-25 115 +v. 1 290 +v. 3-12 296 +v. 13-16 296 +v. 17 83, 228 +v. 17-19 296 +v. 18 238 +v. 20 296 +v. 21-48 228, 296 +v. 25f. 295 +v. 29f. 295 +v. 32 295 +v. 38, 39 250 +v. 45 244 +vi. 1-6 84 +vi. 1-18 64, 296 +vi. 2-4 176 +vi. 9-15 4, 117, 295 +vi. 19-34 103, 295 +vi. 24 179 +vi. 25-34 42 +vii. 1-6 296 +vii. 7-11 117, 295 +vii. 13f. 295 +vii. 15-21 296 +vii. 21 262 +vii. 21-27 238 +vii. 22f. 295 +vii. 24-27 296 +vii. 28, 29 226, 249 +viii. 2-4 115 +viii. 5 7 +viii. 5, 8 43 +viii. 5-13 41, 115, 288, 289 +viii. 10 243 +viii. 10-12 24 +viii. 14-17 115 +viii. 18, 23-27 116 +viii. 19-22 153 +viii. 20 259 +viii. 28-34 116 +ix. 1, 18-26 116 +ix. 2-8 115 +ix. 9-13 115 +ix. 14-17 115 +ix. 27-34 116 +ix. 35 116 +ix. 36 to xi. 1 116, 118, 297 +x. 1, 5-15 297 +x. 5f. 130 +x. 7-15 297 +x. 16-42 297 +x. 32 262 +xi. 2-6 251 +xi. 2-19 41, 116 +xi. 4-6 131 +xi. 11 80 +xi. 18f. 259 +xi. 19 96, 220, 256 +xi. 20-24 301 +xi. 20-30 153 +xi. 25-30 300 +xi. 27 252, 263 +xi. 28-30 160 +xii. 1-8 115 +xii. 9-14 115 +xii. 12 227 +xii. 15-21 115 +xii. 22-45 116, 156 +xii. 28 85, 248 +xii. 46-50 116 +xii. 50 145 +xiii. 1-53 116, 296 +xiii. 24-30 296 +xiii. 31-33 44, 17 +xiii. 40-43, 49, 50 296 +xiii. 54-58 116, 292 +xiii. 55 61, 63 +xiv. 1-12 116 +xiv. 1 to xxviii. 20 28 +xiv. 13-23 39, 116, 297 +xiv. 19 46 +xiv. 21-36 116 +xv. 1 43 +xv. 1-20 116 +xv. 13f. 150 +xv. 21-28 116 +xv. 21-31 140 +xv. 22 254 +xv. 24 130 +xv. 29-31 117 +xv. 32-38 117, 297 +xv. 39 291 +xv. 39 to xvi. 12 17 +xvi. 9f. 297 +xvi. 13-20 94, 117, 298 +xvi. 16 263 +xvi. 16ff. 142 +xvi. 17 142, 224, 262 +xvi. 21 118, 239 +xvi. 21-28 117 +xvi. 21 to xxviii. 20 24 +xvi. 23 239 +xvii. 1-13 117 +xvii. 10-13 193 +xvii. 14-20 117 +xvi. 22-23 117 +xvii. 24-27 117, 139 +xviii. 1-35 117, 148 +xviii. 4 220 +xviii. 12-14 44 +xix. 1f. 39, 153, 154, 298 +xix. 1 to xx. 34 104 +xix. 3-9 228 +xix. 3-12 153 +xix. 13-15 153 +xix. 16 to xx. 16 153 +xx. 17-19 153 +xx. 20-28 153 +xx. 29-34 153 +xxi. 1-11 166 +xxi. 1 to xxvii. 66 104 +xxi. 1 to xxviii. 20 39 +xxi. 4f. 170 +xxi. 9-15 254 +xxi. 14-16 172 +xxi. 17 166 +xxi. 18-19, 12-17 166 +xxi. 20-23 166 +xxi. 23-27 166 +xxi. 28 to xxii. 14 166, 173 +xxi. 33-46 25, 252 +xxii. 1-14 252 +xxii. 15-22 166 +xxii. 23-33 166 +xxii. 34-46 166, 238 +xxii. 41-46 166 +xxiii. 1-39 166 +xxiii. 2 13 +xxiii. 24 233 +xxiii. 37-39 34, 106 +xxiv. 1 to xxvi. 2 167 +xxiv. 6-13 166 +xxv. 178 +xxv. 37-46 237 +xxv. 40 221 +xxvi. 1f. 147 +xxvi. 2, 6-13 301 +xxvi. 3-5, 14-16 167 +xxvi. 11-13 167 +xxvi. 20 181 +xxvi. 25 200 +xxvi. 26 305 +xxvi. 30, 36-46 167 +xxvi. 30-35 305 +xxvi. 47-56 167 +xxvi. 57 to xxvii. 10 167 +xxvi. 63f. 263 +xxvii. 11-31 167 +xxvii. 32-56 167 +xxvii. 43 261 +xxvii. 46 197, 306 +xxvii. 50 285 +xxvii. 57 34 +xxvii. 57-61 167 +xxvii. 62-66 167 +xxviii. 1-8 201 +xxviii. 9, 10 201 +xxviii. 11-15 201 +xxviii. 16-20 201, 204 +xxviii. 18-20 25 + + +Mark. + +i. 1-13 26 +i. 3 79 +i. 4 77 +i. 7f. 93 +i. 10 84 +i. 11 68, 84, 261 +i. 14 101, 102, 106, 289 +i. 14f. 39, 115 +i. 14 to ix. 50 26, 102 +i. 16-20 115 +i. 21-34 115 +i. 24 254 +i. 27 249 +i. 35 265 +i. 35-39 253 +i. 35-45 115 +ii. 1-12 47, 115, 230, 294 +ii. 1-17 48 +ii. 1 to iii. 6 47, 48, 250, 204f. +ii. 5 239 +ii. 6f. 121 +ii. 10 28, 256, 259 +ii. 10, 28 and ||s 256 +ii. 12 25 +ii. 13-17 47, 115, 294 +ii. 15-17 96 +ii. 16 47, 121 +ii. 18-22 26, 47, 115 +ii. 20 239 +ii. 23 47 +ii. 23-28 115, 229, 294f. +ii. 25-27 228 +ii. 27 257 +ii. 44 253 +iii. 1-6 26, 115, 295 +iii. 7-12 115 +iii. 11 261 +iii. 13-19 115, 295 +iii. 17, 41 25 +iii. 19-30 40, 42, 116 +iii. 21, 31-35 59, 97 +iii. 22 34, 121 +iii. 22-30 156 +iii. 28-30 251 +iii. 31-35 59, 97, 116 +iv. 1-34 116, 232, 296 +iv. 3 64 +iv. 12 129 +iv. 13 129 +iv. 26-29 296 +iv. 35-41 116 +v. 1 290 +v. 1-20 116 +v. 7 261 +v. 11-13 139 +v. 21-43 116 +v. 30-34 243 +v. 41 20 +vi. 1-6 43, 116, 292 +vi. 2f. 220 +vi. 6b 116 +vi. 7-11 297 +vi. 7-13 116, 147 +vi. 14-29 116 +vi. 15 290 +vi. 30-34 47 +vi. 30-46 39, 40, 116, 297 +vi. 39 46 +vi. 47-56 116 +vii. 1 34 +vii. 1-23, 48 48, 116, 121, 139, 250 +vii. 6-13 233 +vii. 8-13 10 +vii. 10 244 +vii. 13 251 +vii. 14-23 238 +vii. 15 227 +vii. 19 130, 228 +vii. 24-30 116 +vii. 27 140 +vii. 29f. 289 +vii. 31 291 +vii. 31-37 117, 297 +vii. 34 20 +vii. 37 25 +viii. 1f. 141 +viii. 1-9 117, 297 +viii. 10 291 +viii. 10-21 117 +viii. 11 96 +vii. 11-13 139 +viii. 14f. 139 +viii. 19f. 297 +viii. 22-26 117 +viii. 27-30 117, 141, 298 +viii. 29 254 +viii. 31 168 ,20, 256, 259 +viii. 31-33 87, 239 +viii. 31-ix. 1 117, 296 +viii. 32f. 93 +viii. 34f. 147 +viii. 34 to ix. 1 146 +viii. 38 256, 259 +ix. 1 242 +ix. 2 292 +ix. 2-13 117 +ix. 6 28 +ix. 9 147 +ix. 10 203 +ix. 14-29 117, 147 +ix. 19 224 +ix. 29 265 +ix. 30-32 117, 147 +ix. 31 204 +ix. 33-50 117, 299 +ix. 35-37 234 +ix. 43-47 295 +x. 1 9, 104, 153, 154, 298 +x. 1 to xvi. 8 26 +x. 2-12 153, 154, 298 +x. 5f. 244 +x. 11 153, 154, 160 +x. 13-16 104 +x. 17-31 153, 155, 160 +x. 18 226 +x. 19 229 +x. 25 233 +x. 32-34 147, 153, 155, 162 +x. 35-45 153, 155, 163, 165, 184, 230, 304 +x. 40 243 +x. 42-45 259 +x. 45 241 +x. 46 162 +x. 46-52 153 +x. 47f. 254 +x. 48 163 +xi. 1-11 166 +xi. 1 to xv. 47 104 +xi. 1 to xvi. 8 [20] 39 +xi. 2f. 34 +xi. 2-5 112 +xi. 8-10 162 +xi. 9f. 170 +xi. 12-14, 15-18 166 +xi. 12-14, 20-25 172 +xi. 14-36 42 +xi. 15-19 43, 288 +xi. 17 108 +xi. 19 166 +xi. 20-27 166 +xi. 25 295 +xi. 27-33 166 +xi. 29-33 173 +xii. 1-12 166 +xii. 13-17 166, 173 +xii. 16 227 +xii. 18-27 166, 174 +xii. 24-27 228 +xii. 27 186 +xii. 28-34 166, 174 +xii. 35-37 166, 245 +xii. 38-40 166 +xii. 41-44 166 +xiii. and ||s 178, 241, 302 +xiii. 1-37 167 +xiii. 24-27 238 +xiii. 32 243, 247, 252, 263 +xiv. 1f., 10f. 167 +xiv. 3 169 +xiv. 3-9 166, 301 +xiv. 3-11 169 +xiv. 8 169 +xiv. 12 303 +xiv. 12-16 112 +xiv. 12-26 167 +xiv. 14 34 +xiv. 17 181 +xiv. 18-21 184 +xiv. 20 185 +xiv. 21 180 +xiv. 26, 32-42 167 +xiv. 26-31 305 +xiv. 33f. 186 +xiv. 34 145 +xiv. 36 20, 189, 239, 265 +xiv. 43-52 167 +xiv. 45 190 +xiv. 50 182 +xiv. 53 to xv. 1 190 +xiv. 61 167 +xiv. 61f. 254, 261 +xiv. 61-64 263 +xiv. 62 191 +xiv. 66-72 85, 258 +xv. 1 192 +xv. 1-20 167 +xv. 2 254 +xv. 6-15 192 +xv. 21 182, 195 +xv. 21-41 167 +xv. 22 305 +xv. 34 20, 197, 306 +xv. 42 182 +xv. 42-47 167 +xv. 43 34 +xv. 46 182 +xvi. 1 202 +xvi. 1-8 201 +xvi. 6f. 209 +xvi. [9-20] 204f., 306 +xvi. [9-11] 201 +xvi. [12f.] 201 +xvi. [14] 201 +xvi. [15-18] 201 +xvi. [19f.] 201 + + + +Luke. + + +i. 1-4 26, 42 +i. 3 41 +i. 5 52 +i. 36 82 +i. 46-55 60 +i. 68-79 68-79 +i. 80 61 +ii. 1f. 52 +ii. 8 56 +ii. 19-51 59 +ii. 24 61 +ii. 40-52 61 +ii. 41 62, 107 +ii. 48 97 +ii. 49 67, 262 +ii. 52 63, 69 +iii. 1f. 45, 49, 52 +iii. 13f. 74 +iii. 15 94 +iii. 21 64, 82, 85, 265 +iii. 23 52 +iv. 5 90 +iv. 13 87, 146 +iv. 14 101, 102, 289 +iv. 14, 15 39, 115, 292 +iv. 14 to ix. 50 26, 102 +iv. 16 62 +iv. 16-19 63 +iv. 16-30 43, 116, 292 +iv. 23 292 +iv. 31 106, 115 +iv. 31-41 115 +iv. 42-44 115 +v. 1-11 115, 293 +v. 4-11 43 +v. 12-16 115 +v. 17 34 +v. 17-26 115 +v. 24 28 +v. 27-32 115 +v. 33-39 115 +vi. 1-5 115 +vi. 6-11 115 +vi. 12 84, 265, 290 +vi. 12-19 115, 295 +vi. 17 290 +vi. 20 222 +vi. 20 to vii. 1 115, 295 +vi. 20-26 296 +vi. 27-42 296 +vi. 43-46 296 +vi. 47-49 296 +vii. 1-10 41, 115, 288, 289 +vii. 2-5 7 +vii. 7 43 +vii. 11-17 42, 116 +vii. 18-35 41, 116 +vii. 36-50 42, 116, 224 +vii. 47 239 +viii. 1-3 116 +viii. 4-18 116, 296 +viii. 19-21 116 +viii. 22-25 116 +viii. 26 290 +viii. 26-39 116 +viii. 40-56 116 +ix. 1-6 116, 297, 300 +ix. 7-9 116 +ix. 10-17 39, 116, 297 +ix. 11 135 +ix. 18 265 +ix. 18-21 117, 298 +ix. 22-27 117 +ix. 28f. 84, 146 +ix. 28-36 117 +ix. 29 265 +ix. 31 146 +ix. 37-42 117 +ix. 43-45 117 +ix. 46-50 117 +ix. 51 39, 157 +ix. 51f. 158, 298 +ix. 51-62 153 +ix. 51 to xviii. 40, 42, 104, 154, 156 +ix. 51 to xix. 27 26 +ix. 57-62 156 +x. 1 158, 301 +x. 3-12 297 +x. 1-24 153, 300 +x. 13-16 301 +x. 17-20 301 +x. 17-24 160 +x. 18 248 +x. 22 252, 263, 300 +x. 25-37 34, 153, 159, 227 +x. 28-37 159 +x. 38-42 34, 111, 153 +xi. 1 42, 265 +xi. 1-4 42, 295 +xi. 1-13 117 +xi. 9-13 295 +xi. 14-36 40, 116, 156 +xi. 34-36 295 +xi. 37-52 156 +xi. 37-54 154, 164 +xii. 1-12 156 +xii. 1-59 154, 164, 165 +xii. 13-21 117 +xii. 22-31 42 +xii. 22-34 103, 516, 295 +xii. 49-53 165 +xii. 58f. 295 +xiii. 1-9 154, 161, 164 +xiii. 10-17 117 +xiii. 18-21 44, 117, 296 +xiii. 22 157 +xiii. 22-30 153, 164 +xiii. 24 295 +xiii. 31f. 171, 193 +xiii. 31-35 153, 168 +xiii. 32 5 +xiii. 34f. 34, 106, 224 +xiii. 35 252 +xiv. 1-24 117 +xiv. 7ff. 304 +xiv. 15-24 161 +xiv. 25-35 154, 156, 164, 165 +xiv. 26 233 +xv. 1f. 96 +xv. 1 to xvi. 31 117 +xv. 4-7 44 +xv. 7 233 +xv. 11-32 232 +xvi. 13 295 +xvi. 22 247 +xvi. 31 229 +xvii. 1-4 117 +xvii. 11 157 +xvii. 11-19 153 +xvii. 20-37 154 +xviii. 1-8 154, 164 +xviii. 9-14 154, 159 +xviii. 15-17 153 +xviii. 15 to xix. 28 104 +xviii. 18-30 153 +xviii. 31-34 153 +xviii. 34 203 +xviii. 35-43 153 +xviii. 35 to xix. 28 155, 164 +xix. 1-10 154 +xix. 11-28 154, 163 +xix. 28 to xxiv. 53 27 +xix. 29-44 166 +xix. 29 to xxiii. 56 104 +xix. 29 to xxiii. 53 39 +xix. 37-40 162 +xix. 39 170 +xix. 41-44 170 +xix. 45f. 289 +xix. 45-47f. 166 +xix. 47 172 +xx. 1 166 +xx. 1-8 166 +xx. 9-19 166 +xx. 20-26 166 +xx. 27-40 166 +xx. 41-44 166 +xx. 45-47 166 +xxi. 1-4 166 +xxi. 5-38 167 +xxii. 37-38 166 +xxii. 1-6 167 +xxii. 7-30 167 +xxii. 14 181 +xxii. 15 181, 183, 303 +xxii. 17 304 +xxii. 17-20 185 +xxii. 19 184 +xxii. 23-30 304 +xxii. 28 87 +xxii. 31-34 185, 305 +xxii. 39-46 167 +xxii. 47-53 167 +xxii. 54-71 167 +xxii. 61f. 193 +xxii. 66-71 192 +xxii. 70 263 +xxiii. 1f. 192 +xxiii. 1-25 167 +xxiii. 4 192 +xxiii. 5-12 192 +xxiii. 13-16 192 +xxiii. 16-24 192 +xxiii. 26-49 167 +xxiii. 27-31 195 +xxiii. 34 197, 306, 307 +xxiii. 43 197, 306 +xxiii. 46 64, 197, 265, 306 +xxiii. 50-56 167 +xxiii. 56 182 +xxiv. 1-12 201 +xxiv. 12 205 +xxiv. 13-35 201 +xxiv. 21 200, 203 +xxiv. 36-43 201 +xxiv. 41-43 213 +xxiv. 44-53 201 +xxiv. 50 205 +xxiv. 51 214, 307 + + + +John. + + +i. 14 58, 269 +1. 19 to iv. 42 40, 101 +i. 25 78 +i. 26f. 93 +i. 28 92, 284 +i. 29 93 +i. 29-36 80 +i. 30-34 93 +i. 31 82 +i. 32-34 84 +i. 35f. 93 +i. 38 20, 226 +i. 40f., 43-45 92 +i. 41-45 142 +i. 42-47 239 +i. 44 290 +i. 49 94, 142, 254, 261, 263 +i. 51 95 +ii. 3-5 97 +ii. 11 222 +ii. 12 97 +ii. 13 46 +ii. 13-22 43, 106, 288 +ii. 16 262 +ii. 20 49 +ii. 22 96 +ii. 23 to iii. 15 106 +ii. 25 68, 141, 234, 239 +iii. 2 226 +iii. 16-21,30-36 32 +iii. 22-30 106 +iii. 24 46, 101 +iii. 23 288 +iii. 24,35 113 +iii. 30 80 +iii. 34 85, 86 +iv. 1-3 113 +iv. 1-3, 44 112 +iv. 1-4 289 +iv. 1-42 106 +iv. 1-45 102 +iv. 21-24 109 +iv. 25 14 +iv. 26 254 +iv. 30 95 +iv. 34 265 +iv. 35 107, 288, 293 +iv. 42 40 +iv. 43-45 39, 106, 286 +iv. 46-54 102, 106, 115, 289 +v. 1 40, 48, 293 +v. 1-9 32 +v. 1-47 102, 115 +v. 17 262 +v. 19 264 +v. 25 263 +v. 30 265 +v. 39 229 +vi. 1-15 39, 116 +vi. 1-71 102 +vi. 4 46, 138, 293 +vi. 14 25 +vi. 14f. 119 +vi. 15 89, 120, 135, 170 +vi. 16-21 116 +vi. 22-71 116 +vi. 30-32 87 +vi. 38 189, 265 +vi. 64 178, 180 +vi. 66 136 +vi. 67 225 +vi. 67-71 298 +vi. 68 81, 123 +vi. 68f. 142 +vi. 69 254 +vii. 1-10 39, 298 +vii. 1-52 117 +vii. 1 to viii. 59 103, 149 +vii. 2 138 +vii. 2-5 148 +vii. 5 64 +vii. 10 150 +vii. 15 235 +vii. 22 244 +vii. 23 32 +vii. 24 227 +vii. 25,32 160 +vii. 31 95 +vii. 32 299 +vii. 36 149 +vii. 40 254 +vii. 45-52 299 +vii. 49 13, 220 +vii. 50-52 111 +vii. 53 to viii. 11 37, 117, 149, 157 +viii. 12-59 117 +viii. 14 248 +viii. 15 157 +viii. 46 83, 266 +viii. 59 160, 299 +ix. 1 to x. 39 153 +ix. 1 to xi. 57 104 +ix. 10 158, 159 +ix. 35 263 +ix. 35-38 156 +x. 11-18 159 +x. 18 89 +x. 21 159 +x. 22 150, 155, 298 +x. 22, 40-42 58 +x. 24-39 159 +x. 25 161, 262 +x. 29 265 +x. 30 264 +x. 31-39 160 +x. 32 233 +x. 34 261 +x. 36 263 +x. 39 156 +x. 40 154, 155, 301 +x. 40-42 153, 160 +xi. 1-7 155 +xi. 1-46 153, 161 +xi. 4 263 +xi. 6 161 +xi. 34 243, 258 +xi. 41f. 161, 265 +xi. 47-50 193 +xi. 47-54 153, 161 +xi. 54 155, 162, 300 +xi. 55 to xii. 11 166 +xi. 55 to xix. 42 104 +xii. 1 46, 102, 163, 301 +xii. 1 to xxi. 25 39 +xii. 2 169 +xii. 4-8 301 +xii. 6 178 +xii. 7 169 +xii. 12f. 170 +xii. 12-19 166 +xii. 20-36 166, 176, 302 +xii. 23-36 168 +xii. 36^b(-50) 166 +xii. 37-43 32 +xiii. 1 181, 303 +xiii. 1-15 234, 304 +xiii. 1-30 167 +xiii. 21-30 184 +xiii. 23-26 185 +xiii. 29 178, 303 +xiii. 31 to xvi. 33 32, 167, 305 +xiii. 32f. 305 +xiii. 36-38 305 +xiv. 6-11 264 +xiv. 10 161, 265 +xiv. 28 265 +xiv. 30f. 32 +xv. 32, 167, 305 +xv. 1 262 +xvi. 32, 167, 305 +xvi. 25 264 +xvii. 1-26 167 +xvii. 21 264 +xviii. 1 167 +xviii. 1-12 167 +xviii. 8 190 +xviii. 11^b 189 +xviii. 12-27 167 +xviii. 15 193 +xviii. 28 182, 303 +xviii. 28 to xix. 16 167 +xviii. 31 192 +xviii. 33, 36f. 254 +xix. 7-12 192 +xix. 12-16 193 +xix. 14 606 +xix. 16-37 167 +xix. 19-22 198 +xix. 25 97 +xix. 26 97 +xix. 26f. 197, 306 +xix. 28 197, 306 +xix. 30 197, 306 +xix. 31 182, 199, 303 +xix. 31-37 198 +xix. 38 34 +xix. 38-42 167 +xix. 39 111 +xix. 42 303 +xx. 1-10 201 +xx. 2 206 +xx. 5-8 43 +xx. 8 203 +xx. 9 200 +xx. 9f., 24f. 93, 94 +xx. 14-18 201 +xx. 17 209, 214 +xx 19-25 201 +xx. 21 23 +xx. 26-29 201 +xx. 30 49 +xx. 30f. 32, 107 +xxi. 206 +xxi. 2 92 +xxi. 1-24 201 +xxi. 3-14 293 +xxi. 25 39 + + + +Acts. + + +i. 1-11 214 +i. 1-12 201 +i. 14 97 +ii. 36 202 +v. 36 89 +v. 37 53 +vii. 56 254 +xvii. 31 202 +xix. 1-7 80 +xx. 35 36 +xxi. 38 89 +xxiii. 8 302 + + + +Rom. + + +i. 3 21 +i. 4 202 +v. 19 21 +ix. 5 21 +xv. 3 21 + + + +I. Cor. + + +i. 23 190 +v. 7 183 +ix. 1 202 +x. 16 304 +xv. 202 +xv. 3-8 21, 105, 204 +xv. 4 204, 213 +xv. 5 201 +xv. 6 201 +xv. 6f. 162 +xv. 7 201 + + + +II. Cor. + + +v. 21 83 +viii. 9 21 +x. l 21 +xii. 212 + + + +Gal. + + +iii. 13 190 + + + +Phil. + + +ii. 5-11 21, 269 +ii. 7f. 190, 285 +ii. 8 196 + + + +II. Tim. + + +iii. 15 63 + + + +Heb. + + +ii. 17 61 +ii. 17f. 64 +ii. 18 87 +iv. 15 61, 63, 67 +v. 7 147 +v. 7-9 87 +vii. 26 57 +xii. 2 190 +xii. 13 190 + + + +I. Pet. + + +ii. 22 83 + + + + + + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's The Life of Jesus of Nazareth, by Rush Rhees + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE LIFE OF JESUS OF NAZARETH *** + +***** This file should be named 13228-8.txt or 13228-8.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/1/3/2/2/13228/ + +Produced by Distributed Proofreaders + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, +set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to +copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to +protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. 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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Life of Jesus of Nazareth + +Author: Rush Rhees + +Release Date: August 20, 2004 [EBook #13228] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE LIFE OF JESUS OF NAZARETH *** + + + + +Produced by Distributed Proofreaders + + + + + +</pre> + +<div id="tp"> + +<h1 class="title"><a class="newpage" name="pageiii" id="pageiii" title="iii"></a>The Life of Jesus of Nazareth</h1> + +<h2 class="subtitle"><i>A Study</i></h2> + +<p class="byline">By</p> + +<h2 class="author">Rush Rhees</h2> + +<h3>1902</h3> +</div> + + +<div id="verso"> +<div><a class="newpage" name="pageiv" id="pageiv" title="iv"></a><i>Copyright, 1900,</i></div> +<div>By Charles Scribner's Sons</div> +</div> + + +<div id="dedication"> +<h2><a id="v"></a>To</h2> + +<p>C. W. McC.</p> + +<p>In Recognition of Wise Counsel, Generous Help and Loving Appreciation</p> +</div> + + +<div id="epigraph"> +<blockquote><p><a class="newpage" name="pagevi" id="pagevi" title="vi"></a>"<i>I would preach ... the need to the world of the faith +in a Christ, the claim that Jesus is the Christ, and the demand +for an intelligent faith, which indeed shall transcend but shall +not despise knowledge, or neglect to have a knowledge to +transcend.</i>"--<cite>John Patterson Coyle</cite></p></blockquote> +</div> + + +<div id="preface"> +<h2><a class="newpage" name="pagevii" id="pagevii" title="vii"></a>Preface</h2> + + + +<p>The aim of this book is to help thoughtful readers of the gospels to +discern more clearly the features of him whom those writings inimitably +portray. It is avowedly a study rather than a story, and as a companion to +the reading of the gospels it seeks to answer some of the questions which +are raised by a sympathetic consideration of those narratives. These +answers are offered in an unargumentative way, even where the questions +are still in debate among scholars. This method has been adopted because +technical discussion would be of interest to but few of those whom the +book hopes to serve. On some of the questions a non-committal attitude is +taken in the belief that for the understanding of the life of Jesus it is +of little importance which way the decision finally goes. Less attention +has been given to questions of geography and archæology than to those +which have a more vital biographical significance.</p> + +<p>A word concerning the point of view adopted. The church has inherited a +rich treasure of doctrine concerning its Lord, the result of patient study +and, frequently, of heated controversy. It is customary to approach the +gospels with this interpretation of Christ as a premise, and such a study +has some unquestionable advantages. <a class="newpage" name="pageviii" id="pageviii" title="viii"></a>With the apostles and evangelists, +however, the recognition of the divine nature of Jesus was a conclusion +from their acquaintance with him. The Man of Nazareth was for them +primarily a man, and they so regarded him until he showed them that he was +more. Their knowledge of him progressed in the natural way from the human +to the divine. The gospels, particularly the first three, are marvels of +simplicity and objectivity. Their authors clearly regarded Jesus as the +Man from heaven; yet in their thinking they were dominated by the +influence of a personal Lord rather than by the force of an accepted +doctrine. It is with no lack of reverence for the importance and truth of +the divinity of Christ that this book essays to bring the Man Jesus before +the mind in the reading of the gospels. The incarnation means that God +chose to reveal the divine through a human life, rather than through a +series of propositions which formulate truth (Heb. i. 1-4). The most +perennially refreshing influence for Christian life and thought is +personal discipleship to that Revealer who is able to-day as of old to +exhibit in his humanity those qualities which compel the recognition of +God manifest in the flesh.</p> + +<p>An <a href="#appendix">Appendix</a> is added to furnish references to the wide literature of the +subject for the aid of those who wish to study it more extensively and +technically; also to discuss some questions of detail which could not be +considered in the text. This appendix will indicate the extent of my +indebtedness to others. I would acknowledge special obligation to +Professor Ernest D. Burton, <a class="newpage" name="pageix" id="pageix" title="ix"></a>of the University of Chicago, for generous +help and permission to use material found in his "Notes on the Life of +Jesus;" to Professor Shailer Mathews, also of Chicago, for very valuable +criticisms; to my colleague, Professor Charles Rufus Brown, for most +serviceable assistance; and to the editors of this series for helpful +suggestions and criticism during the making of the book. An unmeasured +debt is due to another who has sat at my side during the writing of these +pages, and has given constant inspiration, most discerning criticism, and +practical aid.</p> + +<p><cite>The Newton Theological Institution</cite>, April, 1900.</p> +</div> + + +<div id="toc"> +<p><a class="newpage" name="pagex" id="pagex" title="x"></a></p> +<h2><a class="newpage" name="pagexi" id="pagexi" title="xi"></a>Contents</h2> + + + +<h3>Part I</h3> + +<h4><a href="#p01">Preparatory</a></h4> + + +<ol> +<li> + +<a href="#p01-01">The Historical Situation</a> + +Sections <a href="#s001">1</a>-<a href="#s019">19.</a> Pages <a href="#page001">1</a>-<a href="#page020">20</a> + +<ul> + <li>Section <a href="#s001">1.</a> The Roman estimate of Judea.</li> <li><a href="#s002">2</a>, <a href="#s003">3.</a> Herod the Great and his + sons.</li> <li><a href="#s004">4.</a> Roman procurators in Palestine.</li> <li><a href="#s005">5.</a> Taxes.</li> <li><a href="#s006">6.</a> The army.</li> <li><a href="#s007">7.</a> + Administration of justice.</li> <li><a href="#s008">8.</a> The Sadducees.</li> <li><a href="#s009">9</a>, <a href="#s010">10.</a> The Pharisees.</li> <li><a href="#s011">11.</a> + The Zealots.</li> <li><a href="#s012">12.</a> The Essenes.</li> <li><a href="#s013">13.</a> The Devout.</li> <li><a href="#s014">14.</a> Herodians and + Samaritans.</li> <li><a href="#s015">15.</a> The synagogue.</li> <li><a href="#s016">16.</a> Life under the law.</li> <li><a href="#s017">17.</a> The + Messianic hope.</li> <li><a href="#s018">18.</a> Contemporary literature.</li> <li><a href="#s019">19.</a> Language of Palestine.</li> +</ul></li> + + + + +<li><a href="#p01-02">Sources of Our Knowledge of Jesus</a> + +Sections <a href="#s020">20</a>-<a href="#s035">35</a>. Pages <a href="#page021">21</a>-<a href="#page037">37.</a> + +<ul> + <li>Section <a href="#s020">20.</a> The testimony of Paul.</li> <li><a href="#s021">21.</a> Secular history.</li> <li><a href="#s022">22.</a> The written + gospels.</li> <li><a href="#s023">23.</a> Characteristics of the first gospel.</li> <li><a href="#s024">24.</a> Of the second.</li> + <li><a href="#s025">25.</a> Of the third. 26-30. The synoptic problem. 31-32. The Johannine + problem.</li> <li><a href="#s034">34.</a> The two narrative sources.</li> <li><a href="#s035">35.</a> Agrapha and Apocrypha.</li> +</ul></li> + + + + +<li><a class="newpage" name="pagexii" id="pagexii" title="xii"></a><a href="#p01-03">The Harmony of the Gospels</a> + +Sections <a href="#s036">36</a>-<a href="#s044">44</a>. Pages <a href="#page038">38</a>-<a href="#page014">14</a> + +<ul> + <li>Section <a href="#s036">36.</a> The value of four gospels.</li> <li><a href="#s037">37.</a> Tatian's Diatessaron. 38. + Agreement of the gospels concerning the chief events.</li> <li><a href="#s039">39.</a> The principal + problems.</li> <li><a href="#s040">40.</a> Relation of Mark and John. </li><li><a href="#s041">41</a>, <a href="#s042">42.</a> Matthew and Luke. 43. + Doublets.</li> <li><a href="#s044">44.</a> The degree of certainty attainable.</li> +</ul></li> + + + + +<li><a href="#p01-04">The Chronology</a> + +Sections <a href="#s045">45</a>-<a href="#s057">57</a>. Pages <a href="#page045">45</a>-<a href="#page056">56</a> + +<ul> +<li> Sections <a href="#s045">45</a>-<a href="#s048">48</a>. The length of Jesus' public ministry.</li> <li><a href="#s049">49.</a> Date of the + first Passover.</li> <li><a href="#s050">50.</a> Date of the crucifixion. 51-56. Date of the + nativity.</li> <li><a href="#s057">57.</a> Summary.</li> +</ul></li> + + + + +<li><a href="#p01-05">The Early Years of Jesus</a> + +Sections <a href="#s058">58</a>-<a href="#s071">71</a>. Pages <a href="#page057">57</a>-<a href="#page069">69</a> + +<ul> + <li>Section <a href="#s058">58.</a> Apocryphal stories.</li> <li><a href="#s059">59.</a> Silence of the New Testament + outside the gospels. 60-62. The miraculous birth.</li> <li><a href="#s063">63.</a> The childhood of + Jesus.</li> <li><a href="#s064">64.</a> Home.</li> <li><a href="#s065">65.</a> Religion, Education.</li> <li><a href="#s066">66.</a> Growth.</li> <li><a href="#s067">67.</a> Religious + development.</li> <li><a href="#s068">68.</a> The view from Nazareth. 69 The first visit to + Jerusalem. 70-71. The carpenter of Nazareth.</li> +</ul></li> + + + + +<li><a href="#p01-06">John the Baptist</a> + +Sections <a href="#s072">72</a>-<a href="#s084">84</a>. Pages <a href="#page070">70</a>-<a href="#page081">81</a> + +<ul> + <li>Section <a href="#s072">72.</a> The gospel picture.</li> <li><a href="#s073">73.</a> Notice by Josephus. 74. + Characteristics of the prophet 75-78. John's relation to the Essenes; + the Pharisees; the Zealots; the Apocalyptists.</li> <li><a href="#s079">79.</a> John and the + Prophets. 80-82. Origin of his baptism.</li> <li><a href="#s083">83.</a> His greatness.</li> <li><a href="#s084">84.</a> His + limitations and self-effacement.</li> +</ul></li> + + + + +<li><a class="newpage" name="pagexiii" id="pagexiii" title="xiii"></a><a href="#p01-07">The Messianic Call</a> + +Sections <a href="#s085">85</a>-<a href="#s096">96</a>. Pages <a href="#page082">82</a>-<a href="#page091">91</a> + +<ul> +<li> Sections </li><li><a href="#s085">85</a>, <a href="#s086">86.</a> John and Jesus.</li> <li><a href="#s087">87.</a> The baptism of Jesus. </li><li><a href="#s088">88</a>, <a href="#s089">89.</a> The + Messianic call.</li> <li><a href="#s090">90.</a> The gift of the Spirit. 91-94. The temptation. 95. + Source of the narrative.</li> <li><a href="#s096">96.</a> The issue.</li> +</ul></li> + + + + +<li><a href="#p01-08">The First Disciples</a> + +Sections <a href="#s097">97</a>-<a href="#s105">105</a>. Pages <a href="#page092">92</a>-<a href="#page097">97</a> + +<ul> + <li>Section <a href="#s097">97.</a> John at Bethany beyond Jordan.</li> <li><a href="#s098">98.</a> The deputation from the + priests.</li> <li><a href="#s099">99.</a> John's first testimony.</li> <li><a href="#s100">100.</a> The first disciples.</li> <li><a href="#s101">101.</a> The + early Messianic confessions.</li> <li><a href="#s102">102.</a> The visit to Cana.</li> <li><a href="#s103">103.</a> The miracles + as disclosures of the character of Jesus.</li> <li><a href="#s104">104.</a> Jesus and his mother.</li> + <li><a href="#s105">105.</a> Removal to Capernaum.</li> +</ul></li> +</ol> + + +<h3>Part II</h3> + +<h4><a href="#p02">The Ministry</a></h4> + + + +<ol> +<li><a href="#p02-01">General Survey of the Ministry</a> + +Sections <a href="#s106">106</a>-<a href="#s112">112</a>. Pages <a href="#page101">101</a>-<a href="#page105">105</a> + +<ul> + <li>Section <a href="#s106">106.</a> The early Judean ministry.</li> <li><a href="#s107">107.</a> Withdrawal to Galilee; a + new beginning.</li> <li><a href="#s108">108.</a> The ministry in Galilee a unit.</li> <li><a href="#s109">109.</a> Best studied + topically.</li> <li><a href="#s110">110.</a> The last journey to Jerusalem.</li> <li><a href="#s111">111.</a> The last week. 112. + The resurrection and ascension.</li> +</ul></li> + + + + +<li><a class="newpage" name="pagexiv" id="pagexiv" title="xiv"></a><a href="#p02-02">The Early Judean Ministry</a> + +Sections <a href="#s113">113</a>-<a href="#s124">124</a>. Pages <a href="#page106">106</a>-<a href="#page114">114</a> + +<ul> + <li>Outline of events in the Early Judean ministry.</li> <li>Section <a href="#s113">113.</a> The + opening ministry at Jerusalem.</li> <li><a href="#s114">114.</a> The record incomplete.</li> <li><a href="#s115">115.</a> The + cleansing of the temple.</li> <li><a href="#s116">116.</a> Relation to synoptic account.</li> <li><a href="#s117">117.</a> Jesus' + reply to the challenge of his authority.</li> <li><a href="#s118">118.</a> The reserve of Jesus.</li> + <li><a href="#s119">119.</a> Discourse with Nicodemus.</li> <li><a href="#s120">120.</a> Measure of success in Jerusalem.</li> + <li><a href="#s121">121.</a> The Baptist's last testimony.</li> <li><a href="#s122">122.</a> The arrest of John.</li> <li><a href="#s123">123.</a> The + second sign at Cana.</li> <li><a href="#s124">124.</a> Summary.</li> +</ul></li> + + + + +<li><a href="#p02-03">The Ministry in Galilee--Its Aim and Method</a> + +Sections <a href="#s125">125</a>-<a href="#s149">149</a>. Pages <a href="#page115">115</a>-<a href="#page137">137</a> + +<ul> + <li>Outline of events in the Galilean ministry.</li> <li>Section <a href="#s125">125.</a> General view. + </li><li><a href="#s126">126</a>, <a href="#s127">127.</a> Development of popular enthusiasm.</li> <li><a href="#s128">128.</a> Pharisaic opposition. + </li><li><a href="#s129">129</a>, <a href="#s130">130.</a> Jesus and the Messianic hope.</li> <li><a href="#s131">131.</a> Injunctions of silence. + 132-135. Jesus' twofold aim in Galilee. </li><li><a href="#s136">136</a>, <a href="#s137">137.</a> Character of the + teaching of this period: the sermon on the mount.</li> <li><a href="#s138">138.</a> The parables.</li> + <li><a href="#s139">139.</a> The instructions for the mission of the twelve.</li> <li><a href="#s140">140.</a> Jesus' tone + of authority.</li> <li><a href="#s141">141.</a> His mighty works. 142-144. Demoniac possession. 145. + Jesus' personal influence.</li> <li><a href="#s146">146.</a> The feeding of the five thousand. 147,</li> + <li><a href="#s148">148.</a> Revulsion of popular feeling.</li> <li><a href="#s149">149.</a> Results of the work in Galilee.</li> +</ul></li> + + + + +<li><a href="#p02-04">The Ministry in Galilee--The New Lesson</a> + +Sections <a href="#s150">150</a>-<a href="#s165">165</a>. Pages <a href="#page138">138</a>-<a href="#page152">152</a> + +<ul> + <li>Section <a href="#s150">150.</a> The changed ministry.</li> <li><a href="#s151">151.</a> The question of tradition. 152. + Further pharisaic opposition.</li> <li><a href="#s153">153.</a> Jesus in Phœnicia.</li> <li><a href="#s154">154.</a> Confirmation + of the disciples' faith.</li> <li><a href="#s155">155.</a> <a class="newpage" name="pagexv" id="pagexv" title="xv"></a>The question at Cæsarea Philippi. 156. + The corner-stone of the Church. 157-159. The new lesson.</li> <li><a href="#s160">160.</a> The + transfiguration.</li> <li><a href="#s161">161.</a> Cure of the epileptic boy.</li> <li><a href="#s162">162.</a> The feast of + Tabernacles.</li> <li><a href="#s163">163.</a> Story of Jesus and the adulteress.</li> <li><a href="#s164">164.</a> The new note + in Jesus' teaching.</li> <li><a href="#s165">165.</a> Summary of the Galilean ministry.</li> +</ul></li> + + + + +<li><a href="#p02-05">The Journey through Perea to Jerusalem</a> + +Sections <a href="#s166">166</a>-<a href="#s176">176</a>. Pages <a href="#page153">153</a>-<a href="#page165">165</a> + +<ul> + <li>Outline of events.</li> <li>Section <a href="#s166">166.</a> The Perean ministry.</li> <li><a href="#s167">167.</a> Account in + John. </li><li><a href="#s168">168</a>, <a href="#s169">169.</a> Account in Luke.</li> <li><a href="#s170">170.</a> The mission of the seventy. 171. + The feast of Dedication.</li> <li><a href="#s172">172.</a> Withdrawal beyond Jordan.</li> <li><a href="#s173">173.</a> The + raising of Lazarus.</li> <li><a href="#s174">174.</a> Ephraim and Jericho. 175,176. Summary.</li> +</ul></li> + + + + +<li><a href="#p02-06">The Final Controversies in Jerusalem</a> + +Sections <a href="#s177">177</a>-<a href="#s188">188</a>. Pages <a href="#page166">166</a>-<a href="#page180">180</a> + +<ul> + <li>Outline of events in the last week of Jesus' life.</li> <li>Section <a href="#s177">177.</a> The + cross in apostolic preaching.</li> <li><a href="#s178">178.</a> The anointing in Bethany.</li> <li><a href="#s179">179.</a> The + Messianic entry.</li> <li><a href="#s180">180.</a> The barren fig-tree.</li> <li><a href="#s181">181.</a> The Monday of Passion + week. 182-186. The controversies of Tuesday.</li> <li><a href="#s187">187.</a> Judas. 188. + Wednesday, the day of seclusion.</li> +</ul></li> + + + + +<li><a href="#p02-07">The Last Supper</a> + +Sections <a href="#s189">189</a>-<a href="#s195">195</a>. Pages <a href="#page181">181</a>-<a href="#page187">187</a> + +<ul> + <li>Section <a href="#s189">189.</a> Preparations. 190,191. Date of the supper.</li> <li><a href="#s192">192.</a> The lesson + of humility.</li> <li><a href="#s193">193.</a> The new covenant.</li> <li><a href="#s194">194.</a> The supper and the Passover.</li> + <li><a href="#s195">195.</a> Farewell words of admonition and comfort; the intercessory prayer.</li> +</ul></li> + + + + +<li><a class="newpage" name="pagexvi" id="pagexvi" title="xvi"></a><a href="#p02-08">The Shadow of Death</a> + +Sections <a href="#s196">196</a>-<a href="#s208">208</a>. Pages <a href="#page188">188</a>-<a href="#page200">200</a> + +<ul> + <li>Sections <a href="#s196">196</a>, <a href="#s197">197.</a> Gethsemane.</li> <li><a href="#s198">198.</a> The betrayal.</li> <li><a href="#s199">199.</a> The trial. 200. + Peter's denials.</li> <li><a href="#s201">201.</a> The rejection of Jesus.</li> <li><a href="#s202">202.</a> The greatness of + Jesus. </li><li><a href="#s203">203</a>, <a href="#s204">204.</a> The crucifixion.</li> <li><a href="#s205">205.</a> The words from the cross. 206. + The death of Jesus.</li> <li><a href="#s207">207.</a> The burial.</li> <li><a href="#s208">208.</a> The Sabbath rest.</li> +</ul></li> + + + + +<li><a href="#p02-09">The Resurrection</a> + +Sections <a href="#s209">209</a>-<a href="#s222">222</a>. Pages <a href="#page201">201</a>-<a href="#page216">216</a> + +<ul> + <li>Section <a href="#s209">209.</a> The primary Christian fact.</li> <li><a href="#s210">210.</a> The incredulity of the + disciples. 211-216. The appearances of the risen Lord. 217-220. Efforts + to explain the belief in the resurrection.</li> <li><a href="#s221">221.</a> The ascension.</li> <li><a href="#s222">222.</a> The + new faith of the disciples.</li> +</ul></li> +</ol> + + +<h3>Part III</h3> + +<h4><a href="#p03">The Minister</a></h4> + + + +<ol> +<li><a href="#p03-01">The Friend of Men</a> + +Sections <a href="#s223">223</a>-<a href="#s229">229</a>. Pages <a href="#page219">219</a>-<a href="#page225">225</a> + +<ul> + <li>Section <a href="#s223">223.</a> The contrast between Jesus' attitude and John's towards + common social life.</li> <li><a href="#s224">224.</a> Contrast with the scribes. </li><li><a href="#s225">225</a>, <a href="#s226">226.</a> His + interest in simple manhood.</li> <li><a href="#s227">227.</a> Regard for human need. 228, 229. + Sensitiveness to human sympathy.</li> +</ul></li> + + + + +<li><a href="#p03-02">The Teacher with Authority</a> + +Sections <a href="#s230">230</a>-<a href="#s241">241</a>. Pages <a href="#page226">226</a>-<a href="#page237">237</a> + +<ul> + <li>Section <a href="#s230">230.</a> Contrast between Jesus and the scribes.</li> <li><a href="#s231">231.</a> His appeal to + the conscience. His attitude to the Old <a class="newpage" name="pagexvii" id="pagexvii" title="xvii"></a>Testament.</li> <li><a href="#s234">234.</a> His teaching + occasional.</li> <li><a href="#s235">235.</a> The patience of his method.</li> <li><a href="#s236">236.</a> His use of + illustration.</li> <li><a href="#s237">237.</a> Parable.</li> <li><a href="#s238">238.</a> Irony and hyperbole.</li> <li><a href="#s239">239.</a> Object + lessons.</li> <li><a href="#s240">240.</a> Jesus' intellectual superiority.</li> <li><a href="#s241">241.</a> His chief theme, + the kingdom of God.</li> +</ul></li> + + + + +<li><a href="#p03-03">Jesus' Knowledge of Truth</a> + +Sections <a href="#s242">242</a>-<a href="#s251">251</a>. Pages <a href="#page238">238</a>-<a href="#page248">248</a> + +<ul> + <li>Sections <a href="#s242">242</a>, <a href="#s243">243.</a> Jesus' supernatural knowledge.</li> <li><a href="#s244">244.</a> His predictions + of his death.</li> <li><a href="#s245">245.</a> Of his resurrection.</li> <li><a href="#s246">246.</a> His apocalyptic + predictions. </li><li><a href="#s247">247</a>, <a href="#s248">248.</a> Limitation of his knowledge. </li><li><a href="#s249">249</a>, <a href="#s250">250.</a> Jesus and + demoniac possession.</li> <li><a href="#s251">251.</a> His certainty of his own mission.</li> +</ul></li> + + + + +<li><a href="#p03-04">Jesus' Conception of Himself</a> + +Sections <a href="#s252">252</a>-<a href="#s275">275</a>. Pages <a href="#page249">249</a>-<a href="#page269">269</a>. + +<ul> + <li>Section <a href="#s252">252.</a> Jesus' confidence in his calling.</li> <li><a href="#s253">253.</a> His independence in + teaching.</li> <li><a href="#s254">254.</a> His self-assertions in response to pharisaic criticism.</li> + <li><a href="#s255">255.</a> His desire to beget faith in himself. 256,257. His extraordinary + personal claim.</li> <li><a href="#s258">258.</a> His acceptance of Messianic titles. 259-266. The + Son of Man. 267-269. The Son of God. </li><li><a href="#s270">270</a>, <a href="#s271">271.</a> His consciousness of + oneness with God.</li> <li><a href="#s272">272.</a> His confession of dependence; his habit of + prayer.</li> <li><a href="#s273">273.</a> No confession of sin. </li><li><a href="#s274">274</a>, <a href="#s275">275.</a> The Word made flesh.</li> +</ul></li> +</ol> + +<p><a href="#appendix">Appendix</a></p> + +<p><a href="#index1">Index of Names and Subjects</a></p> + +<p><a href="#index2">Index of Biblical References</a></p> + +<p><a href="images/map.jpg">Map of Palestine</a></p> +<p><a class="newpage" name="pagexviii" id="pagexviii" title="xviii"></a></p> +</div> + + +<div class="part" id="p01"> +<h2><a class="newpage" name="page001" id="page001" title="1"></a>Part I</h2> + + +<h3>Preparatory</h3> +<p><a class="newpage" name="page002" id="page002" title="2"></a></p> + + +<div class="chapter" id="p01-01"> +<h2><a class="newpage" name="page003" id="page003" title="3"></a>I</h2> + +<h3>The Historical Situation</h3> + + + +<div class="section" id="s001"><p><span class="versenum">1.</span> When Tacitus, the Roman historian, records the attempt of Nero to +charge the Christians with the burning of Rome, he has patience for no +more than the cursory remark that the sect originated with a Jew who had +been put to death in Judea during the reign of Tiberius. This province was +small and despised, and Tacitus could account for the influence of the +sect which sprang thence only by the fact that all that was infamous and +abominable flowed into Rome. The Roman's scornful judgment failed to grasp +the nature and power of the movement whose unpopularity invited Nero's +lying accusation, yet it emphasizes the significance of him who did "not +strive, nor cry, nor cause his voice to be heard in the street," whose +influence, nevertheless, was working as leaven throughout the empire.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s002"><p><span class="versenum">2.</span> Palestine was not under immediate Roman rule when Jesus was born. Herod +the Great was drawing near the close of the long reign during which, owing +to his skill in securing Roman favor, he had tyrannized over his unwilling +people. His claim was that of an adventurer who had power to succeed, even +as his method had been that of a suspicious tyrant, who murdered right and +left, lest one of the many with better right than he should rise to +dispute with him <a class="newpage" name="page004" id="page004" title="4"></a>his throne. When Herod died, his kingdom was divided +into three parts, and Rome asserted a fuller sovereignty, allowing none of +his sons to take his royal title. Herod's successors ruled with a measure +of independence, however, and followed many of their father's ways, though +none of them had his ability. The best of them was Philip, who had the +territory farthest from Jerusalem, and least related to Jewish life. He +ruled over Iturea and Trachonitis, the country to the north and east of +the Sea of Galilee, having his capital at Cæsarea Philippi, a city built +and named by him on the site of an older town near the sources of the +Jordan. He also rebuilt the city of Bethsaida, at the point where the +Jordan flows into the Sea of Galilee, calling it Julias, after the +daughter of Augustus. Philip enters the story of the life of Jesus only as +the ruler of these towns and the intervening region, and as husband of +Salome, the daughter of Herodias. Living far from Jerusalem and the Jewish +people, he abandoned even the show of Judaism which characterized his +father, and lived as a frank heathen in his heathen capital.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s003"><p><span class="versenum">3.</span> The other two who inherited Herod's dominion were brothers, Archelaus +and Antipas, sons of Malthace, one of Herod's many wives. Archelaus had +been designated king by Herod, with Judea, Samaria, and Idumea as his +kingdom; but the emperor allowed him only the territory, with the title +ethnarch. Antipas was named a tetrarch by Herod, and his territory was +Galilee and the land east of the Jordan to the southward of the Sea of +Galilee, called Perea. Antipas was the Herod under whose sway Jesus lived +in Galilee, and who executed John the Baptist. He was a man of pas<a class="newpage" name="page005" id="page005" title="5"></a>sionate +temper, with the pride and love of luxury of his father. Having Jews to +govern, he held, as his father had done, to a show of Judaism, though at +heart he was as much of a pagan as Philip. He, too, loved building, and +Tiberias on the Sea of Galilee was built by him for his capital. His +unscrupulous tyranny and his gross disregard of common righteousness +appear in his relations with John the Baptist and with Herodias, his +paramour. Jesus described him well as "that fox" (Luke xiii. 32), for he +was sly, and worked often by indirection. While his father had energy and +ability which command a sort of admiration, Antipas was not only bad but +weak.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s004"><p><span class="versenum">4.</span> Both Philip and Antipas reigned until after the death of Jesus, Philip +dying in A.D. 34, and Antipas being deposed several years later, probably +in 39. Archelaus had a much shorter rule, for he was deposed in A.D. 6, +having been accused by the Jews of unbearable barbarity and tyranny,--a +charge in which Antipas and Philip joined. The territory of Archelaus was +then made an imperial province of the second grade, ruled by a procurator +appointed from among the Roman knights. In provinces under an imperial +legate (propraetor) the procurator was an officer for the administration +of the revenues; in provinces of the rank of Judea he was, however, the +representative of the emperor in all the prerogatives of government, +having command of the army, and being the final resort in legal procedure, +as well as supervising the collection of the customs and taxes. Very +little is known of the procurators appointed after the deposition of +Archelaus, until Tiberius sent Pontius Pilate in A.D. 26. He held office +until he was deposed in 36. <a class="newpage" name="page006" id="page006" title="6"></a>Josephus gives several examples of his wanton +disregard of Jewish prejudice, and of his extreme cruelty. His conduct at +the trial of Jesus was remarkably gentle and judicial in comparison with +other acts recorded of his government; yet the fear of trial at Rome, +which finally induced him to give Jesus over to be crucified, was +thoroughly characteristic; in fact, his downfall resulted from a complaint +lodged against him by certain Samaritans whom he had cruelly punished for +a Messianic uprising.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s005"><p><span class="versenum">5.</span> There were two sorts of Roman taxes in Judea: direct, which were +collected by salaried officials; and customs, which were farmed out to the +highest bidder. The direct taxes consisted of a land tax and a poll tax, +in the collection of which the procurator made use of the local Jewish +courts; the customs consisted of various duties assessed on exports, and +they were gathered by representatives of men who had bought the right to +collect these dues. The chiefs as well as their underlings are called +publicans in our New Testament, although the name strictly applies only to +the chiefs. These tax-gatherers, small and great, were everywhere despised +and execrated, because, in addition to their subserviency to a hated +government, they had a reputation, usually deserved, for all sorts of +extortion. Because of this evil repute they were commonly drawn from the +unscrupulous among the people, so that the frequent coupling of publicans +and sinners in the gospels probably rested on fact as much as on +prejudice.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s006"><p><span class="versenum">6.</span> In Samaria and Judea soldiers were under the command of the procurator; +they took orders from the tetrarch, in Galilee and Perea. The garrison of +Jeru<a class="newpage" name="page007" id="page007" title="7"></a>salem consisted of one Roman cohort--from five to six hundred +men--which was reinforced at the time of the principal feasts. These and +the other forces at the disposal of the procurator were probably recruited +from the country itself, largely from among the Samaritans. The centurion +of Capernaum (Matt. viii. 5; Luke vii. 2-5) was an officer in the army of +Antipas, who, however, doubtless organized his army on the Roman pattern, +with officers who had had their training with the imperial forces.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s007"><p><span class="versenum">7.</span> The administration of justice in Samaria and Judea was theoretically in +the hands of the procurator; practically, however, it was left with the +Jewish courts, either the local councils or the great sanhedrin at +Jerusalem. This last body consisted of seventy-one "elders." Its president +was the high-priest, and its members were drawn in large degree from the +most prominent representatives of the priestly aristocracy. The scribes, +however, had a controlling influence because of the reverence in which the +multitude held them. The sanhedrin of Jerusalem had jurisdiction only +within the province of Judea, where it tried all kinds of offences; its +judgment was final, except in capital cases, when it had to yield to the +procurator, who alone could sentence to death. It had great influence also +in Galilee, and among Jews everywhere, but this was due to the regard all +Jews had for the holy city. It was, in fact, a sort of Jewish senate, +which took cognizance of everything that seemed to affect the Jewish +interests. In Galilee and Perea, Antipas held in his hands the judicial as +well as the military and financial administration.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s008"><p><a class="newpage" name="page008" id="page008" title="8"></a><span class="versenum">8.</span> To the majority of the priests religion had become chiefly a form. +They represented the worldly party among the Jews. Since the days of the +priest-princes who ruled in Jerusalem after the return from the exile, +they had constituted the Jewish aristocracy, and held most of the wealth +of the people. It was to their interest to maintain the ritual and the +traditional customs, and they were proud of their Jewish heritage; of +genuine interest in religion, however, they had little. This secular +priestly party was called the Sadducees, probably from Zadok, the +high-priest in Solomon's time. What theology the Sadducees had was for the +most part reactionary and negative. They were opposed to the more earnest +spirit and new thought of the scribes, and naturally produced some +champions who argued for their theological position; but the mass of them +cared for other things.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s009"><p><span class="versenum">9.</span> The leaders of the popular thought, on the other hand, were chiefly +noted for their religious zeal and theological acumen. They represented +the outgrowth of that spirit which in the Maccabean time had risked all to +defend the sanctity of the temple and the right of God's people to worship +him according to his law. They were known as Pharisees, because, as the +name ("separated") indicates, they insisted on the separation of the +people of God from all the defilements and snares of the heathen life +round about them. The Pharisees constituted a fraternity devoted to the +scrupulous observance of law and tradition in all the concerns of daily +life. They were specialists in religion, and were the ideal +representatives of Judaism. Their distinguishing characteristic was +reverence for the law; <a class="newpage" name="page009" id="page009" title="9"></a>their religion was the religion of a book. By +punctilious obedience of the law man might hope to gain a record of merit +which should stand to his credit and secure his reward when God should +finally judge the world. Because life furnished many situations not dealt +with in the written law, there was need of its authoritative +interpretation, in order that ignorance might not cause a man to +transgress. These interpretations constituted an oral law which +practically superseded the written code, and they were handed down from +generation to generation as "the traditions of the fathers." The existence +of this oral law made necessary a company of scribes and lawyers whose +business it was to know the traditions and transmit them to their pupils. +These scribes were the teachers of Israel, the leaders of the Pharisees, +and the most highly revered class in the community. Pharisaism at its +beginning was intensely earnest, but in the time of Jesus the earnest +spirit had died out in zealous formalism. This was the inevitable result +of their virtual substitution of the written law for the living God. Their +excessive reverence had banished God from practical relation to the daily +life. They held that he had declared his will once for all in the law. His +name was scrupulously revered, his worship was cultivated with minutest +care, his judgment was anticipated with dread; but he himself, like an +Oriental monarch, was kept far from common life in an isolation suitable +to his awful holiness. By a natural consequence conscience gave place to +scrupulous regard for tradition in the religion of the scribes. The chief +question with them was not, Is this right? but, What say the elders? The +soul's sensitiveness of response to God's will and God's truth was lost in +a <a class="newpage" name="page010" id="page010" title="10"></a>maze of traditions which awoke no spontaneous Amen in the moral nature, +consequently there was frequent substitution of reputation for character. +The Pharisees could make void the command, Honor thy father, by an +ingenious application of the principle of dedication of property to God +(Mark vii. 8-13), and thus under the guise of scrupulous regard for law +discovered ways for legal disregard of law. Their theory of religion gave +abundant room for a piety which made broad its phylacteries and lengthened +its prayers, while neglecting judgment, mercy, and the love of God.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s010"><p><span class="versenum">10.</span> Yet the earnest and true development in Jewish thinking was found +among the Pharisees. The early hope of Israel was almost exclusively +national. In the later books of the Old Testament, in connection with an +enlarged sense of the importance of the individual, the doctrine of a +personal resurrection to share the blessings of the Messiah's kingdom +began to appear. It had its clear development and definite adoption as +part of the faith of Judaism, however, under the influence of the +Pharisees. Along with this increased emphasis on the worth of the +individual came a large development of the doctrine of angels and spirits. +Towards both of these doctrines the Sadducees took a reactionary position. +Politically the Pharisees were theocratic in theory, but opportunists in +practice, accommodating themselves to the existing state of things so long +as the <i>de facto</i> government did not interfere with the religious life of +the people. They looked for a kingdom in which God should be evidently the +king of his people; but they believed that his sovereignty was to be +realized through the law, hence their sole interest was in the obedi<a class="newpage" name="page011" id="page011" title="11"></a>ence +of God's people to that law as interpreted by the traditions.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s011"><p><span class="versenum">11.</span> The theocratic spirit was more aggressive in a party which originated +in the later years of Herod the Great, and found a reckless leader in +Judas of Galilee, who started a revolt when the governor of Syria +undertook to make a census of the Jews after the deposition of Archelaus. +This party bore the name Cananeans or Zealots. They regarded with +passionate resentment the subjection of God's people to a foreign power, +and waited eagerly for an opportune time to take the sword and set up the +kingdom of God; it was with them that the final war against Rome began. +They were found in largest numbers in Galilee, where the scholasticism of +the scribes was not so dominating an influence as in Judea. Dr. Edersheim +has called them the nationalist party. In matters belonging strictly to +the religious life they followed the Pharisees, only holding a more +material conception of the hope of Israel.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s012"><p><span class="versenum">12.</span> Another development in Jewish religious life carried separatist +doctrines to the extreme. Its representatives were called Essenes, though +what the significance of the name was is no longer clear. Although they +were allied with the Pharisees in doctrine, they show in some particulars +the influence of Hellenistic Judaism. This is suggested not only by the +attention which Philo and Josephus give to them, but also by certain of +their views, which were very like the doctrines of the Pythagoreans. They +carried the pharisaic demand for separateness to the extreme of +asceticism. While they were found in nearly every town in Palestine, some +of them even practising marriage, the largest group of them lived a +celibate, <a class="newpage" name="page012" id="page012" title="12"></a>monastic life near the shores of the Dead Sea. This community +was recruited by the initiation of converts, who only after a novitiate of +three years were admitted to full membership in the order. They were +characterized by an extreme scrupulousness concerning ceremonial purity, +their meals were regarded as sacrifices, and were prepared by members of +the order, who were looked upon as priests, nor were any allowed to +partake of the food until they had first bathed themselves. Their regular +garments were all white, and were regarded as vestments for use at the +sacrificial meals,--other clothing being assumed as they went out to their +work. They were industrious agriculturists, their life was communistic, +and they were renowned for their uprightness. They revered Moses as highly +as did the scribes; yet they were opposed to animal sacrifices, and, +although they sent gifts to the temple, were apparently excluded from its +worship. Their kinship with the Pythagoreans appears in that they +addressed an invocation to the sun at its rising, and conducted all their +natural functions with scrupulous modesty, "that they might not offend the +brightness of God" (Jos. Wars, ii. 8, 9). Their rejection of bloody +sacrifices, and their view that the soul is imprisoned in the body and at +death is freed for a better life, besides many features of their life that +are genuinely Jewish, such as their regard for ceremonial purity, also +show similarity to the Pythagoreans. It has always been a matter of +perplexity that these ascetics find no mention in the New Testament. They +seem to have lived a life too much apart, and to have had little sympathy +with the ideals of Jesus, or even of John the Baptist.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s013"><p><a class="newpage" name="page013" id="page013" title="13"></a><span class="versenum">13.</span> The common people followed the lead of the Pharisees, though afar +off. They accepted the teaching concerning tradition, as well as that +concerning the resurrection, conforming their lives to the prescriptions +of the scribes more or less strictly, according as they were more or loss +ruled by religious considerations. It was in consequence of their hold on +the people that the scribes in the sanhedrin were able often to dictate a +policy to the Sadducean majority. Jesus voiced the popular opinion when he +said that "the scribes sit in Moses' seat" (Matt, xxiii. 2). Their leaders +despised "this multitude which knoweth not the law" (John vii. 49), yet +delighted to legislate for them, binding heavy burdens and grievous to be +borne. Many of the people were doubtless too intent on work and gain to be +very regardful of the <i>minutiæ</i> of conduct as ordained by the scribes; +many more were too simple-minded to follow the theories of the rabbis +concerning the aloofness of God from the life of men. These last +reverenced the scribes, followed their directions, in the main, for the +conduct of life, yet lived in fellowship with God as their fathers had, +trusting in his faithfulness, and hoping in his mercy. They are +represented in the New Testament by such as Simeon and Anna, Zachariah and +Elizabeth, Joseph and Mary, and the majority of those who heard and heeded +John's call to repentance. They were Israel's remnant of pure and +undefiled religion, and constituted what there was of good soil among the +people for the reception of the seed sown by John's successor. They had no +name, for they did not constitute a party; for convenience they may be +called the Devout.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s014"><p><a class="newpage" name="page014" id="page014" title="14"></a><span class="versenum">14.</span> Two other classes among the people are mentioned in the gospels,--the +Herodians and the Samaritans. The Herodians do not appear outside the New +Testament, and seem to have been hardly more than a group of men in whom +the secular spirit was dominant, who thought it best for their interests +and for the people's to champion the claims of the Herodian family. They +were probably more akin to the Pharisees than to the Sadducees, for the +latter were hostile to the Herodian claims, from the first; yet in spirit +they seem more like to the worldly aristocracy than to the pious scribes. +The Samaritans lived in the land, a people despising and despised. Their +territory separated Galilee from Judea, and they were a constant source of +irritation to the Jews. The hatred was inherited from the days of Ezra, +when the zealous Jews refused to allow any intercourse with the +inhabitants of Samaria. These Samaritans were spurned as of impure blood +and mixed religion (II. Kings xvii. 24-41). The severe attitude adopted +towards them by Ezra and Nehemiah led to the building of a temple on Mount +Gerizim, and the establishment of a worship which sought to rival that of +Jerusalem in all particulars. Very little is known of the tenets of the +Samaritans in the time of Jesus beyond their belief that Gerizim was the +place which, according to the law, God chose for his temple, and that a +Messiah should come to settle all questions of dispute (John iv. 25).</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s015"><p><span class="versenum">15.</span> Although the religious life of the Jews centred ideally in the temple, +it found its practical expression in the synagogue. This in itself is +evidence of the relative influence of priests and scribes. There was no +confessed rivalry. The Pharisee was most insist<a class="newpage" name="page015" id="page015" title="15"></a>ent on the sanctity of the +temple and the importance of its ritual. Yet with the growing sense of the +religious significance of the individual as distinct from the nation, +there arose of necessity a practical need for a system of worship possible +for the great majority of the people, who could at best visit Jerusalem +but once or twice a year. The synagogue seems to have been a development +of the exile, when there was no temple and no sacrifice. It was the +characteristic institution of Judaism as a religion of the law, furnishing +in every place opportunity for prayer and study. The elders of each +community seem ordinarily to have been in control of its synagogue, and to +have had authority to exclude from its fellowship persons who had come +under the ban. In addition to these officials there was a ruler of the +synagogue, who had the direction of all that concerned the worship; a +<i>chazzan</i>, or minister, who had the care of the sacred books, administered +discipline, and instructed the children in reading the scripture; and two +or more receivers of alms. The Sabbath services consisted of prayers, and +reading of the scriptures--both law and prophets,--and an address or +sermon. It was in the sermon that the people learned to know the +"traditions of the elders," whether as applications of the law to the +daily life, or as legendary embellishments of Hebrew history and prophecy. +The preacher might be any one whom the ruler of the synagague recognized +as worthy to address the congregation.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s016"><p><span class="versenum">16.</span> The religious life which centred in the synagogue found daily +expression in the observance of the law and the traditions. In the measure +of its control by the scribes it was concerned chiefly with the Sab<a class="newpage" name="page016" id="page016" title="16"></a>bath, +with the various ablutions needful to the maintenance of ceremonial +purity, with the distinctions between clean and unclean food, with the +times and ways of fasting, and with the wearing of fringes and +phylacteries. These lifeless ceremonies seem to our day wearisome and +petty in the extreme. It is probable, however, that the growth of the +various traditions had been so gradual that, as has been aptly said, the +whole usage seemed no more unreasonable to the Jews than the etiquette of +polite society does to its devotees. The evil was not so much in the +minuteness of the regulations as in the external and superficial notion of +religion which they induced.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s017"><p><span class="versenum">17.</span> Optimism was the mood of Israel's prophets from the earliest times. +Every generation looked for the dawning of a day which should banish all +ill and realize the dreams inspired by the covenant in which God had +chosen Israel for his own. In proportion as the rabbinic formalism held +control of the hearts of the people, the Messianic hope lost its warmth +and vigor. Yet the scribes did not abandon the prophetic optimism; they +held to the letter of the hope, but as its fulfilment was for them +dependent on perfect obedience to the law, oral and written, their +interest was diverted to the traditions, and their strength was given to +legal disputations. Of the rest of the people, the Sadducees naturally +gave little thought to the promise of future deliverance, they were too +absorbed with regard for present concerns. Nor is there any evidence that +the Essenes, with all their reputed knowledge of the future, cherished the +hope of a Messiah. The other elements among the people who owned the +general leadership <a class="newpage" name="page017" id="page017" title="17"></a>of the scribes looked eagerly for the coming time when +God should bring to pass what he had promised through the prophets. While +some expected God himself to come in judgment, and gave no thought to an +Anointed one who should represent the Most High to the people, the +majority looked for a Son of David to sit upon his father's throne. Even +so, however, there were wide differences in the nature of the hope which +was set on the coming of this Son of David. The Zealots were looking for a +victory, which should set Israel on high over all his foes. To the rest of +the people, however, the method of the consummation was not so clear, and +they were ready to leave God to work out his purpose in his own way, +longing meanwhile for the fulfilment of his promise. One class in +particular gave themselves to visionary representations of the promised +redemption. They differed from the Zealots in that they saw with unwelcome +clearness the futility of physical attack upon their enemies; but their +faith was strong, and at the moment when outward conditions seemed most +disheartening they looked for a revelation of God's power from heaven, +destroying all sinners in his wrath, and delivering and comforting his +people, giving them their lot in a veritable Canaan situated in a renewed +earth. Such visions are recorded in the Book of Daniel and the Revelation +of John. They are found in many other apocalypses not included in our +Bible, and indicate how persistently the minds of the people turned +towards the promises spoken by the prophets, and meditated on their +fulfilment. The Devout were midway between the Zealots and the +Apocalyptists. The songs of Zach<a class="newpage" name="page018" id="page018" title="18"></a>ariah and Mary and the thanksgiving of +Simeon express their faith. They hoped for a kingdom as tangible as the +Zealots sought, yet they preferred to <i>wait</i> for the consolation of +Israel. They believed that God was still in his heaven, that he was not +disregardful of his people, and that in his own time he would raise up +unto them their king. They looked for a Son of David, yet his reign was to +be as remarkable for its purification of his own people as for its +victories over their foes. These victories indeed were to be largely +spiritual, for their Messiah was to conquer in the strength of the Spirit +of God and "by the word of his mouth." Such as these were ready for a +ministry like John's, and not unready for the new ideal which Jesus was +about to offer them, though their highest spiritualization of the +Messianic hope was but a shadow of the reality which Jesus asked them to +accept.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s018"><p><span class="versenum">18.</span> This last conception of the Messiah is found in a group of psalms +written in the first century before Christ, during the early days of the +Roman interference in Judea. These Psalms of Solomon, as they are called, +are pharisaic in point of view, yet they are not rabbinic in their ideas. +Their feeling is too deep, and their reliance on God too immediate; they +fitly follow the psalms of the Old Testament, though afar off. Of another +type of contemporary literature, Apocalypse, at least two representatives +besides the Book of Daniel have come down to us from the time of Jesus or +earlier,--the so-called Book of Enoch, and the fragment known as the +Assumption of Moses. These writings have peculiar interest, because they +are probably the source of quotations found in the Epistle of <a class="newpage" name="page019" id="page019" title="19"></a>Jude; +moreover, some sayings of Jesus reported in the gospels, and in particular +his chosen title, The Son of Man, are strikingly similar to expressions +found in Enoch. Can Jesus have read these books? The psalms of the Devout +were the kind of literature to pass rapidly from heart to heart, until all +who sympathized with their hope and faith had heard or seen them. The case +was different with the apocalypses. They are more elaborate and +enigmatical, and may have been only slightly known. Yet, as Jesus was +familiar with the canonical Book of Daniel, although it was not read in +the synagogue service in his time, it is possible that he may also have +read or heard other books which had not won recognition as canonical. If, +however, he knew nothing of them, the similarity between the apocalypses +and some of Jesus' ideas and expressions becomes all the more significant; +for it shows that these writings gave utterance to thoughts and feelings +shared by men who never read them, which were, therefore, no isolated +fancies, but characteristic of the religion of many of the people. With +these ideas Jesus was familiar; whether he ever read the books must remain +a question.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s019"><p><span class="versenum">19.</span> This literature exists for us only in translations made in the days of +the early church. Most of these books were originally written in Hebrew, +the language of the Old Testament, or in Aramaic, the language of +Palestine in the time of Jesus. Traces of this language as spoken by Jesus +have been preserved in the gospels,--the name <i>Rabbi; Abba</i>, translated +Father; <i>Talitha cumi</i>, addressed to the daughter of Jairus; <i>Ephphatha</i>, +to the deaf man of Bethsaida; and the cry from the cross, <i>Eloi, Eloi, +lama sabachthani</i> <a class="newpage" name="page020" id="page020" title="20"></a>(John i. 38; Mark xiv. 36; v. 41; vii. 34; xv. 34). It +is altogether probable that in his common dealings with men and in his +teachings Jesus used this language. Greek was the language of the +government and of trade, and in a measure the Jews were a bilingual +people. Jesus may thus have had some knowledge of Greek, but it is +unlikely that he ever used it to any extent either in Galilee, or Judea, +or in the regions of Tyre and Sidon.</p></div> +</div> + + +<div class="chapter" id="p01-02"> +<h2><a class="newpage" name="page021" id="page021" title="21"></a>II</h2> + +<h3>Sources of Our Knowledge Of Jesus</h3> + + + +<div class="section" id="s020"><p><span class="versenum">20.</span> The earliest existing record of events in the life of Jesus is given +to us in the epistles of Paul. His account of the appearances of the Lord +after his death and resurrection (I. Cor. xv. 3-8) was written within +thirty years of these events. The date of the testimony, however, is much +earlier, since Paul refers to the experience which transformed his own +life, and so carries us back to within a few years of the crucifixion. +Other facts from Jesus' life may be gathered from Paul, as his descent +from Abraham and David (Rom. i. 3; ix. 5); his life of obedience (Rom. v. +19; xv. 3; Phil. ii. 5-11); his poverty (II. Cor. viii. 9); his meekness +and gentleness (II. Cor. x. 1); other New Testament writings outside of +our gospels add somewhat to this restricted but very clear testimony.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s021"><p><span class="versenum">21.</span> Secular history knows little of the obscure Galilean. The testimony of +Tacitus is that the Christians "derived their name and origin from one +Christ, who in the reign of Tiberius had suffered death by the sentence of +the procurator, Pontius Pilate" (Annals, xv. 44). Suetonius makes an +obscure and seemingly ill-informed allusion to Christ in the reason he +assigns for the edict of Claudius expelling the Jews from Rome (Vit. +Claud. 25). The younger Pliny in the second century had learned that the +<a class="newpage" name="page022" id="page022" title="22"></a>numerous Christian community in Bithynia was accustomed to honor Christ +as God; but he shows no knowledge of the life of Jesus beyond what must be +inferred concerning one who caused men "to bind themselves with an oath +not to enter into any wickedness, or commit thefts, robberies, or +adulteries, or falsify their word, or repudiate trusts committed to them" +(Epistles X. 96). This secular ignorance is not surprising; but the +silence of Josephus is. He mentions Jesus in but one clearly genuine +passage, when telling of the martyrdom of James, the "brother of Jesus, +who is called the Christ" (Ant. xx. 9. 1). Of John the Baptist, however, +he has a very appreciative notice (Ant, xviii. 5. 2), and it cannot be +that he was ignorant of Jesus. His appreciation of John suggests that he +could not have mentioned Jesus more fully without some approval of his +life and teaching. This would be a condemnation of his own people, whom he +desired to commend to Gentile regard; and he seems to have taken the +cowardly course of silence concerning a matter more noteworthy, even for +that generation, than much else of which he writes very fully.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s022"><p><span class="versenum">22.</span> The reason for the lack of written Christian records of Jesus' life +from the earliest time seems to be, not that the apostles had a small +sense of the importance of his earthly ministry, but that the early +generation preferred what at a later time was called the "living voice" +(Papias in Euseb. Ch. Hist. iii. 39). The impression made by Jesus was +supremely personal; he wrote nothing, did not command his disciples to +write anything, preferring to influence men's minds by personal power, +appointing them, in turn, to represent <a class="newpage" name="page023" id="page023" title="23"></a>him to men as he had represented +the Father to them (John xx. 21). But the time came when the first +witnesses were passing away, and they were not many who could say, "I saw +him." Our gospels are the result of the natural desire to preserve the +apostolic testimony for a generation that could no longer hear the +apostolic voice; and they are precisely what such a sense of need would +produce,--vivid pictures of Jesus, agreeing in general features, differing +more or less in details, reflecting individual feeling for the Master, and +written not simply to inform men but to convince them of that Master's +claims. One evidence of the reality of the gospel pictures is the fact +that we so seldom feel the individual characteristics of each gospel. This +is especially true of the first three, which, to the vividness of their +picture, add a remarkable similarity of detail. Tatian, in the second +century, felt it necessary to make a continuous narrative for the use of +the church by interweaving the four gospels into one, and he has had many +successors down to our day; but the fact that unity of impression has +practically resulted from the four pictures without recourse to such an +interweaving, invites consideration of the characteristics of these +remarkable documents.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s023"><p><span class="versenum">23.</span> The first gospel impresses the careful reader with three things: (1) A +clear sense of the development of Jesus' ministry. The author introduces +his narrative by an account of the birth of Jesus, of the ministry of John +the Baptist, and of Jesus' baptism and temptation and withdrawal into +Galilee (i. 1 to iv. 17). He then depicts the public ministry by grouping +together, first, teachings of Jesus concerning <a class="newpage" name="page024" id="page024" title="24"></a>the law of the kingdom of +heaven, then a series of great miracles confirming the new doctrine, then +the expansion of the ministry and deepening hostility of the Pharisees, +leading to the teaching by parables, and the final withdrawal from Galilee +to the north. This ministry resulted in the chilling of popular enthusiasm +which had been strong at the beginning, but in the winning of a few hearts +to Jesus' own ideals of the kingdom of God (iv. 18 to xvi. 20). From this +point the evangelist leads us to Jerusalem, where rejection culminates, +the sterner teachings of Jesus are massed, and his victory in seeming +defeat is exhibited (xvi. 21 to xxviii. 20). (2) The evangelist's interest +is not satisfied by this clear, strong, picture; he wishes to convince men +that Jesus is Israel's Messiah, hence, throughout, he indicates the +fulfilment of prophecy. The things in which he sees the fulfilment are +striking, for, with but one or two exceptions, they are features of the +life of Jesus objectionable to Jewish feeling. This fact, taken in +connection with the emphasis which the gospel gives to the death of Jesus +at the hands of the Jews, and to the resurrection as God's seal of +approval of him whom his people rejected, forms a forcible argument to +prove the Messiahship of Jesus, not simply in spite of his rejection by +the Jews, but by appeal to that rejection as leading to God's signal +vindication of the crucified one. (3) This evangelist, while proving that +Jesus is the Messiah promised to Israel, recognizes clearly the freedom of +the new faith from the exclusiveness of Jewish feeling. The choice of +Galilee for the Messianic ministry (iv. 12-17), the comment of Jesus on +the faith of the centurion (viii. 10-12), the rebuke of Israel in the +<a class="newpage" name="page025" id="page025" title="25"></a>parable of the Wicked Husbandmen (xxi. 33-46), and especially the last +commission of the risen Lord (xxviii. 18-20), show that this gospel sought +to convince men of Jewish feeling not only that Jesus is Messiah, but also +that as Messiah he came to bring salvation to all the world.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s024"><p><span class="versenum">24.</span> The second gospel is much simpler in construction than the first, +while presenting essentially the same picture of the ministry as is found +in Matthew. To its simplicity it adds a vividness of narration which +commends Mark's account as probably representing most nearly the actual +course of the life of Jesus. While it reports fewer incidents and +teachings than either of the others, a comparison with Matthew and Luke +shows a preference in Mark for Jesus' deeds, though addresses are not +wanting; and, while shorter as a whole, for matters which he reports +Mark's record is most rich in detail, most dramatic in presentation, and +actually longer than the parallel accounts in the other gospels. The whole +narrative is animated in style (note the oft-repeated "immediately") and +full of graphic traits. The story of Jesus seems to be reproduced from a +memory which retains fresh personal impressions of events as they +occurred. Hence the frequent comments on the effect of Jesus' ministry, +such as "We never saw it on this fashion" (ii. 12), or "He hath done all +things well" (vii. 37), and the introduction into the narrative of Aramaic +words,--<i>Boanerges</i> (iii. 17), <i>Talitha, cumi</i> (v. 41), and the like, +which immediately have to be translated. The gospel discloses no +artificial plan, the chief word of transition is "and." While some of the +incidents recorded, such as the second Sabbath controversy <a class="newpage" name="page026" id="page026" title="26"></a>(iii. 1-6) and +the question about fasting (ii. 18-22), may owe their place to association +in memory with an event of like character, the book impresses us as a +collection of annals fresh from the living memory, which present the +actual Jesus teaching and healing, and going on his way to the cross and +resurrection. After the briefest possible reference to the ministry of +John the Baptist and the baptism and temptation of Jesus (i. 1-13), this +gospel proceeds to set forth the ministry in Galilee (i. 14 to ix. 50). +The narrative then follows Jesus to Jerusalem, by way of Perea, and closes +with his victory through death and resurrection (x. 1 to xvi. 8).</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s025"><p><span class="versenum">25.</span> The third gospel is more nearly a biography than any of its +companions. It opens with a preface stating that after a study of many +earlier attempts to record the life of Jesus the author has undertaken to +present as complete an account as possible of that life from the +beginning. The book is addressed to one Theophilus, doubtless a Greek +Christian, and its chief aim is practical,--to confirm conviction +concerning matters of faith (i. 1-4). The author's interest in the +completeness of his account appears in the fact that it begins with +incidents antecedent to the birth of John the Baptist and Jesus. Moreover, +to his desire for completeness we owe much of the story of Jesus, +otherwise unrecorded for us. Like the first two gospels, Luke represents +the ministry of Jesus as inaugurated in Galilee, and carried on there +until the approach of the tragedy at Jerusalem (iv. 14 to ix. 50). It is +in connection with the journey to Jerusalem (ix. 51 to xix. 27) that he +inserts most of that which is peculiar to his gospel. His account of the +rejection at Jeru<a class="newpage" name="page027" id="page027" title="27"></a>salem, the crucifixion, and resurrection, follows in the +main the same lines as Matthew and Mark; but he gained his knowledge of +many particulars from different sources (xix. 28 to xxiv. 53). It is +characteristic of Luke to name Jesus "Lord" more often than either of his +predecessors. With this exalted conception is coupled a noticeable +emphasis on Jesus' ministry of compassion; here more than in any other +gospel he is pictured as the friend of sinners. Moreover, we owe chiefly +to Luke our knowledge of him as a man of prayer and as subject to repeated +temptation. An artificial exaltation of Christ, such as is often +attributed to the later apostolic thought, would tend to reduce, not +multiply, such evidences of human dependence on God. This fact increases +our confidence in the accuracy of Luke's picture. The gospel is very full +of comfort to those under the pressure of poverty, and of rebuke to +unbelieving wealth, though the parable of the Unjust Steward and story of +Zacchæus show that it does not exalt poverty for its own sake. If our +first gospel pictures Jesus as the fulfilment of God's promises to his +people, and Mark, as the man of power at work before our very eyes, +astonishing the multitude while winning the few, Luke sets before us the +Lord ministering with divine compassion to men subject to like temptations +with himself, though, unlike them, he knew no sin.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s026"><p><span class="versenum">26.</span> The first three gospels, differing as they do in point of view and +aim, present essentially one picture of the ministry of Jesus; for they +agree concerning the locality and progress of his Messianic work, and the +form and contents of his teaching, showing, in <a class="newpage" name="page028" id="page028" title="28"></a>fact, verbal identity in +many parts of their narrative. For this reason they are commonly known as +the Synoptic Gospels. Yet these gospels exhibit differences as remarkable +as their likenesses. They differ perplexingly in the order in which they +arrange some of the events in Jesus' life. Which of them should be given +preference in constructing a harmonious picture of his ministry? They +often agree to the letter in their report of deeds or words of Jesus, yet +from beginning to end remarkable verbal differences stand side by side +with remarkable verbal identities. Some of the identities of language +suggest irresistibly that the evangelists have used, at least in part, the +same previously existing written record. One of the clearest evidences of +this is found in the introduction, at the same place in the parallel +accounts, of the parenthesis "then saith he to the sick of the palsy" +which interrupts the words of Jesus in the cure of the paralytic (Mark ii. +10; Matt. ix. 6; Luke v. 24). When the three gospels are carefully +compared it appears that Mark contains very little that is not found in +Matthew and Luke, and that, with one or two exceptions, Luke presents in +Mark's order the matter that he has in common with the second gospel. The +same is also true of the relation between the latter part of the Gospel of +Matthew (Matt. xiv. 1 to the end) and the parallel portion of Mark; while +the comparison of Matthew's arrangement of his earlier half with Mark +suggests that the order in the first gospel has been determined by other +than chronological considerations. In a sense, therefore, we may say that +the Gospel of Mark reveals the chronological framework on which all three +of these gospels are constructed. <a class="newpage" name="page029" id="page029" title="28"></a>Comparison discloses further the +interesting fact that the matter which Matthew and Luke have in common, +after subtracting their parallels to Mark, consists almost entirely of +teachings and addresses. Each gospel, however, has some matter peculiar to +itself.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s027"><p><span class="versenum">27.</span> In considering the problem presented by these facts, it is well to +remember that no one of these gospels contains within itself any statement +concerning the identity of its author. We are indebted to tradition for +the names by which we know them, and no one of them makes any claim to +apostolic origin. The earliest reference in Christian literature which may +be applied to our gospels comes from Papias, a Christian of Asia Minor in +the second century. He reports that an earlier teacher had said, "Mark, +having become the interpreter of Peter, wrote down accurately, though not, +indeed, in order, whatsoever he remembered of the things said or done by +Christ, for he neither heard the Lord nor followed him, but afterward, as +I said, he followed Peter, who adapted his teachings to the needs of his +hearers, but with no intention of giving a connected account of the Lord's +discourses. So that Mark committed no error when he thus wrote some things +as he remembered them, for he was careful of one thing, not to omit any of +the things which he had heard and not to state any of them falsely.... +Matthew wrote the oracles [of the Lord] in the Hebrew language [Aramaic], +and every one interpreted them as he was able" (Euseb. Ch. Hist. iii. 39). +The result of many years' study by scholars of all shades of opinion is +the very general conclusion that the writing which Papias attributed <a class="newpage" name="page030" id="page030" title="30"></a>to +Mark was essentially what we have in our second gospel.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s028"><p><span class="versenum">28.</span> It is almost as universally acknowledged that the work ascribed by the +second century elder to the apostle Matthew cannot be our first gospel; +for its language has not the characteristics which other translations from +Hebrew or Aramaic lead us to expect, while the completeness of its +narrative exceeds what is suggested by the words of Papias. If, however, +the matter which Matthew and Luke have in such rich measure in addition to +Mark's narrative be considered, the likeness between this and the writing +attributed by Papias to the apostle Matthew is noteworthy. The conclusion +is now very general, that that apostolic writing is in large measure +preserved in the discourses in our first and third gospels. The relation +of our gospels to the two books mentioned by Papias may be conceived, +then, somewhat as follows: The earliest gospel writing of which we know +anything was a collection of the teachings of Jesus made by the apostle +Matthew, in which he collected with simple narrative introductions, those +sayings of the Lord which from the beginning had passed from mouth to +mouth in the circle of the disciples. At a later time Mark wrote down the +account of the ministry of Jesus which Peter had been accustomed to relate +in his apostolic preaching. The work of the apostle Matthew, while much +richer in the sayings of Jesus, lacked the completeness that characterizes +a narrative; hence it occurred to some early disciple to blend together +these two primitive gospel records, adding such other items of knowledge +as came to his hand from oral tradition or written memoranda. As his <a class="newpage" name="page031" id="page031" title="31"></a>aim +was practical rather than historical, he added such editorial comments as +would make of the new gospel an argument for the Messiahship of Jesus, as +we have seen. Since the most precious element in this new gospel was the +apostolic record of the teachings of the Lord, the name of Matthew and not +of his literary successor, was given to the book.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s029"><p><span class="versenum">29.</span> The third gospel is ascribed, by a probably trustworthy tradition, to +Luke, the companion of Paul. The author himself says that he made use of +such earlier records as were accessible, among which the chief seem to +have been the writings of Mark and the apostle Matthew. To Luke's +industry, however, we owe our knowledge of many incidents and teachings +from the life of Jesus which were not contained in these two records, and +with which we could ill afford to part. Some of these he doubtless found +in written form, and some he gathered from oral testimony. His close +agreement with Mark in the arrangement of his narrative suggests that he +found no clear evidence of a ministry of wider extent in time and place. +He therefore used Mark as his narrative framework, and of the rich +materials which he had gathered made a gospel, the completest of any +written up to his time.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s030"><p><span class="versenum">30.</span> Such in the main is the conclusion of modern study of our first three +gospels; it explains the general identity of their picture of Jesus and of +their report of his teaching; it leaves room for those individual +characteristics which give them so much of their charm; and it traces the +materials of the gospels far back of the writings as we have them, +bringing us nearer to the events which they describe. The dates of these +<a class="newpage" name="page032" id="page032" title="32"></a>documents can be only approximately known. It is probable that the +"logia" collected by the apostle Matthew were written not later than 60 to +65 A.D., while the Gospel of Mark dates from before the fall of Jerusalem +in 70. Our first gospel must have been made between 70 and 100, and the +Gospel of Luke may be dated about the year 80,--all within sixty or +seventy years after the death of Jesus.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s031"><p><span class="versenum">31.</span> The fourth gospel gives us a picture of Jesus in striking contrast to +that of the other three. These present chiefly the works of the Master and +his teachings concerning the kingdom of God and human conduct, leaving the +truth concerning the teacher himself to be inferred. John opens the heart +of Jesus and makes him disclose his thought about himself in a remarkable +series of teachings of which he is the prime topic. This gospel is +avowedly an argument (xx. 30, 31); its selection of material is +confessedly partial; its aim is to confirm the faith of Christians in the +heavenly nature and saving power of their Lord; and its method is that of +appeal to testimony, to signs, and to his own self-disclosures. The +opening verses of the gospel have a somewhat abstract theological +character; the body of the book, however, consists of a succession of +incidents and teachings which follow each other in unstudied fashion like +a collection of annals. This impression is not compromised by the +recognition, at some points, of accidental displacements, like that which +has placed xiv. 30, 31 before xv. and xvi., or that which has left a long +gap between vii. 23 and the incident of v. 1-9, to which it refers. The +theme of the gospel is the self-disclosure of Jesus. This seems to have +determined the evangelist's choice of material, <a class="newpage" name="page033" id="page033" title="33"></a>and, as the gospel is an +argument, he does not hesitate to mingle his own comments with his report +of Jesus' words, for example (iii. 16-21, 30-36; xii. 37-43). The book is +characterized by a vividness of detail which indicates a clear memory of +personal experience. While it is evident that the author has the most +exalted conception of the nature of his Lord, this seems to have been the +result of loving meditation on a friend who had early won the mastery over +his heart and life, and who through long years of contemplation had forced +upon his disciple's mind the conviction of his transcendent nature. The +book discloses a profoundly objective attitude; the Christ whom John +portrays is not the creature of his speculations, but the Master who has +entered into his experience as a living influence and has compelled +recognition of his significance. The Son of God is for John the human +Jesus who, though named at the outset the Word--the Logos,--is the Word +who was made flesh, that men through him might become the sons of God.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s032"><p><span class="versenum">32.</span> The contrast which the Gospel of John presents to the other three +concerns not only the teaching of Jesus, but the scene of his ministry and +its historic development as well. Whatever may be the final judgment +concerning the fourth gospel, it is manifestly constructed as a simple +collection of incidents following each other in what was meant to appear a +chronological sequence. It has been seen that the biographical framework +of the first three gospels is principally Mark's report of Peter's +narrative. Now it is a fact that in portions of Matthew and Luke, derived +elsewhere than from Mark, there are various allusions most easily +understood if it be assumed that Jesus <a class="newpage" name="page034" id="page034" title="34"></a>visited Jerusalem before his +appearance there at the end of his ministry. Such, for instance, are the +parable of the Good Samaritan (Luke x. 25-37), the story of the visit to +Mary and Martha (Luke x. 38-42), and the lamentation of Jesus over +Jerusalem (Luke xiii. 34, 35; Matt, xxiii. 37-39). All three gospels, +moreover, agree in attributing to emissaries from Jerusalem much of the +hostility manifested against Jesus in his Galilean ministry (Luke v. 17; +Mark iii. 22; Matt. xv. 1; Mark vii. 1), and presuppose such an +acquaintance of Jesus with households in and near Jerusalem as is not easy +to explain if he never visited Judea before his passion (Mark xi. 2, 3; +xiv. 14; xv. 43 and parallels; compare especially Matt, xxvii. 57; John +xix. 38). These all suggest that the narrative of Mark does not tell the +whole story, a conclusion quite in accordance with the account of his work +given by Papias. It has been assumed that Peter was a Galilean, a man of +family living in Capernaum. It is not impossible that on some of the +earlier visits of Jesus to Jerusalem he did not accompany his Master, and +in reporting the things which he knew he naturally confined himself to his +own experiences. If this can explain the predominance of Galilean +incidents in the ministry as depicted in Mark, it will explain the +predominance of Galilee in the first three gospels, and the contradiction +between John and the three is reduced to a divergence between two accounts +of Jesus' ministry written from two different points of view.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s033"><p><span class="versenum">33.</span> The question of the trustworthiness of the fourth gospel is greatly +simplified by the consideration of the one-sidedness of Mark's +representation. It is further relieved by the fact that a ministry by +Jesus in <a class="newpage" name="page035" id="page035" title="35"></a>Jerusalem must have been one of constant self-assertion, for +Jerusalem represented at its highest those aspects of thought and practice +which were fundamentally opposed to all that Jesus did and taught. +Whenever in Galilee, in the ministry pictured by the first three gospels, +Jesus came in contact with the spirit and feeling characteristic of +Jerusalem, we find him meeting it by unqualified assertion of his own +independence and exalted claim to authority, altogether similar to that +emphasis of his own significance and importance which is the chief +characteristic of his teachings in the fourth gospel. If it be remembered +that that gospel was avowedly an argument written to commend to others the +reverent conclusion concerning the Lord reached by a disciple whose +thought had dwelt for long years on the marvel of that life, and if we +recognize that for such an argument the author would select the instances +and teachings most telling for his own purpose, and would do this as +naturally as the magnet draws to itself iron filings which are mingled +with a pile of sand, the exclusively personal character of the teachings +of Jesus in this gospel need cause little perplexity. Nor need it seem +surprising that the words of Jesus as reported in John share the +peculiarities of style which mark the work of the evangelist in the +prologue to the gospel and in his epistles. His purpose was not primarily +biographical but argumentative, and he has set forth the picture of his +Lord as it rose before his own heart, his memory of events being +interwoven with contemplation on the significance of that life with which +his had been so blessedly associated. In a gospel written avowedly to +produce in others a conviction like his own, the evangelist would not have +<a class="newpage" name="page036" id="page036" title="36"></a>been sensible of any obligation to draw sharp lines between his +recollection of his Lord's words and his own contemplations upon them and +upon their significance for his life. If these considerations be kept in +mind we may accept the uniform tradition of antiquity, confirmed by the +plain intimation of the gospel itself, that it is essentially the work of +John, the son of Zebedee, written near the close of his life in Ephesus, +in the last decade of the first century.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s034"><p><span class="versenum">34.</span> We have in our gospel records, therefore, two authorities for the +general course of the ministry of Jesus,--Mark and John. Even if the +fourth gospel should be proved not to be the work of John, its picture of +the ministry of Jesus must be recognized as coming from some apostolic +source. A forger would hardly have invited the rejection of his work by +inventing a narrative which seems to contradict at so many points the +tradition of the other gospels. The first and third gospels furnish us +from various sources rich additions to Mark's narrative, and it is to +these two with the fourth that we turn chiefly for the teachings of Jesus. +Each gospel should be read, therefore, remembering its incompleteness, +remembering also the particular purpose and individual enthusiasm for +Jesus which produced it.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s035"><p><span class="versenum">35.</span> A word may be due to two other claimants to recognition as original +records from the life of Jesus. One class is represented by that word of +the Lord which Paul quoted to the Ephesian elders at Miletus (Acts xx. +35). Scattered here and there in writings of the apostolic and succeeding +ages are other sayings attributed to Jesus which cannot be found in our +gospels. A few of these so-called Agrapha seem worthy <a class="newpage" name="page037" id="page037" title="37"></a>of him, and are +recognized as probably genuine. The most important of them is the story of +the woman taken in adultery (John vii. 53 to viii. 11), which, though not +a part of the gospel of John, doubtless gives a true incident from Jesus' +life. They represent the "many other" things which John and the other +gospels have omitted, but their small number proves that our gospels have +preserved for us practically all that was known of Jesus after the first +witnesses fell asleep. It is certainly surprising that so little exists to +supplement the story of the gospels, for they are manifestly fragmentary, +and leave much of Jesus' public life without any record. The other class +of claimants is of a quite different character,--the so-called Apocryphal +Gospels. These consist chiefly of legends connected with the birth and +early years of Jesus, and with his death and resurrection. They are for +the most part crude tales that have entirely mistaken the real character +of him whom they seek to exalt, and need only to be read to be rejected.</p></div> +</div> + + +<div class="chapter" id="p01-03"> +<h2><a class="newpage" name="page038" id="page038" title="38"></a>III</h2> + +<h3>The Harmony of the Gospels</h3> + + + +<div class="section" id="s036"><p><span class="versenum">36.</span> The church early appreciated the value and the difficulty of having +four different pictures of the life and teachings of the Lord. Irenæus at +the close of the second century felt it to be as essential that there +should be four gospels as that there should be "four zones of the world, +four principal winds, and four faces of the cherubim" (Against Heresies +III. ii. 8).</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s037"><p><span class="versenum">37.</span> Before Irenæus, however, another had sought to obviate the difficulty +of having four records which seem at some points to disagree, by making a +combination of the gospels, to which he gave the title "Diatessaron." +Tatian, the author of this work, was converted from paganism about 152 +A.D., and prepared his unified gospel, probably for the use of the Syrian +churches, sometime after 172. His work is one of the treasures of the +early Christian literature recovered for us within the last +quarter-century. It seems to have won great popularity in the Syrian +churches, having practically displaced the canonical gospels for nearly +three centuries, when, owing to its supposed heretical tendency, it was +suppressed by the determined effort of the church authorities. It is a +continuous record of Jesus' ministry, beginning with the first six verses +of the Gospel of John, passing then to the early chapters <a class="newpage" name="page039" id="page039" title="39"></a>of Luke. It +closes with an account of the resurrection interwoven from all four +gospels, concluding with John xxi. 25. The arrangement follows generally +the order of Matthew, additional matter from the other gospels being +inserted at places which approved themselves to Tatian's judgment. Some +portions--in particular the genealogies of Jesus--were omitted altogether, +in accordance with views held by the compiler.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s038"><p><span class="versenum">38.</span> From Tatian's time to the present there have been repeated attempts to +construct a harmonious representation of events and teachings in the +ministry of Jesus, generally by setting the parallel accounts side by +side, following such a succession of events as seemed most probable. Our +evangelists cared little, if they thought at all, about the requirements +of strict biography, and they have left us records not easy to arrange on +any one chronological scheme. Concerning the chief events, however, the +gospels agree. All four report, for instance, the beginning of the work in +Galilee (Matt. iv. 12, 17; Mark i. 14, 15; Luke iv. 14, 15; John iv. +43-45); the feeding of the five thousand when Jesus' popularity in Galilee +passed its climax (Matt. xiv. 13-23; Mark vi. 30-46; Luke ix. 10-17; John +vi. 1-15); the departure from Galilee for the final visit to Jerusalem +(Matt. xix. 1, 2; Mark x. 1; Luke ix. 51; John vii. 1-10); and the week of +suffering and victory at the end (Matt. xxi. 1 to xxviii. 20; Mark xi. 1 +to xvi. 8 [20]; Luke xix. 29 to xxiv. 53; John xii. 1 to xxi. 25).</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s039"><p><span class="versenum">39.</span> These facts are enough to give us a clear and unified impression of +the course of Jesus' ministry. When, however, we seek to fill in the +details given <a class="newpage" name="page040" id="page040" title="40"></a>in the different gospels, difficulties at once arise. Thus, +first, what shall be done with the long section which John introduces (i. +19 to iv. 42) before Jesus' withdrawal into Galilee? The other gospels +make that withdrawal the beginning of his public work. A second difficulty +arises from the unnamed feast of John v. 1. By one or another scholar this +feast has been identified with almost every Jewish festival known to us. +Another problem is furnished by the long section in Luke which is so +nearly peculiar to his gospel (ix. 51 to xviii. 14). If the section had no +parallels in the other gospels we might easily conclude that it all +belongs to a time subsequent to the final departure for Jerusalem; but it +contains at least one incident from the earlier ministry in Galilee (Luke +xi. 14-36; compare Mark iii. 19-30), and many teachings of Jesus given by +Matthew in an earlier connection appear here in Luke. Furthermore, the +section has to be adjusted to that portion of the Gospel of John which +deals with the same period and yet reports none of the same details.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s040"><p><span class="versenum">40.</span> If Mark has furnished the narrative framework adopted in the main by +the first and third gospels, the problem of the order of events in Jesus' +life becomes a question of the chronological value of Mark, and of the +estimate to be placed on the narrative of John. If the fourth gospel is +held to be of apostolic origin and trustworthy, the task of the harmonist +is chiefly that of combining these two records of Mark and John. The +testimony of the Baptist, with which the fourth gospel opens, must have +been given some time after he had baptized Jesus, and the ministry which +preceded Jesus' return to Galilee (i. 19 to iv. 42) be<a class="newpage" name="page041" id="page041" title="41"></a>longs to a period +ignored by the other gospels. The first three gospels contain indications +that Jesus must have visited Judea before the close of his life. They give +no hint, however, of the time or circumstances of such earlier Judean +labor. In giving the emphasis they do to the work in Galilee, they present +a one-sided picture. When, therefore, we find in John a narrative of work +in Judea, confirmed by hints in the other gospels, we may justly assume +that the arrangement which fills out the ministry of Jesus by inserting at +the proper places in Mark's record the events found in John is essentially +true.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s041"><p><span class="versenum">41.</span> The consideration of the one-sidedness of Mark's narrative simplifies +the problem of harmony, but it does not solve all of the perplexities. +Matthew and Luke have much matter, some of it narrative, which Mark has +not, and for which he suggests no place. Where shall we put, for instance, +the cure of the centurion's servant (Matt. viii. 5-13; Luke vii. 1-10), or +John the Baptist's last message (Matt. xi. 2-19; Luke vii. 18-35)? It +would simplify matters if we could take Luke's statement that he had +"traced the course of all things accurately from the first" (Luke i. 3), +as indicating that he had arrived at exact certainty concerning the order +of events of Jesus' life. It is probable, however, that his statement was +simply a claim that he had carefully gathered material for a record of the +whole life of Jesus, from the annunciation of his birth to his ascension. +While we may believe that some trustworthy tradition led him to give the +place he has to many of the incidents which he adds to Mark's story, it +seems impossible to follow him in all respects; for instance, in severing +the account of the blasphemy <a class="newpage" name="page042" id="page042" title="42"></a>of the Pharisees (xi. 14-36) from the place +which it holds in Mark (iii. 19-30).</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s042"><p><span class="versenum">42.</span> Still more uncertainty exists concerning the historic connection of +teachings of Jesus to which Matthew and Luke give different settings; for +example, the Lord's Prayer (Matt. vi. 9-15; Luke xi. 1-4), and the +exhortations against anxiety (Matt. vi. 25-34; Luke xii. 22-31). We have +seen that much of the teaching common to these gospels is probably derived +from the collection of the "oracles" of the Lord made by the apostle +Matthew. Everything that we can infer concerning such a collection of +oracles indicates that, while some of the teachings may have been +connected with particular historic situations (compare Luke xi. 1), many +would altogether lack such introductory words. A later example of what +such a collection may have been has come to light recently in the +so-called "Sayings of Jesus," discovered in Egypt and published in 1897. +In these the occasion for the teaching has been quite lost; the sole +interest centres in the fact that Jesus is supposed to have said the +things recorded. If Matthew's book contained such "logia" or "oracles," it +is probable that the original connection in which most of them were spoken +was a matter of no concern to the apostle, and consequently has been lost +This in no way compromises the genuineness of these sayings of Jesus. The +treatment of Luke ix. 51 to xviii. 14 is much simplified by this +consideration. To Luke's industry (i. 1-4) we owe the preservation of some +events and very many teachings which no other evangelist has recorded. +Some of this new material (for instance, vii. 11-17, 36-50) he has +assigned a place in the midst of Mark's narrative. <a class="newpage" name="page043" id="page043" title="43"></a>Most of it, however, +he has gathered together in what seems to be a sort of appendix, which he +has inserted between the close of the ministry in Galilee and the final +arrival in Judea. For many of the teachings it is now impossible to assign +a time or place. That this is so will cause no surprise or difficulty if +we remember that in the earliest days the report of what Jesus said and +did circulated in the form of oral tradition only. It was the knowledge +that first-hand witnesses were passing away that led to the writing of the +gospels. During the period of oral tradition many teachings of the Lord +were doubtless kept clearly and accurately in memory after the historic +situations which led to their first utterance were quite forgotten.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s043"><p><span class="versenum">43.</span> This fact helps to explain another perplexity in our gospel +narratives. A comparison of the two accounts of the cure of the +centurion's servant reveals differences of detail most perplexing, if we +ask for minute agreement in records of the same events. When we see that +of two accounts evidently reporting the same incident, one can say that +the centurion himself sought Jesus and asked the cure of his servant +(Matt. viii. 5, 8), while the other makes him declare himself unworthy to +come in person to the Lord (Luke vii. 7), the question arises whether +other accounts, similar in the main but differing in detail, should not be +identified as independent records of one event. Were there two cleansings +of the temple (John ii. 13-22; Mark xi. 15-19), two miraculous draughts of +fishes (Luke v. 4-11; John xxi. 5-8), two rejections at Nazareth (Mark vi. +1-6; Luke iv. 16-30), two parables of the Leaven, of the Mustard <a class="newpage" name="page044" id="page044" title="44"></a>Seed +(Matt. xiii. 31-33; Luke xiii. 18-21), and of the Lost Sheep (Matt, xviii. +12-14; Luke xv. 4-7)? Such similar records are often called doublets, and +the question of identity or distinctness can be answered only after a +special study of each case. It is important to notice that a given +teaching, particularly if it took the form of an illustration, would +naturally be used by Jesus on many different occasions. When, on the other +hand, we find two accounts of specific doings of Jesus similar in detail +it is needful to recognize that definite historic situations do not so +often repeat themselves as do occasions for similar or identical +teachings.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s044"><p><span class="versenum">44.</span> All these considerations show that while the general order of events +in the life of Jesus may be determined with a good degree of probability, +we must be content to remain uncertain concerning the place to be given to +many incidents and to more teachings. Such uncertainty is of small +concern, since our unharmonized gospels have not failed during all these +centuries to produce one fair picture, to the total impression of which +each teaching and deed make definite contribution quite independently of +our ability to give to each its particular place in relation to the whole. +The degree of certainty attainable justifies, however, a continued +interest in the old study of harmony, because of the more comprehensive +idea it gives of the ministry depicted in the partial narratives of our +several gospels.</p></div> +</div> + + +<div class="chapter" id="p01-04"> +<h2>IV</h2> + +<h3><a class="newpage" name="page045" id="page045" title="45"></a>The Chronology</h3> + + + +<div class="section" id="s045"><p><span class="versenum">45.</span> The length of the public ministry of Jesus was one of the earliest +questions which arose in the study of the four gospels. In the second and +third centuries it was not uncommon to find the answer in the passage from +Isaiah (lxi. 1, 2), which Jesus declared was fulfilled in himself. "The +acceptable year of the Lord" was taken to indicate that the ministry +covered little more than a year. The fact that the first three gospels +mention but one Passover (that at the end), and but one journey to +Jerusalem, seems at first to be favorable to this conclusion, and to make +peculiarly significant the care taken by Luke to give the exact date for +the opening of Jesus' ministry (iii. 1, 2). In fact, the second century +Gnostics, relying apparently on Luke, assigned both the ministry and death +of Jesus to the fifteenth year of Tiberius Cæsar,--an interpretation which +may have given rise to the widely spread, early tradition, found, for +example, in Tertullian (Ante-nicene Fathers, in. 160), which placed the +death of Jesus in A.D. 29, during the consulship of L. Rubellius Geminus +and C. Fufius Geminus.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s046"><p><span class="versenum">46.</span> The theory that the ministry of Jesus extended over but little more +than one year is beset, however, by difficulties that seem insuperable. +The first is presented by the three Passovers distinctly mentioned in <a class="newpage" name="page046" id="page046" title="46"></a>the +Gospel of John (ii. 13; vi. 4; xii. 1). The last of these is plainly +identical with the one named in the other gospels. The second gives the +time of year for the feeding of the five thousand, and agrees with the +mention of "the green grass" in the account of Mark and Matthew (Mark vi. +39; Matt. xiv. 19). John's first Passover falls in a section which demands +a place before Mark i. 14 (compare John iii. 24). Hence it must be shown +that this first Passover is chronologically out of order in the Gospel of +John, or the one year ministry advocated by the second century Gnostics, +by Clement of Alexandria, by Origen, and of late years by Keim and others, +is seen to be impossible. The fact that at this Passover Jesus cleansed +the temple, and that the other gospels assign such a cleansing to the +close of the ministry, suggests the possibility that John has set it at +the opening of his narrative for reasons connected with his argument. This +interpretation falls, however, before the perfect simplicity of structure +of John's narrative. The transitions from incident to incident in this +gospel are those of simple succession, and indicate, on the writer's part, +no suspicion that he was contradicting notions concerning the ministry of +Jesus familiar to his contemporaries. Whatever the conclusion reached +concerning the authorship of the gospel, the fact that it gained currency +very early as apostolic would seem to prove that its conception of the +length of Jesus' ministry was not opposed to the recognized apostolic +testimony. It is safe to conclude, therefore, that time must be allowed in +Jesus' ministry for at least three Passover seasons.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s047"><p><span class="versenum">47.</span> With this conclusion most modern discussions of the question rest, and +it is possible that it may <a class="newpage" name="page047" id="page047" title="47"></a>finally win common consent. The order of +Mark's narrative, however, challenges it. This gospel records near the +beginning (ii. 23) a controversy with the Pharisees occasioned by the fact +that Jesus' disciples plucked and ate the ripening grain as they passed on +a Sabbath day through the fields. As Mark places much later (vi. 30-34) +the feeding of the five thousand, which occurred at a Passover, that is +the beginning of the harvest (Lev. xxiii. 5-11), his order suggests the +necessity of including two harvest seasons in the ministry in Galilee, and +consequently four Passovers in the public life of Jesus. Two +considerations are urged against this conclusion. (1) Papias in his +reference to the Gospel of Mark criticises the order of the gospel; (2) +Mark ii. 1 to iii. 6 contains a group of five conflicts with the critics +of Jesus, which represents a massing of opposition that seems unlikely at +the outset of his Galilean work. The remark of Papias must remain obscure +until his standard of comparison is known. Some suggest that he knew +John's order and preferred it, others that he agreed with that adopted by +Tatian in his Diatessaron. Mark is in accord with neither of these. No +one, however, knows what order Papias preferred. The early conflict group +does appear like a collection drawn from different parts of the ministry. +Yet the nucleus of the group--the cure of the paralytic (ii. 1-12) and the +call of Levi (ii. 13-17)--is clearly in its right place in Mark (see +Holtzmann, Hand-commentar, I. 10). The question about fasting (ii. 18-22) +may have been asked much later, and its present place may be due to +association in tradition with the criticism of Jesus' fellowship with +publicans (ii. 16). <a class="newpage" name="page048" id="page048" title="48"></a>In like manner the cure of the withered hand (iii. +1-6) may have become artificially grouped with the incident of the +cornfields. It is possible, also, that both Sabbath controversies owe +their early place in the gospel to traditional association with the early +conflicts (ii. 1-17). If so, the plucking of the grain actually occurred +some weeks after the feeding of the five thousand, and probably after the +controversy about tradition (vii. 1-23), with which, according to Mark, +Jesus' activity in Galilee practically closed. It is not clear, however, +what principle of association drew forward to the early group the Sabbath +conflict, and left in its place the controversy about tradition. It is +thus possible that the incident of the cornfields belongs also to the +early nucleus of the group; and in this case the longer ministry, +including four Passovers, must be accepted. The decision of the question +is not of vital importance, but it affects the determination of the +sequence of events in Jesus' life. Whatever the explanation of the remark +of Papias, the more the gospels are studied the more does Mark's order of +events commend itself in general as representing the probable fact. Many +students have inferred the three year ministry from the Gospel of John +alone, identifying the unnamed feast in John v. 1 with a Passover. But +John's allusion to that feast is so indefinite that the length of Jesus' +ministry must be determined quite independently of it.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s048"><p><span class="versenum">48.</span> So long a ministry as three years presents some difficulties, for all +that is told us in the four gospels would cover but a small fraction of +this time. John's statement (xx. 30) that he omitted many things from +Jesus' life in making his book is evidently true of all <a class="newpage" name="page049" id="page049" title="49"></a>the evangelists, +and long gaps, such as are evident in the fourth gospel, must be assumed +in the other three. Recalling the character of the gospels as pictures of +Jesus rather than narratives of his life, we may easily acknowledge the +incompleteness of our record of the three years of ministry, and wonder +the more at the vividness of impression produced with such economy of +material. This meagreness of material is not decisive for the shorter +rather than the longer ministry, for it is evident that to effect such a +change in conviction and feeling as Jesus wrought in the minds of the +ardent Galileans who were his disciples, required time. Three years are +better suited to effect this change than two.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s049"><p><span class="versenum">49.</span> Closely related to the question of the length of Jesus' ministry is +another: Can definite dates be given for the chief events in his life? For +the year of the opening of his public activity the gospels furnish two +independent testimonies: the remark of the Jews on the occasion of Jesus' +first visit to Jerusalem, "Forty and six years was this temple in +building" (John ii. 20), and Luke's careful dating of the appearance of +John the Baptist, "in the fifteenth year of Tiberius Cæsar" (iii. 1, 2). +John ii. 20 leads to the conclusion that the first Passover fell in the +spring of A.D. 26 or 27, since we learn from Josephus (Ant. xv. 11. 1) +that Herod began to rebuild the temple in the eighteenth year of his +reign, which closed in the spring of B.C. 19. Luke iii. 1 gives a date +contradictory to the one just found, if the fifteenth year of Tiberius is +to be counted from the death of his predecessor, for Augustus died August +19, A.D. 14. Reckoned from this time the opening of John's work falls in +the year <a class="newpage" name="page050" id="page050" title="50"></a>A.D. 28, and the first Passover of Jesus' ministry could not be +earlier than the spring of 29. This is at least two years later than is +indicated by the statement in John. The remark in John is, however, so +incidental and so lacking in significance for his argument that its +definiteness can be explained only as due to a clear historic +reminiscence; but it does not follow that Luke has erred in the date given +by him. Although Augustus did not die until A.D. 14, there is evidence +that Tiberius was associated with him in authority over the army and the +provinces not later than January, A.D. 12. One who lived and wrote in the +reign of Titus may possibly have applied to the reign of Tiberius a mode +of reckoning customary in the case of Titus, as Professor Ramsay has shown +(Was Christ born at Bethlehem, 202). If this is the fact, Luke reckoned +from the co-regency of Tiberius; hence the fifteenth year would be A.D. 25 +or 26, according as the co-regency began before or after the first of +January, A.D. 12. This would place the first Passover of Jesus' ministry +in the spring of 26 or 27, in agreement with the hint found in John.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s050"><p><span class="versenum">50.</span> If the public ministry of Jesus began with the spring of 26 or 27, the +close of three years of activity would, come at the Passover of 29 or 30. +The former of these dates agrees with the early Christian tradition +already mentioned. But before accepting that traditional date another +matter must be considered. Jesus was crucified on the Friday at the +opening of the feast of the Passover. Whether it was the day of the +sacrifice of the Passover (14 Nisan) or the day following (15 Nisan), is +not essential for the present question. As the Jewish month began with the +first appearance <a class="newpage" name="page051" id="page051" title="51"></a>of the new moon, it is evident that, in the year of +Jesus' death, the month of Nisan must have begun on a day that would make +the 14th or the 15th fall on Friday. Now it can be shown that in the year +30 the 14th of Nisan was Thursday (April 6) or Friday (April 7), for at +best only approximate certainty is attainable. The tradition which assigns +the passion to 29, generally names March 25 as the day of the month. This +date is impossible, because it does not coincide with the full moon of +that month. The choice of March 25 by a late tradition may be explained by +the fact that it was commonly regarded as the date of the spring equinox, +the turning of the year towards its renewing. Mr. Turner has shown +(HastBD. I. 415) that another date found in an early document cannot be so +explained. Epiphanius was familiar with copies of the Acts of Pilate, +which gave March 18 as the date of the crucifixion; and it is remarkable +that this date coincides with the full moon, and also falls on Friday. +Such a combination gives unusual weight to the tradition, particularly as +there is no ready way to account for its rise, as in the case of March 25. +From this supplementary tradition the year 29 gains in probability as the +year of the passion. Without attempting to arrive at a final +conclusion,--a task which must be left for chronological specialists,--it +is safe to assume that Jesus died at the Passover of A.D. 29 or 30.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s051"><p><span class="versenum">51.</span> Concluding that Jesus' active ministry fell within the years A.D. 26 +to 30, is it possible to determine the date of his birth? Four hints are +furnished by the gospels: he was born before the death of Herod (Matt. ii. +1; Luke i. 5); he was about thirty years of age at his baptism (Luke iii. +23); he was <a class="newpage" name="page052" id="page052" title="52"></a>born during a census conducted in Judea in accordance with +the decree of Augustus at a time when Quirinius was in authority in Syria +(Luke ii. 1, 2); after his birth wise men from the East were led to visit +him by observing "his star" (Matt. ii. 1, 2). From these facts it follows +that the birth of Jesus cannot be placed later than B.C. 4, since Herod +died about the first of April in that year (Jos. Ant. xvii. 6. 4; 8. 1, +4). The awkwardness of having to find a date <i>Before Christ</i> for the birth +of Jesus is due to the miscalculation of the monk, Dionysius the Little, +who in the sixth century introduced our modern reckoning from "the year of +our Lord."</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s052"><p><span class="versenum">52.</span> But is it impossible to determine the time of Jesus' birth more +exactly? Luke (ii. 1, 2) offers what seems to be more definite +information, but his reference to the decree of Augustus and the enrolment +under Quirinius are among the most seriously challenged statements in the +gospels. It has been said (1) that history knows of no edict of Augustus +ordering a general enrolment of "the world;" (2) that a Roman census could +not have been taken in Palestine before the death of Herod; (3) that if +such an enrolment had been taken it would have been unnecessary for Joseph +and Mary to journey from Nazareth to Bethlehem; (4) that the census taken +when Quirinius was governor of Syria is definitely assigned by Josephus to +the year after the deposition of Archelaus, A.D. 6 (Ant. xviii. 1. 1; see +also Acts v. 37); (5) that if Luke's reference to this census as the +"first" be appealed to, it must be replied that Quirinius was not governor +of Syria at any time during the lifetime of Herod. This array of +difficulties is impressive, and has persuaded <a class="newpage" name="page053" id="page053" title="53"></a>many conservative students +to concede that in his reference to the census Luke has fallen into error. +Some recent discoveries in Egypt, however, have furnished new information +concerning the imperial administration of that province. Inferring that a +policy adopted in Egypt may have prevailed also in Syria, Professor Ramsay +has recently put forth a strong argument for Luke's accuracy in respect of +this census (Was Christ born at Bethlehem, 95-248). That argument may be +condensed as follows: We have evidence of a system of Roman enrolments in +Egypt taken every fourteen years, and already traced back to the time of +Augustus, the earliest document so far recovered belonging, apparently, to +the census of A.D. 20. It is at least possible that this system of +Egyptian enrolments may have been part of an imperial policy, of which all +other trace is lost excepting the statement of Luke. It is significant +that the date of the census referred to by Josephus (A.D. 6) fits exactly +the fourteen-year cycle which obtained in Egypt. If the census of A.D. 6 +was preceded by an earlier one its date would be B.C. 8; that is, it would +be actually taken in B.C. 7, in order to secure the full acts for B.C. 8.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s053"><p><span class="versenum">53.</span> The statement of Tertullian (Against Marcion, iv. 19) that a census +had been taken in Judea under Augustus by Sentius Saturninus, who was +governor of Syria about 9 to 7 B.C., certainly comes from some source +independent of the gospels, and tends to confirm Luke's account of a +census before the death of Herod. That a Roman census might have been +taken in Palestine during Herod's life is seen from the fact that in A.D. +36 Vitellius, the governor of Syria, <a class="newpage" name="page054" id="page054" title="54"></a>had to send Roman forces into +Cilicia Trachæa to assist Archelaus, the king of that country, to quell a +revolt caused by native resistance to a census taken after the Roman +fashion (Tacitus, Ann. vi. 41). Herod would almost certainly resent as a +mark of subjection the order to enrol his people; and the fact that he was +in disfavor with Augustus during the governorship of Saturninus (Josephus, +Ant. xvi. 9. 1-3), suggests to Professor Ramsay that he may have sought to +avoid obedience to the imperial will in the matter of the census. If after +some delay Herod was forced to obey, the enrolment may have been taken in +the year 7-6. Since it is probable that the Romans would allow Herod to +give the census as distinctly Jewish a character as possible, it is easy +to credit the order that all Jews should be registered, so far as +possible, in their ancestral homes. Hence the journey of Joseph to +Bethlehem; and if Mary wished to have her child also registered as from +David's line, her removal with Joseph to Bethlehem is explained. Such a +delay in the taking of the census would have postponed it until after the +recall of Saturninus. The statement of Tertullian may therefore indicate +simply that he knew that a census was taken in Syria by Saturninus.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s054"><p><span class="versenum">54.</span> The successor of Saturninus was Varus, who held the governorship until +after the death of Herod. How then does Luke refer to the enrolment as +taken when Quirinius was in authority? It has for a long time been known +that this man was in Syria before he was there as legate of the emperor in +A.D. 6. There seems to be evidence that Quirinius was in the East about +the year B.C. 6, putting down a rebellion on the borders of Cilicia, a +district joined with Syria into <a class="newpage" name="page055" id="page055" title="55"></a>one province under the early empire. +Varus was at this time governor, but Quirinius might easily have been +looked upon as representing for the time the power of the Roman arms. If +Herod was forced to yield to the imperial wish by the presence in Syria of +this renowned captain, the statement of Luke is confirmed, and the census +at which Jesus was born was taken, according to a Jewish fashion, during +the life of Herod, but under compulsion of Rome exacted by Quirinius, +while he was in command of the Roman forces in the province of +Syria-Cilicia. This gives as a probable date for the birth of Jesus B.C. +6, which accords well with the hints previously considered, inasmuch as it +is earlier than the death of Herod, and, if born in B.C. 6, Jesus would +have been thirty-two at his baptism in A.D. 26.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s055"><p><span class="versenum">55.</span> The account given in Matthew of "the star" which drew the wise men to +Judea gives no sure help in determining the date of the birth of Jesus, +but it is at least suggestive that in the spring and autumn of B.C. 7 +there occurred a remarkable conjunction of the planets Jupiter and Saturn. +This was first noticed by Kepler in consequence of a similar conjunction +observed by him in A.D. 1603. Men much influenced by astrology must have +been impressed by such a celestial phenomenon, but that it furnishes an +explanation of the star of the wise men is not clear. If it does, it +confirms the date otherwise probable for the nativity, that is, not far +from B.C. 6.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s056"><p><span class="versenum">56.</span> Can we go further and determine the time of year or the month and day +of the nativity? It should be borne in mind that our Christmas festival +was not observed earlier than the fourth century, and that the <a class="newpage" name="page056" id="page056" title="56"></a>evidence +is well-nigh conclusive that December 25th was finally selected for the +Nativity in order to hallow a much earlier and widely spread pagan +festival coincident with the winter solstice. If anything exists to +suggest the time of year it is Luke's mention of "shepherds in the field +keeping watch by night over their flock" (ii. 8). This seems to indicate +that it must have been the summer season. In winter the flocks would be +folded, not pastured, by night.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s057"><p><span class="versenum">57.</span> It therefore seems probable that Jesus was born in the summer of B.C. +6; that he was baptized in A.D. 26; that the first Passover of his +ministry was in the spring of 26 or 27; and that he was crucified in the +spring of 29 or 30.</p></div> +</div> + + +<div class="chapter" id="p01-05"> +<h2><a class="newpage" name="page057" id="page057" title="57"></a>V</h2> + +<h3>The Early Years of Jesus</h3> + +<h4>Matt. i. 1 to ii. 23; Luke i. 5 to ii. 52; iii. 23-38</h4> + + + +<div class="section" id="s058"><p><span class="versenum">58.</span> It is surprising that within a century of the life of the apostles, +Christian imagination could have so completely mistaken the real greatness +of Jesus as to let its thirst for wonder fill his early years with scenes +in which his conduct is as unlovely as it is shocking. That he who in +manhood was "holy, harmless, undefiled, separate from sinners" (Heb. vii. +26), could in youth, in a fit of ill-temper, strike a companion with death +and then meet remonstrance by cursing his accusers with blindness (Gospel +of Thomas, 4, 5); that he could mock his teachers and spitefully resent +their control (Pseudo-Matthew, 30, 31); that it could be thought worthy of +him to exhibit his superiority to common human conditions by carrying +water in his mantle when his pitcher had been broken (same, 33), or by +making clay birds in play on the Sabbath and causing them to fly when he +was rebuked for naughtiness (same, 27);--these and many like legends +exhibit incredible blindness to the real glory of the Lord. Yet such +things abound in the early attempts of the pious imagination to write the +story of the youth of Jesus, and the account of the nativity and its +antecedents fares as ill, being pitifully trivial where it is not +revolting.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s059"><p><a class="newpage" name="page058" id="page058" title="58"></a><span class="versenum">59.</span> How completely foreign all this is to the apostolic thought and +feeling is clear when we notice that excepting the first two chapters of +Matthew and Luke the New Testament tells us nothing whatever of the years +which preceded John the Baptist's ministry in the wilderness. The gospels +are books of testimony to what men had seen and heard (John i. 14); and +the epistles are practical interpretations of the same in its bearing on +religious life and hope. The apostles found no difficulty in recognizing +the divinity and sinlessness of their Lord without inquiring how he came +into the world or how he spent his early years; it was what he showed +himself to be, not how he came to be, that formed their conception of him. +Yet the early chapters of Matthew and Luke should not be classed with the +later legends. Notwithstanding the attempts of Keim to associate the +narratives of the infancy in the canonical and apocryphal gospels, a great +gulf separates them: on the one side there is a reverent and beautiful +reserve, on the other indelicate, unlovely, and trivial audacity.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s060"><p><span class="versenum">60.</span> The gospel narratives have, however, perplexities of their own, for +the two accounts agree only in the main features,--the miraculous birth in +Bethlehem in the days of Herod, Mary being the mother and Joseph the +foster-father, and Nazareth the subsequent residence. In further details +they are quite different, and at first sight seem contradictory. Moreover, +while Matthew sheds a halo of glory over the birth of Jesus, Luke draws a +picture of humble circumstances and obscurity. These differences, taken +with the silence of the rest of the New Testament concerning a miraculous +birth, constitute a real difficulty. To many it <a class="newpage" name="page059" id="page059" title="59"></a>seems strange that the +disciples and the brethren of Jesus did not refer to these things if they +knew them to be true. But it must not be overlooked that any familiar +reference to the circumstances of the birth of Jesus which are narrated in +the gospels would have invited from the Jews simply a challenge of the +honor of his home. Moreover, as the knowledge of these wonders did not +keep Mary from misunderstanding her son (Luke ii. 19, 51; compare Mark in. +21, 31-35), the publication of them could hardly have helped greatly the +belief of others. The fact that Mary was so perplexed by the course of +Jesus in his ministry makes it probable that even until quite late in her +life she "kept these things and pondered them in her heart."</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s061"><p><span class="versenum">61.</span> No parts of the New Testament are challenged so widely and so +confidently as these narratives of the infancy. But if they are not to be +credited with essential truth it is necessary to show what ideas cherished +in the apostolic church could have led to their invention. That John and +Paul maintain the divinity of their Lord, yet give no hint that this +involved a miraculous birth, shows that these stories are no necessary +outgrowth of that doctrine. The early Christians whether Jewish or Gentile +would not naturally choose to give pictorial form to their belief in their +Lord's divinity by the story of an incarnation. The heathen myths +concerning sons of the gods were in all their associations revolting to +Christian feeling, and, while the Jewish mind was ready to see divine +influence at work in the birth of great men in Israel (as Isaac, and +Samson, and Samuel), the whole tendency of later Judaism was hostile to +any such idea as actual incarnation. Some would explain the story of the +<a class="newpage" name="page060" id="page060" title="60"></a>miraculous birth as a conclusion drawn by the Christian consciousness +from the doctrine of the sinlessness of Jesus. Yet neither Paul nor John, +who are both clear concerning the doctrine, give any idea that a +miraculous birth was essential for a sinless being. Some appeal to the +eagerness of the early Christians to exalt the virginity of Mary, This is +certainly the animus of many apocryphal legends. But the feeling is as +foreign to Jewish sentiment and New Testament teaching as it is +contradictory to the evidence in the gospels that Mary had other children +born after Jesus.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s062"><p><span class="versenum">62.</span> Moreover, the songs of Mary (Luke i. 46-55) and Zachariah (Luke i. +68--79) bear in themselves the evidence of origin before the doctrine of +the cross had transformed the Christian idea of the Messiah. That +transformed idea abounds in the Epistles and the Acts, and it is difficult +to conceive how these songs (if they were later inventions) could have +been left free of any trace of specifically Christian ideas. A Jewish +Christian would almost certainly have made them more Christian than they +are; a Gentile Christian could not have made them so strongly and +naturally Jewish as they are; while a non-Christian Jew would never have +invented them. Taken with the evidence in Ignatius (Ad Eph. xviii., xix.) +of the very early currency of the belief in a miraculous birth, they +confirm the impression that it is easier to accept the evidence offered +for the miracle than to account for the origin of the stories as legends. +The idea of a miraculous birth is very foreign to modern thought; it +becomes credible only as the transcendent nature of Jesus is recognized on +other grounds. It may not be said that the incarnation required a +<a class="newpage" name="page061" id="page061" title="61"></a>miraculous conception, yet it may be acknowledged that a miraculous +conception is a most suitable method for a divine incarnation.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s063"><p><span class="versenum">63.</span> These gospel stories are chiefly significant for us in that they show +that he in whom his disciples came to recognize a divine nature began his +earthly life in the utter helplessness and dependence of infancy, and grew +through boyhood and youth to manhood with such naturalness that his +neighbors, dull concerning the things of the spirit, could not credit his +exalted claims. He is shown as one in all points like unto his brethren +(Heb. ii. 17). Two statements in Luke (ii. 40, 52) describe the growth of +the divine child as simply as that of his forerunner (Luke i. 80), or that +of the prophet of old (I. Sam. ii. 26). The clear impression of these +statements is that Jesus had a normal growth from infancy to manhood, +while the whole course of the later life as set before us in the gospels +confirms the scripture doctrine that his normal growth was free from sin +(Heb. iv. 15).</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s064"><p><span class="versenum">64.</span> The knowledge of the probable conditions of his childhood is as +satisfying as the apocryphal stories are revolting. The lofty Jewish +conception of home and its relations is worthy of Jesus. The circumstances +of the home in Nazareth were humble (Matt. xiii. 55; Luke ii. 24; compare +Lev. xii. 8). Probably the house was not unlike those seen to-day, of but +one room, or at most two or three,--the tools of trade mingling with the +meagre furnishings for home-life. We should not think it a home of penury; +doubtless the circumstances of Joseph were like those of his neighbors. In +one respect this home was rich. The wife and mother had an exalted place +in the Jewish <a class="newpage" name="page062" id="page062" title="62"></a>life, notwithstanding the trivial opinions of some +supercilious rabbis; and what the gospel tells of the chivalry of Joseph +renders it certain that love reigned in his home, making it fit for the +growth of the holy child.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s065"><p><span class="versenum">65.</span> Religion held sway in all the phases of Jewish life. With some it was +a religion of ceremony,--of prayers and fastings, tithes and boastful +alms, fringes and phylacteries. But Joseph and Mary belonged to the +simpler folk, who, while they reverenced the scribes as teachers, knew not +enough of their subtlety to have substituted barren rites for sincere love +for the God of their fathers and childlike trust in his mercy. Jesus knew +not only home life at its fairest, but religion at its best. A father's +most sacred duty was the teaching of his child in the religion of his +people (Deut. vi. 4-9), and then, as ever since, the son learned at his +mother's side to know and love her God, to pray to him, and to know the +scriptures. No story more thrilling and full of interest, no prospect more +rich and full of glowing hope, could be found to satisfy the child's +spirit of wonder than the story of Israel's past and God's promises for +the future. Religious culture was not confined to the home, however. The +temple at Jerusalem was the ideal centre of religious life for this +Nazareth household (Luke ii. 41) as for all the people, yet practically +worship and instruction were cultivated chiefly by the synagogue (Luke iv. +16); there God was present in his Holy Word. Week after week the boy Jesus +heard the scripture in its original Hebrew form, followed by translation +into Aramaic, and received instruction from it for daily conduct. The +synagogue probably influenced the boy's intellectual life even more +directly. In the time of Jesus schools <a class="newpage" name="page063" id="page063" title="63"></a>had been established in all the +important towns, and were apparently under the control of the synagogue. +To such a school he may have been sent from about six years of age to be +taught the scriptures (compare II. Tim. iii. 15), together with the +reading (Luke iv. 16-19), and perhaps the writing, of the Hebrew language. +Of his school experience we know nothing beyond the fact that he grew in +"wisdom and in stature and in favor with God and man" (Luke ii. 52),--a +sufficient contradiction of the repulsive legends of the apocryphal +gospels.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s066"><p><span class="versenum">66.</span> The physical growth incident to Jesus' development from boyhood to +manhood is a familiar thought. The intellectual unfolding which belongs to +this development is readily recognized. Not so commonly acknowledged, but +none the less clearly essential to the gospel picture, is the gradual +unfolding of the child's moral life under circumstances and stimulus +similar to those with which other children meet (Heb. iv. 15). The man +Jesus was known as the carpenter (Matt. xiii. 55). The learning of such a +trade would contribute much to the boy's mastery of his own powers. Far +more discipline would come from his fellowship with brothers and sisters +who did not understand his ways nor appreciate the deepest realities of +his life. Without robbing boyhood days of their naturalness and reality, +we may be sure that long before Jesus knew how and why he differed from +his fellows he felt more or less clearly that they were not like him. The +resulting sense of isolation was a school for self-mastery, lest isolation +foster any such pride or unloveliness as that with which later legend +dared to stain the picture of the Lord's youth. Four brothers of <a class="newpage" name="page064" id="page064" title="64"></a>Jesus +are named by Mark (vi. 3),--James, and Joses, and Judas, and Simon,--the +gospel adds also that he had sisters living at a later time in Nazareth. +They were all subject with him to the same home influences, and apparently +were not unresponsive to them. The similarity of thought and feeling +between the sermon on the mount and the Epistle of James is not readily +explained by the influence of master over disciple, since the days of +James's discipleship began after the resurrection of Jesus. In any case +there is no reason to think that the companions of Jesus' home were +uncommonly irritating or in any way irreligious, only Jesus was not +altogether like them (John vii. 5), and the fact of difference was a moral +discipline, which among other things led to that moral growth by which +innocence passed into positive goodness. If the home was such a school of +discipline, its neighbors, less earnest and less favored with spiritual +training, furnished more abundant occasion for self-mastery and growth. +The very fact that in his later years Jesus was no desert preacher, like +John, but social, and socially sought for, indicates that he did not win +his manhood's perfection in solitude, but in fellowship with common life +and in victory over the trials and temptations incident to it (Heb. ii. +17, 18).</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s067"><p><span class="versenum">67.</span> Yet he must have been familiar with the life which is in secret (Matt. +vi. 1-18). He who in his later years was a man of much prayer, who began +(Luke iii. 21) and closed (Luke xxiii. 46) his public life with prayer, as +a boy was certainly familiar not only with the prayers of home and +synagogue, but also with quiet, personal resort to the presence of God. It +would be unjust to think of any abnormal religious <a class="newpage" name="page065" id="page065" title="65"></a>precocity. Jesus was +the best example the world has seen of perfect spiritual health, but we +must believe that he came early to know God and to live much with him.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s068"><p><span class="versenum">68.</span> It is instructive in connection with this inwardness of Jesus' life to +recall the rich familiarity with the whole world of nature which appears +in his parables and other teachings. The prospect which met his eye if he +sought escape from the distractions of home and village life, has been +described by Renan: "The view from the town is limited; but if we ascend a +little to the plateau swept by a perpetual breeze, which stands above the +highest houses, the landscape is magnificent. On the west stretch the fine +outlines of Carmel, terminating in an abrupt spur which seems to run down +sheer to the sea. Next, one sees the double summit which towers above +Megiddo; the mountains of the country of Shechem, with their holy places +of the patriarchal period; the hills of Gilboa, the small picturesque +group to which is attached the graceful or terrible recollections of +Shunem and of Endor; and Tabor, with its beautiful rounded form, which +antiquity compared to a bosom. Through a gap between the mountains of +Shunem and Tabor are visible the valley of the Jordan and the high plains +of Perea, which form a continuous line from the eastern side. On the +north, the mountains of Safed, stretching towards the sea, conceal St. +Jean d'Acre, but leave the Gulf of Khaifa in sight. Such was the horizon, +of Jesus. This enchanted circle, cradle of the kingdom of God, was for +years his world. Indeed, during his whole life he went but little beyond +the familiar bounds of his childhood. For yonder, <a class="newpage" name="page066" id="page066" title="66"></a>northwards, one can +almost see, on the flank of Hermon, Cæsarea-Philippi, his farthest point +of advance into the Gentile world; and to the south the less smiling +aspect of these Samaritan hills foreshadows the dreariness of Judea +beyond, parched as by a burning wind of desolation and death." In the +midst of such scenes we are to understand that, with the physical growth, +and opening of mind, and moral discipline which filled the early years of +Jesus, there came also the gradual spiritual unfolding in which the boy +rose step by step to the fuller knowledge of God and himself.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s069"><p><span class="versenum">69.</span> That unfolding is pictured in an early stage in the story given us +from the youth of Jesus. It was customary for a Jewish boy not long after +passing his twelfth year to come under full adult obligation to the law. +The visit to Jerusalem was probably in preparation for such assumption of +obligation by Jesus. All his earlier training had filled his mind with the +sacredness of the Holy City and the glory of the temple. It is easy to +feel with what joy he would first look upon Zion from the shoulder of the +Mount of Olives, as he came over it on his journey from Galilee; to +conceive how the temple and the ritual would fill him with awe in his +readiness not to criticise, but to idealize everything he saw, and to +think only of the significance given by it all to the scripture; to +imagine how eagerly he would talk in the temple court with the learned men +of his people about the law and the promises with which in home and school +his youth had been made familiar. Nor is it difficult to appreciate his +surprise, when Joseph and Mary, only after long searching for him, at last +found him <a class="newpage" name="page067" id="page067" title="67"></a>in the temple, for he felt that it was the most natural place +in which he could be found. In his wondering question to Mary, "Did not +you know that I must be in my Father's house?" (Luke ii. 49), there is a +premonition of his later consciousness of peculiarly intimate relation to +God. The question was, however, a sincere inquiry. It was no precocious +rebuke of Mary's anxiety. The knowledge of himself as Son of God was only +dawning within him, and was not yet full and clear. This is shown by his +immediate obedience and his subjection to his parents in Nazareth through +many years. It is safe, in the interpretation of the acts and words of +Jesus, to banish utterly as inconceivable anything that savors of the +theatrical. We must believe that he was always true to himself, and that +the subjection which he rendered to Joseph and Mary sprang from a real +sense of childhood's dependence, and was not a show of obedience for any +edifying end however high.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s070"><p><span class="versenum">70.</span> That question "Did not you know?" is the only hint we possess of +Jesus' inner life before John's call to repentance rang through the land. +Meanwhile the carpenter's son became himself the carpenter. Joseph seems +to have died before the opening of Jesus' ministry. For Jesus as the +eldest son, this death made those years far other than a time of spiritual +retreat; responsibility for the home and the pressing duties of trade must +have filled most of the hours of his days. This is a welcome thought to +our healthiest sentiment, and true also to the earliest Christian feeling +(Heb. iv. 15). John the Baptist had his training in the wilderness, but +Jesus came from familiar intercourse with men, was welcomed <a class="newpage" name="page068" id="page068" title="68"></a>in their +homes (John ii. 2), knew their life in its homely ongoing, and was the +friend of all sorts and conditions of men. After that visit to Jerusalem, +a few more years may have been spent in school, for, whether from school +instruction, or synagogue preaching, or simple daily experience, the young +man came to know the traditions of the elders and also to know that +observance of them is a mockery of the righteousness which God requires. +Yet he seems to have felt so fully in harmony with God as to be conscious +of nothing new in the fresh and vital conceptions of righteousness which +he found in the law and prophets. We may be certain that much of his +thought was given to Israel's hope of redemption, and that with the +prophets of old and the singer much nearer his own day (Ps. of Sol. xvii. +23), he longed that God, according to his promise, would raise up unto his +people, their King, the Son of David.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s071"><p><span class="versenum">71.</span> He must also have read often from that other book open before him as +he walked upon the hills of Nazareth. The beauty of the grass and of the +lilies was surely not a new discovery to him after he began to preach the +coming kingdom, nor is it likely that he waited until after his baptism to +form his habit of spending the night in prayer upon the mountain. We may +be equally sure that he did not first learn to love men and women and long +for their good after he received the call, "Thou art my beloved son" (Mark +i. 11). He who in later life read hearts clearly (John ii. 25) doubtless +gained that skill, as well as the knowledge of human sin and need, early +in his intercourse with his friends and neighbors in Nazareth; while a +clear conviction that God's kingdom consists in his sover<a class="newpage" name="page069" id="page069" title="69"></a>eignty over +loyal hearts must have filled much of his thought about the promised good +which God would bring to Israel in due time. Thus we may think that in +quietness and homely industry, in secret life with God and open love for +men, in study of history and prophecy, in longing for the actual sway of +God in human life, Jesus lived his life, did his work, and grew in "wisdom +and in stature and in favor with God and man" (Luke ii. 52).</p></div> +</div> + + +<div class="chapter" id="p01-06"> +<h2><a class="newpage" name="page070" id="page070" title="70"></a>VI</h2> + +<h3>John The Baptist</h3> + +<h4>Matt. iii. 1-17; iv. 12; xiv. 1-12; Mark i. 1-14; vi. 14-29; Luke i. 5-25, +57-80; iii. 1-22; ix. 7-9; John i. 19-37; iii. 22-30.</h4> + + + +<div class="section" id="s072"><p><span class="versenum">72.</span> The first reappearance of Jesus in the gospel story, after the temple +scene in his twelfth year, is on the banks of the Jordan seeking baptism +from the new prophet. One of the silent evidences of the greatness of +Jesus is the fact that so great a character as John the Baptist stands in +our thought simply as accessory to his life. For that the prophet of the +wilderness was great has been the opinion of all who have been willing to +seek him in his retirement. One reason for the common neglect of John is +doubtless the meagreness of information about him. But though details are +few, the picture of him is drawn in clearest lines: a rugged son of the +wilderness scorning the gentler things of life, threatening his people +with coming wrath and calling to repentance while yet there was time; a +preacher of practical righteousness heeded by publicans and harlots but +scorned by the elders of his people; a bold and fearless spirit, yet +subdued in the presence of another who did not strive, nor cry, nor cause +his voice to be heard in the streets. When the people thought to find in +John <a class="newpage" name="page071" id="page071" title="71"></a>the promised Messiah, with unparalleled self-effacement he pointed +them to his rival and rejoiced in that rival's growing success. Side by +side they worked for a time; then the picture fails, but for a hint of a +royal audience, with a fearless rebuke of royal disgrace and sin; a prison +life, with its pathetic shaking of confidence in the early certainties; a +long and forced inaction, and the question put by a wavering faith, with +its patient and affectionate reply; then a lewd orgy, a king's oath, a +girl's demands, a martyr's release, the disciples' lamentation and their +report to that other who, though seeming a rival, was known to appreciate +best the greatness of this prophet. Such is the picture in the gospels.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s073"><p><span class="versenum">73.</span> John, unlike his greater successor, has a highly appreciative notice +from Josephus: "Now some of the Jews thought that the destruction of +Herod's army came from God, and that very justly, as a punishment for what +he did against John, who was called the Baptist. For Herod had had him put +to death though he was a good man, and commanded the Jews to exercise +virtue, both as to justice towards one another, and piety towards God, and +so to come to baptism; for baptism would be acceptable to God, if they +made use of it not in order to expiate some sin, but for the purification +of the body, provided that the soul was thoroughly purified beforehand by +righteousness. Now, as many flocked to him, for they were greatly moved by +hearing his words, Herod, fearing that the great influence, John had over +the people might lead to some rebellion (for the people seemed likely to +do anything he should advise), thought it far best, by putting him to +death, to prevent any mischief he <a class="newpage" name="page072" id="page072" title="72"></a>might cause, and not bring himself into +difficulties by sparing a man who might make him repent of his leniency +when it should be too late. Accordingly he was sent a prisoner, in +consequence of Herod's suspicious temper, to Machaerus, the fortress +before mentioned, and was there put to death. So the Jews had the opinion +that the destruction of this army [by Aretas] was sent as a punishment +upon Herod and was the mark of God's displeasure at him" (Ant. xviii. 5. +2). This section is commonly accepted as trustworthy. Superficially +different from the gospel record and assigning quite another cause for +John's imprisonment and death, it correctly describes his character and +his influence with the people, and leaves abundant room for a more +intimately personal motive on the part of Antipas for the imprisonment of +John. If the jealousy of Herodias was the actual reason for John's arrest, +it is highly probable that another cause would be named to the world, and +a likelier one than that given by Josephus could not be found.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s074"><p><span class="versenum">74.</span> The first problem that offers itself in the study of this man is the +man himself. Whence did he come? Everything about him is surprising. He +appears as a dweller in the desert, an ascetic, holding aloof from common +life and content with the scanty fare the wilderness could offer; yet he +was keenly appreciative of his people's needs, and he knew their +sins,--the particular ones that beset Pharisees, publicans, soldiers. If a +recluse in habit, he was far from such in thought; he was therefore no +seeker for his own soul's peace in his desert life. His dress was +strikingly suggestive of the old prophet of judgment on national +infidelity (I. Kings xvii. 1; II. Kings i, 8), the Elijah whom John <a class="newpage" name="page073" id="page073" title="73"></a>would +not claim to be. His message was commanding, with its double word "Repent" +and "The kingdom is near." His idea of the kingdom was definite, though +not at all developed; it signified to him God's dominion, inaugurated by a +divine judgment which should mean good for the penitent and utter +destruction for the ungodly; hence the prophet's call to repentance. His +ministry was one of grace, but the time was drawing near when the Greater +One would appear to complete by a swift judgment the work which his +forerunner was beginning. That Greater One would hew down the fruitless +tree, winnow the wheat from the chaff on the threshing floor, baptize the +penitent with divine power, and the wicked with the fire of judgment, +since his was to be a ministry of judgment, not of grace.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s075"><p><span class="versenum">75.</span> Whence, then, came this strange prophet? Near the desert region where +he spent his youth and where he first proclaimed his message of repentance +and judgment was the chief settlement of that strange company of Jews +known as Essenes. It has long been customary to think that during his +early years John was associated with these fellow-dwellers in the desert, +if he did not actually join the order. He certainly may have learned from +them many things. Their sympathy with his ascetic life and with his +thorough moral earnestness would make them attractive to him, but he was +far too original a man to get from them more than some suggestions to be +worked out in his own fashion. The simplicity of his teaching of +repentance and the disregard of ceremonial in his preaching separate him +from these monks. John may have known his desert companions, may have +appreciated some <a class="newpage" name="page074" id="page074" title="74"></a>things in their discipline, but he remained independent +of their guidance.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s076"><p><span class="versenum">76.</span> The leaders of religious life and thought in his day were +unquestionably the Pharisees. The controlling idea with them, and +consequently with the people, was the sanctity of God's law. They were +conscious of the sinfulness of the people, and their demand for repentance +was constant. It is a rabbinic commonplace that the delay of the Messiah's +coming is due to lack of repentance in Israel. But near as this conception +is to John's, we need but to recall his words to the Pharisees (Matt. iii. +7) to realize how clearly he saw through the hollowness of their religious +pretence. With the quibbles of the scribes concerning small and great +commandments, Sabbaths and hand-washings, John shows no affinity. He may +have learned some things from these "sitters in Moses' seat," but he was +not of them.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s077"><p><span class="versenum">77.</span> John's message announced the near approach of the kingdom of God. It +is probable that many of those who sought his baptism were ardent +nationalists,--eager to take a hand in realizing that consummation. +Josephus indicates that it was Herod's fear lest John should lead these +Zealots to revolt that furnished the ostensible cause of his death. But +similar as were the interests of John and these nationalists, the distance +between them was great. The prophet's replies to the publicans and to the +soldiers, which contain not a word of rebuke for the hated callings (Luke +iii. 13, 14), show how fundamentally he differed from the Zealots.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s078"><p><span class="versenum">78.</span> But there was another branch of the Pharisees than that which quibbled +over Sabbath laws, tradi<a class="newpage" name="page075" id="page075" title="75"></a>tions, and tithes, or that which itched to grasp +the sword; they were men who saw visions and dreamed dreams like those of +Daniel and the Revelation, and in their visions saw God bringing +deliverance to his people by swift and sudden judgment. There are some +marked likenesses between this type of thought and that of John,--the +impending judgment, the word of warning, the coming blessing, were all in +John; but one need only compare John's words with such an apocalypse as +the Assumption of Moses, probably written in Palestine during John's life +in the desert, to discover that the two messages do not move in the same +circle of thought at all; there is something practical, something severely +heart-searching, something at home in every-day life, about John's +announcement of the coming kingdom that is quite absent from the visions +of his contemporaries. John had not, like some of these seers, a coddling +sympathy for people steeped in sin. He traced their troubles to their own +doors, and would not let ceremonies pass in place of "fruits meet for +repentance." He came from the desert with rebuke and warning on his lips; +with no word against the hated Romans, but many against hypocritical +claimants to the privileges of Abraham; no apology for his message nor +artificial device of dream or ancient name to secure a hearing, but the +old-fashioned prophetic method of declaration of truth "whether men will +hear or whether they will forbear." "All was sharp and cutting, imperious +earnestness about final questions, unsparing overthrow of all fictitious +shams in individual as in national life. There are no theories of the law, +no new good works, no belief in the old, but simply and solely a prophetic +<a class="newpage" name="page076" id="page076" title="76"></a>clutch at men's consciences, a mighty accusation, a crushing summons to +contrite repentance and speedy sanctification" (KeimJN. II. 228). We look +in vain for a parallel in any of John's contemporaries, except in that one +before whom he bowed, saying, "I have need to be baptized of thee."</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s079"><p><span class="versenum">79.</span> John had, however, predecessors whose work he revived. In Isaiah's +words, "Wash you, make you clean" (Isa. i 16), one recognizes the type +which reappeared in John. The great prophetic conception of the Day of the +Lord--the day of wrath and salvation (Joel ii. 1-14)--is revived in John, +free from all the fantastic accompaniments which his contemporaries loved. +The invitations to repentance and new fidelity which abound in Isaiah, +Ezekiel, Hosea, and Joel; the summons to simple righteousness, which rang +from the lips of Micah (vi. 8), and of the great prophet of the exile +(Isa. lviii.), these tell us where John went to school and how well he +learned his lesson. It is hard for us to realize how great a novelty such +simplicity was in John's day, or how much originality it required to +attain to this discipleship of the prophets. From the time when the +curtain rises on the later history of Israel in the days of the Maccabean +struggle to the coming of that "voice crying in the wilderness," Israel +had listened in vain for a prophet who could speak God's will with +authority. The last thing that people expected when John came was such a +simple message. He was not the creature of his time, but a revival of the +older type; yet, as in the days of Elijah God had kept him seven thousand +in Israel that had not bowed the knee to Baal, so, in the later time, not +all were bereft of liv<a class="newpage" name="page077" id="page077" title="77"></a>ing faith. These devout souls furnished the soil +which could produce a life like John's, gifted and chosen by God to +restore and advance the older and more genuine religion.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s080"><p><span class="versenum">80.</span> If John was thus a revival of the older prophetic order, a second +question arises: Whence came his baptism, and what did it signify? The +gospels describe it as a "baptism of repentance for the remission of sins" +(Mark i. 4). John's declaration that his greater successor should baptize +with the Holy Spirit and fire (Matt. iii. 11) shows that he viewed his +baptism as a symbol, rather than as a means, of remission of sin. But it +was more than a sign of repentance, it was a confession of loyalty to the +kingdom which John's successor was to establish. It had thus a twofold +significance: (<i>a</i>) confession of and turning from the old life of sin, +and (<i>b</i>) consecration to the coming kingdom. Whence, then, came this +ordinance? Not from the Essenes, for, unlike John's baptism, the bath +required by these Jewish ascetics was an oft-repeated act. Further, John's +rite had a far deeper religious significance than the Essene washings. +These performed their ablutions to secure ritual cleanness as exemplary +disciples of the Mosaic ideal. The searching of heart which preceded +John's baptism, and the radical change of life it demanded, seem foreign +to Essenism. The baptism of John, considered as a ceremony of consecration +for the coming kingdom, was parallel rather to the initiatory oaths of the +Essene brotherhood than to their ablutions. Their custom may have served +to suggest to John a different application of the familiar sacred use of +the bath; indeed John could hardly have been uninfluenced by the <a class="newpage" name="page078" id="page078" title="78"></a>usage of +his contemporaries; yet in this, as in his thought, he was not a product +of their school.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s081"><p><span class="versenum">81.</span> John's baptism was equally independent of the pharisaic influence. The +scribes made much of "divers washings," but not with any such significance +as would furnish to John his baptism of repentance and of radical change +of life. That he was not following a pharisaic leading appears in the +question put to him by the Pharisees, "Why, then, baptizest thou?" (John +i. 25). They saw something unique in the ceremony as he conducted it.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s082"><p><span class="versenum">82.</span> Many have held that he derived his baptism from the method of +admitting proselytes into the Jewish fellowship. It is clear, at least, +that the later ritual prescribed a ceremonial bath as well as circumcision +and sacrifice for all who came into Judaism from the Gentiles, and it is +difficult to conceive of a time when a ceremonial bath would not seem +indispensable, since Jews regarded all Gentile life as defiling. While +such an origin for John's baptism would give peculiar force to his rebuke +of Jewish confidence in the merits of Abraham (Matt. iii. 9), it is more +likely, as Keim has shown (JN. II. 243 and note), that in this as in his +other thought John learned of his predecessors rather than his +contemporaries. Before the giving of the older covenant from Sinai, it is +said that Moses was required "to sanctify the people and bid them wash +their garments" (Ex. xix. 10). John was proclaiming the establishment of a +new covenant, as the prophets had promised. That the people should prepare +for this by a similar bath of sanctification seems most natural. John +appeared with a revival of the older and simpler religious ideas of +Israel's past, deriving his rite as well <a class="newpage" name="page079" id="page079" title="79"></a>as his thought from the springs +of his people's religious life.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s083"><p><span class="versenum">83.</span> This revival of the prophetic past had nothing scholastic or +antiquarian about it. John was a disciple, not an imitator, of the great +men of Israel; his message was not learned from Isaiah or any other, +though he was educated by studying them. What he declared, he declared as +truth immediately seen by his own soul, the essence of his power being a +revival, not in letter but in spirit, of the old, direct cry, "Thus saith +the Lord." Inasmuch as John's day was otherwise hopelessly in bondage to +tradition and the study of the letter, by so much is his greatness +enhanced in bringing again God's direct message to the human conscience. +John's greatness was that of a pioneer. The Friend of publicans and +sinners also spoke a simple speech to human hearts; he built on and +advanced from the old prophets, but it was John who was appointed to +prepare the people for the new life, "to make ready the way of the Lord" +(Mark i. 3). The clearness of his perception of truth is not the least of +his claims to greatness. His knowledge of the simplicity of God's +requirements in contrast with the hopeless maze of pharisaic traditions, +and his insight into the characters with whom he had to deal, whether the +sinless Jesus or the hypocritical Pharisees, show a man marvellously +gifted by God who made good use of his gift. This greatness appears in +superlative degree in the self-effacement of him who possessed these +powers. Greatness always knows itself more or less fully. It was not +self-ignorance that led John to claim to be but a voice, nor was it mock +humility. The confession of his unworthiness in com<a class="newpage" name="page080" id="page080" title="80"></a>parison with the +mightier one who should follow is unmistakably sincere, as is the +completed joy of this friend of the bridegroom rejoicing greatly because +of the bridegroom's voice, even when the bridegroom's presence meant the +recedence of the friend into ever deepening obscurity (John iii. 30).</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s084"><p><span class="versenum">84.</span> But John had marked limitations. He knew well the righteousness of +God; he knew, and, in effect, proclaimed God's readiness to forgive them +that would turn from their wicked ways; he knew the simplicity as well as +the exceeding breadth of the divine commandment; but beyond one flash of +insight (John i. 29-36), which did not avail to remould his thought, he +did not know the yearning love of God which seeks to save. It is not +strange that he did not. Some of the prophets had more knowledge of it +than he, his own favorite Isaiah knew more of it than he, but it was not +the thought of John's day. The wonder is that the Baptist so far freed +himself from current thought; yet he did not belong to the new order. He +thundered as from Sinai. The simplest child that has learned from the +heart its "Our Father" has reached a higher knowledge and entered a higher +privilege (Matt. xi. 11). John's self-effacement, wonderful as it was, +fell short of discipleship to his greater successor; in fact, at a much +later time there was still a circle of disciples of the Baptist who kept +themselves separate from the church (Acts xix. 1-7). He was doubtless too +strenuous a man readily to become a follower. He could yield his place +with unapproachable grace, but he remained the prophet of the wilderness +still. He seemed to belong consciously to the old order, and, by the very +circumstances ordained of <a class="newpage" name="page081" id="page081" title="81"></a>God who sent him, he could not be of those who, +sitting at Jesus' feet, learned to surrender to him their preconceptions +and hopes, and in heart, if not in word, to say, "To whom shall we go, +thou hast the words of eternal life?" (John vi. 68).</p></div> +</div> + + +<div class="chapter" id="p01-07"> +<h2><a class="newpage" name="page082" id="page082" title="82"></a>VII</h2> + +<h3>The Messianic Call</h3> + +<h4>Matt. iii. 13 TO iv. 11; Mark i. 9-13; Luke iii. 21, 22; iv. 1-13; John i. +30-34</h4> + + + +<div class="section" id="s085"><p><span class="versenum">85.</span> In the circle about John all classes of the people were represented: +Pharisees and Sadducees, jealous of innovation and apprehensive of popular +excitement; publicans and soldiers, interested in the new preacher or +touched in conscience; outcasts who came in penitence, and devout souls in +consecration. The wonder of the new message was carried throughout the +land and brought great multitudes to the Jordan. Jesus in Nazareth heard +it, and recognized in John a revival of the long-silent prophetic voice. +The summons appealed to his loyalty to God's truth, and after the +multitudes had been baptized (Luke iii. 21) he too sought the prophet of +the wilderness.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s086"><p><span class="versenum">86.</span> The connection which Luke mentions (i. 36) between the families of +Jesus and John had not led to any intimacy between the two young men. John +certainly did not know of his kinsman's mission (John i. 31), nor was his +conception of the Messiah such that he would look for its fulfilment in +one like Jesus (Matt. iii. 10-12). One thing, however, was clear as soon +as they met,--John recognized in Jesus one holier than himself (Matt. iii. +14). With a prophet's spiritual <a class="newpage" name="page083" id="page083" title="83"></a>insight he read the character of Jesus +at a glance, and although that character did not prove him to be the +Messiah, it prepared John for the revelation which was soon to follow.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s087"><p><span class="versenum">87.</span> The reply of Jesus to the unwillingness of John to give him baptism +(Matt. iii. 15) was an expression of firm purpose to do God's will; the +absence of any confession of sin is therefore all the more noticeable. In +all generations the holiest men have been those most conscious of +imperfection, and in John's message and baptism confession and repentance +were primary demands; yet Jesus felt no need for repentance, and asked for +baptism with no word of confession. But for the fact that the total +impression of his life begat in his disciples the conviction that "he did +no sin" (I. Pet. ii. 22; compare John viii. 46; II. Cor. v. 21), this +silence of Jesus would offend the religious sense. Jesus, however, had no +air of self-sufficiency, he came to make surrender and "to fulfil +all-righteousness" (Matt. iii. 15). It was the positive aspect of John's +baptism that drew him to the Jordan. John was preaching the coming of +God's kingdom. The place held by the doctrine of that kingdom in the later +teaching of Jesus makes it all but certain that his thought had been +filled with it for many years. In his reading of the prophets Jesus +undoubtedly emphasized the spiritual phases of their promises, but it is +not likely that he had done much criticising of the ideas held by his +contemporaries before he came to John. As already remarked he seems to +have been quicker to discover his affinity with the older truth than to be +conscious of the novelty of his own ways of apprehending it (Matt. v. 17). +When, then, Jesus heard <a class="newpage" name="page084" id="page084" title="84"></a>John's call for consecration to the approaching +kingdom he recognized the voice of duty, and he sought the baptism that he +might do all that he could to "make ready the way of the Lord."</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s088"><p><span class="versenum">88.</span> This act of consecration on Jesus' part was one of personal obedience. +There were no crowds present (Luke iii. 21), and his thoughts were full of +prayer. It was an experience which concerned his innermost life with God, +and it called him to communion with heaven like that in which he sought +for wisdom before choosing his apostles (Luke vi. 12), and for strength in +view of his approaching death (Luke ix. 28, 29). His outward declaration +of loyalty to the coming kingdom was thus not an act of righteousness "to +be seen of men," but one of personal devotion to him who is and who sees +in secret (Matt. vi. 1, 6). As the transfiguration followed the prayer on +Hermon, so this initial consecration was answered from heaven. A part of +the answer was evident to John, for he saw a visible token of the gift of +the divine Spirit which was granted to Jesus for the conduct of the work +he had to do, and he recognized in Jesus the greater successor for whom he +was simply making preparation (Mark i. 10; John i. 32-34). To Jesus there +came also with the gift of the Spirit a definite word from heaven, "Thou +art my beloved Son, in thee I am well pleased" (Mark i. 11). The language +in Mark and Luke, and the silence of the Baptist concerning the voice from +heaven (John i. 32-34), indicate that the word came to Jesus alone, and +was his summons to undertake the work of setting up that kingdom to which +he had just pledged his loyalty. The expression "My beloved Son" had clear +Messianic signifi<a class="newpage" name="page085" id="page085" title="85"></a>cance for Jesus' contemporaries (comp. Mark xiv. 62), +and the message can have signified for him nothing less than a Messianic +call. It implied more than that child-relation to God which was the +fundamental fact in his religious life from the beginning: it had an +official meaning.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s089"><p><span class="versenum">89.</span> For Jesus the sense of being God's child was normally human, and in +his ministry he invited all men to a similar consciousness of sonship. Yet +his early years must have brought to him a realization that he was +different from his fellows. That in him which made a confession at the +baptism unnatural and which led to John's word, "I have need to be +baptized by thee," was ready to echo assent when God said, "Thou art my +Son." He accepted the call and the new office and mission which it +implied, and he must have recognized that it was for this moment that all +the past of his life had been making preparation.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s090"><p><span class="versenum">90.</span> The gift of the Spirit to Jesus, which furnished to John the proof +that the Greater One had appeared, was not an arbitrary sign. The old +prophetic thought (Isa. xi. 2; xlii. 1; lxi. 1) as well as a later popular +expectation (Ps. of Sol. xvii. 42) provided for such an anointing of the +Messiah; and in the actual conduct of his life Jesus was constantly under +the leading of this Spirit (see Matt. xii. 28 and John iii. 34). The +temptation which followed the baptism, and in which he faced the +difficulties in his new task, was the first result of the Spirit's +control. Its later influence is not so clearly marked in the gospels, but +they imply that as the older servants of God were guided and strengthened +by him, so his Son also was aided,--with this difference, however, that he +possessed com<a class="newpage" name="page086" id="page086" title="86"></a>pletely the heavenly gift (John iii. 34). Jesus' uniform +confession of dependence on God confirms this teaching of the gift of the +divine Spirit; and his uniform consciousness of complete power and +authority confirms the testimony that he had the Spirit "without measure."</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s091"><p><span class="versenum">91.</span> The temptation to which the Spirit "drove" Jesus after his baptism +gives proof that the call to assume the Messianic office came to him +unexpectedly; for the three temptations with which his long struggle ended +were echoes of the voice which he had heard at the Jordan, and subtle +insinuations of doubt of its meaning. Some withdrawal to contemplate the +significance of his appointment to a Messianic work was a mental and +spiritual necessity. As has often been said, if the gospels had not +recorded the temptation, we should have had to assume one. Jesus being the +man he was, could not have thought that his call was a summons to an +entire change in his ideals and his thoughts about God and duty. Yet he +must have been conscious of the wide differences between his conceptions +of God's kingdom and the popular expectation. Those differences, by the +measure of the definiteness of the popular thought and the ardor of the +popular hope, were the proof of the difficulty of his task. The call meant +that the Messiah could be such as he was; it meant that the kingdom could +be and must be a dominion of God primarily in the hearts of men and +consequently in their world; it meant that his work must be religious +rather than political, and gracious rather than judicial. These essentials +of the work which he could do contradicted at nearly every point the +expectations of his people. How could he <a class="newpage" name="page087" id="page087" title="87"></a>succeed in the face of such +opposition? His long meditation during forty days doubtless showed him the +difficulty of his task in all its baldness, yet it did not shake his +certainty that the call had come to him from God, nor his faith that what +God had called him to do he could accomplish.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s092"><p><span class="versenum">92.</span> The gospels show no hesitation in calling the experience of these days +a temptation, nor had the Christian feeling of the first century any +difficulty in thinking of its Lord as actually suffering temptation (Heb. +ii. 18; iv. 15). A temptation to be real cannot be hypothetical; evil must +actually present itself as attractive to the tempted soul. A suggestion of +evil that takes no hold concretely of the heart is no temptation, nor is +the resistance of it any victory. The sinlessness of him who sought +baptism with no confession on his lips nor sense of penitence in his heart +offers no barrier to his experience of genuine temptation, unless we think +him incapable of sin, and therefore not "like unto his brethren." Not only +do the gospels repeatedly refer to his temptations (Luke iv. 13; Mark +viii. 31-33; Luke xxii. 28; compare Heb. v. 7-9), but they also depict +clearly the reality of these initial testings. The account as given in +Matthew and Luke represents the experience with which the forty days' +struggle culminated. The absorption of Jesus' mind had been so complete +that he had neglected the needs of his body, and when he turned to think +of earthly things he was pressed by hunger. A popular notion at a later +time, and probably also in Jesus' day, was that the Messiah would be able +to feed his people as Moses had given them manna in the wilderness (John +vi. 30-32; see EdersLJM. I. 176). He had just <a class="newpage" name="page088" id="page088" title="88"></a>been endowed with the +divine Spirit for the work before him; it was therefore no fantastic idea +when the suggestion came that he should use his power to supply his own +needs in the desert. Nor was the temptation without attractiveness; his +own physical nature urged its need, and Jesus was no ascetic who found +discomfort a way of holiness. The evil in the suggestion was that it asked +him to use his newly given powers for the supply of his own needs, as if +doubting that God would care for him as for any other of his children. +There was more than distrust of God suggested; the temptation came with a +hint of another doubt,--"<i>If</i> thou art God's Son." A miracle would prove +to himself his appointment and his power. The suggested doubt of his call +he passed unnoticed; distrust of God he repudiated instantly, falling back +on his faith in the God he had served these many years (Deut. viii. 3). +His victory is remarkable because his spirit conquered unhesitatingly +after a long ecstasy which would naturally have induced a reaction and a +surrender for the moment to the demand of lower needs.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s093"><p><span class="versenum">93.</span> This firmness of trust opened the way for another evil suggestion. In +the work before him as God's Anointed many difficulties were on either +side and across his path. He knew his people, their prejudices, and their +hardness of heart; and he knew how far he was from their ideal of a +Messiah. He knew also the watchful jealousy of Rome. Others before him, +like Judas of Galilee, had tried the Messianic rôle and had failed. He, +however, was confident of his divine call: should he not, therefore, press +forward with his work, heedless of all danger and regardless of the +dictates of prudence,--as heedless as if, trus<a class="newpage" name="page089" id="page089" title="89"></a>ting God's promised care, +he should cast himself down from a pinnacle of the temple to the rocks in +Kidron below? A fanatic would have yielded to such a temptation. Many +another than Jesus did so,--Theudas (Acts v. 36), the Egyptian (Acts xxi. +38); and Bar Cochba (Dio Cassius, lxix. 12-14; Euseb. Ch. Hist. iv. 6). +Jesus, however, showed his perfect mental health, repudiating the +temptation by declaring that while man may trust God's care, he must not +presumptuously put it to the test (Matt. iv. 7). The after life of Jesus +was a clear commentary on this reply. He constantly sought to avoid +situations which would compromise his mission or cut short his work (see +John vi. 15), and when at the end he suffered the death prepared for him +by his people's hatred, it was because his hour had come and he could say, +"I lay down my life of myself" (John x. 18). His marvellous control of +enthusiasm and his self-mastery in all circumstances separate Jesus from +all ecstatics and fanatics. Yet presumption must have seemed the easier +course, and could readily wear the mask of trust. He was tempted, yet +without sin.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s094"><p><span class="versenum">94.</span> As the refusal to doubt led to the temptation to presume, so the +determination to be prudent opened the way for a third assault upon his +perfect loyalty to God. The world he was to seek to save was swayed by +passions; his own people were longing for a Messiah, but they must have +their kind of a Messiah. If he would acknowledge this actual supremacy of +evil and self-will in the world, the opposition of passion and prejudice +might be avoided. If he would own the evil inevitable for the time, and +accommodate his work to it, he might then be free to lead men to <a class="newpage" name="page090" id="page090" title="90"></a>higher +and more spiritual views of God's kingdom. His knowledge of his people's +grossness of heart and materialism of hope made a real temptation of the +suggestion that he should not openly oppose but should accommodate himself +to them. Jesus did not underestimate the opposition of "the kingdoms of +the world," but he truly estimated God's intolerance of any rivalry (Matt. +iv. 10), and he was true to God and to his own soul. Again, in this as in +the preceding temptations, Jesus conquered the evil suggestions by +appropriating to himself truth spoken by God's servants to Israel. Tempted +in all points like his brethren, he resisted as any one of them could have +resisted, and won a victory possible, ideally considered, to any other of +the children of men.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s095"><p><span class="versenum">95.</span> It is not idle curiosity which inquires whence the evangelists got +this story of the temptation of Jesus. Even if the whole transaction took +place on the plane of outer sensuous life, and Jesus was bodily carried to +Jerusalem and to the mountain-top, there is no probability that any +witnesses were at hand who could tell the tale. But the fact that in any +case the vision of the kingdoms of the world in a moment of time (Luke iv. +5) could have been spiritual only, since no mountain, however high (Matt. +iv. 8), could give, physically, that wide sweep of view, suggests that the +whole account tells in pictorial language an intensely real, inner +experience of Jesus. This in no respect reduces the truthfulness of the +narratives. Temptation never becomes temptation till it passes to that +inner scene of action and debate. Since Jesus shows in all his teaching a +natural use of parabolic language to set forth spiritual truth, the +inference is <a class="newpage" name="page091" id="page091" title="91"></a>almost inevitable that the gospels have in like manner +adopted the language of vivid picture as alone adequate to depict the +essential reality of his inner struggle. In any case the narrative could +have come from no other source than himself. How he came to tell it we do +not know. On one of the days of private converse with his disciples after +the confession at Cæsarea Philippi he may have given them this account of +his own experience, in order to help his loyal Galileans to understand +more fully his work and the way of it, and to prepare them for that +disappointment of their expectations which they were so slow to +acknowledge as possible.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s096"><p><span class="versenum">96.</span> From this struggle in the wilderness Jesus came forth with the clear +conviction that he was God's Anointed, and in all his after life no +hesitation appeared. The kingdom which he undertook to establish was that +dominion of simple righteousness which he had learned to know and love in +the years of quiet life in Nazareth. He set out to do his work fearlessly, +but prudently, seeking to win men in his Father's way to acknowledge that +Father's sovereignty. There is no evidence that, beyond such firm +conviction and purpose, he had any fixed plan for the work he was to do, +nor that he saw clearly as yet how his earthly career would end. The third +temptation, however, shows that he was not unprepared for seeming defeat. +The struggle had been long and serious,--for the three temptations of the +end are doubtless typical of the whole of the forty days,--and the victory +was great and final. With the light of victory as well as the marks of +warfare on his face, he took his way back towards Galilee.</p></div> +</div> + + +<div class="chapter" id="p01-08"> +<h2><a class="newpage" name="page092" id="page092" title="92"></a>VIII</h2> + +<h3>The First Disciples</h3> + +<h4>John i. 19 TO ii. 12</h4> + + + +<div class="section" id="s097"><p><span class="versenum">97.</span> After the withdrawal of Jesus into the wilderness, John the Baptist +continued his ministry of preaching and baptizing, moving northward up the +Jordan valley to Bethany, on the eastern side of the river, near one of +the fords below the Sea of Galilee (John i. 28). Here Galilee, doubtless, +contributed more to his audience than Judea. It is certain that some from +the borders of the lake were at this time among his constant attendants: +Andrew and Simon of Bethsaida, John the son of Zebedee, and perhaps his +brother James, probably also Philip of Bethsaida and Nathanael of Cana +(John i. 40, 41, 43-45; compare xxi. 2).</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s098"><p><span class="versenum">98.</span> The leaders in Jerusalem, becoming apprehensive whither this work +would lead, sent an embassy to question John. They chose for this mission +priests and Levites of pharisaic leaning as most influential among the +people. The impression John and his message were making on the popular +mind is seen in the questions put to him, "Art thou the Messiah?" +"Elijah?" "The prophet?" (see Deut. xviii. 15), and in the challenge, +"Why, then, baptizest thou?" when John disclaimed the right to any of +these names. John's reply is the echo of his earlier proclamation of <a class="newpage" name="page093" id="page093" title="93"></a>the +one mightier than he who should baptize with the Spirit (Mark i. 7, 8), +only now he added that this one was present among them (John i. 26, 27).</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s099"><p><span class="versenum">99.</span> This interview occurred several weeks after Jesus' baptism, for upon +the next day John saw Jesus (John i. 29), now returned from the +temptation, and pointed him out to a group of disciples. Something in +Jesus' face or in his bearing, as he came from his temptation, must have +impressed John even more than at their first meeting; for he was led to +think of a prophetic word for the most part ignored by the Messianic +thought of his day, "He was brought as a lamb to the slaughter" (Isa. +liii. 7). As he looked on Jesus the mysterious oracle was illuminated for +him, and he cried, "Behold the lamb of God which taketh away the sin of +the world." Once again on the next day the same thought rushed to his lips +when, with two disciples, he saw Jesus passing by (John i. 35, 36). Then +as Jesus left John's neighborhood and took up again the round of ordinary +life, John seems to have reverted to his more ordinary Messianic thought, +his momentary insight into highest truth standing as a thing apart in his +life. Such a moment's insight, caused by extraordinary circumstances, no +more requires that John should retain the high thought constantly than +does Peter's confession of Christ at Cæsarea Philippi exclude his later +rebuke of his Lord (Mark viii. 32, 33), or his denials (Mark xiv. 66-72).</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s100"><p><span class="versenum">100.</span> The disciples who heard these testimonies from John understood them +to be Messianic (John i. 30-34), though their later consternation, when +the cross seemed to shatter their hopes (John xx. 9, 10, 24, <a class="newpage" name="page094" id="page094" title="94"></a>25), shows +that they did not comprehend their deeper meaning. Two of these disciples +at once attached themselves to Jesus, and one of them, Andrew of +Bethsaida, was so impressed by the new master that, having sought out his +brother Simon, he declared that they had found the Messiah. The other of +these earliest followers was John the son of Zebedee, and it is possible +that he also found his brother and introduced James from the very first +into the circle of the disciples. Jesus was about to take his departure +for Galilee, and on the next day, as he was leaving, added Philip of +Bethsaida to the little company of followers. Philip, impressed as Andrew +had been, brought Nathanael of Cana to Jesus. The undefined something +about Jesus which drew noble hearts irresistibly to himself, and his +marvellous knowledge of this new comer, produced the same effect in +Nathanael, as was seen earlier in Andrew and Philip, and he acknowledged +the new master as "Son of God, King of Israel" (John i. 49).</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s101"><p><span class="versenum">101.</span> These early confessions in the fourth gospel present a difficulty in +view of Jesus' warm approval of Peter's acknowledgment of him at Cæsarea +Philippi (Matt. xvi. 13-20). Jesus saw in that confession a distinct +advance in the disciples' thought and faith. Yet the religious feeling +which early questioned whether the Baptist even were not the Messiah (Luke +iii. 15) would almost certainly have concluded that John's greater +successor must be God's anointed. The very fact that men's thoughts about +the Messiah were varied and complex made them ready for some modifications +of their preconceptions. One with such subtle personal power as Jesus had +exercised was almost sure to be hailed by some with enthusiasm as the +looked-<a class="newpage" name="page095" id="page095" title="95"></a>for representative of God. In fact, it is probable that at any +time in the early days of his ministry Jesus could have been proclaimed +Messiah, provided he had accepted the people's terms. Such a confession +would have been merely the outcome of enthusiasm. The people, even the +disciples, did not know Jesus. They all had high hopes and somewhat fixed +ideas about the Messiah, nearly every one of which was destined to rude +shock. How little they knew him Jesus realized (John i. 51), and his +self-mastery is manifest in his attitude to this early enthusiasm. He was +no visionary; he had a great work to do and a long lesson to teach, and he +was patient enough to teach it little by little. He did not rebuke the +ill-informed faith of a Nathanael, but sought gradually to supplant the +old thought of the Messiah and of the kingdom by new truth, and to bind +men's affections to himself for his own sake and the truth's sake, not +simply for the idea which he impersonated to them.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s102"><p><span class="versenum">102.</span> The visit to Cana seems to have found a place in the fourth gospel, +because there the new disciples discovered in their master miraculous +powers which were to them a sign that he was in truth God's anointed. It +is probable that at the time of this miracle the disciples thought only of +the power and the marvel, yet the sharp contrast between John's ascetic +habit and Jesus' use of his divine resources to relieve embarrassment at a +wedding feast must have impressed every man among them. Their minds, +however, were as yet too full of Messianic hopes to leave much room for +reflection. They were content to have a sign, for in the view of Jesus' +contemporaries signs were essential marks of the Messiah (John vi. 30; +vii. 31; <a class="newpage" name="page096" id="page096" title="96"></a>Mark viii. 11). They did their reflecting later (John ii. 22).</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s103"><p><span class="versenum">103.</span> Miracles are as great a stumbling-block to modern thought as they +were a help to the contemporaries of Jesus. The study of Jesus' life +cannot ignore this fact, nor make little of it. It is fair to insist, +however, that the question is one of evidence, not of metaphysical +possibility. Men are wisely slow to-day to claim that they can tell what +are the limits of the possible. If the question is one of evidence, it is +in an important sense true that the evidence for miracle in the life of +Jesus is appreciable only when that life is viewed in its completeness. +The miracles attributed to Jesus may be studied, however, for the +disclosure which they give of his character, and of his relation to common +human need. So it is with this first sign at Cana. Jesus had just heard +the call to be Messiah, and in his lonely struggle in the wilderness had +given a loyal answer to that call, and had set out to do his Father's +business in his Father's way. He who by the Jordan still carried the marks +of struggle, so that the Baptist saw in him the suffering Saviour of +Isaiah liii., now returned to the ordinary daily life in Galilee, and as a +guest at a wedding feast he commenced that ministry of simple human +friendliness (Matt. xi. 19; compare Mark ii. 15-17; Luke xv. 1, 2), which +set him in sharp contrast alike with John's asceticism and with the +ritualism and pedantry of the Pharisees.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s104"><p><span class="versenum">104.</span> His human friendliness is all the more worthy of note, inasmuch as on +his return to Cana Jesus did not take up again the old relations of life +as they existed before his baptism. This is clear from his reply to his +mother when she reported the scarcity <a class="newpage" name="page097" id="page097" title="97"></a>of wine (John ii. 3-5). While it is +true that the title by which Jesus addressed Mary was neither +disrespectful nor unkind (John xix. 26), the reply itself was a warning +that now he was no longer hers in the old sense. A new mission had been +given him, which henceforth would determine all his conduct, and in that +mission she could not now share. Here is one of the many indications +(compare Mark iii. 21, 31-35; Luke ii. 48) that Mary did not understand +her son nor his work until much later (John xix. 25; Acts i. 14). That +with such a clear sense of his new and serious mission Jesus' first +official act was one of kindly relief for social embarrassment is most +significant. He chose to show his divine authority to his new disciples in +a way that brought joy to a festal company. Little as the disciples were +likely to appreciate it at the time, it was beautifully indicative of the +simplicity and everyday lovableness of Jesus' idea of the earnest service +of God.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s105"><p><span class="versenum">105.</span> With the disciples thus strengthened in faith, and the mother not +separated from him though unable to know his deepest thoughts, and the +brethren who could not yet nor later understand their kinsman and his +work, Jesus went down to Capernaum (John ii. 12), which proved thenceforth +to be the centre of his greatest work and teaching. There for a time, how +long cannot be known, he continued in quiet fellowship with his new +friends, until the approach of the Passover drew him to Jerusalem to make +formal opening of his Messianic work in that centre of his people's +religious life.</p></div> +</div> +<p><a class="newpage" name="page098" id="page098" title="98"></a></p> +</div> + + + +<div class="part" id="p02"> +<h2><a class="newpage" name="page099" id="page099" title="99"></a>Part II</h2> + +<h3>The Ministry</h3> + +<p><a class="newpage" name="page100" id="page100" title="100"></a></p> + +<div class="chapter" id="p02-01"> +<h2><a class="newpage" name="page101" id="page101" title="101"></a>I</h2> + +<h3>General Survey of the Ministry</h3> + + + +<div class="section" id="s106"><p><span class="versenum">106.</span> The attempt to arrange an orderly account of the way in which Jesus +set about the work to which he was called at his baptism is met at the +outset by a problem. The vivid and familiar words of Mark (i. 14), +seconded by the representation in both Matthew (iv. 12) and Luke (iv. 14), +indicate the imprisonment of John as the occasion, and Galilee as the +scene of the inauguration of Jesus' public ministry. The fourth gospel, on +the other hand, tells of a work of Jesus and his disciples in Judea prior +to the imprisonment of John (in. 24), and makes this work follow at some +interval after the inauguration of the Messianic ministry in Jerusalem. +The minuteness of detail of time and place in the early chapters of John +(i. 19 to iv. 43), together with the vividness of their narrative, give +them strong claim to credence. They thus record a ministry earlier than +that narrated in the other gospels, proving that the actual inauguration +of Jesus' work occurred in Jerusalem at a Passover season previous to the +imprisonment of John. This is known as the Early Judean Ministry.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s107"><p><span class="versenum">107.</span> The fact that Peter was wont to tell the story of Jesus' life in such +a way as to lead Mark to set the opening of the ministry after the close +of John's activ<a class="newpage" name="page102" id="page102" title="102"></a>ity, indicates that that beginning of work in Galilee +seemed to the disciples to be in a way the actual inauguration of Jesus' +constructive and successful work. Peter cannot have been ignorant of the +labors in Judea, though he may not himself have accompanied Jesus to the +Passover. A new stage in the life of Jesus began, therefore, with his +withdrawal to Galilee.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s108"><p><span class="versenum">108.</span> The story of the Galilean ministry is given chiefly by the first +three gospels, John contributing but two incidents to the period covered +by that ministry,--a second miracle at Cana (iv. 46-54), and a visit to +Judea (v. 1-47),--and relating more fully the story of the feeding of the +multitudes (vi. 1-71). The journey from Judea through Samaria (John iv. +1-45) should be identified with the removal to Galilee which stands at the +beginning of Mark's record (i. 14; Matt. iv. 12; Luke iv. 14). Mark's +account of the Galilean activity of Jesus (i. 14 to ix. 50) is one of such +simple and steady progress that the whole period must be considered as a +unit.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s109"><p><span class="versenum">109.</span> In the use which Matthew (iv. 12 to xviii. 35) and Luke (iv. 14 to +ix. 50) make of Mark's record this unity is emphasized. Their treatment of +the matter which they add, however, makes it best to study the period +topically rather than attempt to follow closely a chronological sequence. +As it is probable that the early writing ascribed by Papias to the apostle +Matthew failed to preserve in many cases any record of the time and place +of the teachings of Jesus, so is it certain that the first and third +evangelists have distributed quite differently the material which they +seem to have derived from that apostolic document. Mention need only be +made of the exhor<a class="newpage" name="page103" id="page103" title="103"></a>tation against anxiety which Matthew places in the +sermon on the mount (vi. 19-34), and which Luke has given after the close +of the Galilean activity (xii. 22-34). It is possible to form some +judgment of the general relations of such discourses from the character of +their contents, but in the absence of positive statement by the +evangelists it is hopeless to seek to give them a more definite historical +setting. A topical study can consider them as contributions to the period +to which they belong, while a chronological study would be lost in +uncertain conjectures. A topical study may, however, disclose the fact +that sequence of time was identical with development of method. This is, +in general, the case with the Galilean ministry. The new lesson which +Jesus began to teach after the confession at Cæsarea Philippi marked the +supreme turning point in his whole public activity. Before that crisis the +work of Jesus was a constructive preparation for the question which called +forth Peter's confession. Subsequently his work was that of making ready +for the end, which from that time on he foretold. As has been stated, the +Galilean ministry is the story of the first three gospels, except for two +incidents and a discourse added by John. The visit to the feast of +Tabernacles (John vii. 1 to viii. 59) stands on the border between the +work in Galilee and that which followed. It was one of Jesus' many +attempts to win Jerusalem, and is evidence that the author of the fourth +gospel--either because of special interest in the capital, or because of +superior knowledge of the work of his Master in Judea--gave emphasis to a +side of the life of Jesus which the other gospels have neglected.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s110"><p><a class="newpage" name="page104" id="page104" title="104"></a><span class="versenum">110.</span> With the close of the constructive ministry in Galilee, the account +of Mark (x. 1; compare Matt xix. 1; Luke ix. 51) turns towards Jerusalem +and the cross. The journey was not direct, but traversed Perea, the domain +of Antipas beyond Jordan, and was accompanied by continued ministry of +teaching and healing (Mark x. 1-52; Matt. xix. 1 to xx. 34). It is at this +point that Luke has inserted the long section peculiar to his gospel (ix. +51 to xviii. 14), becoming again parallel with Mark as Jesus drew near to +Jerusalem (xviii. 15 to xix. 28; compare Mark x. 13-52). Much of that +which Luke adds gives evidence that in all probability it should be placed +before the change in method at Cæsarea Philippi, while much of it +undoubtedly belongs to the last months of Jesus' life. Since the last +journey to Jerusalem is reported with considerable fulness, it is natural +in a study of Jesus' life to treat that journey by itself. At this point +John contributes important additions to the record (ix. 1 to xi. 57) +showing that the journey was not continuous, but was interrupted by +several more or less hurried visits to the capital, renewed efforts of +Jesus to win the city.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s111"><p><span class="versenum">111.</span> With the final arrival in Jerusalem the four gospels come together in +a record of the last days and the crucifixion (Mark xi. 1 to xv. 47; Matt, +xxi 1 to xxvii. 66; Luke xix. 29 to xxiii. 56; John xi. 55 to xix. 42). +The evangelists, in their accounts of the last week, seem to have had +access to completer and more varied information than for any other part of +the ministry. This causes some difficulties in constructing an ordered +conception of the events, yet it greatly adds to the fulness of our +knowledge. It is easier, therefore, <a class="newpage" name="page105" id="page105" title="105"></a>to consider the period in three +parts,--the final controversies in Jerusalem, the Last Supper, and the +betrayal, trial, and crucifixion.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s112"><p><span class="versenum">112.</span> In a sense the resurrection and ascension form the conclusion of the +final visit to Jerusalem, and should be treated with the last week. In a +larger sense, however, they form the culmination of the whole ministry, +and therefore constitute a final stage in the study of Jesus' life. At +this point the record of the gospels is supplemented by the first chapter +of the Acts and by Paul's concise report of the appearances of the risen +Christ (I. Cor. xv. 3-8). The various accounts exhibit perplexing +independence of each other. In total impression, however, they agree, and +show that the tragedy, by which the enemies of Jesus thought to end his +career, was turned into signal triumph.</p></div> +</div><div class="chapter" id="p02-02"> +<div class="outline"> +<h2><a class="newpage" name="page106" id="page106" title="106"></a> Outline of Events in the Early Judean Ministry</h2> + + +<p> The first Passover of the public ministry: Cleansing of the + temple--John ii. 13-22.</p> + +<p> Early results in Jerusalem: Discourse with Nicodemus--John ii. 23 to + iii. 15.</p> + +<p> Withdrawal into rural parts of Judea to preach and baptize--John in. + 22-30; iv. 1, 2.</p> + +<p> Imprisonment of John the Baptist--Matt. iv. 12; Mark i. 14.</p> + +<p> Withdrawal from Judea through Samaria--John iv. 1-42.</p> + +<p> Unlooked-for welcome in Galilee--John iv. 43-45.</p> + +<p> ? Second sign at Cana: Cure of the Nobleman's son--John iv. 46-54 (see + sect. <a href="#a041">A 41</a>).</p> + +<p> [Retirement at Nazareth, the disciples resuming their accustomed + calling. Inferred from Matt. iv. 13; Luke iv. 31; Matt. iv. 18-22 and + ∥s.]</p> + +<p> Events marked ? should possibly be given a different place; ∥s stands + for "parallel accounts;" for sections marked A--as <a href="#a041">A 41</a>--see Appendix.</p> +</div> + + + + +<h2>II</h2> + +<h3>The Early Ministry in Judea</h3> + + + +<div class="section" id="s113"><p><span class="versenum">113.</span> We owe to the fourth gospel our knowledge of the fact that Jesus +began his general ministry in Jerusalem. The silence of the other records +concerning this beginning cannot discredit the testimony of John. For +these other records themselves indicate in various ways that Jesus had +repeatedly sought to win Jerusalem before his final visit at the end of +his life (compare Luke xiii. 34; Matt. xxiii. 37). Moreover, the fourth +gospel is confirmed by the probability, rising <a class="newpage" name="page107" id="page107" title="107"></a>almost to necessity, that +such a mission as Jesus conceived his to be must seek first to win the +leaders of his people. The temple at Jerusalem was the centre of worship, +drawing all Jews sooner or later to itself--even as Jesus in early youth +was accustomed to go thither at the time of feasts (Luke ii. 41). +Worshippers of God throughout the world prayed with their faces towards +Jerusalem (Dan. vi. 10). Moreover, at Jerusalem the chief of the scribes, +as well as the chief of the priests, were to be found. Compared with +Jerusalem all other places were provincial and of small influence. A +Messiah, who had not from the outset given up hope of winning the capital, +cannot have long delayed his effort to find a following there.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s114"><p><span class="versenum">114.</span> Arriving at Jerusalem at the Passover season, in the early spring, +Jesus remained in Judea until the following December (John iv. 35). +Evidently the record which John gives of these months is most fragmentary, +and from his own statement (xx. 30, 31) it seems highly probable that it +is one sided, emphasizing those events and teachings in which Jesus +disclosed more or less clearly his claim to be the Messiah. Doubtless the +full record would show a much closer similarity between this early work in +Judea and that later conducted in Galilee than a comparison of John with +the other gospels would suggest; yet it is evident that Jesus opened his +ministry in Jerusalem with an unrestrained frankness that is not found +later in Galilee.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s115"><p><span class="versenum">115.</span> It is a mistake to think of the cleansing of the temple as a distinct +Messianic manifesto. The market in the temple was a licensed affront to +spiritual religion. It found its excuse for being in the require<a class="newpage" name="page108" id="page108" title="108"></a>ment that +worshippers offer to the priests for sacrifice animals levitically clean +and acceptable, and that gifts for the temple treasury be made in no coin +other than the sacred "shekel of the sanctuary." The chief priests +appreciated the convenience which worshippers coming from a distance would +find if they could obtain all the means of worship within the temple +enclosure itself. The hierarchy or its representatives seem also to have +appreciated the opportunity to charge good prices for the accommodation so +afforded. The result was the intrusion of the spirit of the market-place, +with all its disputes and haggling, into the place set apart for worship. +In fact, the only part of the temple open to Gentiles who might wish to +worship Israel's God was filled with distraction, unseemly strife, and +extortion (compare Mark xi. 17). Such despite done the sanctity of God's +house must have outraged the pious sense of many a devout Israelite. There +is no doubt of what an Isaiah or a Micah would have said and done in such +a situation. This is exactly what Jesus did. His act was the assumption of +a full prophetic authority. In itself considered it was nothing more. In +his expulsion of the traders he had the conscience of the people for his +ally. There is no need to think of any use of miraculous power. His moral +earnestness, coupled with the underlying consciousness on the part of the +traders themselves that they had no business in God's house, readily +explains the confusion and departure of the intruders. Even those who +challenged Jesus' conduct did not venture to defend the presence of the +market in the temple. They only demanded that Jesus show his warrant for +disturbing a condition of things authorized by the priests.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s116"><p><a class="newpage" name="page109" id="page109" title="109"></a><span class="versenum">116.</span> The temple cleansing is recorded in the other gospels at the end of +Jesus' ministry, just before the hostility of the Jews culminated in his +condemnation and death. Inasmuch as these gospels give no account of a +ministry by Jesus in Jerusalem before the last week of his life, it is +easy to see how this event came to be associated by them with the only +Jerusalem sojourn which they record. The definite place given to the event +in John, together with the seeming necessity that Jesus should condemn +such authorized affront to the very idea of worship, mark this cleansing +as the inaugural act of Jesus' ministry of spiritual religion, rather than +as a final stern rebuke closing his effort to win his people. Against the +conclusion commonly held that Jesus cleansed the temple both at the +opening and at the close of his course is the extreme improbability that +the traders would have been caught twice in the same way. The event fits +in closely with the story of the last week, because it actually led to the +beginning of opposition in Jerusalem to the prophet from Galilee. At the +first the opposition was doubtless of a scornful sort. Later it grew in +bitterness when it saw how Jesus was able to arouse a popular enthusiasm +that seemed to threaten the stability of existing conditions.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s117"><p><span class="versenum">117.</span> The reply of Jesus to the challenge of his authority for his +high-handed act shows that he offered it to the people as an invitation; +he would lead them to a higher idea and practice of worship (compare John +iv. 21-24). When they demanded the warrant for his act, he saw that they +were not ready to follow him, and could not appreciate the only warrant he +needed for his course. He cleansed the temple because they were destroying +<a class="newpage" name="page110" id="page110" title="110"></a>it as a place where men could worship God in spirit. In reply to the +challenge, he who later taught the Samaritan woman that the worship of God +is not dependent on any place however sacred, answered that they might +finish their work and destroy the temple as a house of God, yet he would +speedily re-establish a true means of approach to the Most High for the +souls of men. He clothed his reply in a figurative dress, as he was often +wont to do in his teaching,--"Destroy this temple, and in three days I +will raise it up." To his unsympathetic hearers it must have been +completely enigmatic. Even the disciples did not catch its meaning until +after the resurrection had taught them that in their Master a new chapter +in God's dealing with men had begun.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s118"><p><span class="versenum">118.</span> The unreadiness of the Jewish leaders to receive the only kind of +message he had to offer produced in Jesus a decided reserve. He did not +lack a certain kind of success in Jerusalem. His cures of the sick won him +many followers who seemed ready to believe almost anything of him. But the +attitude taken by the leaders made it evident that Jesus must make +disciples who should understand in some measure at least his idea of God's +kingdom, and, understanding, must be ready to be loyal to it through good +report and evil. For the position taken by the leaders of the people had +an ominous significance. It could mean but one thing for +Jesus,--unrelenting conflict. If they could not be won, they who would so +legalize the desecration of God's house would not hesitate at any extreme +in opposing his messenger. This possibility confronted Jesus at the very +outset; therefore he held the popular enthusiasm in check, knowing that +<a class="newpage" name="page111" id="page111" title="111"></a>as yet it had little of that kind of faith which could endure seeming +defeat.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s119"><p><span class="versenum">119.</span> One of those who were drawn to him, however, gave Jesus opportunity +to lay aside his reserve and speak clearly of the truth lie came to +publish. He was a member of the Jewish sanhedrin, a rabbi apparently held +in high regard in Jerusalem. While his associates were dismissing the +claims of Jesus with a wave of the hand, Nicodemus sought out the new +teacher by night, and showed his desire to learn what Jesus held to be +truth concerning God's kingdom. Jesus first reminded the teacher of Israel +of the old doctrine of the prophets, that Israel must find a new heart +before God's kingdom can come (Jer. xxxi. 31-34; Ezek. xxxvi. 25-27), and +then declared that the heavenly truth which God now would reveal to men is +that all can have the needed new life as freely as the plague-stricken +Israelites found relief when Moses lifted up the brazen serpent. This +conversation serves to introduce the evangelist's interpretation of Jesus +as the only begotten Son of God sent in love to redeem the world (John +iii. 16-21).</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s120"><p><span class="versenum">120.</span> John's record suggests that Jesus left Jerusalem shortly after the +conversation with Nicodemus. His work there was not without success, for +Nicodemus seems to have been henceforth his loyal advocate (compare John +vii. 50-52; xix. 39); and it may be that at the time of this sojourn he +won the hearts of his friends in Bethany, for the first picture the +gospels give of this household seems to presuppose a somewhat intimate +relation of Jesus to the family (Luke x. 38-42). It would be idle to +speculate whether it was at this time or later that he became acquainted +with Joseph of Arimathea, or the friends who during the last week of <a class="newpage" name="page112" id="page112" title="112"></a>his +life showed him hospitality (Mark xi. 2-6; xiv. 12-16).</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s121"><p><span class="versenum">121.</span> For a time after his withdrawal from Jerusalem he lingered in Judea, +carrying on a simple ministry of preparation like that of John the +Baptist. In this way the summer and early autumn seem to have passed, +Jesus growing more popular as a prophet than John himself had been. The +fact that Jesus' disciples administered baptism in connection with his +work roused the jealousy of some of John's followers, and attracted again +the attention of Jerusalem to the new activity of the bold disturber of +the temple market. John's disciples complained to him of Jesus' rivalry, +and received his self-effacing confession, "He must increase, I must +decrease." The Pharisees, on the other hand, made Jesus feel that further +work in Judea was for the time unwise, and he withdrew into Galilee for +retirement, since "a prophet has no honor in his own country" (John iv. +1-3, 44). Baffled in his first effort to win his people, this journey back +from the region of the holy city must have been one of no little sadness +for Jesus. Some urgency for haste led him by the direct road through +despised Samaria. A seemingly chance conversation with a woman at Jacob's +well, where he was resting at noonday, gave him an opportunity for +ministry which was more ingenuously received than any which he had been +able to render in Judea; and to this woman he declared himself even more +plainly than to Nicodemus, and preached to her that spiritual idea of +worship which he had sought to enforce by cleansing Jerusalem's temple. +Samaria was so isolated from all Jewish interest that Jesus felt no need +for reserve in this "strange" land. The few days spent there must <a class="newpage" name="page113" id="page113" title="113"></a>have +been peculiarly welcome to his heart, fresh from rejection in Judea.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s122"><p><span class="versenum">122.</span> One reason why he wished to hasten from Judea seems to have been his +knowledge of the hostile movement which was making against John the +Baptist. Either before or soon after Jesus started for Galilee Herod had +arrested John, ostensibly as a measure of public safety owing to John's +undue popularity (Jos. Ant. xviii. 5. 2). Herod may have been encouraged +to take this step by the hostility of the Pharisees to the plain-spoken +prophet of the desert (see John iv. 1-3). The fourth gospel leaves its +readers to infer that the imprisonment took place somewhere about this +time (compare iii. 24 and v. 35), while the other gospels unite in giving +this arrest as the occasion for Jesus' withdrawal into Galilee.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s123"><p><span class="versenum">123.</span> Arrived in Galilee, Jesus seems to have returned to his home at +Nazareth, while his disciples went back to their customary occupations, +until he summoned them again to join him in a new ministry (see sect. +125). John assigns to this time the cure of a nobleman's son. The father +sought out Jesus at Cana, having left his son sick at Capernaum. At first +Jesus apparently repelled his approach, even as he had dealt with seekers +after marvels at Jerusalem; but on hearing the father's cry of need and +trust, he at once spoke the word of healing. This event is in so many ways +a duplicate of the cure of a centurion's servant recorded in Matthew and +Luke, that to many it seems but another version of the same incident. +Considering the variations in the story reported by Matthew and Luke, it +is clearly not possible to prove that John tells of a different case. Yet +the simple fact of similarity of some details in two <a class="newpage" name="page114" id="page114" title="114"></a>events should not +exclude the possibility of their still being quite distinct. The reception +which Jesus gave the two requests for help is very different, and the case +reported in John is in keeping with the attitude of Jesus before he began +his new ministry in Galilee. On his arrival in Galilee he wished to avoid +a mere wonder faith begotten of the enthusiasm he excited in Jerusalem, +yet this wish yielded at once when a genuine need sought relief at his +hands.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s124"><p><span class="versenum">124.</span> The apparent result of this first activity in Judea was +disappointment and failure. He had won no considerable following in the +capital. He had definitely excited the jealousy and opposition of the +leading men of his nation. Even such popular enthusiasm as had followed +his mighty works was of a sort that Jesus could not encourage. The +situation in Judea had at length become so nearly untenable that he +decided to withdraw into seclusion in Galilee, where, as a prophet, he +could be "without honor." He had gone to Jerusalem eager to begin there, +where God should have had readiest service, the ministry of the kingdom of +God. Challenge, cold criticism, and superficial faith were the results. A +new beginning must be made on other lines in other places. Meanwhile Jesus +retired to his home and his followers to theirs.</p></div></div> +<div class="chapter" id="p02-03"> +<div class="outline"> +<h2><a class="newpage" name="page115" id="page115" title="115"></a> Outline of Events in the Galilean Ministry (Chapters <a href="#p02-03">III.</a> and <a href="#p02-04">IV.</a>)</h2> + + +<p> The imprisonment of John and the withdrawal of Jesus into + Galilee--Matt. iv. 12-17; Mark i. 14, 15; Luke iv. 14, 15.</p> + +<p> Removal from Nazareth to Capernaum--Matt. iv. 13-16; Luke iv. 31.</p> + +<p> The call of Simon and Andrew, James and John--Matt. iv. 18-22; Mark i. + 16-20; Luke v. 1-11. + +</p> + +<p> First work in Capernaum--Matt. viii. 14-17; Mark i. 21-34; Luke iv. + 31-41.</p> + +<p> First circuit of Galilee--Matt. iv. 23; viii. 2-4; Mark i. 35-45; Luke + iv. 42-44; v. 12-16.</p> + +<p> Cure of a paralytic in Capernaum--Matt. ix. 2-8; Mark ii. 1-12; Luke v. + 17-26.</p> + +<p> The call of Matthew--Matt. ix. 9-13; Mark ii. 13-17; Luke v. 27-32.</p> + +<p> ? The question about fasting--Matt ix. 14-17; Mark ii. 18-22; Luke v. + 33-39 (see sects. 47; <a href="#a054">A 54</a>).</p> + +<p> ? Sabbath cure at Jerusalem at the unnamed feast--John v. 1-47 (see + sect. <a href="#a053">A 53</a>).</p> + +<p> ? The Sabbath controversy in the Galilean grain fields--Matt. xii. 1-8; + Mark ii. 23-28; Luke vi. 1-5 (see sects. 47; <a href="#a054">A 54</a>).</p> + +<p> ? Another Sabbath controversy: cure of a withered hand--Matt. xii. + 9-14; Mark iii. 1-6; Luke vi. 6-11 (see sects. 47; <a href="#a054">A 54</a>).</p> + +<p> Jesus followed by multitudes from all parts--Matt. iv. 23-25; xii. + 15-21; Mark iii. 7-12; Luke vi. 17-19.</p> + +<p> The choosing of the twelve--Matt. x. 2-4; Mark iii. 13-19; Luke vi. + 12-19.</p> + +<p> The sermon on the mount--Matt. v. 1 to viii. 1; Luke vi. 20 to vii. 1 + (see sect. <a href="#a055">A 55</a>).</p> + +<p> The cure of a centurion's servant--Matt. viii. 5-13; Luke vii. 1-10; + John iv. 46-54.</p> + +<p><a class="newpage" name="page116" id="page116" title="116"></a> The restoration of the widow's son at Nain--Luke vii. 11-17.</p> + +<p> The message from John in prison--Matt. xi. 2-19; Luke vii. 18-35.</p> + +<p> The anointing of Jesus by a sinful woman--Luke vii. 36-50.</p> + +<p> The companions of Jesus on his second circuit of Galilee--Luke viii. + 1-3.</p> + +<p> Cure of a demoniac in Capernaum and blasphemy by the Pharisees--Matt. + xii. 22-45; Mark iii. 19<sup>a</sup>-30; Luke xi. 14-36.</p> + +<p> The true kindred of Jesus--Matt. xii. 46-50; Mark iii. 31-35; Luke + viii. 19-21.</p> + +<p> The parables by the sea--Matt. xiii. 1-53; Mark iv. 1-34; Luke viii. + 4-18 (see sect. <a href="#a056">A 56</a>).</p> + +<p> The tempest stilled--Matt. viii. 18, 23-27; Mark iv. 35-41; Luke viii. + 22-25.</p> + +<p> Cure of the Gadarene demoniac--Matt. viii. 28-34; Mark v. 1-20; Luke + viii. 26-39.</p> + +<p> The restoration of the daughter of Jairus and cure of an invalid + woman--Matt. ix. 1, 18-26; Mark v. 21-43; Luke viii. 40-56.</p> + +<p> Cure of blind and dumb--Matt. ix. 27-34.</p> + +<p> Rejection at Nazareth--Matt. xiii. 54-58; Mark vi. 1-6<sup>a</sup>; Luke iv. + 16-30 (see sect. <a href="#a052">A 52</a>).</p> + +<p> Third circuit of Galilee--Matt. ix. 35; Mark vi. 6<sup>b</sup>.</p> + +<p> The mission of the twelve--Matt. ix. 36 to xi. 1; Mark vi. 7-13; Luke + ix. 1-6 (see sect. <a href="#a057">A 57</a>).</p> + +<p> The death of John the Baptist--Matt. xiv. 1-12; Mark vi. 14-29; Luke + ix. 7-9.</p> + +<p> Withdrawal of Jesus across the sea and feeding of the five + thousand--Matt. xiv. 13-23; Mark vi. 30-46; Luke ix. 10-17; John vi. + 1-15.</p> + +<p> Return to Capernaum, Jesus walking on the water--Matt. xiv. 24-36; Mark + vi. 47-56; John vi. 16-21.</p> + +<p> Teaching about the Bread of Life in the synagogue at Capernaum--John + vi. 22-71 (see sect. <a href="#a059">A 59</a>).</p> + +<p> Controversy concerning tradition: handwashing, etc.--Matt. xv. 1-20; + Mark vii. 1-23.</p> + +<p> Withdrawal to regions of Tyre and Sidon: the Syrophœnician woman's + daughter--Matt. xv. 21-28; Mark vii. 24-30.</p> + +<p><a class="newpage" name="page117" id="page117" title="117"></a> Return through Decapolis--Matt. xv. 29-31; Mark vii. 31-37. +</p> + +<p> ? The feeding of the four thousand--Matt. xv. 32-38; Mark viii. 1-9 + (see sect. <a href="#a058">A 58</a>).</p> + +<p> Pharisaic challenge in Galilee, and warning against the leaven of the + Pharisees--Matt xv. 39 to xvi. 12; Mark viii. 10-21.</p> + +<p> Cure of blind man near Bethsaida--Mark viii. 22-26.</p> + +<p> Peter's confession of Jesus as Christ near Cæsarea Philippi--Matt. xvi. + 13-20; Mark viii. 27-30; Luke ix. 18-21.</p> + +<p> The new lesson, that the Christ must die--Matt. xvi. 21-28; Mark viii. + 31 to ix. 1; Luke ix. 22-27.</p> + +<p> The transfiguration--Matt. xvii. 1-13; Mark ix. 2-13; Luke ix. 28-36.</p> + +<p> Cure of the epileptic boy--Matt. xvii. 14-20; Mark ix. 14-29; Luke ix. + 37-43<sup>a</sup>.</p> + +<p> Second prediction of approaching death and resurrection--Matt. xvii. + 22, 23; Mark ix. 30-32; Luke ix. 43<sup>b</sup>-45.</p> + +<p> Return to Capernaum: the temple tax--Matt. xvii. 24-27; Mark ix. 33<sup>a</sup>.</p> + +<p> Teachings concerning humility and forgiveness--Matt. xviii. 1-35; Mark + ix. 33-50; Luke ix. 46-50.</p> + +<p> Visit of Jesus to Jerusalem at the feast of Tabernacles--John vii. + 1-52; viii. 12-59 (see sect. <a href="#a060">A 60</a>).</p> + +<p> ? The woman taken in adultery--John vii. 53 to viii. 11 (see sect. + 163).</p> + +<p> The following probably belong to the Galilean ministry before the + confession at Cæsarea Philippi (see sect. 168):--</p> + +<p> The disciples taught to pray--Matt. vi. 9-15; vii. 7-11; Luke xi. 1-13.</p> + +<p> The cure of an infirm woman on the Sabbath--Luke xiii. 10-17.</p> + +<p> Two parables: mustard-seed and leaven--Matt. xiii. 31-33; Luke xiii. + 18-21 (see sect. <a href="#a056">A 56</a>).</p> + +<p> The parable of the rich fool--Luke xii. 13-21.</p> + +<p> Cure on a Sabbath and teaching at a Pharisee's table--Luke xiv. 1-24.</p> + +<p> Five parables--Luke xv. 1 to xvi. 31.</p> + +<p> Certain disconnected teachings--Luke xvii. 1-4.</p> +</div> + + + + +<h2><a class="newpage" name="page118" id="page118" title="118"></a>III</h2> + +<h3>The Ministry In Galilee--Its Aim and Method</h3> + + + +<div class="section" id="s125"><p><span class="versenum">125.</span> The work of Jesus in Galilee, which is the principal theme of the +first three gospels, began with a removal from Nazareth to Capernaum, and +the calling of four fishermen to be his constant followers. The ready +obedience which Simon and Andrew and James and John gave to this call is +an interesting evidence that they did not first come to know Jesus at the +time of this summons. The narrative presupposes some such earlier +association as is reported in John, followed by a temporary return to +their old homes and occupations, while Jesus sought seclusion after his +work in Judea. The first evangelist has most vividly indicated the +development of the Galilean ministry, directing attention to two points of +beginning,--the beginning of Jesus' preaching of the kingdom (Matt. iv. +17) and the beginning of his predictions of his own sufferings and death +(xvi. 21). Between these two beginnings lies the ministry of Jesus to the +enthusiastic multitudes, the second of them marking his choice of a more +restricted audience and a less popular message. Within the first of these +periods two events mark epochs,--the mission of the twelve (Matt. ix. 36; +x. I) to preach the coming kingdom of God and to multiply Jesus' ministry +of healing, and the feeding of the five thousand when the popular +enthusiasm <a class="newpage" name="page119" id="page119" title="119"></a>reached its climax (John vi. 14, 15). These events fall not +far apart, and mark two different phases of the same stage of development +in his work. The first is emphasized by Matthew, the second by John; both +help to a clearer understanding of the narrative which Mark has furnished +to the other gospels for their story of the Galilean ministry. The table +at the head of this chapter indicates in outline the probable succession +of events in the Galilean period. The order adopted is that of Mark, +supplemented by the other gospels. Luke's additions are inserted in his +order where there is not some reason for believing that he himself +disregarded the exact sequence of events. Thus the rejection at Nazareth +is placed late, as in Mark. Much of the material in the long section +peculiar to Luke is assigned in general to this Galilean period, since all +knowledge of its precise location in time and place has been lost for us, +as it not unlikely was for Luke. Although Matthew is the gospel giving the +clearest general view of the Galilean work, it shows the greatest +disarrangement of details, and aids but little in determining the sequence +of events. The material from that gospel is assigned place in accordance +with such hints as are discoverable in parallel or associated parts of +Mark or Luke. Of John's contributions one--the feeding of the +multitudes--is clearly located by its identity with a narrative found in +all the other gospels. The visit to Jerusalem at the unnamed feast can be +only tentatively placed.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s126"><p><span class="versenum">126.</span> Viewing this gospel story as a whole, the parallel development of +popular enthusiasm and official hostility at once attracts attention. +Jesus' first cures in the synagogue at Capernaum roused the interest and +<a class="newpage" name="page120" id="page120" title="120"></a>wonder of the multitudes to such an extent that he felt constrained to +withdraw to other towns. On his return to Capernaum he was so beset with +crowds that the friends of the paralytic could get at him only by breaking +up the roof. It was when Jesus found himself followed by multitudes from +all parts of the land that he selected twelve of his disciples "that they +might be with him and that he might send them forth to preach," and +addressed to them in the hearing of the multitudes the exacting, although +unspeakably winsome teaching of the sermon on the mount. This condition of +things continued even after Herod had killed John the Baptist, for when +Jesus, having heard of John's fate, sought retirement with his disciples +across the sea of Galilee, he was robbed of his seclusion by throngs who +flocked to him to be healed and to hear of the kingdom of God.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s127"><p><span class="versenum">127.</span> The popular enthusiasm was not indifferent to the question who this +new teacher might be. At first Jesus impressed the people by his +authoritative teaching and cures. After the raising of the widow's son at +Nain the popular feeling found a more definite declaration,--"a great +prophet has risen up among us." The cure of a demoniac in Capernaum raised +the further incredulous query, "Can this be the Son of David?" The notion +that he might be the Messiah seems to have gained acceptance more and more +as Jesus' popularity grew, for at the time of the feeding of the +multitudes the enthusiasm burst into a flame of determination to force him +to undertake the work for which he was so eminently fitted, but from which +for some inexplicable reason he seemed to shrink (John vi. 15).</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s128"><p><a class="newpage" name="page121" id="page121" title="121"></a><span class="versenum">128.</span> Parallel with the growth of popular enthusiasm, and in part because +of it, the religious leaders early assumed and consistently maintained an +attitude of opposition. The gospels connect the critics of Jesus now and +again with the Pharisees of the capital--the Galilean Pharisees being +represented as more or less friendly. At the first appearance of Jesus in +Capernaum even the Sabbath cure in the synagogue passed unchallenged; but +on the return from his first excursion to other towns, Jesus found critics +in his audience (Luke connects them directly with Jerusalem). From time to +time such censors as these objected to the forgiveness by Jesus of the +sins of the paralytic (Mark ii. 6, 7), criticised his social relations +with outcasts like the publicans (Mark ii. 16), took offence at his +carelessness of the Sabbath tradition in his instruction of his disciples +(Mark ii. 24), and sought to turn the tide of rising popular enthusiasm by +ascribing his power to cure to a league with the devil (Mark iii. 22). +Baffled in one charge, they would turn to another, until, after the +feeding of the multitudes, Jesus showed his complete disregard of all they +held most dear, replying to a criticism of his disciples for carelessness +of the ritual of hand-washing by an authoritative setting aside of the +whole body of their traditions, as well as of the Levitical ceremonial of +clean and unclean meats (Mark vii. 1-23).</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s129"><p><span class="versenum">129.</span> The wonder is, not that popular enthusiasm for Jesus was great, but +that it was so hesitating in its judgment about him. The province which +provided a following to Judas of Galilee a generation earlier than the +public ministry of Jesus, and which under John of Gischala furnished the +chief support to the <a class="newpage" name="page122" id="page122" title="122"></a>revolt against Rome a generation later, could have +been excited to uncontrollable passion by the simple idea that a leader +was present who could be made to head a movement for Jewish liberty. But +there was something about Jesus which made it impossible to think of him +as such a Messiah. He was much more moved by sin lurking within than by +wrong inflicted from without. He looked for God's kingdom, as did the +Zealots, but he looked for it within the heart more than in outward +circumstances. Even the dreamers among the people, who were as unready as +Jesus for any uprising against Rome, and who waited for God to show his +own hand in judgment, found in Jesus--come to seek and to save that which +was lost--something so contradictory of their idea of the celestial judge +that they could not easily think of him as a Messiah. Jesus was a puzzle +to the people. They were sure that he was a prophet; but if at any time +some were tempted to query, "Can this be the Son of David?" the +incredulous folk expected ever a negative reply.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s130"><p><span class="versenum">130.</span> This was as Jesus wished it to be. An unreasoning enthusiasm could +only hinder his work. When his early cures in Capernaum stirred the ardent +feelings of the multitudes, he took occasion to withdraw to other towns +and allow popular feeling to cool. When later he found himself pressed +upon by crowds from all quarters of the land, by the sermon on the mount +he set them thinking on strange and highly spiritual things, far removed +from the thoughts of Zealots and apocalyptic dreamers.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s131"><p><span class="versenum">131.</span> The manifest contradiction of popular Messianic ideas which Jesus +presented in his own person <a class="newpage" name="page123" id="page123" title="123"></a>usually served to check undue ardor as long +as he was present. But when some demoniac proclaimed the high station of +Jesus, and thus seemed to the people to give supernatural testimony; or +when some one in need sought him apart from the multitudes, Jesus +frequently enjoined silence. These injunctions of silence are enigmas +until they are viewed as a part of Jesus' effort to keep control of +popular feeling. In his absence the people might dwell on his power and +easily come to imagine him to be what he was not and could not be. Jesus +was able by these means to restrain unthinking enthusiasm until the +multitudes whom he fed on the east side of the sea determined to force him +to do their will as a Messiah. Then he refused to follow where they +called, and that happened which would doubtless have happened at an +earlier time but for Jesus' caution,--the popular enthusiasm subsided, and +his active work with the common people was at an end. But he had held off +this crisis until there were a few who did not follow the popular +defection, but rather clung to him from whom they had heard the words of +eternal life (John vi. 68).</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s132"><p><span class="versenum">132.</span> Jesus' caution brings to light one aspect of his aim in the Galilean +ministry,--he sought to win acceptance for the truth he proclaimed. His +message as reported in the synoptic gospels was the near approach of the +kingdom of God. Any such proclamation was sure of eager hearing. At first +he seems to have been content to gather and interest the multitudes by +this preaching and the works which accompanied it. But he early took +occasion to state his ideas in the hearing of the multitudes, and in terms +so simple, so concerned <a class="newpage" name="page124" id="page124" title="124"></a>with every-day life, so exacting as respects +conduct, and so lacking in the customary glowing picture of the future, +that the people could not mistake such a teacher for a simple fulfiller of +their ideas. In this early sermon in effect, and later with increasing +plainness, he set forth his doctrine of a kingdom of heaven coming not +with observation, present actually among a people who knew it not, like a +seed growing secretly in the earth, or leaven quietly leavening a lump of +meal. By word and deed, in sermon and by parable, he insisted on this +simple and every-day conception of God's rule among men. With Pharisee, +Zealot, and dreamer, he held that "the best is yet to be," yet all three +classes found their most cherished ideals set at nought by the new +champion of the soul's inner life in fellowship with the living God. In +all his teaching there was a claim of authority and a manifest +independence which indicate certainty on his part concerning his own +mission. Yet so completely is the personal question retired for the time, +that in his rebuke of the blasphemy of the Pharisees he took pains to +declare that it was not because they had spoken against the Son of Man, +that they were in danger, but because they had spoken against the Spirit +of God, whose presence was manifest in his works. He wished, primarily, to +win disciples to the kingdom of God.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s133"><p><span class="versenum">133.</span> Yet Jesus was not indifferent in Galilee to what the people thought +about himself. The question at Cæsarea Philippi shows more fully the aim +of his ministry. During all the period of the preaching of the kingdom he +never hesitated to assert himself whenever need for such self-assertion +arose. This <a class="newpage" name="page125" id="page125" title="125"></a>was evident in his dealing with his pharisaic critics. He +rarely argued with them, and always assumed a tone of authority which was +above challenge, asserting that the Son of Man had authority to forgive +sins, was lord of the Sabbath, was greater than the temple or Jonah or +Solomon. Moreover, in his positive teaching of the new truth he assumed +such an authoritative tone that any who thought upon it could but remark +the extraordinary claim involved in his simple "I say unto you." He wished +also to win disciples to himself.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s134"><p><span class="versenum">134.</span> The key to the ministry in Galilee is furnished in Jesus' answer to +the message from John the Baptist. John in prison had heard of the works +of his successor. Jesus did so much that promised a fulfilment of the +Messianic hope, yet left so much undone, contradicting in so many ways the +current idea of a Messiah by his studied avoidance of any demonstration, +that the older prophet felt a momentary doubt of the correctness of his +earlier conviction. It is in no way strange that he experienced a reaction +from that exalted moment of insight when he pointed out Jesus as the Lamb +of God, particularly after his restless activity had been caged within the +walls of his prison. Jesus showed that he did not count it strange, by his +treatment of John's quesestion and by his words about John after the +messengers had gone. Yet in his reply he gently suggested that the +question already had its answer if John would but look rightly for it. He +simply referred to the things that were being done before the eyes of all, +and asked John to form from them a conclusion concerning him who did them. +One aid he offered to the imprisoned prophet,--a word from the <a class="newpage" name="page126" id="page126" title="126"></a>Book of +Isaiah (xxxv. 5f., lxi. 1f.),--and added a blessing for such as "should +find nothing to stumble at in him." Here Jesus emphasized his works, and +allowed his message to speak for itself; but he frankly indicated that he +expected people to pass from wonder at his ministry to an opinion about +himself. At Cæsarea Philippi he showed to his disciples that this opinion +about himself was the significant thing in his eyes. Throughout the +ministry in Galilee, therefore, this twofold aim appears. Jesus would +first divert attention from himself to his message, in order that he might +win disciples to the kingdom of God as he conceived it. Having so attached +them to his idea of the kingdom, he desired to be recognized as that +kingdom's prince, the Messiah promised by God for his people. He retired +behind his message in order that men might be drawn to the truth which he +held dear, knowing that thus they would find themselves led captive to +himself in a willing devotion.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s135"><p><span class="versenum">135.</span> This aim explains his retirement when popularity pressed, his +exacting teaching about the spirituality of the kingdom of God, and his +injunctions of silence. He wished to be known, to be thought about, to be +accepted as God's anointed, but he would have this only by a genuine +surrender to his leadership. His disciples must own him master and follow +him, however much he might disappoint their misconceptions. This aim, too, +explains his frank self-assertions and exalted personal claims in +opposition to official criticism. He would not be false to his own sense +of masterhood, nor allow people to think him bold when his critics were +away, and cowardly in their presence. Therefore, when needful, he invited +attention to him<a class="newpage" name="page127" id="page127" title="127"></a>self as greater than the temple or as lord of the +Sabbath. This kind of self-assertion, however, served his purpose as well +as his customary self-retirement, for it forced people to face the +contradiction which he offered to the accepted religious ideas of their +leaders.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s136"><p><span class="versenum">136.</span> The method which Jesus chose has already been repeatedly +indicated,--teaching and preaching on the one hand, and works of +helpfulness to men on the other. The character of the teaching of this +period is shown in three discourses,--the Sermon on the Mount, the +Discourse in Parables, and the Instructions to the Twelve. The sermon on +the mount is given in different forms in Matthew and Luke, that in Matthew +being evidently the more complete, even after deduction has been made of +those parts which Luke has assigned with high probability to a later time. +This address was spoken to the disciples of Jesus found among the +multitudes who flocked to him from all quarters. It opened with words of +congratulation for those who, characterized by qualities often despised, +were yet heirs of God's kingdom. The thought then passed to the +responsibility of such heirs of the kingdom for the help of a needy world. +Next, since much in the words and works of Jesus hitherto might have +suggested to men that he was indifferent to the older religion of his +people, he carefully explained that he came, not to set aside the old, but +to realize the spiritual idea for which it stood, by establishing a more +exacting standard of righteousness. This more exacting righteousness Jesus +illustrated by a series of restatements of the older law, and then by a +group of criticisms of current religious practice. The sermon closed with +warnings against complacent <a class="newpage" name="page128" id="page128" title="128"></a>censoriousness in judging other men's +failures, and a solemn declaration of the vital seriousness of "these +sayings of mine." The righteousness required by this new law is not only +more exacting but unspeakably worthier than the old, being more simply +manifested in common life, and demanding more intimate filial fellowship +with the living God.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s137"><p><span class="versenum">137.</span> The teachings included in the sermon by the first gospel, but placed +later by Luke, supplement the sermon by bidding God's child to lead a +trustful life, knowing that the heavenly Father cares for him. That Luke +has omitted much which from Matthew's account clearly belonged to the +original sermon may be explained by the fact that Gentile readers did not +share the interest which Jesus' hearers had, and which the readers of the +first gospel had, in the relation of the new gospel to the older law. +Hence the restatement of older commands and the criticism of current +practice was omitted. Similar to the teachings which the first gospel has +included in the sermon, are many which Luke has preserved in the section +peculiar to himself. It is not unlikely that they belong also to the +Galilean ministry. They urge the same sincere, reverent life in the sight +of God, the same trust in the heavenly Father, the same certainty of his +love and care; and they do not have that peculiar note of impending +judgment which entered into the teachings of Jesus after the confession at +Cæsarea Philippi.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s138"><p><span class="versenum">138.</span> In the story of Mark, which is reproduced in the first and third +gospels, the use of parable was first introduced in a way to attract the +attention of the disciples, after pharisaic opposition to Jesus had become +somewhat bitter and there was need of checking <a class="newpage" name="page129" id="page129" title="129"></a>a too speedy culmination +of opposition. He chose at that time a form of parable which was enigmatic +to his disciples, and could but further puzzle hearers who had no sympathy +with him and his message. Mark (iv. 12) states that this perplexity was in +accordance with the purpose of Jesus. But it is equally clear that Jesus +meant to teach the teachable as well as to perplex the critical by these +illustrations, for in explaining the Sower he suggested that the disciples +should have understood it without explanation (Mark iv. 13). Many of +Jesus' parables, however, had no such enigmatic character, but were +intended simply to help his hearers to understand him. He made use of this +kind of teaching from first to last. The pictures of the wise and foolish +builders with which the sermon on the mount concludes show that it was not +the use of illustration which surprised the disciples in the parables +associated with the Sower, but his use of such puzzling illustrations. +Some of the parables of Luke's peculiar section may belong to the Galilean +ministry, and even to the earlier stages of it. These have none of the +enigmatic character; the parables of the last days of Jesus' life also +seem to have been simple and clear to his hearers. The Oriental mind +prefers the concrete to the abstract, and its teachers have ever made +large use of illustration. Jesus stands unique, not in that he used +parables, but in the simplicity and effective beauty of those which he +used. These illustrations, whether Jesus intended them for the moment to +enlighten or to confound, served always to set forth concretely some truth +concerning the relation of men to God, or concerning his kingdom and their +relation to it. The form of teaching was welcome to his <a class="newpage" name="page130" id="page130" title="130"></a>hearers, and +served as one of the attractions to draw men to him.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s139"><p><span class="versenum">139.</span> The first gospel assigns another extended discourse to this Galilean +period,--the Instructions to the Twelve. The mission of the twelve formed +a new departure as Jesus saw the Galilean crisis approaching. He sought +thereby to multiply his own work, and commissioned his disciples to heal +and preach as he was doing. The restriction of their field to Israel +(Matt. x. 5, 6) simply applied to them the rule he adopted for himself +during the Galilean period (Matt. xv. 24). Comparison with the accounts in +Mark and Luke, as well as the character of the instructions found in +Matthew, show that here the first evangelist has followed his habit of +gathering together teachings on the same general theme from different +periods in Jesus' life. Much in the tenth chapter of Matthew indicates +clearly that the ministry of Jesus had already passed the period of +popularity, and that his disciples could now look for little but scorn and +persecution. This was the situation at the end of Jesus' public life, and +parallel sayings are found in the record of the last week in Jerusalem.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s140"><p><span class="versenum">140.</span> When the teaching of the sermon and the parables is compared with +Jesus' self-assertion in his replies to pharisaic criticism and blasphemy, +the difference is striking. Ordinarily he avoided calling attention to +himself, wishing men to form their opinion of him after they had learned +to know him as he was. Yet when one looks beneath the surface of his +teaching, the tone of authority which astonished the multitudes is +identical with the calm self-confidence which replied to pharisaic +censure: "The <a class="newpage" name="page131" id="page131" title="131"></a>Son of Man hath authority on the earth to forgive sins."</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s141"><p><span class="versenum">141.</span> Jesus drew the multitudes after him not only by his teachings, but +also by his mighty works. He certainly was for his contemporaries a +wonder-worker and healer of disease, and, in order to appreciate the +impression which he made, the miracles recorded in the gospels must be +allowed to reveal what they can of his character. The mighty works which +enchained attention in Galilee were chiefly cures of disease, with +occasional exhibitions of power over physical nature,--such as the +stilling of the tempest and the feeding of the five thousand. The +significant thing about them is their uniform beneficence of purpose and +simplicity of method. Nothing of the spectacular attached itself to them. +Jesus repeatedly refused to the critical Pharisees a sign from heaven. +This was not because he disregarded the importance of signs for his +generation,--witness his appeal to his works in the reply to John (Matt. +xi. 4-6); but he felt that in his customary ministry to the needy +multitudes he had furnished signs in abundance, for his deeds both gave +evidence of heavenly power and revealed the character of the Father who +had sent him.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s142"><p><span class="versenum">142.</span> One of the commonest of the ailments cured by Jesus is described in +the gospels as demoniac possession, the popular idea being that evil +spirits were accustomed to take up their abode in men, speaking with their +tongues and acting through their bodies, at the same time afflicting them +with various physical diseases. Six specific cures of such possession are +recorded in the story of the Galilean ministry, besides general references +to the cure of many that were pos<a class="newpage" name="page132" id="page132" title="132"></a>sessed. Of these specific cases the +Gadarene demoniac shows symptoms of violent insanity; the boy cured near +Cæsarea Philippi, those of epilepsy; in other cases the disease was more +local, showing itself in deafness, or blindness, or both. In the cures +recorded Jesus addressed the possessed with a command to the invading +demon to depart. He was ordinarily greeted, either before or after such a +command, with a loud outcry, often accompanied with a recognition of him +as God's Holy One.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s143"><p><span class="versenum">143.</span> The record of such maladies and their cure is not confined to the New +Testament. The evil spirit which came upon King Saul is a similar case, +and Josephus tells of Jewish exorcists who cured possessed persons by the +use of incantations handed down from King Solomon. The early Christian +fathers frequently argued the truth of Christianity from the way in which +demons departed at the command of Christian exorcists, while in the middle +ages and down to modern times belief in demoniac possession has been +common, particularly among some of the more superstitious of the peasantry +in Europe. Moreover, from missionaries in China and other eastern lands it +is learned that diseases closely resembling the cases of possession +recorded in the New Testament are frequently met with, and are often cured +by native Christian ministers.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s144"><p><span class="versenum">144.</span> The similarity of the symptoms of so-called possession to recognized +mental and physical derangements such as insanity, epilepsy, and hysteria, +suggests the conclusion that possession should be classed with other +ailments due to ill adjustment of the relations of the mental and physical +life. If this conclu<a class="newpage" name="page133" id="page133" title="133"></a>sion is valid, the idea of actual possession by evil +spirits becomes only an ancient effort to interpret the mysterious +symptoms in accordance with wide-spread primitive beliefs. This +explanation would doubtless be generally adopted were it not that it seems +to compromise either the integrity or the knowledge of Jesus. The gospels +plainly represent him as treating the supposed demoniac influence as real, +addressing in his cures not the invalid, but the invading demon. If he did +this knowing that the whole view was a superstition, was he true to his +mission to release mankind from its bondage to evil and sin? If he shared +the superstition of his time, had he the complete knowledge necessary to +make him the deliverer he claimed to be? These questions are serious and +difficult, but they form a part of the general problem of the extent of +Jesus' knowledge, and can be more intelligently discussed in connection +with that whole problem (sects. 249-251). It is reasonable to demand, +however, that any conclusion reached concerning the nature of possession +in the time of Jesus must be considered valid for similar manifestations +of disease in our own day.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s145"><p><span class="versenum">145.</span> What astonished people in Jesus' cures was not so much that he healed +the sick as that he did it with such evidence of personal authority. His +cures and his teachings alike served to attract attention to himself and +to invite question as to who he could be. Yet a far more powerful means to +the end he had in view was the subtle, unobtrusive, personal influence +which without their knowledge knit the hearts of a few to himself. In +reality both his teaching and his cures were only means of +self-disclosure. His permanent work during this Galilean period was the +winning <a class="newpage" name="page134" id="page134" title="134"></a>of personal friends. His chief agency in accomplishing his work +was what Renan somewhat too romantically has called his "charm." It was +that in him which drew to his side and kept with him the fishermen of +Galilee and the publican of Capernaum, during months of constant +disappointment of their preconceived religious ideas and Messianic hopes; +it was that which won the confidence of the woman who was a sinner, and +the constant devotion of Mary Magdalene and Susanna and the others who +followed him "and ministered to him of their substance." The outstanding +wonder of early Christianity is the complete transformation not only of +life but of established religious ideas by the personal impress of Jesus +on a Peter, a John, and a Paul. The secret of the new element of the +Christian religion--salvation through personal attachment to Jesus +Christ--is simply this personal power of the man of Nazareth. The +multitudes followed because they saw wonderful works or heard wonderful +words; many because they hoped at length to find in the new prophet the +champion of their hopes in deliverance from Roman bondage. But these +sooner or later fell away, disappointed in their desire to use the new +leader for their own ends. It was only because from out the multitudes +there were a few who could answer, "To whom shall we go? thou hast the +words of eternal life," when Jesus asked, "Will ye also go away?" that the +work in Galilee did not end in complete failure. These few had felt his +personal power, and they became the nucleus of a new religion of love to a +personal Saviour.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s146"><p><span class="versenum">146.</span> The test of the personal attachment of the few came shortly after the +execution of John the Baptist <a class="newpage" name="page135" id="page135" title="135"></a>by Antipas. Word of this tragedy was +brought to Jesus by John's disciples about the time that he and the twelve +returned to Capernaum from their tour of preaching. At the suggestion of +Jesus they withdrew to the eastern side of the lake in search of rest. It +is not unlikely that the little company also wished to avoid for the time +the territory of the tyrant who had just put John to death, for Jesus was +not yet ready for the crisis of his own life. Such a desire for seclusion +would be intensified by the continued impetuous enthusiasm of the +multitudes who flocked about him again in Capernaum. In fact, so insistent +was their interest in Jesus that they would not allow him the quiet he +sought, but followed around the lake in great numbers when they learned +that he had taken ship for the other side. He who came not to be +ministered unto but to minister could not repel the crowds who came to +him, and he at once "welcomed them, and spake to them of the kingdom of +God, and them that had need of healing he healed" (Luke ix. 11). The day +having passed in this ministry, he multiplied the small store of bread and +fish brought by his disciples in order to feed the weary people. This work +of power seemed to some among the multitudes to be the last thing needed +to prove that Jesus was to be their promised deliverer, and they "were +about to come and take him by force and make him king" (John vi. 15), when +he withdrew from them and spent the night in prayer.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s147"><p><span class="versenum">147.</span> This sudden determination on the part of the multitudes to force the +hand of Jesus was probably due to the prevalence of an idea, found also in +the later rabbinic writers, that the Messiah should feed his <a class="newpage" name="page136" id="page136" title="136"></a>people as +Moses had provided them manna in the desert. The rebuff which Jesus +quietly gave them did not cool their ardor, until on the following day, in +the synagogue in Capernaum, he plainly taught them that they had quite +missed the significance of his miracle. They thought of loaves and +material sustenance. He would have had them find in these a sign that he +could also supply their spirits' need, and he insisted that this, and this +alone, was his actual mission. From the first the popular enthusiasm had +had to ignore many contradictions of its cherished notions. But his power +and the indescribable force of his personality had served hitherto to hold +them to a hope that he would soon discard the perplexing rôle which he had +chosen for the time to assume, and take up avowedly the proper work of the +Messiah. This last refusal to accept what seemed to them to be his evident +duty caused a revulsion in the popular feeling, and "many of his disciples +turned back and walked no more with him" (John vi. 66). The time of +sifting had come. Jesus had known that such a rash determination to make +him king was possible to the Galilean multitudes, and that whenever it +should come it must be followed by a disillusionment. Now the open +ministry had run its course. As the multitudes were turning back and +walking no more with him, he turned to the twelve with the question, "Will +ye also go away?" and found that with them his method had borne fruit. +They clung to him in spite of disillusionment, for in him they had found +what was better than their preconceptions.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s148"><p><span class="versenum">148.</span> It is the fourth gospel that shows clearly the critical significance +of this event. The others tell <a class="newpage" name="page137" id="page137" title="137"></a>nothing of the sudden determination of the +multitude, nor of the revulsion of feeling that followed Jesus' refusal to +yield to their will. Yet these other gospels indicate in their narratives +that from this time on Jesus avoided the scenes of his former labors, and +show that when from time to time he returned to the neighborhood of +Capernaum he was met by such a spirit of hostility that he withdrew again +immediately to regions where he and his disciples could have time for +quiet intercourse.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s149"><p><span class="versenum">149.</span> The months of toil in Galilee show results hardly more significant +than the grain of mustard seed or the little leaven. Popular enthusiasm +had risen, increased, reached its climax, and waned. Official opposition +had early been aroused, and had continued with a steadily deepened +intensity. The wonderful teaching with authority, and the signs wrought on +them that were sick, had been as seed sown by the wayside or in thorny or +in stony ground, except for the little handful of hearers who had felt the +personal power of Jesus and had surrendered to it, ready henceforth to +follow where he should lead, whether or not it should be in a path of +their choice. These, however, were the proof that those months had been a +time of rewarded toil.</p></div> +</div> + + +<div class="chapter" id="p02-04"> +<h2><a class="newpage" name="page138" id="page138" title="138"></a>IV</h2> + +<h3>The Ministry in Galilee--The New Lesson</h3> + + + +<div class="section" id="s150"><p><span class="versenum">150.</span> With the crisis in Capernaum the ministry in Galilee may be said in +one sense to have come to an end. Yet Jesus did not immediately go up to +Jerusalem. Once and again he was found in or near Capernaum, while the +time between these visits was spent in regions to the north and northwest. +In fact, the disciples were far from ready for the trial their loyalty was +to meet before they had seen the end of the opposition to their Lord. The +time intervening between the collapse of popularity and Jesus' final +departure from Galilee may well be thought of, then, as a time of further +discipline of the faith of his followers and of added instruction +concerning the truth for which their Master stood. The length of this +supplementary period in Galilee is not definitely known. It extended from +the Passover to about the feast of Tabernacles (April to October, see John +vi. 4 and vii. 2). The record of what Jesus did and said in this time is +meagre, only enough being reported to show that it was a time of repeated +withdrawals from Galilee and of private instruction for the disciples.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s151"><p><span class="versenum">151.</span> The disciples were trained in faith by further exhibitions of the +complete break between their Master and the leaders of the people. This +break appeared <a class="newpage" name="page139" id="page139" title="139"></a>most clearly, soon after the feeding of the multitudes, in +his reply to a criticism of the disciples for disregard of pharisaic +traditions concerning hand-washing (Mark vii. 1-23). The critics insisted +on the sacredness of their traditions. Jesus in reply scored them for +disregard for the plain demands of God's law, and with a word freed men +from bondage to the whole ritual of ceremonial cleanness and uncleanness +(Mark vii. 19), thus attacking Judaism in its citadel.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s152"><p><span class="versenum">152.</span> It was immediately after this that he withdrew with his disciples to +the regions of Tyre. On his return a little later to the west side of the +sea of Galilee he was met by hostile Pharisees with a demand for a sign +(Mark viii. 11-13), and after refusing to satisfy the unbelieving +challenge,--signs in plenty having been before their eyes since the +opening of his work among them,--he and his disciples withdrew again from +Galilee towards Cæsarea Philippi. As they went on their way, Jesus +distinctly warned them against the influence of their leaders, religious +and political (Mark viii. 14f.). So far as our records tell us Jesus was +but once again in Capernaum. Then he was met with the demand that he pay +the temple tax (Matt. xvii. 24-27). This tax was usually collected just +before the Passover. As this last visit to Capernaum was probably not far +from the feast of Tabernacles, Jesus seems to have been in arrears. This +may have been due to his absence from Capernaum at the time of the +collection. The prompt answer of Peter may indicate that he knew that in +other years Jesus had paid this tax, as it is altogether probable that he +did. The question, however, implies official suspicion that Jesus was +seeking to evade pay<a class="newpage" name="page140" id="page140" title="140"></a>ment, and exhibits further the straining of the +relations between him and the Jewish leaders. The conversation of Jesus +with Peter served to show his clear consciousness of superiority, and was +a further summons to the disciples to choose between him and his +opponents.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s153"><p><span class="versenum">153.</span> Within the limits of the Holy Land the faith of the disciples had +been constantly tested by the increasing opposition between their master +and their old leaders. When the little company withdrew to Gentile +regions, however, Jesus had regard for their Jewish feeling. The time +would come when he would send them forth to make disciples of all the +nations. For the present he made it his business to nurture their faith in +him, and when appealed to for help by one of these foreigners, he refused +to "take the children's bread and cast it to the dogs" (Mark vii. 27). +Jesus had assumed a different attitude to the Samaritans before the +opening of his work in Galilee, and in general had shown ready sympathy +for all in distress. In fact it seems as if he welcomed the Syrophœnician +woman's great faith with a feeling of relief from a restriction that he +had felt it wise to adopt for his work in Phœnicia. It appears from his +later attitude in the Gentile regions of the Decapolis (Mark vii. 31-37; +Matt. xv. 21-31) that, having once shown his regard for the limitations of +his disciples' faith in the case of the Syrophœnician, he felt no longer +obliged to check his natural readiness to help the needy who sought him +out. Although in one instance, for reasons no longer known to us, Jesus +charged a man whom he had cured to keep it secret (Mark vii. 32-37), in +general his work in these heathen regions seems, after <a class="newpage" name="page141" id="page141" title="141"></a>the visit to +Phœnicia, to have been quite unrestrained, and to have produced the same +enthusiasm that had earlier brought the multitudes to him in Galilee (Mark +viii. 1f.).</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s154"><p><span class="versenum">154.</span> This continued activity of healing must have served greatly to +strengthen the determination of the disciples to cling to Jesus, let the +leaders say what they would. We can only conjecture what various teachings +filled the days, and what personal fellowship the disciples had with him +who spake as never man spake. There was need for advance in the faith of +these loyal friends. Their enthusiastic declaration when the multitudes +turned away could easily have been followed by reaction. Each new +exhibition of the irrevocableness of the break between Jesus and the +leaders was a severe test of their loyalty. These weeks of withdrawal were +doubtless filled, therefore, with new proofs that Jesus had the words of +eternal life.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s155"><p><span class="versenum">155.</span> Before he put to his disciples the crucial question, he who knew what +was in man (John ii. 25) was confident that they were ready for it. It was +after the rebuff in Galilee, when the unbelieving Pharisees had again +demanded a sign of his authority, and after he had definitely warned the +disciples against the influence of their leaders, that Jesus led his +little company far to the north towards the slopes of Hermon. There, near +the recently built Cæsarea Philippi, Jesus plainly asked his disciples +what the people thought of him (Mark viii. 27-30). We have seen how +gradually sentiment in Galilee concerning the new teacher crystallized +until, from thinking him a prophet, the people, first timidly, then +boldly, con<a class="newpage" name="page142" id="page142" title="142"></a>cluded that such a teacher and worker of signs must be the +promised king. We have seen also how the popular estimate changed when +Jesus refused to be guided by the popular will. Now, after the lapse of a +few weeks, in answer to his inquiry concerning the common opinion of him, +he is told that the people look on him as a prophet, in whom the spirit of +the men of old had been revived; but not a whisper remains of the former +readiness to hail him as the Messiah. It was in the face of such a +definite revulsion in the popular feeling, in the face, too, of the +increasing hostility of all the great in the nation, that Peter answered +for the twelve that they believed Jesus to be the Messiah, God's appointed +Deliverer of his people (Matt. xvi. 16 ff.). In form this confession was +no more than Nathanael had rendered on his first meeting with Jesus (John +i. 49), and was practically the same as the report made by Andrew to Simon +his brother, and by Philip to Nathanael (John i. 41, 45). In both idea and +expression the reply to Jesus' question, "Will ye also go away?" (John vi. +68, 69), was virtually equivalent to this later confession of Peter. Yet +Jesus found in Peter's answer at Cæsarea Philippi something so significant +and remarkable that he declared that the faith that could answer thus +could spring only from a heavenly source (Matt. xvi. 17). The early +confessions were in fact no more than expressions of more or less +intelligent expectation that Jesus would fulfil the confessor's hopes. The +confession at Capernaum followed one of Jesus' mightiest exhibitions of +power, and was given before the disciples had had time to consider the +extent of the defection from their Master. Here at Cæsarea Philippi, +however, the <a class="newpage" name="page143" id="page143" title="143"></a>word was spoken immediately after an acknowledgment that the +people had no more thought of finding in Jesus their Messiah. It was +spoken after the disciples had had repeated evidence of the determined +hostility of the leaders to Jesus. All the disappointment he had given to +their cherished ideas was emphasized by the isolation in which the little +company now found itself. One after another their ideas of how a Messiah +should act and what he should be had received contradiction in what Jesus +was and did. Yet after the weeks of withdrawal from Galilee, Peter could +only in effect assert anew what he had declared at Capernaum,--that Jesus +had the words of eternal life. It was a faith chastened by perplexity, and +taught at length to follow the Lord let him lead where he would. It was an +actual surrender to his mastery over thought and life. Here at length +Jesus had won what he had been seeking during all his work in Galilee,--a +corner-stone on which to build up the new community of the kingdom of God. +Peter was the first to confess openly to this simple surrender to the full +mastery of Jesus. He was the first stone in the foundation of the new +"building of God."</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s156"><p><span class="versenum">156.</span> In his commendation of Peter Jesus revealed the secret of his method +in the work which, because of this confession, he could now proceed to do +more rapidly. He cuts loose utterly from the method of the scribes. He, +the new teacher, commits to them no body of teaching which they are to +give to others as the key to eternal life. The salvation they are to +preach is a salvation by personal attachment; that is, by faith. The rock +on which he will build his church is personal attachment, faith that is +ready to leave all <a class="newpage" name="page144" id="page144" title="144"></a>and follow him. Peter, not the substance of his +confession, was its corner-stone, but Peter, as the first clear confessor +of a faith that is ready to leave all, a faith whose very nature it is to +be contagious, and associate with itself others of "like precious faith." +His faith was as yet meagre, as he showed at once; but it was genuine, the +surrender of his heart to his Lord's guidance and control. This was the +distinctive mark of the new religious life inaugurated by Jesus of +Nazareth.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s157"><p><span class="versenum">157.</span> If anything were needed to prove that the idea that he was the +Messiah was no new thought to Jesus, it could be found in the new lesson +which he at once began to teach his disciples. The confession of Peter +indicated to him simply that the first stage in his work had been +accomplished. He immediately began to prepare the disciples for the end +which for some time past he had seen to be inevitable. He taught them more +than that his death was inevitable; he declared that it was divinely +necessary that he should be put to death as a result of the hostility of +the Jews to him ("the Son of Man must suffer"). All the contradictions +which he had offered to the Messianic ideas of his disciples paled into +insignificance beside this one. When they saw how he failed to meet the +hopes that were commonly held, they needed only to urge themselves to +patience, expecting that in time he would cast off the strange mask and +take to himself his power and reign. But it was too much for the late +confessed and very genuine faith of Peter to hear that the Messiah must +die. So unthinkable was the idea, that he assumed that Jesus had become +unduly discouraged by the relentlessness of the opposition which <a class="newpage" name="page145" id="page145" title="145"></a>had +driven him first out of Judea and later out of Galilee. Accordingly Peter +sought to turn his Master's mind to a brighter prospect, asserting that +his forebodings could not be true. It is hard for us to conceive the chill +of heart which must have followed the glow of his confession when he heard +the stern rebuke of Jesus, who found in Peter's later words the voice of +the Evil One, as before in his confession he had recognized the Spirit of +God.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s158"><p><span class="versenum">158.</span> The sternness of Jesus' rebuke escapes extravagance only in view of +the fact that the words of Peter had greatly affected Jesus himself. At +the outset of his public life he had faced the difficulty of doing the +Messiah's work in his Father's way, and had withstood the temptation to +accommodate himself to the ideas of his world, declaring allegiance to God +alone (Matt. iv. 10). Yet once and again in the course of his ministry he +showed that this allegiance cost him much. Luke reports a saying in which +Jesus confessed that, in view of this prospect of death which Peter was +opposing so eagerly, he was greatly "straitened" (xii. 50), and at the +near approach of the end "his soul was exceeding sorrowful" (Mark xiv. +34). It should never be forgotten that Jesus was a Jew, and heir to all +the Messianic ideas of his people. In these, glory, not rejection and +death, was to be the Messiah's portion. That he was always superior to +current expectations is no sign that he did not feel their force. They +quite mistake who find the bitterness of Jesus' "cup" simply in his +physical shrinking from suffering. The temptation was ever with him to +find some other way to the goal of his work than that which led through +death. What Peter said hid a force greater <a class="newpage" name="page146" id="page146" title="146"></a>than any word of the +disciple's. It voiced the crucial temptation of Jesus' life. The answer +addressed to Peter showed that his words had drawn the thought of Jesus +away from the disciple to that earlier temptation which was never absent +from him more than "for a season" (Luke iv. 13).</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s159"><p><span class="versenum">159.</span> Jesus was not content with a mere rebuke of his impulsive disciple. +In his first announcement of his death as necessary he had also declared +that it would not be a tragedy, but would be followed by a resurrection. +This the disciples could not appreciate, as they found the idea of the +Messiah's death unthinkable. Jesus, however, saw in it the general law, +that life must ever win its goal by disregard of itself, and called his +disciples also to walk in the path of self-sacrifice. In order that the +new lesson might not quite overwhelm the yet feeble faith of these +followers, Jesus assured them that after his death and resurrection he +would come as Messianic Judge and fulfil the hopes which his prediction of +death seemed to blot out utterly (Mark viii. 34 to ix. 1).</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s160"><p><span class="versenum">160.</span> That this new lesson was a difficult one for master as well as +disciple seems to be shown by the experience which came a few days later +to Jesus and his three closest friends. He had withdrawn with them to a +"high mountain" for prayer (Luke ix. 28f.). While he prayed the light of +heaven came into his face, and his disciples were granted a vision of him +in celestial glory, conversing with Moses and Elijah, representatives of +Old Testament law and prophecy. The theme of the discourse was that death +which had so troubled the disciples, and which then and later weighed +heavily on Jesus' own spirit (Luke ix. 31). <a class="newpage" name="page147" id="page147" title="147"></a>At the conclusion of the +vision came a divine injunction to hear him who now was superseding law +and prophets. The effect of the transfiguration can only be inferred. It +doubtless brought strengthening to Jesus for his difficult task (compare +Heb. v. 7), and at least a silencing of remonstrance when he spoke again +to his disciples of his approaching death. This he did while the little +company was making its way back towards Capernaum (Mark ix. 30-32), and +repeatedly later before the end came (Mark x. 32-34; Matt. xxvi. 1f.).</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s161"><p><span class="versenum">161.</span> On Jesus' return from the mountain, he was met by the despairing plea +of a father and healed his epileptic son, out of whom the disciples were +unable to cast the demon (Mark ix. 14-29; compare vi. 7, 13). It may have +been the shock which the new lesson had given the disciples that accounted +for the reproof of their lack of faith. The new evidence of Jesus' power, +coupled with this reproof, seems to have restored their confidence in him. +Perhaps, too, there was something contagious about the spirit of hope with +which the three came from their vision of the Master's glory. For, +although they were not free to tell what they had seen (Mark ix. 9), they +could not have concealed the fact that their faith had received great +encouragement. Whatever the cause, hope revived for the disciples, for on +the way back to Capernaum a dispute arose among them concerning personal +precedence in the kingdom which their Master should soon set up. In this +rapid reaction from unbelief to faith the disciples seem to have forgotten +the lesson of self-denial recently given them (Mark viii. 34, 35). In +Peter's confession the corner-stone of the church <a class="newpage" name="page148" id="page148" title="148"></a>was laid; but the +superstructure was yet far out of sight. Although his own soul, taking its +way down into the valley of shadows, might rightly have asked for sympathy +and complained of its lack, Jesus simply set a little child in the midst +of them, and taught them again the first lessons of faith,--gentle +humility and trust. Thereby he rebuked the spirit of rivalry and asked of +his disciples a generous, unselfish, and forgiving spirit (Matt, xviii. +1-35).</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s162"><p><span class="versenum">162.</span> It was possibly at this time, certainly near the end of the Galilean +ministry, that Jesus was approached by his own brethren, who urged him to +try to win the capital. Their attitude was not one of indifference, though +clearly not one of actual faith in his claim (John vii. 2-5). They seem to +have felt that Jesus had not made adequate effort to secure a following in +Jerusalem, and that he could not hope for success in his work if he +continued to confine his attention to Galilee. Jesus knew conditions in +Jerusalem far better than they did, and had no idea as yet of resuming a +general ministry there. He therefore dismissed the suggestion, and left +his brethren to go up to the feast disappointed in their desire that he +make a demonstration at that time. Yet Jesus still yearned over Jerusalem. +He knew in what organized opposition a general demonstration would result. +There were some, however, in the capital who had real faith in him. His +repeated efforts to win Jerusalem mean nothing if we do not recognize that +he hoped against hope that many of the people might yet turn and let him +lead them. With some such purpose, therefore, he went up a little later +without ostentation, and quietly appeared in the temple teaching. The +effect <a class="newpage" name="page149" id="page149" title="149"></a>of this unannounced arrival was that the opposition was not ready +for him. The multitude was compelled to form an opinion of him for itself, +and he had opportunity to make his own impression for a time, +independently of official suggestion as to what ought to be thought of +him. This course resulted in a division of sentiment among the people, so +much so that when the leaders, both secular and religious, sought to +compass his arrest, the officers sent to take Jesus were themselves +entranced by his teaching. In spite of the wish of the leaders Jesus +continued to teach, and many of the people began to think of him with +favor. When, however, he tried to lead them on to become "disciples +indeed," they took offence, and showed that they were not ready yet to +follow him. This effort to "gather the children of Jerusalem" resulted in +new proof that they preferred his death to his message (John vii. 2 to +viii. 59).</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s163"><p><span class="versenum">163.</span> Interesting evidence of the fact that "Jesus did many other signs +which are not written" in our accepted gospels is found in the story of +his dealing with an adulteress whom the Pharisees brought to him for +judgment (John vii. 53 to viii. 11). This narrative had no secure place in +any of the gospels in the earliest days, yet was so highly regarded that +men would not let it go. Hence in the manuscripts which contain it, it is +found in various places. Some give it in Luke after chapter xxi., some at +the end of the Gospel of John, one placing it after John vii. 36. Many +considerations combine to prove that it was no part of the Gospel of John, +but as many show that it preserves a true incident in the ministry of +Jesus. In scene it belongs to the temple, therefore in time to <a class="newpage" name="page150" id="page150" title="150"></a>one of the +Jerusalem visits. To which of those visits it should he assigned is not +now discoverable. The ancient copyists who assigned it to this feast of +Tabernacles, chose as well as later students can. If the incident belongs +to this visit, it illustrates the patience and the keen insight of Jesus +in his effort to win self-satisfied Jerusalem.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s164"><p><span class="versenum">164.</span> John is silent concerning the doings of Jesus after the feast of +Tabernacles. In x. 22 he notes that Jesus was at Jerusalem at the feast of +Dedication, which followed two months later. It seems probable that after +his hurried and private journey to the feast of Tabernacles (John vii. 10) +he returned to Galilee and gathered to himself again the little company of +his loyal followers, preparatory to that final journey to Jerusalem which +should bring the end foreseen, unless, perchance, Israel should yet repent +and turn unto the Lord. As the shadow deepened over his own life, and the +persistency of the unbelief of his people appeared more and more clearly, +the teachings of Jesus took on a new note of tragedy which was not +characteristic of the earlier preaching in Galilee. Even when his topic +was similar and his treatment of it not unlike some earlier discourse, +there appeared in it here and there a warning of impending judgment. This +is seen as early as the reply to the criticism of the disciples for +disregard of traditions (Matt. xv. 13f.). Many discourses in the section +peculiar to Luke show by the presence of this note of doom that they +belong to this later time rather than to the Galilean period proper. (See +the table prefixed to Chapter V.)</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s165"><p><span class="versenum">165.</span> Two years had nearly passed since Jesus withdrew from Judea to start +his ministry anew in a differ<a class="newpage" name="page151" id="page151" title="151"></a>ent region and following a different method. +The fruit of that ministry was small, but significant. His proclamation of +the coming kingdom and his call to a deeper righteousness, coupled as they +were with his works of heavenly power, had won at first an enthusiastic +following. Realizing that an uncontrolled enthusiasm would thwart his +purpose to introduce a kingdom of the spirit, Jesus had kept his Messianic +claim in the background, seeking first to win disciples to the kingdom +that he was proclaiming. Yet emphasize his message as he would, he could +not conceal his personal significance. In fact he wished by winning +disciples to his doctrine of the kingdom to attach followers to himself, +the bearer of the words of eternal life. The great development of popular +enthusiasm did not deceive him, nor did he hesitate, when the multitude +would force him to do its will, to show clearly how far he was from being +a fulfiller of their desires. By successive disappointments of the popular +ideas he sifted his followers until a few were ready to follow him +whithersoever he might lead. With these he allowed time for the fact of +his unpopularity to appear, giving them opportunity to consider the +relentless hostility of their national leaders to the teacher from +Galilee. Then when the time was ripe he drew from the loyal few their +declaration that they would follow him in spite of disappointments and +unpopularity, their confession that he had come to be to them more than +their cherished preconceptions, that he had won the mastery over their +thought and life. He began then to prepare them for the end he had long +foreseen, and at length, after giving them time for that perplexing +mystery to find place in their <a class="newpage" name="page152" id="page152" title="152"></a>hearts, he was ready to move on toward the +crisis which he knew his public appearance in Jerusalem would precipitate. +Before setting out on this journey his desire still to seek to win +Jerusalem, if perchance it would repent, led him to visit the capital +unannounced at the feast of Tabernacles. This taught him that, however +ready some might be superficially to believe in him, he could as yet win +in Jerusalem only hatred and plots against his life, and he returned to +his faithful friends in Galilee.</p></div></div> +<div class="chapter" id="p02-05"> +<div class="outline"> +<h2><a class="newpage" name="page153" id="page153" title="153"></a> Outline of Events in the Journey through Perea to Jerusalem</h2> + + +<p> The final departure from Galilee--Matt. xix. 1, 2; viii. 19-22; Mark x. + 1; Luke ix. 51-62.</p> + +<p> The mission of the seventy--Matt. xi. 20-30; Luke x. 1-24.</p> + +<p> The visit to the feast of Dedication--John ix. 1 to x. 39.</p> + +<p> Possibly at this time: The parable of the Good Samaritan--Luke x. + 25-37. The visit to Mary and Martha--Luke x. 38-42.</p> + +<p> Return to Perea--John x. 40-42.</p> + +<p> The visit to Bethany and the raising of Lazarus--John xi. 1-46.</p> + +<p> The withdrawal to Ephraim--John xi. 47-54.</p> + +<p> Events connected with the last journey to Jerusalem, which cannot be + more definitely located:</p> + +<p> The question whether few are saved--Luke xiii. 22-30.</p> + +<p> Reply to the warning against Herod, probably near the close--Luke xiii. + 31-35.</p> + +<p> The cure of ten lepers--Luke xvii. 11-19.</p> + +<p> The question of the Pharisees concerning divorce--Matt. xix. 3-12; Mark + x. 2-12. + +</p> + +<p> The blessing of little children--Matt. xix. 13-15; Mark x. 13-16; Luke + xviii. 15-17.</p> + +<p> The question of the rich young ruler--Matt. xix. 16 to xx. 16; Mark x. + 17-31; Luke xviii. 18-30.</p> + +<p> The third prediction of death and resurrection--Matt xx. 17-19; Mark x. + 32-34; Luke xviii. 31-34.</p> + +<p> The ambitious request of the sons of Zebedee--Matt. xx. 20-28; Mark x. + 35-45.</p> + +<p> The last stage, Jericho to Jerusalem:</p> + +<p> The blind men near Jericho--Matt. xx. 29-34; Mark x. 46-52; Luke xviii. + 35-43.</p> + +<p><a class="newpage" name="page154" id="page154" title="154"></a> The visit to Zacchæus--Luke xix. 1-10.</p> + +<p> The parable of the pounds (minæ)--Luke xix. 11-28. Events and + discourses found in Luke ix. 51 to xviii. 14, which probably belong + after the confession of Peter, and very likely to some stage of the + journey to Jerusalem:</p> + +<p> Woes against the Pharisees, uttered at a Pharisee's table--Luke xi. + 37-54.</p> + +<p> Warnings against the spirit of pharisaism--Luke xii. 1-59.</p> + +<p> Comment on the slaughter of Galileans by Pilate--Luke xiii. 1-9.</p> + +<p> Discourse on counting the cost of discipleship--Luke xiv. 25-35.</p> + +<p> Discourse on the coming of the kingdom--Luke xvii. 20-37.</p> + +<p> Parable of the Unjust Judge--Luke xviii. 1-8.</p> + +<p> Parable of the Pharisee and the Publican--Luke xviii. 9-14.</p> +</div> + + + + +<h2>V</h2> + +<h3>The Journey through Perea to Jerusalem</h3> + + + +<div class="section" id="s166"><p><span class="versenum">166.</span> The fourth gospel says that after the visit to Jerusalem at the feast +of Dedication Jesus withdrew beyond Jordan to the place where John at the +first was baptizing (x. 40). Matthew and Mark also say that at the close +of the ministry in Galilee Jesus departed and came into the borders of +Judea and beyond Jordan, and that in this new region the multitudes again +flocked to him, and he resumed his ministry of teaching (Matt. xix. 1f.; +Mark x. 1). What he did and taught at this time is not shown at all by +John, and only in scant fashion by the other two. They tell of a +discussion with the Pharisees concerning divorce (Mark x. 2-12); of the +welcome extended by Jesus to certain little children (Mark x. 13-16); of +the disappointment of a rich young ruler, who wished to learn <a class="newpage" name="page155" id="page155" title="155"></a>from Jesus +the way of life, but loved better his great possessions (Mark x. 17-31); +of a further manifestation of the unlovely spirit of rivalry among the +disciples in the request of James and John for the best places in the +kingdom (Mark x. 35-45),--a request following in the records directly +after another prediction by Jesus of his death and resurrection (Mark x. +32-34). Then, after a visit to Jericho (Luke xviii. 35 to xix. 28), these +records come into coincidence with John in the account of the Messianic +entry into Jerusalem just before the last Passover.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s167"><p><span class="versenum">167.</span> The fourth gospel tells in addition of a considerable activity of +Jesus in and near Jerusalem during this period. In making the journey +beyond Jordan start from Jerusalem (x. 40), John shows that Jesus must +have returned to the capital after his withdrawal from the feast of +Tabernacles. When and how this took place is not indicated. Later, after +his retirement from the feast of Dedication Jesus hastened at the summons +of his friends from beyond Jordan to Bethany when Lazarus died (xi. 1-7). +From Bethany he went not to the other side of Jordan again, but to Ephraim +(xi. 54), a town on the border between Judea and Samaria, and from there +he started towards Jerusalem when the Passover drew near. This record of +John has, as Dr. Sanday has recently remarked (HastBD II. 630), so many +marks of verisimilitude that it must be accepted as a true tradition. It +demands thus that in our conception of the last journey from Galilee room +be found for several excursions to Jerusalem or its neighborhood. One of +these at least--to the feast of Dedication (x. 22)--represents another +effort to "gather the children of Jerusalem." <a class="newpage" name="page156" id="page156" title="156"></a>While not without success, +for at least the blind man restored by Jesus gave him the full faith he +sought (ix. 35-38), it showed with fuller clearness the determined +hostility to Jesus of the influential class (x. 39).</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s168"><p><span class="versenum">168.</span> It has been customary to find in the long section peculiar to Luke +(ix. 51 to xviii. 14) a fuller account of the Perean ministry, as it has +been called. For it opens with a final departure from Galilee, and comes +at its close into parallelism with the record of Matthew and Mark. Yet +some parts of this section in Luke belong in the earlier Galilean +ministry. The blasphemy of the Pharisees (xi. 14-36) is clearly identical +with the incident recorded in Mark iii. 22-30, and Matt. xii. 22-45; while +several incidents and discourses (see outline prefixed to Chapter III.) +bear so plainly the marks of the ministry before the revulsion of popular +favor, that it is easiest to think of them as actually belonging to the +earlier time, but assigned by Luke to this peculiar section because he +found no clear place offered for them in the record of Mark. Not a little, +however, of what Luke records here manifestly belongs to the time when +Jesus referred openly to his rejection by the Jewish people. The note of +tragedy characteristic of later discourses appears in the replies of Jesus +to certain would-be disciples (ix. 57-62), and in his warning that his +followers count the cost of discipleship (xiv. 25-35). The woes spoken at +a Pharisee's table (xi. 37-52), the warning to the disciples against +pharisaism (xii. 1-12), and the encouragement of the "little flock" (xii. +22-34), with many other paragraphs from this part of the gospel (see +outline at the head of this chapter), evidently were spoken <a class="newpage" name="page157" id="page157" title="157"></a>at the time +of the approaching end. Some narratives reflect the neighborhood of +Jerusalem, and naturally corroborate the indications in the fourth gospel +that Jesus was repeatedly at the capital during this time. The parable of +the good Samaritan, for instance, must have been spoken in Judea, else why +choose the road from Jerusalem to Jericho for the illustration? The visit +to Mary and Martha shows Jesus at Bethany, and the parable of the Pharisee +and the Publican, naming the temple as the place of prayer, belongs +naturally to Judea.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s169"><p><span class="versenum">169.</span> The effort to find the definite progress of events in this part of +Luke has not been successful. There are three hints of movement towards +Jerusalem,--the introductory mention of the departure from Galilee (ix. +51); a statement that Jesus went on his way through cities and villages, +journeying on unto Jerusalem (xiii. 22); and again a reference to passing +through the midst of Samaria and Galilee on the way to Jerusalem (xvii. +11). The attempt to make the third of these belong actually to the last +stages of the final journey seems artificial. Confessedly the expression +"through the midst of Samaria and Galilee" is obscure. It is much easier +to understand, however, if the journey so described is identified with the +visit to Samaria with which the departure from Galilee opened. It seems +probable that Luke found these records of events and teachings in Jesus' +life, and was unable to learn exactly their connection in time and place, +so placed them after the close of the Galilean story and before the +account of the passion, much as later some copyist found the story of the +adulteress (John vii. 53 to viii. 11), and, certain that <a class="newpage" name="page158" id="page158" title="158"></a>it was a true +incident, gave it a place in connection with the visit to the feast of +Tabernacles (perhaps influenced by John viii. 15). It must always be +remembered that the earliest apostolic writing--Matthew's Logia--probably +consisted of just such disconnected records (see sects. 28, 42), and that, +as Jülicher (Einleitung i. d. NT. 235) has said, the early church was not +interested in <i>when</i> Jesus said or did anything. Its interest was in +<i>what</i> he said and did.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s170"><p><span class="versenum">170.</span> The time of the departure from Galilee for Jerusalem may be set with +much probability not long before the feast of the Dedication in December; +for at that feast Jesus was again in Jerusalem, and from it he returned to +Perea (John x. 22, 40-42). He started southward through Samaria (Luke ix. +51 ff.), and probably in connection with the early stages of the journey +he sent out the seventy "into every city and place whither he himself was +about to come" (Luke x. 1). It is not unlikely that, after the sending out +of these heralds, he went with a few disciples to make one more effort to +turn the heart of Jerusalem to himself (John ix., x.). It is impossible to +determine whither the seventy were sent. The "towns and cities" whither +Jesus was about to come may have included some from all portions of the +land, not excepting Judea. The matter must be left in considerable +obscurity. This, however, may be said, that the reasons offered for +holding that the story of the sending out of the seventy is only a +"doublet" of the mission of the twelve are not conclusive (see sect. A +68). The connection in Luke of the woes against Capernaum, Bethsaida, and +Chorazin with the instruction of the seventy is very natural, and marks +this mission as belonging to <a class="newpage" name="page159" id="page159" title="159"></a>the close of the Galilean period, while the +mission of the twelve belongs to the height of Jesus' popularity.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s171"><p><span class="versenum">171.</span> Our knowledge of Jesus' visit to the feast of Dedication is due to +John's interest in the cure at about that time of one born blind (John +ix., x.). The prejudice of the sanhedrists who excommunicated the man for +his loyalty to Jesus led him in indignation to contrast their method of +caring for God's "sheep" with his own love and sympathy and genuine +ministry to their needs. He saw clearly that his course must end in death, +unless a great change should come over his enemies; yet, as the Good +Shepherd, he was ready to lay down his life for the sheep, rather than +leave them to the heartlessness of leaders who cared only for themselves +(x. 11-18). The critics of Jesus could not, or would not, understand his +charge against them, and accused him of madness for his extraordinary +claims. There were some, however, who could not credit the notion that +Jesus had a devil (John x. 21). It is possible that it was at this time +that the lawyer questioned him about the breadth of interpretation to be +given to the word "neighbor" in the law of love, and was answered by the +parable of the Good Samaritan (Luke x. 25-37). Possibly the parable of the +Pharisee and the Publican (Luke xviii. 9-14) belongs also to this time. In +general, however, the visit proved anew that Jerusalem was in no mood to +accept Jesus (John x. 24-39). His enemies sought to draw from him a +declaration of his claim to be the Messiah, and Jesus appealed to his +works, asserting that only their incorrigible prejudice prevented their +recognizing his claims. He added that his Father, with whom he was ever in +perfect accord, had drawn <a class="newpage" name="page160" id="page160" title="160"></a>some faithful followers to him, and thereupon, +angered by his claim to close kinship with God, they appealed to the rough +logic of violence (John x. 31-39; compare viii. 59).</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s172"><p><span class="versenum">172.</span> After this added attempt to win Jerusalem Jesus withdrew to the +region beyond Jordan, where John had carried on his ministry to the eager +multitudes. Here he anew attracted great attention, causing people to +contrast his ministry with the less remarkable work of John, and to +acknowledge that John's testimony to him was true (John x. 40-42). +Possibly it was in this place that the seventy found Jesus when they +returned to report the success of their mission (Luke x. 17-24), for the +thanksgiving which Jesus rendered for the faith of the common people in +contrast with the unbelief of the "wise and prudent" might well express +his feeling after the fresh evidence he had at the feast of Dedication +that Jerusalem would none of his mission. The invitation to all the heavy +laden to take his yoke illustrates, though under another figure, his claim +to be the Good Shepherd (Matt. xi. 28-30). We have no means of knowing how +much more of what the gospels assign to the last journey to Jerusalem +should be put in connection with this sojourn across the Jordan. The +multitudes that came to him there may have included the Pharisees who +questioned him about divorce (Mark x. 2-12), and the young ruler who loved +his great possessions (Mark x. 17-31), as well as the parents who eagerly +sought the Lord's blessing for their children (Mark x. 13-16). Some parts +of Luke's narrative seem to belong still later in this journey, yet such a +section as the reply of Jesus to the report of <a class="newpage" name="page161" id="page161" title="161"></a>Pilate's slaughter of the +Galileans (xiii. 1-9), or the parable of the Great Supper (xiv. 15-24), is +suitable to any stage of it.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s173"><p><span class="versenum">173.</span> This sojourn on the other side of Jordan was brought to a close by +the summons to come to the aid of his friends in Bethany (John xi.). It is +not strange that the disciples feared his return to Judea, nor that Jesus +did not hesitate when he recognized the call of duty as well as of +friendship. In no recorded miracle of Jesus is his power more signally set +forth, yet here more clearly than anywhere else he is represented as +dependent on his Father in his exercise of that power. The words of Jesus +at the grave (John xi. 41, 42) show that he was confident of the +resurrection of Lazarus, because he had prayed and was sure he was heard. +It may be that his delay after hearing of the sickness of his friend (xi. +6) was a time of waiting for answer, and that this explains his confidence +of safety when the time came for him to expose himself again to the +hostility of Judea. Jesus indicated not only that on this occasion he had +help from above in doing his miracles, but that it was the rule in his +life to seek such help and guidance (xi. 42). In fact, at a later time he +ascribed all his works to the Father abiding in him (John xiv. 10; compare +x. 25). The effect of the resurrection of Lazarus was such as to intensify +the determination of the leaders in Jerusalem--both Pharisees and +Sadducees--to get rid of Jesus as dangerous to the quiet of the nation +(John xi. 47-54). In this it simply served to fix a determination already +present (John vii. 25, 32; viii. 59; x. 31, 39). The miracle does not +appear in John as the cause of the apprehension of Jesus, but <a class="newpage" name="page162" id="page162" title="162"></a>rather as +one influence leading to it. It was indeed the total contradiction between +Jesus and all current and cherished ideas that led to his condemnation; +the raising of Lazarus only showed that he was becoming dangerously +popular, and made the priestly leaders feel the necessity of haste. The +silence of the first three gospels concerning this event is truly +perplexing, yet it is not any more difficult of explanation, as Beyschlag +(LJ I. 495) has shown, than the silence of all four evangelists concerning +the appearance of the risen Jesus to James, or to the five hundred +brethren (I. Cor. xv. 6, 7). Room must be allowed in our conception of the +life of Jesus for many things of which no record remains, all the more, +therefore, for incidents to which but one of the gospels is witness. +Moreover, after the collapse of popularity in Galilee, the great +enthusiasm of the multitudes over Jesus when he entered Jerusalem (Luke +xix. 37-40; Mark xi. 8-10) is most easily understood if he had made some +such manifestation of power as the restoration of Lazarus.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s174"><p><span class="versenum">174.</span> After the visit to Bethany Jesus withdrew to a little town named +Ephraim, on the border between Judea and Samaria, and spent some time +there in seclusion with his disciples (John xi. 54), doubtless +strengthening his personal hold on them preparatory to the shock their +faith was about to receive. Of the length of this sojourn nothing is told +us, nor of the road by which Jesus left Ephraim for Jerusalem (John xii. +1). The first three gospels show that he began his final approach to the +Holy City at Jericho (Mark x. 46). It may be that he descended from +Ephraim direct to Jericho some days before the Passover, rejoining there +some of the people who had been <a class="newpage" name="page163" id="page163" title="163"></a>impressed by his recent ministry in the +region "where John at the first was baptizing." It is natural to suppose +that it was on this journey to Jericho that he warned his disciples again +of the fate which he saw before him in Jerusalem (Mark x. 32-34), and +quite probably it was at this time that he rebuked the crude ambition of +the sons of Zebedee by reminding them that his disciples must be more +ambitious to serve than to rule, since even "the Son of Man came not to be +ministered unto but to minister, and to give his life a ransom for many" +(Mark x. 35-45). At Jericho he was at once crowded upon by enthusiastic +multitudes. The feeling they had for him may perhaps be inferred from the +cry of blind Bartimeus, "Thou son of David, have mercy on me" (Mark x. +48). This enthusiasm received a shock when Jesus chose to be guest in +Jericho of a chief of the publicans, a shock which Jesus probably intended +to give, for much the same reason that led him afterwards on his way up to +Jerusalem to teach his followers in the parable of the pounds that they +must be ready for long delay in his actual assumption of his kingly right +(Luke xix. 11-28). Finally, six days before the Passover, he and his +disciples left Jericho and went up to Bethany preparatory to his final +appearance in Jerusalem (John xii. 1).</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s175"><p><span class="versenum">175.</span> The interval between the final departure from Galilee and the public +entry into Jerusalem was given to three different tasks: the renewed +proclamation of the coming of the kingdom, further efforts to win +acceptance in Jerusalem, if perchance she might learn to know the things +that belonged to her peace; and continued training of the disciples, +specially needed <a class="newpage" name="page164" id="page164" title="164"></a>because of the ill-considered enthusiasm with which they +were inclined to view the probable issue of this journey to Jerusalem. The +first of these tasks was conducted as the earlier work in Galilee had +been, both by teaching and healing, in which Jesus used his disciples even +more extensively than before. It proved that here as in Galilee the common +people were ready to hear him gladly, until he showed too radical a +disappointment of their hopes. In this new ministry to the people Jesus +spoke very frankly of the seriousness of the opposition which the leaders +of the people were manifesting, and of the need that those who would be +his disciples should count the cost of their allegiance (Luke xiii. 22-30; +xiv. 25-35; xii. 1-59). He did not hesitate to administer the most +scathing rebuke to the Pharisees for the superficiality and hypocrisy of +their religious life and teaching (Luke xi. 37-54),--a rebuke which is +emphasized by the parable in which, on another occasion, he taught God's +preference for a contrite sinner over a complacent saint (Luke xviii. +9-14). When reminded of Pilate's outrage upon certain Galilean +worshippers, he used the calamity to warn his hearers that personal +godliness was the only protection which could secure them against a more +serious outbreak of the hostility of the Roman power (Luke xiii. 1-9); and +it was probably in reply to such an appeal as accompanied this report of +Pilate's cruelty that Jesus spoke the parable of the Unjust Judge (Luke +xviii. 1-8), teaching that God's love may be trusted to be no less +regardful of his people's cry than a selfish man's love of ease would be.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s176"><p><span class="versenum">176.</span> The second of these tasks must not be held to <a class="newpage" name="page165" id="page165" title="165"></a>be perfunctory, even +though each new effort for Jerusalem proved that genuine acceptance of its +saviour was increasingly improbable. As the denunciations of the older +prophets ever left open a way of escape <i>if </i> Israel would return and seek +the Lord, so the anticipation of rejection and death which filled the +heart of Jesus does not banish a like <i>if</i> from his own thought of +Jerusalem in his repeated efforts to "gather her children." The +combination of the new popular enthusiasm and the fresh proofs of the +hopelessness of winning Jerusalem made more important the third task,--the +founding of the faith of the disciples on the rock of personal certainty, +from which the rising floods of hatred and seeming ruin for the Master's +cause could not sweep it. It was for them that much of his instruction of +the multitudes was doubtless primarily intended; they needed above all +others to count the cost of discipleship (Luke xiv. 25-35), and the +warnings against the spirit of Pharisaism (Luke xii.) were addressed +principally to them, even as it was to them that Jesus confessed the +"straitening" of his own soul in view of the "fire which he had come to +cast upon the earth" (Luke xii. 49-53),--a confession which had another +expression when he found it needful to rebuke the personal ambition of the +sons of Zebedee (Mark x. 35-45). As for Jesus himself, the popular +enthusiasm had not deceived him, nor the obdurate unbelief of Jerusalem +daunted him, nor his disciples' misconception of his kingdom disheartened +him; he still steadfastly set his face to go to Jerusalem.</p></div></div> +<div class="chapter" id="p02-06"> +<div class="ouline"> +<h2><a class="newpage" name="page166" id="page166" title="166"></a> Outline of Events in the Last Week of Jesus' Life</h2> + + +<p> <i>Saturday</i> (?). The anointing in Bethany six days before the + Passover--Matt. xxvi. 6-13; Mark xiv. 3-9; John xi. 55 to xii. 11. + +</p> + +<p> <i>Sunday</i> (?). The Messianic entry--Matt. xxi. 1-11; Mark xi. 1-11; Luke + six. 29-44; John xii. 12-19.</p> + +<p> <i>Monday</i> (?). Visit to the temple: the cursing of the barren + fig-tree--Matt. xxi. 18-19, 12-17; Mark xi. 12-14, 15-18; Luke xix. 45, + 47, 48.</p> + +<p> Return to Bethany for the night--Matt. xxi. 17; Mark xi. 19; Luke xxi. + 37, 38.</p> + +<p> <i>Tuesday</i> (?). Visit to the temple: the fig-tree found withered--Matt, + xxi 20-23; Mark xi. 20-27; Luke xx. 1.</p> + +<p> Challenge of Jesus' authority--Matt. xxi. 23-27; Mark xi. 27-33; Luke + xx. 1-8.</p> + +<p> Three parables against the religious leaders--Matt. xxi. 28 to xxii. + 14; Mark xii. 1-12; Luke xx. 9-19.</p> + +<p> The question about tribute--Matt. xxii. 15-22; Mark xii. 13-17; Luke + xx. 20-26.</p> + +<p> The question of the Sadducees about the resurrection--Matt. xxii. + 23-33; Mark xii. 18-27; Luke xx. 27-40.</p> + +<p> The question of the Pharisees about the great commandment--Matt. xxii. + 34-40; Mark xii. 28-34.</p> + +<p> Jesus' counter-question about David's son and Lord--Matt. xxii. 41-46; + Mark xii. 35-37; Luke xx. 41-44.</p> + +<p> Jesus' denunciation of the scribes and Pharisees--Matt, xxiii. 1-39; + Mark xii. 38-40; Luke xx. 45-47.</p> + +<p> The widow's two mites--Mark xii. 41-44; Luke xxi. 1-4.</p> + +<p> The visit of the Greeks--John xii. 20-36<sup>a</sup>.</p> + +<p> Final departure from the temple--John xii. 36<sup>b</sup> (-50).</p> + +<p><a class="newpage" name="page167" id="page167" title="167"></a> Discourse concerning the destruction of Jerusalem and the end of the + world--Matt. xxiv. 1 to xxvi. 2; Mark xiii. 1-37; Luke xxi. 5-38.</p> + +<p> Plot of Judas to betray Jesus--Matt. xxvi. 3-5, 14-16; Mark xiv. 1, 2, + 10, 11; Luke xxii. 1-6.</p> + +<p> <i>Wednesday</i>. Retirement at Bethany. (?)</p> + +<p> <i>Thursday</i>. The Last Supper--Matt. xxvi. 17-30; Mark xiv. 12-26; Luke + xxii. 7-30; John xiii. 1-30.</p> + +<p> The farewell words of admonition and comfort--John xiii. 31 to xvi. 33.</p> + +<p> The intercessory prayer--John xvii. 1-26.</p> + +<p> <i>Friday</i>. The agony in Gethsemane--Matt. xxvi. 30, 36-46; Mark xiv. 26, + 32-42; Luke xxii. 39-46; John xviii. 1.</p> + +<p> The betrayal and arrest--Matt xxvi. 47-56; Mark xiv. 43-52; Luke xxii. + 47-53; John xviii. 1-12.</p> + +<p> Trial before the high-priests and sanhedrin--Matt. xxvi. 57 to xxvii. + 10; Mark xiv. 53 to xv. 1<sup>a</sup>; Luke xxii. 54-71; John xviii. 12-27.</p> + +<p> Trial before Pilate--Matt, xxvii. 11-31; Mark xv. 1-20; Luke xxiii. + 1-25; John xviii. 28 to xix. 16<sup>a</sup>.</p> + +<p> The crucifixion--Matt, xxvii. 32-56; Mark xv. 21-41; Luke xxiii. 26-49; + John xix. 16-37.</p> + +<p> The burial--Matt, xxvii. 57-61; Mark xv. 42-47; Luke xxiii. 50-56; John + xix. 38-42.</p> + +<p> <i>Saturday</i>. The Sabbath rest--Luke xxiii. 56<sup>b</sup>.</p> + +<p> The watch at the tomb--Matt, xxvii. 62-66.</p> +</div> + + + + +<h2>VI</h2> + +<h3>The Final Controversies in Jerusalem</h3> + + + +<div class="section" id="s177"><p><span class="versenum">177.</span> The early Christians were greatly interested in the teachings of +Jesus and in his deeds, but they thought oftenest of the victory which by +his resurrection he won out of seeming defeat. This is proved by the fact +that of the first two gospels over one third, of Luke over one fifth, and +of the fourth gospel nearly <a class="newpage" name="page168" id="page168" title="168"></a>one half are devoted to the story of the +passion and resurrection. This preponderance is not strange in view of the +shock which the death of Jesus caused his disciples, and the new life +which the resurrection brought to their hearts. The resurrection was the +fundamental theme of apostolic preaching, the supreme evidence that Jesus +was the Messiah. Hence the cross early became the object of exultant +Christian joy and boasting; and in this the church entered actually into +the Lord's own thought, for through the cross he looked for his exaltation +and glory (Mark viii. 31; John xii. 23-36). From the time of the +confession at Cæsarea Philippi, he had had his death avowedly in view, and +had repeatedly checked the ambitious and unthinking enthusiasm of his +disciples by reminding them of what he must receive at the hands of the +leaders of the people. The few months preceding his final appearance in +Jerusalem had been devoted to the journey to the cross. This explains the +note of tragedy which appears in his teachings at this period. The people +had shown that they would none of his ministry. In this they had written +their national and religious death warrant, and as he approached Jerusalem +for the final crisis he declared, though with almost breaking heart, "Your +house is left unto you desolate" (Luke xiii. 31-35). Each new effort of +Jesus to turn aside the impending judgment of his people by winning their +acceptance of himself and his message resulted in a new certainty of his +ultimate rejection, and thus in confirmation of the early recognized +necessity, that, if he continued the work God had given him to do, he +should suffer many things, and die at the hands of his own people.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s178"><p><a class="newpage" name="page169" id="page169" title="169"></a><span class="versenum">178.</span> The last chapter in his public ministry began with his arrival at +Bethany six days before the Passover. It is probable that the caravan with +which Jesus was travelling reached Bethany not far from the sunset which +marked the beginning of the Sabbath preceding the feast. Jesus had friends +there who gladly gave him entertainment, and the Sabbath was doubtless +spent quietly in this retreat. The holy day closed with the setting sun, +and then his hosts were able to show him the special attention which they +desired. The general cordiality of welcome expressed itself in a feast +given in the house of one Simon, a leper who had probably experienced the +power of Jesus to heal. He may have been a relative also of Lazarus, for +Martha assisted in the entertainment, and Lazarus was one of the guests of +honor (Mark xiv. 3; John xii. 2). During the feast, Mary, the sister of +Lazarus, poured forth on the head and feet of Jesus a box of the rarest +perfume. This act of costly adoration seemed extravagant to some, +particularly to one of Jesus' disciples, who complained that the money +could have been better spent. This criticism of one who had not counted +cost in her service was rebuked by Jesus, who defended and commended Mary; +for in the act he recognized her fear that he might not be long with her +(Mark xiv. 8; John xii. 7). It is probable that this rebuke, with the +clear reference to his approaching death, led Judas to decide to abandon +the apparently waning cause of his Master, and bargain with the leaders in +Jerusalem to betray him (Mark xiv. 3-11).</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s179"><p><span class="versenum">179.</span> The day following the supper at Bethany--that is, the first day of +the week--witnessed the welcome of Jesus to Jerusalem by the jubilant +multitudes. <a class="newpage" name="page170" id="page170" title="170"></a>His mode of entering the city affords a marked contrast to +his treatment of the determination to make him king after he had fed the +multitudes in Galilee (John vi. 15). In some respects the circumstances +were similar. A multitude of the visitors to the feast, hearing that Jesus +was at Bethany on his way to Jerusalem, went out to meet him with a +welcome that showed their enthusiastic confidence that at last he would +assume Messianic power and redeem Israel (John xii. 12, 13). Jesus was now +ready for a popular demonstration, for the rulers were unwilling longer to +tolerate his work and his teaching. He had never hesitated to assert his +superiority to official criticism, and at length the hour had come to +proclaim the full significance of his independence. In fact it was for +this that some months before he had set his face steadfastly to go to +Jerusalem. When, therefore, the crowd from Jerusalem appeared, Jesus took +the initiative in a genuine Messianic demonstration. He sent two of his +disciples to a place near by to borrow an ass's colt, on which he might +ride into the city, fulfilling Zechariah's prophecy of the "king that +cometh meek, and riding upon an ass" (see Matt. xxi. 4, 5). At this, the +enthusiasm of his followers, and of those who had come to meet him, became +unbounded, and without rebuke from Jesus they proceeded towards Jerusalem +crying, "Hosanna; Blessed <i>is</i> he that cometh in the name of the Lord" +(Mark xi. 9, 10). Notwithstanding the remonstrances of certain Pharisees +among the multitude (Luke xix. 39), Jesus accepted the hosannas, for they +served to emphasize the claim which he now wished, without reserve or +ambiguity, to make in Jerusalem. The <a class="newpage" name="page171" id="page171" title="171"></a>time for reserve had passed. The +mass of the people with their leaders had shown clearly that for his +truth, and himself as bearer of it, they had no liking; while the few had +become attached to him sufficiently to warrant the supreme test of their +faith. He could not continue longer his efforts to win the people, for +both Galilee and Judea were closed to him. Even if he had been content, +without contradicting popular ideas, to work wonders and proclaim promises +of coming good, he could with difficulty have continued this work, for +Herod had already been regarding him with suspicion (Luke xiii. 31). He +had run his course and must measure strength with the hostile forces in +Jerusalem. For the last encounter he assumed the aggressive, and entered +the city as its promised deliverer, the Prince of Peace. The very method +of his Messianic proclamation was a challenge of current Jewish ideas, for +they were not looking for so meek and peaceful a leader as Zechariah had +conceived; this entrance emphasized the old contradiction between Jesus +and his people's expectations. He accepted the popular welcome with full +knowledge of the transitoriness of the present enthusiasm. As he advanced +he saw in thought the fate to which the city and people were blindly +hurrying, and his day of popular triumph was a day of tears (Luke xix. +41-44). The city was stirred when the prophet of Nazareth thus entered it; +but he simply went into the temple, looked about with heavy heart, and, as +it was late, returned to Bethany with the twelve for the night.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s180"><p><span class="versenum">180.</span> On the following day Jesus furnished to his disciples a parable in +action illustrating the fate awaiting the nation; for it is only as a +parable that the <a class="newpage" name="page172" id="page172" title="172"></a>curse of the barren fig-tree can be understood. The idea +that Jesus showed resentment at disappointment of his hunger when he found +no figs on the tree out of season is too petty for consideration. He was +drawn to it by the early foliage, for it was not yet the season for either +fruit or leaves. One is tempted to believe, as Dr. Bruce has suggested, +that he had small expectation of finding fruit, and that even before he +reached the tree with its early leaves he felt a likeness between it and +the nation of hypocrites whose fate was so clear in his mind. The +withering of the fig-tree set his disciples thinking; and Jesus showed +that it was an object lesson, promising that the disciples, by the +exercise of but a little faith, could do more, even remove +mountains,--such mountains of difficulty as the opposition of the whole +Jewish nation would offer to the success of their work in their Master's +name.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s181"><p><span class="versenum">181.</span> The curse upon the barren fig-tree was spoken as Jesus was going from +Bethany to Jerusalem on the morning after his Messianic entry, that is, on +Monday, and it was Tuesday when the disciples found it withered away (Mark +xi. 12-14, 20-25). On Monday Jesus entered into the temple and taught and +healed (Luke xix. 47; Matt. xxi. 14-16). It is at this point that Mark +inserts the cleansing of the temple which John shows to belong rather to +Jesus' first public visit to Jerusalem. The place which this incident +holds in the first three gospels has already been explained by the fact +that it furnished one cause for the official hostility to Jesus, and that +Mark's story included no earlier visit to the holy city (sect. 116; see A +39).</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s182"><p><span class="versenum">182.</span> Tuesday, the last day of public activity, ex<a class="newpage" name="page173" id="page173" title="173"></a>hibits Jesus in four +different lights, according as he had to do with his critics, with the +devout widow, with the inquiring Greeks, and with his own disciples. The +opposition to him expressed itself, after the general challenge of his +authority, in three questions put in succession by Pharisees and +Herodians, by Sadducees, and by a scribe, more earnest than most, whom the +Pharisees put forward after they had seen how Jesus silenced the +Sadducees. Jesus met the opening challenge by a question about John's +baptism (Mark xi. 29-33) which completely destroyed the complacency of his +critics, putting them on the defensive. This was more than a clever +stroke, they could not know what his authority was unless they had a quick +sense for spiritual things. His question would have served to bring this +to the surface if they had possessed it. Their reply showed them incapable +of receiving a real answer to their question. It also gave him opportunity +to say in three significant parables (Matt. xxi. 28 to xxii. 14) what +their spiritual blindness signified for them and their nation, giving thus +a turn to the interview not at all to their minds. As Jesus' rebuke was +spoken in the hearing of the people, a determined effort was at once made +to discredit him in the popular mind. The question (Mark xii. 13-17) with +which the Pharisees and Herodians hoped to ensnare him was most subtle, +for the popular feeling was as sensitive to the mark of subserviency which +the payment of tribute kept ever before them as the Roman authorities were +to the slightest suspicion of revolt against their sway. In none of his +words had Jesus so clearly asserted the simple other-worldliness of his +doctrine of the kingdom of God as in his answer <a class="newpage" name="page174" id="page174" title="174"></a>to the question about +tribute. For him loyalty to the actual earthly sovereign was quite +compatible with loyalty to God, the lower obligation was in fact a summons +to be scrupulous also to render to God his due,--a duty in which this +nation was sadly delinquent. The reply gave no ground for an accusation +before the governor; but the popular feeling against Rome was so strong +that it is not unlikely that it contributed somewhat to the readiness of +the multitude a few days later to prefer Barabbas to Jesus.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s183"><p><span class="versenum">183.</span> A second assault was made by some Sadducees who put to him a crude +question about the relations of a seven-times married woman in the +resurrection (Mark xii. 18-27). If this question was asked with the +expectation of making Jesus ridiculous in the sight of the people it was a +marked failure, for his reply was so simple and straightforward that he +won the admiration even of some of the Pharisees. The most significant +feature of it was his argument from God's reference to himself as God of +Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob; for in that he taught that the fact of +fellowship with God implies that God's servants share with him a life that +death cannot vanquish. The skill with which Jesus met these two questions +interested some of his hearers and showed to his opponents that they must +put forward their ablest champions to cope with him. The next test was +more purely academic in character,--as to what class of commands is +greatest in the law (Mark xii. 28-34). For the pharisaic scholars this was +a favorite problem. For Jesus, however, the question contained no problem, +since all the law is summed up in the two commandments of love. His +contemporaries were not without power to see the truth of his +<a class="newpage" name="page175" id="page175" title="175"></a>generalization, and their champion in this last attack was moved with +admiration for the fineness and sufficiency of Jesus' answer.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s184"><p><span class="versenum">184.</span> All of the assaults served only to show freshly the clearness and +profoundness of his thought; his critics were quite discomfited in their +effort to entangle him. They had done with him, but he had still a word +for them. The business of these scribes was the study of the scriptures. +They furnished the people with authoritative statements of truth. One of +the common-places of the current thought was that the Messiah should be +David's son. Jesus did not deny the truth of this view, yet he showed them +how partial their ideas were by quoting a word of scripture in which the +Messiah is shown as David's Lord. If they had been open-minded they might +have inferred from this that perhaps the man before them was not so +impossible a Messiah as they thought. This last question closed the +colloquy; there awaited yet, however, Jesus' calm, scathing arraignment of +the hypocrisy of these religious leaders. There was no longer any need for +prudence and every reason for a clear indication of the difference between +himself and the scribes in motive, in teaching, and in character. The +final conflict was on, and Jesus freely spoke his mind concerning their +whole life of piety without godliness. Never have sharper words of +reproach fallen from human lips than these which Jesus directed against +the scribes and Pharisees; they are burdened with indignation for the +misleading of the people, with rebuke for the misrepresentation of God's +truth, and with scorn for their hollow pretence of righteousness. Through +it all breathes a note of sorrow for the city <a class="newpage" name="page176" id="page176" title="176"></a>whose house was now left to +her desolate. The change of scene which introduces the widow offering her +gift in the temple treasury heightens the significance of the +controversies through which Jesus had just passed. In his comment on the +worth of her two mites we hear again the preacher of the sermon on the +mount, and are assured that it is indeed from him that the severe rebukes +which have fallen on the scribes have come. There is again a reference to +the insight of him who sees in secret, and who judges as he sees; while +allusion is not lacking to the others whose larger gifts attracted a wider +attention. The whole scene is like a commentary on Matt. vi. 2-4.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s185"><p><span class="versenum">185.</span> Still a different side of Jesus' life appears when the Greeks seek +him in the temple. They were probably proselytes from some of the Greek +cities about the Mediterranean where the synagogue offered to the +earnest-minded a welcome relief from the foolishness and corruption of +what was left of religion in the heathen world. Having visited Jerusalem +for the feast, they heard on every hand about the new teacher. They were +not so bound to rabbinic traditions as the Jews themselves, they had been +drawn by the finer features of Judaism,--its high morality and its noble +idea of God. What they heard of Jesus might well attract them, and they +sought out Philip, a disciple with a Greek name, to request an interview +with his Master. The evangelist who has preserved the incident (John xii. +20-36) evidently introduced it because of what it showed of Jesus' inner +life; hence we have no report of the conversation between him and his +visitors. The effect of their seeking him was marked, however, for it +offered sharp contrast to the <a class="newpage" name="page177" id="page177" title="177"></a>rejection which he already felt in his +dealings with the people who but two days before had hailed him as +Messiah. This foreign interest in him did not suggest a new avenue for +Messianic work, it only brought before his mind the influence which was to +be his in the world which these inquirers represented, and immediately +with the thought of his glorification came that of the means thereto,--the +cross whose shadow was already darkening his path. Excepting Gethsemane, +no more solemn moment in Jesus' life is reported for us. A glimpse is +given into the inner currents of his soul, and the storm which tossed them +is seen. It is in marked contrast to the calmness of his controversy with +the leaders, and to the gentleness of his commendation of the widow. The +agitation passed almost at once, but it left Jesus in a mood which he had +not shown before on that day; in it his own thoughts had their way, and +the doctrine of the grain of wheat dying to appear in larger life, of the +Son of Man lifted up to draw all men unto him, had utterance, greatly to +the perplexity of his hearers. It seems to have been one of the few times +when Jesus spoke for his own soul's relief.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s186"><p><span class="versenum">186.</span> In all the earlier events of the day the disciples of Jesus appear +but little. He is occupied with others, accepting the challenge of the +leaders, and completing his testimony to the truth they refused to hear. +The quieter hours of the later part of the day gave time for further words +with his friends. The comment on the widow's gift was meant for them, and +the uncovering of his own soul when the Greeks sought him was in their +presence. After he had left the temple and the city he gave himself to +them more ex<a class="newpage" name="page178" id="page178" title="178"></a>clusively. His disciples were perplexed by what they saw and +felt, for the temper of the people toward their Master could not be +mistaken. Yet they were sure of him. The leaders among them, therefore, +asked him privately to tell them when the catastrophe should come, to +which during the day he had made repeated reference. The conversation +which followed is reported for us in the discourse on the destruction of +Jerusalem and the end of the world (Mark xiii. and parallels), in which +Jesus taught his disciples to expect trouble in their ministry, as he was +meeting trouble in his; and to be ready for complete disappointment of +their inherited hopes for the glory of their holy city. He also taught +them to expect that his work would shortly be carried to perfection, and +to live in expectancy of his coming to complete all that he was now +seeming to leave undone. This lesson of patience and expectancy is +enforced in a group of parables preserved for us in Matthew (chap. xxv.), +closing with the remarkable picture of the end of all things when the +Master should return in glory as judge of all to make final announcement +of the simplicity of God's requirement of righteousness, as it had been +exhibited in the life which by the despite of men was now drawing to its +close.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s187"><p><span class="versenum">187.</span> The bargain made by Judas to betray his Lord has always been +difficult to understand. The man must have had fine possibilities or Jesus +would not have chosen him for an apostle, nor would the little company +have made him its treasurer (John xii. 6; xiii. 29). The fact that Jesus +early discovered his character (John vi. 64) does not compel us to think +that his selection as an apostle was not perfectly sin<a class="newpage" name="page179" id="page179" title="179"></a>cere; the man must +have seemed to be still savable and worthy thus to be associated with the +eleven others who were Jesus' nearest companions. It has often been +noticed that he was probably the only Judean among the twelve, for +Kerioth, his home, was a town in southern Judea. The effort has frequently +been made to redeem his reputation by attributing his betrayal to some +high motive--such as a desire to force his Master to use his Messianic +power, and confound his opponents by escaping from their hands and setting +up the hoped-for kingdom. But the remorse of Judas, in which De Quincey +finds support for this theory of the betrayal, must be more simply and +sadly understood. It is more likely that the traitor illustrates Jesus' +words: "No man can serve two masters; for either he will hate the one and +love the other; or else he will hold to the one and despise the other. Ye +cannot serve God and mammon" (Matt. vi. 24). The beginning of his fall may +have been his disappointment when Jesus showed clearly that he would not +establish a kingdom conformed to the popular ideas. As the enthusiasm +which drew him to Jesus cooled, personal greed, with something of +resentment at the cause of his disappointment, seem to have taken +possession of him, and they led him on until the stinging rebuke which +Jesus administered to the criticism of Mary at Bethany prompted the man to +seek a bargain with the authorities which should insure him at least some +profit in the general wreck of his hopes. His remorse after he saw in its +bald hideousness what he had done was psychologically inevitable. Although +Jesus was aware of Judas' character from the beginning (John vi. 64), he +that came to <a class="newpage" name="page180" id="page180" title="180"></a>seek and to save that which was lost was no fatalist; and +this knowledge was doubtless--like that which he had of the fate hanging +over Jerusalem--subject to the possibility that repentance might change +what was otherwise a certain destiny. As the event turned he could only +say, "Good were it for that man if he had not been born" (Mark xiv. 21).</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s188"><p><span class="versenum">188.</span> With this the curtain falls on the public ministry of Jesus. The +gospels suggest a day of quiet retirement following these controversies +and warnings, with their fresh demonstration of the irreconcilable +hostility of people of all classes to him and his work. After the +seclusion of that day, he returned to give final proof of complete +obedience to his Father's will.</p></div> +</div> + + +<div class="chapter" id="p02-07"> +<h2><a class="newpage" name="page181" id="page181" title="181"></a>VII</h2> + +<h3>The Last Supper</h3> + + + +<div class="section" id="s189"><p><span class="versenum">189.</span> On Thursday Jesus and his disciples returned to Jerusalem for the +last time. Knowing the temper of the leaders, and the danger of arrest at +any time, Jesus was particularly eager to eat the Passover with his +disciples (Luke xxii. 15), and he sent two of them--Luke names them as +Peter and John--to prepare for the supper. In a way which would give no +information to such a one as Judas, he directed them carefully how to find +the house where a friend would provide them the upper room that was needed +for an undisturbed meeting of the little band, and the two went on in +advance to make ready. When the hour was come Jesus with the others went +to the appointed place and sat down for the supper (Mark xiv. 17; Luke +xxii. 14; Matt. xxvi. 20).</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s190"><p><span class="versenum">190.</span> The gospels all report the last evening which the little company +spent together. There is a perplexing divergence, however, between John +and the others concerning the relation of this supper to the feast of the +Passover. In their introduction of the story, Mark and his companion +gospels indicate that the supper which Jesus ate was the Passover meal +itself. John, on the other hand, declares that it was "before the feast of +the Passover" (xiii. 1) that Jesus took this meal with his disciples. +John's account is consistent throughout, <a class="newpage" name="page182" id="page182" title="182"></a>for he states that on the next +day the desire of the Jews to "eat the Passover" forbade them to enter the +house of the governor lest they should incur defilement (xviii. 28). The +other gospels, moreover, hint in several ways that the day of Jesus' death +could not have been the day after the Passover; that is, the first day of +the feast of unleavened bread. Dr. Sanday has recently enumerated these +afresh, remarking that "the Synoptists make the Sanhedrin say beforehand +that they will not arrest Jesus 'on the feast day,' and then actually +arrest him on that day; that not only the guards, but one of the disciples +(Mark xiv. 47), carries arms, which on the feast day was not allowed; that +the trial was also held on the feast day, which would be unlawful; that +the feast day would not be called simply Preparation (see Mark xv. 42, and +compare John xix. 31); that the phrase 'coming from the field' (Mark xv. +21 [Greek]) means properly 'coming from work;' that Joseph of Arimathea is +represented as buying a linen cloth (Mark xv. 46) and the women as +preparing spices and ointments (Luke xxiii. 56), all of which would be +contrary to law and custom" (HastBD ii. 634). In these particulars the +first three gospels seem to confirm the representation of the fourth that +the day of the last supper was earlier than the regular Jewish Passover. +On the other hand, a strong argument, though one that has not commended +itself to other specialists in Jewish archæology, has been put forth by +Dr. Edersheim (LJM ii. 567f.) to prove that John also indicates that the +last supper was eaten at the time of the regular Passover. In the present +condition of our knowledge certainty is impossible. If John does differ +from the others, his testimony has the greatest <a class="newpage" name="page183" id="page183" title="183"></a>weight. While not +conclusive, it has some significance that Paul identified Christ with the +sacrifice of the passover (I. Cor. v. 7), a statement which may indicate +that he held that Jesus died about the time of the killing of the paschal +lamb. If John be taken to prove that the last supper occurred a day before +the regular Passover, Jesus must have felt that the anticipation was +necessary in order to avoid the publicity and consequent danger of a +celebration at the same time with all the rest of the city.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s191"><p><span class="versenum">191.</span> Whatever the conclusion concerning the date of the last supper, and +consequently of the crucifixion, the last meal of Jesus with his disciples +was for that little company the equivalent of the Passover supper. Luke +states that the desire of Jesus had looked specially to eating this feast +with his disciples (xxii. 15). The reason must be found in his certainty +of the very near end, and in his wish to make the meal a preparation for +the bitter experiences which were overhanging him and them.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s192"><p><span class="versenum">192.</span> It is customary to connect as occasion and consequence the dispute +concerning precedence which Luke reports (xxii. 24-30), and the rebuke +which Jesus administered by washing the disciples' feet (John xiii. 1-20). +The jealousies of the disciples may have arisen over the allotment of +seats at the table, as Dr. Edersheim has most fully shown (LJM ii. +492-503); such a controversy would be the natural sequel of earlier +disputes concerning greatness, and particularly of the request of James +and John for the best places in the coming kingdom (Mark x. 35-45), and +would lead as naturally to the distress of heart with which Jesus declared +that one of the disciples should betray <a class="newpage" name="page184" id="page184" title="184"></a>him, and that another of them +should deny him. The narrative in Mark favors the withdrawal of Judas +before the new rite was appointed. This must seem to be the probability in +the case, for the presence of Judas would be most incongruous at such a +memorial service. John's mention of his departure before the announcement +of Peter's approaching fall confirms this interpretation of Mark (Mark +xiv. 18-21; John xiii. 21-30).</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s193"><p><span class="versenum">193.</span> The paschal memories furnished to Jesus an opportunity to establish +for his disciples an institution which should symbolize the new covenant +which he was soon to seal with his blood. Jesus regarded this new covenant +as that which was promised by the prophets, especially Jeremiah (xxxi. +31-34), and his thought, like that of the prophets, goes back to the story +of the covenant established at Sinai (Ex. xxiv. 1-11). In this way he gave +to his disciples a conception of his death, which later, if not +immediately, would help them to regard it as a necessary part of his work +as Messiah. They were now oppressed by the evident certainty that the near +future would bring their Master to death; he accordingly gave them a +sacred reminder of himself and of his death as an essential part of his +self-giving "for them;" for whatever the conclusion concerning the +disputed text of Luke (xxii. 19), the institutional character of the act +and words of Jesus is clear. As Holtzmann remarks (NtTh i. 304): "The +words 'this do in remembrance of me' were perhaps not spoken; all the more +certainly do they of themselves express what lay in the situation and made +itself felt with incontestable conclusiveness."</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s194"><p><span class="versenum">194.</span> Several hints in the records seem to connect <a class="newpage" name="page185" id="page185" title="185"></a>the meal in various +details with what is known of ancient custom in the celebration of the +Passover. The hymn with which according to Mark and Matthew the supper +closed is easily identified with the last part (Psalms cxv. to cxviii.) of +the so called <i>Hallel</i>, which was sung at the close of the Passover meal. +The mention of two cups in the familiar text of Luke (xxii. 17-20) agrees +with the repeated cups of the Passover ritual; so also do the sop and the +dipping of it with which Jesus indicated to John who the traitor was (John +xiii. 23-26; Mark xiv. 20). If it could be proved that the customs +recorded in the Talmud correctly represent the usage in Jesus' time it +would be of extreme interest to seek to connect what is told us of the +last supper with that Passover ritual as Dr. Edersheim has done (LJM ii. +490-512). The antiquity of the rabbinic record is so uncertain, however, +that it is only useful as showing what possibly may have been the case. +All that can be asserted is that the rabbinic ritual probably originated +long before it was recorded, and that as the last supper was a meal which +Jesus and his disciples celebrated as a Passover, it is probable that some +such ritual was more or less closely followed.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s195"><p><span class="versenum">195.</span> Luke and John give the fullest reports of what was said at the table. +All the gospels tell of Peter's declaration of superior loyalty and the +prediction of his threefold denial; Luke, however, adds that in connection +with it Jesus assured Peter of his restoration, and charged him to +strengthen his brethren (Luke xxii. 31-34). John alone gives the long and +full discourse of admonition and comfort, followed by Jesus' prayer for +his disciples (xiii. 31 to xvii. 26). It is evident <a class="newpage" name="page186" id="page186" title="186"></a>from the words of +Jesus as he entered the garden of Gethsemane (Mark xiv. 33, 34), as from +those which had escaped him when the Greeks sought him the last day in the +temple (John xii. 27), that his own heart was greatly troubled during the +supper by the apparent defeat which was now close at hand. His quietness +and self-possession during the supper, particularly when tenderly +reproving his disciples for petty ambition, or when solemnly dismissing +the traitor, or warning Peter of his denials, must not blind us to the +depth of the emotion which was stirring his own soul. It is only as we +remember his trouble of heart that it is possible justly to value the +ministry which in varied ways he rendered to his disciples that night. In +the discourses reported by John he showed that he realized that the +approaching separation would sorely try the faith of his followers, and he +sought to strengthen them by showing his own calmness in view of it, and +by promising them another who should abide with them spiritually as his +representative, and continue for them the work which he had begun. He +therefore urged them to maintain their devotion to him, still to seek and +find the source of their life and secret of their strength in fellowship +with him--present, though unseen among them. He sought to convince them +that his departure was to be for their advantage, that fellowship with him +spiritually would be far more real and efficacious than the intercourse +they had already enjoyed. He whose own heart was "exceeding sorrowful even +unto death" bade his disciples not to let their hearts be troubled nor +afraid. How long the conversation continued, of when the company left the +upper chamber, cannot be told. At some time before the arrival at +Gethsemane <a class="newpage" name="page187" id="page187" title="187"></a>Jesus turned to God in prayer for the disciples whom he was +about to leave to the severe trial of their faith, asking for them that +realization of eternal life which he had enjoyed and exemplified in his +own intimate life with his Father. With this his ministry to them closed +for the time, and, crossing the Kidron, he entered the garden of +Gethsemane weighed down by the sorrow of his own soul.</p></div> +</div> + + +<div class="chapter" id="p02-08"> +<h2><a class="newpage" name="page188" id="page188" title="188"></a>VIII</h2> + +<h3>The Shadow of Death</h3> + + + +<div class="section" id="s196"><p><span class="versenum">196.</span> Of the garden of Gethsemane it is only known that it was across the +Kidron, on the slope of the Mount of Olives. Tradition has long pointed to +an enclosure some fifty yards beyond the bridge that crosses the ravine on +the road leading eastward from St. Stephen's gate. Most students feel that +this is too near the city and the highway for the place of retreat chosen +by Jesus. Archæologically and sentimentally the identification of places +connected with the life of Jesus is of great interest. Practically, +however, it is easy to over-emphasize the importance of such an +identification. Granted the fact that in some olive grove on the +mountain-side, where an oil-press gave a name to the place (Gethsemane), +Jesus withdrew with his disciples on that last night, and all that is +important is known. It is of far higher importance to see rightly the +relation of what took place in that garden to the things which preceded +and followed it in the life of Jesus. At that time Jesus saw pressed to +his lips the "cup" from the bitterness of which his whole soul shrank. It +was not an unlooked-for trial; some time earlier he had sought to cool the +ardor of the ambition of James and John by telling them that they should +drink of his cup, and declared that even the Son of Man came not to be +<a class="newpage" name="page189" id="page189" title="189"></a>ministered unto but to minister, and to give his life a ransom for many. +The fourth gospel, whose representation omits the agony of Gethsemane and +only reports its victory, tells how Jesus rebuked the violent impulse of +Peter with the word, "The cup which my Father hath given me to drink shall +I not drink it?" (John xviii. 11<sup>b</sup>); and all the gospels exhibit the +marvellous quietness of spirit and dignity of self-surrender which +characterized Jesus throughout his trial and execution. In Gethsemane, +however, we see the struggle in which that calmness and self-mastery were +won.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s197"><p><span class="versenum">197.</span> It is unbecoming to consider that scene with any vulgar curiosity to +know what it was that made Jesus so draw back from the drinking of his +"cup." It is not unfitting, however, to recognize that in his cry, "Abba, +Father, all things are possible unto thee; remove this cup from me" (Mark +xiv. 36), an intense longing of his own soul's life had expression. There +was something in the fate which he saw before him from which his whole +being shrank. But stronger than this was his fixed desire to do his +Father's will. Here was supremely illustrated the truth that "he came down +from heaven, not to do his own will, but the will of him that sent him" +(John vi. 38). The fullest allowance for the shrinking of the most +delicately constituted nature from pain and death completely fails to +account for this dread of Jesus. He was no coward, drawing back from +sufferings which for simple physical pain were over and again more than +matched by many of the martyrs to truth who preceded and followed him. He +himself declared to the sons of Zebedee that they should share a cup in +kind like <a class="newpage" name="page190" id="page190" title="190"></a>unto his, suffering for the kingdom of God, for the salvation +of the world. Yet there is a difference evident between what others have +had to bear and the cup from which Jesus shrank. The death which now stood +before him in the path of obedience had in it a bitterness quite +unexplained by the pain and disappointment it entailed. That excess of +bitterness can probably never be understood by us. A hint of its nature +may be found in the "shame of the cross" which the author of Hebrews (xii. +2; xiii. 13) emphasizes, and in the "curse" of the cross which made it a +stumbling block to Paul and his Jewish brethren (Gal. iii. 13; I. Cor. i. +23). Jesus came from the garden ready to endure the cross in obedience to +his Father's will; but it was a costly obedience, a complete emptying of +himself (Phil. ii. 7, 8).</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s198"><p><span class="versenum">198.</span> The loneliness of Jesus in his struggle is emphasized in the gospels +of Mark and Matthew. In search of sympathy he had confessed to the +disciples his trouble of heart, and had taken his three intimates with him +when he withdrew from the others for prayer, asking them to watch with +him. They were too heavy of heart and weary of body to stand by in his +bitter hour, and instead of being in readiness to warn him of the approach +of the hostile band, he had to awake them to their danger. The fourth +gospel reports that after the struggle Jesus bore marks of majesty which +astonished and overawed his foes when he calmly told them that he was the +one they were seeking. Their fear was overcome, however, when Judas gave +the appointed sign by kissing his Master (Mark xiv. 45). The thought for +the disciples' safety which John records (xviii. 8) is another proof <a class="newpage" name="page191" id="page191" title="191"></a>that +the fight had been won, and Jesus had fully resumed the self-emptying +ministry appointed to him by his Father.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s199"><p><span class="versenum">199.</span> The band that arrested Jesus was accompanied by a Roman cohort from +the garrison of the city, but it was not needed, for the disciples offered +no appreciable resistance; on the contrary, "they all forsook him and +fled" (Mark xiv. 50). Having arrested Jesus, the band took him to Annas, +the actual leader of Jewish affairs, though not at the time the official +high-priest. He had held that office some time before, but had been +deposed by the Roman governor of Syria after being in power for nine +years. His influence continued, however, for although he was never +reinstated, he seems to have been able to secure the appointment for +members of his own family during a period of many years. Caiaphas, the +legal high-priest, was his son-in-law. Annas, as the leader of +aristocratic opinion in Jerusalem, had doubtless been foremost in the +secret counsels which led to the decision to get rid of Jesus, hence the +captive was, as a matter of course, taken first to his house. The trial by +the Jewish authorities was irregular. There seems to have been an informal +examination of Jesus and various witnesses, first before Annas, and then +before Caiaphas and a group of members of the sanhedrin, the outcome of +which was complete failure to secure evidence against Jesus from their +false witnesses, and the formulation of a charge of blasphemy in +consequence of his answer to the high-priest acknowledging himself to be +the Messiah (Mark xiv. 61-64). The early hours before the day were given +over to mockery and ill-usage of the captive Jesus. When <a class="newpage" name="page192" id="page192" title="192"></a>morning was +come, the sanhedrin was convened, and he was condemned to death on the +charge of blasphemy (Mark xv. 1; Luke xxii. 66-71), and then was led in +bonds to the Roman governor for execution, since the Romans had taken from +the sanhedrin the authority to execute a death sentence (John xviii. 31). +Before Pilate the Jews had to name an offence recognized by Roman law; his +accusers therefore falsified his claim and made him out a political +Messiah, hostile to Roman rule (Luke xxiii. 1, 2). Pilate soon saw that +the charge was trumped up, and sought in every way, while keeping the +good-will of the people, to escape the responsibility of giving sentence +against Jesus. His first effort was a simple declaration that he found no +fault in the prisoner (Luke xxiii. 4); then, having heard that he was a +Galilean, he tried to transfer the case to Herod, who happened to be in +the city at the time (Luke xxiii. 5-12); he then sought to compromise by +agreeing to chastise Jesus and then release him (Luke xxiii. 13-16); next +he offered the people their choice between the innocent Jesus and +Barabbas, a convicted insurrectionist (Mark xv. 6-15; Luke xxiii. 16-24), +and the people, instructed by the priests, chose Barabbas, caring nothing +for a Messiah who would allow himself to be arrested without resistance; +the fourth gospel tells of Pilate's still further effort, by appealing to +the people's sympathy, to escape giving sentence, even after he had +delivered Jesus to the soldiers for the preliminary scourging. Finding the +Jews ready to urge, at length, a religious charge, Pilate's superstitious +fear was roused (John xix. 7-12), and he sought again to release him, but +was finally cowed by the <a class="newpage" name="page193" id="page193" title="193"></a>threat of an accusation against him at Rome, +and, mocking the people by sitting in judgment to condemn Jesus as their +king, he gave sentence against the man whom he knew to be innocent (John +xix. 12-16).</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s200"><p><span class="versenum">200.</span> Some of Jesus' disciples and friends were witnesses of the early +stages of the informal trial, in particular, John (John xviii. 15) and +Peter. It was during the progress of the early examination that Peter was +drawn into his denials by the comments made by the bystanders on his +connection with the accused. It has been suggested that the house of the +high-priest where Jesus was tried was built, like other Oriental houses, +about a court so that the room where Jesus was examined was open to view +from the court. In this case it is easy to see how Jesus could overhear +his disciple's strenuous denials of any acquaintance with him, and could +turn and give him that look which sent him out to weep bitterly (Luke +xxii. 61, 62). If it be further assumed that Annas and Caiaphas occupied +different sides of the same high-priestly palace, the double examination +reported by John would still be within hearing from the one court in which +the faithless disciple was a fascinated witness of his Master's trial.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s201"><p><span class="versenum">201.</span> Humanly speaking, it may be said that the fate of Jesus was sealed +when the Sadducean leaders came to look on him seriously as a danger to +the State (John xi. 47-50, note the mention of chief priests). The +religious opposition was serious, and might have brought trouble, in some +such way as it seems to have done to John the Baptist (see Matt. xvii. +10-13; Luke xiii. 31, 32); but it is doubtful whether the gov<a class="newpage" name="page194" id="page194" title="194"></a>ernor would +have given much attention to a charge not urged by the men of influence in +Jerusalem. The notable thing in connection with the last days of Jesus' +life is the joint opposition of Sadducean priests and Pharisaic scribes. +That the populace easily changed their cry from "hosanna" to "crucify him" +is not surprising. Their hosannas were due to a complete misconception of +Jesus' aim and purpose; disappointed in him, they would be the earliest to +cry out against him, especially when the choice lay between him and a +genuine insurrectionist.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s202"><p><span class="versenum">202.</span> Each fresh study of the trial of Jesus gives a fresh impression of +his greatness. He who but a few hours before was pouring out his soul in +prayer that his cup might pass, stands forth as the one calm and +undisturbed actor among all those who took part in the tragic doings of +that day. His judges and foes were all swayed by passion and self-interest +and were ready to make travesty of justice, from the leaders of the +sanhedrin who condemned him on one charge and accused him to the governor +on another, to the governor himself, who appeared determined to release +him if he could do it without risk of personal popularity, and who yet, in +order to avoid accusation at Rome, gave sentence according to the people's +will. The fickle populace crying "crucify him," the disciples who forsook +him, the rock-apostle who denied even so much as knowledge of the man, +show how all the currents of life about him were stirred and full of +tumult. In all this, of which he was the occasion and centre, he stands +the supreme example of dignity, self-mastery, and quietness. This is seen +in his silence in the presence of Annas and Caiaphas, and later before +<a class="newpage" name="page195" id="page195" title="195"></a>Pilate; in his frank avowal of his Messianic claim in reply to the +high-priest's challenge, and of his kingly rank in answer to the +governor's question; and in the look of reproof which he turned upon +Peter. Not that he was without feeling. There is strong sense of outrage +in his words, "If I have spoken evil, bear witness of the evil, but if +well, why smitest thou me?" It was not the quietness of stoic +indifference, but of perfect self-devotion to the Father's will. He +maintained it from the time of his arrest to the last cry of trust with +which he committed his spirit to his Father.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s203"><p><span class="versenum">203.</span> The scourging over, the mock homage of the soldiers done, he was led +out beyond the city wall to be crucified. The exact place of the +crucifixion can be determined as little as that of Gethsemane, though +there is a tradition from the fourth century, and in addition there are +many conjectures. Jesus was led, apparently, to the ordinary place of +criminal execution, and with two others, probably insurrectionary robbers +like those with whom Barabbas had been associated, he was crucified. Two +episodes in the journey to the place of crucifixion are recorded,--the +help which Simon of Cyrene was compelled to give to Jesus in carrying his +cross (Mark xv. 21), and the word of Jesus to those who, following him, +bewailed his fate (Luke xxiii. 27-31).</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s204"><p><span class="versenum">204.</span> Of the cruelty and torture of crucifixion much has been written and +often. It would be difficult to exaggerate it. The death by the cross was +a death by hunger and exhaustion in ordinary cases; it was thus torture +prolonged for many hours. It is noticeable, however, that it is not the +suffering but the disgrace and shame of the cross that occupied the +thought of <a class="newpage" name="page196" id="page196" title="196"></a>the apostolic days. Indeed, were physical suffering chiefly to +be considered, it would have to be owned that the fact that Jesus died +within a few hours released him from the most excruciating pains incident +to this barbarous form of execution. The later ascetic thought loved, and +still loves, to dwell on the physical torments of the Lord's death. They +were severe enough to give us awe; but the biblical writers show a much +healthier mind, and their thought does not invite comparison between the +pains endured by the Master and those which some of his martyred followers +bore with great fortitude. The disgrace of the cross was the uttermost; +for the Romans it was the death of a slave, for the Jews it was patent +proof of the curse of God (Deut. xxi. 23). The obedience of Jesus was +unlimited when he submitted to death (Phil. ii. 8). It is on the shame of +the cross, and on the sacrifice of himself for the life of the world when +in obedience to his Father's will he "despised the shame," that the +thought of the apostolic day laid emphasis. In this experience Jesus found +himself in truth numbered with the transgressors; he was the object of +scorn for all them that passed by, they mocked at him, at his works, and +at his confident trust in God. In this last extremity the darkness of +Gethsemane again swept over Jesus' soul, when he cried out "My God, my +God," recalling the words of one of the saints of old in his hour of +distress (Ps. xxii.). Yet, like him, Jesus kept hold on the certainty of +deliverance; the darkness passed at length.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s205"><p><span class="versenum">205.</span> The evangelists preserve several sayings of Jesus from the cross, the +records of the different gospels being remarkably diverse. Mark and +Mat<a class="newpage" name="page197" id="page197" title="197"></a>thew record the exclamation, "My God, my God <i>(Eloi, Eloi</i>), why hast +thou forsaken me," which the bystander misconstrued as a call for Elijah, +thinking this pseudo-Messiah was reproaching Elijah for failing to come to +his help. The same gospels tell of the loud cry with which Jesus died. +Luke omits the call <i>Eloi</i>, and gives in place of the last expiring cry +the prayer of trust, "Father, into thy hands I commend my spirit" (xxiii. +46). Earlier, however, this gospel tells of Jesus' word to the penitent +robber, "To-day shalt thou be with me in Paradise" (xxiii. 43), and of the +prayer for his foes, that is, for the Jewish people who blindly condemned +him (xxiii. 34). The oldest manuscripts cause some doubt whether this last +saying was originally a part of the Gospel of Luke. If it was not it would +belong in the same class with the story of the sinful woman which we now +find in John, both being authentic records of the life of Jesus, though +from some other source than that in which we now find them. The fourth +gospel gives quite an independent group of sayings. It interprets the +dying cry as, "It is finished" (xix. 30), and preceding this it gives the +cry, "I thirst" (xix. 28), which led to the offering of the vinegar of +which the first two gospels speak. Earlier it tells of the committal of +Mary to the care of the beloved disciple (xix. 26, 27). Of these seven +sayings, "Eloi," "I thirst," "Father, into thy hand I commend my spirit," +and "It is finished" belong to the last hours of the life of the crucified +one, after the darkness of which the first three gospels speak had +overshadowed the land. Of the cause of that darkness they give no hint, +for Luke's expression cannot mean an eclipse, since an eclipse at Passover +<a class="newpage" name="page198" id="page198" title="198"></a>time, that is, at full moon, is an impossibility. The conjecture that +dense clouds hid the sun is common, and is as suitable as any other. +Whatever the cause, the evangelists saw in it a token of nature's awe at +the death of the Son of God. During the hours of the darkness the waves +swept over his soul, as the cry "my God" shows to our reverent thought. +But the last word of trust proves that the dying Jesus was not forsaken, +and that Calvary, like Gethsemane, was a battle won. The earlier sayings +all express Jesus' continued spirit of ministry, showing even in his +bitter pain his accustomed thoughtfulness for others' need.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s206"><p><span class="versenum">206.</span> It is futile to speculate on the cause of Jesus' early death. He +certainly suffered a much shorter time than was ordinarily the case, as +appears in the fact that at sunset it was necessary to break the legs of +the robbers so as to hasten death, Jesus having already been some time +dead. There is something attractive in the theory of Dr. Stroud (The +Physical Cause of Christ's Death) that Jesus died of rupture of the heart. +It may have been true, but the evidences on which he based his argument +are insufficient for proof. To the Jews the death of their victim did not +give all the satisfaction they desired. In the first place, Pilate +insisted on mocking them by posting over the head of Jesus the placard, +"The King of the Jews" (see John xix. 19-22); moreover, their haste had +brought the crime into close proximity to the feast which they were eager +to keep from defilement; so that they had still to beg of Pilate that he +would hasten the death of the victims, that their bodies might not remain +to desecrate the following Sabbath sanctity (John xix. 31-37); while for +those <a class="newpage" name="page199" id="page199" title="199"></a>who witnessed it the death of Jesus deepened the impression that a +hideous crime had been committed in the slaughter of an innocent man (Mark +xv. 39).</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s207"><p><span class="versenum">207.</span> Among the bystanders few of the disciples of Jesus were to be +found--they were hiding in fear. Yet some faithful women, and two +courageous councillors of Jerusalem, were bold enough to make their +loyalty known. These two men, Joseph of Arimathea and Nicodemus, were +members of the sanhedrin, but they had had no part in the condemnation of +Jesus; and after knowing that he was dead, Joseph begged of Pilate the +body, and he and Nicodemus took Jesus down from the cross and laid him in +a tomb which Joseph owned near the place of crucifixion, rendering such +tender ministries as were possible in the closing hours of the day. The +women who had witnessed his end meanwhile were arranging also to anoint +the body. They took notice where the two friends had laid him, and then +went away to rest on the Sabbath day, according to the commandment.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s208"><p><span class="versenum">208.</span> To the Jews it was a high day, the first Sabbath in the eight days of +their holy feast (John xix. 31). They had eagerly guarded their conduct +that no ceremonial defilement might prevent their sharing in the paschal +feast. They believed that they had rid their nation of a dangerous +disturber of its peace, and men whose conscience shrank not from making +God's house a house of merchandise, who would punish one who ventured to +cure a mortal disease if it chanced to cross their Sabbath traditions, who +had condemned to death the holiest man and godliest teacher the world had +ever seen because he did not square with their heartless formalism,--such +men hardly had conscience <a class="newpage" name="page200" id="page200" title="200"></a>enough to feel repentance or remorse for the +cowardly injustice and crime with which of their own choice they had +reddened their hands (Matt, xxvii. 25). They doubtless kept their feast +with satisfaction. Not a few hearts, however, were heavy with grief and +disappointed hope. They had believed that Jesus "was he that should redeem +Israel" (Luke xxiv. 21). Stunned, they could not throw away the faith +which he had kindled in their hearts. Yet he was dead, and only faintly, +if at all, did they recall his prediction of suffering and his certainty +of triumph through it all (John xx. 9). What remained for them was the +last tender ministry to their dead Lord.</p></div></div> +<div class="chapter" id="p02-09"> +<div class="outline"> +<h2><a class="newpage" name="page201" id="page201" title="201"></a> Outline of Events after the Resurrection</h2> + + +<p> <i>The day of the resurrection--Sunday</i>. The visit of the women to the + tomb--Matt. xxviii. 1-8; Mark xvi. 1-8; Luke xxiv. 1-12; John xx. 1-10.</p> + +<p> Jesus' first appearance; to Mary--Matt. xxviii. 9 10; [Mark xvi. 9-11]; + John xx. 11-18.</p> + +<p> The report of the watch--Matt. xxviii. 11-15.</p> + +<p> The appearance to Simon Peter--I. Cor. xv. 5.</p> + +<p> The walk to Emmaus--[Mark xvi 12,13]; Luke xxiv. 13-35.</p> + +<p> The appearance to the ten in the evening--[Mark xvi. 14]; Luke xxiv. + 36-43; John xx. 19-25; I. Cor. xv. 5.</p> + +<p> <i>One week later--Sunday</i>. The appearance to the eleven, with + Thomas--John xx. 26-29.</p> + +<p> <i>Later appearances</i>. To seven disciples by the sea of Galilee--John + xxi. 1-24.</p> + +<p> To a company of disciples in. Galilee--Matt, xxviii. 16-20; [Mark xvi. + 15-18]; I. Cor. xv. 6.</p> + +<p> The appearance to James--I. Cor. xv. 7.</p> + +<p> To the disciples in Jerusalem, followed by the ascension--Mark xvi. 19, + 20; Luke xxiv. 44-53; Acts i. 1-12; I. Cor. xv. 7.</p> +</div> + + + +<h2>IX</h2> + +<h3>The Resurrection</h3> + + + +<div class="section" id="s209"><p><span class="versenum">209.</span> Christianity as a historic religious movement starts from the +resurrection of Jesus from the dead. This is very clear in the preaching +and writings of Paul. The first distinctively Christian feature in his +address at Athens is his statement that God had designated <a class="newpage" name="page202" id="page202" title="202"></a>Jesus to be +the judge of men by having "raised him from the dead" (Acts xvii. 31), and +for him the resurrection was the demonstration of the divinity of Christ +(Rom. i. 4), and the confirmation of the Christian hope (I. Cor. xv.). +With him the prime qualification for an apostle was that he should have +seen the risen Lord (I. Cor. ix. 1). The early preaching as recorded in +Acts shows the same feature, for after repeated testimony to the fact that +God had raised up Jesus, Peter summed up his address with the declaration, +"Let all the house of Israel therefore know assuredly, that God hath made +him both Lord and Christ, this Jesus whom ye crucified" (Acts ii. 36). In +fact the buoyancy of hope and confidence of faith which gave to the +despised followers of the Nazarene their strength resulted directly from +the experiences of the days which followed the deep gloom that settled +over the disciples when Jesus died.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s210"><p><span class="versenum">210.</span> It can but seem strange to us that after Jesus had so often foretold +his death and the resurrection which should follow it, his disciples were +thrown into despair by the cross. Joseph of Arimathea and Nicodemus when +they embalmed his body may not have known of these teachings which Jesus +gave to the nearer circle of his followers, but it is difficult to believe +that the women who prepared their spices to anoint his body (Mark xvi. 1) +had heard nothing of these predictions, and it is certain that the +apostles who received with incredulity the first news of the resurrection +were the men whom Jesus had sought to prepare for this glorious victory. +The disciples do not seem to have finished "questioning among themselves +what the rising again from the dead should <a class="newpage" name="page203" id="page203" title="203"></a>mean" (Mark ix. 10, compare +Luke xviii. 34) until Jesus himself explained it by his return to them +after his crucifixion. It was formerly common to conclude from the +scepticism of the disciples that Jesus could not have told them, as he is +reported to have done, that he would rise again the third day. It is now +widely conceded, however, that if he foresaw and foretold his death, he +surely coupled with it a promise of resurrection, otherwise he must have +surrendered his own conviction that he was Messiah; for a Messiah taken +and held captive by death was apparently as foreign to Jesus' thought as +it was unthinkable for the men of his generation. The inability of the +disciples to adjust their Messianic ideas to the death of their Master was +not removed by the rebuke Jesus administered to Peter at Cæsarea Philippi; +their objections were only silenced. It would seem that even when they saw +his death to be inevitable, they were simply dumb with hope that in some +way he would come off victor; the cross and the tomb crushed out that +hope--at least from most of them. If one disciple, his closest friend, +recalled and believed his words when he saw the empty tomb (John xx. 8), +others were cast into still deeper sorrow by the report, and could only +say, "But we hoped that it was he which should redeem Israel" (Luke xxiv. +21).</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s211"><p><span class="versenum">211.</span> The light which banished the gloom from the hearts of Jesus' +followers dawned suddenly. There was no time for gradual readjustment of +ideas and the springing of hope from a faith which would not die. The +uniform early tradition is that Jesus showed himself alive to his +disciples "on the third day," that is, a little over thirty-six hours from +the time of his <a class="newpage" name="page204" id="page204" title="204"></a>death. Not only the gospels, but Paul, who wrote many +years before our evangelists, testify to this (I. Cor. xv. 4), as does the +very early observance of the first day of the week as "the Lord's day," +and the substitution of "the third day" for "after three days" in the +gospels which made use of our Gospel of Mark (compare parallels with Mark +viii. 81; ix. 31; x. 34, and see Holtzmann, NtTh I. 309). Of the events +which occurred on that third day and after, our earliest account is that +of Paul. He gives a simple catalogue of the appearances of the risen Lord, +referring to them as well known, in fact as the familiar subject matter of +his earliest teaching (I. Cor. xv. 4-8). He gives definite date to none of +these appearances, indicating only their sequence. He tells of six +different manifestations, beginning with an appearance to Cephas on the +third day, then to the twelve, then to a large company of +disciples,--above five hundred,--then to James, then to all the apostles. +The sixth in the list is his own experience, which he puts in the same +class with the appearances of the first Easter morning. Two of these +instances are found only in Paul's account, the appearance to James and to +the five hundred brethren, though this last may probably be the same as is +referred to in the Gospel of Matthew (xxviii. 16-20).</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s212"><p><span class="versenum">212.</span> The gospel records are much fuller, but they differ from each other +even more than they do from Paul. Mark is unhappily incomplete, for the +last twelve verses in that gospel, as we have it, are lacking in the +oldest manuscripts, and were probably written by a second-century +Christian named Aristion, as a substitute for the proper end of the gospel +which seems by some acci<a class="newpage" name="page205" id="page205" title="205"></a>dent to have been lost. These twelve verses are +clearly compiled from our other gospels. They have value as indicating the +currency of the complete tradition in the early second century, but they +contribute nothing to our knowledge of the resurrection. All, then, that +Mark tells is that the women who came early on the first day of the week +to anoint the body of Jesus found the tomb open and empty, and saw an +angel who bade them tell the disciples that the Lord had risen. How the +record originally continued no one knows, for Matthew and Luke use the +same general testimony up to the point where Mark breaks off, and then go +quite different ways. Of the two Matthew is closer to Mark than is Luke. +The first gospel adds to the record of the second an account of an +appearance of Jesus to the women as they went to report to the disciples, +and then tells of the meeting of Jesus with the disciples on a mountain in +Galilee, and his parting commission to them. It gives no account of the +ascension. Luke agrees with Mark in general concerning the visit of the +women to the tomb, the angelic vision, and the report to the disciples. He +says nothing of an appearance of Jesus to the women on their flight from +the tomb, but, if xxiv. 12 is genuine (see R.V. margin), he, like John, +tells of Peter's visit to the sepulchre.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s213"><p><span class="versenum">213.</span> Luke further reports the appearances of Jesus to two on their way to +Emmaus, to Simon, and to the eleven in Jerusalem,--this last being blended +consciously or unconsciously with the final meeting of Jesus with the +disciples before his ascension. The genuine text of the gospel (xxiv. 50) +says nothing of the ascension itself, but clearly implies it. In contrast +with Matthew it is noticeable that Luke shows no knowl<a class="newpage" name="page206" id="page206" title="206"></a>edge of any +appearance of Jesus to his disciples in Galilee. John is quite independent +of Mark, as well as of Matthew and Luke. He mentions only Mary Magdalene +in connection with the early visit to the tomb, though perhaps he implies +the presence of others with her ("we" in xx. 2). He tells of a visit of +Peter and John to the tomb, of an appearance of Jesus to Mary Magdalene, +of an appearance to ten of the disciples in the evening, and a week later +to the eleven, including Thomas. So far this gospel makes no reference to +appearances in Galilee; but in the appendix (chapter xxi.) there is added +a manifestation to seven disciples as they were fishing on the Sea of +Galilee.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s214"><p><span class="versenum">214.</span> Criticism which seeks to discredit the gospels, for instance most +recently Réville in his "Jésus de Nazareth," discovers two separate and +mutually exclusive lines of tradition,--one telling of appearances in +Galilee, represented by Mark and the last chapter in John, the other +telling of appearances in or near Jerusalem, and found in Luke and the +twentieth chapter of John. It is said that the gospels have sought to +blend the two cycles, as when Matthew tells of an appearance to the women +in Jerusalem on their way from the tomb, and when the last chapter of John +adds to the original gospel a Galilean appearance. Luke, however, who +makes no reference at all to Galilean manifestations, is taken to prove +that originally the one cycle knew nothing of the other. This theory +falls, however, before the uniform tradition of appearances on the third +day, which must have been in Jerusalem, and the very early testimony of +Paul to an appearance to above five hundred brethren at once, which could +not have been in Judea. It need not surprise us that there <a class="newpage" name="page207" id="page207" title="207"></a>should have +been two cycles of tradition, not however mutually exclusive, if Jesus did +appear both in Jerusalem and in Galilee. The same kind of local interest +which is supposed to explain the one-sidedness of the synoptic story of +the public ministry would easily account for one line of tradition which +reported Galilean appearances, and another which reported those in +Jerusalem. Luke may have had access to information which furnished him +only the Jerusalem story. John and Peter, however, must have known the +wider facts. The very divergences and seeming contradictions of the +gospels, troublesome as they are, indicate how completely certainty +regarding the fact of the resurrection removed from the thought of the +apostolic day nice carefulness concerning the testimony to individual +manifestations of the risen Lord. Doubtless the first preaching rested, as +in the case of Paul, on a simple "I have seen the Lord." When later the +detailed testimony was wanted for written gospels, it had suffered the lot +common to orally transmitted records, and divergences had sprung up which +it is no longer possible for us to resolve. They do not, however, +challenge the fact which lies behind all the varied testimony.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s215"><p><span class="versenum">215.</span> A general view of the events of that third day and those which +followed can be constructed from our gospels and Paul. Early on the first +day of the week certain women, including Mary Magdalene, Mary the mother +of James and Joses, Salome, Joanna, and others, came to anoint the body of +Jesus. On their arrival they found that the stone had been rolled back +from the tomb. Mary Magdalene saw that the grave was empty and ran to tell +Peter and John. The others saw <a class="newpage" name="page208" id="page208" title="208"></a>also a vision of angels which said that +Jesus was alive and would see his disciples in Galilee, and ran to report +this to the disciples. Meanwhile Mary Magdalene returned, following Peter +and John who ran to see the tomb, and found it empty as she had said. She +lingered after they left, and Jesus appeared to her, she mistaking him at +first for the gardener. She then went to tell the disciples that she had +seen the Lord. These events evidently occurred in the early morning. The +next incident reported is that of the walk of two disciples, not of the +twelve, to Emmaus, and the appearance of Jesus to them. At first they did +not recognize him, not even when he taught them out of the scriptures the +necessity that the Messiah should die. He was made known when at evening +he sat down with them to a familiar meal. Either before or after this +event he had shown himself to Peter. This is the first manifestation +reported by Paul. If Luke xxiv. 12 is genuine (see R.V. margin), he also +tells that when the two again reached Jerusalem the apostles received them +with the news that Peter had seen the Lord. That same evening Jesus +appeared suddenly among the disciples in their well-guarded upper room. +His coming was such that he had to convince the disciples that he was not +simply a disembodied spirit. Luke says that he did this by bidding them +handle him, and by eating part of a fish before them. According to John, +Thomas was not with the others at this first meeting with the disciples. A +week later, presumably in Jerusalem, Jesus again manifested himself to the +little company, Thomas being with them, and dispelled the doubt of that +disciple who loved too deeply to indulge a hope which might <a class="newpage" name="page209" id="page209" title="209"></a>only +disappoint. He had but to see in order to believe, and make supreme +confession of his faith. The next appearance was probably that to the +seven disciples by the Sea of Galilee, when Peter, who denied thrice, was +thrice tested concerning his love for his Lord. Then apparently followed +the meeting on the mountain reported in Matthew, which was probably the +same as the appearance to the five hundred brethren; then, probably still +in Galilee, Jesus appeared to his brother James, who from that time on was +a leader among the disciples. The next manifestation of which record is +preserved was the final one in Jerusalem, after which Jesus led his +disciples out as far as Bethany and was separated from them, henceforth to +be thought of by them as seated at the right hand of God.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s216"><p><span class="versenum">216.</span> This construction of the story as given in the New Testament does +violence to the accounts in one particular. It holds that Matthew's report +of the meeting of Jesus with the women on their way from the tomb on +Easter morning is to be identified with his meeting with Mary Magdalene. +This can be done only if it is supposed that in the transmission of the +tradition the commission given the women by the angel (Mark xvi. 6f.) +became blended with the message given to Mary by the Lord (John xx. 17), +the result being virtually the same for the religious interest of the +first Christians, while for the historic interest of our days it +constitutes a discrepancy. The difficulty is less on this supposition than +on any other. It is highly significant that the account of the most +indubitable fact in the view of the early Christians is the most difficult +portion of the gospels for the exact harmonist to deal with. This is not +of <a class="newpage" name="page210" id="page210" title="210"></a>serious moment for the historical student. It is rather a warning +against theoretical ideas of inspiration.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s217"><p><span class="versenum">217.</span> The universal acknowledgment that the early Christians firmly +believed in the resurrection of their Lord has made the origin of that +firm conviction a question of primary importance. The simple facts as set +forth in the New Testament serve abundantly to account for the faith of +the early church, but they not only involve a large recognition of the +miraculous, they also contain perplexities for those who do not stumble at +the supernatural; hence there have been many attempts to find other +solutions of the problem. Some of the explanations offered may be +dismissed with a word: for instance, those which, in one form or other, +renew the old charge found in the first gospel, that the disciples stole +the body of Jesus, and then declared that he had risen; and those which +assume that the death of Jesus was apparent only, that he fainted on the +cross, and then the chill of the night air and of the sepulchre served to +revive him, so that in the morning he was able to leave the tomb and +appear to his disciples as one risen from the dead. This apparent-death +theory involves Jesus in an ugly deception, while the theory that the +disciples or any group of them removed the body of Jesus and then gave +currency to the notion that he had risen, builds the greatest ethical and +religious movement known to history on a lie. A slightly different +explanation which was very early suggested was that the Jews themselves, +or perhaps the gardener, had the body removed, and that when Mary found +the tomb empty she let her faith conclude that his absence must be due to +his resurrection.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s218"><p><a class="newpage" name="page211" id="page211" title="211"></a><span class="versenum">218.</span> This last explanation has in recent times been revived in connection +with the so-called vision-hypothesis by Renan and Réville. Mary found the +tomb empty, and being herself of a highly strung nervous nature--she had +been cured by Jesus of seven devils--by thinking about the empty tomb she +soon worked herself into an ecstasy in which her eyes seemed to behold +what her heart desired to see. She communicated her vision to the others, +and by a sort of nervous contagion, they, too, fell to seeing visions, and +it is the report of these that we have in the gospels. The +vision-hypothesis takes with some, Strauss for instance, a different form. +These deny that the tomb was found empty at all, and regard this story as +a contribution of the later legend-making spirit. They hold that the +disciples fled from Jerusalem as soon as the death of Jesus was an assured +fact, and not until after they found themselves amid the familiar scenes +of Galilee, did their faith recover from the shock it had received in +Jerusalem. In Galilee the experiences of their life with Jesus were lived +over again, and the old confidence in him as Messiah revived. Thus +thinking about the Lord, their hearts would say, "He cannot have died," +and after a while their faith rose to the conviction which declared, "He +is not dead;" then they passed into an ecstatic mood and visions followed +which are the germ out of which the gospel stories have grown.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s219"><p><span class="versenum">219.</span> These different forms of the vision-hypothesis have been subjected to +most searching criticism by Keim, who is all the more severe because his +own thought has so much that is akin to them. There are two objections +which refute the hypothesis. The <a class="newpage" name="page212" id="page212" title="212"></a>first is that the uniform tradition +which connects the resurrection and the first appearances with the "third +day" after the crucifixion leaves far too short a time for the recovery of +faith and the growth of ecstatic feeling which are requisite for these +visions, even supposing that the disciples' faith had such recuperative +powers. The second is that once such an ecstatic mood was acquired it +would be according to experience in analogous cases for the visions to +continue, if not to increase, as the thought of the risen Lord grew more +clear and familiar; yet the tradition is uniform that the appearances of +the risen Christ ceased after, at most, a few weeks. The only later one +was that which led to the conversion of Paul; and though Paul was a man +somewhat given to ecstatic experiences (see II. Cor. xii.), he carefully +distinguishes in his own thought his seeing of the Lord and his heavenly +visions. In a word, the disciples of Jesus never showed a more healthy, +normal life than that which gave them strength to found a church of +believers in the resurrection in the face of persecution and scorn.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s220"><p><span class="versenum">220.</span> Keim seeks to avoid the difficulties which his own acute criticism +disclosed in the ordinary vision-theory, by another which rejects the +gospel stories as legendary, yet frankly acknowledges that the faith of +the apostles in the resurrection was based on a miracle. Their certainty +was so unshakable, so uniform, so abiding, that it can be accounted for +only by acknowledging that they did actually see the Lord. This seeing, +however, was not with the eyes of sense, but with the spiritual vision, +which properly perceives what pertains to the spirit world into which the +glorified <a class="newpage" name="page213" id="page213" title="213"></a>Lord had withdrawn when he died. In his spiritual estate he +manifested himself to his disciples, by a series of divinely caused and +therefore essentially objective visions, in which he proved to them +abundantly that he was alive, was victor over death, and had been exalted +by God to his right hand. This theory is not in itself offensive to faith. +It concedes that the belief of the disciples rested on actual disclosures +of himself to them by the glorified Lord. The difficulty with the theory +is that it relegates the empty tomb to the limbo of legend, though it is a +feature of the tradition which is found in all the gospels and clearly +implied in Paul (I. Cor. xv. 4; compare Rom. vi. 4); it also fails to show +how this glorified Christ came to be thought of by the disciples as +<i>risen</i>, rather than simply glorified in spirit. This criticism brings us +back to the necessity of recognizing a resurrection which was in some real +sense corporeal, difficult as that conception is for us. The gospels +assert this with great simplicity and delicate reserve. They represent +Jesus as returning to his disciples with a body which was superior to the +limitations which hedge our lives about. It may be well described by +Paul's words, "It is sown a natural body; it is raised a spiritual body." +Yet the records indicate that when he willed Jesus could offer himself to +the perception of other senses than sight and hearing--"handle me and see" +is not an invitation that we expect from a spiritual presence. If, +however, we have to confess an unsolved mystery here, and still more in +the record of his eating in the presence of the disciples (Luke xxiv. +41-43), it is permitted us to own that our knowledge of the possible +conditions of the fully perfected <a class="newpage" name="page214" id="page214" title="214"></a>life are not such as to warrant great +dogmatism in criticising the account. The empty tomb, the objective +presence of the risen Jesus, the renewed faith of his followers, and their +new power are established data for our thought. With these, many of the +details may be left in mystery, because we have not yet light sufficient +to reveal to us all that we should like to know.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s221"><p><span class="versenum">221.</span> The ascension of the risen Christ to his Father is the presupposition +of all the New Testament teaching. The Acts, the Epistles, and the +Apocalypse join in the representation that he is now at the right hand of +God. In fact it may be said that such a view is involved in the doctrine +of the resurrection, for the very idea of that victory was that death had +no more dominion over him. It is a fact, however, that none of our gospels +in their correct text (see Luke xxiv. 51, R.V. margin) tell of the +ascension. Luke clearly implies it, and John says that Jesus told Mary to +tell the disciples that he was about to ascend to his Father and their +Father. In Luke's later book, however (Acts i. 1-11), he gives a full +a<ins>c</ins>count of a last meeting of Jesus with the disciples, and of +his ascension to heaven before their eyes. This withdrawal in the cloud +must be understood as an acted parable; for, in reality, there is no +reason for thinking that the clouds which hung over Olivet that day were +any nearer God's presence than the ground on which the disciples stood. +For them, however, such a disappearance would signify vividly the +cessation of their earthly intercourse with their Lord, and his return to +his home with the Father. The word of Jesus to Mary (John xx. 17) may +fairly be interpreted to <a class="newpage" name="page215" id="page215" title="215"></a>mean that Jesus had ascended to the Father on +the day of the resurrection, and that each of his subsequent +manifestations of himself were like that which later he granted to Paul +near Damascus. In fact it is easier to view the matter in this way than to +conceive of Jesus as sojourning in some hidden place for forty days after +his resurrection. What the disciples witnessed ten days before Pentecost +was a withdrawal similar to those which had separated him from them +frequently during the recent weeks, only now set before their eyes in such +a way as to tell them that these manifestations had reached an end; they +must henceforth wait for the other representative of God and Christ, the +Spirit, given to them at Pentecost.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s222"><p><span class="versenum">222.</span> The faith with which the disciples waited for the promised spirit was +a very different faith from that which Peter confessed for his fellows at +Cæsarea Philippi. It had the same supreme attachment to a personal friend +who had proved to be God's Anointed; the same readiness to let him lead +whithersoever he would; the same firm expectation of a restitution of all +things, in which God should set up his kingdom visibly, with Jesus as the +King of men. Now, however, their trust was much fuller than before, and +they looked for a still more glorious kingdom when their friend and Lord +should come from heaven to assume his reign. They expected Christ to +return soon in glory, yet his death and victory made them ready to endure +any persecution for him, certain that, like the sufferings which he +endured, it would lead to victory. These disciples had no idea that in +preaching a religion of personal attachment to their Master, in filling +all men's thoughts with his name, in building <a class="newpage" name="page216" id="page216" title="216"></a>all hope on his return, and +guiding all life by his teaching and spirit, they were cutting their +moorings from the religion of their fathers. They remained loyal to the +law, they were constant in the worship; but they had poured new wine into +the bottles, and in time it proved the inadequacy of the old forms and +revolutionized the world's religious life.</p></div> +</div> +</div> + + +<div class="part" id="p03"> +<h2><a class="newpage" name="page217" id="page217" title="217"></a>Part III</h2> + +<h3>The Minister</h3> + +<p><a class="newpage" name="page218" id="page218" title="218"></a></p> + +<div class="chapter" id="p03-01"> +<h2><a class="newpage" name="page219" id="page219" title="219"></a>I</h2> + +<h3>The Friend of Men</h3> + + + +<div class="section" id="s223"><p><span class="versenum">223.</span> In nothing does the contrast between Jesus and John the Baptist +appear more clearly than in their attitude towards common social life. +John had his training and did his work apart from the homes of men. The +wilderness was his chosen and fit scene of labor. From this solitude he +sent forth his summons and warning to his people. They who sought him for +fuller teaching went after him and found him where he was. They then +returned to their homes and their work, leaving the prophet with his few +disciples in their seclusion. With Jesus it was otherwise. His first act, +after attaching to himself a few followers, was to go into Galilee to the +town of Cana, and there with them to partake in the festivities of a +wedding. While it is true that most of his teaching was by the wayside, +among the hills, or by the sea, it is still a surprise to discover how +often his ministry found its occasion as he was sitting at table in the +house of some friend, real or feigned. The genuine friendships of Jesus as +they appear in the gospels are among the most characteristic features of +his life--witness the home at Bethany, the women who followed him even to +the cross, and ministered to him of their substance, and the "beloved +disciple." Jesus calls attention to this contrast between himself and +John, reminding the people <a class="newpage" name="page220" id="page220" title="220"></a>how some of the scornful pointed the finger at +himself as "a gluttonous man and a wine-bibber, a friend of publicans and +sinners." He received his training as a carpenter while John was in his +wilderness solitude. Men who would probably have stood with admiration +before John had he visited their synagogue, found Jesus too much one of +themselves, and would none of him as a prophet (Mark vi. 2, 3).</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s224"><p><span class="versenum">224.</span> A like contrast sets Jesus apart from the scribes of his day. These +were revered by the people, in part perhaps because they held the common +folk in such contempt. Their attitude was frank--"this multitude which +knoweth not the law is accursed" (John vii. 49). The popular enthusiasm +for Jesus filled them with scorn, until it began to give them alarm. They +were glad to be reverenced by the people, to interpret the law for them +"binding heavy burdens and grievous to be borne;" but showed little +genuine interest in them. Jesus, on the other hand, not only had the +reverence of the multitudes, but welcomed them. First his words and his +works drew them, then he himself enchained their hearts. Outcasts, rich +and poor, crowded into his company, and found him not only a teacher, a +prophet of righteousness rebuking their sins and calling to repentance, +but a friend, who was not ashamed to be seen in their homes, to have them +among his closest attendants, and to be known as their champion. It was +when such as these were pressing upon him to hear him that Jesus replied +to the criticism of the scribes in the three parables of recovered +treasure which stand among the rarest gems of the Master's teaching (Luke +xv.).</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s225"><p><a class="newpage" name="page221" id="page221" title="221"></a><span class="versenum">225.</span> One class only in the community failed of his sympathy,--the +self-righteous hypocrites, who thought that godliness consisted in +scrupulous regard for pious ceremonies, and that zeal was most laudable +when directed to the removal of motes from their brothers' eyes. For these +Jesus had words of rebuke and burning scorn. It has been common with some +to emphasize his friendship for the poor as if he chose them for their +poverty, and the unlettered for their ignorance. Yet Jesus had no faster +friends than the women who followed from Galilee and ministered to him of +their substance, and the two sanhedrists, Joseph whose new tomb received +his body, and Nicodemus whose liberality provided the spices which +embalmed him; for these, and not the Galilean fishermen, were faithful to +the last at the cross and at the grave. In no home did Jesus find a fuller +or more welcome friendship than in Bethany, where all that is told us of +its conditions suggests the opposite of poverty. The rich young ruler, who +showed his too great devotion to his possessions, would hardly have sought +out Jesus with his question, if he was known as the champion of poverty as +in itself essential to godliness. The demand made of him surprised him, +and was suited to his special case. Jesus saw clearly the difficulties +which wealth puts in the way of faith, but he recognized the power of God +to overcome them, and when Zaccheus turned disciple, the demand for +complete surrender of possessions was not repeated. On the contrary Jesus +taught his disciples that even "the unrighteous mammon" should be used to +win friends (Luke xvi. 9), so ministering unto some of "the least of these +my brethren" (Matt. xxv. 40). The beatitude <a class="newpage" name="page222" id="page222" title="222"></a>in Luke's report of the +sermon on the mount (Luke vi. 20) was not for the poor as poor simply, but +for those poor folk lightly esteemed who had spiritual sense enough to +follow Jesus, while the well-to-do as a class were content with the +"consolation" already in hand. Jesus' interest was in character, wherever +it was manifest, whether in the repentance of a chief of the publicans, or +in the widow woman's gift of "all her living;" whether it appeared in the +hunger for truth shown by Nicodemus, a teacher of Israel, or in the woman +that was a sinner who washed his feet with her tears. He was the great +revealer of the worth of simple humanity, in man, woman, or child. Our +world has never seen another who so surely penetrated all masks or +disguising circumstances and found the man himself, and having found him +loved him.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s226"><p><span class="versenum">226.</span> This sympathy for simple manhood was manifested in a genuine interest +in the common life of men in business, pleasure, or trouble. It is +significant that the first exercise of his miraculous power should have +been to relieve the embarrassment of his host at a wedding feast. +Doubtless we are to understand that the miracle had a deeper purpose than +simply supplying the needed wine (John ii. 11); but the significant thing +is that Jesus should choose to manifest his glory in this way. It shows a +genuine appreciation of social life quite impossible to an ascetic like +the Baptist. The same appears in the way Jesus allowed his publican +apostle to introduce him to his former associates, to the great scandal of +the Pharisees; for a feast at which Jesus and a number of publicans were +the chief guests accorded not with religion as they understood it. Jesus, +however, seems to have found <a class="newpage" name="page223" id="page223" title="223"></a>it a welcome opportunity to seek some of his +lost sheep. The illustrations which he used in his teaching were often his +best introduction to the common heart, for they were drawn from the +occupations of the people who came to listen; while the aid Jesus gave to +his disciples in their fishing showed not only his power, but also his +respect for their work, a respect further proved when he called them to be +fishers of men.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s227"><p><span class="versenum">227.</span> Beyond this interest in life's joy and its occupations was that +unfailing sympathy with its troubles which drew the multitudes to him. He +was far more than a healer; he studied to rid the people of the idea that +he was a mere miracle-monger. He healed them because he loved them, and he +asked of those who sought his help that they too should feel the personal +relation into which his power had brought them. This seems to be in part +the significance of his uniform demand for faith. Doubtless Mary, out of +whom he had cast seven devils, and Simon the leper, who seems to have +experienced his power to heal, are only single instances of many who found +in him far more than at first they sought. No further record remains of +the paralytic who carried off his bed, but left the burden of his sins +behind, nor of the woman who loved much because she had been forgiven +much, nor of the Samaritan whose life he uncovered that he might be able +to give her the living water. Some who had his help for body or heart may +have gone away forgetful, after the fashion of men, but in the company of +those who were bold to bear his name after his resurrection there must +have been many who could not forget.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s228"><p><a class="newpage" name="page224" id="page224" title="224"></a><span class="versenum">228.</span> Jesus' interest in common life was genuine, and he entered into it +with his heart. The incident of the anointing of his feet as he sat a +guest in a Pharisee's house shows that he was keenly sensitive to the +treatment he received at the hands of men. He had nothing to say of the +slights his host had shown him, until that host began mentally to +criticise the woman who was ministering to him in her love and penitence. +Then with quiet dignity Jesus mentioned the several omissions of courtesy +which he had noticed since he came in, contrasting the woman's attention +with Simon's neglect (Luke vii. 36-50). One of the saddest things about +Gethsemane was Jesus' vain pleading with his disciples for sympathy in his +awful hour. They were too much dazed with awe and fear to lend him their +hearts' support. He recognized indeed that it was only a weakness of the +flesh; yet he craved their friendship's help, and repeatedly asked them to +watch with him, for his soul was exceeding sorrowful. In contrast with +this disappointment stands the joy with which Jesus heard from Peter the +confession which proved that the falling off of popular enthusiasm had not +shaken the loyalty of his chosen companions,--"Blessed art thou, Simon +Bar-Jonah: for flesh and blood have not revealed it unto thee, but my +Father which is in heaven" (Matt. xvi. 17). There is the sorrow of +loneliness as well as rebuke in his complaint, "O faithless generation, +how long shall I be with you? how long shall I bear with you?" (Mark ix. +19), and the lamentation over Jerusalem comes from a longing heart (Luke +xiii. 34).</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s229"><p><span class="versenum">229.</span> The independence of human sympathy which Jesus often showed is all +the more glorious for the <a class="newpage" name="page225" id="page225" title="225"></a>evidence the gospels give of his longing for +it. When he put the question to the twelve, "Would ye also go away?" (John +vi. 67), there is no hint in his manner that their defection with the rest +would turn him at all from faithfully fulfilling the task appointed to him +by his Father. In fact only now and then did he allow his own hunger to +appear. Ordinarily he showed himself as the friend longing to help, but +not seeking ministry from others; he rather sought to win his disciples to +unselfishness by showing as well as saying that he came not to be +ministered unto but to minister. He washed the feet of his disciples to +rebuke their petty jealousies, but we have no hint that he showed that he +felt personal neglect. His own heart was full of "sorrow even unto death," +but his word was, "Let not your heart be troubled;" he asked in vain for +the sympathy of his nearest friends in Gethsemane, yet when the band came +to arrest him he pleaded, "Let these, the disciples, go their way."</p></div> +</div> + + +<div class="chapter" id="p03-02"> +<h2><a class="newpage" name="page226" id="page226" title="226"></a>II</h2> + +<h3>The Teacher with Authority</h3> + + + +<div class="section" id="s230"><p><span class="versenum">230.</span> To his contemporaries Jesus was primarily a teacher. The name by +which he is oftenest named in the gospels is Teacher,--translated Master +in the English versions and the equivalent of Rabbi in the language used +by Jesus (John i. 38). People thought of him as a rabbi approved of God by +his power to work miracles (John iii. 2), but it was not the miracles that +most impressed them. The popular comment was, "He taught them as one +having authority, and not as the scribes" (Matt. vii. 29). Two leading +characteristics of the scribes were their pride of learning, and their +bondage to tradition. In fact the learning of which they were proud was +knowledge of the body of tradition on whose sanctity they insisted; their +teaching was scholastic and pedantic, an endless citing of precedents and +discussion of trifles. To all this Jesus presented a refreshing contrast. +In commending truth to the people, he was content with a simple "verily," +and in defining duty he rested on his unsupported "I say unto you," even +when his dictum stood opposed to that which had been said to them of old +time.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s231"><p><span class="versenum">231.</span> In this freedom from the bondage of tradition Jesus was not alone. +John the Baptist's message had been as simple and unsupported by appeal to +the elders. <a class="newpage" name="page227" id="page227" title="227"></a>Jesus and John both revived the method of the older prophets, +and it is in large measure due to this that the people distinguished them +clearly from their ordinary teachers, and held them both to be prophets. +One thing involved in this authoritative method was a frank appeal to the +conscience of men. So completely had the scribes substituted memory of +tradition for appeal to the simple sense of right, that they were utterly +dazed when Jesus undertook to settle questions of Sabbath observance and +ceremonial cleanliness by asking his hearers to use their religious common +sense, and consider whether a man is not much better than a sheep, or +whether a man is not defiled rather by what comes out of his mouth than by +what enters into it (Matt. xii. 12; Mark vii. 15). Jesus was for his +generation the great discoverer of the conscience, and for all time the +champion of its dignity against finespun theory and traditional practice. +All his teaching has this quality in greater or less degree. It appears +when by means of the parable of the Good Samaritan he makes the lawyer +answer his own question (Luke x. 25-37), when he bids the multitude in +Jerusalem "judge not according to the appearance, but judge righteous +judgment" (John vii. 24), when he asks his inquisitors in the temple whose +image and superscription the coin they used in common business bears (Mark +xii. 16). His whole work in Galilee was proof of his confidence that in +earnest souls the conscience would be his ally, and that he could impress +himself on them far more indelibly than any sign from heaven could enforce +his claim.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s232"><p><span class="versenum">232.</span> Jesus was not only independent of the traditions of the scribes, he +was also very free at times with <a class="newpage" name="page228" id="page228" title="228"></a>the letter of the Old Testament. When by +a word he "made all meats clean" (Mark vii. 19), he set himself against +the permanent validity of the Levitical ritual. When the Pharisees pleaded +Moses for their authority in the matter of divorce, Jesus referred them +back of Moses to the original constitution of mankind (Matt. xix. 3-9). +His general attitude to the Sabbath was not only opposed to the traditions +of the scribes, it also disregarded the Old Testament conception of the +Sabbath as an institution. Yet Jesus took pains to declare that he came +not to set aside the old but to fulfil it (Matt. v. 17). The contrasts +which he draws between things said to them of old and his new teachings +(Matt. v. 21-48) look at first much like a doing away of the old. Jesus +did not so conceive them. He rather thought of them as fresh statements of +the idea which underlay the old; they fulfilled the old by realizing more +fully that which it had set before an earlier generation. He was the most +radical teacher the men of his day could conceive, but his work was +clearing rubbish away from the roots of venerable truth that it might bear +fruit, rather than rooting up the old to put something else in its place.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s233"><p><span class="versenum">233.</span> The Old Testament was for Jesus a holy book. His mind was filled with +its stories and its language. In the teachings which have been preserved +for us he has made use of writings from all parts of the Jewish +scriptures--Law, Prophets, and Psalms. The Old Testament furnished him the +weapons for his own soul's struggle with temptation (Matt. iv. 4, 7, 10), +it gave him arguments for use against his opponents (Mark xii. 24-27; ii. +25-27), and it was for him an inexhaustible storehouse of <a class="newpage" name="page229" id="page229" title="229"></a>illustration in +his teaching. When inquirers sought the way of life he pointed them to the +scriptures (Mark x. 19; see also John v. 39), and declared that the rising +of one from the dead would not avail for the warning of those who were +unmoved by Moses and the prophets (Luke xvi. 31). When Jesus' personal +attitude to the Old Testament is considered it is noticeable that while +his quotations and allusions cover a wide range, and show very general +familiarity with the whole book, there appears a decided predominance of +Deuteronomy, the last part of Isaiah, and the Psalms. It is not difficult +to see that these books are closer in spirit to his own thought than much +else in the old writings; his use of the scripture shows that some parts +appealed to him more than others.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s234"><p><span class="versenum">234.</span> Jesus as a teacher was popular and practical rather than systematic +and theoretical. The freshness of his ideas is proof that he was not +lacking in thorough and orderly thinking, for his complete departure from +current conceptions of the kingdom of God indicates perfect mastery of +ethical and theological truth. It is all the more remarkable, therefore, +that so much of his profoundest teaching seems to have been almost +accidental. The most formal discourse preserved to us is the sermon on the +mount, in which human conduct is regulated by the thought of God as Father +and Searcher of hearts. For the rest the great ideas of Jesus have +utterance in response to specific conditions presented to him in his +ministry. His most radical sayings concerning the Sabbath followed a +criticism of his disciples for plucking ears of grain as they passed +through the fields on the Sabbath day (Mark ii. 23-28); his authority to +forgive sins was announced when a paralytic <a class="newpage" name="page230" id="page230" title="230"></a>was brought to him for +healing (Mark ii. 1-12); so far as the gospels indicate, we should have +missed Jesus' clearest statement of the significance of his own death but +for the ambitious request of James and John (Mark x. 35-45). Examples of +the occasional character of his teaching might be greatly multiplied. He +did not seek to be the founder of a school; important as his teachings +were, they take a place in his work second to his personal influence on +his followers. He desired to win disciples whose faith in him would +withstand all shocks, rather than to train experts who would pass on his +ideas to others. His disciples did become experts, for we owe to them the +vivid presentation we have of the exalted and unique teaching of their +Master; but they were thus skilful because they surrendered themselves to +his personal mastery, and learned to know the springs of his own life and +thought.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s235"><p><span class="versenum">235.</span> Nothing in the teaching of Jesus is more remarkable than his +confidence that men who believed in him would adequately represent him and +his message to the world. The parable of the Leaven seems to have set +forth his own method. We owe our gospels to no injunction given by him to +write down what he said and did. He impressed himself on his followers, +filled them with a love to himself which made them sensitive to his ideas +as a photographic plate is to light, teaching them his truth in forms that +did not at first show any effect on their thought, but were developed into +strength and clearness by the experiences of the passing years. Christian +ethics and theology are far more than an orderly presentation of the +teaching of Jesus; in so far as they are purely Christian they are the +systematic setting forth of truth involved, <a class="newpage" name="page231" id="page231" title="231"></a>though not expressed, in what +he said and did in his ministry among men. His ideas were radical and +thoroughly revolutionary. His method, however, had in it all the patience +of God's working in nature, and the hidden noiseless power of an evolution +is its characteristic. Hence it was that he chose to teach some things +exclusively in figure. So great and unfamiliar a truth as the gradual +development of God's kingdom was unwelcome to the thought of his time. He +made it, therefore, the theme of many of his parables; and although the +disciples did not understand what he meant, the picture remained with +them, and in after years they grew up to his idea.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s236"><p><span class="versenum">236.</span> Jesus' use of illustration is one of the most marked features of his +teaching. In one sense this simply proves him to be a genuine Oriental, +for to contemplate and present abstract truths in concrete form is +characteristic of the Semitic mind. In the case of Jesus, however, it +proves more: the variety and homeliness of his illustrations show how +completely conversant he was alike with common life and with spiritual +truth. There is a freedom and ease about his use of figurative language +which suggests, as nothing else could, his own clear certainty concerning +the things of which he spoke. The fact, too, that his mind dealt so +naturally with the highest thoughts has made his illustrations unique for +profound truth and simple beauty. Nearly the whole range of figurative +speech is represented in his recorded words, including forms like irony +and hyperbole, often held to be unnatural to such serious speech as his.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s237"><p><span class="versenum">237.</span> Another figure has become almost identified with the name of +Jesus,--such abundant and incom<a class="newpage" name="page232" id="page232" title="232"></a>parable use did he make of it. Parable +was, however, no invention of his, for the rabbis of his own and later +times, as well as the sages and prophets who went before them, made use of +it. As distinguished from other forms of illustration, the parable is a +picture true to actual human life, used to enforce a religious truth. The +picture may be drawn in detail, as in the story of the Lost Son (Luke xv. +11-32), or it may be the concisest narration possible, as in the parable +of the Leaven (Matt. xiii. 33); but it always retains its character as a +narrative true to human experience. It is this that gives parable the +peculiar value it has for religious teaching, since it brings unfamiliar +truth close home to every-day life. Like all the illustrations used by +Jesus, the parable was ordinarily chosen as a means of making clear the +spiritual truth which he was presenting. Illustration never finds place as +mere ornament in his addresses. His parables, however, were sometimes used +to baffle the unteachable and critical. Such was the case on the occasion +in Jesus' life when attention is first called in the gospels to this mode +of teaching (Mark iv. 1-34). The parable of the Sower would mean little to +hearers who held the crude and material ideas of the kingdom which +prevailed among Jesus' contemporaries. It was used as an invitation to +consider a great truth, and for teachable disciples was full of suggestion +and meaning; while for the critical curiosity of unfriendly hearers it was +only a pointless story,--a means adopted by Jesus to save his pearls from +being trampled under foot, and perhaps also to prevent too early a +decision against him on the part of his opponents.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s238"><p><span class="versenum">238.</span> In nothing is Jesus' ease in handling deepest <a class="newpage" name="page233" id="page233" title="233"></a>truth more apparent +than in his use of irony and hyperbole in his illustrations. In his +reference to the Pharisees as "ninety and nine just persons which need no +repentance" (Luke xv. 7), and in his question, "Many good works have I +shewed you from the Father, for which of these works do you stone me?" +(John x. 32), the irony is plain, but not any plainer than the rhetorical +exaggeration of his accusation against the scribes, "You strain out a gnat +and swallow a camel" (Matt, xxiii. 24), or his declaration that "it is +easier for a camel to go through a needle's eye than for a rich man to +enter into the kingdom of God" (Mark x. 25), or his charge, "If a man +cometh unto me and hateth not his own father and mother ... he cannot be +my disciple" (Luke xiv. 26). The force of these statements is in their +hyperbole. Only to an interpretation which regards the letter above the +spirit can they cause difficulty. In so far as they remove Jesus utterly +from the pedantic carefulness for words which marked the scribes they are +among the rare treasures of his teachings. The simple spirit will not busy +itself about finding something that may be called a needle's eye through +which a camel can pass by squeezing, nor will it seek a camel which could +conceivably be swallowed, nor will it stumble at a seeming command to hate +those for whom God's law, as emphasized indeed by Jesus (Mark vii. 6-13), +demands peculiar love and honor. The childlike spirit which is heir of +God's kingdom readily understands this warning against the snare of +riches, this rebuke of the hypocritical life, and this demand for a love +for the Master which shall take the first place in the heart.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s239"><p><span class="versenum">239.</span> Jesus sometimes used object lessons as well as <a class="newpage" name="page234" id="page234" title="234"></a>illustrations, and +for the same purpose,--to make his thought transparently clear to his +hearers. The demand for a childlike faith in order to enter the kingdom of +God was enforced by the presence of a little child whom Jesus set in the +midst of the circle to whom he was talking (Mark ix. 35-37). The unworthy +ambitions of the disciples were rebuked by Jesus' taking himself the +menial place and washing their feet (John xiii. 1-15).</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s240"><p><span class="versenum">240.</span> The simplicity and homeliness of Jesus' teaching are not more +remarkable than the alertness of mind which he showed on all occasions. +The comment of the fourth gospel, "he needed not that any one should bear +witness concerning man, for he himself knew what was in man" (ii. 25), +doubtless refers to his supernatural insight, but it also tells of his +quick perception of what was involved in each situation in which he found +himself. Whether it was Nicodemus coming to him by night, or the lawyer +asking, "Who is my neighbor?" or a dissatisfied heir demanding that his +brother divide the inheritance with him, or a group of Pharisees seeking +to undermine his power by attributing his cures to the devil, or trying to +entrap him by a question about tribute, Jesus was never caught unawares. +His absorption in heavenly truth was not accompanied by any blindness to +earthly facts. He knew what the men of his day were thinking about, what +they hoped for, to what follies they gave their hearts, and what sins hid +God from them. He was eminently a man of the people, thoroughly acquainted +with all that interested his fellows, and in the most natural, human way. +Whatever of the supernatural there was in his knowledge did not make it +unnatural. <a class="newpage" name="page235" id="page235" title="235"></a>As he was socially at ease with the best and most cultivated +of his day, so he was intellectually the master of every situation. This +appears nowhere more strikingly than in his dealing with his pharisaic +critics. When they were shocked by his forgiveness of sins, or offended by +his indifference to the Sabbath tradition, or goaded into blasphemy by his +growing influence over the people, or troubled by his disciples' disregard +of the traditional washings, or when later they conspired to entrap him in +his speech,--from first to last he was so manifestly superior to his +opponents that they withdrew discomfited, until at length they in madness +killed, without reason, him against whom they could find no adequate +charge. His lack of "learning" (John vii. 15) was simply his innocence of +rabbinic training; he had no diploma from their schools. In keenness of +argument, however, and invincibleness of reasoning, as well as in the +clearness of his insight, he was ever their unapproachable superior. His +reply to the charge of league with Beelzebub is as merciless an exposure +of feeble malice as can be found in human literature. He was as worthy to +be Master of his disciples' thinking as he was to be Lord of their hearts.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s241"><p><span class="versenum">241.</span> In the teaching of Jesus two topics have the leading place,--the +Kingdom of God, and Himself. His thought about himself calls for separate +consideration, but it may be remarked here that as his ministry progressed +he spoke with increasing frankness about his own claims. It became more +and more apparent that he sought to be Lord rather than Teacher simply, +and to impress men with himself rather than with his ideas. Yet his ideas +were constantly urged on his disciples, and they were summed up in his +conception <a class="newpage" name="page236" id="page236" title="236"></a>of the kingdom of God, or the kingdom of heaven. This was the +topic, directly or indirectly, of far the greater part of his teaching. +The phrase was as familiar to his contemporaries as it is common in his +words; but his understanding of it was radically different from theirs. He +and they took it to mean the realization on earth of heavenly conditions +(kingdom of heaven), or of God's actual sovereignty over the world +(kingdom of God); but of the God whose will was thus to be realized they +conceived quite differently. Strictly speaking there is nothing novel in +the idea of God as Father which abounds in the teaching of Jesus. He never +offers it as novel, but takes it for granted that his hearers are familiar +with the name. It appears in some earlier writers both in and out of the +Old Testament. Yet no one of them uses it as constantly, as naturally, and +as confidently as did Jesus. With him it was the simple equivalent of his +idea of God, and it was central for his personal religious life as well as +for his teaching. "My Father" always lies back of references in his +teaching to "your Father." This is the key to what is novel in Jesus' idea +of the kingdom of God. His contemporaries thought of God as the covenant +king of Israel who would in his own time make good his promises, rid his +people of their foes, set them on high among the nations, establish his +law in their hearts, and rule over them as their king. The whole +conception, while in a real sense religious, was concerned more with the +nation than with individuals, and looked rather for temporal blessings +than for spiritual good. With Jesus the kingdom is the realization of +God's fatherly sway over the hearts of his children. It begins when men +come to own God as their Father, and <a class="newpage" name="page237" id="page237" title="237"></a>seek to do his will for the love +they bear him. It shows development towards its full manifestation when +men as children of God look on each other as brothers, and govern conduct +by love which will no more limit itself to friends than God shuts off his +sunlight from sinners. From this love to God and men it will grow into a +new order of things in which God's will shall be done as it is in heaven, +even as from the little leaven the whole lump is leavened. Jesus did not +set aside the idea of a judgment, but while his fellows commonly made it +the inauguration, he made it the consummation of the kingdom; they thought +of it as the day of confusion for apostates and Gentiles, he taught that +it would be the day of condemnation of all unbrotherliness (Matt. xxv. +31-46). This central idea--a new order of life in which men have come to +love and obey God as their Father, and to love and live for men as their +brothers--attaches to itself naturally all the various phases of the +teaching of Jesus, including his emphasis on himself; for he made that +emphasis in order that, as the Way, the Truth, and the Life, he might lead +men unto the Father.</p></div> +</div> + + +<div class="chapter" id="p03-03"> +<h2><a class="newpage" name="page238" id="page238" title="238"></a>III</h2> + +<h3>Jesus' Knowledge of Truth</h3> + + + +<div class="section" id="s242"><p><span class="versenum">242.</span> The note of authority in the teaching of Jesus is evidence of his own +clear knowledge of the things of which he spoke. As if by swift intuition, +his mind penetrated to the heart of things. In the scriptures he saw the +underlying truth which should stand till heaven and earth shall pass +(Matt. v. 18); in the ceremonies of his people's religion he saw so +clearly the spiritual significance that he did not hesitate to sacrifice +the passing form (Mark vii. 14-23); such a theological development as the +pharisaic doctrine of the resurrection he unhesitatingly adopted because +he saw that it was based on the ultimate significance of the soul's +fellowship with God (Mark xiii. 24-27); he reduced religion and ethics to +simplicity by summing up all commandments in one,--Thou shalt love (Matt. +xxii. 37-40); and at the same time insisted as no other prophet had done +on the finality of conduct and the necessity of obedience (Matt. vii. +21-27). His penetration to the heart of an idea was nowhere more clear +than in his doctrine of the kingdom of God as realized in the filial soul, +and as involving a judgment which should take cognizance only of +brotherliness of conduct. It would not be difficult to show that all these +different aspects of his teaching grew naturally out of <a class="newpage" name="page239" id="page239" title="239"></a>his knowledge of +God as his Father and the Father of all men; they were the fruit, +therefore, of personal certainty of ultimate and all-dominating truth.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s243"><p><span class="versenum">243.</span> If the knowledge of Jesus had been shown only in matters of spiritual +truth, it would still have marked him as one apart from ordinary men. +There were other directions, however, in which he surpassed the common +mind. The fourth gospel declares that "he knew what was in man" (ii. 25), +and all the evangelists give evidence of such knowledge. Not only the +designation of Judas as the traitor, and of Peter as the one who should +deny him, before their weakness and sin had shown themselves, but also +Jesus' quick reading of the heart of the paralytic who was brought to him +for healing, and of the woman who washed his feet with her tears (Mark ii. +5; Luke vii. 47), and his knowledge of the character of Simon and +Nathanael (John i. 42, 47,) as well as his sure perception of the intent +of the various questioners whom he met, indicate that he had powers of +insight unshared by his fellow men.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s244"><p><span class="versenum">244.</span> Furthermore, the gospels state explicitly that Jesus predicted his +own death from a time at least six months before the end (Matt. xvi. 21), +and they indicate that the idea was not new to him when he first +communicated it to his disciples (Matt. xvi. 23; Mark ii. 20). He viewed +his approaching death, moreover, as a necessity (Mark viii. 31-33), yet he +was no fatalist concerning it. He could still in Gethsemane plead with his +Father, to whom all things are possible, to open to him some other way of +accomplishing his work (Mark xiv. 36). The old Testament picture of the +suffering and dying servant of Jehovah (Isa. liii.) <a class="newpage" name="page240" id="page240" title="240"></a>was doubtless +familiar to Jesus. Although it was not interpreted Messianically by the +scribes, Jesus probably applied it to himself when thinking of his death; +yet the predictions of the prophets always provided for a non-fulfilment +in case Israel should turn unto the Lord in truth (see Ezek. xxxiii. +10-20). Moreover, the contradiction which Jesus felt between his ideas and +those cherished by the leaders of his people, whether priests or scribes, +was so radical that his death might well seem inevitable; yet it was +possible that his people might repent, and Jerusalem consent to accept him +as God's anointed. Neither prophecy, nor the actual conditions of his +life, therefore, would give Jesus any fatalistic certainty of his coming +death. In Gethsemane his heart pleaded against it, while his will bowed +still to God in perfect loyalty. It is not for us to explain his +prediction of death by appealing to the connection which the apostolic +thought established between the death of Christ and the salvation of men, +for we are not competent to say that God could not have effected +redemption in some other way if the repentance of the Jews had, humanly +speaking, removed from Jesus the necessity of death. All that can be said +is that he knew the prophetic picture, knew also the hardness of heart +which had taken possession of the Jews, and knew that he must not swerve +from his course of obedience to what he saw to be God's will for him. +Since that obedience brought him into fatal opposition to human prejudice +and passion, he saw that he must die, and that such a death was one of the +steps in his establishment of God's kingdom among men. So he went on his +way ready "not to be ministered unto but to <a class="newpage" name="page241" id="page241" title="241"></a>minister, and to give his +life a ransom for many" (Mark x. 45).</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s245"><p><span class="versenum">245.</span> With his prediction of his death the gospels usually associate a +prophecy of his speedy resurrection. As has been already remarked (sect. +210), it is being generally recognized that if Jesus believed that he was +the Messiah, he must have associated with the thought of death that of +victory over death, which for all Jewish minds meant a resurrection from +the dead. Jesus certainly taught that his death was part of his Messianic +work, it could not therefore be his end. The prediction of the +resurrection is the necessary corollary of his expectation of death; and +it may reverently be believed that his knowledge of it was intimately +involved with his certainty that it was as Messiah that he was to die.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s246"><p><span class="versenum">246.</span> From the time when he began to tell his disciples that he must die, +Jesus began also to teach that his earthly ministry was not to finish his +work, but that he should return in glory from heaven to realize fully all +that was involved in the idea of God's kingdom. His predictions resemble +in form the representations found in the Book of Daniel and the Book of +Enoch; and the understanding of them is involved in difficulties like +those which beset such apocalyptic writings. In general, apocalypses were +written in times of great distress for God's people, and represented the +deliverance which should usher in God's kingdom as near at hand. One +feature of them is a complete lack of perspective in the picture of the +future. It may be that this fact will in part account for one great +perplexity in the apocalyptic sayings of Jesus. In the chief of these +(Mark xiii. and parallels), <a class="newpage" name="page242" id="page242" title="242"></a>predictions of the destruction of Jerusalem +are so mingled with promises of his own second coming and the end of all +things that many have sought to resolve the difficulty by separating the +discourse into two different ones,--one a short Jewish apocalypse +predicting the destruction of Jerusalem and the coming of the Son of Man +within the life of that generation; the other, Jesus' own prediction of +the end of all things, concerning which he warns his disciples that they +be not deceived, but watch diligently and patiently for God's full +salvation. The difficulties of this discourse as it stands are so great +that any solution which accounts for all the facts must be welcomed. So +far as this analysis seeks to remove from the account of Jesus' own words +the references to a fulfilment of the predictions within the life of that +generation, it is confronted by other sayings of Jesus (Mark ix. 1) and by +the problem of the uniform belief of the apostolic age that he would +speedily return. That belief must have had some ground. What more natural +than that words of Jesus, rightly or wrongly understood, led to the common +Christian expectation? Some such analysis may yet establish itself as the +true solution of the difficulties; it may be, however, that in adopting +the apocalyptic form of discourse, Jesus also adopted its lack of +perspective, and spoke coincidently of future events in the progress of +the kingdom, which, in their complete realization at least, were widely +separated in time. In such a case it would not be strange if the disciples +looked for the fulfilment of all of the predictions within the limit +assigned for the accomplishment of some of them.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s247"><p><span class="versenum">247.</span> Whatever the explanation of these difficulties, <a class="newpage" name="page243" id="page243" title="243"></a>the gospels clearly +represent Jesus as predicting his own return in glory to establish his +kingdom,--a crowning evidence of his claim to supernatural knowledge. It +is all the more significant, therefore, that it is in connection with his +prediction of his future coming that he made the most definite declaration +of his own ignorance: "Of that day or that hour knoweth no one, not even +the angels in heaven, neither the Son, but the Father" (Mark xiii. 32). +This confession of the limitation of his knowledge is conclusive. Yet it +is not isolated. With his undoubted power to read "what was in man," he +was not independent of ordinary ways of learning facts. When the woman was +healed who touched the hem of his garment, Jesus knew that his power had +been exercised, but he discovered the object of his healing by asking, +"Who touched me?" and calling the woman out from the crowd to acknowledge +her blessing (Mark v. 30-34); when the centurion urged Jesus to heal his +boy without taking the trouble to come to his house, Jesus "marvelled" at +his faith (Matt. viii. 10); when he came to Bethany, assured of his +Father's answer to his prayer for the raising of Lazarus, he asked as +simply as any other one in the company, "Where have ye laid him?" (John +xi. 34). It should not be forgotten that his knowledge of approaching +death, resurrection, and return in glory did not prevent the earnest +pleading in Gethsemane, and it may be that his reply to the ambition of +James and John, it "is not mine to give" (Mark x. 40), is a confession of +ignorance as well as subordination to his Father.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s248"><p><span class="versenum">248.</span> The supernatural knowledge of Jesus, so far as its exercise is +apparent in the gospels, was concerned with the truths intimately related +to his reli<a class="newpage" name="page244" id="page244" title="244"></a>gious teaching or his Messianic work. There is no evidence +that it occupied itself at all with facts of nature or of history +discovered by others at a later day. When he says of God that "he maketh +his sun to rise on the evil and the good" (Matt. v. 45), there is no +evidence that he thought of the earth and its relation to the sun +differently from his contemporaries; it is probable that his thought +anticipated Galileo's discovery no more than do his words. Much the same +may be said with reference to the purely literary or historical questions +of Old Testament criticism, now so much discussed. If it is proved by just +interpretation of all the facts that the Pentateuch is only in an ideal +sense to be attributed to Moses, and that many of the psalms inscribed +with his name cannot have been written by David, the propriety of Jesus' +references to what "Moses said" (Mark vii. 10), and the validity of his +argument for the relative unimportance of the Davidic descent of the +Messiah, will not suffer. Had Jesus had in mind the ultimate facts +concerning the literary structure of the Pentateuch, he could not have +hoped to hold the attention of his hearers upon the religious teaching he +was seeking to enforce, unless he referred to the early books of the Old +Testament as written by Moses. Jesus did repeatedly go back of Moses to +more primitive origins (Mark x. 5, 6; John vii. 22); yet there is no +likelihood that the literary question was ever present in his thinking. +This phase of his intellectual life, like that which concerned his +knowledge of the natural universe, was in all probability one of the +points in which he was made like unto his brethren, sharing, as matter of +course, their views on questions that were indif<a class="newpage" name="page245" id="page245" title="245"></a>ferent for the spiritual +mission he came to fulfil. If this was the case, his argument from the one +hundred and tenth Psalm (Mark xii. 35-37) would simply give evidence that +he accepted the views of his time concerning the Psalm, and proceeded to +use it to correct other views of his time concerning what was of most +importance in the doctrine of the Messiah. The last of these was of vital +importance for his teaching; the first was for this teaching quite as +indifferent a matter as the relations of the earth and the sun in the +solar system.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s249"><p><span class="versenum">249.</span> A more perplexing difficulty arises from his handling of the cases of +so-called demoniac possession. He certainly treated these invalids as if +they were actually under the control of demons: he rebuked, banished, gave +commands to the demons, and in this way wrought his cures upon the +possessed. It has already been remarked that the symptoms shown in the +cases cured by Jesus can be duplicated from cases of hysteria, epilepsy, +or insanity, which have come under modern medical examination. Three +questions then arise concerning his treatment of the possessed. 1. Did he +unquestioningly share the interpretation which his contemporaries put upon +the symptoms, and simply bring relief by his miraculous power? 2. Did he +know that those whom he healed were not afflicted by evil spirits, and +accommodate himself in his cures to their notions? 3. Does he prove by his +treatment that the unfortunates actually were being tormented by +diabolical agencies, which he banished by his word? The last of these +possibilities should not be held to be impossible until much more is known +than we now know about <a class="newpage" name="page246" id="page246" title="246"></a>the mysterious phenomena of abnormal psychical +states. If this is the explanation of the maladies for Jesus' day, +however, it should be accepted also as the explanation of similar abnormal +symptoms when they appear in our modern life, for the old hypothesis of a +special activity of evil spirits at the time of the incarnation is +inadequate to account for the fact that in some quarters similar maladies +have been similarly explained from the earliest times until the present +day. If, however, he knew his people to be in error in ascribing these +afflictions to diabolical influence, he need have felt no call to correct +it. If the disease had been the direct effect of such a delusion, Jesus +would have encouraged the error by accommodating himself to the popular +notion. The idea of possession, however, was only an attempt to explain +very real distress. Jesus desired to cure, not to inform his patients. The +notion in no way interfered with his turning the thought of those he +healed towards God, the centre of help and of health. He is not open, +therefore, to the charge of having failed to free men from the thraldom of +superstition if he accommodated himself to their belief concerning +demoniac possession. His cure, and his infusion of true thoughts of God +into the heart, furnished an antidote to superstition more efficacious +than any amount of discussion of the truth or falseness of the current +explanation of the disease. On the other hand, if we are not ready to +conclude that the action of Jesus has demonstrated the validity of the +ancient explanation, we may acknowledge that it would do no violence to +his power, or dignity, or integrity, if it should be held that he did not +concern himself with an inquiry into the cause <a class="newpage" name="page247" id="page247" title="247"></a>of the disease which +presented itself to him for help, but adopted unquestioningly the +explanation held by all his contemporaries, even as he used their +language, dress, manner of life, and in one particular, at least, their +representation of the life after death (Luke xvi. 22--Abraham's bosom). +His own confession of ignorance of a large item of religious knowledge +(Mark xiii. 32) leaves open the possibility that in so minor a matter as +the explanation of a common disease he simply shared the ideas of his +time. In this case, when one so afflicted came under his treatment, he +applied his supernatural power, even as in cases of leprosy or fever, and +cured the trouble, needing no scientific knowledge of its cause. If +accommodation or ignorance led Jesus to treat these sick folk as +possessed, it does not challenge his integrity nor his trustworthiness in +all the matters which belong properly to his own peculiar work.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s250"><p><span class="versenum">250.</span> There is one incident in the gospels which favors the conclusion that +Jesus definitely adopted the current idea,--the permission granted by him +to the demons to go from the Gadarene into the herd of swine, and the +consequent drowning of the herd (Mark v. 11-13). On any theory this +incident is full of difficulty. Bernhard Weiss (LXt II. 226 ff.) holds +that Jesus accommodated himself to current views, and that the man, having +received for the possessing demons permission to go into the swine, was at +once seized by a final paroxysm, and rushed among the swine, stampeding +them so that they ran down the hillside into the sea.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s251"><p><span class="versenum">251.</span> In recent years the view has been somewhat widely advocated that his +power over demoniacs was <a class="newpage" name="page248" id="page248" title="248"></a>to Jesus himself one of the chief proofs of his +Messiahship. His words are quoted: "If I, by the Spirit of God, cast out +demons, then is the kingdom of God come upon you" (Matt. xii. 28); and "I +beheld Satan falling as lightning from heaven" (Luke x. 18). The first of +these is in the midst of an <i>ad hominem</i> reply of Jesus to the charge that +he owed his power to a league with the devil (Matt. xii. 28); and the +second was his remark when the seventy reported with joy that the demons +were subject unto them (Luke x. 18). The gospels, however, trace his +certainty of his Messiahship to quite other causes, primarily to his +knowledge of himself as God's child, then to the Voice which, coming at +the baptism, summoned him as God's beloved Son to do the work of the +Messiah. Throughout his ministry Jesus exhibits a certainty of his mission +quite independent of external evidences,--"Even if I bear witness of +myself, my witness is true; for I know whence I came and whither I go" +(John viii. 14).</p></div> +</div> + + +<div class="chapter" id="p03-04"> +<h2><a class="newpage" name="page249" id="page249" title="249"></a>IV</h2> + +<h3>Jesus' Conception of Himself</h3> + + + +<div class="section" id="s252"><p><span class="versenum">252.</span> When Jesus called forth the confession of Peter at Cæsarea Philippi +he brought into prominence the question which during the earlier stages of +the Galilean ministry he had studiously kept in the background. This is no +indication, however, that he was late in reaching a conclusion for himself +concerning his relation to the kingdom which he was preaching. From the +time of his baptism and temptation every manifestation of the inner facts +of his life shows unhesitating confidence in the reality of his call and +in his understanding of his mission. This is the case whether the fourth +gospel or the first three be appealed to for evidence. It is generally +felt that the Gospel of John presents its sharpest contrast to the +synoptic gospels in respect of the development of Jesus' self-disclosures. +A careful consideration of the first three gospels, however, shows that +the difference is not in Jesus' thought about himself.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s253"><p><span class="versenum">253.</span> The first thing which impressed the people during the ministry in +Galilee was Jesus' assumption of authority, whether in teaching or in +action (Mark i. 27; Matt. vii. 28, 29). His method of teaching +distinguished him sharply from the scribes, who were constantly appealing +to the opinion of the elders to establish the validity of their +conclusions. Jesus <a class="newpage" name="page250" id="page250" title="250"></a>taught with a simple "I say unto you." In this, +however, he differed not only from the scribes, but also from the +prophets, to whom in many ways he bore so strong a likeness. They +proclaimed their messages with the sanction of a "Thus saith the Lord;" he +did not hesitate to oppose the letter of scripture as well as the +tradition of the elders with his unsupported word (Matt. v. 38, 39; Mark +vii. 1-23). His teaching revealed his unhesitating certainty concerning +spiritual truth, and although he reverenced deeply the Jewish scriptures, +and knew that his work was the fulfilment of their promises, he used them +always as one whose superiority to God's earlier messengers was as +complete as his reverence for them. He was confident that what they +suggested of truth he was able to declare clearly; he used them as a +master does his tools.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s254"><p><span class="versenum">254.</span> More striking than Jesus' independence in his teaching is the +calmness of his self-assertion when he was opposed by pharisaic criticism +and hostility. He preferred to teach the truth of the kingdom, working his +cures in such a way that men should think about God's goodness rather than +their healer's significance. Yet coincidently with this method of his +choice he did not hesitate to reply to pharisaic opposition with +unqualified self-assertion and exalted personal claim. Even if the +conflicts which Mark has gathered together at the opening of his gospel +(ii. 1 to iii. 6) did not all occur as early as he has placed them, the +nucleus of the group belongs to the early time. Since the people greatly +reverenced his critics, he felt it unnecessary to guard against arousing +undue enthusiasm by this frank avowal of his claims. He <a class="newpage" name="page251" id="page251" title="251"></a>consequently +asserted his authority to forgive sins, his special mission to the sick in +soul whom the scribes shunned as defiling, his right to modify the +conception of Sabbath observance; even as, later, he warned his critics of +their fearful danger if they ascribed his good deeds to diabolical power +(Mark iii. 28-30), and as, after the collapse of popularity, he rebuked +them for making void the word of God by their tradition (Mark vii. 13). +His attitude to the scribes in Galilee from the beginning discloses as +definite Messianic claims as any ascribed by the fourth gospel to this +early period.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s255"><p><span class="versenum">255.</span> These facts of the independence of Jesus in his teaching and his +self-assertion in response to criticism confirm the impression that his +answer to John the Baptist (Matt. xi. 2-6) gives the key to his method in +Galilee. In John's inquiry the question of Jesus' personal relation to the +kingdom was definitely asked. The answer, "Blessed is he whosoever shall +find none occasion of stumbling in me," showed plainly that Jesus was in +no doubt in the matter, although for the time he still preferred to let +his ministry be the means of leading men to form their conclusions +concerning him. What he brought into prominence at Cæsarea Philippi, +therefore, was that which had been the familiar subject of his own +thinking from the time of his baptism.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s256"><p><span class="versenum">256.</span> In the ministry subsequent to the confession of Peter the +self-disclosures of Jesus became more frequent and clear. His predictions +of his approaching death were at the time the greatest difficulty to his +disciples; when considered in their significance for his own life, +however, they prove that his conviction of his Messiahship was as +independent of current <a class="newpage" name="page252" id="page252" title="252"></a>and inherited ideas as was his teaching concerning +the kingdom. When he came to see that death was the inevitable issue of +his work, he at once discovered in it a divine necessity; it does not seem +to have shaken in the least his certainty that he was the Messiah. +Associated with this conception of his death is the conviction which +appears in all the later teachings, that in rejecting him his people were +pronouncing their own doom. Because she would not accept him as her +deliverer, Jerusalem's "house was left unto her desolate" (Luke xiii. 35). +His sense of his supreme significance appears most clearly in some of the +later parables, such as The Marriage of the King's Son (Matt. xxii. 1-14) +and The Wicked Husbandmen (Matt. xxi. 33-44), which definitely connect the +condemnation of the chosen people with their rejection of God's Son. Two +other sayings in the first three gospels express the personal claim of +Jesus in the most exalted form,--his declaration on the return of the +seventy: "All things have been delivered unto me of my Father, and no man +knoweth who the Son is save the Father, and who the Father is save the +Son, and he to whomsoever the Son willeth to reveal him" (Luke x. 22; +Matt. xi. 27); and his confession of the limits of his own knowledge: "But +of that day and hour knoweth no one, not even the angels in heaven, +neither the Son, but the Father" (Mark xiii. 32). The confession of +ignorance, by the position given to the Son in the climax which denied +that any save the Father had a knowledge of the time of the end, is quite +as extraordinary as the claim to sole qualification to reveal the Father.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s257"><p><span class="versenum">257.</span> The similarity of these last two sayings to the <a class="newpage" name="page253" id="page253" title="253"></a>discourses in the +fourth gospel has often been remarked; the likeness is particularly close +between them and the claims of Jesus recorded in the fifth chapter of +John. It is interesting to note that in the incident which introduces the +discourse in that chapter Jesus shows that he preferred, after healing the +man at the pool, to avoid the attention of the multitudes, precisely as in +Galilee he sought to check too great popular excitement by withdrawing +from Capernaum after his first ministry there (Mark i. 35-39), and +enjoining silence on the leper who had been healed by him (Mark ii. 44). +When, however, he found himself opposed by the criticism of the Pharisees +he spoke with unhesitating self-assertion and exalted personal claim, even +as he did in like situations in Galilee. During his earlier ministry in +Judea he had not shown this reserve. The cleansing of the temple, although +it was no more than any prophet sure of his divine commission would have +done, was a bold challenge to the people to consider who he was who +ventured thus to criticise the priestly administration of God's house. In +his subsequent dealings with Nicodemus and the Samaritan woman Jesus +manifested a like readiness to draw attention to himself. From the time of +the feeding of the multitudes all four of the gospels represent him as +asserting his claims, with this difference, however, that in John it is +the rule rather than the exception to find sayings similar to the two in +which the self-assertion in the other gospels reaches its highest +expression. Although the method of Jesus varied at different times and in +different localities, yet it is evident that he stood before the people +from the first with the consciousness that he had the right to claim +<a class="newpage" name="page254" id="page254" title="254"></a>their allegiance as no one of the prophets who preceded him would have +been bold to do.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s258"><p><span class="versenum">258.</span> During the course of his ministry Jesus used of himself, or suffered +others to use with reference to him, many of the titles by which his +people were accustomed to refer to the Messiah. Thus he was named "the +Messiah" (Mark viii. 29; xiv. 61; John iv. 26); "the King of the Jews" +(Mark xv. 2; John i. 49; xviii. 33, 36, 37); "the Son of David" (Mark x. +47, 48; Matt. xv. 22; xxi. 9, 15); "the Holy One of God" (John vi. 69; +compare Mark i. 24); "the Prophet" (John vi. 14; vii. 40). It is evident +that none of these titles was common; they represent, rather, the bold +venture of more or less intelligent faith on the part of men who were +impressed by him. There are two names, however, that are more significant +of Jesus' thought about himself,--"the Son of God" and "the Son of Man."</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s259"><p><span class="versenum">259.</span> The latter of these titles is unique in the use Jesus made of it. +Excepting Stephen's speech (Acts vii. 56), it is found in the New +Testament only in the sayings of Jesus, and its precise significance is +still a subject of learned debate. The expression is found in the Old +Testament as a poetical equivalent for Man, usually with emphasis on human +frailty (Ps. viii. 4; Num. xxiii. 19; Isa. li. 12), though sometimes it +signifies special dignity (Ps. lxxx. 17). Ezekiel was regularly addressed +in his visions as Son of Man (Ezek. ii. 1 and often; see also Dan. viii. +17), probably in contrast with the divine majesty.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s260"><p><span class="versenum">260.</span> In one of Daniel's visions (vii. 1-14) the world-kingdoms which had +oppressed God's people and were to be destroyed were symbolized by beasts +<a class="newpage" name="page255" id="page255" title="255"></a>that came up out of the sea,--a winged lion, a bear, a four-headed winged +leopard, and a terrible ten-horned beast; in contrast with these the +kingdom of the saints of the Most High was represented by "one like unto a +son of man," who came with the clouds of heaven (vii. 13, 14). Here the +language is obviously poetic, and is used to suggest the unapproachable +superiority of the kingdom of heaven to the kingdoms of the world. The +expression "one like unto a son of man" is equivalent, therefore, to "one +resembling mankind." The vision in Daniel had great influence over the +author of the so-called Similitudes of Enoch (Book of Enoch, chapters +xxxvii. to lxxi.). He, however, personified the "one like unto a son of +man," and gave the title "the Son of Man" to the heavenly man who will +come at the end of all things, seated on God's throne, to judge the world. +This author used also the titles "the Elect One" and "the Righteous One" +(or "the Holy One of God"), but "the Son of Man" is the prevalent name for +the Messiah in these Similitudes.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s261"><p><span class="versenum">261.</span> The facts thus stated do not account for Jesus' use of the +expression. Many of his sayings undoubtedly suggest a development of the +Daniel vision resembling that in the Similitudes. This does not prove that +Jesus or his disciples had read these writings, though it does suggest the +possibility that they knew them. It is probable, however, that the +apocalypses gave formulated expression to thoughts that were more widely +current than those writings ever came to be. The likeness between the +language of Jesus and that found in the Similitudes may therefore prove no +more than that the Daniel vision <a class="newpage" name="page256" id="page256" title="256"></a>was more or less commonly interpreted of +a personal Messiah in Jesus' day.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s262"><p><span class="versenum">262.</span> Much of the use of the title by Jesus, however, is completely foreign +to the ideas suggested by Enoch and Daniel. Besides apocalyptic sayings +like those in Enoch (Mark viii. 38 and often), the name occurs in +predictions of his sufferings and death (Mark viii. 31 and often), and in +claims to extraordinary if not essentially divine authority (Mark ii. 10, +28 and parallels); it is also used sometimes simply as an emphatic "I" +(Matt. xi. 19 and often). Whatever relation Jesus bore to the Enoch +writings, therefore, the name "the Son of Man" as he used it was his own +creation.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s263"><p><span class="versenum">263.</span> Students of Aramaic have in recent years asserted that it was not +customary in the dialect which Jesus spoke to make distinction between +"the son of man" and "man," since the expression commonly used for "man" +would be literally translated "son of man." It is asserted, moreover, that +if our gospels be read substituting "man" for "the Son of Man" wherever it +appears, it will be found that many supposed Messianic claims become +general statements of Jesus' conception of the high prerogatives of man, +while in other places the name stands simply as an emphatic substitute for +the personal pronoun. Thus, for instance, Jesus is found to assert that +authority on earth to forgive sins belongs to man (Mark ii. 10), and, +toward the end of his course, to have taught simply that he himself must +meet with suffering (Mark viii. 31), and will come on the clouds to judge +the world (Mark viii. 38). The proportion of cases in which the general +reference is possible is, <a class="newpage" name="page257" id="page257" title="257"></a>however, very small; and even if the +equivalence of "man" and "son of man" should be established, most of the +statements of Jesus in which our gospels use the latter expression exhibit +a conception of himself which challenges attention, transcending that +which would be tolerated in any other man. The debate concerning the usage +in the language spoken by Jesus is not yet closed, however, and Dr. Gustaf +Dalman (WJ I. 191-197) has recently argued that the equivalence of the two +expressions holds only in poetic passages, precisely as it does in Hebrew, +and that our gospels represent correctly a distinction observed by Jesus +when they report him, for instance, as saying in one sentence, "the +Sabbath was made for man" (Mark ii. 27), and in the next, "the Son of Man +is lord even of the Sabbath." The antecedent probability is so great that +the dialect of Jesus' time would be capable of expressing a distinction +found in the Hebrew of the Old Testament and in the Syriac of the +second-century version of the New Testament, that Dalman's opinion carries +much weight.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s264"><p><span class="versenum">264.</span> Many of those who look for a distinct significance in the title "the +Son of Man," find in it a claim by Jesus to be the ideal or typical man, +in whom humanity has found its highest expression. It thus stands sharply +in contrast with "the Son of God," which is held to express his claim to +divinity. So understood, the titles represent truth early recognized by +the church in its thought about its Lord. Yet it must be acknowledged that +the conception "the ideal man" is too Hellenic to have been at home in the +thought of those to whom Jesus addressed his teaching. If the phrase +suggested anything more to his <a class="newpage" name="page258" id="page258" title="258"></a>hearers than the human frailty or the +human dignity of him who bore it, it probably had a Messianic meaning like +that found in the Similitudes of Enoch. A hint of this understanding of +the name appears in the perplexed question reported in John (xii. 34): "We +have heard out of the law that the Messiah abideth forever; and how sayest +thou, The Son of Man must be lifted up? who is this Son of Man?" Here the +difficulty arose because the people identified the Son of Man with the +Messiah, yet could not conceive how such a Messiah could die. In fact, if +the conception of the Son of Man which is found in Enoch had obtained any +general currency among the people, either from that book or independently +of it, it was so foreign to the earthly condition and manner of life of +the Galilean prophet, that it would not have occurred to his hearers to +treat his use of the title as a Messianic claim until after that claim had +been published in some other and more definite form. Their Son of Man was +to come with the clouds of heaven, seated on God's throne, to execute +judgment on all sinners and apostates; the Nazarene fulfilled none of +these conditions. The name, as used by Jesus, was probably always an +enigma to the people, at least until he openly declared its Messianic +significance in his reply to the high-priest's question at his trial (Mark +xiv. 62), and gave the council the ground it desired for a charge of +blasphemy against him.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s265"><p><span class="versenum">265.</span> What did this title signify to Jesus? His use of it alone can furnish +answer, and in this the variety is so great that it causes perplexity. +"The Son of Man came eating and drinking" is his description of his own +life in contrast with John the Baptist <a class="newpage" name="page259" id="page259" title="259"></a>(Matt. xi. 18, 19). "The Son of +Man hath not where to lay his head" was his reply to one over-zealous +follower (Matt. viii. 20). Unseemly rivalry among his disciples was +rebuked by the reminder that "even the Son of Man came not to be +ministered unto but to minister" (Mark x. 42-45). When it became needful +to prepare the disciples for his approaching death he taught them that +"the Son of Man must suffer many things ... and be killed, and after three +days rise again" (Mark viii. 31). On the other hand, the paralytic's cure +was made to demonstrate that "the Son of Man hath authority upon the earth +to forgive sins" (Mark ii. 10). Similarly it is the Son of Man who after +his exaltation shall come "in the glory of his Father with the holy +angels" (Mark viii. 38). In these typical cases the title expresses Jesus' +consciousness of heavenly authority as well as self-sacrificing ministry, +of coming exaltation as well as present lowliness; and the suffering and +death which were the common lot of other sons of men were appointed for +this Son of Man by a divine necessity. The name is, therefore, more than a +substitute for the personal pronoun; it expresses Jesus' consciousness of +a mission that set him apart from the rest of men.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s266"><p><span class="versenum">266.</span> We do not know how Jesus came to adopt this title. Its association +with the predictions of his coming glory shows that he knew that in him +the Daniel vision was to have fulfilment. The predictions of suffering and +death, however, are completely foreign to that apocalyptic conception, +being akin rather, as Professor Charles has suggested, to the prophecies +of the suffering servant in the Book of Isaiah (Book of Enoch, p. +314-317). Moreover, it may not be fanci<a class="newpage" name="page260" id="page260" title="260"></a>ful to find in his claims to +heavenly authority a hint of the thought of the eighth Psalm, "Thou madest +him to have dominion over the works of thy hands; thou hast put all things +under his feet" (see Dalman WJ I. 218). Although the name expresses a +consciousness of dignity, vicarious ministry, and authority, similar to +thoughts found in Daniel, Isaiah, and the Psalms, it was not deduced from +these scriptures by any synthesis of diverse ideas. It rather indicates +that Jesus in his own nature realized a synthesis which no amount of study +of scripture would ever have suggested. He drew his conception of himself +from his own self-knowledge, not from his Messianic meditations. On his +lips, then, "the Son of Man" indicates that he knew himself to be the Man +whom God had chosen to be Lord over all (compare Dalman as above). The +lowly estate which contradicted the Daniel vision prevented Jesus' hearers +from recognizing in the title a Messianic claim; for him, however, it was +the expression of the very heart of his Messianic consciousness.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s267"><p><span class="versenum">267.</span> If Jesus gave expression to his official consciousness when he used +the name "the Son of Man," the title "the Son of God" may be said to +express his more personal thought about himself. It is necessary to +distinguish between the meaning of this title to the contemporaries of +Jesus and his own conception of it. In the popular thought "the Son of +God" was the designation of that man whom God would at length raise up and +crown with dignity and power for the deliverance of his people. This +meaning followed from the Messianic interpretation of the second Psalm, in +which the theocratic king is called God's son (Ps. <a class="newpage" name="page261" id="page261" title="261"></a>ii. 7). In another +psalm, which Jesus himself quotes (John x. 34), magistrates and judges are +called "sons of the Most High" (lxxxii. 6). Another Old Testament use +casts light on this,--the designation of Israel as God's son, his +firstborn (Ex. iv. 22; Hos. i. 10), with which may be compared a +remarkable expression in the so-called Psalms of Solomon (xviii. 4), "Thy +chastisement was upon us [that is, Israel] as upon a son, firstborn, only +begotten." In all these passages that which constitutes a man the son of +God is God's choice of him for a special work, while Israel collectively +bears the title to suggest God's fatherly love for the people he had taken +for his own. The Messianic title, therefore, described not a metaphysical, +but an official or ethical, relation to God. It is certainly in this sense +that the high-priest asked Jesus "Art thou the Messiah the son of the +Blessed?" (Mark xiv. 61), and that the crowd about the cross flung their +taunts at him (Matt, xxvii. 43), and the demoniacs proclaimed their +knowledge of him (Mark iii. 11; v. 7). The name must be interpreted in +this sense also in the confession of Nathanael (John i. 49); moreover, it +was not the coupling of the names "Messiah" and "son of the living God" in +Peter's confession that gave it its great significance for Jesus. In all +of these cases there is no evidence that there has been any advance over +the theocratic significance which made the title "the Son of God" fitting +for the man chosen by God for the fulfilment of his promises.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s268"><p><span class="versenum">268.</span> The case is different with the name by which Jesus was called at his +baptism (Mark i. 11). The difference here, however, arises not from +anything in the name as used on this occasion, but from that in <a class="newpage" name="page262" id="page262" title="262"></a>Jesus +which acknowledged and accepted the title. With Jesus the consciousness +that God was his Father preceded the knowledge that as "his Son" he was to +undertake the work of the Messiah. The force of the call at the baptism is +found in the response which his own soul gave to the word "Thou art my +Son." The nature of that response is seen in his habitual reference to God +as in a peculiar sense <i>his</i> Father. The name "Father" for God was used by +him in all his teaching, and there is no evidence that he or any of his +hearers regarded it as a novelty. Psalm ciii. 13 and Isaiah lxiii. 16 +indicate that the conception was natural to Jewish thinking. The unique +feature in Jesus' usage is his careful distinction between the general +references to "your Father" and his constant personal allusions to "my +Father." Witness the reply to his mother in the temple (Luke ii. 49); his +word to Peter, "Flesh and blood hath not revealed it unto thee, but my +Father which is in heaven" (Matt. xvi. 17), his solemn warning, "Not every +one that saith unto me Lord, Lord, shall enter into the kingdom of heaven, +but he that doeth the will of my Father which is in heaven" (Matt. vii. +21), and the promise, "Every one who shall confess me before men ... him +will I also confess before my Father" (Matt. x. 32). In the fourth gospel +the same intimate reference is common: so, for example, the temple is "my +Father's house" (ii. 16), the Sabbath cure is defended because "my Father +worketh even until now" (v. 17), the cures are done "in My Father's name" +(x. 25), "I am the vine, and my Father is the husbandman" (xv. 1). This +mode of expression discloses a consciousness of unique filial relation to +God which is independent of, even as <a class="newpage" name="page263" id="page263" title="263"></a>it was antecedent to, the +consciousness of official relation.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s269"><p><span class="versenum">269.</span> The full name "the Son of God" was seldom applied by Jesus to +himself, the only recorded instances being found in the fourth gospel (v. +25; ix. 35?; x. 36; xi. 4). He frequently acquiesced in the use of the +title by others in addressing him (for example, John i. 49; Matt. xvi. 16; +xxvi. 63f.; Mark xiv. 61f.; Luke xxii. 70); but for himself he preferred +the simpler phrase "the Son." This mode of expression occurs often in +John, and is found also in the two passages, already noticed, in which the +other gospels give clearest expression to the extraordinary self-assertion +of Jesus (Matt. xi. 27; Luke x. 22; and Mark xiii. 32). In the first of +them his claim to be the only one who can adequately reveal God is founded +on the consciousness that the relation between himself and God is so +intimate that God alone adequately knows him, whom men were so ready to +set at nought, and he alone knows God. This relation, in which he and God +stand together in contrast with all other men, is expressed by the +unqualified names, "the Father" and "the Son." In the second passage Jesus +confessed the limitation of his knowledge, but again in such a way as to +set himself and God in contrast not only with men, but also with "the +angels in heaven." Such assertions as these indicate that he who, knowing +his full humanity, chose the title "the Son of Man" to express his +consciousness that he had been appointed by God to be the Messiah, was yet +aware in his inner heart that his relation to God was even closer than +that in which he stood to men.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s270"><p><span class="versenum">270.</span> There is no word in John which goes beyond <a class="newpage" name="page264" id="page264" title="264"></a>the two self-declarations +of Jesus which crown the record of the other evangelists, yet in the +fourth gospel the same claim to unique relation to God is more frequently +and frankly avowed. The most unqualified assertion of intimacy--"I and the +Father are one" (x. 30)--states what is clearly implied throughout the +gospel (so xiv. 6-11; xvi. 25; and particularly xvii. 21, "that they may +be one, even as we are one"). It has often been said, and truly, that this +claim to unity with the Father, taken by itself, signifies no more than +perfect spiritual and ethical harmony with God. Yet when the words are +considered in their connection, and more particularly when the two supreme +self-declarations in the synoptic gospels are associated with them, they +express a sense of relation to God so utterly unique, so strongly +contrasting the Father and the Son with all others, that we cannot +conceive of any other man, even the saintliest, taking like words upon his +lips.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s271"><p><span class="versenum">271.</span> These titles in which Jesus gave expression to his official and his +personal consciousness present clearly the problem which he offers to +human thought. Jesus stands before us in the gospels as a man aware of +completest kinship with his brethren, yet conscious at the same time of +standing nearer to God than he does to men.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s272"><p><span class="versenum">272.</span> It is highly significant that the gospel which records most fully the +claim of Jesus to be more closely related to God than he was to men, most +fully records also his definite acknowledgment of dependence on his +Father, and of that Father's supremacy over him and all others. "The Son +can do nothing of himself" (John v. 19), "I speak not from myself" <a class="newpage" name="page265" id="page265" title="265"></a>(xiv. +10), "my Father is greater than all" (x. 29), "the Father is greater than +I" (xiv. 28),--these confessions join with the common reference to God as +"him that sent me" (v. 30 and often) in giving voice to his own spirit of +reverence. It appears as clearly in his habitual submission to his +Father's will,--"My meat is to do the will of him that sent me, and to +accomplish his work" (John iv. 34); "I am come down from heaven, not to do +mine own will, but the will of him that sent me" (John vi. 38). This +submission reached its fulness in the prayer of Gethsemane, recorded in +the earlier gospels,--"Father, all things are possible unto thee; remove +this cup from me: howbeit not what I will, but what thou wilt" (Mark xiv. +36). Jesus was a man of prayer; not only in Gethsemane, but also +throughout his ministry he habitually sought his Father in that communion +in which the soul of man finds its light and strength for life's duty. +When he was baptized (Luke iii. 21), after the first flush of success in +Capernaum (Mark i. 35), before choosing the twelve (Luke vi. 12), before +the question at Cæsarea Philippi (Luke ix. 18), at the transfiguration +(Luke ix. 29), on the cross (Luke xxiii. 46),--at all the crises of his +life he turned to God in prayer. Moreover, prayer was his habit, for it +was after a night of prayer which has no connection with any crisis +reported for us (Luke xi. 1), that he taught his disciples the Lord's +prayer in response to their requests. The prayer beside the grave of +Lazarus (John xi. 41, 42) suggests that his miracles were often, if not +always (compare Mark ix. 29), preceded by definite prayer to God. His +habit of prayer was the natural expression of his trust in God. From the +<a class="newpage" name="page266" id="page266" title="266"></a>resistance to the temptations in the wilderness to the last cry, "Father, +into thy hands I commend my spirit," his life is an example of childlike +faith in God.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s273"><p><span class="versenum">273.</span> Yet throughout his life of obedience and trust Jesus never gave one +indication that he felt the need of penitence when he came before God. He +perceived as no one else has ever done the searching inwardness of God's +law, and demanded of men that they tolerate no lower ambition than to be +like God, yet he never breathed a sigh of conscious failure, or gave sign +that he blushed when the eternal light shone into his own soul. He was +baptized, but without confession of sin. He challenged his enemies to +convict him of sin (John viii. 46). Such a challenge might have rested on +a man's certainty that his critics did not know his inner life; but +hypocrisy has no place in the character of Jesus. The reply to the rich +young ruler, "Why callest thou me good?" (Mark x. 18), even if it was a +confession that freedom from past sin was still far less than that +absolute goodness that God alone possesses, simply sets in stronger light +his silence concerning personal failure, and his omission in all his +praying to seek forgiveness. It is probable, however, that that reply +deals not with the "good" as the "ethically perfect," but as the +"supremely beneficent," so that Jesus simply reminded the seeker after +life that God alone is the one to be approached as the Gracious and +Merciful One by sinful men (see Dalman WJ I. 277). Thus the reply becomes +a fresh expression of the reverence of Jesus, and still further emphasizes +his failure to confess his sinfulness.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s274"><p><span class="versenum">274.</span> In all this thought about himself Jesus stands <a class="newpage" name="page267" id="page267" title="267"></a>before us as a man, +conscious of his close kinship with his fellows. Like them he hungered and +thirsted and grew weary, like them he longed for friendship and for +sympathy, like them he trusted God and prayed to God and learned still to +trust when his request was denied. He stands before us also as a man +conscious of being anointed by God for the great work which all the +prophets had foretold, and of being fully equipped with authority and +power and the promise of unapproachable dignity. Of deep religious spirit +and great reverence for the scriptures of his people, he yet used these +scriptures as a master does his tools, to serve his work rather than to +instruct him in it. He drew his knowledge from within and from above, and +proclaimed his own fulfilment of the scriptures when he filled them with +new meaning. A man always devout, always at prayer, he is never seen, like +Isaiah, prostrate before the Most High, crying, "I am undone" (Isa. vi. +5). In his moments of greatest seriousness and most manifest communion +with heaven he looked to God as his nearest of kin, and felt himself a +stranger on the earth fulfilling his Father's will. He felt heaven to be +his home not simply by God's gracious promise, but by the right of +previous possession. His kinship with men was a condescension, his natural +fellowship was with God.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="s275"><p><span class="versenum">275.</span> The miracles with which the gospels have filled the record of Jesus' +life have caused perplexity to many, and they belong with other mysterious +things recorded for us in the story of the past or occurring under the +incredulous observation of our scientific generation. They all pale, +however, before the unaccountable exception presented to universal human +<a class="newpage" name="page268" id="page268" title="268"></a>experience by this Man of Nazareth. It confronts us when we think of the +unschooled Jew who, in his thought of God, rose not only above all of his +generation, but higher than all who had gone before him, or have come +after, one who built on the foundation of the past a superstructure of +religion new, and simple, and clearly heavenly. It confronts us when we +think of this Man who believed that it was given to him to establish the +kingdom that should fill the whole earth, and who had the boldness and the +faith to ignore the opposition of all the world's wisdom and of all its +enthroned power, and to fulfil his task as the woman does who hides her +leaven in the meal, content to wait for years, or millenniums, until his +truth shall conquer in the realization of God's will on earth even as it +is done in heaven. It confronts us when we consider that the Man who has +shown his brethren what obedience means, who has taught them to pray, who +has been for all these centuries the Way, the Truth, the Life, by whom +they come to God, habitually claimed without shadow of abashment or +slightest hint of conscious presumption, a nature, a relation to God, a +freedom from sin, that other men according to the measure of their +godliness would shun as blasphemy. If the personal claim was true, and not +the blind pretence of vanity, the Jesus of the gospels is the exception to +the uniform fact of human nature, but he is no longer unaccountable; and +if his claim was true, his knowledge of the absolute religion, and his +choice of the irresistible propaganda, are no less extraordinary, but they +are not unaccountable. Paul, whose life was transformed and his thinking +revolutionized by his meeting with the risen Jesus, thought on these +things <a class="newpage" name="page269" id="page269" title="269"></a>and believed that "the name which, is above every name" was his by +right of nature as well as by the reward of obedience (Phil. ii. 5-11). +John, who leaned on Jesus' breast during his earthly life, and who +meditated on the meaning of that life through a ministry of many decades, +came to believe that he whom he had seen with his eyes, heard with his +ears, handled with his hands, was, indeed, "the Word made flesh" (John i. +14), through whom the very God revealed his love to men. Through all the +perplexities of doubt, amidst all the obscurings of irrelevant +speculations, the hearts of men to-day turn to this Jesus of Nazareth as +their supreme revelation of God, and find in him "the Master of their +thinking and the Lord of their lives."</p> + +<p>"Lord, to whom shall we go? Thou hast the words of eternal life. And we +have believed and know that thou art the Holy One of God."</p></div> +<p><a class="newpage" name="page270" id="page270" title="270"></a></p> +</div></div> + + +<div id="appendix"> +<h2><a class="newpage" name="page271" id="page271" title="271"></a><a class="newpage" name="page272" id="page272" title="272"></a><a class="newpage" name="page273" id="page273" title="273"></a>Appendix</h2> + +<h3>Books of Reference on the Life of Jesus</h3> + + + +<div class="section" id="a001"><p><span class="versenum">1.</span> A concise account of the voluminous literature on this subject maybe +found at the close of the article JESUS CHRIST by Zockler in +<i>Schaff-Herzog, Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge</i>. Of the earlier of +the modern works it is well to mention David Friedrich Strauss, <i>Das Leben +Jesu</i> (2 vols. 1835), in which he sought to reduce all the gospel miracles +to myths. August Neander, <i>Das Leben Jesu Christi</i>, 1837, wrote in +opposition to the attitude taken by Strauss. Both of these works have been +translated into English. Ernst Renan, <i>Vie de Jésus</i> (1863, 16th ed. +1879), translated, <i>The Life of Jesus</i> (1863), is a charming, though often +superficial and patronizing, presentation of the subject. For vivid word +pictures of scenes in the life of Jesus his book is unsurpassed. Renan's +inability to appreciate the more serious aspects of the work of Christ +appears constantly, while his effort to discover romance in the life of +Jesus is offensive. More important than any of these is Theodor Keim, +<i>Geschichte Jesu von Nazara</i> (1867-72, 3 vols.), translated, <i>The History +of Jesus of Nazara</i> (1876-81, 6 vols.). The author rejects the fourth +gospel and holds that Matthew is the most primitive of the synoptic +gospels; he does not reject the supernatural as such, but reduces it as +much as possible by recognizing a legendary element in the gospels. When +the work is read with these peculiarities in mind, it is one of the most +stimulating and spiritually illuminating treatments of the subject.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a002"><p><span class="versenum">2.</span> Critically more trustworthy, and exegetically very valuable, is +Bernhard Weiss, <i>Das Leben Jesu</i> (3d ed. 1889, 2 vols.), translated from +the first ed., <i>The Life of Christ</i> (1883, 3 vols.). It is more helpful +for correct understanding of details than for a complete view of the Life +of Jesus. Rivalling Weiss in many ways, yet neither so exact nor so +trustworthy, though more interesting, is Willibald Beyschlag, <i>Das Leben +Jesu</i> (3d ed. 1893, 2 vols.). The most important discussion in English is +Alfred Edersheim, <i>The Life and Times of Jesus the Messiah</i> (1883 and +later editions, 2 vols.). This is valuable for its illustration of +conditions in Palestine in the time of Jesus by quotations from the +rabbinic literature. The material used is enormous, but is not always +treated with due criticism, and the book should be read with the fact in +mind that most of the rabbinic writings date from several centuries after +Christ. Schürer (see below) should be used wherever possible as a +counter-balance. Dr. Edersheim follows the gospel story in detail; his +book is, therefore, a commentary as well as a biography.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a003"><p><span class="versenum">3.</span> Albert Réville, <i>Jesus de Nazareth</i> (1897, 2 vols.), aims to bring the +work of Renan up to date, and to supply some of the lacks which are felt +in the earlier treatise. The book is pretentious and learned. In some +parts, as in the treatment of the youth of Jesus, and of the sermon on the +mount, it is helpfully suggestive. The Jesus whom the author admires, +however, is the Jesus of Galilee. The journey to Jerusalem was a sad +mistake, and the assumption of the Messianic rôle a fall from the high +ideal maintained in the teaching in Galilee. In criticism M. Réville +accepts the two document synoptic theory, and assigns the fourth gospel to +about 140 A.D. He rejects the supernatural, explaining many of the +miracles as legendary embellishments of actual events.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a004"><p><span class="versenum">4.</span> The most important treatment of the subject is the article JESUS CHRIST +by William Sanday in the <i>Hastings Bible Dictionary</i> (1899). It is of the +highest value, discussing the subject topically with great clearness and +with <a class="newpage" name="page275" id="page275" title="275"></a>a rare combination of learning and common sense. S. T. Andrews, <i>The +Life of Our Lord</i> (2d ed. 1892), is a thorough and very useful study of +the gospels, considering minutely all questions of chronology, harmony, +and geography. It presents the different views with fairness, and offers +conservative conclusions. G. H. Gilbert, <i>The Student's Life of Jesus</i> +(1896), is complete in plan and careful in treatment, while being very +concise. Dr. Gilbert faces the problems of the subject frankly, and his +treatment is scholarly and reverent. James Stalker, <i>The Life of Jesus +Christ</i> (1880), is a short work whose value lies in the good conception +which it gives of the ministry of Jesus viewed as a whole. In simplicity, +insight, and clearness the book is a classic, though now somewhat out of +date. <i>Studies in the Life of Christ</i>, by A.M. Fairbairn (1882), is of +great value for the topics considered. The title indicates that the +treatment is fragmentary. The long treatises of Farrar (1875, 2 vols.) and +Geikie (1877, 2 vols.) are useful as commentaries on the words and works +of Jesus. Farrar often interprets most helpfully the essence of an +incident, and Geikie furnishes a mass of illustrative material from +rabbinic sources, though with less criticism than even Edersheim has used. +Neither of these works, however, deals with the fundamental problems of +the composition of the gospels, nor are they satisfactory on other +perplexing questions, for example, the miraculous birth.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a005"><p><span class="versenum">5.</span> The most important accessory for the study of the life of Jesus is Emil +Schürer, <i>Geschichte des Jüdischen Volkes im Zeitalter Jesu Christi</i> (2d +ed. 1886, 1890, 2 vols. A 3d ed. of 2d part in 2 vols., 1898), translated, +<i>A History of the Jewish People in the Time of Jesus Christ</i> (1885-6, 5 +vols.). The political history of the Jews from 175 B.C. to 135 A.D., and +the intellectual and religious life of the times in which Jesus lived, +with the Jewish literature of Palestine and the dispersion, are all +treated with thoroughness and masterful learning. W. Baldensperger, <i>Das +Selbstbewusstsein Jesu im Lichte der messianischen <a class="newpage" name="page276" id="page276" title="276"></a>Hoffnungen seiner +Zeit</i> (2d ed. 1892), furnishes in the first part a survey of the Messianic +hopes of the Jews which is in many respects the most satisfactory account +that is accessible. The second part discusses the problem of Jesus' +conception of himself in a reverent and learned way. George Adam Smith, +<i>The Historical Geography of the Holy Land</i> (1894), is indispensable for +the study of the physical features of the land as they bear on its +history, and on the work of Jesus. The maps are the best that have yet +appeared.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a006"><p><span class="versenum">6.</span> Discussions of the Teaching of Jesus in works on Biblical Theology have +much that is important for the study of Jesus' life. The most significant +is H. H. Wendt, <i>Die Lehre Jesu</i> (1886, 2 vols.). The second volume has +been translated <i>The Teaching of Jesus</i> (1892, 2 vols.); the first volume +of the original work is an elaborate discussion of the sources, and has +not been done into English. Reference may be made especially to H. J. +Holtzmann, <i>Lehrbuch der Neutestamentlichen Theologie</i> (1897, 2 vols.), +and also to G. H. Gilbert, <i>The Revelation of Jesus</i> (1899). Gustaf +Dalman, <i>Die Worte Jesu</i> (1898), of which the first volume only has +appeared, is a study of the meaning of the most significant expressions +used in the gospel records of the teaching of Jesus, made with the aid of +thorough knowledge of Aramaic usage and of the language of post-canonical +Jewish literature.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a007"><p><span class="versenum">7.</span> A good synopsis or Harmony of the gospels is most useful. The best +<i>Harmony is</i> that of Stevens and Burton (1894), which exhibits the +divergencies of the parallel accounts in the gospels as faithfully as the +agreements. A good synopsis of the Greek text of the first three gospels +is Huck, <i>Synapse</i> (1892). Robinson's <i>Greek Harmony of the Gospels</i>, +edited by M. B. Biddle, using Tischendorf's text, has also valuable notes +discussing questions of harmony.</p></div> + + + +<div class="section" id="abbreviations"> +<h4><a class="newpage" name="page277" id="page277" title="277"></a>Abbreviations</h4> + + + +<table summary="Abbreviations"> +<tr><td>AndLOL</td><td> Andrews, The Life of Our Lord, 2d ed., 1892.</td></tr> +<tr><td>BaldSJ</td><td> Baldensperger, Das Selbstbewusstsein Jesu, 2d ed., 1892.</td></tr> +<tr><td>BeysLJ</td><td> Beyschlag, Das Leben Jesu, 3d ed., 2 vols., 1893.</td></tr> +<tr><td>BovonNTTh</td><td> Bovon, Théologie du Nouveau Testament, 1892.</td></tr> +<tr><td>DalmanWJ</td><td> Dalman, Die Worte Jesu, I., 1898.</td></tr> +<tr><td>EdersLJM</td><td> Edersheim, The Life and Times of Jesus the Messiah, 2 vols., + 1883.</td></tr> +<tr><td>FairbSLX</td><td> Fairbairn, Studies in the Life of Christ, 1882.</td></tr> +<tr><td>GilbertLJ</td><td> Gilbert, The Student's Life of Jesus, 1896.</td></tr> +<tr><td>GilbertRJ</td><td> Gilbert, The Revelation of Jesus, 1899.</td></tr> +<tr><td>HoltzNtTh</td><td> Holtzmann, Neutestamentliche Theologie, 2 vols., 1897.</td></tr> +<tr><td>KeimJN</td><td> Keim, The History of Jesus of Nazara, 6 vols., 1876-81.</td></tr> +<tr><td>RévilleJN</td><td> Réville, Jésus de Nazareth, 2 vols., 1897.</td></tr> +<tr><td>SandayHastBD</td><td> Sanday, the article JESUS CHRIST in the Hastings Bible + Dictionary, 1899.</td></tr> +<tr><td>SchürerJPTX</td><td> Schürer, The History of the Jewish People in the Time of + Jesus Christ, 1885-86. Division I. vols. i. and ii.; Division + II. vols. i., ii., and iii.</td></tr> +<tr><td>SmithHGHL</td><td> Smith, Historical Geography of the Holy Land, 1894.</td></tr> +<tr><td>SB</td><td> Stevens and Burton, Harmony of the Gospels, 1894.</td></tr> +<tr><td>WeissLX</td><td> Weiss, The Life of Christ, 3 vols., 1883.</td></tr> +<tr><td>WendtLJ</td><td> Wendt, Die Lehre Jesu, 2 vols., 1886.</td></tr> +<tr><td>WendtTJ</td><td> Wendt, The Teaching of Jesus, 2 vols., 1892.</td></tr> +<tr><td>EnBib</td><td> Encyclopedia Biblica, 1899.</td></tr> +<tr><td>HastBD</td><td> Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible, 1898.</td></tr> +<tr><td>SBD<sup>2</sup></td><td> Smith's Dictionary of the Bible, revision of the first volume + of the original English edition, 1893.</td></tr> +</table> +</div> + + + +<h2><a class="newpage" name="page278" id="page278" title="278"></a>References</h2> + + + +<h3>Part I.--Preparatory</h3> + + +<h4>I</h4> + +<h5>The Historical Situation</h5> + +<div class="section" id="a008"><p><span class="versenum">8.</span> Read SandayHastBD II. 604-609. On the Land, its physical +characteristics, its political divisions, its climate, its roads, and its +varying civilization, SmithHGHL is unsurpassed. Its identifications of +disputed localities are cautions. Robinson, <i>Biblical Researches in +Palestine</i>, and Thomson, <i>The Land and the Book</i>, give fuller detail +concerning particular localities, but no such general view as Smith.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a009"><p><span class="versenum">9.</span> On Political conditions, SchürerJPTX I. i. and ii. is the fullest and +most trustworthy treatise. More concise essays are Oscar Holtzmann, <i>Nt. +Zeitgeschichte</i> (1895), 57-118; S. Mathews, <i>History of NT Times in +Palestine</i> (1899), 1-158; Riggs, <i>Maccabean and Roman Periods of Jewish +History</i> (1900), especially §§ 206-234, 257-267, 276-282. On the Religious +Life and Parties in Palestine, SchürerJPTX II. i. and ii.; O. Holtzmann, +<i>NtZeitg</i>, 136-177; Mathews, <i>NT Times</i>, see index; Riggs, <i>Mac. and Rom. +Periods</i>, §§ 235-256; Muirhead, <i>The Times of Christ</i> (1898), 69-150. In +addition Wellhausen, <i>Die Pharisdäer und die Sadducäer</i> (1874); on the +<i>Essenes</i>, Conybeare in HastBD I. 767-772, also Lightfoot, <i>Colossians</i>, +80-98, 347-419; Wellhausen, <i>Isr. u. jüd. Geschichte</i><sup>3</sup> (1897), 258-262; +on the Samaritans, A. Cowley, in <i>Expos</i>. V. i. 161-174; Jew. Quar. Rev. +VIII. (1896) 562-575.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a010"><p><a class="newpage" name="page279" id="page279" title="279"></a><span class="versenum">10.</span> On the Messianic hope, SchürerJPTX II. ii. 126-187; BaldSJ 3-122; +Muirhead, <i>Times of Xt.</i>, 112-150; Briggs, <i>Messiah of the Gospels</i> +(1894), 1-40; WendtTJ I. 33-84; Mathews, <i>NT Times</i>, 159-169; Riggs, <i>Mac. +and Rom. Periods</i>, §§ 251-256.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a011"><p><span class="versenum">11.</span> On the language of Palestine see Arnold Meyer, <i>Jesu Muttersprache</i> +(1896); DalmanWJ I. 1-57; SchürerJPTX II. i. 8-10, 47-51; Neubauer, +<i>Studia Biblica</i>, I. 39-74.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a012"><p><span class="versenum">12.</span> On Jewish literature dating near the times of Jesus see SchürerJPTX +II. iii.; BaldSJ. 3-122; EdersLJM I. 31-39; Deane, <i>Pseudepigrapha</i> +(1891); Thomson, <i>Books which influenced our Lord</i>, etc. (1891); and +special editions, such as Alexandre, <i>Sibylline Oracles</i> (1869); Deane, +<i>The Wisdom of Solomon</i> (1881); Charles, <i>The Book of Enoch</i> (1893), <i>The +Apocalypse of Baruch</i> (1896), <i>The Assumption of Moses</i> (1897), and <i>The +Book of Jubilees</i> (1895); Charles and Morfill, <i>The Secrets of Enoch</i> +(1896); Ryle and James, <i>The Psalms of the Pharisees</i> [Psalms of Solomon] +(1891); Bensly and James, <i>Fourth Esdras</i> (1895); Charles, EnBib I. +213-250; HastBD I. 109f.; Porter, HastBD I. 110-123; James, EnBib I. +249-261.</p></div> + + +<h4>II</h4> + +<h5>The Sources</h5> + +<div class="section" id="a013"><p><span class="versenum">13.</span> On the sources outside the gospels see Anthony, <i>Introduction to the +Life of Jesus</i>, 19-108; KeimJN I. 12-59; BeysLJ I. 59-72; GilbertLJ 74-78; +Knowling, <i>Witness of the Epistles</i>; Stevens, <i>Pauline Theol</i>. 204-208; +Sabatier, <i>Apostle Paul</i>, 76-85. On Josephus as a source see also +SchürerJPTX I. ii. 143-149; RévilleJN I. 272-280. On the individual +gospels see Burton, <i>The Purpose and Plan of the Four Gospels</i> (Univ. +Chic. Press, 1900); Bruce, <i>With Open Face</i>, 1-61; Weiss, <i>Introduction to +N.T.</i>, II. 239-386; Jülicher, <i>Einleitung i. d. NT</i>, 189-207. On Matthew, +<a class="newpage" name="page280" id="page280" title="280"></a>Burton Bib. Wld. I. 1898, 37-44, 91-101; on Mark, Swete, <i>Comm. on Mark</i>, +ix-lxxxix; on Luke, Plummer, <i>Comm. on Luke</i>, xi-lxx; Mathews, Bib. Wld. +1895, I. 336-342, 448-455; on John, Burton, Bib. Wld. 1899, I. 16-41, +102-105; Westcott, <i>Comm. on John</i>, v-lxxvii; Rhees in Abbott's <i>The Bible +as Literature</i>, 281-297. On the synoptic question see Sanday SBD<sup>2</sup>, +1217-1243, and Expositor, Feb.-June, 1891; Woods, <i>Studia Biblica</i>, II. +59-104; Salmon, <i>Introduction</i><sup>7</sup>, 99-151, 570-581; Stanton in HastBD II. +234-243; Jülicher, <i>Einl.</i> 207-227. A. Wright, <i>Composition of the Four +Gospels</i> (1890) and <i>Some NT Problems</i> (1898), defends the oral tradition +theory in a modified form. On possible dislocations in John see Spitta, +<i>Urchristentum</i>, I. 157-204; Bacon, Jour. Bib. Lit. 1894, 64-76; Burton, +Bib. Wld. 1899, I. 27-35. For the history of opinion see specially H. J. +Holtzmann, <i>Einl.</i><sup>3</sup> 340-375. On the Johannine question see Sanday, +Expositor, Nov. 1891-May 1892; Schürer, Cont. Rev. Sept. 1891; Watkins +SBD<sup>2</sup> 1739-1764; Burton, Bib. Wld. 1899, I. 16-41; Reynolds in HastBD II. +694-722; Zahn, <i>Einl.</i> II. 445-564 (defends Johannine authorship); +Jülicher, <i>Einl.</i> 238-250 (rejects Johannine authorship). For the history +of opinion see Watkins, <i>Bampton Lecture</i> for 1890; Holtzmann, <i>Einl.</i><sup>3</sup> +433-438. P. Ewald, <i>Hauptproblem der evang. Frage</i>, argues the +authenticity of the fourth gospel from the one-sidedness of the synoptic +story. See also Jour. Bib. Lit. 1898, I. 87-102.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a014"><p><span class="versenum">14.</span> Réville proposes to reconstruct Jos. Ant. xviii. 3. 3 thus: "'At that +time appeared Jesus, a wise man, who did astonishing things. That is why a +good number of Jews and also of Greeks attached themselves to him.' Then +follows some phrase probably signifying that these adherents had committed +the error of proclaiming him Christ, and then 'denounced by the leading +men of the nation, this Jesus was condemned by Pilate to die on the cross. +But those who had loved him before persevered in their sentiment, and +still to-day there exists a class of people who take from him their name +Christians.'"</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a015"><p><a class="newpage" name="page281" id="page281" title="281"></a><span class="versenum">15.</span> On the testimony of Papias (Euseb. <i>Ch. Hist</i>. iii. 39. 4) see +Lightfoot, Cont. Rev. 1875, II. 379 ff., and McGiffert's notes in his +<i>Eusebius</i>, 170 ff.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a016"><p><span class="versenum">16.</span> For a collection of probably genuine Agrapha see Ropes, <i>Die Spruche +Jesu</i>, 154-161, and Amer. Jour. Theol. 1897, 758-776; Resch, <i>Agrapha</i>, +gives a much longer list. He is criticised by Ropes. On lost and +uncanonical gospels see Salmon, <i>Intr.</i><sup>7</sup> 173-190, 580-591; Kruger, <i>Early +Christian Literature</i>, 50-57. For the recently discovered Gospel of Peter +see Swete, <i>The Gospel of Peter</i>; and on the so-called <i>Sayings of Jesus</i> +found in Egypt in 1896 see Harnack, <i>Expositor</i>, V. vi. 321-340, 401-416, +and essay by Sanday and Lock. <i>Apocryphal Gospels</i> are most conveniently +found in <i>Ante-nicene Fathers</i>, VIII. 361-476.</p></div> + + +<h4>III</h4> + +<h5>The Harmony of the Gospels</h5> + +<div class="section" id="a017"><p><span class="versenum">17.</span> The Diatessaron of Tatian is translated with notes by Hill, <i>The +Earliest Life of Christ</i>. See also <i>Ante-nic. Fathers</i>, IX. 35-138.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a018"><p><span class="versenum">18.</span> For the extreme position concerning Doublets see Holtzmann, +<i>Hand-commentar zum NT</i> I. passim. E. Haupt, Studien u. Kritiken, 1884, +25, remarks that Jesus must often have repeated his teaching in +essentially the same form.</p></div> + + +<h4>IV</h4> + +<h5>Chronology</h5> + +<div class="section" id="a019"><p><span class="versenum">19.</span> For data and discussion of the various problems see Wieseler, +<i>Chronological Synopsis</i>; Lewin, <i>Fasti Sacra; </i> KeimJN II. 379-402; +AndLOL 1-52; SchürerJPTX I. ii. 30-32, 105-143; O. Holtzmann, <i>NtZeitg</i>, +118-124, 125-127, 131-132; Turner HastBD I. 403-415; <a class="newpage" name="page282" id="page282" title="282"></a>Ramsay, <i>Was Christ +born at Bethlehem</i>; and von Soden in EnBib. I. 799-812. For patristic +opinion concerning the length of Jesus' ministry, see HastBD I. 410. For +the argument for a one-year ministry, see KeimJN II. 398; O. Holtzmann, +<i>NtZeitg</i>, 131f. For two years, see Wieseler, <i>Chron. Synop</i>. 204-220; +WeissLX I. 389-392; Turner, in HastBD. For three years, see AndLOL +189-198; note by Robertson in Broadus, <i>Harmony of the Gospels</i>, 241-244. +Compare RévilleJN II. 227-231; Zahn, <i>Einl.</i> II. 516f.</p></div> + + +<h4>V</h4> + +<h5>The Early Years</h5> + +<div class="section" id="a020"><p><span class="versenum">20.</span> On the problem of the Virgin birth see GilbertLJ 79-89; WeissLX I. +211-233; Swete, <i>Apos. Creed</i>, 42-55; Bruce, <i>Apologetics</i>, 407-413; +Ropes, Andover Rev. 1893, 695-712; FairbSLX 30-45; Godet, <i>Comm. on Luke</i>, +Rem. on chaps. I. and II.; BovonNTTh I. 198-217. These maintain +historicity. The other side: BeysLJ I. 148-174; Meyer, <i>Comm. on Matt</i>., +Rem. on 1.18; Keim JN II. 38-101; Réville, New World, 1892, 695-723, and +JN I. 361-408; Holtz<del>mann</del>NtTh I. 409-415. On the early years of +Jesus see EdersLJM I. 217-254; WeissLX I. 275-293; Hughes, <i>Manliness of +Xt</i>, 35-60; WendtTJ I. 90-96; Stapfer, <i>Jesus Christ before his Ministry; +</i> FairbSLX 46-63; BeysLJ II. 44-65; RévilleJN I. 409-438.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a021"><p><span class="versenum">21.</span> For some of the early legends concerning the birth and childhood of +Jesus, see the so-called <i>Protevangelium of James</i>, the <i>Gospel of +Pseudo-Matthew</i>, and the <i>Gospel of Thomas</i>, Ante-nic. Fathers, VIII. +361-383, 395-398. For Jewish calumnies see Laible, <i>J. X. im Thalmud</i>, +9-39.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a022"><p><span class="versenum">22.</span> On the two genealogies see AndLOL 62-68; WeissLX I. 211-221; Godet on +Luke, iii. 23-38. These refer Luke's genealogy to Marv. Hervey SBD<sup>2</sup> +1145-1148, Plummer on Luke, iii. 23, EdersLJM I. 149, Gil<a class="newpage" name="page283" id="page283" title="283"></a>bertLJ 81f., +with the early fathers (see Plummer), refer both to Joseph. For the view +that they are unauthentic see Holtzmann, <i>Hand-comm.</i> I. 39-41; Bacon in +HastBD II. 137-141.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a023"><p><span class="versenum">23.</span> On the "brethren" of Jesus see Mayor, HastBD I. 320-326; +And<del>rews</del>LOL 111-123. These make the brethren sons of Joseph and +Mary. Lightfoot, <i>Galatians</i><sup>10</sup>, 252-291, regards them as sons of Joseph +by a former marriage.</p></div> + + +<h4>VI</h4> + +<h5>John the Baptist</h5> + +<div class="section" id="a024"><p><span class="versenum">24.</span> On the character and work of John the Baptist see KeimJN II. 201-266 +and references in the index under John the Baptist. Keim's is much the +most satisfactory treatment; it is, moreover, Keim at his best. See also +Ewald, <i>Hist, of Israel</i>, VI. 160-200; WeissLX I. 307-316; FairbSLX 64-79; +W. A. Stevens, Homil. Rev. 1891, II. 163 ff.; Bebb in HastBD II. 677-680; +Wellhausen <i>Isr. u. judische Geschichte</i>, 342f.; Feather, <i>Last of the +Prophets</i>. Reynolds, <i>John the Baptist</i>, obscures its excellencies by a +vast amount of irrelevant discussion.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a025"><p><span class="versenum">25.</span> On the existence of a separate company of disciples of John see Mk. +ii. 18, Mt. ix. 14, Lk. v. 33; Mk. vi. 29, Mt. xiv. 12; Mt. xi. 2f., Lk. +vii. 18f.; Lk. xi. 1; Jn. i. 35f.; iii. 25; Ac. xix. 1-3. Consult +Lightfoot, <i>Colossians</i>, 400 ff.; Baldensperger, <i>Der Prolog des vierten +Evangeliums</i>, 93-152.</p></div> + + +<h4>VII</h4> + +<h5>The Messianic Call</h5> + +<div class="section" id="a026"><p><span class="versenum">26.</span> On the baptism of Jesus see WendtTJ I. 96-101; EdersLJM I. 278-287; +BaldSJ 219-229. WeissLX I. 316-336 says that the baptism meant for Jesus, +already <a class="newpage" name="page284" id="page284" title="284"></a>conscious of his Messiahship, "the close of his former life and +the opening of one perfectly new" (322); KeimJN II. 290-299 makes it an +act of consecration, but eliminates the Voice and Dove; BeysLJ I. 215-231 +thinks that Jesus, conscious of no sin, yet not aware of his Messiahship, +sought the baptism carrying "the sins and guilt of his people on his +heart, as if they were his own" (229). Against Beyschlag see E. Haupt in +Studien u. Kritiken, 1887, 381. Baldensperger shows clearly that the +Messianic call was a revelation to Jesus, not a conclusion from a course +of reasoning.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a027"><p><span class="versenum">27.</span> On the temptation see WendtTJ I. 101-105; WeissLX I. 337-354; EdersLJM +I. 299-307; Fairb<del>airn</del>SLX 80-98; BaldSJ 230-236; BeysLJ I. +231-237; KeimJN II. 317-329. All these see in temptation the necessary +result of the Messianic call at the baptism.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a028"><p><span class="versenum">28.</span> The locality of the baptism of Jesus cannot be determined. Tradition +has fixed on one of the fords of the Jordan near Jericho, see SmithHGHL +496, note 1. On the probable location of Bethany (Bethabarah) (Jn. i. 28) +see discussion in AndLOL 146-151; EnBib 548; and especially Smith's note +as above.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a029"><p><span class="versenum">29.</span> On the anointing of Jesus with the Holy Spirit see WeissLX I. 323-336; +BeysLJ I. 230f. For the influence of the Spirit in the later life of Jesus +see Mk. i. 12; Mt. iv. 1; Lk. iv. 1; iv. 14, 18, 21; Mk. iii. 29, 30; Mt. +xii. 28; Jn. iii. 34; compare Ac. i. 2; x. 38. Clearly these refer not to +the ethical and religious indwelling of the Divine Spirit (comp. Rom. i. +4), but to the special equipment for official duty. This is the OT sense, +see Ex. xxxi. 2-5; Jud. iii. 10; I. Sam. xi. 6; Isa. xi. 1f.; xlii. 1; +lxi. 1; and consult Schultz, <i>Old Test. Theol.</i> II. 202f. Jesus seems to +have needed a like divine equipment, notwithstanding his divine nature. +See GilbertLJ 121f.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a030"><p><span class="versenum">30.</span> How this Messianic anointing is to be related to the doctrine of +Jesus' essential divine nature cannot be determined with certainty. It +must not be forgotten, <a class="newpage" name="page285" id="page285" title="285"></a>however, that it is a <i>datum</i> for Christology, and +that it cannot be explained away. It indicates one of the particulars in +which Jesus was made like unto his brethren. What was involved when the +Son of God "emptied himself and was made in the likeness of men" (Phil. +ii. 7) we can only vaguely conceive. Two views of early heretical sects +seem rightly to have been rejected. The Docetic view, held by some +Gnostics of the 2d cent., dates the incarnation from the baptism, but +distinguishes Christ from the human Jesus, who only served as a vehicle +for the manifestation of the Son of God; the Christ descended on Jesus at +the baptism, ascending again to heaven from the cross, compare Mt. iii. 16 +and xxvii. 50 in the Greek; see Schaff <i>Hist. of Xn Church</i><sup>2</sup>, II. 455f. +The recently discovered Gospel of Peter presents this view, Gosp. Pet. § +5. The Nestorian view represents that the baptism was, in a sense, Jesus' +"birth from above" (Jn. iii. 3, 5); thus the incarnation was first +complete at the baptism though the Logos had been associated with Jesus +from the beginning. See Schaff, <i>Hist, of Xn Church</i><sup>2</sup>, III. 717 ff.; +Conybeare, <i>History of Xmas</i>, Amer. Jour. Theol. 1899, 1-21.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a031"><p><span class="versenum">31.</span> The traditional locality of the temptation is a mountain near Jericho +called <i>Quarantana</i>, see AndLOL 155; the tradition seems to date no +further back than the crusades. It is, however, probable that the +"wilderness" (Mt. iv. 1, Mk. i. 12, Lk. iv. 1) is the same wilderness +mentioned in connection with John's earlier life and work (Mt. iii. 1, Mk. +i. 4), the region W and NW of the Dead Sea, see SmithHGHL 317. Others +(Stanley, <i>Sinai and Palestine</i>, 308; EdersLJM I. 300, 339 notes) hold +that the temptation took place in the desert regions SE of the sea of +Galilee; this is possibly correct, though the record in the gospels +suggests the wilderness of Judea. On the source of the temptation story +see WeissLX I. 339 ff.; BeysLJ I. 234; Bacon, Bib. Wld. 1900, I. 18-25.</p></div> + + +<h4>VIII</h4> + +<h5>The First Disciples</h5> + +<div class="section" id="a032"><p><a class="newpage" name="page286" id="page286" title="286"></a><span class="versenum">32.</span> SandayHastBD II. 612f.; GilbertLJ 144-157; WeissLX I. 355-387; AndLOL +155-165; EdersLJM I. 336-363; BeysLJ II. 129-148 (assigns here a +considerable part of the synoptic account of work in Capernaum).</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a033"><p><span class="versenum">33.</span> <i>The early confessions</i>. On the genuineness of the Baptist's testimony +to "the Lamb of God" see M. Dods in <i>Expos. Gk. Test</i>. I .695f.; Westcott, +<i>Comm. on John</i>, 20; EdersLJM 1. 342 ff.; WeissLX 1. 362f. (thinks the +evangelist added "who taketh away the sin of the world"); Holtzmann, +<i>Hand-comm.</i> IV. 38f. holds that the evangelist has put in the mouth of +the Baptist a conception which was first current after the death of Jesus. +On the confessions of Nathanael and the others, see Jour. Bib. Lit. 1898, +21-30.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a034"><p><span class="versenum">34.</span> <i>Cana</i> is probably the modern Khirbet Kana, eight miles N of Nazareth. +A rival site is Kefr Kenna, three and one-half miles NE from Nazareth. See +EnBib and HastBD, also AndLOL 162-164.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a035"><p><span class="versenum">35.</span> <i>The miracles of Jesus</i> are challenged by modern thought. It is +customary in reading other documents than the N.T. instantly to relegate +the miraculous to the domain of legend. Miracles, however, are integral +parts of the story of Jesus' life, and those who attempt to write that +life eliminating the supernatural are constrained to recognize that he had +marvellous power as an exorcist and healer of some forms of nervous +disease. So E. A. Abbott, <i>The Spirit on the Waters</i>, 169-201. Our +knowledge of nature does not warrant a dogmatic definition of the limits +of the possible; see James, <i>The Will to Believe</i>, vii.-xiii., 299-327. +The question is confessedly one of adequate evidence. The evidence for the +supreme miracle--the transcendent character of Jesus--is clear, see Part +III. chap. iv.; and the miracu<a class="newpage" name="page287" id="page287" title="287"></a>lous element in the story of his life must +be considered in view of this supreme miracle. In association with him his +miracles gain in credibility. In estimating the evidence for them their +dignity and worthiness is important. What the devout imagination would do +in embellishing the story of Jesus is exhibited in the apocryphal gospels; +the miracles of the canonical gospels are of an entirely different type, +which commends them as authentic. By definition a miracle is an event not +explicable in terms of ordinary human experience. It is therefore futile +to attempt to picture the miracles of Jesus in their occurrence, for the +imagination has no material except that furnished by ordinary experience. +For our day the miracles are of importance chiefly for the exhibition they +give of the character of Jesus; they can be studied with this in view +without regard to the curious question how they happened. Read +SandayHastBD II. 624-628; and see Fisher, <i>Grounds of Christian and +Theistic Belief, </i> chaps, iv.--vi., <i>Supernatural Origin of +Christianity</i><sup>3</sup>, chap, xi.; Bruce, <i>Miraculous Element in the Gospels; +Apologetics</i>, 409 ff.; Illingworth, <i>Divine Immanence</i>; Rainy, Orr, and +Dods, <i>The Supernatural in Christianity</i>.</p></div> + + + +<h3>Part II.--The Ministry</h3> + + +<h4>I</h4> + +<h5>General Survey</h5> + +<div class="section" id="a036"><p><span class="versenum">36.</span> SandayHastBD II. 609f.; GilbertLJ 136-143; AndLOL 125-137; BeysLJ I. +256-295.</p></div> + + +<h4>II</h4> + +<h5>The Early Ministry in Judea</h5> + +<div class="section" id="a037"><p><span class="versenum">37.</span> SandayHastBD II. 612<sup>b</sup>-613<sup>b</sup>; WeissLX II. 3-53; EdersLJM I. 364-429; +BeysLJ II. 147-168; GilbertLJ 158-179.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a038"><p><a class="newpage" name="page288" id="page288" title="288"></a><span class="versenum">38.</span> On <i>the chronological significance of John iv</i>. 35 see AndLOL 183; +WeissLX II. 40; Wieseler, <i>Synop</i>. 212 ff, who find indication that the +journey was in December. EdersLJM I. 419f.; Turner in HastBD I. 408, find +indication of early summer. Some treat iv. 35 as a proverb with no +chronological significance; so Alford, <i>Comm. on John</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a039"><p><span class="versenum">39.</span> Geographical notes. <i>Aenon</i> near Salim has not been identified. Most +favor a site in Samaria, seven miles from a place named Salim, which lay +four miles E of Shechem, see Conder, <i>Tent Work in Palestine</i>, II. 57, 58; +Stevens, Jour. Bib. Lit. 1883, 128-141. But can John have been baptizing +in Samaria? WeissLX II. 28 says "it is perfectly impossible that he [John] +can have taken up his station in Samaria." Other suggestions are: some +place in the Jordan valley (but then why remark on the abundance of water, +Jn. iii. 23?); near Jerusalem; and in the south of Judea. See AndLOL +173-175. <i>Sychar</i> is the modern 'Askar, about a mile and three-quarters +from Nablus (Shechem), and half a mile N of Jacob's well. See SmithHGHL +367-375.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a040"><p><span class="versenum">40.</span> General questions. <i>Was the temple twice cleansed?</i> (see sect. 116). +Probably not. The two reports (Jn. ii. 13-22; Mk. xi. 15-18 ¶s) are +similar in respect of Jesus' indignation, its cause, its expression, its +result, and a consequent challenge of his authority. They differ in the +time of the event (John assigns to first Passover, synoptics to the last) +and in a possibly greater sternness in the synoptic account. These +differences are no greater than appear in other records of identical +events (compare Mt. viii. 5-13 with Lk. vii. 2-10), while the repetition +of such an act would probably have been met by serious opposition. If the +temple was cleansed but once, John indicates the true time. At the +beginning of the ministry it was a demand that the people follow the new +leader in the purification of God's house and the establishment of a truer +worship. At the end it could have had only a vindictive significance, +since the people <a class="newpage" name="page289" id="page289" title="289"></a>had already signified to the clear insight of Jesus that +they would not accept his leadership. For two distinct cleansings see the +discussion in AndLOL 169f., 437; EdersLJM I. 373; Plummer on Luke xix. +45f. For one cleansing at the end see KeimJN V. 113-131. For one cleansing +at the beginning see WeissLX II. 6 ff.; BeysLJ II. 149 ff.; GilbertLJ 159 +ff.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a041"><p><span class="versenum">41.</span> <i>The journey to Galilee</i>. Do John (iv. 1-4, 43-45) and Mark (i. 14 = +Mt. iv. 12; Lk. iv. 14) report the same journey? Both are journeys from +the south introducing work in Galilee; yet the reasons given for the +journey are different (compare Jn. iv. 1-3 with Mk. i. 14). If the +Pharisees had a hand in John's "delivering up" (Mk. i. 14; comp. Jos. Ant. +xviii. 5. 2), the same hostile movement may have impelled Jesus to leave +Judea. He may not have heard of John's imprisonment until after his +departure, or some time before he opened his new ministry in Galilee. See +GilbertLJ 173f. AndLOL 176-182 argues against the identification.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a042"><p><span class="versenum">42.</span> <i>The nobleman's son</i> (Jn. iv. 46-54). Is this a doublet of Mt. viii. +5-13; Lk. vii. 2-10? John differs from synoptics in the time, the place, +the disease, the suppliant, his plea, and Jesus' attitude. Matthew and +Mark differ from each other concerning the bearers of the centurion's +messages to Jesus. John's account is similar to synoptic superficially, +but is probably not a doublet. Compare Syro-Phœnician's daughter (Mk. vii. +29f.). See GilbertLJ 202; Meyer on John iv. 51-54; Plummer on Luke vii. +10. WeissLX II. 45-51 identifies. Read SandayHastBD II. 613.</p></div> + + + +<h4>III and IV</h4> + +<h5>The Ministry in Galilee</h5> + +<div class="section" id="a043"><p><span class="versenum">43.</span> Read SandayHastBD II. 613-630; GilbertLJ 180-283. Consult WeissLX II. +44 to III. 153; EdersLJM I. 472 to II. 125; BeysLJ II. 140-147,168-294. +See AndLOL <a class="newpage" name="page290" id="page290" title="290"></a>209-363 for discussion of details, and KeimJN III. 10 to IV. +346 for an illuminating, though not unprejudiced, topical treatment.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a044"><p><span class="versenum">44.</span> Geographical notes. <i>Capernaum</i>. The site is not clearly identified, +two ruins on the NW of Sea of Galilee are rival claimants,--Tell Hum and +Khan Minyeh. Tell Hum is advocated by Thomson, <i>Land and Book, Central +Pal. and Phœnicia</i> (1882), 416-420; Khan Minyeh, by SmithHGHL 456, EnBib +I. 696 ff. Latter is probably correct. See AndLOL 224-237. + +<i>Bethsaida</i>. The full name is Bethsaida Julias, located at entrance of +Jordan into the Sea of Galilee. <del>Smith</del>EnBib I. 565f., +<ins>Smith</ins>HGHL 457f., shows that there is no need of the hypothesis +of a second Bethsaida to meet the statement in Mk. vi. 45, or that in Jn. +i. 44. See also AndLOL 230-236. Ewing HastBD I. 282f. renews the argument +for two Bethsaidas. + +<i>Chorazin</i> was probably the modern Kerazeh, about one mile N of Tell Hum, +and back from the lake. See <del>Smith</del>EnBib I. 751; +<ins>Smith</ins>HGHL 456; AndLOL 237f.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a045"><p><span class="versenum">45.</span> <i>The mountain of the sermon on the mount</i> (Mt. v. 1; Lk. vi. 12) +probably refers to the Galilean highlands as distinct from the shore of +the lake. More definite location is not possible. See AndLOL 268f.; +EdersLJM I. 524. The traditional site, the Horns of Hattin, is a hill +lying about seven miles SW from Khan Minyeh, which has near the top a +level place (Lk. vi. 17) flanked by two low peaks or "horns."</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a046"><p><span class="versenum">46.</span> <i>The country of the Gerasenes, Gadarenes, or Gergesenes</i>. Gadarenes is +the best attested reading in Mt. viii. 28, Gerasenes in Mk. v. 1 and Lk. +viii. 26; Gergesenes has only secondary attestation. Gadara is identified +with Um Keis on the Yarmuk, some six miles SE of the Sea of Galilee. This +cannot have been the site of the miracle, though it is possible that +Gadara may have controlled the country round about, including the shores +of the sea. Gerasa is the name of a city in the highlands of Gilead, +twenty miles E of Jordan, and <a class="newpage" name="page291" id="page291" title="291"></a>thirty-five SE of the Sea of Galilee, and +it clearly cannot have been the scene of the miracle. Near the E shore of +the sea Thomson discovered the ruins of a village which now bears the name +Khersa. The formation of the land in the neighborhood closely suits the +narrative of the gospels. This is now accepted as the true identification. +See Thomson <i>Land and Book, Central Palestine</i>, 353-355; SBD<sup>2</sup> 1097-1100; +HastBD II. 159f.; AndLOL 296-300. The name "Gadarenes" may indicate that +Gadara had jurisdiction over the region of Khersa; the names "Gerasenes" +and "Gergesenes" may be derived directly and independently from Khersa, or +may be corruptions due to the obscurity of Khersa.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a047"><p><span class="versenum">47.</span> <i>The feeding of the five thousand</i> took place on the E of the sea, in +a desert region, abundant in grass, and mountainous, and located in the +neighborhood of a place named Bethsaida. Near the ruins of Bethsaida +Julias is a plain called now Butaiha, "a smooth, grassy place near the sea +and the mountains," which meets the requirements of the narrative. See +AndLOL 322f.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a048"><p><span class="versenum">48.</span> <i>The return of Jesus from the regions of Tyre "through Sidon"</i> (Mk. +vii. 31) avoided Galilee, crossing N of Galilee to the territory of Philip +and "<i>the Decapolis</i>." This latter name applies to a group of free Greek +cities, situated for the most part E of the Jordan. Most of the cities of +the group were farther S than the Sea of Galilee; some, however, were E +and NE of that sea, hence Jesus' approach from Cæsarea Philippi or +Damascus could be described as "through Decapolis." See SmithHGHL 593-608; +En Bib I. 1051 ff.; SchürerJPTX II. i. 94-121.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a049"><p><span class="versenum">49.</span> Of <i>Magadan</i> (Mt. xv. 39) or <i>Dalmanutha</i> (Mk. viii. 10) all that is +known is that they must have been on the W coast of the Sea of Galilee. +They have never been identified, though there are many conjectures. See +SBD<sup>2</sup>, HastBD, and En Bib.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a050"><p><span class="versenum">50.</span> <i>Cæsarea Philippi</i> was situated at the easternmost and most important +of the sources of the Jordan, it is <a class="newpage" name="page292" id="page292" title="292"></a>called Panias by Jos. Ant. xv. 10.3, +now Banias. Probably a sanctuary of the god Pan. Here Herod the Great +built a temple which he dedicated to Cæsar; Philip the Tetrarch enlarged +the town and called it Cæsarea Philippi. See SBD<sup>2</sup>; HastBD; EnBib.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a051"><p><span class="versenum">51.</span> <i>The mountain of the transfiguration</i>. The traditional site, since the +fourth century, is Tabor in Galilee. Most recent opinion has favored one +of the shoulders of Hermon, owing to the supposed connection of the event +with the sojourn near Cæsarea Philippi. WeissLX III. 98 points out that +there is no evidence that Jesus lingered for "six days" (Mk. ix. 2) near +that town, and that therefore the effort to locate the transfiguration is +futile. GilbertLJ 274 thinks that Mk. ix. 30 is decisive in favor of a +place outside Galilee; he therefore holds to the common view that Hermon +is the true locality. See AndLOL 357f.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a052"><p><span class="versenum">52.</span> General questions. <i>Was Jesus twice rejected at Nazareth?</i> (comp. Lk. +iv. 16-30 with Mk. vi. 1-6<sup>a</sup>; Mt. xiii. 54-58). Here are two accounts that +read like independent traditions of the same event; they agree concerning +the place, the teaching in the synagogue on the Sabbath, the astonishment +of the Nazarenes, their scornful question, and Jesus' rejoinder. Luke +makes no reference to the disciples (Mk. vi. 1) nor to the working of +miracles (Mk. vi. 5); Matthew and Mark, on the other hand, say nothing of +an attempt at violence. These differences are no more serious, however, +than appear in the two accounts of the appeal of the centurion to Jesus +(Mt. viii. 5-8; Lk. vii. 3-7). Moreover, Lk. iv. 23 indicates a time after +the ministry in Capernaum had won renown, which agrees with the place +given the rejection in Mark. The general statement (Lk. iv. 14f.) suggests +that the visit to Nazareth is given at the beginning as an instance of +"preaching in their synagogues." The three accounts probably refer to one +event reported independently. For identification see WeissLX III. 34; +Plummer on Luke iv. 30; GilbertLJ <a class="newpage" name="page293" id="page293" title="293"></a>254f. For two rejections see Godet's +supplementary note on Lk. iv. 16-30; Meyer on Mt. xiii. 53-58; EdersLJM I. +457, note 1; Wieseler, <i>Synopsis</i>, 278. BeysLJ I. 270 identifies but +prefers Luke's date.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a053"><p><span class="versenum">53.</span> <i>Were there two miraculous draughts of fish?</i> Lk. v. 1-11 is sometimes +identified with Jn. xxi. 3-13. So WendtLJ I. 211f., WeissLX II. 57f., and +Meyer on Luke v. 1-11. Against the identification see Alford, Godet, and +Plummer on the passage in Luke. The two are alike in scene, the night of +bootless toil, the great catch at Jesus' word. They differ in personnel, +antecedent relations of the fishermen with Jesus, the effect of the +miracle on Peter, and the subsequent teaching of Jesus, as well as in +time. These differences make identification difficult.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a054"><p><span class="versenum">54.</span> <i>Where in the synoptic story should the journey to the feast in +Jerusalem</i> (Jn. v.) <i>be placed?</i> There is nothing in John's narrative to +identify the feast, although it is his custom to name the festivals to +which he refers (Passover, ii. 13, 23; vi. 4; xi. 55; xii. 1; Tabernacles, +vii. 2; Dedication, x. 22). Even if John wrote "the feast," rather than "a +feast" (the MSS. vary, A B D and seven other uncials omit the article), it +would be impossible to decide between Passover and Tabernacles. The +omission of the article suggests either that the feast was of minor +importance, or that its identification was of no significance for the +understanding of the following discourse. Since a year and four months +probably elapsed between the journey into Galilee (Jn. iv. 35) and the +next Passover mentioned in John (vi. 4), v. 1 may refer to any one of the +feasts of the Jewish year. The commonest interpretation prefers Purim, a +festival of a secular and somewhat hilarious type, which occurred on the +14th and 15th of Adar, a month before the Passover. It is difficult to +believe that this feast would have called Jesus to Jerusalem. See WeissLX +II. 391; GilbertLJ 137-139, 142, 234-235. Against this interpretation see +EdersLJM II. 765. Edersheim advocates the feast of <a class="newpage" name="page294" id="page294" title="294"></a>Wood Gathering on the +15th of Ab--about our August. On this day all the people were permitted to +offer wood for the use of the altar in the temple, while during the rest +of the year the privilege was reserved for special families. See LJM II +765f.; Westcott, <i>Comm. on John</i>, add. note on v. 1, argues for the feast +of Trumpets, or the new moon of the month Tisri,--about our +September,--which was celebrated as the beginning of the civil year. +Others have suggested Pentecost, fifty days after the Passover; the day of +Atonement--but this was a fast, not a feast; and Tabernacles. The majority +of those who do not favor Purim prefer the Passover, notwithstanding the +difficulty of thinking that John would refer to this feast simply as "a +feast of the Jews." Read AndLOL 193-198, remembering that the question +must be considered independently of the question of the length of Jesus' +ministry. The impossibility of determining the feast renders the +adjustment of this visit to the synoptic story very uncertain. It may be +that there was some connection between the Sabbath controversy in Galilee +(Mk. ii. 23-28) and the criticism Jesus aroused in Jerusalem (Jn. v.). If +so, one of the spring feasts, Passover or Pentecost, would best suit the +circumstances; but this arrangement is quite uncertain.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a055"><p><span class="versenum">55.</span> <i>Do the five conflicts of Mk. ii. 1 to iii. 6 belong at the early +place in the ministry of Jesus to which that gospel assigns them</i>? It is +commonly held that they do not, and the argument for a two-year ministry +rests on this assumption (see SandayHastBD II. 613). Holtzmann, +<i>Hand-commentar</i> I. 9f., remarks that at least for the cure of the +paralytic and for the call and feast of Levi (Mk. ii. 1, 13, 15) the +evangelist was confident that he was following the actual order of events; +note the call of the fifth disciple, Mk. ii. 13, between the call of the +four, Mk. i. 16-20, and that of the twelve, iii. 16-19. The question about +fasting may owe its place (Mk. ii. 18-22) to association with the +criticism of Jesus for eating with publicans (Mk. ii. 16). In like manner +the <a class="newpage" name="page295" id="page295" title="295"></a>second Sabbath conflict (Mk. iii. 1-6) may be attached to the first +(ii. 23-28) as a result of the identity of subject, for it is noteworthy +that Mark records only these two Sabbath conflicts; moreover, the plot of +Herodians and Pharisees to kill Jesus strongly suggests a later time +for the actual occurrence of this criticism. The first Sabbath question, however, +may belong early, as Mark has placed it. Weiss, Markusevangelium, 76, LX II. +232 ff., places these conflicts late. Edersheim, LJM II. 51 ff., discusses +the Sabbath controversies after the feeding of the multitudes. RévilleJN II. +229 places the first of them early.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a056"><p>56. <i>The sermon on the mount.</i> Luke (vi. 12-19 = Mk. iii. 13-19<sup>a</sup> +indicates the place in the Galilean ministry; Matthew has therefore anticipated +in assigning it to the beginning. The identity of the two sermons +(Mt. v. 1 to vii. 27; Lk. vi. 20-49) is shown by the fact +that each begins with beatitudes, each closes with the +parables of the wise and foolish builders, each is followed by the cure of +a centurian's servant in Capernaum (Mt. +viii. 5-13; Lk. vii. 1-10), and the teachings which are +found in each account are given in the same order. +Matthew is much fuller than Luke, many teachings +given in the sermon in Matthew being found in later +contexts in Luke. Much of the sermon in Matthew, +however, evidently belonged to the original discourse, +and was omitted by Luke, perhaps because of less interest +to Gentile than to Jewish Christians. The following +sections are found elsewhere in Luke, and were +probably associated with the sermon by the first evangelist: +Mt. v. 25, 26; Lk. xii. 58, 59; Mt. vi. 9-13; Lk. xi. 2-4; Mt. vi. 19-34; Lk. xii. +21-34; xi. 34-36; xvi. 13; Mt. vii. 7-11; Lk. xi. 9-13; Mt. vii. 13, 14; Lk. xiii. +24. The first evangelist's habit of grouping may explain also the presence +in his sermon of teachings which he himself has duplicated later, thus: +Mt. v. 29, 30 = xviii. 8,9; v. 32 = xix. 9, comp. Mk. x. 11, ix. 43-47, Lk. xvi. 18; +Mt. vi. 14, 15 = Mk. xi. 25. Matthew vii. 22, 23 has the <a class="newpage" name="page296" id="page296" title="296"></a> +character of the teachings which follow the confession at +Cæsarea Phillipi, and is quite unlike the other early +teachings. It may belong to the later time, for it was +natural for the early Christians to associate together +teachings which the Lord uttered on widely separated +occasions. The sermon as originally given may be +analyzed as follows: The privileges of the heirs of the +kingdom of God, Mt. v. 3-13; Lk. vi. 20-26; their responsibilities, +Mt. v. 13-16; the relation of the new to the old, Mt. v. 17-19; +the text of the discourse, Mt. v. 20; the new conception of morality, Mt. v. 21-48; +Lk. vi. 27-36; the new practice of religion, Mt. vi. 1-8, 16-18; warning +against a censorious spirit, Mt. vii. 16-20; Lk. +vi. 43-46; the wise and foolish builders, Mt. vii. 24-27; +Lk. vi. 47-49.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a057"><p>57. <i>The discourse in parables.</i> Matthew gives seven +parables at this point (xiii.), Mark (iv. 1-34) has three, +one of them is not given in Matthew, Luke (viii. 4-18) gives +in this connection but one,--the Sower. Many think +that the Tares of Matthew (xiii. 24-30, 36-43) is a doublet +of Mark's Seed growing secretly (iv. 26-29); so Weiss +LX II. 209 note, against which view see WendtLJ I. +178 f., and Bruce, <i>Parabolic Teaching of Xt</i>, 119. Matthew +has probably made here a group of parables, as in chapters v. to vii. +he has made a group of other teachings. +The interpretation of the Tares, and of the Draw-net (xiii. 40-43, 49, 50), +may indicate that these parables were spoken after Jesus began to teach plainly +concerning the end of the world (Mk. viii. 31 to ix. 1), Luke +gives the Mustard Seed and Leaven in another connection (xiii. 18-21), +and it may be that Matthew has taken them out of their true context to associate +them with the other parables of his group; yet in popular teaching +it must be recognized that illustrations are most likely +to be repeated in different situations. On the parables see Goebel, +<i>The Parables of Jesus</i> (1890), Bruce, <i>The Parabolic Teaching of Christ</i>, +3d ed. (1886), Jülicher, <a class="newpage" name="page297" id="page297" title="297"></a><i>Die Gleichnissreden Jesu</i> (2 vols. 1899), and the commentaries on +the gospels.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a058"><p><span class="versenum">58.</span> <i>The instructions to the twelve</i>. Mt. ix. 36 to xi. 1. x. 1, 5-14 +corresponds in general with Mk. vi. 7-11; Lk. ix. 1-5. The similarity is +closer, however, between x. 7-15 and Lk. x. 3-12--the instructions to the +seventy (see sect. <a href="#a068">A 68</a>). The rest of Mt. x. (16-42) is paralleled by +teachings found in the closing discourses in the synoptic gospels, and in +teachings preserved in the section peculiar to Luke (ix. 51 to xviii. 14. +See SB sects. 88-92, footnotes). It is probable that here the first +evangelist has made a group of instructions to disciples gathered from all +parts of the Lord's teachings; such a collection was of great practical +value in the early time of persecution.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a059"><p><span class="versenum">59.</span> <i>Did Jesus twice feed the multitudes</i>? All the gospels record the +feeding of the five thousand (Mt. xiv. 13-23; Mk. vi. 30-46; Lk. ix. +10-17; Jn. vi. 1-15), Matthew (xv. 32-38) and Mark (viii. 1-9) give also +the feeding of the four thousand. The similarities are so great that the +two accounts would be regarded as doublets if they occurred in different +gospels. The difficulty with such an identification is chiefly the +reference which in both Matthew (xvi. 9, 10) and Mark (viii. 19, 20) Jesus +is said to have made to the two feedings. The evangelists clearly +distinguished the two. In view of this fact the differences between the +accounts become important. These concern the occasion of the two miracles, +the number fed, the nationality of the multitudes (compare Jn. vi. 31 and +Mk. vii. 31), the number of loaves and of baskets of broken pieces (the +name for basket is different in the two cases, and is preserved +consistently in Mk. viii. 19, 20; Mt. xvi. 9, 10). See GilbertLJ 259-262, +Gould, and Swete, on Mk. viii. 1-9; Meyer, Alford, on Mt. xv. 32-38. +WeissLX II. 376f., BeysLJ I. 279f., WendtLJ I. 42, Holtzmann <i>Hand-comm.</i> +I. 186 ff., identify the accounts. See also SandayHastBD II. 629.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a060"><p><span class="versenum">60.</span> <i>Did Peter twice confess faith in Jesus as Messiah</i>? <a class="newpage" name="page298" id="page298" title="298"></a>Synoptics give +his confession at Cæesarea Philippi (Mk. viii. 27-30; Mt. xvi. 13-20; Lk. +ix. 18-21). John, however, gives a confession earlier at Capernaum (vi. +66-71). WeissLX III. 53 identifies the two, placing that in John at +Cæsarea Philippi, since there is no evidence that all of the long +discourse of Jn. vi. was spoken in Capernaum the day after the feeding of +the five thousand. This may be correct, yet the marked recognition which +Jesus gave to the confession at Cæsarea Philippi does not demand that he +first at that time received a confession of his disciples' faith. The +confession in Jn. vi. 68, 69 declared that the twelve were not shaken in +their faith by the recent defection of many disciples. At Cæsarea Philippi +the confession was made after the revulsion of popular feeling had been +made fully evident, and after the twelve had had time for reaction of +enthusiasm consequent upon the growing coldness of the multitudes and +active opposition of the leaders. The confession of Cæsarea Philippi holds +its unique significance, whether or not Jn. vi. 68 is identified with it.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a061"><p><span class="versenum">61.</span> <i>The journey to Tabernacles</i> (Jn. vii.). Where in the synoptic story +should it be placed? Lk. ix. 51 ff. records the final departure from +Galilee. The journey of Jn. vii. is the last journey from Galilee given in +John. Yet the two are very different. In John, Jesus went in haste, +unpremeditatedly, in secret, and unaccompanied, and confronted the people +with himself unexpectedly during the feast. In Luke (Mk. x. 1 and Mt. xix. +1 are so general that they give no aid) he advanced deliberately, with +careful plans, announcing his coming in advance, accompanied by many +disciples, with whom he went from place to place, arriving in Jerusalem +long after he had set out. The two journeys cannot be identified. John +seems to keep Jesus in the south after the Tabernacles, but his account +does not forbid a return to Galilee between Tabernacles and Dedication (x. +22). After the hurried visit to Tabernacles, Jesus probably went back to +Galilee, and gathered his disciples again <a class="newpage" name="page299" id="page299" title="299"></a>for the final journey towards +his cross--for the visit to Jerusalem had given fresh evidence of the kind +of treatment he must expect in the capital (Jn. vii. 32, 45-52; viii. 59). +See AndLOL 369-379. Andrews suggests that the feast occurred before the +withdrawal to Cæsarea Philippi (376); this is possible, but it seems more +natural to place it during the sojourn in Capernaum after the return from +the north (Mk. ix. 33-50). See SB, sects. 82-85.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a062"><p><span class="versenum">62.</span> On the phenomena and interpretation of <i>Demoniac Possession</i> see J. L. +Nevius, <i>Demon Possession and allied Themes</i>; Conybeare, Jew. Quar. Rev. +VIII. (1896) 576-608, IX. (1896-7) 59-114, 444-470, 581-603; J. Weiss in +<i>Reälencyklopädie</i>,<sup>3</sup> Hauck-Herzog, IV. 408-419; Binet, <i>Alterations of +Personality</i>, 325-356; James, <i>Psychology, </i> I. 373-400; and the articles +on DEMONS in EnBib and HastBD.</p></div> + +<h4>V</h4> + +<h5>The Journey through Perea to Jerusalem</h5> + +<div class="section" id="a063"><p><span class="versenum">63.</span> Read SandayHastBD II. 630-632; see GilbertLJ 298-310: WeissLX III. +157-223; KeimJN V, 1-64; BeysLJ I. 287-294. II. 333-419; AndLOL 365-420; +EdersLJM II. 126-360.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a064"><p><span class="versenum">64.</span> This journey began sometime between Tabernacles and Dedication +(October and December) of the last year of Jesus' life, and continued +until the arrival in Bethany six days before the last Passover.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a065"><p><span class="versenum">65.</span> Geographical notes. <i>Perea</i>--a part of the domain of Antipas--was the +Jewish territory E of the Jordan. Its northern limit seems to have been +marked by Pella (Jos. Wars, iii 3. 3) or Gadara (Wars, iv. 7. 3), and its +E boundary was marked by Philadelphia (Ant. xx. 1. 1); it extended S to +the domain of Aretas, king of Arabia. The population was mixed, though +predomi<a class="newpage" name="page300" id="page300" title="300"></a>natingly Jewish. Cities of the Decapolis, however, lay within the +limits of Perea, and introduced Greek life and ideas to the people. On the +highlands back from the Jordan it was a fertile and well populated land. +See SmithHGHL 539f.; SchürerJPTX II. i. 2-4.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a066"><p><span class="versenum">66.</span> On <i>Bethany and Jericho</i> see BDs and, for the latter, SmithHGHL 266 +ff.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a067"><p><span class="versenum">67.</span> <i>Ephraim</i>, (John xi. 54) is generally identified with the Ephron of +II. Chron. xiii. 19 (Jos. Wars, iv. 9. 9). Robinson located it at et +Taiyibeh, 4 m. NE of Bethel, and 14 from Jerusalem. See HastBD l. 728; +SBD<sup>2</sup> 975.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a068"><p><span class="versenum">68.</span> General questions. <i>The mission of the seventy</i>. Luke records two +missions, that of the twelve (ix. 1-6), and that of the seventy (x. 1-24). +Many regard these as doublets, similar to the two feedings in Mark. So +WeissLX II. 307 ff., BeysLJ I. 275, WendtLJ I. 84f. In favor of this +conclusion emphasis is given to the fact that in Jewish thought seventy +symbolized the nations of the world as twelve symbolized Israel. It is +suggested that in his search for full records Luke came upon an account of +the mission of disciples which had already been modified in the interests +of Gentile Christianity, and failing to recognize its identity with the +account of the mission furnished by Mark, he added it in his peculiar +section. The similarity of the instructions given follows from the nature +of the case. A second sending out of disciples is suitable in view of the +entrance into a region hitherto unvisited. As Dr. Sanday has remarked, the +sayings connected by Luke with this mission bear witness to the +authenticity of the account. There is therefore no need to identify the +two missions. See particularly SandayHastBD II. 614, also GilbertLJ +226-230, Plummer's <i>Comm. on Luke</i>, 269 ff. Luke probably gives the +correct place for the thanksgiving, self-declaration, and invitation of +Jesus, in which the synoptists approach most nearly to the thought of John +(Lk. x. 21, 22; Mt. xi. 25-30). The return of the seventy (Lk. x. <a class="newpage" name="page301" id="page301" title="301"></a>17-20) +followed the woes addressed to the unbelieving cities (Lk. x. 13-16; Mt. +xi. 20-24).</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a069"><p><span class="versenum">69.</span> <i>The destination of the seventy</i>. It is customary to think of them as +sent to the various cities of Perea (see AndLOL 381-383). Were it not for +the words "whither he himself was about to come" (Lk. x. I), it would be +natural to conclude that they were sent E to Gerasa and Philadelphia, and +S to the regions of the Dead Sea. If John's account is accepted, Jesus +spent not a little time of the interval between his departure from Galilee +and his final arrival in Bethany in and near Jerusalem. It may be that +after the withdrawal from the Dedication he went far into the Perean +districts. But John x. 40 is against it. The question must be left +unanswered. The messengers may have visited places in all parts of +Palestine.</p></div> + + +<h4>VI</h4> + +<h5>The Controversies of the Last Week</h5> + +<div class="section" id="a070"><p><span class="versenum">70.</span> See GilbertLJ 311-335; WeissLX III. 224-270; AndLOL 421-450; KeimJN V. +65-275; BeysLJ II. 422-434; EdersLJM II. 363-478; SandayHastBD II 632f.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a071"><p><span class="versenum">71.</span> <i>The supper at Bethany</i>. John is definite, "six days before the +passover" (xii. I). Synoptists place it after the day of controversy, on +the Wednesday preceding the Passover (Mk. xiv. I, 3-9; Mt. xxvi. 2, 6-13). +John is probably correct. The rebuke of Judas (Jn. xii. 4-8) was probably +associated in the thought of the disciples with his later treachery; +consequently the synoptists report the plot of Judas and this supper in +close connection.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a072"><p><span class="versenum">72.</span> <i>The Messianic entry into Jerusalem</i> is regarded by Réville as a +surrender by Jesus of his lofty Messianic ideal in response to the +temptation to seek a popular <a class="newpage" name="page302" id="page302" title="302"></a>following. Keim with finer insight says, +"Even if it had certainly been his wish to bring the kingdom of heaven +near in Jerusalem quietly and gradually, and with a healthy mental +progress, as in Galilee, yet ... in the face of the irritability of his +opponents, in the face of the powerful means at their disposal of crushing +him ... there remained but one chance,--reckless publicity, the conquest +of the partially prepared nation by means, not of force, but of idea.... +He came staking his life upon the venture, but also believing that God +must finish his work through life or death" (JN V. 100f.).</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a073"><p><span class="versenum">73.</span> <i>The question about the resurrection</i> was probably a familiar +Sadducean problem with which they made merry at the expense of the +scribes. On the resurrection in Jewish thought see Charles, <i>Eschatology, +Hebrew, Jewish, and Christian</i>, by index. For the scepticism of the +Sadducees see also Ac. xxiii. 8; Jos. Wars, ii, 8. 14.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a074"><p><span class="versenum">74.</span> On the "<i>great commandment</i>" see EdersLJM II. 403 ff.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a075"><p><span class="versenum">75.</span> The eschatological discourse presents serious exegetical difficulties. +Many cut the knot by assuming that Mk. xiii. and ∥s contain a little +Jewish apocalypse written shortly before the destruction of Jerusalem, +which has been blended with genuine predictions of Jesus concerning his +second coming. See Charles, <i>Eschatology</i>, 323-. 329; WendtLJ I. 9-21; +Holtz<del>mann</del>NtT<del>H</del><ins>h</ins> I. 325 ff.; and Bruce's +criticism in <i>Expos. Gk. Test</i>. I. 287f., also Sanday's note in HastBD II. +635f.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a076"><p><span class="versenum">76.</span> On <i>the relation of proselytes</i> to Judaism see SchürerJPTX II. ii. +291-327. The synagogue in heathen lands drew to itself by its monotheism +and its pure ethics the finest spirits of paganism. But few of them, +however, submitted to circumcision, and became thus proselytes. Most of +them constituted the class of "them that fear God" to whom Paul constantly +appealed in his apostolic mission. The Greeks of Jn. xii. 20 ff. were +probably circumcised proselytes.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a077"><p><span class="versenum">77.</span> On <i>Judas</i> see Plummer in HastBD II. 796 ff.; <a class="newpage" name="page303" id="page303" title="303"></a>EdersLJM II. 471-478; +WeissLX III. 285-289; AndLOL by index. De Quincey's essay on <i>Judas +Iscariot</i> is an elaborate defence.</p></div> + + +<h4>VII</h4> + +<h5>The Last Supper</h5> + +<div class="section" id="a078"><p><span class="versenum">78.</span> GilbertLJ 335-354; WeissLX III. 273-318; EdersLJM II. 479-532; AndLOL +450-497; KeimJN V. 275-343; BeysLJ II. 434-448; SandayHastBD II. 633-638.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a079"><p><span class="versenum">79.</span> <i>The day of the last supper</i>. John seems clearly to place it on the +day before the Passover--13 Nisan. See xiii. I, 29; xviii. 28; xix. 14, +31, 42. Synoptists as clearly declare that the supper was prepared on the +"first day of unleavened bread, when they sacrificed the Passover" (Mk. +xiv. 12; see also Lk. xxii. 15); this is confirmed by the similarity +between the Passover ritual as tradition has preserved it, and the course +of events at the supper. Unless interpretation can remove the +contradiction, John must have the preference. WeissLX III. 273-282, BeysLJ +II. 390-399, accept John and correct the synoptists by him; thus the +supper anticipated the Passover. Some hold that John can be interpreted +harmoniously with synoptists, and be shown to indicate that the supper was +on the 14th Nisan. So EdersLJM II. 508, 566f., 612f.; AndLOL 452-481; +GilbertLJ 335-339. Others believe that a true interpretation of synoptists +shows that in calling the last supper a Passover they correctly represent +the character, but misapprehend the time, of the meal. For this argument +see Muirhead, <i>Times of Xt</i>, 163-169, and read SandayHastBD II. 633-636 +and his references. The debate is still on, but the advantage seems to be +with those who assign the supper to the 13th and the crucifixion to the +14th Nisan.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a080"><p><span class="versenum">80.</span> <i>Did Jesus institute a memorial sacrament</i>? Read SandayHastBD II. +636-638, and Thayer, in Jour. Bib. <a class="newpage" name="page304" id="page304" title="304"></a>Lit. 1899, 110-131; see also +McGiffert, <i>Apostolic Age</i>, 68 ff. note; Holtz<del>mann</del>NtTh I. +296-304.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a081"><p><span class="versenum">81.</span> <i>The Passover ritual</i>. The order according to the rabbis was the +following: the first cup of wine and water was taken by the leader, who +gave thanks over it, and then it was shared by all (compare Lk. xxii. 17); +then the head of the company washed his hands--Dr. Edersheim connects with +this the washing of the disciples' feet, which changed the ceremony from +an act of distinction into one of humble service; after this the dishes +were brought on the table, then the leader dipped some of the bitter herbs +into salt water or vinegar, spoke a blessing, and partook of them, then +handed them to each of the company; then one of the loaves of unleavened +bread was broken; after this a second cup was filled, and before it was +drunk the significance of the Passover was explained by the leader in +reply to a question by the youngest of the company, after which the first +part of the Hallel (Ps. cxiii., cxiv.) was sung, and then the cup was +drunk; then followed the supper itself beginning with "the sop,"--a piece +of the paschal lamb, a piece of unleavened bread, and bitter herbs, +wrapped together and dipped in the vinegar,--which was passed around the +company (compare the sop which Jesus gave to Judas); after the supper came +a third cup, known as "the cup of blessing" (see I. Cor. x. 16); then +followed grace after meat; then a fourth cup, in connection with which the +remainder of the Hallel was sung (Ps. cxv. to cxviii.), followed by +certain other songs and prayers. See EdersLJM II. 496-512; AndLOL 488-494.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a082"><p><span class="versenum">82.</span> <i>The washing of the disciples' feet</i>. John (xiii. 1-11) says this +occurred "during supper" (v. 2), and before the designation of the +traitor. Luke (xxii. 23-30) tells of a dispute about greatness among the +disciples. This dispute may have arisen over the assignment of places at +table (compare Lk. xiv. 7 ff.; Mk. x. 33-45); if so, the reason for the +lesson in humility is apparent. See AndLOL 482-484; EdersLJM II. 492-503.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a083"><p><a class="newpage" name="page305" id="page305" title="305"></a><span class="versenum">83.</span> <i>Did Jesus twice predict Peter's denials</i>? Mark (xiv. 26-31) and +Matthew (xxvi. 30-35) place the prediction after the departure for +Gethsemane; Luke (xxii. 31-34) and John (xiii. 36-38), during the supper. +AndLOL 494 ff. thinks Peter was warned twice, EdersLJM. II. 535-537 holds +to one warning on the way to Gethsemane. Antecedent probability favors +this view.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a084"><p><span class="versenum">84.</span> <i>Where in John should the institution of the sacrament be placed</i>? +Probably after the departure of Judas (Mark xiv. 21f.; Matt. xxvi. 26), +thus not before xiii. 30. The most likely place is between, verses 32 and +33. There is no break at this point, and it remains a mystery why John's +account of the passion omitted this central feature of early Christian +belief and practice. The omission argues for rather than against apostolic +authorship, as a forger would not have ventured to disregard the leading +service of the church in an account of the life of its Lord. See Westcott, +<i>Comm. on John</i>, 188.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a085"><p><span class="versenum">85.</span> On the possible <i>disarrangement of the last discourses</i> (xiii. 31 to +xvi. 33) in our text of John see Spitta, <i>Urchristentum</i>, I. 168-193; +Bacon, Jour. Bib. Lit. 1894, 64-76; Burton, Bib. Wld. 1899 I. 32.</p></div> + + +<h4>VIII</h4> + +<h5>The Shadow of the Cross</h5> + +<div class="section" id="a086"><p><span class="versenum">86.</span> See GilbertLJ 354-384; AndLOL 497-588; WeissLX III. 319-381; BeysLJ I. +390-432, II. 448-473; EdersLJM II. 533-620; KeimJN VI. 1-274; SandayHastBD +II. 632f.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a087"><p><span class="versenum">87.</span> On the location of <i>Gethsemane and Golgotha</i> see AndLOL 499f., +575-588; and HastBD II. 164, 226f.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a088"><p><span class="versenum">88.</span> On the progress of <i>Jesus' trial by the Jewish authorities, </i> see +AndLOL 505-516; GilbertLJ 359-363. The <i>legality of the trial</i> has been +carefully discussed by A. T. Innes, <i>The Trial of Jesus Christ</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a089"><p><a class="newpage" name="page306" id="page306" title="306"></a><span class="versenum">89.</span> On the form and sequence of <i>Peter's denials</i>, see Westcott, <i>Comm. +on John</i>, 263-266; AndLOL 516-521.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a090"><p><span class="versenum">90.</span> The <i>Words from the Cross</i>. Matthew (xxvii. 46) and Mark (xv. 34) +report one; Luke (xxiii. 34?, 43, 46) adds three, omitting the one found +in Matthew and Mark; John adds three more (xix. 26f., 28, 30). Luke xxiii. +34 is bracketed by Westcott and Hort because omitted by a very important +group of MSS. (<span lang="he" xml:lang="he" title="Aleph">א</span><sup>a</sup>BD*) and some early versions. The saying +is almost certainly authentic, though it may have been added to Luke by +some early copyist. See Westcott and Hort, <i>N.T. in Greek</i>, II. Appendix, +68; and Plummer, <i>Comm. on Luke</i>, 544f.</p></div> + + +<h4>IX</h4> + +<h5>The Resurrection and Ascension</h5> + +<div class="section" id="a091"><p><span class="versenum">91.</span> Read SandayHastBD II. 638-643; see KeimJK VI. 274-383, for a still +valid criticism of the position of RévilleJN II. 428-478; see also WeissLX +III. 382-409; BeysLJ I. 433-481, II. 474-493; BovonNTTh I. 350-375; +GilbertLJ 385-405; Loofs, <i>Die Auferstehungsberichte und ihr Wert</i>; +EdersLJM II. 621-652; AndLOL 589-639.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a092"><p><span class="versenum">92.</span> The last twelve verses of Mark (xvi. 9-20) are omitted by the oldest +MSS (<span lang="he" xml:lang="he" title="Aleph">א</span>B) and by the recently discovered Sinaitic Syriac, as +well as by other versions and fathers. An Armenian MS. has been found +ascribing the section to one Ariston, or Aristion, a second century elder, +and this explanation of the origin of the verses is widely accepted. The +gospel cannot have ended with the words "for they were afraid," but no +satisfactory explanation of the condition of its text has been found. For +a recent hypothesis see Rohrbach, <i>Der Schluss des Markusevangeliums</i>; on +Aristion as the author, see Conybeare in Expos. IV. viii. (1893) 241, IV. +x. 219, V. ii. 401; see also SandayHastBD II. 638f., Bruce, <i>Expos. Gk. +Test</i>. I. 454f. For discussion of textual evidence see Westcott and Hort, +<a class="newpage" name="page307" id="page307" title="307"></a><i>NT in Greek</i>, II. Appendix, 28-51, and Burgon, <i>The last twelve verses +of St. Mark</i> (a passionate defence).</p> + +<p>Luke xxiv. 51 is omitted by <span lang="he" xml:lang="he" title="Aleph">א</span>*D and several old Latin MSS. +See Plummer and Bruce on the passage.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a093"><p><span class="versenum">93.</span> "<i>After three days</i>." This formula, which appears often in Mark, is +altered in parallels in Matthew and Luke to "on the third day" (see +Concordance). Jesus died on Friday, lay in the tomb over Saturday, and +rose very early Sunday morning. Thus he spent a part of Friday, and a part +of Sunday, and all of Saturday in the grave. According to Jewish reckoning +this was counted three days.</p></div> + +<div class="section" id="a094"><p><span class="versenum">94.</span> <i>Emmaus</i>. A village about 60 furlongs from Jerusalem. Cannot have been +the Emmaus in the Shephelah, 20 m. from Jerusalem. May have been el +Kubeibeh, 63 furlongs distant on the road from Jerusalem to Lydda. See +AndLOL 617-619; but also HastBD I. 700.</p></div> + + + + +<h3>Part III.--The Minister</h3> + + +<h4>I</h4> + +<h5>The Friend of Men</h5> + +<div class="section" id="a095"><p><span class="versenum">95.</span> Head Mathews, <i>The Social Teachings of Jesus, </i> especially 132-174; +see also Robinson, <i>The Saviour in the Newer Light</i>, 343 ff.</p></div> + + +<h4>II</h4> + +<h5>The Teacher with Authority</h5> + +<div class="section" id="a096"><p><span class="versenum">96.</span> See WendtTJ I. 106-151; Stevens, <i>Theol. of the N.T.</i> 1-16; Beyschlag, +<i>N.T. Theology, I</i>. 31-34. In particular on the Parables see references in +sect. <a href="#a056">A 56</a>. On the content of Jesus' teaching see WendtTJ 2 vols.; +<a class="newpage" name="page308" id="page308" title="308"></a>Dalman, <i>Die Worte Jesu; Stevens, Theol. of the N.T.</i> 17-244; Beyschlag, +<i>N.T. Theol</i>. I. 27-299; Mathews, <i>Social Teaching of Jesus</i>; Gilbert, +<i>The Revelation of Jesus</i>; Bruce, <i>The Kingdom of God</i>.</p></div> + + +<h4>III</h4> + +<h5>Jesus' Knowledge of Truth</h5> + +<div class="section" id="a097"><p><span class="versenum">97.</span> Adamson, <i>The Mind in Christ</i>; GilbertRJ 169f., 240-242; Schwartzkopf, +<i>The Prophecies of Jesus Christ</i>.</p></div> + + +<h4>IV</h4> + +<h5>Jesus' Conception of Himself</h5> + +<div class="section" id="a098"><p><span class="versenum">98.</span> BaldSJ 125-282; Stalker, <i>Christology of Jesus</i>, +Holtz<del>mann</del>NtTh I. 234-304; WendtTJ II. 122-183; GilbertRJ +167-228; Stevens, <i>Theol. of the N.T.</i> 41-64, 199-212. On the title "Son +of Man" see particularly DalmanWJ I. 191-219; Charles, <i>Eschatology</i>, +214f. note; against, A. Meyer, <i>Jesu Muttersprache</i>, 91-101, and others. +See also Holtz<del>mann</del>NtTh I. 246-264. On the name "Son of God," +see Dalman WJ I. 219-237; Holtzmann NtTh I. 265-278; Stalker, +<i>Christology</i>, 86-123; Gilbert, as above. On the personal religion of +Jesus see Burton, Bib. Wld. 1899, II. 394-403. For the total impression of +the character of Jesus, read Bushnell, <i>The Character of Jesus</i>.</p></div> +</div> + + +<div id="indexes"> +<h2><a class="newpage" name="page309" id="page309" title="309"></a>Indexes<a class="newpage" name="page310" id="page310" title="310"></a></h2> + + + +<div id="index1"> +<h3><a class="newpage" name="page311" id="page311" title="311"></a>Index of Names and Subjects</h3> + + + +<p>[References are to pages.]</p> + + +<ul> +<li>Ænon, site of, <a href="#page288">288</a>.</li> +<li>"After three days," <a href="#page307">307</a>.</li> +<li>Agrapha, <a href="#page036">36</a>, <a href="#page149">149</a>, <a href="#page281">281</a>.</li> +<li>Andrew, of Bethsaida, <a href="#page092">92</a>, <a href="#page094">94</a>, <a href="#page118">118</a>.</li> +<li>Angels, doctrine of, <a href="#page010">10</a>.</li> +<li>Annas, <a href="#page191">191</a>, <a href="#page193">193</a>, <a href="#page194">194</a>.</li> +<li>Antipas, <a href="#page004">4</a>, <a href="#page192">192</a>.</li> +<li>Apocalypse, <a href="#page017">17</a>f., <a href="#page122">122</a>, <a href="#page124">124</a>, <a href="#page241">241</a>.</li> +<li>Apocryphal gospels, <a href="#page037">37</a>, <a href="#page281">281</a>, <a href="#page282">282</a>.</li> +<li>Archelaus, <a href="#page004">4</a>, <a href="#page005">5</a>.</li> +<li>Aristion, author of Mark xvi. <a href="#page009">9</a>-<a href="#page020">20</a>, <a href="#page204">204</a>f., <a href="#page306">306</a>f.</li> +<li>Assumption of Moses, <a href="#page075">75</a></li> + +<li>Baptism of John, see <i>John the Baptist</i>.</li> +<li>Baptism of Jesus, <a href="#page083">83</a>-<a href="#page086">86</a>, <a href="#page283">283</a>f.</li> +<li>Barabbas, <a href="#page174">174</a>, <a href="#page192">192</a>.</li> +<li>Bethany beyond Jordan, <a href="#page092">92</a>, <a href="#page284">284</a>.</li> +<li>Bethany, supper at, <a href="#page169">169</a>, <a href="#page301">301</a>.</li> +<li>Bethsaida, site of, <a href="#page290">290</a>.</li> +<li>Books of reference, <a href="#page273">273</a>-<a href="#page277">277</a>.</li> +<li>Brethren of Jesus, <a href="#page063">63</a>f., <a href="#page283">283</a>.</li> + +<li>Cæsarea Philippi, <a href="#page004">4</a>, <a href="#page291">291</a>. +<ul> <li>confession at, see <i>Peter</i>.</li></ul></li> +<li>Caiaphas, <a href="#page191">191</a>, <a href="#page193">193</a>, <a href="#page194">194</a>.</li> +<li>Cana of Galilee, <a href="#page095">95</a>, <a href="#page222">222</a>, <a href="#page286">286</a>.</li> +<li>Cananeans or Zealots, party of, <a href="#page011">11</a>, <a href="#page074">74</a>.</li> +<li>Capernaum, site of, <a href="#page290">290</a>.</li> +<li>Census under Quirinius, <a href="#page011">11</a>, <a href="#page052">52</a>-<a href="#page055">55</a>.</li> +<li>Chorazin, site of, <a href="#page290">290</a>.</li> + +<li>Dalmanutha, <a href="#page291">291</a>.</li> +<li>Dalmanutha, Books of, <a href="#page017">17</a>f., <a href="#page241">241</a>, <a href="#page254">254</a>f.</li> +<li>Decapolis, the, <a href="#page140">140</a>, <a href="#page291">291</a>.</li> +<li>Dedication, feast of, <a href="#page150">150</a>, <a href="#page154">154</a>.</li> +<li>Demoniac possession, <a href="#page131">131</a>-<a href="#page133">133</a>, <a href="#page245">245</a>-<a href="#page248">248</a>, <a href="#page299">299</a>.</li> +<li>Devout, the, <a href="#page013">13</a>, <a href="#page017">17</a>.</li> +<li>Diatessaron of Tatian, <a href="#page038">38</a>, <a href="#page047">47</a>, <a href="#page281">281</a>.</li> +<li>Doublets, <a href="#page044">44</a>, <a href="#page281">281</a>.</li> +<li>Draughts of fish, miraculous, <a href="#page293">293</a>.</li> + +<li>Emmaus, site of, <a href="#page307">307</a>.</li> +<li>Enoch, Book of, <a href="#page241">241</a>, <a href="#page256">256</a>-<a href="#page258">258</a>.</li> +<li>Ephraim, site of, <a href="#page300">300</a>.</li> +<li>Essenes,<ul><li> manner of living, <a href="#page011">11</a>-<a href="#page012">12</a>;</li> + <li>their hope of Messiah, <a href="#page016">16</a>;</li> + <li>their settlement, <a href="#page073">73</a>;</li> + <li>relation to John the Baptist, <a href="#page073">73</a>, <a href="#page077">77</a>.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Five thousand, the feeding of, <a href="#page135">135</a>f., <a href="#page291">291</a>.</li> + +<li>Gadarenes, country of, <a href="#page247">247</a>, <a href="#page290">290</a>f.</li> +<li>Genealogies of Jesus, <a href="#page282">282</a>.</li> +<li>Gethsemane, <a href="#page177">177</a>, <a href="#page186">186</a>, <a href="#page188">188</a>f., <a href="#page265">265</a>, <a href="#page305">305</a>.</li> +<li>Golgotha, <a href="#page305">305</a>.</li> + +<li>Herod the Great, <a href="#page003">3</a>; +<ul> <li>began to rebuild temple, <a href="#page049">49</a>;</li> + <li>census during his reign, <a href="#page054">54</a>.</li></ul></li> +<li>Herod Antipas, <a href="#page004">4</a>, <a href="#page192">192</a>.</li> +<li>Herodians, <a href="#page014">14</a>, <a href="#page173">173</a>.</li> + +<li>James, brother of John, <a href="#page092">92</a>, <a href="#page094">94</a>, <a href="#page118">118</a>.</li> +<li>Jesus,<ul><li> language of, <a href="#page019">19</a>, <a href="#page062">62</a>, <a href="#page279">279</a>;</li> + <li>date of birth, <a href="#page052">52</a>-<a href="#page056">56</a>;</li> + <li>the miraculous conception, <a href="#page058">58</a>-<a href="#page061">61</a>;</li> + <li>growth, physical, intellectual, moral, and spiritual, <a href="#page061">61</a>-<a href="#page066">66</a>;</li> + <li>his brothers and sisters, <a href="#page064">64</a>;</li> + <li>visit to Jerusalem in his twelfth year, <a href="#page066">66</a>-<a class="newpage" name="page312" id="page312" title="312"></a><a href="#page068">68</a>;</li> + <li>life in Nazareth, <a href="#page068">68</a>f.;</li> + <li>his baptism, <a href="#page083">83</a>-<a href="#page086">86</a>;</li> + <li>his temptation, <a href="#page086">86</a>-<a href="#page091">91</a>;</li> + <li>his first disciples, <a href="#page092">92</a>-<a href="#page095">95</a>;</li> + <li>at Cana, <a href="#page095">95</a>;</li> + <li>his social friendliness, <a href="#page096">96</a>, <a href="#page219">219</a>f.;</li> + <li>the cleansing of the temple, <a href="#page108">108</a>-<a href="#page110">110</a>;</li> + <li>talk with Nicodemus, <a href="#page111">111</a>;</li> + <li>the woman of Samaria, <a href="#page112">112</a>;</li> + <li>cure of nobleman's son, <a href="#page113">113</a>;</li> + <li>in retirement in Galilee, <a href="#page113">113</a>f.;</li> + <li>call of four disciples, <a href="#page118">118</a>;</li> + <li>popular enthusiasm and pharisaic opposition, <a href="#page119">119</a>-<a href="#page121">121</a>;</li> + <li>his withdrawals and injunctions of silence, <a href="#page122">122</a> ff.;</li> + <li>blasphemy of the Pharisees, <a href="#page124">124</a>;</li> + <li>the reply to John's message, <a href="#page125">125</a>;</li> + <li>his twofold aim in Galilee, <a href="#page126">126</a>;</li> + <li>his method, <a href="#page127">127</a>;</li> + <li>the sermon on the mount, <a href="#page127">127</a>f.;</li> + <li>the parables, <a href="#page128">128</a>f., <a href="#page231">231</a>f., <a href="#page296">296</a>f.;</li> + <li>instruction of the twelve, <a href="#page130">130</a>, <a href="#page297">297</a>;</li> + <li>his mighty works, <a href="#page131">131</a>f.;</li> + <li>his personal influence, <a href="#page133">133</a>;</li> + <li>the feeding of the five thousand, <a href="#page135">135</a>f.;</li> + <li>the revulsion in popular feeling, <a href="#page136">136</a>;</li> + <li>the controversy about hand washing, <a href="#page139">139</a>;</li> + <li>the withdrawal to the north, <a href="#page138">138</a>;</li> + <li>the demand for a sign, <a href="#page139">139</a>;</li> + <li>disciples warned against the Pharisees, <a href="#page139">139</a>;</li> + <li>the question at Cæsarea Philippi, <a href="#page141">141</a>f.;</li> + <li>commendation of Peter, <a href="#page143">143</a>;</li> + <li>announcement of approaching death, <a href="#page144">144</a>;</li> + <li>rebuke of Peter, <a href="#page145">145</a>;</li> + <li>the transfiguration, <a href="#page146">146</a>f.;</li> + <li>the epileptic boy, <a href="#page147">147</a>;</li> + <li>rebuke of worldly ambition, <a href="#page147">147</a>f.;</li> + <li>Jesus and his brethren, <a href="#page148">148</a>;</li> + <li>at the feast of Tabernacles, <a href="#page148">148</a>;</li> + <li>return to Galilee, <a href="#page150">150</a>;</li> + <li>final departure from Galilee, <a href="#page154">154</a>;</li> + <li>the mission of the seventy, <a href="#page158">158</a>;</li> + <li>visit to the feast of Dedication, <a href="#page159">159</a>;</li> + <li>in Perea, <a href="#page160">160</a>;</li> + <li>the summons to Bethany, <a href="#page161">161</a>f.;</li> + <li>official determination to get rid of him, <a href="#page161">161</a>;</li> + <li>at Ephraim, <a href="#page162">162</a>;</li> + <li>question about divorce, <a href="#page154">154</a>;</li> + <li>blessing little children, <a href="#page154">154</a>;</li> + <li>the rich young ruler, <a href="#page154">154</a>;</li> + <li>request of Salome, <a href="#page163">163</a>;</li> + <li>Bartimeus, <a href="#page163">163</a>;</li> + <li>Zacchæus, <a href="#page163">163</a>;</li> + <li>anointing at Bethany, <a href="#page169">169</a>;</li> + <li>the Messianic entry, <a href="#page170">170</a>f.;</li> + <li>the barren fig-tree, <a href="#page172">172</a>;</li> + <li>the questions of the leaders, <a href="#page173">173</a>f.;</li> + <li>counter question, <a href="#page175">175</a>;</li> + <li>denunciation of scribes, <a href="#page175">175</a>;</li> + <li>the widow's mites, <a href="#page176">176</a>;</li> + <li>visit of the Greeks. <a href="#page176">176</a>f.;</li> + <li>the eschatological discourse, <a href="#page178">178</a>;</li> + <li>bargain of Judas, <a href="#page169">169</a>, <a href="#page178">178</a>f.;</li> + <li>the last supper, <a href="#page181">181</a>-<a href="#page184">184</a>;</li> + <li>dispute and foot washing, <a href="#page184">184</a>;</li> + <li>withdrawal of Judas, <a href="#page184">184</a>;</li> + <li>prediction of Peter's denials, <a href="#page185">185</a>;</li> + <li>discourse and prayer, <a href="#page185">185</a>-<a href="#page187">187</a>;</li> + <li>Gethsemane, <a href="#page188">188</a>-<a href="#page190">190</a>;</li> + <li>betrayal and arrest, <a href="#page190">190</a>f.;</li> + <li>trial by Jews, <a href="#page191">191</a>f.;</li> + <li>trial by Pilate, <a href="#page192">192</a>-<a href="#page194">194</a>;</li> + <li>crucifixion, <a href="#page195">195</a>-<a href="#page198">198</a>;</li> + <li>burial of Jesus, <a href="#page199">199</a>;</li> + <li>the resurrection, <a href="#page201">201</a>-<a href="#page210">210</a>;</li> + <li>the ascension, <a href="#page214">214</a>f.;</li> + <li>Jesus' attitude to common life, <a href="#page219">219</a>-<a href="#page223">223</a>;</li> + <li>his hunger for sympathy, <a href="#page223">223</a>;</li> + <li>Jesus as a teacher, <a href="#page226">226</a>f.;</li> + <li>his attitude to Old Testament, <a href="#page227">227</a>-<a href="#page229">229</a>;</li> + <li>his confidence in men, <a href="#page230">230</a>f.;</li> + <li>his use of illustration, <a href="#page231">231</a>-<a href="#page233">233</a>;</li> + <li>his alertness of mind, <a href="#page234">234</a>;</li> + <li>his leading ideas, <a href="#page235">235</a> ff.;</li> + <li>his supernatural knowledge, <a href="#page239">239</a>-<a href="#page244">244</a>;</li> + <li>his confession of ignorance, <a href="#page243">243</a>;</li> + <li>his kinship with men, <a href="#page244">244</a>f.;</li> + <li>treatment of demoniac possession, <a href="#page245">245</a>-<a href="#page248">248</a>;</li> + <li>his certainty of his Messianic call, <a href="#page249">249</a>-<a href="#page254">254</a>;</li> + <li>his adoption of Messianic titles, <a href="#page254">254</a>-<a href="#page264">264</a>;</li> + <li>his consciousness of dependence on God, <a href="#page264">264</a>-<a href="#page266">266</a>;</li> + <li>the problem of Jesus, <a href="#page267">267</a>-<a href="#page269">269</a>.</li></ul></li> +<li>John, Gospel of, <a href="#page032">32</a>-<a href="#page036">36</a>, <a href="#page040">40</a>f., <a href="#page181">181</a>, <a href="#page280">280</a>, <a href="#page305">305</a>.</li> +<li>John the Baptist, <a href="#page070">70</a>-<a href="#page081">81</a>; +<ul> <li>notice by Josephus, <a href="#page071">71</a>f., <a href="#page279">279</a>f.;</li> + <li>his idea of the kingdom of God, <a href="#page073">73</a>;</li> + <li>his relation to current thought, <a href="#page073">73</a>-<a href="#page076">76</a>;</li> + <li>his baptism, <a href="#page077">77</a>f., <a href="#page083">83</a>;</li> + <li>baptism of Jesus, <a href="#page082">82</a>-<a href="#page084">84</a>;</li> + <li>the embassy from the priests, <a href="#page092">92</a>;</li> + <li>testimony--"the Lamb of God," <a href="#page093">93</a>, <a href="#page286">286</a>;</li> + <li>baptizing at Ænon, <a href="#page112">112</a>;</li> + <li>his self-effacing witness to Jesus, <a href="#page079">79</a>, <a href="#page112">112</a>;</li> + <li>hostility of the Pharisees, <a href="#page113">113</a>, <a href="#page289">289</a>;</li> + <li>arrest by Antipas, <a href="#page071">71</a>f., <a href="#page113">113</a>;</li> + <li>his message to Jesus, <a href="#page125">125</a>;</li> + <li>death in prison, <a href="#page134">134</a>f.; his significance, <a href="#page079">79</a>-<a href="#page081">81</a>, <a href="#page226">226</a>;</li> + <li>the disciples of John, <a href="#page112">112</a>, <a href="#page283">283</a>;</li> + <li>literature about John, <a href="#page283">283</a>.</li></ul></li> +<li>John, son of Zebedee, <a href="#page036">36</a>, <a href="#page092">92</a>, <a href="#page094">94</a>, <a href="#page118">118</a>, <a href="#page193">193</a>,<a href="#page269">269</a>.</li> +<li><a class="newpage" name="page313" id="page313" title="313"></a>John of Gischals, <a href="#page121">121</a>.</li> +<li>Joseph of Arimathea, <a href="#page182">182</a>, <a href="#page199">199</a>.</li> +<li>Josephus, <a href="#page022">22</a>; +<ul> <li>notice of John the Baptist, <a href="#page071">71</a>, <a href="#page279">279</a>f.</li></ul></li> +<li>Judas of Galilee, <a href="#page011">11</a>, <a href="#page121">121</a>.</li> +<li>Judas the betrayer, <a href="#page169">169</a>, <a href="#page181">181</a>, <a href="#page302">302</a>; +<ul> <li>the bargain, <a href="#page178">178</a>;</li> + <li>his selection as an apostle, <a href="#page179">179</a>;</li> + <li>his criticism of Mary at Bethany, <a href="#page179">179</a>;</li> + <li>his kiss, <a href="#page190">190</a>;</li> + <li>his remorse, <a href="#page179">179</a>.</li></ul></li> +<li>Judea, province of, <a href="#page006">6</a>f.</li> + +<li>Kingdom of God, <a href="#page068">68</a>, <a href="#page086">86</a>, <a href="#page090">90</a>, <a href="#page173">173</a>, <a href="#page190">190</a>, <a href="#page231">231</a>, <a href="#page232">232</a>, <a href="#page235">235</a> ff., <a href="#page238">238</a>, <a href="#page241">241</a>.</li> + +<li>Language used by Jesus, <a href="#page019">19</a>, <a href="#page062">62</a>, <a href="#page279">279</a>.</li> +<li>Last supper, the, <a href="#page181">181</a>-<a href="#page187">187</a>, <a href="#page303">303</a>-<a href="#page305">305</a>.</li> +<li>Lawyers, see <i>Scribes</i>.</li> +<li>Length of Jesus' ministry, <a href="#page045">45</a>-<a href="#page049">49</a>.</li> +<li>Literature of the Jews, <a href="#page018">18</a>f., <a href="#page279">279</a>.</li> +<li>"Logia," ascribed to Matthew, <a href="#page032">32</a>, <a href="#page042">42</a>, <a href="#page158">158</a>.</li> +<li>Luke, Gospel of, <a href="#page026">26</a>f., <a href="#page031">31</a>f., <a href="#page280">280</a>.</li> + +<li>Mark, Gospel of, <a href="#page025">25</a>f., <a href="#page027">27</a>, <a href="#page029">29</a>, <a href="#page032">32</a>, <a href="#page040">40</a>, <a href="#page042">42</a>, <a href="#page280">280</a>, <a href="#page294">294</a>f.; +<ul> <li>last twelve verses of, <a href="#page204">204</a>f., <a href="#page306">306</a>f.</li></ul></li> +<li>Mary Magdalene, <a href="#page134">134</a>, <a href="#page208">208</a>.</li> +<li>Mary, the mother of Jesus, <a href="#page059">59</a>; +<ul> <li>had other children, <a href="#page060">60</a>, <a href="#page063">63</a>f., <a href="#page283">283</a>.</li></ul></li> +<li>Matthew, Gospel of, <a href="#page023">23</a> ff., <a href="#page027">27</a>, <a href="#page030">30</a>f., <a href="#page032">32</a>, <a href="#page280">280</a>.</li> +<li>Messianic entry into Jerusalem, <a href="#page170">170</a>, <a href="#page301">301</a>f.</li> +<li>Messianic hope, the, <a href="#page016">16</a>-<a href="#page018">18</a>, <a href="#page087">87</a>, <a href="#page175">175</a>, <a href="#page279">279</a>.</li> +<li>Miracles of Jesus, <a href="#page096">96</a>, <a href="#page267">267</a>, <a href="#page286">286</a>f.</li> +<li>Miraculous birth, the, <a href="#page057">57</a>-<a href="#page061">61</a>, <a href="#page232">232</a>.</li> +<li>Mission of the twelve, <a href="#page130">130</a>, <a href="#page297">297</a>.</li> +<li>Mission of the seventy, <a href="#page158">158</a>, <a href="#page300">300</a>f.</li> + +<li>Nathanael, of Cana, <a href="#page092">92</a>, <a href="#page094">94</a>, <a href="#page286">286</a>.</li> +<li>Nazareth,<ul><li> the view from, <a href="#page065">65</a>f.</li> + <li>rejection at, <a href="#page292">292</a>.</li></ul></li> +<li>Nicodemus, <a href="#page111">111</a>, <a href="#page199">199</a>.</li> + +<li>Papias, <a href="#page022">22</a>, <a href="#page029">29</a>, <a href="#page034">34</a>, <a href="#page047">47</a>, <a href="#page102">102</a>, <a href="#page281">281</a>.</li> +<li>Parables of Jesus, <a href="#page128">128</a>f., <a href="#page231">231</a>f., <a href="#page296">296</a>f.</li> +<li>Passover, the, <a href="#page181">181</a>, <a href="#page187">187</a>, <a href="#page304">304</a>.</li> +<li>Paul, <a href="#page021">21</a>, <a href="#page036">36</a>, <a href="#page201">201</a>, <a href="#page206">206</a>, <a href="#page268">268</a>.</li> +<li>Pentateuch, Jesus' references to, <a href="#page244">244</a>.</li> +<li>Perea, <a href="#page104">104</a>, <a href="#page153">153</a>f., <a href="#page158">158</a>, <a href="#page299">299</a>f.</li> +<li>Peter, <a href="#page029">29</a>, <a href="#page034">34</a>, <a href="#page092">92</a>, <a href="#page094">94</a>, <a href="#page118">118</a>, <a href="#page185">185</a>, <a href="#page193">193</a>, <a href="#page305">305</a>, <a href="#page306">306</a>; +<ul> <li>confession of, <a href="#page136">136</a>, <a href="#page142">142</a> ff., <a href="#page297">297</a>f.</li></ul></li> +<li>Pharisees, the, <a href="#page008">8</a>-<a href="#page010">10</a>; +<ul> <li>attitude to John the Baptist, <a href="#page082">82</a>, <a href="#page113">113</a>, <a href="#page289">289</a>;</li> + <li>their blasphemy, <a href="#page124">124</a>, <a href="#page156">156</a>;</li> + <li>question about divorce, <a href="#page154">154</a>;</li> + <li>about tribute, <a href="#page173">173</a>;</li> + <li>about the great commandment, <a href="#page174">174</a>, <a href="#page302">302</a>.</li></ul></li> +<li>Philip of Bethsaida, <a href="#page092">92</a>, <a href="#page094">94</a>, <a href="#page176">176</a>.</li> +<li>Philip the tetrarch, <a href="#page004">4</a>.</li> +<li>Pliny the younger, <a href="#page021">21</a>.</li> +<li>Pontius Pilate, <a href="#page005">5</a>, <a href="#page192">192</a>, <a href="#page195">195</a>.</li> +<li>Priests, the, <a href="#page007">7</a>f., <a href="#page107">107</a>; +<ul> <li>and the temple market, <a href="#page108">108</a>.</li></ul></li> +<li>Proselytes, <a href="#page078">78</a>, <a href="#page176">176</a>, <a href="#page302">302</a>.</li> +<li>Psalms, Jesus' use of the, <a href="#page244">244</a>.</li> +<li>Psalms of Solomon, <a href="#page018">18</a>, <a href="#page261">261</a>.</li> +<li>Publicans, <a href="#page006">6</a>, <a href="#page072">72</a>, <a href="#page222">222</a>.</li> + +<li>Quirinius, census under, <a href="#page052">52</a>-<a href="#page055">55</a>.</li> + +<li>Religion of Jesus, <a href="#page264">264</a> ff., <a href="#page308">308</a>.</li> +<li>Resurrection,<ul><li> pharisaic doctrine of, <a href="#page010">10</a>, <a href="#page241">241</a>;</li> + <li>Sadducean rejection of <a href="#page010">10</a>, <a href="#page174">174</a>.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Sadducees, the, <a href="#page008">8</a>, <a href="#page016">16</a>, <a href="#page082">82</a>; +<ul> <li>the question about the resurrection, <a href="#page174">174</a>, <a href="#page303">303</a>;</li> + <li>attitude towards Jesus, <a href="#page193">193</a>.</li></ul></li> +<li>Samaria, <a href="#page006">6</a>f. +<ul> <li>Jesus' journey through, <a href="#page112">112</a>.</li></ul></li> +<li>Samaritans, how regarded, <a href="#page014">14</a>.</li> +<li>Sanhedrin, the great, at Jerusalem, <a href="#page007">7</a>, <a href="#page013">13</a>, <a href="#page192">192</a>.</li> +<li>Scribes,<ul><li> their business, <a href="#page009">9</a>;</li> + <li>power in the sanhedrin, <a href="#page013">13</a>;</li> + <li>their influence over the religious life, <a href="#page014">14</a>;</li> + <li>their hope of a Messiah, <a href="#page016">16</a>;</li> + <li>their washings, <a href="#page078">78</a>;</li> + <li>chief of them at Jerusalem, <a href="#page107">107</a>;</li> + <li>their pride of learning and their bondage to tradition, <a href="#page228">228</a>.</li></ul></li> +<li>Sermon on the mount, <a href="#page127">127</a>, <a href="#page290">290</a>, <a href="#page295">295</a>f.</li> +<li>Signs, essential marks of the Messiah, <a href="#page095">95</a>, <a href="#page131">131</a>.</li> +<li>Soldiers in Palestine, <a href="#page006">6</a>, <a href="#page072">72</a>, <a href="#page191">191</a>.</li> +<li>Son of Man, the, <a href="#page124">124</a>f., <a href="#page130">130</a>f., <a href="#page254">254</a>-<a href="#page260">260</a>, <a href="#page308">308</a>.</li> +<li><a class="newpage" name="page314" id="page314" title="314"></a>Son of God, the, <a href="#page260">260</a>-<a href="#page264">264</a>, <a href="#page308">308</a>.</li> +<li>Star of the wise men, <a href="#page056">56</a>.</li> +<li>Suetonius, <a href="#page021">21</a>.</li> +<li>Sychar, site of, <a href="#page288">288</a>.</li> +<li>Synagogue, the, <a href="#page014">14</a>.</li> +<li>Synoptic gospels, <a href="#page028">28</a>.</li> +<li>Synoptic problem, <a href="#page027">27</a>-<a href="#page032">32</a>, <a href="#page279">279</a>f.</li> + +<li>Tabernacles, feast of, <a href="#page148">148</a>, <a href="#page150">150</a>, <a href="#page298">298</a>f.</li> +<li>Tacitus, <a href="#page003">3</a>, <a href="#page021">21</a>, <a href="#page054">54</a>.</li> +<li>Tatian, <a href="#page023">23</a>, <a href="#page038">38</a>, <a href="#page047">47</a>, <a href="#page281">281</a>.</li> +<li>Taxes, Roman, in Judea, <a href="#page006">6</a>.</li> +<li>Temple at Jerusalem, <a href="#page107">107</a>; +<ul> <li>market in <a href="#page107">107</a>;</li> + <li>cleansing of, <a href="#page107">107</a>, <a href="#page288">288</a>f.</li></ul></li> +<li>Temptation of Jesus, <a href="#page086">86</a>-<a href="#page091">91</a>, <a href="#page145">145</a>, <a href="#page284">284</a>; +<ul> <li>locality of, <a href="#page285">285</a>;</li> + <li>source of the record, <a href="#page090">90</a>, <a href="#page285">285</a>.</li></ul></li> +<li>Tertullian, <a href="#page045">45</a>, <a href="#page053">53</a>.</li> +<li>Thomas, <a href="#page208">208</a>.</li> +<li>Tiberius, <a href="#page001">1</a>, <a href="#page021">21</a>, <a href="#page050">50</a>.</li> +<li>Traditions of the elders, <a href="#page009">9</a>, <a href="#page015">15</a>f., <a href="#page068">68</a>, <a href="#page074">74</a>, <a href="#page139">139</a>.</li> +<li>Transfiguration, the, <a href="#page146">146</a>f., <a href="#page292">292</a>.</li> +<li>Trial of Jesus, the, <a href="#page191">191</a>-<a href="#page195">195</a>, <a href="#page305">305</a>.</li> + +<li>Words from the cross, <a href="#page196">196</a> ff., <a href="#page306">306</a>.</li> + +<li>Zealots, the, <a href="#page011">11</a>, <a href="#page074">74</a>, <a href="#page122">122</a>, <a href="#page124">124</a>.</li> +</ul></div> + + + +<div id="index2"> +<h3><a class="newpage" name="page315" id="page315" title="315"></a>Index of Scripture References</h3> + + + +<table summary="Index of Scripture References"> +<tr><th colspan="2">Ex.</th></tr> + +<tr><td>iv. 22 </td><td><a href="#page261">261</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xix. 10 </td><td><a href="#page078">78</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxiv. 1-11 </td><td><a href="#page183">183</a></td></tr> + + + +<tr><th colspan="2">Lev.</th></tr> + +<tr><td>xii. 8 </td><td><a href="#page061">61</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxiii. 5-11 </td><td><a href="#page047">47</a></td></tr> + + + +<tr><th colspan="2">Num.</th></tr> + +<tr><td>xxiii. 19 </td><td><a href="#page254">254</a></td></tr> + + + +<tr><th colspan="2">Deut.</th></tr> + +<tr><td>vi. 4-9 </td><td><a href="#page062">62</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>viii. 3 </td><td><a href="#page088">88</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xviii. 15 </td><td><a href="#page092">92</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxi. 23 </td><td><a href="#page196">196</a></td></tr> + + + +<tr><th colspan="2">I. Sam.</th></tr> + +<tr><td>ii. 26 </td><td><a href="#page061">61</a></td></tr> + + + +<tr><th colspan="2">I. Kings.</th></tr> + +<tr><td>xvii. 1 </td><td><a href="#page072">72</a></td></tr> + + + +<tr><th colspan="2">II. Kings.</th></tr> + +<tr><td>i. 8 </td><td><a href="#page078">78</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xvii. 24-41 </td><td><a href="#page014">14</a></td></tr> + + + +<tr><th colspan="2">Ps.</th></tr> + +<tr><td>ii. 7 </td><td><a href="#page261">261</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>viii. 4 </td><td><a href="#page254">254</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxii. </td><td><a href="#page196">196</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>lxxx. 17 </td><td><a href="#page254">254</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>lxxxii. 6 </td><td><a href="#page261">261</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ciii. 13 </td><td><a href="#page262">262</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>cxiii., cxiv. </td><td><a href="#page304">304</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>cxv. to cxviii. </td><td><a href="#page185">185</a>, <a href="#page304">304</a></td></tr> + + + +<tr><th colspan="2">Isa.</th></tr> + +<tr><td>i. 16 </td><td><a href="#page076">76</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vi. 5 </td><td><a href="#page267">267</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xi. 2 </td><td><a href="#page085">85</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxxv. 5f. </td><td><a href="#page126">126</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xlii. 1 </td><td><a href="#page085">85</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>li. 2 </td><td><a href="#page254">254</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>liii. </td><td><a href="#page096">96</a>, <a href="#page239">239</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>liii. 7 </td><td><a href="#page093">93</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>lviii. </td><td><a href="#page076">76</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>lxi. 1f. </td><td><a href="#page045">45</a>, <a href="#page085">85</a>, <a href="#page126">126</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>lxiii. 16 </td><td><a href="#page262">262</a></td></tr> + + + +<tr><th colspan="2">Jer.</th></tr> + +<tr><td>xxxi. 31-34 </td><td><a href="#page111">111</a>, <a href="#page183">183</a></td></tr> + + + +<tr><th colspan="2">Ezek.</th></tr> + +<tr><td>ii. 1 </td><td><a href="#page254">254</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxxiii. 10-20 </td><td><a href="#page240">240</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxxvi. 25-27 </td><td><a href="#page111">111</a></td></tr> + + +<tr><th colspan="2">Dan.</th></tr> + +<tr><td>vi. 10 </td><td><a href="#page107">107</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vii. 1-14 </td><td><a href="#page254">254</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vii. 13f. </td><td><a href="#page255">255</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>viii. 17 </td><td><a href="#page254">254</a></td></tr> + + +<tr><th colspan="2">Hos.</th></tr> + +<tr><td>i. 10 </td><td><a href="#page261">261</a></td></tr> + + +<tr><th colspan="2">Joel.</th></tr> + +<tr><td>ii. 1-14 </td><td><a href="#page076">76</a></td></tr> + + +<tr><th colspan="2">Micah.</th></tr> + +<tr><td>vi. 8 </td><td><a href="#page076">76</a></td></tr> + + +<tr><th colspan="2">Matt.</th></tr> + +<tr><td>i. 1 to iv. 17 </td><td><a href="#page023">23</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ii. 1, 2 </td><td><a href="#page052">52</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iii. 7 </td><td><a href="#page074">74</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iii. 9 </td><td><a href="#page078">78</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iii. 10-12 </td><td><a href="#page082">82</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iii. 11 </td><td><a href="#page077">77</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iii. 14 </td><td><a href="#page082">82</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iii. 15 </td><td><a href="#page083">83</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iii. 16 </td><td><a href="#page285">285</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iv. 4, 7, 10 </td><td><a href="#page228">228</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iv. 7 </td><td><a href="#page089">89</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iv. 8 </td><td><a href="#page090">90</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iv. 10 </td><td><a href="#page090">90</a>, <a href="#page145">145</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iv. 12 </td><td><a href="#page101">101</a>, <a href="#page102">102</a>, <a href="#page106">106</a>, <a href="#page289">289</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iv. 12-17 </td><td><a href="#page024">24</a>, <a href="#page039">39</a>, <a href="#page115">115</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iv. 12 to xviii. 35 </td><td><a href="#page102">102</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iv. 13 </td><td><a href="#page106">106</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iv. 13-16 </td><td><a href="#page115">115</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iv. 17 </td><td><a href="#page118">118</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iv. 18-22 </td><td><a href="#page106">106</a>, <a href="#page115">115</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iv. 18 to xvi. 20 </td><td><a href="#page024">24</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iv. 23 </td><td><a href="#page115">115</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iv. 23-25 </td><td><a href="#page115">115</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>v. 1 </td><td><a href="#page290">290</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>v. 3-12 </td><td><a href="#page296">296</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>v. 13-16 </td><td><a href="#page296">296</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>v. 17 </td><td><a href="#page083">83</a>, <a href="#page228">228</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>v. 17-19 </td><td><a href="#page296">296</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>v. 18 </td><td><a href="#page238">238</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>v. 20 </td><td><a href="#page296">296</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>v. 21-48 </td><td><a href="#page228">228</a>, <a href="#page296">296</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>v. 25f. </td><td><a href="#page295">295</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>v. 29f. </td><td><a href="#page295">295</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>v. 32 </td><td><a href="#page295">295</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>v. 38, 39 </td><td><a href="#page250">250</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>v. 45 </td><td><a href="#page244">244</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vi. 1-6 </td><td><a href="#page084">84</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vi. 1-18 </td><td><a href="#page064">64</a>, <a href="#page296">296</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vi. 2-4 </td><td><a href="#page176">176</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vi. 9-15 </td><td><a href="#page004">4</a>, <a href="#page117">117</a>, <a href="#page295">295</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vi. 19-34 </td><td><a href="#page103">103</a>, <a href="#page295">295</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vi. 24 </td><td><a href="#page179">179</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vi. 25-34 </td><td><a href="#page042">42</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vii. 1-6 </td><td><a href="#page296">296</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vii. 7-11 </td><td><a href="#page117">117</a>, <a href="#page295">295</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vii. 13f. </td><td><a href="#page295">295</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vii. 15-21 </td><td><a href="#page296">296</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vii. 21 </td><td><a href="#page262">262</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vii. 21-27 </td><td><a href="#page238">238</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vii. 22f. </td><td><a href="#page295">295</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vii. 24-27 </td><td><a href="#page296">296</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vii. 28, 29 </td><td><a href="#page226">226</a>, <a href="#page249">249</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>viii. 2-4 </td><td><a href="#page115">115</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>viii. 5 </td><td><a href="#page007">7</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>viii. 5, 8 </td><td><a href="#page043">43</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>viii. 5-13 </td><td><a href="#page041">41</a>, <a href="#page115">115</a>, <a href="#page288">288</a>, <a href="#page289">289</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>viii. 10 </td><td><a href="#page243">243</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>viii. 10-12 </td><td><a href="#page024">24</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>viii. 14-17 </td><td><a href="#page115">115</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>viii. 18, 23-27 </td><td><a href="#page116">116</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>viii. 19-22 </td><td><a href="#page153">153</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>viii. 20 </td><td><a href="#page259">259</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>viii. 28-34 </td><td><a href="#page116">116</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ix. 1, 18-26 </td><td><a href="#page116">116</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ix. 2-8 </td><td><a href="#page115">115</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ix. 9-13 </td><td><a href="#page115">115</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ix. 14-17 </td><td><a href="#page115">115</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ix. 27-34 </td><td><a href="#page116">116</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ix. 35 </td><td><a href="#page116">116</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ix. 36 to xi. 1 </td><td><a href="#page116">116</a>, <a href="#page118">118</a>, <a href="#page297">297</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>x. 1, 5-15 </td><td><a href="#page297">297</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>x. 5f. </td><td><a href="#page130">130</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>x. 7-15 </td><td><a href="#page297">297</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>x. 16-42 </td><td><a href="#page297">297</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>x. 32 </td><td><a href="#page262">262</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xi. 2-6 </td><td><a href="#page251">251</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xi. 2-19 </td><td><a href="#page041">41</a>, <a href="#page116">116</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xi. 4-6 </td><td><a href="#page131">131</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xi. 11 </td><td><a href="#page080">80</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xi. 18f. </td><td><a href="#page259">259</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xi. 19 </td><td><a href="#page096">96</a>, <a href="#page220">220</a>, <a href="#page256">256</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xi. 20-24 </td><td><a href="#page301">301</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xi. 20-30 </td><td><a href="#page153">153</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xi. 25-30 </td><td><a href="#page300">300</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xi. 27 </td><td><a href="#page252">252</a>, <a href="#page263">263</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xi. 28-30 </td><td><a href="#page160">160</a></td></tr> +<tr><td><a class="newpage" name="page316" id="page316" title="316"></a>xii. 1-8 </td><td><a href="#page115">115</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xii. 9-14 </td><td><a href="#page115">115</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xii. 12 </td><td><a href="#page227">227</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xii. 15-21 </td><td><a href="#page115">115</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xii. 22-45 </td><td><a href="#page116">116</a>, <a href="#page156">156</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xii. 28 </td><td><a href="#page085">85</a>, <a href="#page248">248</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xii. 46-50 </td><td><a href="#page116">116</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xii. 50 </td><td><a href="#page145">145</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xiii. 1-53 </td><td><a href="#page116">116</a>, <a href="#page296">296</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xiii. 24-30 </td><td><a href="#page296">296</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xiii. 31-33 </td><td><a href="#page044">44</a>, <a href="#page017">17</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xiii. 40-43, 49, 50 </td><td><a href="#page296">296</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xiii. 54-58 </td><td><a href="#page116">116</a>, <a href="#page292">292</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xiii. 55 </td><td><a href="#page061">61</a>, <a href="#page063">63</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xiv. 1-12 </td><td><a href="#page116">116</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xiv. 1 to xxviii. 20 </td><td><a href="#page028">28</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xiv. 13-23 </td><td><a href="#page039">39</a>, <a href="#page116">116</a>, <a href="#page297">297</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xiv. 19 </td><td><a href="#page046">46</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xiv. 21-36 </td><td><a href="#page116">116</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xv. 1 </td><td><a href="#page043">43</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xv. 1-20 </td><td><a href="#page116">116</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xv. 13f. </td><td><a href="#page150">150</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xv. 21-28 </td><td><a href="#page116">116</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xv. 21-31 </td><td><a href="#page140">140</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xv. 22 </td><td><a href="#page254">254</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xv. 24 </td><td><a href="#page130">130</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xv. 29-31 </td><td><a href="#page117">117</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xv. 32-38 </td><td><a href="#page117">117</a>, <a href="#page297">297</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xv. 39 </td><td><a href="#page291">291</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xv. 39 to xvi. 12 </td><td><a href="#page017">17</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xvi. 9f. </td><td><a href="#page297">297</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xvi. 13-20 </td><td><a href="#page094">94</a>, <a href="#page117">117</a>, <a href="#page298">298</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xvi. 16 </td><td><a href="#page263">263</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xvi. 16ff. </td><td><a href="#page142">142</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xvi. 17 </td><td><a href="#page142">142</a>, <a href="#page224">224</a>, <a href="#page262">262</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xvi. 21 </td><td><a href="#page118">118</a>, <a href="#page239">239</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xvi. 21-28 </td><td><a href="#page117">117</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xvi. 21 to xxviii. 20 </td><td><a href="#page024">24</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xvi. 23 </td><td><a href="#page239">239</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xvii. 1-13 </td><td><a href="#page117">117</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xvii. 10-13 </td><td><a href="#page193">193</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xvii. 14-20 </td><td><a href="#page117">117</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xvi. 22-23 </td><td><a href="#page117">117</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xvii. 24-27 </td><td><a href="#page117">117</a>, <a href="#page139">139</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xviii. 1-35 </td><td><a href="#page117">117</a>, <a href="#page148">148</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xviii. 4 </td><td><a href="#page220">220</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xviii. 12-14 </td><td><a href="#page044">44</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xix. 1f. </td><td><a href="#page039">39</a>, <a href="#page153">153</a>, <a href="#page154">154</a>, <a href="#page298">298</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xix. 1 to xx. 34 </td><td><a href="#page104">104</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xix. 3-9 </td><td><a href="#page228">228</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xix. 3-12 </td><td><a href="#page153">153</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xix. 13-15 </td><td><a href="#page153">153</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xix. 16 to xx. 16 </td><td><a href="#page153">153</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xx. 17-19 </td><td><a href="#page153">153</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xx. 20-28 </td><td><a href="#page153">153</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xx. 29-34 </td><td><a href="#page153">153</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxi. 1-11 </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxi. 1 to xxvii. 66 </td><td><a href="#page104">104</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxi. 1 to xxviii. 20 </td><td><a href="#page039">39</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxi. 4f. </td><td><a href="#page170">170</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxi. 9-15 </td><td><a href="#page254">254</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxi. 14-16 </td><td><a href="#page172">172</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxi. 17 </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxi. 18-19, 12-17 </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxi. 20-23 </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxi. 23-27 </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxi. 28 to xxii. 14 </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a>, <a href="#page173">173</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxi. 33-46 </td><td><a href="#page025">25</a>, <a href="#page252">252</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxii. 1-14 </td><td><a href="#page252">252</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxii. 15-22 </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxii. 23-33 </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxii. 34-46 </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a>, <a href="#page238">238</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxii. 41-46 </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxiii. 1-39 </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxiii. 2 </td><td><a href="#page013">13</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxiii. 24 </td><td><a href="#page233">233</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxiii. 37-39 </td><td><a href="#page034">34</a>, <a href="#page106">106</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxiv. 1 to xxvi. 2 </td><td><a href="#page167">167</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxiv. 6-13 </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxv. </td><td><a href="#page178">178</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxv. 37-46 </td><td><a href="#page237">237</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxv. 40 </td><td><a href="#page221">221</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxvi. 1f. </td><td><a href="#page147">147</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxvi. 2, 6-13 </td><td><a href="#page301">301</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxvi. 3-5, 14-16 </td><td><a href="#page167">167</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxvi. 11-13 </td><td><a href="#page167">167</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxvi. 20 </td><td><a href="#page181">181</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxvi. 25 </td><td><a href="#page200">200</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxvi. 26 </td><td><a href="#page305">305</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxvi. 30, 36-46 </td><td><a href="#page167">167</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxvi. 30-35 </td><td><a href="#page305">305</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxvi. 47-56 </td><td><a href="#page167">167</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxvi. 57 to xxvii. 10 </td><td><a href="#page167">167</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxvi. 63f. </td><td><a href="#page263">263</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxvii. 11-31 </td><td><a href="#page167">167</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxvii. 32-56 </td><td><a href="#page167">167</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxvii. 43 </td><td><a href="#page261">261</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxvii. 46 </td><td><a href="#page197">197</a>, <a href="#page306">306</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxvii. 50 </td><td><a href="#page285">285</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxvii. 57 </td><td><a href="#page034">34</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxvii. 57-61 </td><td><a href="#page167">167</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxvii. 62-66 </td><td><a href="#page167">167</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxviii. 1-8 </td><td><a href="#page201">201</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxviii. 9, 10 </td><td><a href="#page201">201</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxviii. 11-15 </td><td><a href="#page201">201</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxviii. 16-20 </td><td><a href="#page201">201</a>, <a href="#page204">204</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxviii. 18-20 </td><td><a href="#page025">25</a></td></tr> + + +<tr><th colspan="2">Mark.</th></tr> + +<tr><td>i. 1-13 </td><td><a href="#page026">26</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>i. 3 </td><td><a href="#page079">79</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>i. 4 </td><td><a href="#page077">77</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>i. 7f. </td><td><a href="#page093">93</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>i. 10 </td><td><a href="#page084">84</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>i. 11 </td><td><a href="#page068">68</a>, <a href="#page084">84</a>, <a href="#page261">261</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>i. 14 </td><td><a href="#page101">101</a>, <a href="#page102">102</a>, <a href="#page106">106</a>, <a href="#page289">289</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>i. 14f. </td><td><a href="#page039">39</a>, <a href="#page115">115</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>i. 14 to ix. 50 </td><td><a href="#page026">26</a>, <a href="#page102">102</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>i. 16-20 </td><td><a href="#page115">115</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>i. 21-34 </td><td><a href="#page115">115</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>i. 24 </td><td><a href="#page254">254</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>i. 27 </td><td><a href="#page249">249</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>i. 35 </td><td><a href="#page265">265</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>i. 35-39 </td><td><a href="#page253">253</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>i. 35-45 </td><td><a href="#page115">115</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ii. 1-12 </td><td><a href="#page047">47</a>, <a href="#page115">115</a>, <a href="#page230">230</a>, <a href="#page294">294</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ii. 1-17 </td><td><a href="#page048">48</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ii. 1 to iii. 6 </td><td><a href="#page047">47</a>, <a href="#page048">48</a>, <a href="#page250">250</a>, <a href="#page204">204</a>f.</td></tr> +<tr><td>ii. 5 </td><td><a href="#page239">239</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ii. 6f. </td><td><a href="#page121">121</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ii. 10 </td><td><a href="#page028">28</a>, <a href="#page256">256</a>, <a href="#page259">259</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ii. 10, 28 and ∥s </td><td><a href="#page256">256</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ii. 12 </td><td><a href="#page025">25</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ii. 13-17 </td><td><a href="#page047">47</a>, <a href="#page115">115</a>, <a href="#page294">294</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ii. 15-17 </td><td><a href="#page096">96</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ii. 16 </td><td><a href="#page047">47</a>, <a href="#page121">121</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ii. 18-22 </td><td><a href="#page026">26</a>, <a href="#page047">47</a>, <a href="#page115">115</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ii. 20 </td><td><a href="#page239">239</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ii. 23 </td><td><a href="#page047">47</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ii. 23-28 </td><td><a href="#page115">115</a>, <a href="#page229">229</a>, <a href="#page294">294</a>f.</td></tr> +<tr><td>ii. 25-27 </td><td><a href="#page228">228</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ii. 27 </td><td><a href="#page257">257</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ii. 44 </td><td><a href="#page253">253</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iii. 1-6 </td><td><a href="#page026">26</a>, <a href="#page115">115</a>, <a href="#page295">295</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iii. 7-12 </td><td><a href="#page115">115</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iii. 11 </td><td><a href="#page261">261</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iii. 13-19 </td><td><a href="#page115">115</a>, <a href="#page295">295</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iii. 17, 41 </td><td><a href="#page025">25</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iii. 19-30 </td><td><a href="#page040">40</a>, <a href="#page042">42</a>, <a href="#page116">116</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iii. 21, 31-35 </td><td><a href="#page059">59</a>, <a href="#page097">97</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iii. 22 </td><td><a href="#page034">34</a>, <a href="#page121">121</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iii. 22-30 </td><td><a href="#page156">156</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iii. 28-30 </td><td><a href="#page251">251</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iii. 31-35 </td><td><a href="#page059">59</a>, <a href="#page097">97</a>, <a href="#page116">116</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iv. 1-34 </td><td><a href="#page116">116</a>, <a href="#page232">232</a>, <a href="#page296">296</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iv. 3 </td><td><a href="#page064">64</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iv. 12 </td><td><a href="#page129">129</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iv. 13 </td><td><a href="#page129">129</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iv. 26-29 </td><td><a href="#page296">296</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iv. 35-41 </td><td><a href="#page116">116</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>v. 1 </td><td><a href="#page290">290</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>v. 1-20 </td><td><a href="#page116">116</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>v. 7 </td><td><a href="#page261">261</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>v. 11-13 </td><td><a href="#page139">139</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>v. 21-43 </td><td><a href="#page116">116</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>v. 30-34 </td><td><a href="#page243">243</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>v. 41 </td><td><a href="#page020">20</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vi. 1-6 </td><td><a href="#page043">43</a>, <a href="#page116">116</a>, <a href="#page292">292</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vi. 2f. </td><td><a href="#page220">220</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vi. 6b </td><td><a href="#page116">116</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vi. 7-11 </td><td><a href="#page297">297</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vi. 7-13 </td><td><a href="#page116">116</a>, <a href="#page147">147</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vi. 14-29 </td><td><a href="#page116">116</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vi. 15 </td><td><a href="#page290">290</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vi. 30-34 </td><td><a href="#page047">47</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vi. 30-46 </td><td><a href="#page039">39</a>, <a href="#page040">40</a>, <a href="#page116">116</a>, <a href="#page297">297</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vi. 39 </td><td><a href="#page046">46</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vi. 47-56 </td><td><a href="#page116">116</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vii. 1 </td><td><a href="#page034">34</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vii. 1-23, 48 </td><td><a href="#page048">48</a>, <a href="#page116">116</a>, <a href="#page121">121</a>, <a href="#page139">139</a>, <a href="#page250">250</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vii. 6-13 </td><td><a href="#page233">233</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vii. 8-13 </td><td><a href="#page010">10</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vii. 10 </td><td><a href="#page244">244</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vii. 13 </td><td><a href="#page251">251</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vii. 14-23 </td><td><a href="#page238">238</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vii. 15 </td><td><a href="#page227">227</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vii. 19 </td><td><a href="#page130">130</a>, <a href="#page228">228</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vii. 24-30 </td><td><a href="#page116">116</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vii. 27 </td><td><a href="#page140">140</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vii. 29f. </td><td><a href="#page289">289</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vii. 31 </td><td><a href="#page291">291</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vii. 31-37 </td><td><a href="#page117">117</a>, <a href="#page297">297</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vii. 34 </td><td><a href="#page020">20</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vii. 37 </td><td><a href="#page025">25</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>viii. 1f. </td><td><a href="#page141">141</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>viii. 1-9 </td><td><a href="#page117">117</a>, <a href="#page297">297</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>viii. 10 </td><td><a href="#page291">291</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>viii. 10-21 </td><td><a href="#page117">117</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>viii. 11 </td><td><a href="#page096">96</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vii. 11-13 </td><td><a href="#page139">139</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>viii. 14f. </td><td><a href="#page139">139</a></td></tr> +<tr><td><a class="newpage" name="page317" id="page317" title="317"></a>viii. 19f. </td><td><a href="#page297">297</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>viii. 22-26 </td><td><a href="#page117">117</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>viii. 27-30 </td><td><a href="#page117">117</a>, <a href="#page141">141</a>, <a href="#page298">298</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>viii. 29 </td><td><a href="#page254">254</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>viii. 31 </td><td><a href="#page168">168</a>, <a href="#page020">20</a>, <a href="#page256">256</a>, <a href="#page259">259</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>viii. 31-33 </td><td><a href="#page087">87</a>, <a href="#page239">239</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>viii. 31-ix. 1 </td><td><a href="#page117">117</a>, <a href="#page296">296</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>viii. 32f. </td><td><a href="#page093">93</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>viii. 34f. </td><td><a href="#page147">147</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>viii. 34 to ix. 1 </td><td><a href="#page146">146</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>viii. 38 </td><td><a href="#page256">256</a>, <a href="#page259">259</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ix. 1 </td><td><a href="#page242">242</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ix. 2 </td><td><a href="#page292">292</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ix. 2-13 </td><td><a href="#page117">117</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ix. 6 </td><td><a href="#page028">28</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ix. 9 </td><td><a href="#page147">147</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ix. 10 </td><td><a href="#page203">203</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ix. 14-29 </td><td><a href="#page117">117</a>, <a href="#page147">147</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ix. 19 </td><td><a href="#page224">224</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ix. 29 </td><td><a href="#page265">265</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ix. 30-32 </td><td><a href="#page117">117</a>, <a href="#page147">147</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ix. 31 </td><td><a href="#page204">204</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ix. 33-50 </td><td><a href="#page117">117</a>, <a href="#page299">299</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ix. 35-37 </td><td><a href="#page234">234</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ix. 43-47 </td><td><a href="#page295">295</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>x. 1 </td><td><a href="#page009"></a>, <a href="#page104">104</a>, <a href="#page153">153</a>, <a href="#page154">154</a>, <a href="#page298">298</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>x. 1 to xvi. 8 </td><td><a href="#page026">26</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>x. 2-12 </td><td><a href="#page153">153</a>, <a href="#page154">154</a>, <a href="#page298">298</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>x. 5f. </td><td><a href="#page244">244</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>x. 11 </td><td><a href="#page153">153</a>, <a href="#page154">154</a>, <a href="#page160">160</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>x. 13-16 </td><td><a href="#page104">104</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>x. 17-31 </td><td><a href="#page153">153</a>, <a href="#page155">155</a>, <a href="#page160">160</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>x. 18 </td><td><a href="#page226">226</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>x. 19 </td><td><a href="#page229">229</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>x. 25 </td><td><a href="#page233">233</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>x. 32-34 </td><td><a href="#page147">147</a>, <a href="#page153">153</a>, <a href="#page155">155</a>, <a href="#page162">162</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>x. 35-45 </td><td><a href="#page153">153</a>, <a href="#page155">155</a>, <a href="#page163">163</a>, <a href="#page165">165</a>, <a href="#page184">184</a>, <a href="#page230">230</a>, <a href="#page304">304</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>x. 40 </td><td><a href="#page243">243</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>x. 42-45 </td><td><a href="#page259">259</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>x. 45 </td><td><a href="#page241">241</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>x. 46 </td><td><a href="#page162">162</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>x. 46-52 </td><td><a href="#page153">153</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>x. 47f. </td><td><a href="#page254">254</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>x. 48 </td><td><a href="#page163">163</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xi. 1-11 </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xi. 1 to xv. 47 </td><td><a href="#page104">104</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xi. 1 to xvi. 8 [20] </td><td><a href="#page039">39</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xi. 2f. </td><td><a href="#page034">34</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xi. 2-5 </td><td><a href="#page112">112</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xi. 8-10 </td><td><a href="#page162">162</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xi. 9f. </td><td><a href="#page170">170</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xi. 12-14, 15-18 </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xi. 12-14, 20-25 </td><td><a href="#page172">172</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xi. 14-36 </td><td><a href="#page042">42</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xi. 15-19 </td><td><a href="#page043">43</a>, <a href="#page288">288</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xi. 17 </td><td><a href="#page108">108</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xi. 19 </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xi. 20-27 </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xi. 25 </td><td><a href="#page295">295</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xi. 27-33 </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xi. 29-33 </td><td><a href="#page173">173</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xii. 1-12 </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xii. 13-17 </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a>, <a href="#page173">173</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xii. 16 </td><td><a href="#page227">227</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xii. 18-27 </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a>, <a href="#page174">174</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xii. 24-27 </td><td><a href="#page228">228</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xii. 27 </td><td><a href="#page186">186</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xii. 28-34 </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a>, <a href="#page174">174</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xii. 35-37 </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a>, <a href="#page245">245</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xii. 38-40 </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xii. 41-44 </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xiii. and ∥s </td><td><a href="#page178">178</a>, <a href="#page241">241</a>, <a href="#page302">302</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xiii. 1-37 </td><td><a href="#page167">167</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xiii. 24-27 </td><td><a href="#page238">238</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xiii. 32 </td><td><a href="#page243">243</a>, <a href="#page247">247</a>, <a href="#page252">252</a>, <a href="#page263">263</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xiv. 1f., 10f. </td><td><a href="#page167">167</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xiv. 3 </td><td><a href="#page169">169</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xiv. 3-9 </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a>, <a href="#page301">301</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xiv. 3-11 </td><td><a href="#page169">169</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xiv. 8 </td><td><a href="#page169">169</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xiv. 12 </td><td><a href="#page303">303</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xiv. 12-16 </td><td><a href="#page112">112</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xiv. 12-26 </td><td><a href="#page167">167</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xiv. 14 </td><td><a href="#page034">34</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xiv. 17 </td><td><a href="#page181">181</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xiv. 18-21 </td><td><a href="#page184">184</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xiv. 20 </td><td><a href="#page185">185</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xiv. 21 </td><td><a href="#page180">180</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xiv. 26, 32-42 </td><td><a href="#page167">167</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xiv. 26-31 </td><td><a href="#page305">305</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xiv. 33f. </td><td><a href="#page186">186</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xiv. 34 </td><td><a href="#page145">145</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xiv. 36 </td><td><a href="#page020">20</a>, <a href="#page189">189</a>, <a href="#page239">239</a>, <a href="#page265">265</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xiv. 43-52 </td><td><a href="#page167">167</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xiv. 45 </td><td><a href="#page190">190</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xiv. 50 </td><td><a href="#page182">182</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xiv. 53 to xv. 1 </td><td><a href="#page190">190</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xiv. 61 </td><td><a href="#page167">167</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xiv. 61f. </td><td><a href="#page254">254</a>, <a href="#page261">261</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xiv. 61-64 </td><td><a href="#page263">263</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xiv. 62 </td><td><a href="#page191">191</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xiv. 66-72 </td><td><a href="#page085">85</a>, <a href="#page258">258</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xv. 1 </td><td><a href="#page192">192</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xv. 1-20 </td><td><a href="#page167">167</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xv. 2 </td><td><a href="#page254">254</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xv. 6-15 </td><td><a href="#page192">192</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xv. 21 </td><td><a href="#page182">182</a>, <a href="#page195">195</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xv. 21-41 </td><td><a href="#page167">167</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xv. 22 </td><td><a href="#page305">305</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xv. 34 </td><td><a href="#page020">20</a>, <a href="#page197">197</a>, <a href="#page306">306</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xv. 42 </td><td><a href="#page182">182</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xv. 42-47 </td><td><a href="#page167">167</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xv. 43 </td><td><a href="#page034">34</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xv. 46 </td><td><a href="#page182">182</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xvi. 1 </td><td><a href="#page202">202</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xvi. 1-8 </td><td><a href="#page201">201</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xvi. 6f. </td><td><a href="#page209">209</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xvi. [9-20] </td><td><a href="#page204">204</a>f., <a href="#page306">306</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xvi. [9-11] </td><td><a href="#page201">201</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xvi. [12f.] </td><td><a href="#page201">201</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xvi. [14] </td><td><a href="#page201">201</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xvi. [15-18] </td><td><a href="#page201">201</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xvi. [19f.] </td><td><a href="#page201">201</a></td></tr> + + + +<tr><th colspan="2">Luke.</th></tr> + + +<tr><td>i. 1-4 </td><td><a href="#page026">26</a>, <a href="#page042">42</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>i. 3 </td><td><a href="#page041">41</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>i. 5 </td><td><a href="#page052">52</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>i. 36 </td><td><a href="#page082">82</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>i. 46-55 </td><td><a href="#page060">60</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>i. 68-79 </td><td><a href="#page068">68</a>-<a href="#page079">79</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>i. 80 </td><td><a href="#page061">61</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ii. 1f. </td><td><a href="#page052">52</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ii. 8 </td><td><a href="#page056">56</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ii. 19-51 </td><td><a href="#page059">59</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ii. 24 </td><td><a href="#page061">61</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ii. 40-52 </td><td><a href="#page061">61</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ii. 41 </td><td><a href="#page062">62</a>, <a href="#page107">107</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ii. 48 </td><td><a href="#page097">97</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ii. 49 </td><td><a href="#page067">67</a>, <a href="#page262">262</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ii. 52 </td><td><a href="#page063">63</a>, <a href="#page069">69</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iii. 1f. </td><td><a href="#page045">45</a>, <a href="#page049">49</a>, <a href="#page052">52</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iii. 13f. </td><td><a href="#page074">74</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iii. 15 </td><td><a href="#page094">94</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iii. 21 </td><td><a href="#page064">64</a>, <a href="#page082">82</a>, <a href="#page085">85</a>, <a href="#page265">265</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iii. 23 </td><td><a href="#page052">52</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iv. 5 </td><td><a href="#page090">90</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iv. 13 </td><td><a href="#page087">87</a>, <a href="#page146">146</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iv. 14 </td><td><a href="#page101">101</a>, <a href="#page102">102</a>, <a href="#page289">289</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iv. 14, 15 </td><td><a href="#page039">39</a>, <a href="#page115">115</a>, <a href="#page292">292</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iv. 14 to ix. 50 </td><td><a href="#page026">26</a>, <a href="#page102">102</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iv. 16 </td><td><a href="#page062">62</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iv. 16-19 </td><td><a href="#page063">63</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iv. 16-30 </td><td><a href="#page043">43</a>, <a href="#page116">116</a>, <a href="#page292">292</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iv. 23 </td><td><a href="#page292">292</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iv. 31 </td><td><a href="#page106">106</a>, <a href="#page115">115</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iv. 31-41 </td><td><a href="#page115">115</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iv. 42-44 </td><td><a href="#page115">115</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>v. 1-11 </td><td><a href="#page115">115</a>, <a href="#page293">293</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>v. 4-11 </td><td><a href="#page043">43</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>v. 12-16 </td><td><a href="#page115">115</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>v. 17 </td><td><a href="#page034">34</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>v. 17-26 </td><td><a href="#page115">115</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>v. 24 </td><td><a href="#page028">28</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>v. 27-32 </td><td><a href="#page115">115</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>v. 33-39 </td><td><a href="#page115">115</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vi. 1-5 </td><td><a href="#page115">115</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vi. 6-11 </td><td><a href="#page115">115</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vi. 12 </td><td><a href="#page084">84</a>, <a href="#page265">265</a>, <a href="#page290">290</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vi. 12-19 </td><td><a href="#page115">115</a>, <a href="#page295">295</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vi. 17 </td><td><a href="#page290">290</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vi. 20 </td><td><a href="#page222">222</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vi. 20 to vii. 1 </td><td><a href="#page115">115</a>, <a href="#page295">295</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vi. 20-26 </td><td><a href="#page296">296</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vi. 27-42 </td><td><a href="#page296">296</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vi. 43-46 </td><td><a href="#page296">296</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vi. 47-49 </td><td><a href="#page296">296</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vii. 1-10 </td><td><a href="#page041">41</a>, <a href="#page115">115</a>, <a href="#page288">288</a>, <a href="#page289">289</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vii. 2-5 </td><td><a href="#page007">7</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vii. 7 </td><td><a href="#page043">43</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vii. 11-17 </td><td><a href="#page042">42</a>, <a href="#page116">116</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vii. 18-35 </td><td><a href="#page041">41</a>, <a href="#page116">116</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vii. 36-50 </td><td><a href="#page042">42</a>, <a href="#page116">116</a>, <a href="#page224">224</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vii. 47 </td><td><a href="#page239">239</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>viii. 1-3 </td><td><a href="#page116">116</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>viii. 4-18 </td><td><a href="#page116">116</a>, <a href="#page296">296</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>viii. 19-21 </td><td><a href="#page116">116</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>viii. 22-25 </td><td><a href="#page116">116</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>viii. 26 </td><td><a href="#page290">290</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>viii. 26-39 </td><td><a href="#page116">116</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>viii. 40-56 </td><td><a href="#page116">116</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ix. 1-6 </td><td><a href="#page116">116</a>, <a href="#page297">297</a>, <a href="#page300">300</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ix. 7-9 </td><td><a href="#page116">116</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ix. 10-17 </td><td><a href="#page039">39</a>, <a href="#page116">116</a>, <a href="#page297">297</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ix. 11 </td><td><a href="#page135">135</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ix. 18 </td><td><a href="#page265">265</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ix. 18-21 </td><td><a href="#page117">117</a>, <a href="#page298">298</a></td></tr> +<tr><td><a class="newpage" name="page318" id="page318" title="318"></a>ix. 22-27 </td><td><a href="#page117">117</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ix. 28f. </td><td><a href="#page084">84</a>, <a href="#page146">146</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ix. 28-36 </td><td><a href="#page117">117</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ix. 29 </td><td><a href="#page265">265</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ix. 31 </td><td><a href="#page146">146</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ix. 37-42 </td><td><a href="#page117">117</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ix. 43-45 </td><td><a href="#page117">117</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ix. 46-50 </td><td><a href="#page117">117</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ix. 51 </td><td><a href="#page039">39</a>, <a href="#page157">157</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ix. 51f. </td><td><a href="#page158">158</a>, <a href="#page298">298</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ix. 51-62 </td><td><a href="#page153">153</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ix. 51 to xviii. </td><td><a href="#page040">40</a>, <a href="#page042">42</a>, <a href="#page104">104</a>, <a href="#page154">154</a>, <a href="#page156">156</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ix. 51 to xix. 27 </td><td><a href="#page026">26</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ix. 57-62 </td><td><a href="#page156">156</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>x. 1 </td><td><a href="#page158">158</a>, <a href="#page301">301</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>x. 3-12 </td><td><a href="#page297">297</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>x. 1-24 </td><td><a href="#page153">153</a>, <a href="#page300">300</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>x. 13-16 </td><td><a href="#page301">301</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>x. 17-20 </td><td><a href="#page301">301</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>x. 17-24 </td><td><a href="#page160">160</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>x. 18 </td><td><a href="#page248">248</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>x. 22 </td><td><a href="#page252">252</a>, <a href="#page263">263</a>, <a href="#page300">300</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>x. 25-37 </td><td><a href="#page034">34</a>, <a href="#page153">153</a>, <a href="#page159">159</a>, <a href="#page227">227</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>x. 28-37 </td><td><a href="#page159">159</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>x. 38-42 </td><td><a href="#page034">34</a>, <a href="#page111">111</a>, <a href="#page153">153</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xi. 1 </td><td><a href="#page042">42</a>, <a href="#page265">265</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xi. 1-4 </td><td><a href="#page042">42</a>, <a href="#page295">295</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xi. 1-13 </td><td><a href="#page117">117</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xi. 9-13 </td><td><a href="#page295">295</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xi. 14-36 </td><td><a href="#page040">40</a>, <a href="#page116">116</a>, <a href="#page156">156</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xi. 34-36 </td><td><a href="#page295">295</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xi. 37-52 </td><td><a href="#page156">156</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xi. 37-54 </td><td><a href="#page154">154</a>, <a href="#page164">164</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xii. 1-12 </td><td><a href="#page156">156</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xii. 1-59 </td><td><a href="#page154">154</a>, <a href="#page164">164</a>, <a href="#page165">165</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xii. 13-21 </td><td><a href="#page117">117</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xii. 22-31 </td><td><a href="#page042">42</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xii. 22-34 </td><td><a href="#page103">103</a>, <a href="#page156">156</a>, <a href="#page295">295</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xii. 49-53 </td><td><a href="#page165">165</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xii. 58f. </td><td><a href="#page295">295</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xiii. 1-9 </td><td><a href="#page154">154</a>, <a href="#page161">161</a>, <a href="#page164">164</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xiii. 10-17 </td><td><a href="#page117">117</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xiii. 18-21 </td><td><a href="#page044">44</a>, <a href="#page117">117</a>, <a href="#page296">296</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xiii. 22 </td><td><a href="#page157">157</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xiii. 22-30 </td><td><a href="#page153">153</a>, <a href="#page164">164</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xiii. 24 </td><td><a href="#page295">295</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xiii. 31f. </td><td><a href="#page171">171</a>, <a href="#page193">193</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xiii. 31-35 </td><td><a href="#page153">153</a>, <a href="#page168">168</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xiii. 32 </td><td><a href="#page005">5</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xiii. 34f. </td><td><a href="#page034">34</a>, <a href="#page106">106</a>, <a href="#page224">224</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xiii. 35 </td><td><a href="#page252">252</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xiv. 1-24 </td><td><a href="#page117">117</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xiv. 7ff. </td><td><a href="#page304">304</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xiv. 15-24 </td><td><a href="#page161">161</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xiv. 25-35 </td><td><a href="#page154">154</a>, <a href="#page156">156</a>, <a href="#page164">164</a>, <a href="#page165">165</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xiv. 26 </td><td><a href="#page233">233</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xv. 1f. </td><td><a href="#page096">96</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xv. 1 to xvi. 31 </td><td><a href="#page117">117</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xv. 4-7 </td><td><a href="#page044">44</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xv. 7 </td><td><a href="#page233">233</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xv. 11-32 </td><td><a href="#page232">232</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xvi. 13 </td><td><a href="#page295">295</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xvi. 22 </td><td><a href="#page247">247</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xvi. 31 </td><td><a href="#page229">229</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xvii. 1-4 </td><td><a href="#page117">117</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xvii. 11 </td><td><a href="#page157">157</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xvii. 11-19 </td><td><a href="#page153">153</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xvii. 20-37 </td><td><a href="#page154">154</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xviii. 1-8 </td><td><a href="#page154">154</a>, <a href="#page164">164</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xviii. 9-14 </td><td><a href="#page154">154</a>, <a href="#page159">159</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xviii. 15-17 </td><td><a href="#page153">153</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xviii. 15 to xix. 28 </td><td><a href="#page104">104</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xviii. 18-30 </td><td><a href="#page153">153</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xviii. 31-34 </td><td><a href="#page153">153</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xviii. 34 </td><td><a href="#page203">203</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xviii. 35-43 </td><td><a href="#page153">153</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xviii. 35 to xix. 28 </td><td><a href="#page155">155</a>, <a href="#page164">164</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xix. 1-10 </td><td><a href="#page154">154</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xix. 11-28 </td><td><a href="#page154">154</a>, <a href="#page163">163</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xix. 28 to xxiv. 53 </td><td><a href="#page027">27</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xix. 29-44 </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xix. 29 to xxiii. 56 </td><td><a href="#page104">104</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xix. 29 to xxiii. 53 </td><td><a href="#page039">39</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xix. 37-40 </td><td><a href="#page162">162</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xix. 39 </td><td><a href="#page170">170</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xix. 41-44 </td><td><a href="#page170">170</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xix. 45f. </td><td><a href="#page289">289</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xix. 45-47f. </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xix. 47 </td><td><a href="#page172">172</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xx. 1 </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xx. 1-8 </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xx. 9-19 </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xx. 20-26 </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xx. 27-40 </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xx. 41-44 </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xx. 45-47 </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxi. 1-4 </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxi. 5-38 </td><td><a href="#page167">167</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxii. 37-38 </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxii. 1-6 </td><td><a href="#page167">167</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxii. 7-30 </td><td><a href="#page167">167</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxii. 14 </td><td><a href="#page181">181</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxii. 15 </td><td><a href="#page181">181</a>, <a href="#page183">183</a>, <a href="#page303">303</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxii. 17 </td><td><a href="#page304">304</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxii. 17-20 </td><td><a href="#page185">185</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxii. 19 </td><td><a href="#page184">184</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxii. 23-30 </td><td><a href="#page304">304</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxii. 28 </td><td><a href="#page087">87</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxii. 31-34 </td><td><a href="#page185">185</a>, <a href="#page305">305</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxii. 39-46 </td><td><a href="#page167">167</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxii. 47-53 </td><td><a href="#page167">167</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxii. 54-71 </td><td><a href="#page167">167</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxii. 61f. </td><td><a href="#page193">193</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxii. 66-71 </td><td><a href="#page192">192</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxii. 70 </td><td><a href="#page263">263</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxiii. 1f. </td><td><a href="#page192">192</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxiii. 1-25 </td><td><a href="#page167">167</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxiii. 4 </td><td><a href="#page192">192</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxiii. 5-12 </td><td><a href="#page192">192</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxiii. 13-16 </td><td><a href="#page192">192</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxiii. 16-24 </td><td><a href="#page192">192</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxiii. 26-49 </td><td><a href="#page167">167</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxiii. 27-31 </td><td><a href="#page195">195</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxiii. 34 </td><td><a href="#page197">197</a>, <a href="#page306">306</a>, <a href="#page307">307</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxiii. 43 </td><td><a href="#page197">197</a>, <a href="#page306">306</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxiii. 46 </td><td><a href="#page064">64</a>, <a href="#page197">197</a>, <a href="#page265">265</a>, <a href="#page306">306</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxiii. 50-56 </td><td><a href="#page167">167</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxiii. 56 </td><td><a href="#page182">182</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxiv. 1-12 </td><td><a href="#page201">201</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxiv. 12 </td><td><a href="#page205">205</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxiv. 13-35 </td><td><a href="#page201">201</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxiv. 21 </td><td><a href="#page200">200</a>, <a href="#page203">203</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxiv. 36-43 </td><td><a href="#page201">201</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxiv. 41-43 </td><td><a href="#page213">213</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxiv. 44-53 </td><td><a href="#page201">201</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxiv. 50 </td><td><a href="#page205">205</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxiv. 51 </td><td><a href="#page214">214</a>, <a href="#page307">307</a></td></tr> + + + +<tr><th colspan="2">John.</th></tr> + + +<tr><td>i. 14 </td><td><a href="#page058">58</a>, <a href="#page269">269</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>1. 19 to iv. 42 </td><td><a href="#page040">40</a>, <a href="#page101">101</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>i. 25 </td><td><a href="#page078">78</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>i. 26f. </td><td><a href="#page093">93</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>i. 28 </td><td><a href="#page092">92</a>, <a href="#page284">284</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>i. 29 </td><td><a href="#page093">93</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>i. 29-36 </td><td><a href="#page080">80</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>i. 30-34 </td><td><a href="#page093">93</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>i. 31 </td><td><a href="#page082">82</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>i. 32-34 </td><td><a href="#page084">84</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>i. 35f. </td><td><a href="#page093">93</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>i. 38 </td><td><a href="#page020">20</a>, <a href="#page226">226</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>i. 40f., 43-45 </td><td><a href="#page092">92</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>i. 41-45 </td><td><a href="#page142">142</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>i. 42-47 </td><td><a href="#page239">239</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>i. 44 </td><td><a href="#page290">290</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>i. 49 </td><td><a href="#page094">94</a>, <a href="#page142">142</a>, <a href="#page254">254</a>, <a href="#page261">261</a>, <a href="#page263">263</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>i. 51 </td><td><a href="#page095">95</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ii. 3-5 </td><td><a href="#page097">97</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ii. 11 </td><td><a href="#page222">222</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ii. 12 </td><td><a href="#page097">97</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ii. 13 </td><td><a href="#page046">46</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ii. 13-22 </td><td><a href="#page043">43</a>, <a href="#page106">106</a>, <a href="#page288">288</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ii. 16 </td><td><a href="#page262">262</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ii. 20 </td><td><a href="#page049">49</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ii. 22 </td><td><a href="#page096">96</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ii. 23 to iii. 15 </td><td><a href="#page106">106</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ii. 25 </td><td><a href="#page068">68</a>, <a href="#page141">141</a>, <a href="#page234">234</a>, <a href="#page239">239</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iii. 2 </td><td><a href="#page226">226</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iii. 16-21,30-36 </td><td><a href="#page032">32</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iii. 22-30 </td><td><a href="#page106">106</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iii. 24 </td><td><a href="#page046">46</a>, <a href="#page101">101</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iii. 23 </td><td><a href="#page288">288</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iii. 24,35 </td><td><a href="#page113">113</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iii. 30 </td><td><a href="#page080">80</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iii. 34 </td><td><a href="#page085">85</a>, <a href="#page086">86</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iv. 1-3 </td><td><a href="#page113">113</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iv. 1-3, 44 </td><td><a href="#page112">112</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iv. 1-4 </td><td><a href="#page289">289</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iv. 1-42 </td><td><a href="#page106">106</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iv. 1-45 </td><td><a href="#page102">102</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iv. 21-24 </td><td><a href="#page109">109</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iv. 25 </td><td><a href="#page014">14</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iv. 26 </td><td><a href="#page254">254</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iv. 30 </td><td><a href="#page095">95</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iv. 34 </td><td><a href="#page265">265</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iv. 35 </td><td><a href="#page107">107</a>, <a href="#page288">288</a>, <a href="#page293">293</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iv. 42 </td><td><a href="#page040">40</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iv. 43-45 </td><td><a href="#page039">39</a>, <a href="#page106">106</a>, <a href="#page286">286</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iv. 46-54 </td><td><a href="#page102">102</a>, <a href="#page106">106</a>, <a href="#page115">115</a>, <a href="#page289">289</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>v. 1 </td><td><a href="#page040">40</a>, <a href="#page048">48</a>, <a href="#page293">293</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>v. 1-9 </td><td><a href="#page032">32</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>v. 1-47 </td><td><a href="#page102">102</a>, <a href="#page115">115</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>v. 17 </td><td><a href="#page262">262</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>v. 19 </td><td><a href="#page264">264</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>v. 25 </td><td><a href="#page263">263</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>v. 30 </td><td><a href="#page265">265</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>v. 39 </td><td><a href="#page229">229</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vi. 1-15 </td><td><a href="#page039">39</a>, <a href="#page116">116</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vi. 1-71 </td><td><a href="#page102">102</a></td></tr> +<tr><td><a class="newpage" name="page319" id="page319" title="319"></a>vi. 4 </td><td><a href="#page046">46</a>, <a href="#page138">138</a>, <a href="#page293">293</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vi. 14 </td><td><a href="#page025">25</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vi. 14f. </td><td><a href="#page119">119</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vi. 15 </td><td><a href="#page089">89</a>, <a href="#page120">120</a>, <a href="#page135">135</a>, <a href="#page170">170</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vi. 16-21 </td><td><a href="#page116">116</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vi. 22-71 </td><td><a href="#page116">116</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vi. 30-32 </td><td><a href="#page087">87</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vi. 38 </td><td><a href="#page189">189</a>, <a href="#page265">265</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vi. 64 </td><td><a href="#page178">178</a>, <a href="#page180">180</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vi. 66 </td><td><a href="#page136">136</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vi. 67 </td><td><a href="#page225">225</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vi. 67-71 </td><td><a href="#page298">298</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vi. 68 </td><td><a href="#page081">81</a>, <a href="#page123">123</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vi. 68f. </td><td><a href="#page142">142</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vi. 69 </td><td><a href="#page254">254</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vii. 1-10 </td><td><a href="#page039">39</a>, <a href="#page298">298</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vii. 1-52 </td><td><a href="#page117">117</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vii. 1 to viii. 59 </td><td><a href="#page103">103</a>, <a href="#page149">149</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vii. 2 </td><td><a href="#page138">138</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vii. 2-5 </td><td><a href="#page148">148</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vii. 5 </td><td><a href="#page064">64</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vii. 10 </td><td><a href="#page150">150</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vii. 15 </td><td><a href="#page235">235</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vii. 22 </td><td><a href="#page244">244</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vii. 23 </td><td><a href="#page032">32</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vii. 24 </td><td><a href="#page227">227</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vii. 25,32 </td><td><a href="#page160">160</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vii. 31 </td><td><a href="#page095">95</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vii. 32 </td><td><a href="#page299">299</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vii. 36 </td><td><a href="#page149">149</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vii. 40 </td><td><a href="#page254">254</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vii. 45-52 </td><td><a href="#page299">299</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vii. 49 </td><td><a href="#page013">13</a>, <a href="#page220">220</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vii. 50-52 </td><td><a href="#page111">111</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vii. 53 to viii. 11 </td><td><a href="#page037">37</a>, <a href="#page117">117</a>, <a href="#page149">149</a>, <a href="#page157">157</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>viii. 12-59 </td><td><a href="#page117">117</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>viii. 14 </td><td><a href="#page248">248</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>viii. 15 </td><td><a href="#page157">157</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>viii. 46 </td><td><a href="#page083">83</a>, <a href="#page266">266</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>viii. 59 </td><td><a href="#page160">160</a>, <a href="#page299">299</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ix. 1 to x. 39 </td><td><a href="#page153">153</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ix. 1 to xi. 57 </td><td><a href="#page104">104</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ix. 10 </td><td><a href="#page158">158</a>, <a href="#page159">159</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ix. 35 </td><td><a href="#page263">263</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ix. 35-38 </td><td><a href="#page156">156</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>x. 11-18 </td><td><a href="#page159">159</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>x. 18 </td><td><a href="#page089">89</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>x. 21 </td><td><a href="#page159">159</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>x. 22 </td><td><a href="#page150">150</a>, <a href="#page155">155</a>, <a href="#page298">298</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>x. 22, 40-42 </td><td><a href="#page058">58</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>x. 24-39 </td><td><a href="#page159">159</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>x. 25 </td><td><a href="#page161">161</a>, <a href="#page262">262</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>x. 29 </td><td><a href="#page265">265</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>x. 30 </td><td><a href="#page264">264</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>x. 31-39 </td><td><a href="#page160">160</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>x. 32 </td><td><a href="#page233">233</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>x. 34 </td><td><a href="#page261">261</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>x. 36 </td><td><a href="#page263">263</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>x. 39 </td><td><a href="#page156">156</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>x. 40 </td><td><a href="#page154">154</a>, <a href="#page155">155</a>, <a href="#page301">301</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>x. 40-42 </td><td><a href="#page153">153</a>, <a href="#page160">160</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xi. 1-7 </td><td><a href="#page155">155</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xi. 1-46 </td><td><a href="#page153">153</a>, <a href="#page161">161</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xi. 4 </td><td><a href="#page263">263</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xi. 6 </td><td><a href="#page161">161</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xi. 34 </td><td><a href="#page243">243</a>, <a href="#page258">258</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xi. 41f. </td><td><a href="#page161">161</a>, <a href="#page265">265</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xi. 47-50 </td><td><a href="#page193">193</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xi. 47-54 </td><td><a href="#page153">153</a>, <a href="#page161">161</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xi. 54 </td><td><a href="#page155">155</a>, <a href="#page162">162</a>, <a href="#page300">300</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xi. 55 to xii. 11 </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xi. 55 to xix. 42 </td><td><a href="#page104">104</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xii. 1 </td><td><a href="#page046">46</a>, <a href="#page102">102</a>, <a href="#page163">163</a>, <a href="#page301">301</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xii. 1 to xxi. 25 </td><td><a href="#page039">39</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xii. 2 </td><td><a href="#page169">169</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xii. 4-8 </td><td><a href="#page301">301</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xii. 6 </td><td><a href="#page178">178</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xii. 7 </td><td><a href="#page169">169</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xii. 12f. </td><td><a href="#page170">170</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xii. 12-19 </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xii. 20-36 </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a>, <a href="#page176">176</a>, <a href="#page302">302</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xii. 23-36 </td><td><a href="#page168">168</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xii. 36<sup>b</sup>(-50) </td><td><a href="#page166">166</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xii. 37-43 </td><td><a href="#page032">32</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xiii. 1 </td><td><a href="#page181">181</a>, <a href="#page303">303</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xiii. 1-15 </td><td><a href="#page234">234</a>, <a href="#page304">304</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xiii. 1-30 </td><td><a href="#page167">167</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xiii. 21-30 </td><td><a href="#page184">184</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xiii. 23-26 </td><td><a href="#page185">185</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xiii. 29 </td><td><a href="#page178">178</a>, <a href="#page303">303</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xiii. 31 to xvi. 33 </td><td><a href="#page032">32</a>, <a href="#page167">167</a>, <a href="#page305">305</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xiii. 32f. </td><td><a href="#page305">305</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xiii. 36-38 </td><td><a href="#page305">305</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xiv. 6-11 </td><td><a href="#page264">264</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xiv. 10 </td><td><a href="#page161">161</a>, <a href="#page265">265</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xiv. 28 </td><td><a href="#page265">265</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xiv. 30f. </td><td><a href="#page032">32</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xv. </td><td><a href="#page032">32</a>, <a href="#page167">167</a>, <a href="#page305">305</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xv. 1 </td><td><a href="#page262">262</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xvi. </td><td><a href="#page032">32</a>, <a href="#page167">167</a>, <a href="#page305">305</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xvi. 25 </td><td><a href="#page264">264</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xvii. 1-26 </td><td><a href="#page167">167</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xvii. 21 </td><td><a href="#page264">264</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xviii. 1 </td><td><a href="#page167">167</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xviii. 1-12 </td><td><a href="#page167">167</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xviii. 8 </td><td><a href="#page190">190</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xviii. 11<sup>b</sup> </td><td><a href="#page189">189</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xviii. 12-27 </td><td><a href="#page167">167</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xviii. 15 </td><td><a href="#page193">193</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xviii. 28 </td><td><a href="#page182">182</a>, <a href="#page303">303</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xviii. 28 to xix. 16 </td><td><a href="#page167">167</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xviii. 31 </td><td><a href="#page192">192</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xviii. 33, 36f. </td><td><a href="#page254">254</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xix. 7-12 </td><td><a href="#page192">192</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xix. 12-16 </td><td><a href="#page193">193</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xix. 14 </td><td><a href="#page303">303</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xix. 16-37 </td><td><a href="#page167">167</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xix. 19-22 </td><td><a href="#page198">198</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xix. 25 </td><td><a href="#page097">97</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xix. 26 </td><td><a href="#page097">97</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xix. 26f. </td><td><a href="#page197">197</a>, <a href="#page306">306</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xix. 28 </td><td><a href="#page197">197</a>, <a href="#page306">306</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xix. 30 </td><td><a href="#page197">197</a>, <a href="#page306">306</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xix. 31 </td><td><a href="#page182">182</a>, <a href="#page199">199</a>, <a href="#page303">303</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xix. 31-37 </td><td><a href="#page198">198</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xix. 38 </td><td><a href="#page034">34</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xix. 38-42 </td><td><a href="#page167">167</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xix. 39 </td><td><a href="#page111">111</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xix. 42 </td><td><a href="#page303">303</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xx. 1-10 </td><td><a href="#page201">201</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xx. 2 </td><td><a href="#page206">206</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xx. 5-8 </td><td><a href="#page043">43</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xx. 8 </td><td><a href="#page203">203</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xx. 9 </td><td><a href="#page200">200</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xx. 9f., 24f. </td><td><a href="#page093">93</a>, <a href="#page094">94</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xx. 14-18 </td><td><a href="#page201">201</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xx. 17 </td><td><a href="#page209">209</a>, <a href="#page214">214</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xx 19-25 </td><td><a href="#page201">201</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xx. 21 </td><td><a href="#page023">23</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xx. 26-29 </td><td><a href="#page201">201</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xx. 30 </td><td><a href="#page049">49</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xx. 30f. </td><td><a href="#page032">32</a>, <a href="#page107">107</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxi. </td><td><a href="#page206">206</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxi. 2 </td><td><a href="#page092">92</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxi. 1-24 </td><td><a href="#page201">201</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxi. 3-14 </td><td><a href="#page293">293</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxi. 25 </td><td><a href="#page039">39</a></td></tr> + + + +<tr><th colspan="2">Acts.</th></tr> + + +<tr><td>i. 1-11 </td><td><a href="#page214">214</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>i. 1-12 </td><td><a href="#page201">201</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>i. 14 </td><td><a href="#page097">97</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ii. 36 </td><td><a href="#page202">202</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>v. 36 </td><td><a href="#page089">89</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>v. 37 </td><td><a href="#page053">53</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vii. 56 </td><td><a href="#page254">254</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xvii. 31 </td><td><a href="#page202">202</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xix. 1-7 </td><td><a href="#page080">80</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xx. 35 </td><td><a href="#page036">36</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxi. 38 </td><td><a href="#page089">89</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xxiii. 8 </td><td><a href="#page302">302</a></td></tr> + + + +<tr><th colspan="2">Rom.</th></tr> + + +<tr><td>i. 3 </td><td><a href="#page021">21</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>i. 4 </td><td><a href="#page202">202</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>v. 19 </td><td><a href="#page021">21</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ix. 5 </td><td><a href="#page021">21</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xv. 3 </td><td><a href="#page021">21</a></td></tr> + + + +<tr><th colspan="2">I. Cor.</th></tr> + + +<tr><td>i. 23 </td><td><a href="#page190">190</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>v. 7 </td><td><a href="#page183">183</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ix. 1 </td><td><a href="#page202">202</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>x. 16 </td><td><a href="#page304">304</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xv. </td><td><a href="#page202">202</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xv. 3-8 </td><td><a href="#page021">21</a>, <a href="#page105">105</a>, <a href="#page204">204</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xv. 4 </td><td><a href="#page204">204</a>, <a href="#page213">213</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xv. 5 </td><td><a href="#page201">201</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xv. 6 </td><td><a href="#page201">201</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xv. 6f. </td><td><a href="#page162">162</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xv. 7 </td><td><a href="#page201">201</a></td></tr> + + + +<tr><th colspan="2">II. Cor.</th></tr> + + +<tr><td>v. 21 </td><td><a href="#page083">83</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>viii. 9 </td><td><a href="#page021">21</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>x. l </td><td><a href="#page021">21</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xii. </td><td><a href="#page212">212</a></td></tr> + + + +<tr><th colspan="2">Gal.</th></tr> + + +<tr><td>iii. 13 </td><td><a href="#page190">190</a></td></tr> + + + +<tr><th colspan="2"><a class="newpage" name="page320" id="page320" title="320"></a>Phil.</th></tr> + + +<tr><td>ii. 5-11 </td><td><a href="#page021">21</a>, <a href="#page269">269</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ii. 7f. </td><td><a href="#page190">190</a>, <a href="#page285">285</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ii. 8 </td><td><a href="#page196">196</a></td></tr> + + + +<tr><th colspan="2">II. Tim.</th></tr> + + +<tr><td>iii. 15 </td><td><a href="#page063">63</a></td></tr> + + + +<tr><th colspan="2">Heb.</th></tr> + + +<tr><td>ii. 17 </td><td><a href="#page061">61</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ii. 17f. </td><td><a href="#page064">64</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>ii. 18 </td><td><a href="#page087">87</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>iv. 15 </td><td><a href="#page061">61</a>, <a href="#page063">63</a>, <a href="#page067">67</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>v. 7 </td><td><a href="#page147">147</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>v. 7-9 </td><td><a href="#page087">87</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>vii. 26 </td><td><a href="#page057">57</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xii. 2 </td><td><a href="#page190">190</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>xii. 13 </td><td><a href="#page190">190</a></td></tr> + + + +<tr><th colspan="2">I. Pet.</th></tr> + + +<tr><td>ii. 22 </td><td><a href="#page083">83</a></td></tr> +</table> +</div></div> + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's The Life of Jesus of Nazareth, by Rush Rhees + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE LIFE OF JESUS OF NAZARETH *** + +***** This file should be named 13228-h.htm or 13228-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/1/3/2/2/13228/ + +Produced by Distributed Proofreaders + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Life of Jesus of Nazareth + +Author: Rush Rhees + +Release Date: August 20, 2004 [EBook #13228] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE LIFE OF JESUS OF NAZARETH *** + + + + +Produced by Distributed Proofreaders + + + + +[Transcriber's note: Superscripted letters and numbers have been marked +with a preceding caret (^).] + + + + +The Life of Jesus of Nazareth + +_A Study_ + +By + +Rush Rhees + +1902 + + + + +_Copyright, 1900,_ +By Charles Scribner's Sons + + + + +To + +C. W. McC. + +In Recognition of Wise Counsel, Generous Help and Loving Appreciation + + + + +"_I would preach ... the need to the world of the faith +in a Christ, the claim that Jesus is the Christ, and the demand +for an intelligent faith, which indeed shall transcend but shall +not despise knowledge, or neglect to have a knowledge to +transcend._"--John Patterson Coyle + + + + +Preface + + + +The aim of this book is to help thoughtful readers of the gospels to +discern more clearly the features of him whom those writings inimitably +portray. It is avowedly a study rather than a story, and as a companion to +the reading of the gospels it seeks to answer some of the questions which +are raised by a sympathetic consideration of those narratives. These +answers are offered in an unargumentative way, even where the questions +are still in debate among scholars. This method has been adopted because +technical discussion would be of interest to but few of those whom the +book hopes to serve. On some of the questions a non-committal attitude is +taken in the belief that for the understanding of the life of Jesus it is +of little importance which way the decision finally goes. Less attention +has been given to questions of geography and archaeology than to those +which have a more vital biographical significance. + +A word concerning the point of view adopted. The church has inherited a +rich treasure of doctrine concerning its Lord, the result of patient study +and, frequently, of heated controversy. It is customary to approach the +gospels with this interpretation of Christ as a premise, and such a study +has some unquestionable advantages. With the apostles and evangelists, +however, the recognition of the divine nature of Jesus was a conclusion +from their acquaintance with him. The Man of Nazareth was for them +primarily a man, and they so regarded him until he showed them that he was +more. Their knowledge of him progressed in the natural way from the human +to the divine. The gospels, particularly the first three, are marvels of +simplicity and objectivity. Their authors clearly regarded Jesus as the +Man from heaven; yet in their thinking they were dominated by the +influence of a personal Lord rather than by the force of an accepted +doctrine. It is with no lack of reverence for the importance and truth of +the divinity of Christ that this book essays to bring the Man Jesus before +the mind in the reading of the gospels. The incarnation means that God +chose to reveal the divine through a human life, rather than through a +series of propositions which formulate truth (Heb. i. 1-4). The most +perennially refreshing influence for Christian life and thought is +personal discipleship to that Revealer who is able to-day as of old to +exhibit in his humanity those qualities which compel the recognition of +God manifest in the flesh. + +An Appendix is added to furnish references to the wide literature of the +subject for the aid of those who wish to study it more extensively and +technically; also to discuss some questions of detail which could not be +considered in the text. This appendix will indicate the extent of my +indebtedness to others. I would acknowledge special obligation to +Professor Ernest D. Burton, of the University of Chicago, for generous +help and permission to use material found in his "Notes on the Life of +Jesus;" to Professor Shailer Mathews, also of Chicago, for very valuable +criticisms; to my colleague, Professor Charles Rufus Brown, for most +serviceable assistance; and to the editors of this series for helpful +suggestions and criticism during the making of the book. An unmeasured +debt is due to another who has sat at my side during the writing of these +pages, and has given constant inspiration, most discerning criticism, and +practical aid. + +The Newton Theological Institution, April, 1900. + + + + +Contents + + + +Part I + +Preparatory + + + +I + +The Historical Situation + +Sections 1-19. Pages 1-20 + + Section 1. The Roman estimate of Judea. 2, 3. Herod the Great and his + sons. 4. Roman procurators in Palestine. 5. Taxes. 6. The army. 7. + Administration of justice. 8. The Sadducees. 9,10. The Pharisees. 11. + The Zealots. 12. The Essenes. 13. The Devout. 14. Herodians and + Samaritans. 15. The synagogue. 16. Life under the law. 17. The + Messianic hope. 18. Contemporary literature. 19. Language of Palestine. + + +II + +Sources of Our Knowledge of Jesus + +Sections 20-35. Pages 21-37 + + Section 20. The testimony of Paul. 21. Secular history. 22. The written + gospels. 23. Characteristics of the first gospel. 24. Of the second. + 25. Of the third. 26-30. The synoptic problem. 31-32. The Johannine + problem. 34. The two narrative sources. 35. Agrapha and Apocrypha. + + +III + +The Harmony of the Gospels + +Sections 36-44. Pages 38-14 + + Section 36. The value of four gospels. 37. Tatian's Diatessaron. 38. + Agreement of the gospels concerning the chief events. 39. The principal + problems. 40. Relation of Mark and John. 41, 42. Matthew and Luke. 43. + Doublets. 44. The degree of certainty attainable. + + +IV + +The Chronology + +Sections 45-57. Pages 45-56 + + Sections 45-48. The length of Jesus' public ministry. 49. Date of the + first Passover. 50. Date of the crucifixion. 51-56. Date of the + nativity. 57. Summary. + + +V + +The Early Years of Jesus + +Sections 58-71. Pages 57-69 + + Section 58. Apocryphal stories. 59. Silence of the New Testament + outside the gospels. 60-62. The miraculous birth. 63. The childhood of + Jesus. 64. Home. 65. Religion, Education. 66. Growth. 67. Religious + development. 68. The view from Nazareth. 69 The first visit to + Jerusalem. 70-71. The carpenter of Nazareth. + + +VI + +John the Baptist + +Sections 72-84. Pages 70-81 + + Section 72. The gospel picture. 73. Notice by Josephus. 74. + Characteristics of the prophet 75-78. John's relation to the Essenes; + the Pharisees; the Zealots; the Apocalyptists. 79. John and the + Prophets. 80-82. Origin of his baptism. 83. His greatness. 84. His + limitations and self-effacement. + + +VII + +The Messianic Call + +Sections 85-96. Pages 82-91 + + Sections 85, 86. John and Jesus. 87. The baptism of Jesus. 88, 89. The + Messianic call. 90. The gift of the Spirit. 91-94. The temptation. 95. + Source of the narrative. 96. The issue. + + +VIII + +The First Disciples + +Sections 97-105. Pages 92-97 + + Section 97. John at Bethany beyond Jordan. 98. The deputation from the + priests. 99. John's first testimony. 100. The first disciples. 101. The + early Messianic confessions. 102. The visit to Cana. 103. The miracles + as disclosures of the character of Jesus. 104. Jesus and his mother. + 105. Removal to Capernaum. + + + +Part II + +The Ministry + + +I + +General Survey of the Ministry + +Sections 106-112. Pages 101-105 + + Section 106. The early Judean ministry. 107. Withdrawal to Galilee; a + new beginning. 108. The ministry in Galilee a unit. 109. Best studied + topically. 110. The last journey to Jerusalem. 111. The last week. 112. + The resurrection and ascension. + + +II + +The Early Judean Ministry + +Sections 113-124. Pages 106-114 + + Outline of events in the Early Judean ministry. Section 113. The + opening ministry at Jerusalem. 114. The record incomplete. 115. The + cleansing of the temple. 116. Relation to synoptic account. 117. Jesus' + reply to the challenge of his authority. 118. The reserve of Jesus. + 119. Discourse with Nicodemus. 120. Measure of success in Jerusalem. + 121. The Baptist's last testimony. 122. The arrest of John. 123. The + second sign at Cana. 124. Summary. + + +III + +The Ministry in Galilee--Its Aim and Method + +Sections 125-149. Pages 115-137 + + Outline of events in the Galilean ministry. Section 125. General view. + 126, 127. Development of popular enthusiasm. 128. Pharisaic opposition. + 129, 130. Jesus and the Messianic hope. 131. Injunctions of silence. + 132-135. Jesus' twofold aim in Galilee. 136, 137. Character of the + teaching of this period: the sermon on the mount. 138. The parables. + 139. The instructions for the mission of the twelve. 140. Jesus' tone + of authority. 141. His mighty works. 142-144. Demoniac possession. 145. + Jesus' personal influence. 146. The feeding of the five thousand. 147, + 148. Revulsion of popular feeling. 149. Results of the work in Galilee. + + +IV + +The Ministry in Galilee--The New Lesson + +Sections 150-165. Pages 138-152 + + Section 150. The changed ministry. 151. The question of tradition. 152. + Further pharisaic opposition. 153. Jesus in Phoenicia. 154. Confirmation + of the disciples' faith. 155. The question at Caesarea Philippi. 156. + The corner-stone of the Church. 157-159. The new lesson. 160. The + transfiguration. 161. Cure of the epileptic boy. 162. The feast of + Tabernacles. 163. Story of Jesus and the adulteress. 164. The new note + in Jesus' teaching. 165. Summary of the Galilean ministry. + + +V + +The Journey through Perea to Jerusalem + +Sections 166-176. Pages 153-165 + + Outline of events. Section 166. The Perean ministry. 167. Account in + John. 168, 169. Account in Luke. 170. The mission of the seventy. 171. + The feast of Dedication. 172. Withdrawal beyond Jordan. 173. The + raising of Lazarus. 174. Ephraim and Jericho. 175,176. Summary. + + +VI + +The Final Controversies in Jerusalem + +Sections 177-188. Pages 166-180 + + Outline of events in the last week of Jesus' life. Section 177. The + cross in apostolic preaching. 178. The anointing in Bethany. 179. The + Messianic entry. 180. The barren fig-tree. 181. The Monday of Passion + week. 182-186. The controversies of Tuesday. 187. Judas. 188. + Wednesday, the day of seclusion. + + +VII + +The Last Supper + +Sections 189-195. Pages 181-187 + + Section 189. Preparations. 190,191. Date of the supper. 192. The lesson + of humility. 193. The new covenant. 194. The supper and the Passover. + 195. Farewell words of admonition and comfort; the intercessory prayer. + + +VIII + +The Shadow of Death + +Sections 196-208. Pages 188-200 + + Sections 196, 197. Gethsemane. 198. The betrayal. 199. The trial. 200. + Peter's denials. 201. The rejection of Jesus. 202. The greatness of + Jesus. 203, 204. The crucifixion. 205. The words from the cross. 206. + The death of Jesus. 207. The burial. 208. The Sabbath rest. + + +IX + +The Resurrection + +Sections 209-222. Pages 201-216 + + Section 209. The primary Christian fact. 210. The incredulity of the + disciples. 211-216. The appearances of the risen Lord. 217-220. Efforts + to explain the belief in the resurrection. 221. The ascension. 222. The + new faith of the disciples. + + + +Part III + +The Minister + + +I + +The Friend of Men + +Sections 223-229. Pages 219-225 + + Section 223. The contrast between Jesus' attitude and John's towards + common social life. 224. Contrast with the scribes. 225, 226. His + interest in simple manhood. 227. Regard for human need. 228, 229. + Sensitiveness to human sympathy. + + +II + +The Teacher with Authority + +Sections 230-241. Pages 226-237 + + Section 230. Contrast between Jesus and the scribes. 231. His appeal to + the conscience. His attitude to the Old Testament. 234. His teaching + occasional. 235. The patience of his method. 236. His use of + illustration. 237. Parable. 238. Irony and hyperbole. 239. Object + lessons. 240. Jesus' intellectual superiority. 241. His chief theme, + the kingdom of God. + + +III + +Jesus' Knowledge of Truth + +Sections 242-251. Pages 238-248 + + Sections 242, 243. Jesus' supernatural knowledge. 244. His predictions + of his death. 245. Of his resurrection. 246. His apocalyptic + predictions. 247, 248. Limitation of his knowledge. 249, 250. Jesus and + demoniac possession. 251. His certainty of his own mission. + + +IV + +Jesus' Conception of Himself + +Sections 252-275. Pages 249-269. + + Section 252. Jesus' confidence in his calling. 253. His independence in + teaching. 254. His self-assertions in response to pharisaic criticism. + 255. His desire to beget faith in himself. 256,257. His extraordinary + personal claim. 258. His acceptance of Messianic titles. 259-266. The + Son of Man. 267-269. The Son of God. 270, 271. His consciousness of + oneness with God. 272. His confession of dependence; his habit of + prayer. 273. No confession of sin. 274, 275. The Word made flesh. + + +Appendix + +Index of Names and Subjects + +Index of Biblical References + +Map of Palestine + + + + +Part I + + +Preparatory + + + + +I + +The Historical Situation + + + +1. When Tacitus, the Roman historian, records the attempt of Nero to +charge the Christians with the burning of Rome, he has patience for no +more than the cursory remark that the sect originated with a Jew who had +been put to death in Judea during the reign of Tiberius. This province was +small and despised, and Tacitus could account for the influence of the +sect which sprang thence only by the fact that all that was infamous and +abominable flowed into Rome. The Roman's scornful judgment failed to grasp +the nature and power of the movement whose unpopularity invited Nero's +lying accusation, yet it emphasizes the significance of him who did "not +strive, nor cry, nor cause his voice to be heard in the street," whose +influence, nevertheless, was working as leaven throughout the empire. + +2. Palestine was not under immediate Roman rule when Jesus was born. Herod +the Great was drawing near the close of the long reign during which, owing +to his skill in securing Roman favor, he had tyrannized over his unwilling +people. His claim was that of an adventurer who had power to succeed, even +as his method had been that of a suspicious tyrant, who murdered right and +left, lest one of the many with better right than he should rise to +dispute with him his throne. When Herod died, his kingdom was divided +into three parts, and Rome asserted a fuller sovereignty, allowing none of +his sons to take his royal title. Herod's successors ruled with a measure +of independence, however, and followed many of their father's ways, though +none of them had his ability. The best of them was Philip, who had the +territory farthest from Jerusalem, and least related to Jewish life. He +ruled over Iturea and Trachonitis, the country to the north and east of +the Sea of Galilee, having his capital at Caesarea Philippi, a city built +and named by him on the site of an older town near the sources of the +Jordan. He also rebuilt the city of Bethsaida, at the point where the +Jordan flows into the Sea of Galilee, calling it Julias, after the +daughter of Augustus. Philip enters the story of the life of Jesus only as +the ruler of these towns and the intervening region, and as husband of +Salome, the daughter of Herodias. Living far from Jerusalem and the Jewish +people, he abandoned even the show of Judaism which characterized his +father, and lived as a frank heathen in his heathen capital. + +3. The other two who inherited Herod's dominion were brothers, Archelaus +and Antipas, sons of Malthace, one of Herod's many wives. Archelaus had +been designated king by Herod, with Judea, Samaria, and Idumea as his +kingdom; but the emperor allowed him only the territory, with the title +ethnarch. Antipas was named a tetrarch by Herod, and his territory was +Galilee and the land east of the Jordan to the southward of the Sea of +Galilee, called Perea. Antipas was the Herod under whose sway Jesus lived +in Galilee, and who executed John the Baptist. He was a man of passionate +temper, with the pride and love of luxury of his father. Having Jews to +govern, he held, as his father had done, to a show of Judaism, though at +heart he was as much of a pagan as Philip. He, too, loved building, and +Tiberias on the Sea of Galilee was built by him for his capital. His +unscrupulous tyranny and his gross disregard of common righteousness +appear in his relations with John the Baptist and with Herodias, his +paramour. Jesus described him well as "that fox" (Luke xiii. 32), for he +was sly, and worked often by indirection. While his father had energy and +ability which command a sort of admiration, Antipas was not only bad but +weak. + +4. Both Philip and Antipas reigned until after the death of Jesus, Philip +dying in A.D. 34, and Antipas being deposed several years later, probably +in 39. Archelaus had a much shorter rule, for he was deposed in A.D. 6, +having been accused by the Jews of unbearable barbarity and tyranny,--a +charge in which Antipas and Philip joined. The territory of Archelaus was +then made an imperial province of the second grade, ruled by a procurator +appointed from among the Roman knights. In provinces under an imperial +legate (propraetor) the procurator was an officer for the administration +of the revenues; in provinces of the rank of Judea he was, however, the +representative of the emperor in all the prerogatives of government, +having command of the army, and being the final resort in legal procedure, +as well as supervising the collection of the customs and taxes. Very +little is known of the procurators appointed after the deposition of +Archelaus, until Tiberius sent Pontius Pilate in A.D. 26. He held office +until he was deposed in 36. Josephus gives several examples of his wanton +disregard of Jewish prejudice, and of his extreme cruelty. His conduct at +the trial of Jesus was remarkably gentle and judicial in comparison with +other acts recorded of his government; yet the fear of trial at Rome, +which finally induced him to give Jesus over to be crucified, was +thoroughly characteristic; in fact, his downfall resulted from a complaint +lodged against him by certain Samaritans whom he had cruelly punished for +a Messianic uprising. + +5. There were two sorts of Roman taxes in Judea: direct, which were +collected by salaried officials; and customs, which were farmed out to the +highest bidder. The direct taxes consisted of a land tax and a poll tax, +in the collection of which the procurator made use of the local Jewish +courts; the customs consisted of various duties assessed on exports, and +they were gathered by representatives of men who had bought the right to +collect these dues. The chiefs as well as their underlings are called +publicans in our New Testament, although the name strictly applies only to +the chiefs. These tax-gatherers, small and great, were everywhere despised +and execrated, because, in addition to their subserviency to a hated +government, they had a reputation, usually deserved, for all sorts of +extortion. Because of this evil repute they were commonly drawn from the +unscrupulous among the people, so that the frequent coupling of publicans +and sinners in the gospels probably rested on fact as much as on +prejudice. + +6. In Samaria and Judea soldiers were under the command of the procurator; +they took orders from the tetrarch, in Galilee and Perea. The garrison of +Jerusalem consisted of one Roman cohort--from five to six hundred +men--which was reinforced at the time of the principal feasts. These and +the other forces at the disposal of the procurator were probably recruited +from the country itself, largely from among the Samaritans. The centurion +of Capernaum (Matt. viii. 5; Luke vii. 2-5) was an officer in the army of +Antipas, who, however, doubtless organized his army on the Roman pattern, +with officers who had had their training with the imperial forces. + +7. The administration of justice in Samaria and Judea was theoretically in +the hands of the procurator; practically, however, it was left with the +Jewish courts, either the local councils or the great sanhedrin at +Jerusalem. This last body consisted of seventy-one "elders." Its president +was the high-priest, and its members were drawn in large degree from the +most prominent representatives of the priestly aristocracy. The scribes, +however, had a controlling influence because of the reverence in which the +multitude held them. The sanhedrin of Jerusalem had jurisdiction only +within the province of Judea, where it tried all kinds of offences; its +judgment was final, except in capital cases, when it had to yield to the +procurator, who alone could sentence to death. It had great influence also +in Galilee, and among Jews everywhere, but this was due to the regard all +Jews had for the holy city. It was, in fact, a sort of Jewish senate, +which took cognizance of everything that seemed to affect the Jewish +interests. In Galilee and Perea, Antipas held in his hands the judicial as +well as the military and financial administration. + +8. To the majority of the priests religion had become chiefly a form. +They represented the worldly party among the Jews. Since the days of the +priest-princes who ruled in Jerusalem after the return from the exile, +they had constituted the Jewish aristocracy, and held most of the wealth +of the people. It was to their interest to maintain the ritual and the +traditional customs, and they were proud of their Jewish heritage; of +genuine interest in religion, however, they had little. This secular +priestly party was called the Sadducees, probably from Zadok, the +high-priest in Solomon's time. What theology the Sadducees had was for the +most part reactionary and negative. They were opposed to the more earnest +spirit and new thought of the scribes, and naturally produced some +champions who argued for their theological position; but the mass of them +cared for other things. + +9. The leaders of the popular thought, on the other hand, were chiefly +noted for their religious zeal and theological acumen. They represented +the outgrowth of that spirit which in the Maccabean time had risked all to +defend the sanctity of the temple and the right of God's people to worship +him according to his law. They were known as Pharisees, because, as the +name ("separated") indicates, they insisted on the separation of the +people of God from all the defilements and snares of the heathen life +round about them. The Pharisees constituted a fraternity devoted to the +scrupulous observance of law and tradition in all the concerns of daily +life. They were specialists in religion, and were the ideal +representatives of Judaism. Their distinguishing characteristic was +reverence for the law; their religion was the religion of a book. By +punctilious obedience of the law man might hope to gain a record of merit +which should stand to his credit and secure his reward when God should +finally judge the world. Because life furnished many situations not dealt +with in the written law, there was need of its authoritative +interpretation, in order that ignorance might not cause a man to +transgress. These interpretations constituted an oral law which +practically superseded the written code, and they were handed down from +generation to generation as "the traditions of the fathers." The existence +of this oral law made necessary a company of scribes and lawyers whose +business it was to know the traditions and transmit them to their pupils. +These scribes were the teachers of Israel, the leaders of the Pharisees, +and the most highly revered class in the community. Pharisaism at its +beginning was intensely earnest, but in the time of Jesus the earnest +spirit had died out in zealous formalism. This was the inevitable result +of their virtual substitution of the written law for the living God. Their +excessive reverence had banished God from practical relation to the daily +life. They held that he had declared his will once for all in the law. His +name was scrupulously revered, his worship was cultivated with minutest +care, his judgment was anticipated with dread; but he himself, like an +Oriental monarch, was kept far from common life in an isolation suitable +to his awful holiness. By a natural consequence conscience gave place to +scrupulous regard for tradition in the religion of the scribes. The chief +question with them was not, Is this right? but, What say the elders? The +soul's sensitiveness of response to God's will and God's truth was lost in +a maze of traditions which awoke no spontaneous Amen in the moral nature, +consequently there was frequent substitution of reputation for character. +The Pharisees could make void the command, Honor thy father, by an +ingenious application of the principle of dedication of property to God +(Mark vii. 8-13), and thus under the guise of scrupulous regard for law +discovered ways for legal disregard of law. Their theory of religion gave +abundant room for a piety which made broad its phylacteries and lengthened +its prayers, while neglecting judgment, mercy, and the love of God. + +10. Yet the earnest and true development in Jewish thinking was found +among the Pharisees. The early hope of Israel was almost exclusively +national. In the later books of the Old Testament, in connection with an +enlarged sense of the importance of the individual, the doctrine of a +personal resurrection to share the blessings of the Messiah's kingdom +began to appear. It had its clear development and definite adoption as +part of the faith of Judaism, however, under the influence of the +Pharisees. Along with this increased emphasis on the worth of the +individual came a large development of the doctrine of angels and spirits. +Towards both of these doctrines the Sadducees took a reactionary position. +Politically the Pharisees were theocratic in theory, but opportunists in +practice, accommodating themselves to the existing state of things so long +as the _de facto_ government did not interfere with the religious life of +the people. They looked for a kingdom in which God should be evidently the +king of his people; but they believed that his sovereignty was to be +realized through the law, hence their sole interest was in the obedience +of God's people to that law as interpreted by the traditions. + +11. The theocratic spirit was more aggressive in a party which originated +in the later years of Herod the Great, and found a reckless leader in +Judas of Galilee, who started a revolt when the governor of Syria +undertook to make a census of the Jews after the deposition of Archelaus. +This party bore the name Cananeans or Zealots. They regarded with +passionate resentment the subjection of God's people to a foreign power, +and waited eagerly for an opportune time to take the sword and set up the +kingdom of God; it was with them that the final war against Rome began. +They were found in largest numbers in Galilee, where the scholasticism of +the scribes was not so dominating an influence as in Judea. Dr. Edersheim +has called them the nationalist party. In matters belonging strictly to +the religious life they followed the Pharisees, only holding a more +material conception of the hope of Israel. + +12. Another development in Jewish religious life carried separatist +doctrines to the extreme. Its representatives were called Essenes, though +what the significance of the name was is no longer clear. Although they +were allied with the Pharisees in doctrine, they show in some particulars +the influence of Hellenistic Judaism. This is suggested not only by the +attention which Philo and Josephus give to them, but also by certain of +their views, which were very like the doctrines of the Pythagoreans. They +carried the pharisaic demand for separateness to the extreme of +asceticism. While they were found in nearly every town in Palestine, some +of them even practising marriage, the largest group of them lived a +celibate, monastic life near the shores of the Dead Sea. This community +was recruited by the initiation of converts, who only after a novitiate of +three years were admitted to full membership in the order. They were +characterized by an extreme scrupulousness concerning ceremonial purity, +their meals were regarded as sacrifices, and were prepared by members of +the order, who were looked upon as priests, nor were any allowed to +partake of the food until they had first bathed themselves. Their regular +garments were all white, and were regarded as vestments for use at the +sacrificial meals,--other clothing being assumed as they went out to their +work. They were industrious agriculturists, their life was communistic, +and they were renowned for their uprightness. They revered Moses as highly +as did the scribes; yet they were opposed to animal sacrifices, and, +although they sent gifts to the temple, were apparently excluded from its +worship. Their kinship with the Pythagoreans appears in that they +addressed an invocation to the sun at its rising, and conducted all their +natural functions with scrupulous modesty, "that they might not offend the +brightness of God" (Jos. Wars, ii. 8, 9). Their rejection of bloody +sacrifices, and their view that the soul is imprisoned in the body and at +death is freed for a better life, besides many features of their life that +are genuinely Jewish, such as their regard for ceremonial purity, also +show similarity to the Pythagoreans. It has always been a matter of +perplexity that these ascetics find no mention in the New Testament. They +seem to have lived a life too much apart, and to have had little sympathy +with the ideals of Jesus, or even of John the Baptist. + +13. The common people followed the lead of the Pharisees, though afar +off. They accepted the teaching concerning tradition, as well as that +concerning the resurrection, conforming their lives to the prescriptions +of the scribes more or less strictly, according as they were more or loss +ruled by religious considerations. It was in consequence of their hold on +the people that the scribes in the sanhedrin were able often to dictate a +policy to the Sadducean majority. Jesus voiced the popular opinion when he +said that "the scribes sit in Moses' seat" (Matt, xxiii. 2). Their leaders +despised "this multitude which knoweth not the law" (John vii. 49), yet +delighted to legislate for them, binding heavy burdens and grievous to be +borne. Many of the people were doubtless too intent on work and gain to be +very regardful of the _minutiae_ of conduct as ordained by the scribes; +many more were too simple-minded to follow the theories of the rabbis +concerning the aloofness of God from the life of men. These last +reverenced the scribes, followed their directions, in the main, for the +conduct of life, yet lived in fellowship with God as their fathers had, +trusting in his faithfulness, and hoping in his mercy. They are +represented in the New Testament by such as Simeon and Anna, Zachariah and +Elizabeth, Joseph and Mary, and the majority of those who heard and heeded +John's call to repentance. They were Israel's remnant of pure and +undefiled religion, and constituted what there was of good soil among the +people for the reception of the seed sown by John's successor. They had no +name, for they did not constitute a party; for convenience they may be +called the Devout. + +14. Two other classes among the people are mentioned in the gospels,--the +Herodians and the Samaritans. The Herodians do not appear outside the New +Testament, and seem to have been hardly more than a group of men in whom +the secular spirit was dominant, who thought it best for their interests +and for the people's to champion the claims of the Herodian family. They +were probably more akin to the Pharisees than to the Sadducees, for the +latter were hostile to the Herodian claims, from the first; yet in spirit +they seem more like to the worldly aristocracy than to the pious scribes. +The Samaritans lived in the land, a people despising and despised. Their +territory separated Galilee from Judea, and they were a constant source of +irritation to the Jews. The hatred was inherited from the days of Ezra, +when the zealous Jews refused to allow any intercourse with the +inhabitants of Samaria. These Samaritans were spurned as of impure blood +and mixed religion (II. Kings xvii. 24-41). The severe attitude adopted +towards them by Ezra and Nehemiah led to the building of a temple on Mount +Gerizim, and the establishment of a worship which sought to rival that of +Jerusalem in all particulars. Very little is known of the tenets of the +Samaritans in the time of Jesus beyond their belief that Gerizim was the +place which, according to the law, God chose for his temple, and that a +Messiah should come to settle all questions of dispute (John iv. 25). + +15. Although the religious life of the Jews centred ideally in the temple, +it found its practical expression in the synagogue. This in itself is +evidence of the relative influence of priests and scribes. There was no +confessed rivalry. The Pharisee was most insistent on the sanctity of the +temple and the importance of its ritual. Yet with the growing sense of the +religious significance of the individual as distinct from the nation, +there arose of necessity a practical need for a system of worship possible +for the great majority of the people, who could at best visit Jerusalem +but once or twice a year. The synagogue seems to have been a development +of the exile, when there was no temple and no sacrifice. It was the +characteristic institution of Judaism as a religion of the law, furnishing +in every place opportunity for prayer and study. The elders of each +community seem ordinarily to have been in control of its synagogue, and to +have had authority to exclude from its fellowship persons who had come +under the ban. In addition to these officials there was a ruler of the +synagogue, who had the direction of all that concerned the worship; a +_chazzan_, or minister, who had the care of the sacred books, administered +discipline, and instructed the children in reading the scripture; and two +or more receivers of alms. The Sabbath services consisted of prayers, and +reading of the scriptures--both law and prophets,--and an address or +sermon. It was in the sermon that the people learned to know the +"traditions of the elders," whether as applications of the law to the +daily life, or as legendary embellishments of Hebrew history and prophecy. +The preacher might be any one whom the ruler of the synagague recognized +as worthy to address the congregation. + +16. The religious life which centred in the synagogue found daily +expression in the observance of the law and the traditions. In the measure +of its control by the scribes it was concerned chiefly with the Sabbath, +with the various ablutions needful to the maintenance of ceremonial +purity, with the distinctions between clean and unclean food, with the +times and ways of fasting, and with the wearing of fringes and +phylacteries. These lifeless ceremonies seem to our day wearisome and +petty in the extreme. It is probable, however, that the growth of the +various traditions had been so gradual that, as has been aptly said, the +whole usage seemed no more unreasonable to the Jews than the etiquette of +polite society does to its devotees. The evil was not so much in the +minuteness of the regulations as in the external and superficial notion of +religion which they induced. + +17. Optimism was the mood of Israel's prophets from the earliest times. +Every generation looked for the dawning of a day which should banish all +ill and realize the dreams inspired by the covenant in which God had +chosen Israel for his own. In proportion as the rabbinic formalism held +control of the hearts of the people, the Messianic hope lost its warmth +and vigor. Yet the scribes did not abandon the prophetic optimism; they +held to the letter of the hope, but as its fulfilment was for them +dependent on perfect obedience to the law, oral and written, their +interest was diverted to the traditions, and their strength was given to +legal disputations. Of the rest of the people, the Sadducees naturally +gave little thought to the promise of future deliverance, they were too +absorbed with regard for present concerns. Nor is there any evidence that +the Essenes, with all their reputed knowledge of the future, cherished the +hope of a Messiah. The other elements among the people who owned the +general leadership of the scribes looked eagerly for the coming time when +God should bring to pass what he had promised through the prophets. While +some expected God himself to come in judgment, and gave no thought to an +Anointed one who should represent the Most High to the people, the +majority looked for a Son of David to sit upon his father's throne. Even +so, however, there were wide differences in the nature of the hope which +was set on the coming of this Son of David. The Zealots were looking for a +victory, which should set Israel on high over all his foes. To the rest of +the people, however, the method of the consummation was not so clear, and +they were ready to leave God to work out his purpose in his own way, +longing meanwhile for the fulfilment of his promise. One class in +particular gave themselves to visionary representations of the promised +redemption. They differed from the Zealots in that they saw with unwelcome +clearness the futility of physical attack upon their enemies; but their +faith was strong, and at the moment when outward conditions seemed most +disheartening they looked for a revelation of God's power from heaven, +destroying all sinners in his wrath, and delivering and comforting his +people, giving them their lot in a veritable Canaan situated in a renewed +earth. Such visions are recorded in the Book of Daniel and the Revelation +of John. They are found in many other apocalypses not included in our +Bible, and indicate how persistently the minds of the people turned +towards the promises spoken by the prophets, and meditated on their +fulfilment. The Devout were midway between the Zealots and the +Apocalyptists. The songs of Zachariah and Mary and the thanksgiving of +Simeon express their faith. They hoped for a kingdom as tangible as the +Zealots sought, yet they preferred to _wait_ for the consolation of +Israel. They believed that God was still in his heaven, that he was not +disregardful of his people, and that in his own time he would raise up +unto them their king. They looked for a Son of David, yet his reign was to +be as remarkable for its purification of his own people as for its +victories over their foes. These victories indeed were to be largely +spiritual, for their Messiah was to conquer in the strength of the Spirit +of God and "by the word of his mouth." Such as these were ready for a +ministry like John's, and not unready for the new ideal which Jesus was +about to offer them, though their highest spiritualization of the +Messianic hope was but a shadow of the reality which Jesus asked them to +accept. + +18. This last conception of the Messiah is found in a group of psalms +written in the first century before Christ, during the early days of the +Roman interference in Judea. These Psalms of Solomon, as they are called, +are pharisaic in point of view, yet they are not rabbinic in their ideas. +Their feeling is too deep, and their reliance on God too immediate; they +fitly follow the psalms of the Old Testament, though afar off. Of another +type of contemporary literature, Apocalypse, at least two representatives +besides the Book of Daniel have come down to us from the time of Jesus or +earlier,--the so-called Book of Enoch, and the fragment known as the +Assumption of Moses. These writings have peculiar interest, because they +are probably the source of quotations found in the Epistle of Jude; +moreover, some sayings of Jesus reported in the gospels, and in particular +his chosen title, The Son of Man, are strikingly similar to expressions +found in Enoch. Can Jesus have read these books? The psalms of the Devout +were the kind of literature to pass rapidly from heart to heart, until all +who sympathized with their hope and faith had heard or seen them. The case +was different with the apocalypses. They are more elaborate and +enigmatical, and may have been only slightly known. Yet, as Jesus was +familiar with the canonical Book of Daniel, although it was not read in +the synagogue service in his time, it is possible that he may also have +read or heard other books which had not won recognition as canonical. If, +however, he knew nothing of them, the similarity between the apocalypses +and some of Jesus' ideas and expressions becomes all the more significant; +for it shows that these writings gave utterance to thoughts and feelings +shared by men who never read them, which were, therefore, no isolated +fancies, but characteristic of the religion of many of the people. With +these ideas Jesus was familiar; whether he ever read the books must remain +a question. + +19. This literature exists for us only in translations made in the days of +the early church. Most of these books were originally written in Hebrew, +the language of the Old Testament, or in Aramaic, the language of +Palestine in the time of Jesus. Traces of this language as spoken by Jesus +have been preserved in the gospels,--the name _Rabbi; Abba_, translated +Father; _Talitha cumi_, addressed to the daughter of Jairus; _Ephphatha_, +to the deaf man of Bethsaida; and the cry from the cross, _Eloi, Eloi, +lama sabachthani_ (John i. 38; Mark xiv. 36; v. 41; vii. 34; xv. 34). It +is altogether probable that in his common dealings with men and in his +teachings Jesus used this language. Greek was the language of the +government and of trade, and in a measure the Jews were a bilingual +people. Jesus may thus have had some knowledge of Greek, but it is +unlikely that he ever used it to any extent either in Galilee, or Judea, +or in the regions of Tyre and Sidon. + + + + +II + +Sources of Our Knowledge Of Jesus + + + +20. The earliest existing record of events in the life of Jesus is given +to us in the epistles of Paul. His account of the appearances of the Lord +after his death and resurrection (I. Cor. xv. 3-8) was written within +thirty years of these events. The date of the testimony, however, is much +earlier, since Paul refers to the experience which transformed his own +life, and so carries us back to within a few years of the crucifixion. +Other facts from Jesus' life may be gathered from Paul, as his descent +from Abraham and David (Rom. i. 3; ix. 5); his life of obedience (Rom. v. +19; xv. 3; Phil. ii. 5-11); his poverty (II. Cor. viii. 9); his meekness +and gentleness (II. Cor. x. 1); other New Testament writings outside of +our gospels add somewhat to this restricted but very clear testimony. + +21. Secular history knows little of the obscure Galilean. The testimony of +Tacitus is that the Christians "derived their name and origin from one +Christ, who in the reign of Tiberius had suffered death by the sentence of +the procurator, Pontius Pilate" (Annals, xv. 44). Suetonius makes an +obscure and seemingly ill-informed allusion to Christ in the reason he +assigns for the edict of Claudius expelling the Jews from Rome (Vit. +Claud. 25). The younger Pliny in the second century had learned that the +numerous Christian community in Bithynia was accustomed to honor Christ +as God; but he shows no knowledge of the life of Jesus beyond what must be +inferred concerning one who caused men "to bind themselves with an oath +not to enter into any wickedness, or commit thefts, robberies, or +adulteries, or falsify their word, or repudiate trusts committed to them" +(Epistles X. 96). This secular ignorance is not surprising; but the +silence of Josephus is. He mentions Jesus in but one clearly genuine +passage, when telling of the martyrdom of James, the "brother of Jesus, +who is called the Christ" (Ant. xx. 9. 1). Of John the Baptist, however, +he has a very appreciative notice (Ant, xviii. 5. 2), and it cannot be +that he was ignorant of Jesus. His appreciation of John suggests that he +could not have mentioned Jesus more fully without some approval of his +life and teaching. This would be a condemnation of his own people, whom he +desired to commend to Gentile regard; and he seems to have taken the +cowardly course of silence concerning a matter more noteworthy, even for +that generation, than much else of which he writes very fully. + +22. The reason for the lack of written Christian records of Jesus' life +from the earliest time seems to be, not that the apostles had a small +sense of the importance of his earthly ministry, but that the early +generation preferred what at a later time was called the "living voice" +(Papias in Euseb. Ch. Hist. iii. 39). The impression made by Jesus was +supremely personal; he wrote nothing, did not command his disciples to +write anything, preferring to influence men's minds by personal power, +appointing them, in turn, to represent him to men as he had represented +the Father to them (John xx. 21). But the time came when the first +witnesses were passing away, and they were not many who could say, "I saw +him." Our gospels are the result of the natural desire to preserve the +apostolic testimony for a generation that could no longer hear the +apostolic voice; and they are precisely what such a sense of need would +produce,--vivid pictures of Jesus, agreeing in general features, differing +more or less in details, reflecting individual feeling for the Master, and +written not simply to inform men but to convince them of that Master's +claims. One evidence of the reality of the gospel pictures is the fact +that we so seldom feel the individual characteristics of each gospel. This +is especially true of the first three, which, to the vividness of their +picture, add a remarkable similarity of detail. Tatian, in the second +century, felt it necessary to make a continuous narrative for the use of +the church by interweaving the four gospels into one, and he has had many +successors down to our day; but the fact that unity of impression has +practically resulted from the four pictures without recourse to such an +interweaving, invites consideration of the characteristics of these +remarkable documents. + +23. The first gospel impresses the careful reader with three things: (1) A +clear sense of the development of Jesus' ministry. The author introduces +his narrative by an account of the birth of Jesus, of the ministry of John +the Baptist, and of Jesus' baptism and temptation and withdrawal into +Galilee (i. 1 to iv. 17). He then depicts the public ministry by grouping +together, first, teachings of Jesus concerning the law of the kingdom of +heaven, then a series of great miracles confirming the new doctrine, then +the expansion of the ministry and deepening hostility of the Pharisees, +leading to the teaching by parables, and the final withdrawal from Galilee +to the north. This ministry resulted in the chilling of popular enthusiasm +which had been strong at the beginning, but in the winning of a few hearts +to Jesus' own ideals of the kingdom of God (iv. 18 to xvi. 20). From this +point the evangelist leads us to Jerusalem, where rejection culminates, +the sterner teachings of Jesus are massed, and his victory in seeming +defeat is exhibited (xvi. 21 to xxviii. 20). (2) The evangelist's interest +is not satisfied by this clear, strong, picture; he wishes to convince men +that Jesus is Israel's Messiah, hence, throughout, he indicates the +fulfilment of prophecy. The things in which he sees the fulfilment are +striking, for, with but one or two exceptions, they are features of the +life of Jesus objectionable to Jewish feeling. This fact, taken in +connection with the emphasis which the gospel gives to the death of Jesus +at the hands of the Jews, and to the resurrection as God's seal of +approval of him whom his people rejected, forms a forcible argument to +prove the Messiahship of Jesus, not simply in spite of his rejection by +the Jews, but by appeal to that rejection as leading to God's signal +vindication of the crucified one. (3) This evangelist, while proving that +Jesus is the Messiah promised to Israel, recognizes clearly the freedom of +the new faith from the exclusiveness of Jewish feeling. The choice of +Galilee for the Messianic ministry (iv. 12-17), the comment of Jesus on +the faith of the centurion (viii. 10-12), the rebuke of Israel in the +parable of the Wicked Husbandmen (xxi. 33-46), and especially the last +commission of the risen Lord (xxviii. 18-20), show that this gospel sought +to convince men of Jewish feeling not only that Jesus is Messiah, but also +that as Messiah he came to bring salvation to all the world. + +24. The second gospel is much simpler in construction than the first, +while presenting essentially the same picture of the ministry as is found +in Matthew. To its simplicity it adds a vividness of narration which +commends Mark's account as probably representing most nearly the actual +course of the life of Jesus. While it reports fewer incidents and +teachings than either of the others, a comparison with Matthew and Luke +shows a preference in Mark for Jesus' deeds, though addresses are not +wanting; and, while shorter as a whole, for matters which he reports +Mark's record is most rich in detail, most dramatic in presentation, and +actually longer than the parallel accounts in the other gospels. The whole +narrative is animated in style (note the oft-repeated "immediately") and +full of graphic traits. The story of Jesus seems to be reproduced from a +memory which retains fresh personal impressions of events as they +occurred. Hence the frequent comments on the effect of Jesus' ministry, +such as "We never saw it on this fashion" (ii. 12), or "He hath done all +things well" (vii. 37), and the introduction into the narrative of Aramaic +words,--_Boanerges_ (iii. 17), _Talitha, cumi_ (v. 41), and the like, +which immediately have to be translated. The gospel discloses no +artificial plan, the chief word of transition is "and." While some of the +incidents recorded, such as the second Sabbath controversy (iii. 1-6) and +the question about fasting (ii. 18-22), may owe their place to association +in memory with an event of like character, the book impresses us as a +collection of annals fresh from the living memory, which present the +actual Jesus teaching and healing, and going on his way to the cross and +resurrection. After the briefest possible reference to the ministry of +John the Baptist and the baptism and temptation of Jesus (i. 1-13), this +gospel proceeds to set forth the ministry in Galilee (i. 14 to ix. 50). +The narrative then follows Jesus to Jerusalem, by way of Perea, and closes +with his victory through death and resurrection (x. 1 to xvi. 8). + +25. The third gospel is more nearly a biography than any of its +companions. It opens with a preface stating that after a study of many +earlier attempts to record the life of Jesus the author has undertaken to +present as complete an account as possible of that life from the +beginning. The book is addressed to one Theophilus, doubtless a Greek +Christian, and its chief aim is practical,--to confirm conviction +concerning matters of faith (i. 1-4). The author's interest in the +completeness of his account appears in the fact that it begins with +incidents antecedent to the birth of John the Baptist and Jesus. Moreover, +to his desire for completeness we owe much of the story of Jesus, +otherwise unrecorded for us. Like the first two gospels, Luke represents +the ministry of Jesus as inaugurated in Galilee, and carried on there +until the approach of the tragedy at Jerusalem (iv. 14 to ix. 50). It is +in connection with the journey to Jerusalem (ix. 51 to xix. 27) that he +inserts most of that which is peculiar to his gospel. His account of the +rejection at Jerusalem, the crucifixion, and resurrection, follows in the +main the same lines as Matthew and Mark; but he gained his knowledge of +many particulars from different sources (xix. 28 to xxiv. 53). It is +characteristic of Luke to name Jesus "Lord" more often than either of his +predecessors. With this exalted conception is coupled a noticeable +emphasis on Jesus' ministry of compassion; here more than in any other +gospel he is pictured as the friend of sinners. Moreover, we owe chiefly +to Luke our knowledge of him as a man of prayer and as subject to repeated +temptation. An artificial exaltation of Christ, such as is often +attributed to the later apostolic thought, would tend to reduce, not +multiply, such evidences of human dependence on God. This fact increases +our confidence in the accuracy of Luke's picture. The gospel is very full +of comfort to those under the pressure of poverty, and of rebuke to +unbelieving wealth, though the parable of the Unjust Steward and story of +Zacchaeus show that it does not exalt poverty for its own sake. If our +first gospel pictures Jesus as the fulfilment of God's promises to his +people, and Mark, as the man of power at work before our very eyes, +astonishing the multitude while winning the few, Luke sets before us the +Lord ministering with divine compassion to men subject to like temptations +with himself, though, unlike them, he knew no sin. + +26. The first three gospels, differing as they do in point of view and +aim, present essentially one picture of the ministry of Jesus; for they +agree concerning the locality and progress of his Messianic work, and the +form and contents of his teaching, showing, in fact, verbal identity in +many parts of their narrative. For this reason they are commonly known as +the Synoptic Gospels. Yet these gospels exhibit differences as remarkable +as their likenesses. They differ perplexingly in the order in which they +arrange some of the events in Jesus' life. Which of them should be given +preference in constructing a harmonious picture of his ministry? They +often agree to the letter in their report of deeds or words of Jesus, yet +from beginning to end remarkable verbal differences stand side by side +with remarkable verbal identities. Some of the identities of language +suggest irresistibly that the evangelists have used, at least in part, the +same previously existing written record. One of the clearest evidences of +this is found in the introduction, at the same place in the parallel +accounts, of the parenthesis "then saith he to the sick of the palsy" +which interrupts the words of Jesus in the cure of the paralytic (Mark ii. +10; Matt. ix. 6; Luke v. 24). When the three gospels are carefully +compared it appears that Mark contains very little that is not found in +Matthew and Luke, and that, with one or two exceptions, Luke presents in +Mark's order the matter that he has in common with the second gospel. The +same is also true of the relation between the latter part of the Gospel of +Matthew (Matt. xiv. 1 to the end) and the parallel portion of Mark; while +the comparison of Matthew's arrangement of his earlier half with Mark +suggests that the order in the first gospel has been determined by other +than chronological considerations. In a sense, therefore, we may say that +the Gospel of Mark reveals the chronological framework on which all three +of these gospels are constructed. Comparison discloses further the +interesting fact that the matter which Matthew and Luke have in common, +after subtracting their parallels to Mark, consists almost entirely of +teachings and addresses. Each gospel, however, has some matter peculiar to +itself. + +27. In considering the problem presented by these facts, it is well to +remember that no one of these gospels contains within itself any statement +concerning the identity of its author. We are indebted to tradition for +the names by which we know them, and no one of them makes any claim to +apostolic origin. The earliest reference in Christian literature which may +be applied to our gospels comes from Papias, a Christian of Asia Minor in +the second century. He reports that an earlier teacher had said, "Mark, +having become the interpreter of Peter, wrote down accurately, though not, +indeed, in order, whatsoever he remembered of the things said or done by +Christ, for he neither heard the Lord nor followed him, but afterward, as +I said, he followed Peter, who adapted his teachings to the needs of his +hearers, but with no intention of giving a connected account of the Lord's +discourses. So that Mark committed no error when he thus wrote some things +as he remembered them, for he was careful of one thing, not to omit any of +the things which he had heard and not to state any of them falsely.... +Matthew wrote the oracles [of the Lord] in the Hebrew language [Aramaic], +and every one interpreted them as he was able" (Euseb. Ch. Hist. iii. 39). +The result of many years' study by scholars of all shades of opinion is +the very general conclusion that the writing which Papias attributed to +Mark was essentially what we have in our second gospel. + +28. It is almost as universally acknowledged that the work ascribed by the +second century elder to the apostle Matthew cannot be our first gospel; +for its language has not the characteristics which other translations from +Hebrew or Aramaic lead us to expect, while the completeness of its +narrative exceeds what is suggested by the words of Papias. If, however, +the matter which Matthew and Luke have in such rich measure in addition to +Mark's narrative be considered, the likeness between this and the writing +attributed by Papias to the apostle Matthew is noteworthy. The conclusion +is now very general, that that apostolic writing is in large measure +preserved in the discourses in our first and third gospels. The relation +of our gospels to the two books mentioned by Papias may be conceived, +then, somewhat as follows: The earliest gospel writing of which we know +anything was a collection of the teachings of Jesus made by the apostle +Matthew, in which he collected with simple narrative introductions, those +sayings of the Lord which from the beginning had passed from mouth to +mouth in the circle of the disciples. At a later time Mark wrote down the +account of the ministry of Jesus which Peter had been accustomed to relate +in his apostolic preaching. The work of the apostle Matthew, while much +richer in the sayings of Jesus, lacked the completeness that characterizes +a narrative; hence it occurred to some early disciple to blend together +these two primitive gospel records, adding such other items of knowledge +as came to his hand from oral tradition or written memoranda. As his aim +was practical rather than historical, he added such editorial comments as +would make of the new gospel an argument for the Messiahship of Jesus, as +we have seen. Since the most precious element in this new gospel was the +apostolic record of the teachings of the Lord, the name of Matthew and not +of his literary successor, was given to the book. + +29. The third gospel is ascribed, by a probably trustworthy tradition, to +Luke, the companion of Paul. The author himself says that he made use of +such earlier records as were accessible, among which the chief seem to +have been the writings of Mark and the apostle Matthew. To Luke's +industry, however, we owe our knowledge of many incidents and teachings +from the life of Jesus which were not contained in these two records, and +with which we could ill afford to part. Some of these he doubtless found +in written form, and some he gathered from oral testimony. His close +agreement with Mark in the arrangement of his narrative suggests that he +found no clear evidence of a ministry of wider extent in time and place. +He therefore used Mark as his narrative framework, and of the rich +materials which he had gathered made a gospel, the completest of any +written up to his time. + +30. Such in the main is the conclusion of modern study of our first three +gospels; it explains the general identity of their picture of Jesus and of +their report of his teaching; it leaves room for those individual +characteristics which give them so much of their charm; and it traces the +materials of the gospels far back of the writings as we have them, +bringing us nearer to the events which they describe. The dates of these +documents can be only approximately known. It is probable that the +"logia" collected by the apostle Matthew were written not later than 60 to +65 A.D., while the Gospel of Mark dates from before the fall of Jerusalem +in 70. Our first gospel must have been made between 70 and 100, and the +Gospel of Luke may be dated about the year 80,--all within sixty or +seventy years after the death of Jesus. + +31. The fourth gospel gives us a picture of Jesus in striking contrast to +that of the other three. These present chiefly the works of the Master and +his teachings concerning the kingdom of God and human conduct, leaving the +truth concerning the teacher himself to be inferred. John opens the heart +of Jesus and makes him disclose his thought about himself in a remarkable +series of teachings of which he is the prime topic. This gospel is +avowedly an argument (xx. 30, 31); its selection of material is +confessedly partial; its aim is to confirm the faith of Christians in the +heavenly nature and saving power of their Lord; and its method is that of +appeal to testimony, to signs, and to his own self-disclosures. The +opening verses of the gospel have a somewhat abstract theological +character; the body of the book, however, consists of a succession of +incidents and teachings which follow each other in unstudied fashion like +a collection of annals. This impression is not compromised by the +recognition, at some points, of accidental displacements, like that which +has placed xiv. 30, 31 before xv. and xvi., or that which has left a long +gap between vii. 23 and the incident of v. 1-9, to which it refers. The +theme of the gospel is the self-disclosure of Jesus. This seems to have +determined the evangelist's choice of material, and, as the gospel is an +argument, he does not hesitate to mingle his own comments with his report +of Jesus' words, for example (iii. 16-21, 30-36; xii. 37-43). The book is +characterized by a vividness of detail which indicates a clear memory of +personal experience. While it is evident that the author has the most +exalted conception of the nature of his Lord, this seems to have been the +result of loving meditation on a friend who had early won the mastery over +his heart and life, and who through long years of contemplation had forced +upon his disciple's mind the conviction of his transcendent nature. The +book discloses a profoundly objective attitude; the Christ whom John +portrays is not the creature of his speculations, but the Master who has +entered into his experience as a living influence and has compelled +recognition of his significance. The Son of God is for John the human +Jesus who, though named at the outset the Word--the Logos,--is the Word +who was made flesh, that men through him might become the sons of God. + +32. The contrast which the Gospel of John presents to the other three +concerns not only the teaching of Jesus, but the scene of his ministry and +its historic development as well. Whatever may be the final judgment +concerning the fourth gospel, it is manifestly constructed as a simple +collection of incidents following each other in what was meant to appear a +chronological sequence. It has been seen that the biographical framework +of the first three gospels is principally Mark's report of Peter's +narrative. Now it is a fact that in portions of Matthew and Luke, derived +elsewhere than from Mark, there are various allusions most easily +understood if it be assumed that Jesus visited Jerusalem before his +appearance there at the end of his ministry. Such, for instance, are the +parable of the Good Samaritan (Luke x. 25-37), the story of the visit to +Mary and Martha (Luke x. 38-42), and the lamentation of Jesus over +Jerusalem (Luke xiii. 34, 35; Matt, xxiii. 37-39). All three gospels, +moreover, agree in attributing to emissaries from Jerusalem much of the +hostility manifested against Jesus in his Galilean ministry (Luke v. 17; +Mark iii. 22; Matt. xv. 1; Mark vii. 1), and presuppose such an +acquaintance of Jesus with households in and near Jerusalem as is not easy +to explain if he never visited Judea before his passion (Mark xi. 2, 3; +xiv. 14; xv. 43 and parallels; compare especially Matt, xxvii. 57; John +xix. 38). These all suggest that the narrative of Mark does not tell the +whole story, a conclusion quite in accordance with the account of his work +given by Papias. It has been assumed that Peter was a Galilean, a man of +family living in Capernaum. It is not impossible that on some of the +earlier visits of Jesus to Jerusalem he did not accompany his Master, and +in reporting the things which he knew he naturally confined himself to his +own experiences. If this can explain the predominance of Galilean +incidents in the ministry as depicted in Mark, it will explain the +predominance of Galilee in the first three gospels, and the contradiction +between John and the three is reduced to a divergence between two accounts +of Jesus' ministry written from two different points of view. + +33. The question of the trustworthiness of the fourth gospel is greatly +simplified by the consideration of the one-sidedness of Mark's +representation. It is further relieved by the fact that a ministry by +Jesus in Jerusalem must have been one of constant self-assertion, for +Jerusalem represented at its highest those aspects of thought and practice +which were fundamentally opposed to all that Jesus did and taught. +Whenever in Galilee, in the ministry pictured by the first three gospels, +Jesus came in contact with the spirit and feeling characteristic of +Jerusalem, we find him meeting it by unqualified assertion of his own +independence and exalted claim to authority, altogether similar to that +emphasis of his own significance and importance which is the chief +characteristic of his teachings in the fourth gospel. If it be remembered +that that gospel was avowedly an argument written to commend to others the +reverent conclusion concerning the Lord reached by a disciple whose +thought had dwelt for long years on the marvel of that life, and if we +recognize that for such an argument the author would select the instances +and teachings most telling for his own purpose, and would do this as +naturally as the magnet draws to itself iron filings which are mingled +with a pile of sand, the exclusively personal character of the teachings +of Jesus in this gospel need cause little perplexity. Nor need it seem +surprising that the words of Jesus as reported in John share the +peculiarities of style which mark the work of the evangelist in the +prologue to the gospel and in his epistles. His purpose was not primarily +biographical but argumentative, and he has set forth the picture of his +Lord as it rose before his own heart, his memory of events being +interwoven with contemplation on the significance of that life with which +his had been so blessedly associated. In a gospel written avowedly to +produce in others a conviction like his own, the evangelist would not have +been sensible of any obligation to draw sharp lines between his +recollection of his Lord's words and his own contemplations upon them and +upon their significance for his life. If these considerations be kept in +mind we may accept the uniform tradition of antiquity, confirmed by the +plain intimation of the gospel itself, that it is essentially the work of +John, the son of Zebedee, written near the close of his life in Ephesus, +in the last decade of the first century. + +34. We have in our gospel records, therefore, two authorities for the +general course of the ministry of Jesus,--Mark and John. Even if the +fourth gospel should be proved not to be the work of John, its picture of +the ministry of Jesus must be recognized as coming from some apostolic +source. A forger would hardly have invited the rejection of his work by +inventing a narrative which seems to contradict at so many points the +tradition of the other gospels. The first and third gospels furnish us +from various sources rich additions to Mark's narrative, and it is to +these two with the fourth that we turn chiefly for the teachings of Jesus. +Each gospel should be read, therefore, remembering its incompleteness, +remembering also the particular purpose and individual enthusiasm for +Jesus which produced it. + +35. A word may be due to two other claimants to recognition as original +records from the life of Jesus. One class is represented by that word of +the Lord which Paul quoted to the Ephesian elders at Miletus (Acts xx. +35). Scattered here and there in writings of the apostolic and succeeding +ages are other sayings attributed to Jesus which cannot be found in our +gospels. A few of these so-called Agrapha seem worthy of him, and are +recognized as probably genuine. The most important of them is the story of +the woman taken in adultery (John vii. 53 to viii. 11), which, though not +a part of the gospel of John, doubtless gives a true incident from Jesus' +life. They represent the "many other" things which John and the other +gospels have omitted, but their small number proves that our gospels have +preserved for us practically all that was known of Jesus after the first +witnesses fell asleep. It is certainly surprising that so little exists to +supplement the story of the gospels, for they are manifestly fragmentary, +and leave much of Jesus' public life without any record. The other class +of claimants is of a quite different character,--the so-called Apocryphal +Gospels. These consist chiefly of legends connected with the birth and +early years of Jesus, and with his death and resurrection. They are for +the most part crude tales that have entirely mistaken the real character +of him whom they seek to exalt, and need only to be read to be rejected. + + + + +III + +The Harmony of the Gospels + + + +36. The church early appreciated the value and the difficulty of having +four different pictures of the life and teachings of the Lord. Irenaeus at +the close of the second century felt it to be as essential that there +should be four gospels as that there should be "four zones of the world, +four principal winds, and four faces of the cherubim" (Against Heresies +III. ii. 8). + +37. Before Irenaeus, however, another had sought to obviate the difficulty +of having four records which seem at some points to disagree, by making a +combination of the gospels, to which he gave the title "Diatessaron." +Tatian, the author of this work, was converted from paganism about 152 +A.D., and prepared his unified gospel, probably for the use of the Syrian +churches, sometime after 172. His work is one of the treasures of the +early Christian literature recovered for us within the last +quarter-century. It seems to have won great popularity in the Syrian +churches, having practically displaced the canonical gospels for nearly +three centuries, when, owing to its supposed heretical tendency, it was +suppressed by the determined effort of the church authorities. It is a +continuous record of Jesus' ministry, beginning with the first six verses +of the Gospel of John, passing then to the early chapters of Luke. It +closes with an account of the resurrection interwoven from all four +gospels, concluding with John xxi. 25. The arrangement follows generally +the order of Matthew, additional matter from the other gospels being +inserted at places which approved themselves to Tatian's judgment. Some +portions--in particular the genealogies of Jesus--were omitted altogether, +in accordance with views held by the compiler. + +38. From Tatian's time to the present there have been repeated attempts to +construct a harmonious representation of events and teachings in the +ministry of Jesus, generally by setting the parallel accounts side by +side, following such a succession of events as seemed most probable. Our +evangelists cared little, if they thought at all, about the requirements +of strict biography, and they have left us records not easy to arrange on +any one chronological scheme. Concerning the chief events, however, the +gospels agree. All four report, for instance, the beginning of the work in +Galilee (Matt. iv. 12, 17; Mark i. 14, 15; Luke iv. 14, 15; John iv. +43-45); the feeding of the five thousand when Jesus' popularity in Galilee +passed its climax (Matt. xiv. 13-23; Mark vi. 30-46; Luke ix. 10-17; John +vi. 1-15); the departure from Galilee for the final visit to Jerusalem +(Matt. xix. 1, 2; Mark x. 1; Luke ix. 51; John vii. 1-10); and the week of +suffering and victory at the end (Matt. xxi. 1 to xxviii. 20; Mark xi. 1 +to xvi. 8 [20]; Luke xix. 29 to xxiv. 53; John xii. 1 to xxi. 25). + +39. These facts are enough to give us a clear and unified impression of +the course of Jesus' ministry. When, however, we seek to fill in the +details given in the different gospels, difficulties at once arise. Thus, +first, what shall be done with the long section which John introduces (i. +19 to iv. 42) before Jesus' withdrawal into Galilee? The other gospels +make that withdrawal the beginning of his public work. A second difficulty +arises from the unnamed feast of John v. 1. By one or another scholar this +feast has been identified with almost every Jewish festival known to us. +Another problem is furnished by the long section in Luke which is so +nearly peculiar to his gospel (ix. 51 to xviii. 14). If the section had no +parallels in the other gospels we might easily conclude that it all +belongs to a time subsequent to the final departure for Jerusalem; but it +contains at least one incident from the earlier ministry in Galilee (Luke +xi. 14-36; compare Mark iii. 19-30), and many teachings of Jesus given by +Matthew in an earlier connection appear here in Luke. Furthermore, the +section has to be adjusted to that portion of the Gospel of John which +deals with the same period and yet reports none of the same details. + +40. If Mark has furnished the narrative framework adopted in the main by +the first and third gospels, the problem of the order of events in Jesus' +life becomes a question of the chronological value of Mark, and of the +estimate to be placed on the narrative of John. If the fourth gospel is +held to be of apostolic origin and trustworthy, the task of the harmonist +is chiefly that of combining these two records of Mark and John. The +testimony of the Baptist, with which the fourth gospel opens, must have +been given some time after he had baptized Jesus, and the ministry which +preceded Jesus' return to Galilee (i. 19 to iv. 42) belongs to a period +ignored by the other gospels. The first three gospels contain indications +that Jesus must have visited Judea before the close of his life. They give +no hint, however, of the time or circumstances of such earlier Judean +labor. In giving the emphasis they do to the work in Galilee, they present +a one-sided picture. When, therefore, we find in John a narrative of work +in Judea, confirmed by hints in the other gospels, we may justly assume +that the arrangement which fills out the ministry of Jesus by inserting at +the proper places in Mark's record the events found in John is essentially +true. + +41. The consideration of the one-sidedness of Mark's narrative simplifies +the problem of harmony, but it does not solve all of the perplexities. +Matthew and Luke have much matter, some of it narrative, which Mark has +not, and for which he suggests no place. Where shall we put, for instance, +the cure of the centurion's servant (Matt. viii. 5-13; Luke vii. 1-10), or +John the Baptist's last message (Matt. xi. 2-19; Luke vii. 18-35)? It +would simplify matters if we could take Luke's statement that he had +"traced the course of all things accurately from the first" (Luke i. 3), +as indicating that he had arrived at exact certainty concerning the order +of events of Jesus' life. It is probable, however, that his statement was +simply a claim that he had carefully gathered material for a record of the +whole life of Jesus, from the annunciation of his birth to his ascension. +While we may believe that some trustworthy tradition led him to give the +place he has to many of the incidents which he adds to Mark's story, it +seems impossible to follow him in all respects; for instance, in severing +the account of the blasphemy of the Pharisees (xi. 14-36) from the place +which it holds in Mark (iii. 19-30). + +42. Still more uncertainty exists concerning the historic connection of +teachings of Jesus to which Matthew and Luke give different settings; for +example, the Lord's Prayer (Matt. vi. 9-15; Luke xi. 1-4), and the +exhortations against anxiety (Matt. vi. 25-34; Luke xii. 22-31). We have +seen that much of the teaching common to these gospels is probably derived +from the collection of the "oracles" of the Lord made by the apostle +Matthew. Everything that we can infer concerning such a collection of +oracles indicates that, while some of the teachings may have been +connected with particular historic situations (compare Luke xi. 1), many +would altogether lack such introductory words. A later example of what +such a collection may have been has come to light recently in the +so-called "Sayings of Jesus," discovered in Egypt and published in 1897. +In these the occasion for the teaching has been quite lost; the sole +interest centres in the fact that Jesus is supposed to have said the +things recorded. If Matthew's book contained such "logia" or "oracles," it +is probable that the original connection in which most of them were spoken +was a matter of no concern to the apostle, and consequently has been lost +This in no way compromises the genuineness of these sayings of Jesus. The +treatment of Luke ix. 51 to xviii. 14 is much simplified by this +consideration. To Luke's industry (i. 1-4) we owe the preservation of some +events and very many teachings which no other evangelist has recorded. +Some of this new material (for instance, vii. 11-17, 36-50) he has +assigned a place in the midst of Mark's narrative. Most of it, however, +he has gathered together in what seems to be a sort of appendix, which he +has inserted between the close of the ministry in Galilee and the final +arrival in Judea. For many of the teachings it is now impossible to assign +a time or place. That this is so will cause no surprise or difficulty if +we remember that in the earliest days the report of what Jesus said and +did circulated in the form of oral tradition only. It was the knowledge +that first-hand witnesses were passing away that led to the writing of the +gospels. During the period of oral tradition many teachings of the Lord +were doubtless kept clearly and accurately in memory after the historic +situations which led to their first utterance were quite forgotten. + +43. This fact helps to explain another perplexity in our gospel +narratives. A comparison of the two accounts of the cure of the +centurion's servant reveals differences of detail most perplexing, if we +ask for minute agreement in records of the same events. When we see that +of two accounts evidently reporting the same incident, one can say that +the centurion himself sought Jesus and asked the cure of his servant +(Matt. viii. 5, 8), while the other makes him declare himself unworthy to +come in person to the Lord (Luke vii. 7), the question arises whether +other accounts, similar in the main but differing in detail, should not be +identified as independent records of one event. Were there two cleansings +of the temple (John ii. 13-22; Mark xi. 15-19), two miraculous draughts of +fishes (Luke v. 4-11; John xxi. 5-8), two rejections at Nazareth (Mark vi. +1-6; Luke iv. 16-30), two parables of the Leaven, of the Mustard Seed +(Matt. xiii. 31-33; Luke xiii. 18-21), and of the Lost Sheep (Matt, xviii. +12-14; Luke xv. 4-7)? Such similar records are often called doublets, and +the question of identity or distinctness can be answered only after a +special study of each case. It is important to notice that a given +teaching, particularly if it took the form of an illustration, would +naturally be used by Jesus on many different occasions. When, on the other +hand, we find two accounts of specific doings of Jesus similar in detail +it is needful to recognize that definite historic situations do not so +often repeat themselves as do occasions for similar or identical +teachings. + +44. All these considerations show that while the general order of events +in the life of Jesus may be determined with a good degree of probability, +we must be content to remain uncertain concerning the place to be given to +many incidents and to more teachings. Such uncertainty is of small +concern, since our unharmonized gospels have not failed during all these +centuries to produce one fair picture, to the total impression of which +each teaching and deed make definite contribution quite independently of +our ability to give to each its particular place in relation to the whole. +The degree of certainty attainable justifies, however, a continued +interest in the old study of harmony, because of the more comprehensive +idea it gives of the ministry depicted in the partial narratives of our +several gospels. + + + + +IV + +The Chronology + + + +45. The length of the public ministry of Jesus was one of the earliest +questions which arose in the study of the four gospels. In the second and +third centuries it was not uncommon to find the answer in the passage from +Isaiah (lxi. 1, 2), which Jesus declared was fulfilled in himself. "The +acceptable year of the Lord" was taken to indicate that the ministry +covered little more than a year. The fact that the first three gospels +mention but one Passover (that at the end), and but one journey to +Jerusalem, seems at first to be favorable to this conclusion, and to make +peculiarly significant the care taken by Luke to give the exact date for +the opening of Jesus' ministry (iii. 1, 2). In fact, the second century +Gnostics, relying apparently on Luke, assigned both the ministry and death +of Jesus to the fifteenth year of Tiberius Caesar,--an interpretation which +may have given rise to the widely spread, early tradition, found, for +example, in Tertullian (Ante-nicene Fathers, in. 160), which placed the +death of Jesus in A.D. 29, during the consulship of L. Rubellius Geminus +and C. Fufius Geminus. + +46. The theory that the ministry of Jesus extended over but little more +than one year is beset, however, by difficulties that seem insuperable. +The first is presented by the three Passovers distinctly mentioned in the +Gospel of John (ii. 13; vi. 4; xii. 1). The last of these is plainly +identical with the one named in the other gospels. The second gives the +time of year for the feeding of the five thousand, and agrees with the +mention of "the green grass" in the account of Mark and Matthew (Mark vi. +39; Matt. xiv. 19). John's first Passover falls in a section which demands +a place before Mark i. 14 (compare John iii. 24). Hence it must be shown +that this first Passover is chronologically out of order in the Gospel of +John, or the one year ministry advocated by the second century Gnostics, +by Clement of Alexandria, by Origen, and of late years by Keim and others, +is seen to be impossible. The fact that at this Passover Jesus cleansed +the temple, and that the other gospels assign such a cleansing to the +close of the ministry, suggests the possibility that John has set it at +the opening of his narrative for reasons connected with his argument. This +interpretation falls, however, before the perfect simplicity of structure +of John's narrative. The transitions from incident to incident in this +gospel are those of simple succession, and indicate, on the writer's part, +no suspicion that he was contradicting notions concerning the ministry of +Jesus familiar to his contemporaries. Whatever the conclusion reached +concerning the authorship of the gospel, the fact that it gained currency +very early as apostolic would seem to prove that its conception of the +length of Jesus' ministry was not opposed to the recognized apostolic +testimony. It is safe to conclude, therefore, that time must be allowed in +Jesus' ministry for at least three Passover seasons. + +47. With this conclusion most modern discussions of the question rest, and +it is possible that it may finally win common consent. The order of +Mark's narrative, however, challenges it. This gospel records near the +beginning (ii. 23) a controversy with the Pharisees occasioned by the fact +that Jesus' disciples plucked and ate the ripening grain as they passed on +a Sabbath day through the fields. As Mark places much later (vi. 30-34) +the feeding of the five thousand, which occurred at a Passover, that is +the beginning of the harvest (Lev. xxiii. 5-11), his order suggests the +necessity of including two harvest seasons in the ministry in Galilee, and +consequently four Passovers in the public life of Jesus. Two +considerations are urged against this conclusion. (1) Papias in his +reference to the Gospel of Mark criticises the order of the gospel; (2) +Mark ii. 1 to iii. 6 contains a group of five conflicts with the critics +of Jesus, which represents a massing of opposition that seems unlikely at +the outset of his Galilean work. The remark of Papias must remain obscure +until his standard of comparison is known. Some suggest that he knew +John's order and preferred it, others that he agreed with that adopted by +Tatian in his Diatessaron. Mark is in accord with neither of these. No +one, however, knows what order Papias preferred. The early conflict group +does appear like a collection drawn from different parts of the ministry. +Yet the nucleus of the group--the cure of the paralytic (ii. 1-12) and the +call of Levi (ii. 13-17)--is clearly in its right place in Mark (see +Holtzmann, Hand-commentar, I. 10). The question about fasting (ii. 18-22) +may have been asked much later, and its present place may be due to +association in tradition with the criticism of Jesus' fellowship with +publicans (ii. 16). In like manner the cure of the withered hand (iii. +1-6) may have become artificially grouped with the incident of the +cornfields. It is possible, also, that both Sabbath controversies owe +their early place in the gospel to traditional association with the early +conflicts (ii. 1-17). If so, the plucking of the grain actually occurred +some weeks after the feeding of the five thousand, and probably after the +controversy about tradition (vii. 1-23), with which, according to Mark, +Jesus' activity in Galilee practically closed. It is not clear, however, +what principle of association drew forward to the early group the Sabbath +conflict, and left in its place the controversy about tradition. It is +thus possible that the incident of the cornfields belongs also to the +early nucleus of the group; and in this case the longer ministry, +including four Passovers, must be accepted. The decision of the question +is not of vital importance, but it affects the determination of the +sequence of events in Jesus' life. Whatever the explanation of the remark +of Papias, the more the gospels are studied the more does Mark's order of +events commend itself in general as representing the probable fact. Many +students have inferred the three year ministry from the Gospel of John +alone, identifying the unnamed feast in John v. 1 with a Passover. But +John's allusion to that feast is so indefinite that the length of Jesus' +ministry must be determined quite independently of it. + +48. So long a ministry as three years presents some difficulties, for all +that is told us in the four gospels would cover but a small fraction of +this time. John's statement (xx. 30) that he omitted many things from +Jesus' life in making his book is evidently true of all the evangelists, +and long gaps, such as are evident in the fourth gospel, must be assumed +in the other three. Recalling the character of the gospels as pictures of +Jesus rather than narratives of his life, we may easily acknowledge the +incompleteness of our record of the three years of ministry, and wonder +the more at the vividness of impression produced with such economy of +material. This meagreness of material is not decisive for the shorter +rather than the longer ministry, for it is evident that to effect such a +change in conviction and feeling as Jesus wrought in the minds of the +ardent Galileans who were his disciples, required time. Three years are +better suited to effect this change than two. + +49. Closely related to the question of the length of Jesus' ministry is +another: Can definite dates be given for the chief events in his life? For +the year of the opening of his public activity the gospels furnish two +independent testimonies: the remark of the Jews on the occasion of Jesus' +first visit to Jerusalem, "Forty and six years was this temple in +building" (John ii. 20), and Luke's careful dating of the appearance of +John the Baptist, "in the fifteenth year of Tiberius Caesar" (iii. 1, 2). +John ii. 20 leads to the conclusion that the first Passover fell in the +spring of A.D. 26 or 27, since we learn from Josephus (Ant. xv. 11. 1) +that Herod began to rebuild the temple in the eighteenth year of his +reign, which closed in the spring of B.C. 19. Luke iii. 1 gives a date +contradictory to the one just found, if the fifteenth year of Tiberius is +to be counted from the death of his predecessor, for Augustus died August +19, A.D. 14. Reckoned from this time the opening of John's work falls in +the year A.D. 28, and the first Passover of Jesus' ministry could not be +earlier than the spring of 29. This is at least two years later than is +indicated by the statement in John. The remark in John is, however, so +incidental and so lacking in significance for his argument that its +definiteness can be explained only as due to a clear historic +reminiscence; but it does not follow that Luke has erred in the date given +by him. Although Augustus did not die until A.D. 14, there is evidence +that Tiberius was associated with him in authority over the army and the +provinces not later than January, A.D. 12. One who lived and wrote in the +reign of Titus may possibly have applied to the reign of Tiberius a mode +of reckoning customary in the case of Titus, as Professor Ramsay has shown +(Was Christ born at Bethlehem, 202). If this is the fact, Luke reckoned +from the co-regency of Tiberius; hence the fifteenth year would be A.D. 25 +or 26, according as the co-regency began before or after the first of +January, A.D. 12. This would place the first Passover of Jesus' ministry +in the spring of 26 or 27, in agreement with the hint found in John. + +50. If the public ministry of Jesus began with the spring of 26 or 27, the +close of three years of activity would, come at the Passover of 29 or 30. +The former of these dates agrees with the early Christian tradition +already mentioned. But before accepting that traditional date another +matter must be considered. Jesus was crucified on the Friday at the +opening of the feast of the Passover. Whether it was the day of the +sacrifice of the Passover (14 Nisan) or the day following (15 Nisan), is +not essential for the present question. As the Jewish month began with the +first appearance of the new moon, it is evident that, in the year of +Jesus' death, the month of Nisan must have begun on a day that would make +the 14th or the 15th fall on Friday. Now it can be shown that in the year +30 the 14th of Nisan was Thursday (April 6) or Friday (April 7), for at +best only approximate certainty is attainable. The tradition which assigns +the passion to 29, generally names March 25 as the day of the month. This +date is impossible, because it does not coincide with the full moon of +that month. The choice of March 25 by a late tradition may be explained by +the fact that it was commonly regarded as the date of the spring equinox, +the turning of the year towards its renewing. Mr. Turner has shown +(HastBD. I. 415) that another date found in an early document cannot be so +explained. Epiphanius was familiar with copies of the Acts of Pilate, +which gave March 18 as the date of the crucifixion; and it is remarkable +that this date coincides with the full moon, and also falls on Friday. +Such a combination gives unusual weight to the tradition, particularly as +there is no ready way to account for its rise, as in the case of March 25. +From this supplementary tradition the year 29 gains in probability as the +year of the passion. Without attempting to arrive at a final +conclusion,--a task which must be left for chronological specialists,--it +is safe to assume that Jesus died at the Passover of A.D. 29 or 30. + +51. Concluding that Jesus' active ministry fell within the years A.D. 26 +to 30, is it possible to determine the date of his birth? Four hints are +furnished by the gospels: he was born before the death of Herod (Matt. ii. +1; Luke i. 5); he was about thirty years of age at his baptism (Luke iii. +23); he was born during a census conducted in Judea in accordance with +the decree of Augustus at a time when Quirinius was in authority in Syria +(Luke ii. 1, 2); after his birth wise men from the East were led to visit +him by observing "his star" (Matt. ii. 1, 2). From these facts it follows +that the birth of Jesus cannot be placed later than B.C. 4, since Herod +died about the first of April in that year (Jos. Ant. xvii. 6. 4; 8. 1, +4). The awkwardness of having to find a date _Before Christ_ for the birth +of Jesus is due to the miscalculation of the monk, Dionysius the Little, +who in the sixth century introduced our modern reckoning from "the year of +our Lord." + +52. But is it impossible to determine the time of Jesus' birth more +exactly? Luke (ii. 1, 2) offers what seems to be more definite +information, but his reference to the decree of Augustus and the enrolment +under Quirinius are among the most seriously challenged statements in the +gospels. It has been said (1) that history knows of no edict of Augustus +ordering a general enrolment of "the world;" (2) that a Roman census could +not have been taken in Palestine before the death of Herod; (3) that if +such an enrolment had been taken it would have been unnecessary for Joseph +and Mary to journey from Nazareth to Bethlehem; (4) that the census taken +when Quirinius was governor of Syria is definitely assigned by Josephus to +the year after the deposition of Archelaus, A.D. 6 (Ant. xviii. 1. 1; see +also Acts v. 37); (5) that if Luke's reference to this census as the +"first" be appealed to, it must be replied that Quirinius was not governor +of Syria at any time during the lifetime of Herod. This array of +difficulties is impressive, and has persuaded many conservative students +to concede that in his reference to the census Luke has fallen into error. +Some recent discoveries in Egypt, however, have furnished new information +concerning the imperial administration of that province. Inferring that a +policy adopted in Egypt may have prevailed also in Syria, Professor Ramsay +has recently put forth a strong argument for Luke's accuracy in respect of +this census (Was Christ born at Bethlehem, 95-248). That argument may be +condensed as follows: We have evidence of a system of Roman enrolments in +Egypt taken every fourteen years, and already traced back to the time of +Augustus, the earliest document so far recovered belonging, apparently, to +the census of A.D. 20. It is at least possible that this system of +Egyptian enrolments may have been part of an imperial policy, of which all +other trace is lost excepting the statement of Luke. It is significant +that the date of the census referred to by Josephus (A.D. 6) fits exactly +the fourteen-year cycle which obtained in Egypt. If the census of A.D. 6 +was preceded by an earlier one its date would be B.C. 8; that is, it would +be actually taken in B.C. 7, in order to secure the full acts for B.C. 8. + +53. The statement of Tertullian (Against Marcion, iv. 19) that a census +had been taken in Judea under Augustus by Sentius Saturninus, who was +governor of Syria about 9 to 7 B.C., certainly comes from some source +independent of the gospels, and tends to confirm Luke's account of a +census before the death of Herod. That a Roman census might have been +taken in Palestine during Herod's life is seen from the fact that in A.D. +36 Vitellius, the governor of Syria, had to send Roman forces into +Cilicia Trachaea to assist Archelaus, the king of that country, to quell a +revolt caused by native resistance to a census taken after the Roman +fashion (Tacitus, Ann. vi. 41). Herod would almost certainly resent as a +mark of subjection the order to enrol his people; and the fact that he was +in disfavor with Augustus during the governorship of Saturninus (Josephus, +Ant. xvi. 9. 1-3), suggests to Professor Ramsay that he may have sought to +avoid obedience to the imperial will in the matter of the census. If after +some delay Herod was forced to obey, the enrolment may have been taken in +the year 7-6. Since it is probable that the Romans would allow Herod to +give the census as distinctly Jewish a character as possible, it is easy +to credit the order that all Jews should be registered, so far as +possible, in their ancestral homes. Hence the journey of Joseph to +Bethlehem; and if Mary wished to have her child also registered as from +David's line, her removal with Joseph to Bethlehem is explained. Such a +delay in the taking of the census would have postponed it until after the +recall of Saturninus. The statement of Tertullian may therefore indicate +simply that he knew that a census was taken in Syria by Saturninus. + +54. The successor of Saturninus was Varus, who held the governorship until +after the death of Herod. How then does Luke refer to the enrolment as +taken when Quirinius was in authority? It has for a long time been known +that this man was in Syria before he was there as legate of the emperor in +A.D. 6. There seems to be evidence that Quirinius was in the East about +the year B.C. 6, putting down a rebellion on the borders of Cilicia, a +district joined with Syria into one province under the early empire. +Varus was at this time governor, but Quirinius might easily have been +looked upon as representing for the time the power of the Roman arms. If +Herod was forced to yield to the imperial wish by the presence in Syria of +this renowned captain, the statement of Luke is confirmed, and the census +at which Jesus was born was taken, according to a Jewish fashion, during +the life of Herod, but under compulsion of Rome exacted by Quirinius, +while he was in command of the Roman forces in the province of +Syria-Cilicia. This gives as a probable date for the birth of Jesus B.C. +6, which accords well with the hints previously considered, inasmuch as it +is earlier than the death of Herod, and, if born in B.C. 6, Jesus would +have been thirty-two at his baptism in A.D. 26. + +55. The account given in Matthew of "the star" which drew the wise men to +Judea gives no sure help in determining the date of the birth of Jesus, +but it is at least suggestive that in the spring and autumn of B.C. 7 +there occurred a remarkable conjunction of the planets Jupiter and Saturn. +This was first noticed by Kepler in consequence of a similar conjunction +observed by him in A.D. 1603. Men much influenced by astrology must have +been impressed by such a celestial phenomenon, but that it furnishes an +explanation of the star of the wise men is not clear. If it does, it +confirms the date otherwise probable for the nativity, that is, not far +from B.C. 6. + +56. Can we go further and determine the time of year or the month and day +of the nativity? It should be borne in mind that our Christmas festival +was not observed earlier than the fourth century, and that the evidence +is well-nigh conclusive that December 25th was finally selected for the +Nativity in order to hallow a much earlier and widely spread pagan +festival coincident with the winter solstice. If anything exists to +suggest the time of year it is Luke's mention of "shepherds in the field +keeping watch by night over their flock" (ii. 8). This seems to indicate +that it must have been the summer season. In winter the flocks would be +folded, not pastured, by night. + +57. It therefore seems probable that Jesus was born in the summer of B.C. +6; that he was baptized in A.D. 26; that the first Passover of his +ministry was in the spring of 26 or 27; and that he was crucified in the +spring of 29 or 30. + + + + +V + +The Early Years of Jesus + +Matt. i. 1 to ii. 23; Luke i. 5 to ii. 52; iii. 23-38 + + + +58. It is surprising that within a century of the life of the apostles, +Christian imagination could have so completely mistaken the real greatness +of Jesus as to let its thirst for wonder fill his early years with scenes +in which his conduct is as unlovely as it is shocking. That he who in +manhood was "holy, harmless, undefiled, separate from sinners" (Heb. vii. +26), could in youth, in a fit of ill-temper, strike a companion with death +and then meet remonstrance by cursing his accusers with blindness (Gospel +of Thomas, 4, 5); that he could mock his teachers and spitefully resent +their control (Pseudo-Matthew, 30, 31); that it could be thought worthy of +him to exhibit his superiority to common human conditions by carrying +water in his mantle when his pitcher had been broken (same, 33), or by +making clay birds in play on the Sabbath and causing them to fly when he +was rebuked for naughtiness (same, 27);--these and many like legends +exhibit incredible blindness to the real glory of the Lord. Yet such +things abound in the early attempts of the pious imagination to write the +story of the youth of Jesus, and the account of the nativity and its +antecedents fares as ill, being pitifully trivial where it is not +revolting. + +59. How completely foreign all this is to the apostolic thought and +feeling is clear when we notice that excepting the first two chapters of +Matthew and Luke the New Testament tells us nothing whatever of the years +which preceded John the Baptist's ministry in the wilderness. The gospels +are books of testimony to what men had seen and heard (John i. 14); and +the epistles are practical interpretations of the same in its bearing on +religious life and hope. The apostles found no difficulty in recognizing +the divinity and sinlessness of their Lord without inquiring how he came +into the world or how he spent his early years; it was what he showed +himself to be, not how he came to be, that formed their conception of him. +Yet the early chapters of Matthew and Luke should not be classed with the +later legends. Notwithstanding the attempts of Keim to associate the +narratives of the infancy in the canonical and apocryphal gospels, a great +gulf separates them: on the one side there is a reverent and beautiful +reserve, on the other indelicate, unlovely, and trivial audacity. + +60. The gospel narratives have, however, perplexities of their own, for +the two accounts agree only in the main features,--the miraculous birth in +Bethlehem in the days of Herod, Mary being the mother and Joseph the +foster-father, and Nazareth the subsequent residence. In further details +they are quite different, and at first sight seem contradictory. Moreover, +while Matthew sheds a halo of glory over the birth of Jesus, Luke draws a +picture of humble circumstances and obscurity. These differences, taken +with the silence of the rest of the New Testament concerning a miraculous +birth, constitute a real difficulty. To many it seems strange that the +disciples and the brethren of Jesus did not refer to these things if they +knew them to be true. But it must not be overlooked that any familiar +reference to the circumstances of the birth of Jesus which are narrated in +the gospels would have invited from the Jews simply a challenge of the +honor of his home. Moreover, as the knowledge of these wonders did not +keep Mary from misunderstanding her son (Luke ii. 19, 51; compare Mark in. +21, 31-35), the publication of them could hardly have helped greatly the +belief of others. The fact that Mary was so perplexed by the course of +Jesus in his ministry makes it probable that even until quite late in her +life she "kept these things and pondered them in her heart." + +61. No parts of the New Testament are challenged so widely and so +confidently as these narratives of the infancy. But if they are not to be +credited with essential truth it is necessary to show what ideas cherished +in the apostolic church could have led to their invention. That John and +Paul maintain the divinity of their Lord, yet give no hint that this +involved a miraculous birth, shows that these stories are no necessary +outgrowth of that doctrine. The early Christians whether Jewish or Gentile +would not naturally choose to give pictorial form to their belief in their +Lord's divinity by the story of an incarnation. The heathen myths +concerning sons of the gods were in all their associations revolting to +Christian feeling, and, while the Jewish mind was ready to see divine +influence at work in the birth of great men in Israel (as Isaac, and +Samson, and Samuel), the whole tendency of later Judaism was hostile to +any such idea as actual incarnation. Some would explain the story of the +miraculous birth as a conclusion drawn by the Christian consciousness +from the doctrine of the sinlessness of Jesus. Yet neither Paul nor John, +who are both clear concerning the doctrine, give any idea that a +miraculous birth was essential for a sinless being. Some appeal to the +eagerness of the early Christians to exalt the virginity of Mary, This is +certainly the animus of many apocryphal legends. But the feeling is as +foreign to Jewish sentiment and New Testament teaching as it is +contradictory to the evidence in the gospels that Mary had other children +born after Jesus. + +62. Moreover, the songs of Mary (Luke i. 46-55) and Zachariah (Luke i. +68--79) bear in themselves the evidence of origin before the doctrine of +the cross had transformed the Christian idea of the Messiah. That +transformed idea abounds in the Epistles and the Acts, and it is difficult +to conceive how these songs (if they were later inventions) could have +been left free of any trace of specifically Christian ideas. A Jewish +Christian would almost certainly have made them more Christian than they +are; a Gentile Christian could not have made them so strongly and +naturally Jewish as they are; while a non-Christian Jew would never have +invented them. Taken with the evidence in Ignatius (Ad Eph. xviii., xix.) +of the very early currency of the belief in a miraculous birth, they +confirm the impression that it is easier to accept the evidence offered +for the miracle than to account for the origin of the stories as legends. +The idea of a miraculous birth is very foreign to modern thought; it +becomes credible only as the transcendent nature of Jesus is recognized on +other grounds. It may not be said that the incarnation required a +miraculous conception, yet it may be acknowledged that a miraculous +conception is a most suitable method for a divine incarnation. + +63. These gospel stories are chiefly significant for us in that they show +that he in whom his disciples came to recognize a divine nature began his +earthly life in the utter helplessness and dependence of infancy, and grew +through boyhood and youth to manhood with such naturalness that his +neighbors, dull concerning the things of the spirit, could not credit his +exalted claims. He is shown as one in all points like unto his brethren +(Heb. ii. 17). Two statements in Luke (ii. 40, 52) describe the growth of +the divine child as simply as that of his forerunner (Luke i. 80), or that +of the prophet of old (I. Sam. ii. 26). The clear impression of these +statements is that Jesus had a normal growth from infancy to manhood, +while the whole course of the later life as set before us in the gospels +confirms the scripture doctrine that his normal growth was free from sin +(Heb. iv. 15). + +64. The knowledge of the probable conditions of his childhood is as +satisfying as the apocryphal stories are revolting. The lofty Jewish +conception of home and its relations is worthy of Jesus. The circumstances +of the home in Nazareth were humble (Matt. xiii. 55; Luke ii. 24; compare +Lev. xii. 8). Probably the house was not unlike those seen to-day, of but +one room, or at most two or three,--the tools of trade mingling with the +meagre furnishings for home-life. We should not think it a home of penury; +doubtless the circumstances of Joseph were like those of his neighbors. In +one respect this home was rich. The wife and mother had an exalted place +in the Jewish life, notwithstanding the trivial opinions of some +supercilious rabbis; and what the gospel tells of the chivalry of Joseph +renders it certain that love reigned in his home, making it fit for the +growth of the holy child. + +65. Religion held sway in all the phases of Jewish life. With some it was +a religion of ceremony,--of prayers and fastings, tithes and boastful +alms, fringes and phylacteries. But Joseph and Mary belonged to the +simpler folk, who, while they reverenced the scribes as teachers, knew not +enough of their subtlety to have substituted barren rites for sincere love +for the God of their fathers and childlike trust in his mercy. Jesus knew +not only home life at its fairest, but religion at its best. A father's +most sacred duty was the teaching of his child in the religion of his +people (Deut. vi. 4-9), and then, as ever since, the son learned at his +mother's side to know and love her God, to pray to him, and to know the +scriptures. No story more thrilling and full of interest, no prospect more +rich and full of glowing hope, could be found to satisfy the child's +spirit of wonder than the story of Israel's past and God's promises for +the future. Religious culture was not confined to the home, however. The +temple at Jerusalem was the ideal centre of religious life for this +Nazareth household (Luke ii. 41) as for all the people, yet practically +worship and instruction were cultivated chiefly by the synagogue (Luke iv. +16); there God was present in his Holy Word. Week after week the boy Jesus +heard the scripture in its original Hebrew form, followed by translation +into Aramaic, and received instruction from it for daily conduct. The +synagogue probably influenced the boy's intellectual life even more +directly. In the time of Jesus schools had been established in all the +important towns, and were apparently under the control of the synagogue. +To such a school he may have been sent from about six years of age to be +taught the scriptures (compare II. Tim. iii. 15), together with the +reading (Luke iv. 16-19), and perhaps the writing, of the Hebrew language. +Of his school experience we know nothing beyond the fact that he grew in +"wisdom and in stature and in favor with God and man" (Luke ii. 52),--a +sufficient contradiction of the repulsive legends of the apocryphal +gospels. + +66. The physical growth incident to Jesus' development from boyhood to +manhood is a familiar thought. The intellectual unfolding which belongs to +this development is readily recognized. Not so commonly acknowledged, but +none the less clearly essential to the gospel picture, is the gradual +unfolding of the child's moral life under circumstances and stimulus +similar to those with which other children meet (Heb. iv. 15). The man +Jesus was known as the carpenter (Matt. xiii. 55). The learning of such a +trade would contribute much to the boy's mastery of his own powers. Far +more discipline would come from his fellowship with brothers and sisters +who did not understand his ways nor appreciate the deepest realities of +his life. Without robbing boyhood days of their naturalness and reality, +we may be sure that long before Jesus knew how and why he differed from +his fellows he felt more or less clearly that they were not like him. The +resulting sense of isolation was a school for self-mastery, lest isolation +foster any such pride or unloveliness as that with which later legend +dared to stain the picture of the Lord's youth. Four brothers of Jesus +are named by Mark (vi. 3),--James, and Joses, and Judas, and Simon,--the +gospel adds also that he had sisters living at a later time in Nazareth. +They were all subject with him to the same home influences, and apparently +were not unresponsive to them. The similarity of thought and feeling +between the sermon on the mount and the Epistle of James is not readily +explained by the influence of master over disciple, since the days of +James's discipleship began after the resurrection of Jesus. In any case +there is no reason to think that the companions of Jesus' home were +uncommonly irritating or in any way irreligious, only Jesus was not +altogether like them (John vii. 5), and the fact of difference was a moral +discipline, which among other things led to that moral growth by which +innocence passed into positive goodness. If the home was such a school of +discipline, its neighbors, less earnest and less favored with spiritual +training, furnished more abundant occasion for self-mastery and growth. +The very fact that in his later years Jesus was no desert preacher, like +John, but social, and socially sought for, indicates that he did not win +his manhood's perfection in solitude, but in fellowship with common life +and in victory over the trials and temptations incident to it (Heb. ii. +17, 18). + +67. Yet he must have been familiar with the life which is in secret (Matt. +vi. 1-18). He who in his later years was a man of much prayer, who began +(Luke iii. 21) and closed (Luke xxiii. 46) his public life with prayer, as +a boy was certainly familiar not only with the prayers of home and +synagogue, but also with quiet, personal resort to the presence of God. It +would be unjust to think of any abnormal religious precocity. Jesus was +the best example the world has seen of perfect spiritual health, but we +must believe that he came early to know God and to live much with him. + +68. It is instructive in connection with this inwardness of Jesus' life to +recall the rich familiarity with the whole world of nature which appears +in his parables and other teachings. The prospect which met his eye if he +sought escape from the distractions of home and village life, has been +described by Renan: "The view from the town is limited; but if we ascend a +little to the plateau swept by a perpetual breeze, which stands above the +highest houses, the landscape is magnificent. On the west stretch the fine +outlines of Carmel, terminating in an abrupt spur which seems to run down +sheer to the sea. Next, one sees the double summit which towers above +Megiddo; the mountains of the country of Shechem, with their holy places +of the patriarchal period; the hills of Gilboa, the small picturesque +group to which is attached the graceful or terrible recollections of +Shunem and of Endor; and Tabor, with its beautiful rounded form, which +antiquity compared to a bosom. Through a gap between the mountains of +Shunem and Tabor are visible the valley of the Jordan and the high plains +of Perea, which form a continuous line from the eastern side. On the +north, the mountains of Safed, stretching towards the sea, conceal St. +Jean d'Acre, but leave the Gulf of Khaifa in sight. Such was the horizon, +of Jesus. This enchanted circle, cradle of the kingdom of God, was for +years his world. Indeed, during his whole life he went but little beyond +the familiar bounds of his childhood. For yonder, northwards, one can +almost see, on the flank of Hermon, Caesarea-Philippi, his farthest point +of advance into the Gentile world; and to the south the less smiling +aspect of these Samaritan hills foreshadows the dreariness of Judea +beyond, parched as by a burning wind of desolation and death." In the +midst of such scenes we are to understand that, with the physical growth, +and opening of mind, and moral discipline which filled the early years of +Jesus, there came also the gradual spiritual unfolding in which the boy +rose step by step to the fuller knowledge of God and himself. + +69. That unfolding is pictured in an early stage in the story given us +from the youth of Jesus. It was customary for a Jewish boy not long after +passing his twelfth year to come under full adult obligation to the law. +The visit to Jerusalem was probably in preparation for such assumption of +obligation by Jesus. All his earlier training had filled his mind with the +sacredness of the Holy City and the glory of the temple. It is easy to +feel with what joy he would first look upon Zion from the shoulder of the +Mount of Olives, as he came over it on his journey from Galilee; to +conceive how the temple and the ritual would fill him with awe in his +readiness not to criticise, but to idealize everything he saw, and to +think only of the significance given by it all to the scripture; to +imagine how eagerly he would talk in the temple court with the learned men +of his people about the law and the promises with which in home and school +his youth had been made familiar. Nor is it difficult to appreciate his +surprise, when Joseph and Mary, only after long searching for him, at last +found him in the temple, for he felt that it was the most natural place +in which he could be found. In his wondering question to Mary, "Did not +you know that I must be in my Father's house?" (Luke ii. 49), there is a +premonition of his later consciousness of peculiarly intimate relation to +God. The question was, however, a sincere inquiry. It was no precocious +rebuke of Mary's anxiety. The knowledge of himself as Son of God was only +dawning within him, and was not yet full and clear. This is shown by his +immediate obedience and his subjection to his parents in Nazareth through +many years. It is safe, in the interpretation of the acts and words of +Jesus, to banish utterly as inconceivable anything that savors of the +theatrical. We must believe that he was always true to himself, and that +the subjection which he rendered to Joseph and Mary sprang from a real +sense of childhood's dependence, and was not a show of obedience for any +edifying end however high. + +70. That question "Did not you know?" is the only hint we possess of +Jesus' inner life before John's call to repentance rang through the land. +Meanwhile the carpenter's son became himself the carpenter. Joseph seems +to have died before the opening of Jesus' ministry. For Jesus as the +eldest son, this death made those years far other than a time of spiritual +retreat; responsibility for the home and the pressing duties of trade must +have filled most of the hours of his days. This is a welcome thought to +our healthiest sentiment, and true also to the earliest Christian feeling +(Heb. iv. 15). John the Baptist had his training in the wilderness, but +Jesus came from familiar intercourse with men, was welcomed in their +homes (John ii. 2), knew their life in its homely ongoing, and was the +friend of all sorts and conditions of men. After that visit to Jerusalem, +a few more years may have been spent in school, for, whether from school +instruction, or synagogue preaching, or simple daily experience, the young +man came to know the traditions of the elders and also to know that +observance of them is a mockery of the righteousness which God requires. +Yet he seems to have felt so fully in harmony with God as to be conscious +of nothing new in the fresh and vital conceptions of righteousness which +he found in the law and prophets. We may be certain that much of his +thought was given to Israel's hope of redemption, and that with the +prophets of old and the singer much nearer his own day (Ps. of Sol. xvii. +23), he longed that God, according to his promise, would raise up unto his +people, their King, the Son of David. + +71. He must also have read often from that other book open before him as +he walked upon the hills of Nazareth. The beauty of the grass and of the +lilies was surely not a new discovery to him after he began to preach the +coming kingdom, nor is it likely that he waited until after his baptism to +form his habit of spending the night in prayer upon the mountain. We may +be equally sure that he did not first learn to love men and women and long +for their good after he received the call, "Thou art my beloved son" (Mark +i. 11). He who in later life read hearts clearly (John ii. 25) doubtless +gained that skill, as well as the knowledge of human sin and need, early +in his intercourse with his friends and neighbors in Nazareth; while a +clear conviction that God's kingdom consists in his sovereignty over +loyal hearts must have filled much of his thought about the promised good +which God would bring to Israel in due time. Thus we may think that in +quietness and homely industry, in secret life with God and open love for +men, in study of history and prophecy, in longing for the actual sway of +God in human life, Jesus lived his life, did his work, and grew in "wisdom +and in stature and in favor with God and man" (Luke ii. 52). + + + + +VI + +John The Baptist + +Matt. iii. 1-17; iv. 12; xiv. 1-12; Mark i. 1-14; vi. 14-29; Luke i. 5-25, +57-80; iii. 1-22; ix. 7-9; John i. 19-37; iii. 22-30. + + + +72. The first reappearance of Jesus in the gospel story, after the temple +scene in his twelfth year, is on the banks of the Jordan seeking baptism +from the new prophet. One of the silent evidences of the greatness of +Jesus is the fact that so great a character as John the Baptist stands in +our thought simply as accessory to his life. For that the prophet of the +wilderness was great has been the opinion of all who have been willing to +seek him in his retirement. One reason for the common neglect of John is +doubtless the meagreness of information about him. But though details are +few, the picture of him is drawn in clearest lines: a rugged son of the +wilderness scorning the gentler things of life, threatening his people +with coming wrath and calling to repentance while yet there was time; a +preacher of practical righteousness heeded by publicans and harlots but +scorned by the elders of his people; a bold and fearless spirit, yet +subdued in the presence of another who did not strive, nor cry, nor cause +his voice to be heard in the streets. When the people thought to find in +John the promised Messiah, with unparalleled self-effacement he pointed +them to his rival and rejoiced in that rival's growing success. Side by +side they worked for a time; then the picture fails, but for a hint of a +royal audience, with a fearless rebuke of royal disgrace and sin; a prison +life, with its pathetic shaking of confidence in the early certainties; a +long and forced inaction, and the question put by a wavering faith, with +its patient and affectionate reply; then a lewd orgy, a king's oath, a +girl's demands, a martyr's release, the disciples' lamentation and their +report to that other who, though seeming a rival, was known to appreciate +best the greatness of this prophet. Such is the picture in the gospels. + +73. John, unlike his greater successor, has a highly appreciative notice +from Josephus: "Now some of the Jews thought that the destruction of +Herod's army came from God, and that very justly, as a punishment for what +he did against John, who was called the Baptist. For Herod had had him put +to death though he was a good man, and commanded the Jews to exercise +virtue, both as to justice towards one another, and piety towards God, and +so to come to baptism; for baptism would be acceptable to God, if they +made use of it not in order to expiate some sin, but for the purification +of the body, provided that the soul was thoroughly purified beforehand by +righteousness. Now, as many flocked to him, for they were greatly moved by +hearing his words, Herod, fearing that the great influence, John had over +the people might lead to some rebellion (for the people seemed likely to +do anything he should advise), thought it far best, by putting him to +death, to prevent any mischief he might cause, and not bring himself into +difficulties by sparing a man who might make him repent of his leniency +when it should be too late. Accordingly he was sent a prisoner, in +consequence of Herod's suspicious temper, to Machaerus, the fortress +before mentioned, and was there put to death. So the Jews had the opinion +that the destruction of this army [by Aretas] was sent as a punishment +upon Herod and was the mark of God's displeasure at him" (Ant. xviii. 5. +2). This section is commonly accepted as trustworthy. Superficially +different from the gospel record and assigning quite another cause for +John's imprisonment and death, it correctly describes his character and +his influence with the people, and leaves abundant room for a more +intimately personal motive on the part of Antipas for the imprisonment of +John. If the jealousy of Herodias was the actual reason for John's arrest, +it is highly probable that another cause would be named to the world, and +a likelier one than that given by Josephus could not be found. + +74. The first problem that offers itself in the study of this man is the +man himself. Whence did he come? Everything about him is surprising. He +appears as a dweller in the desert, an ascetic, holding aloof from common +life and content with the scanty fare the wilderness could offer; yet he +was keenly appreciative of his people's needs, and he knew their +sins,--the particular ones that beset Pharisees, publicans, soldiers. If a +recluse in habit, he was far from such in thought; he was therefore no +seeker for his own soul's peace in his desert life. His dress was +strikingly suggestive of the old prophet of judgment on national +infidelity (I. Kings xvii. 1; II. Kings i, 8), the Elijah whom John would +not claim to be. His message was commanding, with its double word "Repent" +and "The kingdom is near." His idea of the kingdom was definite, though +not at all developed; it signified to him God's dominion, inaugurated by a +divine judgment which should mean good for the penitent and utter +destruction for the ungodly; hence the prophet's call to repentance. His +ministry was one of grace, but the time was drawing near when the Greater +One would appear to complete by a swift judgment the work which his +forerunner was beginning. That Greater One would hew down the fruitless +tree, winnow the wheat from the chaff on the threshing floor, baptize the +penitent with divine power, and the wicked with the fire of judgment, +since his was to be a ministry of judgment, not of grace. + +75. Whence, then, came this strange prophet? Near the desert region where +he spent his youth and where he first proclaimed his message of repentance +and judgment was the chief settlement of that strange company of Jews +known as Essenes. It has long been customary to think that during his +early years John was associated with these fellow-dwellers in the desert, +if he did not actually join the order. He certainly may have learned from +them many things. Their sympathy with his ascetic life and with his +thorough moral earnestness would make them attractive to him, but he was +far too original a man to get from them more than some suggestions to be +worked out in his own fashion. The simplicity of his teaching of +repentance and the disregard of ceremonial in his preaching separate him +from these monks. John may have known his desert companions, may have +appreciated some things in their discipline, but he remained independent +of their guidance. + +76. The leaders of religious life and thought in his day were +unquestionably the Pharisees. The controlling idea with them, and +consequently with the people, was the sanctity of God's law. They were +conscious of the sinfulness of the people, and their demand for repentance +was constant. It is a rabbinic commonplace that the delay of the Messiah's +coming is due to lack of repentance in Israel. But near as this conception +is to John's, we need but to recall his words to the Pharisees (Matt. iii. +7) to realize how clearly he saw through the hollowness of their religious +pretence. With the quibbles of the scribes concerning small and great +commandments, Sabbaths and hand-washings, John shows no affinity. He may +have learned some things from these "sitters in Moses' seat," but he was +not of them. + +77. John's message announced the near approach of the kingdom of God. It +is probable that many of those who sought his baptism were ardent +nationalists,--eager to take a hand in realizing that consummation. +Josephus indicates that it was Herod's fear lest John should lead these +Zealots to revolt that furnished the ostensible cause of his death. But +similar as were the interests of John and these nationalists, the distance +between them was great. The prophet's replies to the publicans and to the +soldiers, which contain not a word of rebuke for the hated callings (Luke +iii. 13, 14), show how fundamentally he differed from the Zealots. + +78. But there was another branch of the Pharisees than that which quibbled +over Sabbath laws, traditions, and tithes, or that which itched to grasp +the sword; they were men who saw visions and dreamed dreams like those of +Daniel and the Revelation, and in their visions saw God bringing +deliverance to his people by swift and sudden judgment. There are some +marked likenesses between this type of thought and that of John,--the +impending judgment, the word of warning, the coming blessing, were all in +John; but one need only compare John's words with such an apocalypse as +the Assumption of Moses, probably written in Palestine during John's life +in the desert, to discover that the two messages do not move in the same +circle of thought at all; there is something practical, something severely +heart-searching, something at home in every-day life, about John's +announcement of the coming kingdom that is quite absent from the visions +of his contemporaries. John had not, like some of these seers, a coddling +sympathy for people steeped in sin. He traced their troubles to their own +doors, and would not let ceremonies pass in place of "fruits meet for +repentance." He came from the desert with rebuke and warning on his lips; +with no word against the hated Romans, but many against hypocritical +claimants to the privileges of Abraham; no apology for his message nor +artificial device of dream or ancient name to secure a hearing, but the +old-fashioned prophetic method of declaration of truth "whether men will +hear or whether they will forbear." "All was sharp and cutting, imperious +earnestness about final questions, unsparing overthrow of all fictitious +shams in individual as in national life. There are no theories of the law, +no new good works, no belief in the old, but simply and solely a prophetic +clutch at men's consciences, a mighty accusation, a crushing summons to +contrite repentance and speedy sanctification" (KeimJN. II. 228). We look +in vain for a parallel in any of John's contemporaries, except in that one +before whom he bowed, saying, "I have need to be baptized of thee." + +79. John had, however, predecessors whose work he revived. In Isaiah's +words, "Wash you, make you clean" (Isa. i 16), one recognizes the type +which reappeared in John. The great prophetic conception of the Day of the +Lord--the day of wrath and salvation (Joel ii. 1-14)--is revived in John, +free from all the fantastic accompaniments which his contemporaries loved. +The invitations to repentance and new fidelity which abound in Isaiah, +Ezekiel, Hosea, and Joel; the summons to simple righteousness, which rang +from the lips of Micah (vi. 8), and of the great prophet of the exile +(Isa. lviii.), these tell us where John went to school and how well he +learned his lesson. It is hard for us to realize how great a novelty such +simplicity was in John's day, or how much originality it required to +attain to this discipleship of the prophets. From the time when the +curtain rises on the later history of Israel in the days of the Maccabean +struggle to the coming of that "voice crying in the wilderness," Israel +had listened in vain for a prophet who could speak God's will with +authority. The last thing that people expected when John came was such a +simple message. He was not the creature of his time, but a revival of the +older type; yet, as in the days of Elijah God had kept him seven thousand +in Israel that had not bowed the knee to Baal, so, in the later time, not +all were bereft of living faith. These devout souls furnished the soil +which could produce a life like John's, gifted and chosen by God to +restore and advance the older and more genuine religion. + +80. If John was thus a revival of the older prophetic order, a second +question arises: Whence came his baptism, and what did it signify? The +gospels describe it as a "baptism of repentance for the remission of sins" +(Mark i. 4). John's declaration that his greater successor should baptize +with the Holy Spirit and fire (Matt. iii. 11) shows that he viewed his +baptism as a symbol, rather than as a means, of remission of sin. But it +was more than a sign of repentance, it was a confession of loyalty to the +kingdom which John's successor was to establish. It had thus a twofold +significance: (_a_) confession of and turning from the old life of sin, +and (_b_) consecration to the coming kingdom. Whence, then, came this +ordinance? Not from the Essenes, for, unlike John's baptism, the bath +required by these Jewish ascetics was an oft-repeated act. Further, John's +rite had a far deeper religious significance than the Essene washings. +These performed their ablutions to secure ritual cleanness as exemplary +disciples of the Mosaic ideal. The searching of heart which preceded +John's baptism, and the radical change of life it demanded, seem foreign +to Essenism. The baptism of John, considered as a ceremony of consecration +for the coming kingdom, was parallel rather to the initiatory oaths of the +Essene brotherhood than to their ablutions. Their custom may have served +to suggest to John a different application of the familiar sacred use of +the bath; indeed John could hardly have been uninfluenced by the usage of +his contemporaries; yet in this, as in his thought, he was not a product +of their school. + +81. John's baptism was equally independent of the pharisaic influence. The +scribes made much of "divers washings," but not with any such significance +as would furnish to John his baptism of repentance and of radical change +of life. That he was not following a pharisaic leading appears in the +question put to him by the Pharisees, "Why, then, baptizest thou?" (John +i. 25). They saw something unique in the ceremony as he conducted it. + +82. Many have held that he derived his baptism from the method of +admitting proselytes into the Jewish fellowship. It is clear, at least, +that the later ritual prescribed a ceremonial bath as well as circumcision +and sacrifice for all who came into Judaism from the Gentiles, and it is +difficult to conceive of a time when a ceremonial bath would not seem +indispensable, since Jews regarded all Gentile life as defiling. While +such an origin for John's baptism would give peculiar force to his rebuke +of Jewish confidence in the merits of Abraham (Matt. iii. 9), it is more +likely, as Keim has shown (JN. II. 243 and note), that in this as in his +other thought John learned of his predecessors rather than his +contemporaries. Before the giving of the older covenant from Sinai, it is +said that Moses was required "to sanctify the people and bid them wash +their garments" (Ex. xix. 10). John was proclaiming the establishment of a +new covenant, as the prophets had promised. That the people should prepare +for this by a similar bath of sanctification seems most natural. John +appeared with a revival of the older and simpler religious ideas of +Israel's past, deriving his rite as well as his thought from the springs +of his people's religious life. + +83. This revival of the prophetic past had nothing scholastic or +antiquarian about it. John was a disciple, not an imitator, of the great +men of Israel; his message was not learned from Isaiah or any other, +though he was educated by studying them. What he declared, he declared as +truth immediately seen by his own soul, the essence of his power being a +revival, not in letter but in spirit, of the old, direct cry, "Thus saith +the Lord." Inasmuch as John's day was otherwise hopelessly in bondage to +tradition and the study of the letter, by so much is his greatness +enhanced in bringing again God's direct message to the human conscience. +John's greatness was that of a pioneer. The Friend of publicans and +sinners also spoke a simple speech to human hearts; he built on and +advanced from the old prophets, but it was John who was appointed to +prepare the people for the new life, "to make ready the way of the Lord" +(Mark i. 3). The clearness of his perception of truth is not the least of +his claims to greatness. His knowledge of the simplicity of God's +requirements in contrast with the hopeless maze of pharisaic traditions, +and his insight into the characters with whom he had to deal, whether the +sinless Jesus or the hypocritical Pharisees, show a man marvellously +gifted by God who made good use of his gift. This greatness appears in +superlative degree in the self-effacement of him who possessed these +powers. Greatness always knows itself more or less fully. It was not +self-ignorance that led John to claim to be but a voice, nor was it mock +humility. The confession of his unworthiness in comparison with the +mightier one who should follow is unmistakably sincere, as is the +completed joy of this friend of the bridegroom rejoicing greatly because +of the bridegroom's voice, even when the bridegroom's presence meant the +recedence of the friend into ever deepening obscurity (John iii. 30). + +84. But John had marked limitations. He knew well the righteousness of +God; he knew, and, in effect, proclaimed God's readiness to forgive them +that would turn from their wicked ways; he knew the simplicity as well as +the exceeding breadth of the divine commandment; but beyond one flash of +insight (John i. 29-36), which did not avail to remould his thought, he +did not know the yearning love of God which seeks to save. It is not +strange that he did not. Some of the prophets had more knowledge of it +than he, his own favorite Isaiah knew more of it than he, but it was not +the thought of John's day. The wonder is that the Baptist so far freed +himself from current thought; yet he did not belong to the new order. He +thundered as from Sinai. The simplest child that has learned from the +heart its "Our Father" has reached a higher knowledge and entered a higher +privilege (Matt. xi. 11). John's self-effacement, wonderful as it was, +fell short of discipleship to his greater successor; in fact, at a much +later time there was still a circle of disciples of the Baptist who kept +themselves separate from the church (Acts xix. 1-7). He was doubtless too +strenuous a man readily to become a follower. He could yield his place +with unapproachable grace, but he remained the prophet of the wilderness +still. He seemed to belong consciously to the old order, and, by the very +circumstances ordained of God who sent him, he could not be of those who, +sitting at Jesus' feet, learned to surrender to him their preconceptions +and hopes, and in heart, if not in word, to say, "To whom shall we go, +thou hast the words of eternal life?" (John vi. 68). + + + + +VII + +The Messianic Call + +Matt. iii. 13 TO iv. 11; Mark i. 9-13; Luke iii. 21, 22; iv. 1-13; John i. +30-34 + + + +85. In the circle about John all classes of the people were represented: +Pharisees and Sadducees, jealous of innovation and apprehensive of popular +excitement; publicans and soldiers, interested in the new preacher or +touched in conscience; outcasts who came in penitence, and devout souls in +consecration. The wonder of the new message was carried throughout the +land and brought great multitudes to the Jordan. Jesus in Nazareth heard +it, and recognized in John a revival of the long-silent prophetic voice. +The summons appealed to his loyalty to God's truth, and after the +multitudes had been baptized (Luke iii. 21) he too sought the prophet of +the wilderness. + +86. The connection which Luke mentions (i. 36) between the families of +Jesus and John had not led to any intimacy between the two young men. John +certainly did not know of his kinsman's mission (John i. 31), nor was his +conception of the Messiah such that he would look for its fulfilment in +one like Jesus (Matt. iii. 10-12). One thing, however, was clear as soon +as they met,--John recognized in Jesus one holier than himself (Matt. iii. +14). With a prophet's spiritual insight he read the character of Jesus +at a glance, and although that character did not prove him to be the +Messiah, it prepared John for the revelation which was soon to follow. + +87. The reply of Jesus to the unwillingness of John to give him baptism +(Matt. iii. 15) was an expression of firm purpose to do God's will; the +absence of any confession of sin is therefore all the more noticeable. In +all generations the holiest men have been those most conscious of +imperfection, and in John's message and baptism confession and repentance +were primary demands; yet Jesus felt no need for repentance, and asked for +baptism with no word of confession. But for the fact that the total +impression of his life begat in his disciples the conviction that "he did +no sin" (I. Pet. ii. 22; compare John viii. 46; II. Cor. v. 21), this +silence of Jesus would offend the religious sense. Jesus, however, had no +air of self-sufficiency, he came to make surrender and "to fulfil +all-righteousness" (Matt. iii. 15). It was the positive aspect of John's +baptism that drew him to the Jordan. John was preaching the coming of +God's kingdom. The place held by the doctrine of that kingdom in the later +teaching of Jesus makes it all but certain that his thought had been +filled with it for many years. In his reading of the prophets Jesus +undoubtedly emphasized the spiritual phases of their promises, but it is +not likely that he had done much criticising of the ideas held by his +contemporaries before he came to John. As already remarked he seems to +have been quicker to discover his affinity with the older truth than to be +conscious of the novelty of his own ways of apprehending it (Matt. v. 17). +When, then, Jesus heard John's call for consecration to the approaching +kingdom he recognized the voice of duty, and he sought the baptism that he +might do all that he could to "make ready the way of the Lord." + +88. This act of consecration on Jesus' part was one of personal obedience. +There were no crowds present (Luke iii. 21), and his thoughts were full of +prayer. It was an experience which concerned his innermost life with God, +and it called him to communion with heaven like that in which he sought +for wisdom before choosing his apostles (Luke vi. 12), and for strength in +view of his approaching death (Luke ix. 28, 29). His outward declaration +of loyalty to the coming kingdom was thus not an act of righteousness "to +be seen of men," but one of personal devotion to him who is and who sees +in secret (Matt. vi. 1, 6). As the transfiguration followed the prayer on +Hermon, so this initial consecration was answered from heaven. A part of +the answer was evident to John, for he saw a visible token of the gift of +the divine Spirit which was granted to Jesus for the conduct of the work +he had to do, and he recognized in Jesus the greater successor for whom he +was simply making preparation (Mark i. 10; John i. 32-34). To Jesus there +came also with the gift of the Spirit a definite word from heaven, "Thou +art my beloved Son, in thee I am well pleased" (Mark i. 11). The language +in Mark and Luke, and the silence of the Baptist concerning the voice from +heaven (John i. 32-34), indicate that the word came to Jesus alone, and +was his summons to undertake the work of setting up that kingdom to which +he had just pledged his loyalty. The expression "My beloved Son" had clear +Messianic significance for Jesus' contemporaries (comp. Mark xiv. 62), +and the message can have signified for him nothing less than a Messianic +call. It implied more than that child-relation to God which was the +fundamental fact in his religious life from the beginning: it had an +official meaning. + +89. For Jesus the sense of being God's child was normally human, and in +his ministry he invited all men to a similar consciousness of sonship. Yet +his early years must have brought to him a realization that he was +different from his fellows. That in him which made a confession at the +baptism unnatural and which led to John's word, "I have need to be +baptized by thee," was ready to echo assent when God said, "Thou art my +Son." He accepted the call and the new office and mission which it +implied, and he must have recognized that it was for this moment that all +the past of his life had been making preparation. + +90. The gift of the Spirit to Jesus, which furnished to John the proof +that the Greater One had appeared, was not an arbitrary sign. The old +prophetic thought (Isa. xi. 2; xlii. 1; lxi. 1) as well as a later popular +expectation (Ps. of Sol. xvii. 42) provided for such an anointing of the +Messiah; and in the actual conduct of his life Jesus was constantly under +the leading of this Spirit (see Matt. xii. 28 and John iii. 34). The +temptation which followed the baptism, and in which he faced the +difficulties in his new task, was the first result of the Spirit's +control. Its later influence is not so clearly marked in the gospels, but +they imply that as the older servants of God were guided and strengthened +by him, so his Son also was aided,--with this difference, however, that he +possessed completely the heavenly gift (John iii. 34). Jesus' uniform +confession of dependence on God confirms this teaching of the gift of the +divine Spirit; and his uniform consciousness of complete power and +authority confirms the testimony that he had the Spirit "without measure." + +91. The temptation to which the Spirit "drove" Jesus after his baptism +gives proof that the call to assume the Messianic office came to him +unexpectedly; for the three temptations with which his long struggle ended +were echoes of the voice which he had heard at the Jordan, and subtle +insinuations of doubt of its meaning. Some withdrawal to contemplate the +significance of his appointment to a Messianic work was a mental and +spiritual necessity. As has often been said, if the gospels had not +recorded the temptation, we should have had to assume one. Jesus being the +man he was, could not have thought that his call was a summons to an +entire change in his ideals and his thoughts about God and duty. Yet he +must have been conscious of the wide differences between his conceptions +of God's kingdom and the popular expectation. Those differences, by the +measure of the definiteness of the popular thought and the ardor of the +popular hope, were the proof of the difficulty of his task. The call meant +that the Messiah could be such as he was; it meant that the kingdom could +be and must be a dominion of God primarily in the hearts of men and +consequently in their world; it meant that his work must be religious +rather than political, and gracious rather than judicial. These essentials +of the work which he could do contradicted at nearly every point the +expectations of his people. How could he succeed in the face of such +opposition? His long meditation during forty days doubtless showed him the +difficulty of his task in all its baldness, yet it did not shake his +certainty that the call had come to him from God, nor his faith that what +God had called him to do he could accomplish. + +92. The gospels show no hesitation in calling the experience of these days +a temptation, nor had the Christian feeling of the first century any +difficulty in thinking of its Lord as actually suffering temptation (Heb. +ii. 18; iv. 15). A temptation to be real cannot be hypothetical; evil must +actually present itself as attractive to the tempted soul. A suggestion of +evil that takes no hold concretely of the heart is no temptation, nor is +the resistance of it any victory. The sinlessness of him who sought +baptism with no confession on his lips nor sense of penitence in his heart +offers no barrier to his experience of genuine temptation, unless we think +him incapable of sin, and therefore not "like unto his brethren." Not only +do the gospels repeatedly refer to his temptations (Luke iv. 13; Mark +viii. 31-33; Luke xxii. 28; compare Heb. v. 7-9), but they also depict +clearly the reality of these initial testings. The account as given in +Matthew and Luke represents the experience with which the forty days' +struggle culminated. The absorption of Jesus' mind had been so complete +that he had neglected the needs of his body, and when he turned to think +of earthly things he was pressed by hunger. A popular notion at a later +time, and probably also in Jesus' day, was that the Messiah would be able +to feed his people as Moses had given them manna in the wilderness (John +vi. 30-32; see EdersLJM. I. 176). He had just been endowed with the +divine Spirit for the work before him; it was therefore no fantastic idea +when the suggestion came that he should use his power to supply his own +needs in the desert. Nor was the temptation without attractiveness; his +own physical nature urged its need, and Jesus was no ascetic who found +discomfort a way of holiness. The evil in the suggestion was that it asked +him to use his newly given powers for the supply of his own needs, as if +doubting that God would care for him as for any other of his children. +There was more than distrust of God suggested; the temptation came with a +hint of another doubt,--"_If_ thou art God's Son." A miracle would prove +to himself his appointment and his power. The suggested doubt of his call +he passed unnoticed; distrust of God he repudiated instantly, falling back +on his faith in the God he had served these many years (Deut. viii. 3). +His victory is remarkable because his spirit conquered unhesitatingly +after a long ecstasy which would naturally have induced a reaction and a +surrender for the moment to the demand of lower needs. + +93. This firmness of trust opened the way for another evil suggestion. In +the work before him as God's Anointed many difficulties were on either +side and across his path. He knew his people, their prejudices, and their +hardness of heart; and he knew how far he was from their ideal of a +Messiah. He knew also the watchful jealousy of Rome. Others before him, +like Judas of Galilee, had tried the Messianic role and had failed. He, +however, was confident of his divine call: should he not, therefore, press +forward with his work, heedless of all danger and regardless of the +dictates of prudence,--as heedless as if, trusting God's promised care, +he should cast himself down from a pinnacle of the temple to the rocks in +Kidron below? A fanatic would have yielded to such a temptation. Many +another than Jesus did so,--Theudas (Acts v. 36), the Egyptian (Acts xxi. +38); and Bar Cochba (Dio Cassius, lxix. 12-14; Euseb. Ch. Hist. iv. 6). +Jesus, however, showed his perfect mental health, repudiating the +temptation by declaring that while man may trust God's care, he must not +presumptuously put it to the test (Matt. iv. 7). The after life of Jesus +was a clear commentary on this reply. He constantly sought to avoid +situations which would compromise his mission or cut short his work (see +John vi. 15), and when at the end he suffered the death prepared for him +by his people's hatred, it was because his hour had come and he could say, +"I lay down my life of myself" (John x. 18). His marvellous control of +enthusiasm and his self-mastery in all circumstances separate Jesus from +all ecstatics and fanatics. Yet presumption must have seemed the easier +course, and could readily wear the mask of trust. He was tempted, yet +without sin. + +94. As the refusal to doubt led to the temptation to presume, so the +determination to be prudent opened the way for a third assault upon his +perfect loyalty to God. The world he was to seek to save was swayed by +passions; his own people were longing for a Messiah, but they must have +their kind of a Messiah. If he would acknowledge this actual supremacy of +evil and self-will in the world, the opposition of passion and prejudice +might be avoided. If he would own the evil inevitable for the time, and +accommodate his work to it, he might then be free to lead men to higher +and more spiritual views of God's kingdom. His knowledge of his people's +grossness of heart and materialism of hope made a real temptation of the +suggestion that he should not openly oppose but should accommodate himself +to them. Jesus did not underestimate the opposition of "the kingdoms of +the world," but he truly estimated God's intolerance of any rivalry (Matt. +iv. 10), and he was true to God and to his own soul. Again, in this as in +the preceding temptations, Jesus conquered the evil suggestions by +appropriating to himself truth spoken by God's servants to Israel. Tempted +in all points like his brethren, he resisted as any one of them could have +resisted, and won a victory possible, ideally considered, to any other of +the children of men. + +95. It is not idle curiosity which inquires whence the evangelists got +this story of the temptation of Jesus. Even if the whole transaction took +place on the plane of outer sensuous life, and Jesus was bodily carried to +Jerusalem and to the mountain-top, there is no probability that any +witnesses were at hand who could tell the tale. But the fact that in any +case the vision of the kingdoms of the world in a moment of time (Luke iv. +5) could have been spiritual only, since no mountain, however high (Matt. +iv. 8), could give, physically, that wide sweep of view, suggests that the +whole account tells in pictorial language an intensely real, inner +experience of Jesus. This in no respect reduces the truthfulness of the +narratives. Temptation never becomes temptation till it passes to that +inner scene of action and debate. Since Jesus shows in all his teaching a +natural use of parabolic language to set forth spiritual truth, the +inference is almost inevitable that the gospels have in like manner +adopted the language of vivid picture as alone adequate to depict the +essential reality of his inner struggle. In any case the narrative could +have come from no other source than himself. How he came to tell it we do +not know. On one of the days of private converse with his disciples after +the confession at Caesarea Philippi he may have given them this account of +his own experience, in order to help his loyal Galileans to understand +more fully his work and the way of it, and to prepare them for that +disappointment of their expectations which they were so slow to +acknowledge as possible. + +96. From this struggle in the wilderness Jesus came forth with the clear +conviction that he was God's Anointed, and in all his after life no +hesitation appeared. The kingdom which he undertook to establish was that +dominion of simple righteousness which he had learned to know and love in +the years of quiet life in Nazareth. He set out to do his work fearlessly, +but prudently, seeking to win men in his Father's way to acknowledge that +Father's sovereignty. There is no evidence that, beyond such firm +conviction and purpose, he had any fixed plan for the work he was to do, +nor that he saw clearly as yet how his earthly career would end. The third +temptation, however, shows that he was not unprepared for seeming defeat. +The struggle had been long and serious,--for the three temptations of the +end are doubtless typical of the whole of the forty days,--and the victory +was great and final. With the light of victory as well as the marks of +warfare on his face, he took his way back towards Galilee. + + + + +VIII + +The First Disciples + +John i. 19 TO ii. 12 + + + +97. After the withdrawal of Jesus into the wilderness, John the Baptist +continued his ministry of preaching and baptizing, moving northward up the +Jordan valley to Bethany, on the eastern side of the river, near one of +the fords below the Sea of Galilee (John i. 28). Here Galilee, doubtless, +contributed more to his audience than Judea. It is certain that some from +the borders of the lake were at this time among his constant attendants: +Andrew and Simon of Bethsaida, John the son of Zebedee, and perhaps his +brother James, probably also Philip of Bethsaida and Nathanael of Cana +(John i. 40, 41, 43-45; compare xxi. 2). + +98. The leaders in Jerusalem, becoming apprehensive whither this work +would lead, sent an embassy to question John. They chose for this mission +priests and Levites of pharisaic leaning as most influential among the +people. The impression John and his message were making on the popular +mind is seen in the questions put to him, "Art thou the Messiah?" +"Elijah?" "The prophet?" (see Deut. xviii. 15), and in the challenge, +"Why, then, baptizest thou?" when John disclaimed the right to any of +these names. John's reply is the echo of his earlier proclamation of the +one mightier than he who should baptize with the Spirit (Mark i. 7, 8), +only now he added that this one was present among them (John i. 26, 27). + +99. This interview occurred several weeks after Jesus' baptism, for upon +the next day John saw Jesus (John i. 29), now returned from the +temptation, and pointed him out to a group of disciples. Something in +Jesus' face or in his bearing, as he came from his temptation, must have +impressed John even more than at their first meeting; for he was led to +think of a prophetic word for the most part ignored by the Messianic +thought of his day, "He was brought as a lamb to the slaughter" (Isa. +liii. 7). As he looked on Jesus the mysterious oracle was illuminated for +him, and he cried, "Behold the lamb of God which taketh away the sin of +the world." Once again on the next day the same thought rushed to his lips +when, with two disciples, he saw Jesus passing by (John i. 35, 36). Then +as Jesus left John's neighborhood and took up again the round of ordinary +life, John seems to have reverted to his more ordinary Messianic thought, +his momentary insight into highest truth standing as a thing apart in his +life. Such a moment's insight, caused by extraordinary circumstances, no +more requires that John should retain the high thought constantly than +does Peter's confession of Christ at Caesarea Philippi exclude his later +rebuke of his Lord (Mark viii. 32, 33), or his denials (Mark xiv. 66-72). + +100. The disciples who heard these testimonies from John understood them +to be Messianic (John i. 30-34), though their later consternation, when +the cross seemed to shatter their hopes (John xx. 9, 10, 24, 25), shows +that they did not comprehend their deeper meaning. Two of these disciples +at once attached themselves to Jesus, and one of them, Andrew of +Bethsaida, was so impressed by the new master that, having sought out his +brother Simon, he declared that they had found the Messiah. The other of +these earliest followers was John the son of Zebedee, and it is possible +that he also found his brother and introduced James from the very first +into the circle of the disciples. Jesus was about to take his departure +for Galilee, and on the next day, as he was leaving, added Philip of +Bethsaida to the little company of followers. Philip, impressed as Andrew +had been, brought Nathanael of Cana to Jesus. The undefined something +about Jesus which drew noble hearts irresistibly to himself, and his +marvellous knowledge of this new comer, produced the same effect in +Nathanael, as was seen earlier in Andrew and Philip, and he acknowledged +the new master as "Son of God, King of Israel" (John i. 49). + +101. These early confessions in the fourth gospel present a difficulty in +view of Jesus' warm approval of Peter's acknowledgment of him at Caesarea +Philippi (Matt. xvi. 13-20). Jesus saw in that confession a distinct +advance in the disciples' thought and faith. Yet the religious feeling +which early questioned whether the Baptist even were not the Messiah (Luke +iii. 15) would almost certainly have concluded that John's greater +successor must be God's anointed. The very fact that men's thoughts about +the Messiah were varied and complex made them ready for some modifications +of their preconceptions. One with such subtle personal power as Jesus had +exercised was almost sure to be hailed by some with enthusiasm as the +looked-for representative of God. In fact, it is probable that at any +time in the early days of his ministry Jesus could have been proclaimed +Messiah, provided he had accepted the people's terms. Such a confession +would have been merely the outcome of enthusiasm. The people, even the +disciples, did not know Jesus. They all had high hopes and somewhat fixed +ideas about the Messiah, nearly every one of which was destined to rude +shock. How little they knew him Jesus realized (John i. 51), and his +self-mastery is manifest in his attitude to this early enthusiasm. He was +no visionary; he had a great work to do and a long lesson to teach, and he +was patient enough to teach it little by little. He did not rebuke the +ill-informed faith of a Nathanael, but sought gradually to supplant the +old thought of the Messiah and of the kingdom by new truth, and to bind +men's affections to himself for his own sake and the truth's sake, not +simply for the idea which he impersonated to them. + +102. The visit to Cana seems to have found a place in the fourth gospel, +because there the new disciples discovered in their master miraculous +powers which were to them a sign that he was in truth God's anointed. It +is probable that at the time of this miracle the disciples thought only of +the power and the marvel, yet the sharp contrast between John's ascetic +habit and Jesus' use of his divine resources to relieve embarrassment at a +wedding feast must have impressed every man among them. Their minds, +however, were as yet too full of Messianic hopes to leave much room for +reflection. They were content to have a sign, for in the view of Jesus' +contemporaries signs were essential marks of the Messiah (John vi. 30; +vii. 31; Mark viii. 11). They did their reflecting later (John ii. 22). + +103. Miracles are as great a stumbling-block to modern thought as they +were a help to the contemporaries of Jesus. The study of Jesus' life +cannot ignore this fact, nor make little of it. It is fair to insist, +however, that the question is one of evidence, not of metaphysical +possibility. Men are wisely slow to-day to claim that they can tell what +are the limits of the possible. If the question is one of evidence, it is +in an important sense true that the evidence for miracle in the life of +Jesus is appreciable only when that life is viewed in its completeness. +The miracles attributed to Jesus may be studied, however, for the +disclosure which they give of his character, and of his relation to common +human need. So it is with this first sign at Cana. Jesus had just heard +the call to be Messiah, and in his lonely struggle in the wilderness had +given a loyal answer to that call, and had set out to do his Father's +business in his Father's way. He who by the Jordan still carried the marks +of struggle, so that the Baptist saw in him the suffering Saviour of +Isaiah liii., now returned to the ordinary daily life in Galilee, and as a +guest at a wedding feast he commenced that ministry of simple human +friendliness (Matt. xi. 19; compare Mark ii. 15-17; Luke xv. 1, 2), which +set him in sharp contrast alike with John's asceticism and with the +ritualism and pedantry of the Pharisees. + +104. His human friendliness is all the more worthy of note, inasmuch as on +his return to Cana Jesus did not take up again the old relations of life +as they existed before his baptism. This is clear from his reply to his +mother when she reported the scarcity of wine (John ii. 3-5). While it is +true that the title by which Jesus addressed Mary was neither +disrespectful nor unkind (John xix. 26), the reply itself was a warning +that now he was no longer hers in the old sense. A new mission had been +given him, which henceforth would determine all his conduct, and in that +mission she could not now share. Here is one of the many indications +(compare Mark iii. 21, 31-35; Luke ii. 48) that Mary did not understand +her son nor his work until much later (John xix. 25; Acts i. 14). That +with such a clear sense of his new and serious mission Jesus' first +official act was one of kindly relief for social embarrassment is most +significant. He chose to show his divine authority to his new disciples in +a way that brought joy to a festal company. Little as the disciples were +likely to appreciate it at the time, it was beautifully indicative of the +simplicity and everyday lovableness of Jesus' idea of the earnest service +of God. + +105. With the disciples thus strengthened in faith, and the mother not +separated from him though unable to know his deepest thoughts, and the +brethren who could not yet nor later understand their kinsman and his +work, Jesus went down to Capernaum (John ii. 12), which proved thenceforth +to be the centre of his greatest work and teaching. There for a time, how +long cannot be known, he continued in quiet fellowship with his new +friends, until the approach of the Passover drew him to Jerusalem to make +formal opening of his Messianic work in that centre of his people's +religious life. + + + + + + +Part II + +The Ministry + + + + +I + +General Survey of the Ministry + + + +106. The attempt to arrange an orderly account of the way in which Jesus +set about the work to which he was called at his baptism is met at the +outset by a problem. The vivid and familiar words of Mark (i. 14), +seconded by the representation in both Matthew (iv. 12) and Luke (iv. 14), +indicate the imprisonment of John as the occasion, and Galilee as the +scene of the inauguration of Jesus' public ministry. The fourth gospel, on +the other hand, tells of a work of Jesus and his disciples in Judea prior +to the imprisonment of John (in. 24), and makes this work follow at some +interval after the inauguration of the Messianic ministry in Jerusalem. +The minuteness of detail of time and place in the early chapters of John +(i. 19 to iv. 43), together with the vividness of their narrative, give +them strong claim to credence. They thus record a ministry earlier than +that narrated in the other gospels, proving that the actual inauguration +of Jesus' work occurred in Jerusalem at a Passover season previous to the +imprisonment of John. This is known as the Early Judean Ministry. + +107. The fact that Peter was wont to tell the story of Jesus' life in such +a way as to lead Mark to set the opening of the ministry after the close +of John's activity, indicates that that beginning of work in Galilee +seemed to the disciples to be in a way the actual inauguration of Jesus' +constructive and successful work. Peter cannot have been ignorant of the +labors in Judea, though he may not himself have accompanied Jesus to the +Passover. A new stage in the life of Jesus began, therefore, with his +withdrawal to Galilee. + +108. The story of the Galilean ministry is given chiefly by the first +three gospels, John contributing but two incidents to the period covered +by that ministry,--a second miracle at Cana (iv. 46-54), and a visit to +Judea (v. 1-47),--and relating more fully the story of the feeding of the +multitudes (vi. 1-71). The journey from Judea through Samaria (John iv. +1-45) should be identified with the removal to Galilee which stands at the +beginning of Mark's record (i. 14; Matt. iv. 12; Luke iv. 14). Mark's +account of the Galilean activity of Jesus (i. 14 to ix. 50) is one of such +simple and steady progress that the whole period must be considered as a +unit. + +109. In the use which Matthew (iv. 12 to xviii. 35) and Luke (iv. 14 to +ix. 50) make of Mark's record this unity is emphasized. Their treatment of +the matter which they add, however, makes it best to study the period +topically rather than attempt to follow closely a chronological sequence. +As it is probable that the early writing ascribed by Papias to the apostle +Matthew failed to preserve in many cases any record of the time and place +of the teachings of Jesus, so is it certain that the first and third +evangelists have distributed quite differently the material which they +seem to have derived from that apostolic document. Mention need only be +made of the exhortation against anxiety which Matthew places in the +sermon on the mount (vi. 19-34), and which Luke has given after the close +of the Galilean activity (xii. 22-34). It is possible to form some +judgment of the general relations of such discourses from the character of +their contents, but in the absence of positive statement by the +evangelists it is hopeless to seek to give them a more definite historical +setting. A topical study can consider them as contributions to the period +to which they belong, while a chronological study would be lost in +uncertain conjectures. A topical study may, however, disclose the fact +that sequence of time was identical with development of method. This is, +in general, the case with the Galilean ministry. The new lesson which +Jesus began to teach after the confession at Caesarea Philippi marked the +supreme turning point in his whole public activity. Before that crisis the +work of Jesus was a constructive preparation for the question which called +forth Peter's confession. Subsequently his work was that of making ready +for the end, which from that time on he foretold. As has been stated, the +Galilean ministry is the story of the first three gospels, except for two +incidents and a discourse added by John. The visit to the feast of +Tabernacles (John vii. 1 to viii. 59) stands on the border between the +work in Galilee and that which followed. It was one of Jesus' many +attempts to win Jerusalem, and is evidence that the author of the fourth +gospel--either because of special interest in the capital, or because of +superior knowledge of the work of his Master in Judea--gave emphasis to a +side of the life of Jesus which the other gospels have neglected. + +110. With the close of the constructive ministry in Galilee, the account +of Mark (x. 1; compare Matt xix. 1; Luke ix. 51) turns towards Jerusalem +and the cross. The journey was not direct, but traversed Perea, the domain +of Antipas beyond Jordan, and was accompanied by continued ministry of +teaching and healing (Mark x. 1-52; Matt. xix. 1 to xx. 34). It is at this +point that Luke has inserted the long section peculiar to his gospel (ix. +51 to xviii. 14), becoming again parallel with Mark as Jesus drew near to +Jerusalem (xviii. 15 to xix. 28; compare Mark x. 13-52). Much of that +which Luke adds gives evidence that in all probability it should be placed +before the change in method at Caesarea Philippi, while much of it +undoubtedly belongs to the last months of Jesus' life. Since the last +journey to Jerusalem is reported with considerable fulness, it is natural +in a study of Jesus' life to treat that journey by itself. At this point +John contributes important additions to the record (ix. 1 to xi. 57) +showing that the journey was not continuous, but was interrupted by +several more or less hurried visits to the capital, renewed efforts of +Jesus to win the city. + +111. With the final arrival in Jerusalem the four gospels come together in +a record of the last days and the crucifixion (Mark xi. 1 to xv. 47; Matt, +xxi 1 to xxvii. 66; Luke xix. 29 to xxiii. 56; John xi. 55 to xix. 42). +The evangelists, in their accounts of the last week, seem to have had +access to completer and more varied information than for any other part of +the ministry. This causes some difficulties in constructing an ordered +conception of the events, yet it greatly adds to the fulness of our +knowledge. It is easier, therefore, to consider the period in three +parts,--the final controversies in Jerusalem, the Last Supper, and the +betrayal, trial, and crucifixion. + +112. In a sense the resurrection and ascension form the conclusion of the +final visit to Jerusalem, and should be treated with the last week. In a +larger sense, however, they form the culmination of the whole ministry, +and therefore constitute a final stage in the study of Jesus' life. At +this point the record of the gospels is supplemented by the first chapter +of the Acts and by Paul's concise report of the appearances of the risen +Christ (I. Cor. xv. 3-8). The various accounts exhibit perplexing +independence of each other. In total impression, however, they agree, and +show that the tragedy, by which the enemies of Jesus thought to end his +career, was turned into signal triumph. + + Outline of Events in the Early Judean Ministry + + + The first Passover of the public ministry: Cleansing of the + temple--John ii. 13-22. + + Early results in Jerusalem: Discourse with Nicodemus--John ii. 23 to + iii. 15. + + Withdrawal into rural parts of Judea to preach and baptize--John in. + 22-30; iv. 1, 2. + + Imprisonment of John the Baptist--Matt. iv. 12; Mark i. 14. + + Withdrawal from Judea through Samaria--John iv. 1-42. + + Unlooked-for welcome in Galilee--John iv. 43-45. + + ? Second sign at Cana: Cure of the Nobleman's son--John iv. 46-54 (see + sect. A 41). + + [Retirement at Nazareth, the disciples resuming their accustomed + calling. Inferred from Matt. iv. 13; Luke iv. 31; Matt. iv. 18-22 and + ||s.] + + Events marked ? should possibly be given a different place; ||s stands + for "parallel accounts;" for sections marked A--as A 41--see Appendix. + + + + +II + +The Early Ministry in Judea + + + +113. We owe to the fourth gospel our knowledge of the fact that Jesus +began his general ministry in Jerusalem. The silence of the other records +concerning this beginning cannot discredit the testimony of John. For +these other records themselves indicate in various ways that Jesus had +repeatedly sought to win Jerusalem before his final visit at the end of +his life (compare Luke xiii. 34; Matt. xxiii. 37). Moreover, the fourth +gospel is confirmed by the probability, rising almost to necessity, that +such a mission as Jesus conceived his to be must seek first to win the +leaders of his people. The temple at Jerusalem was the centre of worship, +drawing all Jews sooner or later to itself--even as Jesus in early youth +was accustomed to go thither at the time of feasts (Luke ii. 41). +Worshippers of God throughout the world prayed with their faces towards +Jerusalem (Dan. vi. 10). Moreover, at Jerusalem the chief of the scribes, +as well as the chief of the priests, were to be found. Compared with +Jerusalem all other places were provincial and of small influence. A +Messiah, who had not from the outset given up hope of winning the capital, +cannot have long delayed his effort to find a following there. + +114. Arriving at Jerusalem at the Passover season, in the early spring, +Jesus remained in Judea until the following December (John iv. 35). +Evidently the record which John gives of these months is most fragmentary, +and from his own statement (xx. 30, 31) it seems highly probable that it +is one sided, emphasizing those events and teachings in which Jesus +disclosed more or less clearly his claim to be the Messiah. Doubtless the +full record would show a much closer similarity between this early work in +Judea and that later conducted in Galilee than a comparison of John with +the other gospels would suggest; yet it is evident that Jesus opened his +ministry in Jerusalem with an unrestrained frankness that is not found +later in Galilee. + +115. It is a mistake to think of the cleansing of the temple as a distinct +Messianic manifesto. The market in the temple was a licensed affront to +spiritual religion. It found its excuse for being in the requirement that +worshippers offer to the priests for sacrifice animals levitically clean +and acceptable, and that gifts for the temple treasury be made in no coin +other than the sacred "shekel of the sanctuary." The chief priests +appreciated the convenience which worshippers coming from a distance would +find if they could obtain all the means of worship within the temple +enclosure itself. The hierarchy or its representatives seem also to have +appreciated the opportunity to charge good prices for the accommodation so +afforded. The result was the intrusion of the spirit of the market-place, +with all its disputes and haggling, into the place set apart for worship. +In fact, the only part of the temple open to Gentiles who might wish to +worship Israel's God was filled with distraction, unseemly strife, and +extortion (compare Mark xi. 17). Such despite done the sanctity of God's +house must have outraged the pious sense of many a devout Israelite. There +is no doubt of what an Isaiah or a Micah would have said and done in such +a situation. This is exactly what Jesus did. His act was the assumption of +a full prophetic authority. In itself considered it was nothing more. In +his expulsion of the traders he had the conscience of the people for his +ally. There is no need to think of any use of miraculous power. His moral +earnestness, coupled with the underlying consciousness on the part of the +traders themselves that they had no business in God's house, readily +explains the confusion and departure of the intruders. Even those who +challenged Jesus' conduct did not venture to defend the presence of the +market in the temple. They only demanded that Jesus show his warrant for +disturbing a condition of things authorized by the priests. + +116. The temple cleansing is recorded in the other gospels at the end of +Jesus' ministry, just before the hostility of the Jews culminated in his +condemnation and death. Inasmuch as these gospels give no account of a +ministry by Jesus in Jerusalem before the last week of his life, it is +easy to see how this event came to be associated by them with the only +Jerusalem sojourn which they record. The definite place given to the event +in John, together with the seeming necessity that Jesus should condemn +such authorized affront to the very idea of worship, mark this cleansing +as the inaugural act of Jesus' ministry of spiritual religion, rather than +as a final stern rebuke closing his effort to win his people. Against the +conclusion commonly held that Jesus cleansed the temple both at the +opening and at the close of his course is the extreme improbability that +the traders would have been caught twice in the same way. The event fits +in closely with the story of the last week, because it actually led to the +beginning of opposition in Jerusalem to the prophet from Galilee. At the +first the opposition was doubtless of a scornful sort. Later it grew in +bitterness when it saw how Jesus was able to arouse a popular enthusiasm +that seemed to threaten the stability of existing conditions. + +117. The reply of Jesus to the challenge of his authority for his +high-handed act shows that he offered it to the people as an invitation; +he would lead them to a higher idea and practice of worship (compare John +iv. 21-24). When they demanded the warrant for his act, he saw that they +were not ready to follow him, and could not appreciate the only warrant he +needed for his course. He cleansed the temple because they were destroying +it as a place where men could worship God in spirit. In reply to the +challenge, he who later taught the Samaritan woman that the worship of God +is not dependent on any place however sacred, answered that they might +finish their work and destroy the temple as a house of God, yet he would +speedily re-establish a true means of approach to the Most High for the +souls of men. He clothed his reply in a figurative dress, as he was often +wont to do in his teaching,--"Destroy this temple, and in three days I +will raise it up." To his unsympathetic hearers it must have been +completely enigmatic. Even the disciples did not catch its meaning until +after the resurrection had taught them that in their Master a new chapter +in God's dealing with men had begun. + +118. The unreadiness of the Jewish leaders to receive the only kind of +message he had to offer produced in Jesus a decided reserve. He did not +lack a certain kind of success in Jerusalem. His cures of the sick won him +many followers who seemed ready to believe almost anything of him. But the +attitude taken by the leaders made it evident that Jesus must make +disciples who should understand in some measure at least his idea of God's +kingdom, and, understanding, must be ready to be loyal to it through good +report and evil. For the position taken by the leaders of the people had +an ominous significance. It could mean but one thing for +Jesus,--unrelenting conflict. If they could not be won, they who would so +legalize the desecration of God's house would not hesitate at any extreme +in opposing his messenger. This possibility confronted Jesus at the very +outset; therefore he held the popular enthusiasm in check, knowing that +as yet it had little of that kind of faith which could endure seeming +defeat. + +119. One of those who were drawn to him, however, gave Jesus opportunity +to lay aside his reserve and speak clearly of the truth lie came to +publish. He was a member of the Jewish sanhedrin, a rabbi apparently held +in high regard in Jerusalem. While his associates were dismissing the +claims of Jesus with a wave of the hand, Nicodemus sought out the new +teacher by night, and showed his desire to learn what Jesus held to be +truth concerning God's kingdom. Jesus first reminded the teacher of Israel +of the old doctrine of the prophets, that Israel must find a new heart +before God's kingdom can come (Jer. xxxi. 31-34; Ezek. xxxvi. 25-27), and +then declared that the heavenly truth which God now would reveal to men is +that all can have the needed new life as freely as the plague-stricken +Israelites found relief when Moses lifted up the brazen serpent. This +conversation serves to introduce the evangelist's interpretation of Jesus +as the only begotten Son of God sent in love to redeem the world (John +iii. 16-21). + +120. John's record suggests that Jesus left Jerusalem shortly after the +conversation with Nicodemus. His work there was not without success, for +Nicodemus seems to have been henceforth his loyal advocate (compare John +vii. 50-52; xix. 39); and it may be that at the time of this sojourn he +won the hearts of his friends in Bethany, for the first picture the +gospels give of this household seems to presuppose a somewhat intimate +relation of Jesus to the family (Luke x. 38-42). It would be idle to +speculate whether it was at this time or later that he became acquainted +with Joseph of Arimathea, or the friends who during the last week of his +life showed him hospitality (Mark xi. 2-6; xiv. 12-16). + +121. For a time after his withdrawal from Jerusalem he lingered in Judea, +carrying on a simple ministry of preparation like that of John the +Baptist. In this way the summer and early autumn seem to have passed, +Jesus growing more popular as a prophet than John himself had been. The +fact that Jesus' disciples administered baptism in connection with his +work roused the jealousy of some of John's followers, and attracted again +the attention of Jerusalem to the new activity of the bold disturber of +the temple market. John's disciples complained to him of Jesus' rivalry, +and received his self-effacing confession, "He must increase, I must +decrease." The Pharisees, on the other hand, made Jesus feel that further +work in Judea was for the time unwise, and he withdrew into Galilee for +retirement, since "a prophet has no honor in his own country" (John iv. +1-3, 44). Baffled in his first effort to win his people, this journey back +from the region of the holy city must have been one of no little sadness +for Jesus. Some urgency for haste led him by the direct road through +despised Samaria. A seemingly chance conversation with a woman at Jacob's +well, where he was resting at noonday, gave him an opportunity for +ministry which was more ingenuously received than any which he had been +able to render in Judea; and to this woman he declared himself even more +plainly than to Nicodemus, and preached to her that spiritual idea of +worship which he had sought to enforce by cleansing Jerusalem's temple. +Samaria was so isolated from all Jewish interest that Jesus felt no need +for reserve in this "strange" land. The few days spent there must have +been peculiarly welcome to his heart, fresh from rejection in Judea. + +122. One reason why he wished to hasten from Judea seems to have been his +knowledge of the hostile movement which was making against John the +Baptist. Either before or soon after Jesus started for Galilee Herod had +arrested John, ostensibly as a measure of public safety owing to John's +undue popularity (Jos. Ant. xviii. 5. 2). Herod may have been encouraged +to take this step by the hostility of the Pharisees to the plain-spoken +prophet of the desert (see John iv. 1-3). The fourth gospel leaves its +readers to infer that the imprisonment took place somewhere about this +time (compare iii. 24 and v. 35), while the other gospels unite in giving +this arrest as the occasion for Jesus' withdrawal into Galilee. + +123. Arrived in Galilee, Jesus seems to have returned to his home at +Nazareth, while his disciples went back to their customary occupations, +until he summoned them again to join him in a new ministry (see sect. +125). John assigns to this time the cure of a nobleman's son. The father +sought out Jesus at Cana, having left his son sick at Capernaum. At first +Jesus apparently repelled his approach, even as he had dealt with seekers +after marvels at Jerusalem; but on hearing the father's cry of need and +trust, he at once spoke the word of healing. This event is in so many ways +a duplicate of the cure of a centurion's servant recorded in Matthew and +Luke, that to many it seems but another version of the same incident. +Considering the variations in the story reported by Matthew and Luke, it +is clearly not possible to prove that John tells of a different case. Yet +the simple fact of similarity of some details in two events should not +exclude the possibility of their still being quite distinct. The reception +which Jesus gave the two requests for help is very different, and the case +reported in John is in keeping with the attitude of Jesus before he began +his new ministry in Galilee. On his arrival in Galilee he wished to avoid +a mere wonder faith begotten of the enthusiasm he excited in Jerusalem, +yet this wish yielded at once when a genuine need sought relief at his +hands. + +124. The apparent result of this first activity in Judea was +disappointment and failure. He had won no considerable following in the +capital. He had definitely excited the jealousy and opposition of the +leading men of his nation. Even such popular enthusiasm as had followed +his mighty works was of a sort that Jesus could not encourage. The +situation in Judea had at length become so nearly untenable that he +decided to withdraw into seclusion in Galilee, where, as a prophet, he +could be "without honor." He had gone to Jerusalem eager to begin there, +where God should have had readiest service, the ministry of the kingdom of +God. Challenge, cold criticism, and superficial faith were the results. A +new beginning must be made on other lines in other places. Meanwhile Jesus +retired to his home and his followers to theirs. + + Outline of Events in the Galilean Ministry (Chapters III. And IV.) + + + The imprisonment of John and the withdrawal of Jesus into + Galilee--Matt. iv. 12-17; Mark i. 14, 15; Luke iv. 14, 15. + + Removal from Nazareth to Capernaum--Matt. iv. 13-16; Luke iv. 31. + + The call of Simon and Andrew, James and John--Matt. iv. 18-22; Mark i. + 16-20; Luke v. 1-11. + + First work in Capernaum--Matt. viii. 14-17; Mark i. 21-34; Luke iv. + 31-41. + + First circuit of Galilee--Matt. iv. 23; viii. 2-4; Mark i. 35-45; Luke + iv. 42-44; v. 12-16. + + Cure of a paralytic in Capernaum--Matt. ix. 2-8; Mark ii. 1-12; Luke v. + 17-26. + + The call of Matthew--Matt. ix. 9-13; Mark ii. 13-17; Luke v. 27-32. + + ? The question about fasting--Matt ix. 14-17; Mark ii. 18-22; Luke v. + 33-39 (see sects. 47; A 54). + + ? Sabbath cure at Jerusalem at the unnamed feast--John v. 1-47 (see + sect. A 53). + + ? The Sabbath controversy in the Galilean grain fields--Matt. xii. 1-8; + Mark ii. 23-28; Luke vi. 1-5 (see sects. 47; A 54). + + ? Another Sabbath controversy: cure of a withered hand--Matt. xii. + 9-14; Mark iii. 1-6; Luke vi. 6-11 (see sects. 47; A 54). + + Jesus followed by multitudes from all parts--Matt. iv. 23-25; xii. + 15-21; Mark iii. 7-12; Luke vi. 17-19. + + The choosing of the twelve--Matt. x. 2-4; Mark iii. 13-19; Luke vi. + 12-19. + + The sermon on the mount--Matt. v. 1 to viii. 1; Luke vi. 20 to vii. 1 + (see sect. A 55). + + The cure of a centurion's servant--Matt. viii. 5-13; Luke vii. 1-10; + John iv. 46-54. + + The restoration of the widow's son at Nain--Luke vii. 11-17. + + The message from John in prison--Matt. xi. 2-19; Luke vii. 18-35. + + The anointing of Jesus by a sinful woman--Luke vii. 36-50. + + The companions of Jesus on his second circuit of Galilee--Luke viii. + 1-3. + + Cure of a demoniac in Capernaum and blasphemy by the Pharisees--Matt. + xii. 22-45; Mark iii. 19^a-30; Luke xi. 14-36. + + The true kindred of Jesus--Matt. xii. 46-50; Mark iii. 31-35; Luke + viii. 19-21. + + The parables by the sea--Matt. xiii. 1-53; Mark iv. 1-34; Luke viii. + 4-18 (see sect. A 56). + + The tempest stilled--Matt. viii. 18, 23-27; Mark iv. 35-41; Luke viii. + 22-25. + + Cure of the Gadarene demoniac--Matt. viii. 28-34; Mark v. 1-20; Luke + viii. 26-39. + + The restoration of the daughter of Jairus and cure of an invalid + woman--Matt. ix. 1, 18-26; Mark v. 21-43; Luke viii. 40-56. + + Cure of blind and dumb--Matt. ix. 27-34. + + Rejection at Nazareth--Matt. xiii. 54-58; Mark vi. 1-6^a; Luke iv. + 16-30 (see sect. A 52). + + Third circuit of Galilee--Matt. ix. 35; Mark vi. 6^b. + + The mission of the twelve--Matt. ix. 36 to xi. 1; Mark vi. 7-13; Luke + ix. 1-6 (see sect. A 57). + + The death of John the Baptist--Matt. xiv. 1-12; Mark vi. 14-29; Luke + ix. 7-9. + + Withdrawal of Jesus across the sea and feeding of the five + thousand--Matt. xiv. 13-23; Mark vi. 30-46; Luke ix. 10-17; John vi. + 1-15. + + Return to Capernaum, Jesus walking on the water--Matt. xiv. 24-36; Mark + vi. 47-56; John vi. 16-21. + + Teaching about the Bread of Life in the synagogue at Capernaum--John + vi. 22-71 (see sect. A 59). + + Controversy concerning tradition: handwashing, etc.--Matt. xv. 1-20; + Mark vii. 1-23. + + Withdrawal to regions of Tyre and Sidon: the Syrophoenician woman's + daughter--Matt. xv. 21-28; Mark vii. 24-30. + + Return through Decapolis--Matt. xv. 29-31; Mark vii. 31-37. + + ? The feeding of the four thousand--Matt. xv. 32-38; Mark viii. 1-9 + (see sect. A 58). + + Pharisaic challenge in Galilee, and warning against the leaven of the + Pharisees--Matt xv. 39 to xvi. 12; Mark viii. 10-21. + + Cure of blind man near Bethsaida--Mark viii. 22-26. + + Peter's confession of Jesus as Christ near Caesarea Philippi--Matt. xvi. + 13-20; Mark viii. 27-30; Luke ix. 18-21. + + The new lesson, that the Christ must die--Matt. xvi. 21-28; Mark viii. + 31 to ix. 1; Luke ix. 22-27. + + The transfiguration--Matt. xvii. 1-13; Mark ix. 2-13; Luke ix. 28-36. + + Cure of the epileptic boy--Matt. xvii. 14-20; Mark ix. 14-29; Luke ix. + 37-43^a. + + Second prediction of approaching death and resurrection--Matt. xvii. + 22, 23; Mark ix. 30-32; Luke ix. 43^b-45. + + Return to Capernaum: the temple tax--Matt. xvii. 24-27; Mark ix. 33^a. + + Teachings concerning humility and forgiveness--Matt. xviii. 1-35; Mark + ix. 33-50; Luke ix. 46-50. + + Visit of Jesus to Jerusalem at the feast of Tabernacles--John vii. + 1-52; viii. 12-59 (see sect. A 60). + + ? The woman taken in adultery--John vii. 53 to viii. 11 (see sect. + 163). + + The following probably belong to the Galilean ministry before the + confession at Caesarea Philippi (see sect. 168):-- + + The disciples taught to pray--Matt. vi. 9-15; vii. 7-11; Luke xi. 1-13. + + The cure of an infirm woman on the Sabbath--Luke xiii. 10-17. + + Two parables: mustard-seed and leaven--Matt. xiii. 31-33; Luke xiii. + 18-21 (see sect. A 56). + + The parable of the rich fool--Luke xii. 13-21. + + Cure on a Sabbath and teaching at a Pharisee's table--Luke xiv. 1-24. + + Five parables--Luke xv. 1 to xvi. 31. + + Certain disconnected teachings--Luke xvii. 1-4. + + + + +III + +The Ministry In Galilee--its Aim And Method + + + +125. The work of Jesus in Galilee, which is the principal theme of the +first three gospels, began with a removal from Nazareth to Capernaum, and +the calling of four fishermen to be his constant followers. The ready +obedience which Simon and Andrew and James and John gave to this call is +an interesting evidence that they did not first come to know Jesus at the +time of this summons. The narrative presupposes some such earlier +association as is reported in John, followed by a temporary return to +their old homes and occupations, while Jesus sought seclusion after his +work in Judea. The first evangelist has most vividly indicated the +development of the Galilean ministry, directing attention to two points of +beginning,--the beginning of Jesus' preaching of the kingdom (Matt. iv. +17) and the beginning of his predictions of his own sufferings and death +(xvi. 21). Between these two beginnings lies the ministry of Jesus to the +enthusiastic multitudes, the second of them marking his choice of a more +restricted audience and a less popular message. Within the first of these +periods two events mark epochs,--the mission of the twelve (Matt. ix. 36; +x. I) to preach the coming kingdom of God and to multiply Jesus' ministry +of healing, and the feeding of the five thousand when the popular +enthusiasm reached its climax (John vi. 14, 15). These events fall not +far apart, and mark two different phases of the same stage of development +in his work. The first is emphasized by Matthew, the second by John; both +help to a clearer understanding of the narrative which Mark has furnished +to the other gospels for their story of the Galilean ministry. The table +at the head of this chapter indicates in outline the probable succession +of events in the Galilean period. The order adopted is that of Mark, +supplemented by the other gospels. Luke's additions are inserted in his +order where there is not some reason for believing that he himself +disregarded the exact sequence of events. Thus the rejection at Nazareth +is placed late, as in Mark. Much of the material in the long section +peculiar to Luke is assigned in general to this Galilean period, since all +knowledge of its precise location in time and place has been lost for us, +as it not unlikely was for Luke. Although Matthew is the gospel giving the +clearest general view of the Galilean work, it shows the greatest +disarrangement of details, and aids but little in determining the sequence +of events. The material from that gospel is assigned place in accordance +with such hints as are discoverable in parallel or associated parts of +Mark or Luke. Of John's contributions one--the feeding of the +multitudes--is clearly located by its identity with a narrative found in +all the other gospels. The visit to Jerusalem at the unnamed feast can be +only tentatively placed. + +126. Viewing this gospel story as a whole, the parallel development of +popular enthusiasm and official hostility at once attracts attention. +Jesus' first cures in the synagogue at Capernaum roused the interest and +wonder of the multitudes to such an extent that he felt constrained to +withdraw to other towns. On his return to Capernaum he was so beset with +crowds that the friends of the paralytic could get at him only by breaking +up the roof. It was when Jesus found himself followed by multitudes from +all parts of the land that he selected twelve of his disciples "that they +might be with him and that he might send them forth to preach," and +addressed to them in the hearing of the multitudes the exacting, although +unspeakably winsome teaching of the sermon on the mount. This condition of +things continued even after Herod had killed John the Baptist, for when +Jesus, having heard of John's fate, sought retirement with his disciples +across the sea of Galilee, he was robbed of his seclusion by throngs who +flocked to him to be healed and to hear of the kingdom of God. + +127. The popular enthusiasm was not indifferent to the question who this +new teacher might be. At first Jesus impressed the people by his +authoritative teaching and cures. After the raising of the widow's son at +Nain the popular feeling found a more definite declaration,--"a great +prophet has risen up among us." The cure of a demoniac in Capernaum raised +the further incredulous query, "Can this be the Son of David?" The notion +that he might be the Messiah seems to have gained acceptance more and more +as Jesus' popularity grew, for at the time of the feeding of the +multitudes the enthusiasm burst into a flame of determination to force him +to undertake the work for which he was so eminently fitted, but from which +for some inexplicable reason he seemed to shrink (John vi. 15). + +128. Parallel with the growth of popular enthusiasm, and in part because +of it, the religious leaders early assumed and consistently maintained an +attitude of opposition. The gospels connect the critics of Jesus now and +again with the Pharisees of the capital--the Galilean Pharisees being +represented as more or less friendly. At the first appearance of Jesus in +Capernaum even the Sabbath cure in the synagogue passed unchallenged; but +on the return from his first excursion to other towns, Jesus found critics +in his audience (Luke connects them directly with Jerusalem). From time to +time such censors as these objected to the forgiveness by Jesus of the +sins of the paralytic (Mark ii. 6, 7), criticised his social relations +with outcasts like the publicans (Mark ii. 16), took offence at his +carelessness of the Sabbath tradition in his instruction of his disciples +(Mark ii. 24), and sought to turn the tide of rising popular enthusiasm by +ascribing his power to cure to a league with the devil (Mark iii. 22). +Baffled in one charge, they would turn to another, until, after the +feeding of the multitudes, Jesus showed his complete disregard of all they +held most dear, replying to a criticism of his disciples for carelessness +of the ritual of hand-washing by an authoritative setting aside of the +whole body of their traditions, as well as of the Levitical ceremonial of +clean and unclean meats (Mark vii. 1-23). + +129. The wonder is, not that popular enthusiasm for Jesus was great, but +that it was so hesitating in its judgment about him. The province which +provided a following to Judas of Galilee a generation earlier than the +public ministry of Jesus, and which under John of Gischala furnished the +chief support to the revolt against Rome a generation later, could have +been excited to uncontrollable passion by the simple idea that a leader +was present who could be made to head a movement for Jewish liberty. But +there was something about Jesus which made it impossible to think of him +as such a Messiah. He was much more moved by sin lurking within than by +wrong inflicted from without. He looked for God's kingdom, as did the +Zealots, but he looked for it within the heart more than in outward +circumstances. Even the dreamers among the people, who were as unready as +Jesus for any uprising against Rome, and who waited for God to show his +own hand in judgment, found in Jesus--come to seek and to save that which +was lost--something so contradictory of their idea of the celestial judge +that they could not easily think of him as a Messiah. Jesus was a puzzle +to the people. They were sure that he was a prophet; but if at any time +some were tempted to query, "Can this be the Son of David?" the +incredulous folk expected ever a negative reply. + +130. This was as Jesus wished it to be. An unreasoning enthusiasm could +only hinder his work. When his early cures in Capernaum stirred the ardent +feelings of the multitudes, he took occasion to withdraw to other towns +and allow popular feeling to cool. When later he found himself pressed +upon by crowds from all quarters of the land, by the sermon on the mount +he set them thinking on strange and highly spiritual things, far removed +from the thoughts of Zealots and apocalyptic dreamers. + +131. The manifest contradiction of popular Messianic ideas which Jesus +presented in his own person usually served to check undue ardor as long +as he was present. But when some demoniac proclaimed the high station of +Jesus, and thus seemed to the people to give supernatural testimony; or +when some one in need sought him apart from the multitudes, Jesus +frequently enjoined silence. These injunctions of silence are enigmas +until they are viewed as a part of Jesus' effort to keep control of +popular feeling. In his absence the people might dwell on his power and +easily come to imagine him to be what he was not and could not be. Jesus +was able by these means to restrain unthinking enthusiasm until the +multitudes whom he fed on the east side of the sea determined to force him +to do their will as a Messiah. Then he refused to follow where they +called, and that happened which would doubtless have happened at an +earlier time but for Jesus' caution,--the popular enthusiasm subsided, and +his active work with the common people was at an end. But he had held off +this crisis until there were a few who did not follow the popular +defection, but rather clung to him from whom they had heard the words of +eternal life (John vi. 68). + +132. Jesus' caution brings to light one aspect of his aim in the Galilean +ministry,--he sought to win acceptance for the truth he proclaimed. His +message as reported in the synoptic gospels was the near approach of the +kingdom of God. Any such proclamation was sure of eager hearing. At first +he seems to have been content to gather and interest the multitudes by +this preaching and the works which accompanied it. But he early took +occasion to state his ideas in the hearing of the multitudes, and in terms +so simple, so concerned with every-day life, so exacting as respects +conduct, and so lacking in the customary glowing picture of the future, +that the people could not mistake such a teacher for a simple fulfiller of +their ideas. In this early sermon in effect, and later with increasing +plainness, he set forth his doctrine of a kingdom of heaven coming not +with observation, present actually among a people who knew it not, like a +seed growing secretly in the earth, or leaven quietly leavening a lump of +meal. By word and deed, in sermon and by parable, he insisted on this +simple and every-day conception of God's rule among men. With Pharisee, +Zealot, and dreamer, he held that "the best is yet to be," yet all three +classes found their most cherished ideals set at nought by the new +champion of the soul's inner life in fellowship with the living God. In +all his teaching there was a claim of authority and a manifest +independence which indicate certainty on his part concerning his own +mission. Yet so completely is the personal question retired for the time, +that in his rebuke of the blasphemy of the Pharisees he took pains to +declare that it was not because they had spoken against the Son of Man, +that they were in danger, but because they had spoken against the Spirit +of God, whose presence was manifest in his works. He wished, primarily, to +win disciples to the kingdom of God. + +133. Yet Jesus was not indifferent in Galilee to what the people thought +about himself. The question at Caesarea Philippi shows more fully the aim +of his ministry. During all the period of the preaching of the kingdom he +never hesitated to assert himself whenever need for such self-assertion +arose. This was evident in his dealing with his pharisaic critics. He +rarely argued with them, and always assumed a tone of authority which was +above challenge, asserting that the Son of Man had authority to forgive +sins, was lord of the Sabbath, was greater than the temple or Jonah or +Solomon. Moreover, in his positive teaching of the new truth he assumed +such an authoritative tone that any who thought upon it could but remark +the extraordinary claim involved in his simple "I say unto you." He wished +also to win disciples to himself. + +134. The key to the ministry in Galilee is furnished in Jesus' answer to +the message from John the Baptist. John in prison had heard of the works +of his successor. Jesus did so much that promised a fulfilment of the +Messianic hope, yet left so much undone, contradicting in so many ways the +current idea of a Messiah by his studied avoidance of any demonstration, +that the older prophet felt a momentary doubt of the correctness of his +earlier conviction. It is in no way strange that he experienced a reaction +from that exalted moment of insight when he pointed out Jesus as the Lamb +of God, particularly after his restless activity had been caged within the +walls of his prison. Jesus showed that he did not count it strange, by his +treatment of John's quesestion and by his words about John after the +messengers had gone. Yet in his reply he gently suggested that the +question already had its answer if John would but look rightly for it. He +simply referred to the things that were being done before the eyes of all, +and asked John to form from them a conclusion concerning him who did them. +One aid he offered to the imprisoned prophet,--a word from the Book of +Isaiah (xxxv. 5f., lxi. 1f.),--and added a blessing for such as "should +find nothing to stumble at in him." Here Jesus emphasized his works, and +allowed his message to speak for itself; but he frankly indicated that he +expected people to pass from wonder at his ministry to an opinion about +himself. At Caesarea Philippi he showed to his disciples that this opinion +about himself was the significant thing in his eyes. Throughout the +ministry in Galilee, therefore, this twofold aim appears. Jesus would +first divert attention from himself to his message, in order that he might +win disciples to the kingdom of God as he conceived it. Having so attached +them to his idea of the kingdom, he desired to be recognized as that +kingdom's prince, the Messiah promised by God for his people. He retired +behind his message in order that men might be drawn to the truth which he +held dear, knowing that thus they would find themselves led captive to +himself in a willing devotion. + +135. This aim explains his retirement when popularity pressed, his +exacting teaching about the spirituality of the kingdom of God, and his +injunctions of silence. He wished to be known, to be thought about, to be +accepted as God's anointed, but he would have this only by a genuine +surrender to his leadership. His disciples must own him master and follow +him, however much he might disappoint their misconceptions. This aim, too, +explains his frank self-assertions and exalted personal claims in +opposition to official criticism. He would not be false to his own sense +of masterhood, nor allow people to think him bold when his critics were +away, and cowardly in their presence. Therefore, when needful, he invited +attention to himself as greater than the temple or as lord of the +Sabbath. This kind of self-assertion, however, served his purpose as well +as his customary self-retirement, for it forced people to face the +contradiction which he offered to the accepted religious ideas of their +leaders. + +136. The method which Jesus chose has already been repeatedly +indicated,--teaching and preaching on the one hand, and works of +helpfulness to men on the other. The character of the teaching of this +period is shown in three discourses,--the Sermon on the Mount, the +Discourse in Parables, and the Instructions to the Twelve. The sermon on +the mount is given in different forms in Matthew and Luke, that in Matthew +being evidently the more complete, even after deduction has been made of +those parts which Luke has assigned with high probability to a later time. +This address was spoken to the disciples of Jesus found among the +multitudes who flocked to him from all quarters. It opened with words of +congratulation for those who, characterized by qualities often despised, +were yet heirs of God's kingdom. The thought then passed to the +responsibility of such heirs of the kingdom for the help of a needy world. +Next, since much in the words and works of Jesus hitherto might have +suggested to men that he was indifferent to the older religion of his +people, he carefully explained that he came, not to set aside the old, but +to realize the spiritual idea for which it stood, by establishing a more +exacting standard of righteousness. This more exacting righteousness Jesus +illustrated by a series of restatements of the older law, and then by a +group of criticisms of current religious practice. The sermon closed with +warnings against complacent censoriousness in judging other men's +failures, and a solemn declaration of the vital seriousness of "these +sayings of mine." The righteousness required by this new law is not only +more exacting but unspeakably worthier than the old, being more simply +manifested in common life, and demanding more intimate filial fellowship +with the living God. + +137. The teachings included in the sermon by the first gospel, but placed +later by Luke, supplement the sermon by bidding God's child to lead a +trustful life, knowing that the heavenly Father cares for him. That Luke +has omitted much which from Matthew's account clearly belonged to the +original sermon may be explained by the fact that Gentile readers did not +share the interest which Jesus' hearers had, and which the readers of the +first gospel had, in the relation of the new gospel to the older law. +Hence the restatement of older commands and the criticism of current +practice was omitted. Similar to the teachings which the first gospel has +included in the sermon, are many which Luke has preserved in the section +peculiar to himself. It is not unlikely that they belong also to the +Galilean ministry. They urge the same sincere, reverent life in the sight +of God, the same trust in the heavenly Father, the same certainty of his +love and care; and they do not have that peculiar note of impending +judgment which entered into the teachings of Jesus after the confession at +Caesarea Philippi. + +138. In the story of Mark, which is reproduced in the first and third +gospels, the use of parable was first introduced in a way to attract the +attention of the disciples, after pharisaic opposition to Jesus had become +somewhat bitter and there was need of checking a too speedy culmination +of opposition. He chose at that time a form of parable which was enigmatic +to his disciples, and could but further puzzle hearers who had no sympathy +with him and his message. Mark (iv. 12) states that this perplexity was in +accordance with the purpose of Jesus. But it is equally clear that Jesus +meant to teach the teachable as well as to perplex the critical by these +illustrations, for in explaining the Sower he suggested that the disciples +should have understood it without explanation (Mark iv. 13). Many of +Jesus' parables, however, had no such enigmatic character, but were +intended simply to help his hearers to understand him. He made use of this +kind of teaching from first to last. The pictures of the wise and foolish +builders with which the sermon on the mount concludes show that it was not +the use of illustration which surprised the disciples in the parables +associated with the Sower, but his use of such puzzling illustrations. +Some of the parables of Luke's peculiar section may belong to the Galilean +ministry, and even to the earlier stages of it. These have none of the +enigmatic character; the parables of the last days of Jesus' life also +seem to have been simple and clear to his hearers. The Oriental mind +prefers the concrete to the abstract, and its teachers have ever made +large use of illustration. Jesus stands unique, not in that he used +parables, but in the simplicity and effective beauty of those which he +used. These illustrations, whether Jesus intended them for the moment to +enlighten or to confound, served always to set forth concretely some truth +concerning the relation of men to God, or concerning his kingdom and their +relation to it. The form of teaching was welcome to his hearers, and +served as one of the attractions to draw men to him. + +139. The first gospel assigns another extended discourse to this Galilean +period,--the Instructions to the Twelve. The mission of the twelve formed +a new departure as Jesus saw the Galilean crisis approaching. He sought +thereby to multiply his own work, and commissioned his disciples to heal +and preach as he was doing. The restriction of their field to Israel +(Matt. x. 5, 6) simply applied to them the rule he adopted for himself +during the Galilean period (Matt. xv. 24). Comparison with the accounts in +Mark and Luke, as well as the character of the instructions found in +Matthew, show that here the first evangelist has followed his habit of +gathering together teachings on the same general theme from different +periods in Jesus' life. Much in the tenth chapter of Matthew indicates +clearly that the ministry of Jesus had already passed the period of +popularity, and that his disciples could now look for little but scorn and +persecution. This was the situation at the end of Jesus' public life, and +parallel sayings are found in the record of the last week in Jerusalem. + +140. When the teaching of the sermon and the parables is compared with +Jesus' self-assertion in his replies to pharisaic criticism and blasphemy, +the difference is striking. Ordinarily he avoided calling attention to +himself, wishing men to form their opinion of him after they had learned +to know him as he was. Yet when one looks beneath the surface of his +teaching, the tone of authority which astonished the multitudes is +identical with the calm self-confidence which replied to pharisaic +censure: "The Son of Man hath authority on the earth to forgive sins." + +141. Jesus drew the multitudes after him not only by his teachings, but +also by his mighty works. He certainly was for his contemporaries a +wonder-worker and healer of disease, and, in order to appreciate the +impression which he made, the miracles recorded in the gospels must be +allowed to reveal what they can of his character. The mighty works which +enchained attention in Galilee were chiefly cures of disease, with +occasional exhibitions of power over physical nature,--such as the +stilling of the tempest and the feeding of the five thousand. The +significant thing about them is their uniform beneficence of purpose and +simplicity of method. Nothing of the spectacular attached itself to them. +Jesus repeatedly refused to the critical Pharisees a sign from heaven. +This was not because he disregarded the importance of signs for his +generation,--witness his appeal to his works in the reply to John (Matt. +xi. 4-6); but he felt that in his customary ministry to the needy +multitudes he had furnished signs in abundance, for his deeds both gave +evidence of heavenly power and revealed the character of the Father who +had sent him. + +142. One of the commonest of the ailments cured by Jesus is described in +the gospels as demoniac possession, the popular idea being that evil +spirits were accustomed to take up their abode in men, speaking with their +tongues and acting through their bodies, at the same time afflicting them +with various physical diseases. Six specific cures of such possession are +recorded in the story of the Galilean ministry, besides general references +to the cure of many that were possessed. Of these specific cases the +Gadarene demoniac shows symptoms of violent insanity; the boy cured near +Caesarea Philippi, those of epilepsy; in other cases the disease was more +local, showing itself in deafness, or blindness, or both. In the cures +recorded Jesus addressed the possessed with a command to the invading +demon to depart. He was ordinarily greeted, either before or after such a +command, with a loud outcry, often accompanied with a recognition of him +as God's Holy One. + +143. The record of such maladies and their cure is not confined to the New +Testament. The evil spirit which came upon King Saul is a similar case, +and Josephus tells of Jewish exorcists who cured possessed persons by the +use of incantations handed down from King Solomon. The early Christian +fathers frequently argued the truth of Christianity from the way in which +demons departed at the command of Christian exorcists, while in the middle +ages and down to modern times belief in demoniac possession has been +common, particularly among some of the more superstitious of the peasantry +in Europe. Moreover, from missionaries in China and other eastern lands it +is learned that diseases closely resembling the cases of possession +recorded in the New Testament are frequently met with, and are often cured +by native Christian ministers. + +144. The similarity of the symptoms of so-called possession to recognized +mental and physical derangements such as insanity, epilepsy, and hysteria, +suggests the conclusion that possession should be classed with other +ailments due to ill adjustment of the relations of the mental and physical +life. If this conclusion is valid, the idea of actual possession by evil +spirits becomes only an ancient effort to interpret the mysterious +symptoms in accordance with wide-spread primitive beliefs. This +explanation would doubtless be generally adopted were it not that it seems +to compromise either the integrity or the knowledge of Jesus. The gospels +plainly represent him as treating the supposed demoniac influence as real, +addressing in his cures not the invalid, but the invading demon. If he did +this knowing that the whole view was a superstition, was he true to his +mission to release mankind from its bondage to evil and sin? If he shared +the superstition of his time, had he the complete knowledge necessary to +make him the deliverer he claimed to be? These questions are serious and +difficult, but they form a part of the general problem of the extent of +Jesus' knowledge, and can be more intelligently discussed in connection +with that whole problem (sects. 249-251). It is reasonable to demand, +however, that any conclusion reached concerning the nature of possession +in the time of Jesus must be considered valid for similar manifestations +of disease in our own day. + +145. What astonished people in Jesus' cures was not so much that he healed +the sick as that he did it with such evidence of personal authority. His +cures and his teachings alike served to attract attention to himself and +to invite question as to who he could be. Yet a far more powerful means to +the end he had in view was the subtle, unobtrusive, personal influence +which without their knowledge knit the hearts of a few to himself. In +reality both his teaching and his cures were only means of +self-disclosure. His permanent work during this Galilean period was the +winning of personal friends. His chief agency in accomplishing his work +was what Renan somewhat too romantically has called his "charm." It was +that in him which drew to his side and kept with him the fishermen of +Galilee and the publican of Capernaum, during months of constant +disappointment of their preconceived religious ideas and Messianic hopes; +it was that which won the confidence of the woman who was a sinner, and +the constant devotion of Mary Magdalene and Susanna and the others who +followed him "and ministered to him of their substance." The outstanding +wonder of early Christianity is the complete transformation not only of +life but of established religious ideas by the personal impress of Jesus +on a Peter, a John, and a Paul. The secret of the new element of the +Christian religion--salvation through personal attachment to Jesus +Christ--is simply this personal power of the man of Nazareth. The +multitudes followed because they saw wonderful works or heard wonderful +words; many because they hoped at length to find in the new prophet the +champion of their hopes in deliverance from Roman bondage. But these +sooner or later fell away, disappointed in their desire to use the new +leader for their own ends. It was only because from out the multitudes +there were a few who could answer, "To whom shall we go? thou hast the +words of eternal life," when Jesus asked, "Will ye also go away?" that the +work in Galilee did not end in complete failure. These few had felt his +personal power, and they became the nucleus of a new religion of love to a +personal Saviour. + +146. The test of the personal attachment of the few came shortly after the +execution of John the Baptist by Antipas. Word of this tragedy was +brought to Jesus by John's disciples about the time that he and the twelve +returned to Capernaum from their tour of preaching. At the suggestion of +Jesus they withdrew to the eastern side of the lake in search of rest. It +is not unlikely that the little company also wished to avoid for the time +the territory of the tyrant who had just put John to death, for Jesus was +not yet ready for the crisis of his own life. Such a desire for seclusion +would be intensified by the continued impetuous enthusiasm of the +multitudes who flocked about him again in Capernaum. In fact, so insistent +was their interest in Jesus that they would not allow him the quiet he +sought, but followed around the lake in great numbers when they learned +that he had taken ship for the other side. He who came not to be +ministered unto but to minister could not repel the crowds who came to +him, and he at once "welcomed them, and spake to them of the kingdom of +God, and them that had need of healing he healed" (Luke ix. 11). The day +having passed in this ministry, he multiplied the small store of bread and +fish brought by his disciples in order to feed the weary people. This work +of power seemed to some among the multitudes to be the last thing needed +to prove that Jesus was to be their promised deliverer, and they "were +about to come and take him by force and make him king" (John vi. 15), when +he withdrew from them and spent the night in prayer. + +147. This sudden determination on the part of the multitudes to force the +hand of Jesus was probably due to the prevalence of an idea, found also in +the later rabbinic writers, that the Messiah should feed his people as +Moses had provided them manna in the desert. The rebuff which Jesus +quietly gave them did not cool their ardor, until on the following day, in +the synagogue in Capernaum, he plainly taught them that they had quite +missed the significance of his miracle. They thought of loaves and +material sustenance. He would have had them find in these a sign that he +could also supply their spirits' need, and he insisted that this, and this +alone, was his actual mission. From the first the popular enthusiasm had +had to ignore many contradictions of its cherished notions. But his power +and the indescribable force of his personality had served hitherto to hold +them to a hope that he would soon discard the perplexing role which he had +chosen for the time to assume, and take up avowedly the proper work of the +Messiah. This last refusal to accept what seemed to them to be his evident +duty caused a revulsion in the popular feeling, and "many of his disciples +turned back and walked no more with him" (John vi. 66). The time of +sifting had come. Jesus had known that such a rash determination to make +him king was possible to the Galilean multitudes, and that whenever it +should come it must be followed by a disillusionment. Now the open +ministry had run its course. As the multitudes were turning back and +walking no more with him, he turned to the twelve with the question, "Will +ye also go away?" and found that with them his method had borne fruit. +They clung to him in spite of disillusionment, for in him they had found +what was better than their preconceptions. + +148. It is the fourth gospel that shows clearly the critical significance +of this event. The others tell nothing of the sudden determination of the +multitude, nor of the revulsion of feeling that followed Jesus' refusal to +yield to their will. Yet these other gospels indicate in their narratives +that from this time on Jesus avoided the scenes of his former labors, and +show that when from time to time he returned to the neighborhood of +Capernaum he was met by such a spirit of hostility that he withdrew again +immediately to regions where he and his disciples could have time for +quiet intercourse. + +149. The months of toil in Galilee show results hardly more significant +than the grain of mustard seed or the little leaven. Popular enthusiasm +had risen, increased, reached its climax, and waned. Official opposition +had early been aroused, and had continued with a steadily deepened +intensity. The wonderful teaching with authority, and the signs wrought on +them that were sick, had been as seed sown by the wayside or in thorny or +in stony ground, except for the little handful of hearers who had felt the +personal power of Jesus and had surrendered to it, ready henceforth to +follow where he should lead, whether or not it should be in a path of +their choice. These, however, were the proof that those months had been a +time of rewarded toil. + + + + +IV + +The Ministry in Galilee--The New Lesson + + + +150. With the crisis in Capernaum the ministry in Galilee may be said in +one sense to have come to an end. Yet Jesus did not immediately go up to +Jerusalem. Once and again he was found in or near Capernaum, while the +time between these visits was spent in regions to the north and northwest. +In fact, the disciples were far from ready for the trial their loyalty was +to meet before they had seen the end of the opposition to their Lord. The +time intervening between the collapse of popularity and Jesus' final +departure from Galilee may well be thought of, then, as a time of further +discipline of the faith of his followers and of added instruction +concerning the truth for which their Master stood. The length of this +supplementary period in Galilee is not definitely known. It extended from +the Passover to about the feast of Tabernacles (April to October, see John +vi. 4 and vii. 2). The record of what Jesus did and said in this time is +meagre, only enough being reported to show that it was a time of repeated +withdrawals from Galilee and of private instruction for the disciples. + +151. The disciples were trained in faith by further exhibitions of the +complete break between their Master and the leaders of the people. This +break appeared most clearly, soon after the feeding of the multitudes, in +his reply to a criticism of the disciples for disregard of pharisaic +traditions concerning hand-washing (Mark vii. 1-23). The critics insisted +on the sacredness of their traditions. Jesus in reply scored them for +disregard for the plain demands of God's law, and with a word freed men +from bondage to the whole ritual of ceremonial cleanness and uncleanness +(Mark vii. 19), thus attacking Judaism in its citadel. + +152. It was immediately after this that he withdrew with his disciples to +the regions of Tyre. On his return a little later to the west side of the +sea of Galilee he was met by hostile Pharisees with a demand for a sign +(Mark viii. 11-13), and after refusing to satisfy the unbelieving +challenge,--signs in plenty having been before their eyes since the +opening of his work among them,--he and his disciples withdrew again from +Galilee towards Caesarea Philippi. As they went on their way, Jesus +distinctly warned them against the influence of their leaders, religious +and political (Mark viii. 14f.). So far as our records tell us Jesus was +but once again in Capernaum. Then he was met with the demand that he pay +the temple tax (Matt. xvii. 24-27). This tax was usually collected just +before the Passover. As this last visit to Capernaum was probably not far +from the feast of Tabernacles, Jesus seems to have been in arrears. This +may have been due to his absence from Capernaum at the time of the +collection. The prompt answer of Peter may indicate that he knew that in +other years Jesus had paid this tax, as it is altogether probable that he +did. The question, however, implies official suspicion that Jesus was +seeking to evade payment, and exhibits further the straining of the +relations between him and the Jewish leaders. The conversation of Jesus +with Peter served to show his clear consciousness of superiority, and was +a further summons to the disciples to choose between him and his +opponents. + +153. Within the limits of the Holy Land the faith of the disciples had +been constantly tested by the increasing opposition between their master +and their old leaders. When the little company withdrew to Gentile +regions, however, Jesus had regard for their Jewish feeling. The time +would come when he would send them forth to make disciples of all the +nations. For the present he made it his business to nurture their faith in +him, and when appealed to for help by one of these foreigners, he refused +to "take the children's bread and cast it to the dogs" (Mark vii. 27). +Jesus had assumed a different attitude to the Samaritans before the +opening of his work in Galilee, and in general had shown ready sympathy +for all in distress. In fact it seems as if he welcomed the Syrophoenician +woman's great faith with a feeling of relief from a restriction that he +had felt it wise to adopt for his work in Phoenicia. It appears from his +later attitude in the Gentile regions of the Decapolis (Mark vii. 31-37; +Matt. xv. 21-31) that, having once shown his regard for the limitations of +his disciples' faith in the case of the Syrophoenician, he felt no longer +obliged to check his natural readiness to help the needy who sought him +out. Although in one instance, for reasons no longer known to us, Jesus +charged a man whom he had cured to keep it secret (Mark vii. 32-37), in +general his work in these heathen regions seems, after the visit to +Phoenicia, to have been quite unrestrained, and to have produced the same +enthusiasm that had earlier brought the multitudes to him in Galilee (Mark +viii. 1f.). + +154. This continued activity of healing must have served greatly to +strengthen the determination of the disciples to cling to Jesus, let the +leaders say what they would. We can only conjecture what various teachings +filled the days, and what personal fellowship the disciples had with him +who spake as never man spake. There was need for advance in the faith of +these loyal friends. Their enthusiastic declaration when the multitudes +turned away could easily have been followed by reaction. Each new +exhibition of the irrevocableness of the break between Jesus and the +leaders was a severe test of their loyalty. These weeks of withdrawal were +doubtless filled, therefore, with new proofs that Jesus had the words of +eternal life. + +155. Before he put to his disciples the crucial question, he who knew what +was in man (John ii. 25) was confident that they were ready for it. It was +after the rebuff in Galilee, when the unbelieving Pharisees had again +demanded a sign of his authority, and after he had definitely warned the +disciples against the influence of their leaders, that Jesus led his +little company far to the north towards the slopes of Hermon. There, near +the recently built Caesarea Philippi, Jesus plainly asked his disciples +what the people thought of him (Mark viii. 27-30). We have seen how +gradually sentiment in Galilee concerning the new teacher crystallized +until, from thinking him a prophet, the people, first timidly, then +boldly, concluded that such a teacher and worker of signs must be the +promised king. We have seen also how the popular estimate changed when +Jesus refused to be guided by the popular will. Now, after the lapse of a +few weeks, in answer to his inquiry concerning the common opinion of him, +he is told that the people look on him as a prophet, in whom the spirit of +the men of old had been revived; but not a whisper remains of the former +readiness to hail him as the Messiah. It was in the face of such a +definite revulsion in the popular feeling, in the face, too, of the +increasing hostility of all the great in the nation, that Peter answered +for the twelve that they believed Jesus to be the Messiah, God's appointed +Deliverer of his people (Matt. xvi. 16 ff.). In form this confession was +no more than Nathanael had rendered on his first meeting with Jesus (John +i. 49), and was practically the same as the report made by Andrew to Simon +his brother, and by Philip to Nathanael (John i. 41, 45). In both idea and +expression the reply to Jesus' question, "Will ye also go away?" (John vi. +68, 69), was virtually equivalent to this later confession of Peter. Yet +Jesus found in Peter's answer at Caesarea Philippi something so significant +and remarkable that he declared that the faith that could answer thus +could spring only from a heavenly source (Matt. xvi. 17). The early +confessions were in fact no more than expressions of more or less +intelligent expectation that Jesus would fulfil the confessor's hopes. The +confession at Capernaum followed one of Jesus' mightiest exhibitions of +power, and was given before the disciples had had time to consider the +extent of the defection from their Master. Here at Caesarea Philippi, +however, the word was spoken immediately after an acknowledgment that the +people had no more thought of finding in Jesus their Messiah. It was +spoken after the disciples had had repeated evidence of the determined +hostility of the leaders to Jesus. All the disappointment he had given to +their cherished ideas was emphasized by the isolation in which the little +company now found itself. One after another their ideas of how a Messiah +should act and what he should be had received contradiction in what Jesus +was and did. Yet after the weeks of withdrawal from Galilee, Peter could +only in effect assert anew what he had declared at Capernaum,--that Jesus +had the words of eternal life. It was a faith chastened by perplexity, and +taught at length to follow the Lord let him lead where he would. It was an +actual surrender to his mastery over thought and life. Here at length +Jesus had won what he had been seeking during all his work in Galilee,--a +corner-stone on which to build up the new community of the kingdom of God. +Peter was the first to confess openly to this simple surrender to the full +mastery of Jesus. He was the first stone in the foundation of the new +"building of God." + +156. In his commendation of Peter Jesus revealed the secret of his method +in the work which, because of this confession, he could now proceed to do +more rapidly. He cuts loose utterly from the method of the scribes. He, +the new teacher, commits to them no body of teaching which they are to +give to others as the key to eternal life. The salvation they are to +preach is a salvation by personal attachment; that is, by faith. The rock +on which he will build his church is personal attachment, faith that is +ready to leave all and follow him. Peter, not the substance of his +confession, was its corner-stone, but Peter, as the first clear confessor +of a faith that is ready to leave all, a faith whose very nature it is to +be contagious, and associate with itself others of "like precious faith." +His faith was as yet meagre, as he showed at once; but it was genuine, the +surrender of his heart to his Lord's guidance and control. This was the +distinctive mark of the new religious life inaugurated by Jesus of +Nazareth. + +157. If anything were needed to prove that the idea that he was the +Messiah was no new thought to Jesus, it could be found in the new lesson +which he at once began to teach his disciples. The confession of Peter +indicated to him simply that the first stage in his work had been +accomplished. He immediately began to prepare the disciples for the end +which for some time past he had seen to be inevitable. He taught them more +than that his death was inevitable; he declared that it was divinely +necessary that he should be put to death as a result of the hostility of +the Jews to him ("the Son of Man must suffer"). All the contradictions +which he had offered to the Messianic ideas of his disciples paled into +insignificance beside this one. When they saw how he failed to meet the +hopes that were commonly held, they needed only to urge themselves to +patience, expecting that in time he would cast off the strange mask and +take to himself his power and reign. But it was too much for the late +confessed and very genuine faith of Peter to hear that the Messiah must +die. So unthinkable was the idea, that he assumed that Jesus had become +unduly discouraged by the relentlessness of the opposition which had +driven him first out of Judea and later out of Galilee. Accordingly Peter +sought to turn his Master's mind to a brighter prospect, asserting that +his forebodings could not be true. It is hard for us to conceive the chill +of heart which must have followed the glow of his confession when he heard +the stern rebuke of Jesus, who found in Peter's later words the voice of +the Evil One, as before in his confession he had recognized the Spirit of +God. + +158. The sternness of Jesus' rebuke escapes extravagance only in view of +the fact that the words of Peter had greatly affected Jesus himself. At +the outset of his public life he had faced the difficulty of doing the +Messiah's work in his Father's way, and had withstood the temptation to +accommodate himself to the ideas of his world, declaring allegiance to God +alone (Matt. iv. 10). Yet once and again in the course of his ministry he +showed that this allegiance cost him much. Luke reports a saying in which +Jesus confessed that, in view of this prospect of death which Peter was +opposing so eagerly, he was greatly "straitened" (xii. 50), and at the +near approach of the end "his soul was exceeding sorrowful" (Mark xiv. +34). It should never be forgotten that Jesus was a Jew, and heir to all +the Messianic ideas of his people. In these, glory, not rejection and +death, was to be the Messiah's portion. That he was always superior to +current expectations is no sign that he did not feel their force. They +quite mistake who find the bitterness of Jesus' "cup" simply in his +physical shrinking from suffering. The temptation was ever with him to +find some other way to the goal of his work than that which led through +death. What Peter said hid a force greater than any word of the +disciple's. It voiced the crucial temptation of Jesus' life. The answer +addressed to Peter showed that his words had drawn the thought of Jesus +away from the disciple to that earlier temptation which was never absent +from him more than "for a season" (Luke iv. 13). + +159. Jesus was not content with a mere rebuke of his impulsive disciple. +In his first announcement of his death as necessary he had also declared +that it would not be a tragedy, but would be followed by a resurrection. +This the disciples could not appreciate, as they found the idea of the +Messiah's death unthinkable. Jesus, however, saw in it the general law, +that life must ever win its goal by disregard of itself, and called his +disciples also to walk in the path of self-sacrifice. In order that the +new lesson might not quite overwhelm the yet feeble faith of these +followers, Jesus assured them that after his death and resurrection he +would come as Messianic Judge and fulfil the hopes which his prediction of +death seemed to blot out utterly (Mark viii. 34 to ix. 1). + +160. That this new lesson was a difficult one for master as well as +disciple seems to be shown by the experience which came a few days later +to Jesus and his three closest friends. He had withdrawn with them to a +"high mountain" for prayer (Luke ix. 28f.). While he prayed the light of +heaven came into his face, and his disciples were granted a vision of him +in celestial glory, conversing with Moses and Elijah, representatives of +Old Testament law and prophecy. The theme of the discourse was that death +which had so troubled the disciples, and which then and later weighed +heavily on Jesus' own spirit (Luke ix. 31). At the conclusion of the +vision came a divine injunction to hear him who now was superseding law +and prophets. The effect of the transfiguration can only be inferred. It +doubtless brought strengthening to Jesus for his difficult task (compare +Heb. v. 7), and at least a silencing of remonstrance when he spoke again +to his disciples of his approaching death. This he did while the little +company was making its way back towards Capernaum (Mark ix. 30-32), and +repeatedly later before the end came (Mark x. 32-34; Matt. xxvi. 1f.). + +161. On Jesus' return from the mountain, he was met by the despairing plea +of a father and healed his epileptic son, out of whom the disciples were +unable to cast the demon (Mark ix. 14-29; compare vi. 7, 13). It may have +been the shock which the new lesson had given the disciples that accounted +for the reproof of their lack of faith. The new evidence of Jesus' power, +coupled with this reproof, seems to have restored their confidence in him. +Perhaps, too, there was something contagious about the spirit of hope with +which the three came from their vision of the Master's glory. For, +although they were not free to tell what they had seen (Mark ix. 9), they +could not have concealed the fact that their faith had received great +encouragement. Whatever the cause, hope revived for the disciples, for on +the way back to Capernaum a dispute arose among them concerning personal +precedence in the kingdom which their Master should soon set up. In this +rapid reaction from unbelief to faith the disciples seem to have forgotten +the lesson of self-denial recently given them (Mark viii. 34, 35). In +Peter's confession the corner-stone of the church was laid; but the +superstructure was yet far out of sight. Although his own soul, taking its +way down into the valley of shadows, might rightly have asked for sympathy +and complained of its lack, Jesus simply set a little child in the midst +of them, and taught them again the first lessons of faith,--gentle +humility and trust. Thereby he rebuked the spirit of rivalry and asked of +his disciples a generous, unselfish, and forgiving spirit (Matt, xviii. +1-35). + +162. It was possibly at this time, certainly near the end of the Galilean +ministry, that Jesus was approached by his own brethren, who urged him to +try to win the capital. Their attitude was not one of indifference, though +clearly not one of actual faith in his claim (John vii. 2-5). They seem to +have felt that Jesus had not made adequate effort to secure a following in +Jerusalem, and that he could not hope for success in his work if he +continued to confine his attention to Galilee. Jesus knew conditions in +Jerusalem far better than they did, and had no idea as yet of resuming a +general ministry there. He therefore dismissed the suggestion, and left +his brethren to go up to the feast disappointed in their desire that he +make a demonstration at that time. Yet Jesus still yearned over Jerusalem. +He knew in what organized opposition a general demonstration would result. +There were some, however, in the capital who had real faith in him. His +repeated efforts to win Jerusalem mean nothing if we do not recognize that +he hoped against hope that many of the people might yet turn and let him +lead them. With some such purpose, therefore, he went up a little later +without ostentation, and quietly appeared in the temple teaching. The +effect of this unannounced arrival was that the opposition was not ready +for him. The multitude was compelled to form an opinion of him for itself, +and he had opportunity to make his own impression for a time, +independently of official suggestion as to what ought to be thought of +him. This course resulted in a division of sentiment among the people, so +much so that when the leaders, both secular and religious, sought to +compass his arrest, the officers sent to take Jesus were themselves +entranced by his teaching. In spite of the wish of the leaders Jesus +continued to teach, and many of the people began to think of him with +favor. When, however, he tried to lead them on to become "disciples +indeed," they took offence, and showed that they were not ready yet to +follow him. This effort to "gather the children of Jerusalem" resulted in +new proof that they preferred his death to his message (John vii. 2 to +viii. 59). + +163. Interesting evidence of the fact that "Jesus did many other signs +which are not written" in our accepted gospels is found in the story of +his dealing with an adulteress whom the Pharisees brought to him for +judgment (John vii. 53 to viii. 11). This narrative had no secure place in +any of the gospels in the earliest days, yet was so highly regarded that +men would not let it go. Hence in the manuscripts which contain it, it is +found in various places. Some give it in Luke after chapter xxi., some at +the end of the Gospel of John, one placing it after John vii. 36. Many +considerations combine to prove that it was no part of the Gospel of John, +but as many show that it preserves a true incident in the ministry of +Jesus. In scene it belongs to the temple, therefore in time to one of the +Jerusalem visits. To which of those visits it should he assigned is not +now discoverable. The ancient copyists who assigned it to this feast of +Tabernacles, chose as well as later students can. If the incident belongs +to this visit, it illustrates the patience and the keen insight of Jesus +in his effort to win self-satisfied Jerusalem. + +164. John is silent concerning the doings of Jesus after the feast of +Tabernacles. In x. 22 he notes that Jesus was at Jerusalem at the feast of +Dedication, which followed two months later. It seems probable that after +his hurried and private journey to the feast of Tabernacles (John vii. 10) +he returned to Galilee and gathered to himself again the little company of +his loyal followers, preparatory to that final journey to Jerusalem which +should bring the end foreseen, unless, perchance, Israel should yet repent +and turn unto the Lord. As the shadow deepened over his own life, and the +persistency of the unbelief of his people appeared more and more clearly, +the teachings of Jesus took on a new note of tragedy which was not +characteristic of the earlier preaching in Galilee. Even when his topic +was similar and his treatment of it not unlike some earlier discourse, +there appeared in it here and there a warning of impending judgment. This +is seen as early as the reply to the criticism of the disciples for +disregard of traditions (Matt. xv. 13f.). Many discourses in the section +peculiar to Luke show by the presence of this note of doom that they +belong to this later time rather than to the Galilean period proper. (See +the table prefixed to Chapter V.) + +165. Two years had nearly passed since Jesus withdrew from Judea to start +his ministry anew in a different region and following a different method. +The fruit of that ministry was small, but significant. His proclamation of +the coming kingdom and his call to a deeper righteousness, coupled as they +were with his works of heavenly power, had won at first an enthusiastic +following. Realizing that an uncontrolled enthusiasm would thwart his +purpose to introduce a kingdom of the spirit, Jesus had kept his Messianic +claim in the background, seeking first to win disciples to the kingdom +that he was proclaiming. Yet emphasize his message as he would, he could +not conceal his personal significance. In fact he wished by winning +disciples to his doctrine of the kingdom to attach followers to himself, +the bearer of the words of eternal life. The great development of popular +enthusiasm did not deceive him, nor did he hesitate, when the multitude +would force him to do its will, to show clearly how far he was from being +a fulfiller of their desires. By successive disappointments of the popular +ideas he sifted his followers until a few were ready to follow him +whithersoever he might lead. With these he allowed time for the fact of +his unpopularity to appear, giving them opportunity to consider the +relentless hostility of their national leaders to the teacher from +Galilee. Then when the time was ripe he drew from the loyal few their +declaration that they would follow him in spite of disappointments and +unpopularity, their confession that he had come to be to them more than +their cherished preconceptions, that he had won the mastery over their +thought and life. He began then to prepare them for the end he had long +foreseen, and at length, after giving them time for that perplexing +mystery to find place in their hearts, he was ready to move on toward the +crisis which he knew his public appearance in Jerusalem would precipitate. +Before setting out on this journey his desire still to seek to win +Jerusalem, if perchance it would repent, led him to visit the capital +unannounced at the feast of Tabernacles. This taught him that, however +ready some might be superficially to believe in him, he could as yet win +in Jerusalem only hatred and plots against his life, and he returned to +his faithful friends in Galilee. + + Outline of Events in the Journey through Perea to Jerusalem + + + The final departure from Galilee--Matt. xix. 1, 2; viii. 19-22; Mark x. + 1; Luke ix. 51-62. + + The mission of the seventy--Matt. xi. 20-30; Luke x. 1-24. + + The visit to the feast of Dedication--John ix. 1 to x. 39. + + Possibly at this time: The parable of the Good Samaritan--Luke x. + 25-37. The visit to Mary and Martha--Luke x. 38-42. + + Return to Perea--John x. 40-42. + + The visit to Bethany and the raising of Lazarus--John xi. 1-46. + + The withdrawal to Ephraim--John xi. 47-54. + + Events connected with the last journey to Jerusalem, which cannot be + more definitely located: + + The question whether few are saved--Luke xiii. 22-30. + + Reply to the warning against Herod, probably near the close--Luke xiii. + 31-35. + + The cure of ten lepers--Luke xvii. 11-19. + + The question of the Pharisees concerning divorce--Matt. xix. 3-12; Mark + x. 2-12. + + The blessing of little children--Matt. xix. 13-15; Mark x. 13-16; Luke + xviii. 15-17. + + The question of the rich young ruler--Matt. xix. 16 to xx. 16; Mark x. + 17-31; Luke xviii. 18-30. + + The third prediction of death and resurrection--Matt xx. 17-19; Mark x. + 32-34; Luke xviii. 31-34. + + The ambitious request of the sons of Zebedee--Matt. xx. 20-28; Mark x. + 35-45. + + The last stage, Jericho to Jerusalem: + + The blind men near Jericho--Matt. xx. 29-34; Mark x. 46-52; Luke xviii. + 35-43. + + The visit to Zacchaeus--Luke xix. 1-10. + + The parable of the pounds (minae)--Luke xix. 11-28. Events and + discourses found in Luke ix. 51 to xviii. 14, which probably belong + after the confession of Peter, and very likely to some stage of the + journey to Jerusalem: + + Woes against the Pharisees, uttered at a Pharisee's table--Luke xi. + 37-54. + + Warnings against the spirit of pharisaism--Luke xii. 1-59. + + Comment on the slaughter of Galileans by Pilate--Luke xiii. 1-9. + + Discourse on counting the cost of discipleship--Luke xiv. 25-35. + + Discourse on the coming of the kingdom--Luke xvii. 20-37. + + Parable of the Unjust Judge--Luke xviii. 1-8. + + Parable of the Pharisee and the Publican--Luke xviii. 9-14. + + + + +V + +The Journey through Perea to Jerusalem + + + +166. The fourth gospel says that after the visit to Jerusalem at the feast +of Dedication Jesus withdrew beyond Jordan to the place where John at the +first was baptizing (x. 40). Matthew and Mark also say that at the close +of the ministry in Galilee Jesus departed and came into the borders of +Judea and beyond Jordan, and that in this new region the multitudes again +flocked to him, and he resumed his ministry of teaching (Matt. xix. 1f.; +Mark x. 1). What he did and taught at this time is not shown at all by +John, and only in scant fashion by the other two. They tell of a +discussion with the Pharisees concerning divorce (Mark x. 2-12); of the +welcome extended by Jesus to certain little children (Mark x. 13-16); of +the disappointment of a rich young ruler, who wished to learn from Jesus +the way of life, but loved better his great possessions (Mark x. 17-31); +of a further manifestation of the unlovely spirit of rivalry among the +disciples in the request of James and John for the best places in the +kingdom (Mark x. 35-45),--a request following in the records directly +after another prediction by Jesus of his death and resurrection (Mark x. +32-34). Then, after a visit to Jericho (Luke xviii. 35 to xix. 28), these +records come into coincidence with John in the account of the Messianic +entry into Jerusalem just before the last Passover. + +167. The fourth gospel tells in addition of a considerable activity of +Jesus in and near Jerusalem during this period. In making the journey +beyond Jordan start from Jerusalem (x. 40), John shows that Jesus must +have returned to the capital after his withdrawal from the feast of +Tabernacles. When and how this took place is not indicated. Later, after +his retirement from the feast of Dedication Jesus hastened at the summons +of his friends from beyond Jordan to Bethany when Lazarus died (xi. 1-7). +From Bethany he went not to the other side of Jordan again, but to Ephraim +(xi. 54), a town on the border between Judea and Samaria, and from there +he started towards Jerusalem when the Passover drew near. This record of +John has, as Dr. Sanday has recently remarked (HastBD II. 630), so many +marks of verisimilitude that it must be accepted as a true tradition. It +demands thus that in our conception of the last journey from Galilee room +be found for several excursions to Jerusalem or its neighborhood. One of +these at least--to the feast of Dedication (x. 22)--represents another +effort to "gather the children of Jerusalem." While not without success, +for at least the blind man restored by Jesus gave him the full faith he +sought (ix. 35-38), it showed with fuller clearness the determined +hostility to Jesus of the influential class (x. 39). + +168. It has been customary to find in the long section peculiar to Luke +(ix. 51 to xviii. 14) a fuller account of the Perean ministry, as it has +been called. For it opens with a final departure from Galilee, and comes +at its close into parallelism with the record of Matthew and Mark. Yet +some parts of this section in Luke belong in the earlier Galilean +ministry. The blasphemy of the Pharisees (xi. 14-36) is clearly identical +with the incident recorded in Mark iii. 22-30, and Matt. xii. 22-45; while +several incidents and discourses (see outline prefixed to Chapter III.) +bear so plainly the marks of the ministry before the revulsion of popular +favor, that it is easiest to think of them as actually belonging to the +earlier time, but assigned by Luke to this peculiar section because he +found no clear place offered for them in the record of Mark. Not a little, +however, of what Luke records here manifestly belongs to the time when +Jesus referred openly to his rejection by the Jewish people. The note of +tragedy characteristic of later discourses appears in the replies of Jesus +to certain would-be disciples (ix. 57-62), and in his warning that his +followers count the cost of discipleship (xiv. 25-35). The woes spoken at +a Pharisee's table (xi. 37-52), the warning to the disciples against +pharisaism (xii. 1-12), and the encouragement of the "little flock" (xii. +22-34), with many other paragraphs from this part of the gospel (see +outline at the head of this chapter), evidently were spoken at the time +of the approaching end. Some narratives reflect the neighborhood of +Jerusalem, and naturally corroborate the indications in the fourth gospel +that Jesus was repeatedly at the capital during this time. The parable of +the good Samaritan, for instance, must have been spoken in Judea, else why +choose the road from Jerusalem to Jericho for the illustration? The visit +to Mary and Martha shows Jesus at Bethany, and the parable of the Pharisee +and the Publican, naming the temple as the place of prayer, belongs +naturally to Judea. + +169. The effort to find the definite progress of events in this part of +Luke has not been successful. There are three hints of movement towards +Jerusalem,--the introductory mention of the departure from Galilee (ix. +51); a statement that Jesus went on his way through cities and villages, +journeying on unto Jerusalem (xiii. 22); and again a reference to passing +through the midst of Samaria and Galilee on the way to Jerusalem (xvii. +11). The attempt to make the third of these belong actually to the last +stages of the final journey seems artificial. Confessedly the expression +"through the midst of Samaria and Galilee" is obscure. It is much easier +to understand, however, if the journey so described is identified with the +visit to Samaria with which the departure from Galilee opened. It seems +probable that Luke found these records of events and teachings in Jesus' +life, and was unable to learn exactly their connection in time and place, +so placed them after the close of the Galilean story and before the +account of the passion, much as later some copyist found the story of the +adulteress (John vii. 53 to viii. 11), and, certain that it was a true +incident, gave it a place in connection with the visit to the feast of +Tabernacles (perhaps influenced by John viii. 15). It must always be +remembered that the earliest apostolic writing--Matthew's Logia--probably +consisted of just such disconnected records (see sects. 28, 42), and that, +as Juelicher (Einleitung i. d. NT. 235) has said, the early church was not +interested in _when_ Jesus said or did anything. Its interest was in +_what_ he said and did. + +170. The time of the departure from Galilee for Jerusalem may be set with +much probability not long before the feast of the Dedication in December; +for at that feast Jesus was again in Jerusalem, and from it he returned to +Perea (John x. 22, 40-42). He started southward through Samaria (Luke ix. +51 ff.), and probably in connection with the early stages of the journey +he sent out the seventy "into every city and place whither he himself was +about to come" (Luke x. 1). It is not unlikely that, after the sending out +of these heralds, he went with a few disciples to make one more effort to +turn the heart of Jerusalem to himself (John ix., x.). It is impossible to +determine whither the seventy were sent. The "towns and cities" whither +Jesus was about to come may have included some from all portions of the +land, not excepting Judea. The matter must be left in considerable +obscurity. This, however, may be said, that the reasons offered for +holding that the story of the sending out of the seventy is only a +"doublet" of the mission of the twelve are not conclusive (see sect. A +68). The connection in Luke of the woes against Capernaum, Bethsaida, and +Chorazin with the instruction of the seventy is very natural, and marks +this mission as belonging to the close of the Galilean period, while the +mission of the twelve belongs to the height of Jesus' popularity. + +171. Our knowledge of Jesus' visit to the feast of Dedication is due to +John's interest in the cure at about that time of one born blind (John +ix., x.). The prejudice of the sanhedrists who excommunicated the man for +his loyalty to Jesus led him in indignation to contrast their method of +caring for God's "sheep" with his own love and sympathy and genuine +ministry to their needs. He saw clearly that his course must end in death, +unless a great change should come over his enemies; yet, as the Good +Shepherd, he was ready to lay down his life for the sheep, rather than +leave them to the heartlessness of leaders who cared only for themselves +(x. 11-18). The critics of Jesus could not, or would not, understand his +charge against them, and accused him of madness for his extraordinary +claims. There were some, however, who could not credit the notion that +Jesus had a devil (John x. 21). It is possible that it was at this time +that the lawyer questioned him about the breadth of interpretation to be +given to the word "neighbor" in the law of love, and was answered by the +parable of the Good Samaritan (Luke x. 25-37). Possibly the parable of the +Pharisee and the Publican (Luke xviii. 9-14) belongs also to this time. In +general, however, the visit proved anew that Jerusalem was in no mood to +accept Jesus (John x. 24-39). His enemies sought to draw from him a +declaration of his claim to be the Messiah, and Jesus appealed to his +works, asserting that only their incorrigible prejudice prevented their +recognizing his claims. He added that his Father, with whom he was ever in +perfect accord, had drawn some faithful followers to him, and thereupon, +angered by his claim to close kinship with God, they appealed to the rough +logic of violence (John x. 31-39; compare viii. 59). + +172. After this added attempt to win Jerusalem Jesus withdrew to the +region beyond Jordan, where John had carried on his ministry to the eager +multitudes. Here he anew attracted great attention, causing people to +contrast his ministry with the less remarkable work of John, and to +acknowledge that John's testimony to him was true (John x. 40-42). +Possibly it was in this place that the seventy found Jesus when they +returned to report the success of their mission (Luke x. 17-24), for the +thanksgiving which Jesus rendered for the faith of the common people in +contrast with the unbelief of the "wise and prudent" might well express +his feeling after the fresh evidence he had at the feast of Dedication +that Jerusalem would none of his mission. The invitation to all the heavy +laden to take his yoke illustrates, though under another figure, his claim +to be the Good Shepherd (Matt. xi. 28-30). We have no means of knowing how +much more of what the gospels assign to the last journey to Jerusalem +should be put in connection with this sojourn across the Jordan. The +multitudes that came to him there may have included the Pharisees who +questioned him about divorce (Mark x. 2-12), and the young ruler who loved +his great possessions (Mark x. 17-31), as well as the parents who eagerly +sought the Lord's blessing for their children (Mark x. 13-16). Some parts +of Luke's narrative seem to belong still later in this journey, yet such a +section as the reply of Jesus to the report of Pilate's slaughter of the +Galileans (xiii. 1-9), or the parable of the Great Supper (xiv. 15-24), is +suitable to any stage of it. + +173. This sojourn on the other side of Jordan was brought to a close by +the summons to come to the aid of his friends in Bethany (John xi.). It is +not strange that the disciples feared his return to Judea, nor that Jesus +did not hesitate when he recognized the call of duty as well as of +friendship. In no recorded miracle of Jesus is his power more signally set +forth, yet here more clearly than anywhere else he is represented as +dependent on his Father in his exercise of that power. The words of Jesus +at the grave (John xi. 41, 42) show that he was confident of the +resurrection of Lazarus, because he had prayed and was sure he was heard. +It may be that his delay after hearing of the sickness of his friend (xi. +6) was a time of waiting for answer, and that this explains his confidence +of safety when the time came for him to expose himself again to the +hostility of Judea. Jesus indicated not only that on this occasion he had +help from above in doing his miracles, but that it was the rule in his +life to seek such help and guidance (xi. 42). In fact, at a later time he +ascribed all his works to the Father abiding in him (John xiv. 10; compare +x. 25). The effect of the resurrection of Lazarus was such as to intensify +the determination of the leaders in Jerusalem--both Pharisees and +Sadducees--to get rid of Jesus as dangerous to the quiet of the nation +(John xi. 47-54). In this it simply served to fix a determination already +present (John vii. 25, 32; viii. 59; x. 31, 39). The miracle does not +appear in John as the cause of the apprehension of Jesus, but rather as +one influence leading to it. It was indeed the total contradiction between +Jesus and all current and cherished ideas that led to his condemnation; +the raising of Lazarus only showed that he was becoming dangerously +popular, and made the priestly leaders feel the necessity of haste. The +silence of the first three gospels concerning this event is truly +perplexing, yet it is not any more difficult of explanation, as Beyschlag +(LJ I. 495) has shown, than the silence of all four evangelists concerning +the appearance of the risen Jesus to James, or to the five hundred +brethren (I. Cor. xv. 6, 7). Room must be allowed in our conception of the +life of Jesus for many things of which no record remains, all the more, +therefore, for incidents to which but one of the gospels is witness. +Moreover, after the collapse of popularity in Galilee, the great +enthusiasm of the multitudes over Jesus when he entered Jerusalem (Luke +xix. 37-40; Mark xi. 8-10) is most easily understood if he had made some +such manifestation of power as the restoration of Lazarus. + +174. After the visit to Bethany Jesus withdrew to a little town named +Ephraim, on the border between Judea and Samaria, and spent some time +there in seclusion with his disciples (John xi. 54), doubtless +strengthening his personal hold on them preparatory to the shock their +faith was about to receive. Of the length of this sojourn nothing is told +us, nor of the road by which Jesus left Ephraim for Jerusalem (John xii. +1). The first three gospels show that he began his final approach to the +Holy City at Jericho (Mark x. 46). It may be that he descended from +Ephraim direct to Jericho some days before the Passover, rejoining there +some of the people who had been impressed by his recent ministry in the +region "where John at the first was baptizing." It is natural to suppose +that it was on this journey to Jericho that he warned his disciples again +of the fate which he saw before him in Jerusalem (Mark x. 32-34), and +quite probably it was at this time that he rebuked the crude ambition of +the sons of Zebedee by reminding them that his disciples must be more +ambitious to serve than to rule, since even "the Son of Man came not to be +ministered unto but to minister, and to give his life a ransom for many" +(Mark x. 35-45). At Jericho he was at once crowded upon by enthusiastic +multitudes. The feeling they had for him may perhaps be inferred from the +cry of blind Bartimeus, "Thou son of David, have mercy on me" (Mark x. +48). This enthusiasm received a shock when Jesus chose to be guest in +Jericho of a chief of the publicans, a shock which Jesus probably intended +to give, for much the same reason that led him afterwards on his way up to +Jerusalem to teach his followers in the parable of the pounds that they +must be ready for long delay in his actual assumption of his kingly right +(Luke xix. 11-28). Finally, six days before the Passover, he and his +disciples left Jericho and went up to Bethany preparatory to his final +appearance in Jerusalem (John xii. 1). + +175. The interval between the final departure from Galilee and the public +entry into Jerusalem was given to three different tasks: the renewed +proclamation of the coming of the kingdom, further efforts to win +acceptance in Jerusalem, if perchance she might learn to know the things +that belonged to her peace; and continued training of the disciples, +specially needed because of the ill-considered enthusiasm with which they +were inclined to view the probable issue of this journey to Jerusalem. The +first of these tasks was conducted as the earlier work in Galilee had +been, both by teaching and healing, in which Jesus used his disciples even +more extensively than before. It proved that here as in Galilee the common +people were ready to hear him gladly, until he showed too radical a +disappointment of their hopes. In this new ministry to the people Jesus +spoke very frankly of the seriousness of the opposition which the leaders +of the people were manifesting, and of the need that those who would be +his disciples should count the cost of their allegiance (Luke xiii. 22-30; +xiv. 25-35; xii. 1-59). He did not hesitate to administer the most +scathing rebuke to the Pharisees for the superficiality and hypocrisy of +their religious life and teaching (Luke xi. 37-54),--a rebuke which is +emphasized by the parable in which, on another occasion, he taught God's +preference for a contrite sinner over a complacent saint (Luke xviii. +9-14). When reminded of Pilate's outrage upon certain Galilean +worshippers, he used the calamity to warn his hearers that personal +godliness was the only protection which could secure them against a more +serious outbreak of the hostility of the Roman power (Luke xiii. 1-9); and +it was probably in reply to such an appeal as accompanied this report of +Pilate's cruelty that Jesus spoke the parable of the Unjust Judge (Luke +xviii. 1-8), teaching that God's love may be trusted to be no less +regardful of his people's cry than a selfish man's love of ease would be. + +176. The second of these tasks must not be held to be perfunctory, even +though each new effort for Jerusalem proved that genuine acceptance of its +saviour was increasingly improbable. As the denunciations of the older +prophets ever left open a way of escape _if _ Israel would return and seek +the Lord, so the anticipation of rejection and death which filled the +heart of Jesus does not banish a like _if_ from his own thought of +Jerusalem in his repeated efforts to "gather her children." The +combination of the new popular enthusiasm and the fresh proofs of the +hopelessness of winning Jerusalem made more important the third task,--the +founding of the faith of the disciples on the rock of personal certainty, +from which the rising floods of hatred and seeming ruin for the Master's +cause could not sweep it. It was for them that much of his instruction of +the multitudes was doubtless primarily intended; they needed above all +others to count the cost of discipleship (Luke xiv. 25-35), and the +warnings against the spirit of Pharisaism (Luke xii.) were addressed +principally to them, even as it was to them that Jesus confessed the +"straitening" of his own soul in view of the "fire which he had come to +cast upon the earth" (Luke xii. 49-53),--a confession which had another +expression when he found it needful to rebuke the personal ambition of the +sons of Zebedee (Mark x. 35-45). As for Jesus himself, the popular +enthusiasm had not deceived him, nor the obdurate unbelief of Jerusalem +daunted him, nor his disciples' misconception of his kingdom disheartened +him; he still steadfastly set his face to go to Jerusalem. + + Outline of Events in the Last Week of Jesus' Life + + + _Saturday_ (?). The anointing in Bethany six days before the + Passover--Matt. xxvi. 6-13; Mark xiv. 3-9; John xi. 55 to xii. 11. + + _Sunday_ (?). The Messianic entry--Matt. xxi. 1-11; Mark xi. 1-11; Luke + six. 29-44; John xii. 12-19. + + _Monday_ (?). Visit to the temple: the cursing of the barren + fig-tree--Matt. xxi. 18-19, 12-17; Mark xi. 12-14, 15-18; Luke xix. 45, + 47, 48. + + Return to Bethany for the night--Matt. xxi. 17; Mark xi. 19; Luke xxi. + 37, 38. + + _Tuesday_ (?). Visit to the temple: the fig-tree found withered--Matt, + xxi 20-23; Mark xi. 20-27; Luke xx. 1. + + Challenge of Jesus' authority--Matt. xxi. 23-27; Mark xi. 27-33; Luke + xx. 1-8. + + Three parables against the religious leaders--Matt. xxi. 28 to xxii. + 14; Mark xii. 1-12; Luke xx. 9-19. + + The question about tribute--Matt. xxii. 15-22; Mark xii. 13-17; Luke + xx. 20-26. + + The question of the Sadducees about the resurrection--Matt. xxii. + 23-33; Mark xii. 18-27; Luke xx. 27-40. + + The question of the Pharisees about the great commandment--Matt. xxii. + 34-40; Mark xii. 28-34. + + Jesus' counter-question about David's son and Lord--Matt. xxii. 41-46; + Mark xii. 35-37; Luke xx. 41-44. + + Jesus' denunciation of the scribes and Pharisees--Matt, xxiii. 1-39; + Mark xii. 38-40; Luke xx. 45-47. + + The widow's two mites--Mark xii. 41-44; Luke xxi. 1-4. + + The visit of the Greeks--John xii. 20-36^a. + + Final departure from the temple--John xii. 36^b (-50). + + Discourse concerning the destruction of Jerusalem and the end of the + world--Matt. xxiv. 1 to xxvi. 2; Mark xiii. 1-37; Luke xxi. 5-38. + + Plot of Judas to betray Jesus--Matt. xxvi. 3-5, 14-16; Mark xiv. 1, 2, + 10, 11; Luke xxii. 1-6. + + _Wednesday_. Retirement at Bethany. (?) + + _Thursday_. The Last Supper--Matt. xxvi. 17-30; Mark xiv. 12-26; Luke + xxii. 7-30; John xiii. 1-30. + + The farewell words of admonition and comfort--John xiii. 31 to xvi. 33. + + The intercessory prayer--John xvii. 1-26. + + _Friday_. The agony in Gethsemane--Matt. xxvi. 30, 36-46; Mark xiv. 26, + 32-42; Luke xxii. 39-46; John xviii. 1. + + The betrayal and arrest--Matt xxvi. 47-56; Mark xiv. 43-52; Luke xxii. + 47-53; John xviii. 1-12. + + Trial before the high-priests and sanhedrin--Matt. xxvi. 57 to xxvii. + 10; Mark xiv. 53 to xv. 1^a; Luke xxii. 54-71; John xviii. 12-27. + + Trial before Pilate--Matt, xxvii. 11-31; Mark xv. 1-20; Luke xxiii. + 1-25; John xviii. 28 to xix. 16^a. + + The crucifixion--Matt, xxvii. 32-56; Mark xv. 21-41; Luke xxiii. 26-49; + John xix. 16-37. + + The burial--Matt, xxvii. 57-61; Mark xv. 42-47; Luke xxiii. 50-56; John + xix. 38-42. + + _Saturday_. The Sabbath rest--Luke xxiii. 56^b. + + The watch at the tomb--Matt, xxvii. 62-66. + + + + +VI + +The Final Controversies in Jerusalem + + + +177. The early Christians were greatly interested in the teachings of +Jesus and in his deeds, but they thought oftenest of the victory which by +his resurrection he won out of seeming defeat. This is proved by the fact +that of the first two gospels over one third, of Luke over one fifth, and +of the fourth gospel nearly one half are devoted to the story of the +passion and resurrection. This preponderance is not strange in view of the +shock which the death of Jesus caused his disciples, and the new life +which the resurrection brought to their hearts. The resurrection was the +fundamental theme of apostolic preaching, the supreme evidence that Jesus +was the Messiah. Hence the cross early became the object of exultant +Christian joy and boasting; and in this the church entered actually into +the Lord's own thought, for through the cross he looked for his exaltation +and glory (Mark viii. 31; John xii. 23-36). From the time of the +confession at Caesarea Philippi, he had had his death avowedly in view, and +had repeatedly checked the ambitious and unthinking enthusiasm of his +disciples by reminding them of what he must receive at the hands of the +leaders of the people. The few months preceding his final appearance in +Jerusalem had been devoted to the journey to the cross. This explains the +note of tragedy which appears in his teachings at this period. The people +had shown that they would none of his ministry. In this they had written +their national and religious death warrant, and as he approached Jerusalem +for the final crisis he declared, though with almost breaking heart, "Your +house is left unto you desolate" (Luke xiii. 31-35). Each new effort of +Jesus to turn aside the impending judgment of his people by winning their +acceptance of himself and his message resulted in a new certainty of his +ultimate rejection, and thus in confirmation of the early recognized +necessity, that, if he continued the work God had given him to do, he +should suffer many things, and die at the hands of his own people. + +178. The last chapter in his public ministry began with his arrival at +Bethany six days before the Passover. It is probable that the caravan with +which Jesus was travelling reached Bethany not far from the sunset which +marked the beginning of the Sabbath preceding the feast. Jesus had friends +there who gladly gave him entertainment, and the Sabbath was doubtless +spent quietly in this retreat. The holy day closed with the setting sun, +and then his hosts were able to show him the special attention which they +desired. The general cordiality of welcome expressed itself in a feast +given in the house of one Simon, a leper who had probably experienced the +power of Jesus to heal. He may have been a relative also of Lazarus, for +Martha assisted in the entertainment, and Lazarus was one of the guests of +honor (Mark xiv. 3; John xii. 2). During the feast, Mary, the sister of +Lazarus, poured forth on the head and feet of Jesus a box of the rarest +perfume. This act of costly adoration seemed extravagant to some, +particularly to one of Jesus' disciples, who complained that the money +could have been better spent. This criticism of one who had not counted +cost in her service was rebuked by Jesus, who defended and commended Mary; +for in the act he recognized her fear that he might not be long with her +(Mark xiv. 8; John xii. 7). It is probable that this rebuke, with the +clear reference to his approaching death, led Judas to decide to abandon +the apparently waning cause of his Master, and bargain with the leaders in +Jerusalem to betray him (Mark xiv. 3-11). + +179. The day following the supper at Bethany--that is, the first day of +the week--witnessed the welcome of Jesus to Jerusalem by the jubilant +multitudes. His mode of entering the city affords a marked contrast to +his treatment of the determination to make him king after he had fed the +multitudes in Galilee (John vi. 15). In some respects the circumstances +were similar. A multitude of the visitors to the feast, hearing that Jesus +was at Bethany on his way to Jerusalem, went out to meet him with a +welcome that showed their enthusiastic confidence that at last he would +assume Messianic power and redeem Israel (John xii. 12, 13). Jesus was now +ready for a popular demonstration, for the rulers were unwilling longer to +tolerate his work and his teaching. He had never hesitated to assert his +superiority to official criticism, and at length the hour had come to +proclaim the full significance of his independence. In fact it was for +this that some months before he had set his face steadfastly to go to +Jerusalem. When, therefore, the crowd from Jerusalem appeared, Jesus took +the initiative in a genuine Messianic demonstration. He sent two of his +disciples to a place near by to borrow an ass's colt, on which he might +ride into the city, fulfilling Zechariah's prophecy of the "king that +cometh meek, and riding upon an ass" (see Matt. xxi. 4, 5). At this, the +enthusiasm of his followers, and of those who had come to meet him, became +unbounded, and without rebuke from Jesus they proceeded towards Jerusalem +crying, "Hosanna; Blessed _is_ he that cometh in the name of the Lord" +(Mark xi. 9, 10). Notwithstanding the remonstrances of certain Pharisees +among the multitude (Luke xix. 39), Jesus accepted the hosannas, for they +served to emphasize the claim which he now wished, without reserve or +ambiguity, to make in Jerusalem. The time for reserve had passed. The +mass of the people with their leaders had shown clearly that for his +truth, and himself as bearer of it, they had no liking; while the few had +become attached to him sufficiently to warrant the supreme test of their +faith. He could not continue longer his efforts to win the people, for +both Galilee and Judea were closed to him. Even if he had been content, +without contradicting popular ideas, to work wonders and proclaim promises +of coming good, he could with difficulty have continued this work, for +Herod had already been regarding him with suspicion (Luke xiii. 31). He +had run his course and must measure strength with the hostile forces in +Jerusalem. For the last encounter he assumed the aggressive, and entered +the city as its promised deliverer, the Prince of Peace. The very method +of his Messianic proclamation was a challenge of current Jewish ideas, for +they were not looking for so meek and peaceful a leader as Zechariah had +conceived; this entrance emphasized the old contradiction between Jesus +and his people's expectations. He accepted the popular welcome with full +knowledge of the transitoriness of the present enthusiasm. As he advanced +he saw in thought the fate to which the city and people were blindly +hurrying, and his day of popular triumph was a day of tears (Luke xix. +41-44). The city was stirred when the prophet of Nazareth thus entered it; +but he simply went into the temple, looked about with heavy heart, and, as +it was late, returned to Bethany with the twelve for the night. + +180. On the following day Jesus furnished to his disciples a parable in +action illustrating the fate awaiting the nation; for it is only as a +parable that the curse of the barren fig-tree can be understood. The idea +that Jesus showed resentment at disappointment of his hunger when he found +no figs on the tree out of season is too petty for consideration. He was +drawn to it by the early foliage, for it was not yet the season for either +fruit or leaves. One is tempted to believe, as Dr. Bruce has suggested, +that he had small expectation of finding fruit, and that even before he +reached the tree with its early leaves he felt a likeness between it and +the nation of hypocrites whose fate was so clear in his mind. The +withering of the fig-tree set his disciples thinking; and Jesus showed +that it was an object lesson, promising that the disciples, by the +exercise of but a little faith, could do more, even remove +mountains,--such mountains of difficulty as the opposition of the whole +Jewish nation would offer to the success of their work in their Master's +name. + +181. The curse upon the barren fig-tree was spoken as Jesus was going from +Bethany to Jerusalem on the morning after his Messianic entry, that is, on +Monday, and it was Tuesday when the disciples found it withered away (Mark +xi. 12-14, 20-25). On Monday Jesus entered into the temple and taught and +healed (Luke xix. 47; Matt. xxi. 14-16). It is at this point that Mark +inserts the cleansing of the temple which John shows to belong rather to +Jesus' first public visit to Jerusalem. The place which this incident +holds in the first three gospels has already been explained by the fact +that it furnished one cause for the official hostility to Jesus, and that +Mark's story included no earlier visit to the holy city (sect. 116; see A +39). + +182. Tuesday, the last day of public activity, exhibits Jesus in four +different lights, according as he had to do with his critics, with the +devout widow, with the inquiring Greeks, and with his own disciples. The +opposition to him expressed itself, after the general challenge of his +authority, in three questions put in succession by Pharisees and +Herodians, by Sadducees, and by a scribe, more earnest than most, whom the +Pharisees put forward after they had seen how Jesus silenced the +Sadducees. Jesus met the opening challenge by a question about John's +baptism (Mark xi. 29-33) which completely destroyed the complacency of his +critics, putting them on the defensive. This was more than a clever +stroke, they could not know what his authority was unless they had a quick +sense for spiritual things. His question would have served to bring this +to the surface if they had possessed it. Their reply showed them incapable +of receiving a real answer to their question. It also gave him opportunity +to say in three significant parables (Matt. xxi. 28 to xxii. 14) what +their spiritual blindness signified for them and their nation, giving thus +a turn to the interview not at all to their minds. As Jesus' rebuke was +spoken in the hearing of the people, a determined effort was at once made +to discredit him in the popular mind. The question (Mark xii. 13-17) with +which the Pharisees and Herodians hoped to ensnare him was most subtle, +for the popular feeling was as sensitive to the mark of subserviency which +the payment of tribute kept ever before them as the Roman authorities were +to the slightest suspicion of revolt against their sway. In none of his +words had Jesus so clearly asserted the simple other-worldliness of his +doctrine of the kingdom of God as in his answer to the question about +tribute. For him loyalty to the actual earthly sovereign was quite +compatible with loyalty to God, the lower obligation was in fact a summons +to be scrupulous also to render to God his due,--a duty in which this +nation was sadly delinquent. The reply gave no ground for an accusation +before the governor; but the popular feeling against Rome was so strong +that it is not unlikely that it contributed somewhat to the readiness of +the multitude a few days later to prefer Barabbas to Jesus. + +183. A second assault was made by some Sadducees who put to him a crude +question about the relations of a seven-times married woman in the +resurrection (Mark xii. 18-27). If this question was asked with the +expectation of making Jesus ridiculous in the sight of the people it was a +marked failure, for his reply was so simple and straightforward that he +won the admiration even of some of the Pharisees. The most significant +feature of it was his argument from God's reference to himself as God of +Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob; for in that he taught that the fact of +fellowship with God implies that God's servants share with him a life that +death cannot vanquish. The skill with which Jesus met these two questions +interested some of his hearers and showed to his opponents that they must +put forward their ablest champions to cope with him. The next test was +more purely academic in character,--as to what class of commands is +greatest in the law (Mark xii. 28-34). For the pharisaic scholars this was +a favorite problem. For Jesus, however, the question contained no problem, +since all the law is summed up in the two commandments of love. His +contemporaries were not without power to see the truth of his +generalization, and their champion in this last attack was moved with +admiration for the fineness and sufficiency of Jesus' answer. + +184. All of the assaults served only to show freshly the clearness and +profoundness of his thought; his critics were quite discomfited in their +effort to entangle him. They had done with him, but he had still a word +for them. The business of these scribes was the study of the scriptures. +They furnished the people with authoritative statements of truth. One of +the common-places of the current thought was that the Messiah should be +David's son. Jesus did not deny the truth of this view, yet he showed them +how partial their ideas were by quoting a word of scripture in which the +Messiah is shown as David's Lord. If they had been open-minded they might +have inferred from this that perhaps the man before them was not so +impossible a Messiah as they thought. This last question closed the +colloquy; there awaited yet, however, Jesus' calm, scathing arraignment of +the hypocrisy of these religious leaders. There was no longer any need for +prudence and every reason for a clear indication of the difference between +himself and the scribes in motive, in teaching, and in character. The +final conflict was on, and Jesus freely spoke his mind concerning their +whole life of piety without godliness. Never have sharper words of +reproach fallen from human lips than these which Jesus directed against +the scribes and Pharisees; they are burdened with indignation for the +misleading of the people, with rebuke for the misrepresentation of God's +truth, and with scorn for their hollow pretence of righteousness. Through +it all breathes a note of sorrow for the city whose house was now left to +her desolate. The change of scene which introduces the widow offering her +gift in the temple treasury heightens the significance of the +controversies through which Jesus had just passed. In his comment on the +worth of her two mites we hear again the preacher of the sermon on the +mount, and are assured that it is indeed from him that the severe rebukes +which have fallen on the scribes have come. There is again a reference to +the insight of him who sees in secret, and who judges as he sees; while +allusion is not lacking to the others whose larger gifts attracted a wider +attention. The whole scene is like a commentary on Matt. vi. 2-4. + +185. Still a different side of Jesus' life appears when the Greeks seek +him in the temple. They were probably proselytes from some of the Greek +cities about the Mediterranean where the synagogue offered to the +earnest-minded a welcome relief from the foolishness and corruption of +what was left of religion in the heathen world. Having visited Jerusalem +for the feast, they heard on every hand about the new teacher. They were +not so bound to rabbinic traditions as the Jews themselves, they had been +drawn by the finer features of Judaism,--its high morality and its noble +idea of God. What they heard of Jesus might well attract them, and they +sought out Philip, a disciple with a Greek name, to request an interview +with his Master. The evangelist who has preserved the incident (John xii. +20-36) evidently introduced it because of what it showed of Jesus' inner +life; hence we have no report of the conversation between him and his +visitors. The effect of their seeking him was marked, however, for it +offered sharp contrast to the rejection which he already felt in his +dealings with the people who but two days before had hailed him as +Messiah. This foreign interest in him did not suggest a new avenue for +Messianic work, it only brought before his mind the influence which was to +be his in the world which these inquirers represented, and immediately +with the thought of his glorification came that of the means thereto,--the +cross whose shadow was already darkening his path. Excepting Gethsemane, +no more solemn moment in Jesus' life is reported for us. A glimpse is +given into the inner currents of his soul, and the storm which tossed them +is seen. It is in marked contrast to the calmness of his controversy with +the leaders, and to the gentleness of his commendation of the widow. The +agitation passed almost at once, but it left Jesus in a mood which he had +not shown before on that day; in it his own thoughts had their way, and +the doctrine of the grain of wheat dying to appear in larger life, of the +Son of Man lifted up to draw all men unto him, had utterance, greatly to +the perplexity of his hearers. It seems to have been one of the few times +when Jesus spoke for his own soul's relief. + +186. In all the earlier events of the day the disciples of Jesus appear +but little. He is occupied with others, accepting the challenge of the +leaders, and completing his testimony to the truth they refused to hear. +The quieter hours of the later part of the day gave time for further words +with his friends. The comment on the widow's gift was meant for them, and +the uncovering of his own soul when the Greeks sought him was in their +presence. After he had left the temple and the city he gave himself to +them more exclusively. His disciples were perplexed by what they saw and +felt, for the temper of the people toward their Master could not be +mistaken. Yet they were sure of him. The leaders among them, therefore, +asked him privately to tell them when the catastrophe should come, to +which during the day he had made repeated reference. The conversation +which followed is reported for us in the discourse on the destruction of +Jerusalem and the end of the world (Mark xiii. and parallels), in which +Jesus taught his disciples to expect trouble in their ministry, as he was +meeting trouble in his; and to be ready for complete disappointment of +their inherited hopes for the glory of their holy city. He also taught +them to expect that his work would shortly be carried to perfection, and +to live in expectancy of his coming to complete all that he was now +seeming to leave undone. This lesson of patience and expectancy is +enforced in a group of parables preserved for us in Matthew (chap. xxv.), +closing with the remarkable picture of the end of all things when the +Master should return in glory as judge of all to make final announcement +of the simplicity of God's requirement of righteousness, as it had been +exhibited in the life which by the despite of men was now drawing to its +close. + +187. The bargain made by Judas to betray his Lord has always been +difficult to understand. The man must have had fine possibilities or Jesus +would not have chosen him for an apostle, nor would the little company +have made him its treasurer (John xii. 6; xiii. 29). The fact that Jesus +early discovered his character (John vi. 64) does not compel us to think +that his selection as an apostle was not perfectly sincere; the man must +have seemed to be still savable and worthy thus to be associated with the +eleven others who were Jesus' nearest companions. It has often been +noticed that he was probably the only Judean among the twelve, for +Kerioth, his home, was a town in southern Judea. The effort has frequently +been made to redeem his reputation by attributing his betrayal to some +high motive--such as a desire to force his Master to use his Messianic +power, and confound his opponents by escaping from their hands and setting +up the hoped-for kingdom. But the remorse of Judas, in which De Quincey +finds support for this theory of the betrayal, must be more simply and +sadly understood. It is more likely that the traitor illustrates Jesus' +words: "No man can serve two masters; for either he will hate the one and +love the other; or else he will hold to the one and despise the other. Ye +cannot serve God and mammon" (Matt. vi. 24). The beginning of his fall may +have been his disappointment when Jesus showed clearly that he would not +establish a kingdom conformed to the popular ideas. As the enthusiasm +which drew him to Jesus cooled, personal greed, with something of +resentment at the cause of his disappointment, seem to have taken +possession of him, and they led him on until the stinging rebuke which +Jesus administered to the criticism of Mary at Bethany prompted the man to +seek a bargain with the authorities which should insure him at least some +profit in the general wreck of his hopes. His remorse after he saw in its +bald hideousness what he had done was psychologically inevitable. Although +Jesus was aware of Judas' character from the beginning (John vi. 64), he +that came to seek and to save that which was lost was no fatalist; and +this knowledge was doubtless--like that which he had of the fate hanging +over Jerusalem--subject to the possibility that repentance might change +what was otherwise a certain destiny. As the event turned he could only +say, "Good were it for that man if he had not been born" (Mark xiv. 21). + +188. With this the curtain falls on the public ministry of Jesus. The +gospels suggest a day of quiet retirement following these controversies +and warnings, with their fresh demonstration of the irreconcilable +hostility of people of all classes to him and his work. After the +seclusion of that day, he returned to give final proof of complete +obedience to his Father's will. + + + + +VII + +The Last Supper + + + +189. On Thursday Jesus and his disciples returned to Jerusalem for the +last time. Knowing the temper of the leaders, and the danger of arrest at +any time, Jesus was particularly eager to eat the Passover with his +disciples (Luke xxii. 15), and he sent two of them--Luke names them as +Peter and John--to prepare for the supper. In a way which would give no +information to such a one as Judas, he directed them carefully how to find +the house where a friend would provide them the upper room that was needed +for an undisturbed meeting of the little band, and the two went on in +advance to make ready. When the hour was come Jesus with the others went +to the appointed place and sat down for the supper (Mark xiv. 17; Luke +xxii. 14; Matt. xxvi. 20). + +190. The gospels all report the last evening which the little company +spent together. There is a perplexing divergence, however, between John +and the others concerning the relation of this supper to the feast of the +Passover. In their introduction of the story, Mark and his companion +gospels indicate that the supper which Jesus ate was the Passover meal +itself. John, on the other hand, declares that it was "before the feast of +the Passover" (xiii. 1) that Jesus took this meal with his disciples. +John's account is consistent throughout, for he states that on the next +day the desire of the Jews to "eat the Passover" forbade them to enter the +house of the governor lest they should incur defilement (xviii. 28). The +other gospels, moreover, hint in several ways that the day of Jesus' death +could not have been the day after the Passover; that is, the first day of +the feast of unleavened bread. Dr. Sanday has recently enumerated these +afresh, remarking that "the Synoptists make the Sanhedrin say beforehand +that they will not arrest Jesus 'on the feast day,' and then actually +arrest him on that day; that not only the guards, but one of the disciples +(Mark xiv. 47), carries arms, which on the feast day was not allowed; that +the trial was also held on the feast day, which would be unlawful; that +the feast day would not be called simply Preparation (see Mark xv. 42, and +compare John xix. 31); that the phrase 'coming from the field' (Mark xv. +21 [Greek]) means properly 'coming from work;' that Joseph of Arimathea is +represented as buying a linen cloth (Mark xv. 46) and the women as +preparing spices and ointments (Luke xxiii. 56), all of which would be +contrary to law and custom" (HastBD ii. 634). In these particulars the +first three gospels seem to confirm the representation of the fourth that +the day of the last supper was earlier than the regular Jewish Passover. +On the other hand, a strong argument, though one that has not commended +itself to other specialists in Jewish archaeology, has been put forth by +Dr. Edersheim (LJM ii. 567f.) to prove that John also indicates that the +last supper was eaten at the time of the regular Passover. In the present +condition of our knowledge certainty is impossible. If John does differ +from the others, his testimony has the greatest weight. While not +conclusive, it has some significance that Paul identified Christ with the +sacrifice of the passover (I. Cor. v. 7), a statement which may indicate +that he held that Jesus died about the time of the killing of the paschal +lamb. If John be taken to prove that the last supper occurred a day before +the regular Passover, Jesus must have felt that the anticipation was +necessary in order to avoid the publicity and consequent danger of a +celebration at the same time with all the rest of the city. + +191. Whatever the conclusion concerning the date of the last supper, and +consequently of the crucifixion, the last meal of Jesus with his disciples +was for that little company the equivalent of the Passover supper. Luke +states that the desire of Jesus had looked specially to eating this feast +with his disciples (xxii. 15). The reason must be found in his certainty +of the very near end, and in his wish to make the meal a preparation for +the bitter experiences which were overhanging him and them. + +192. It is customary to connect as occasion and consequence the dispute +concerning precedence which Luke reports (xxii. 24-30), and the rebuke +which Jesus administered by washing the disciples' feet (John xiii. 1-20). +The jealousies of the disciples may have arisen over the allotment of +seats at the table, as Dr. Edersheim has most fully shown (LJM ii. +492-503); such a controversy would be the natural sequel of earlier +disputes concerning greatness, and particularly of the request of James +and John for the best places in the coming kingdom (Mark x. 35-45), and +would lead as naturally to the distress of heart with which Jesus declared +that one of the disciples should betray him, and that another of them +should deny him. The narrative in Mark favors the withdrawal of Judas +before the new rite was appointed. This must seem to be the probability in +the case, for the presence of Judas would be most incongruous at such a +memorial service. John's mention of his departure before the announcement +of Peter's approaching fall confirms this interpretation of Mark (Mark +xiv. 18-21; John xiii. 21-30). + +193. The paschal memories furnished to Jesus an opportunity to establish +for his disciples an institution which should symbolize the new covenant +which he was soon to seal with his blood. Jesus regarded this new covenant +as that which was promised by the prophets, especially Jeremiah (xxxi. +31-34), and his thought, like that of the prophets, goes back to the story +of the covenant established at Sinai (Ex. xxiv. 1-11). In this way he gave +to his disciples a conception of his death, which later, if not +immediately, would help them to regard it as a necessary part of his work +as Messiah. They were now oppressed by the evident certainty that the near +future would bring their Master to death; he accordingly gave them a +sacred reminder of himself and of his death as an essential part of his +self-giving "for them;" for whatever the conclusion concerning the +disputed text of Luke (xxii. 19), the institutional character of the act +and words of Jesus is clear. As Holtzmann remarks (NtTh i. 304): "The +words 'this do in remembrance of me' were perhaps not spoken; all the more +certainly do they of themselves express what lay in the situation and made +itself felt with incontestable conclusiveness." + +194. Several hints in the records seem to connect the meal in various +details with what is known of ancient custom in the celebration of the +Passover. The hymn with which according to Mark and Matthew the supper +closed is easily identified with the last part (Psalms cxv. to cxviii.) of +the so called _Hallel_, which was sung at the close of the Passover meal. +The mention of two cups in the familiar text of Luke (xxii. 17-20) agrees +with the repeated cups of the Passover ritual; so also do the sop and the +dipping of it with which Jesus indicated to John who the traitor was (John +xiii. 23-26; Mark xiv. 20). If it could be proved that the customs +recorded in the Talmud correctly represent the usage in Jesus' time it +would be of extreme interest to seek to connect what is told us of the +last supper with that Passover ritual as Dr. Edersheim has done (LJM ii. +490-512). The antiquity of the rabbinic record is so uncertain, however, +that it is only useful as showing what possibly may have been the case. +All that can be asserted is that the rabbinic ritual probably originated +long before it was recorded, and that as the last supper was a meal which +Jesus and his disciples celebrated as a Passover, it is probable that some +such ritual was more or less closely followed. + +195. Luke and John give the fullest reports of what was said at the table. +All the gospels tell of Peter's declaration of superior loyalty and the +prediction of his threefold denial; Luke, however, adds that in connection +with it Jesus assured Peter of his restoration, and charged him to +strengthen his brethren (Luke xxii. 31-34). John alone gives the long and +full discourse of admonition and comfort, followed by Jesus' prayer for +his disciples (xiii. 31 to xvii. 26). It is evident from the words of +Jesus as he entered the garden of Gethsemane (Mark xiv. 33, 34), as from +those which had escaped him when the Greeks sought him the last day in the +temple (John xii. 27), that his own heart was greatly troubled during the +supper by the apparent defeat which was now close at hand. His quietness +and self-possession during the supper, particularly when tenderly +reproving his disciples for petty ambition, or when solemnly dismissing +the traitor, or warning Peter of his denials, must not blind us to the +depth of the emotion which was stirring his own soul. It is only as we +remember his trouble of heart that it is possible justly to value the +ministry which in varied ways he rendered to his disciples that night. In +the discourses reported by John he showed that he realized that the +approaching separation would sorely try the faith of his followers, and he +sought to strengthen them by showing his own calmness in view of it, and +by promising them another who should abide with them spiritually as his +representative, and continue for them the work which he had begun. He +therefore urged them to maintain their devotion to him, still to seek and +find the source of their life and secret of their strength in fellowship +with him--present, though unseen among them. He sought to convince them +that his departure was to be for their advantage, that fellowship with him +spiritually would be far more real and efficacious than the intercourse +they had already enjoyed. He whose own heart was "exceeding sorrowful even +unto death" bade his disciples not to let their hearts be troubled nor +afraid. How long the conversation continued, of when the company left the +upper chamber, cannot be told. At some time before the arrival at +Gethsemane Jesus turned to God in prayer for the disciples whom he was +about to leave to the severe trial of their faith, asking for them that +realization of eternal life which he had enjoyed and exemplified in his +own intimate life with his Father. With this his ministry to them closed +for the time, and, crossing the Kidron, he entered the garden of +Gethsemane weighed down by the sorrow of his own soul. + + + + +VIII + +The Shadow of Death + + + +196. Of the garden of Gethsemane it is only known that it was across the +Kidron, on the slope of the Mount of Olives. Tradition has long pointed to +an enclosure some fifty yards beyond the bridge that crosses the ravine on +the road leading eastward from St. Stephen's gate. Most students feel that +this is too near the city and the highway for the place of retreat chosen +by Jesus. Archaeologically and sentimentally the identification of places +connected with the life of Jesus is of great interest. Practically, +however, it is easy to over-emphasize the importance of such an +identification. Granted the fact that in some olive grove on the +mountain-side, where an oil-press gave a name to the place (Gethsemane), +Jesus withdrew with his disciples on that last night, and all that is +important is known. It is of far higher importance to see rightly the +relation of what took place in that garden to the things which preceded +and followed it in the life of Jesus. At that time Jesus saw pressed to +his lips the "cup" from the bitterness of which his whole soul shrank. It +was not an unlooked-for trial; some time earlier he had sought to cool the +ardor of the ambition of James and John by telling them that they should +drink of his cup, and declared that even the Son of Man came not to be +ministered unto but to minister, and to give his life a ransom for many. +The fourth gospel, whose representation omits the agony of Gethsemane and +only reports its victory, tells how Jesus rebuked the violent impulse of +Peter with the word, "The cup which my Father hath given me to drink shall +I not drink it?" (John xviii. 11^b); and all the gospels exhibit the +marvellous quietness of spirit and dignity of self-surrender which +characterized Jesus throughout his trial and execution. In Gethsemane, +however, we see the struggle in which that calmness and self-mastery were +won. + +197. It is unbecoming to consider that scene with any vulgar curiosity to +know what it was that made Jesus so draw back from the drinking of his +"cup." It is not unfitting, however, to recognize that in his cry, "Abba, +Father, all things are possible unto thee; remove this cup from me" (Mark +xiv. 36), an intense longing of his own soul's life had expression. There +was something in the fate which he saw before him from which his whole +being shrank. But stronger than this was his fixed desire to do his +Father's will. Here was supremely illustrated the truth that "he came down +from heaven, not to do his own will, but the will of him that sent him" +(John vi. 38). The fullest allowance for the shrinking of the most +delicately constituted nature from pain and death completely fails to +account for this dread of Jesus. He was no coward, drawing back from +sufferings which for simple physical pain were over and again more than +matched by many of the martyrs to truth who preceded and followed him. He +himself declared to the sons of Zebedee that they should share a cup in +kind like unto his, suffering for the kingdom of God, for the salvation +of the world. Yet there is a difference evident between what others have +had to bear and the cup from which Jesus shrank. The death which now stood +before him in the path of obedience had in it a bitterness quite +unexplained by the pain and disappointment it entailed. That excess of +bitterness can probably never be understood by us. A hint of its nature +may be found in the "shame of the cross" which the author of Hebrews (xii. +2; xiii. 13) emphasizes, and in the "curse" of the cross which made it a +stumbling block to Paul and his Jewish brethren (Gal. iii. 13; I. Cor. i. +23). Jesus came from the garden ready to endure the cross in obedience to +his Father's will; but it was a costly obedience, a complete emptying of +himself (Phil. ii. 7, 8). + +198. The loneliness of Jesus in his struggle is emphasized in the gospels +of Mark and Matthew. In search of sympathy he had confessed to the +disciples his trouble of heart, and had taken his three intimates with him +when he withdrew from the others for prayer, asking them to watch with +him. They were too heavy of heart and weary of body to stand by in his +bitter hour, and instead of being in readiness to warn him of the approach +of the hostile band, he had to awake them to their danger. The fourth +gospel reports that after the struggle Jesus bore marks of majesty which +astonished and overawed his foes when he calmly told them that he was the +one they were seeking. Their fear was overcome, however, when Judas gave +the appointed sign by kissing his Master (Mark xiv. 45). The thought for +the disciples' safety which John records (xviii. 8) is another proof that +the fight had been won, and Jesus had fully resumed the self-emptying +ministry appointed to him by his Father. + +199. The band that arrested Jesus was accompanied by a Roman cohort from +the garrison of the city, but it was not needed, for the disciples offered +no appreciable resistance; on the contrary, "they all forsook him and +fled" (Mark xiv. 50). Having arrested Jesus, the band took him to Annas, +the actual leader of Jewish affairs, though not at the time the official +high-priest. He had held that office some time before, but had been +deposed by the Roman governor of Syria after being in power for nine +years. His influence continued, however, for although he was never +reinstated, he seems to have been able to secure the appointment for +members of his own family during a period of many years. Caiaphas, the +legal high-priest, was his son-in-law. Annas, as the leader of +aristocratic opinion in Jerusalem, had doubtless been foremost in the +secret counsels which led to the decision to get rid of Jesus, hence the +captive was, as a matter of course, taken first to his house. The trial by +the Jewish authorities was irregular. There seems to have been an informal +examination of Jesus and various witnesses, first before Annas, and then +before Caiaphas and a group of members of the sanhedrin, the outcome of +which was complete failure to secure evidence against Jesus from their +false witnesses, and the formulation of a charge of blasphemy in +consequence of his answer to the high-priest acknowledging himself to be +the Messiah (Mark xiv. 61-64). The early hours before the day were given +over to mockery and ill-usage of the captive Jesus. When morning was +come, the sanhedrin was convened, and he was condemned to death on the +charge of blasphemy (Mark xv. 1; Luke xxii. 66-71), and then was led in +bonds to the Roman governor for execution, since the Romans had taken from +the sanhedrin the authority to execute a death sentence (John xviii. 31). +Before Pilate the Jews had to name an offence recognized by Roman law; his +accusers therefore falsified his claim and made him out a political +Messiah, hostile to Roman rule (Luke xxiii. 1, 2). Pilate soon saw that +the charge was trumped up, and sought in every way, while keeping the +good-will of the people, to escape the responsibility of giving sentence +against Jesus. His first effort was a simple declaration that he found no +fault in the prisoner (Luke xxiii. 4); then, having heard that he was a +Galilean, he tried to transfer the case to Herod, who happened to be in +the city at the time (Luke xxiii. 5-12); he then sought to compromise by +agreeing to chastise Jesus and then release him (Luke xxiii. 13-16); next +he offered the people their choice between the innocent Jesus and +Barabbas, a convicted insurrectionist (Mark xv. 6-15; Luke xxiii. 16-24), +and the people, instructed by the priests, chose Barabbas, caring nothing +for a Messiah who would allow himself to be arrested without resistance; +the fourth gospel tells of Pilate's still further effort, by appealing to +the people's sympathy, to escape giving sentence, even after he had +delivered Jesus to the soldiers for the preliminary scourging. Finding the +Jews ready to urge, at length, a religious charge, Pilate's superstitious +fear was roused (John xix. 7-12), and he sought again to release him, but +was finally cowed by the threat of an accusation against him at Rome, +and, mocking the people by sitting in judgment to condemn Jesus as their +king, he gave sentence against the man whom he knew to be innocent (John +xix. 12-16). + +200. Some of Jesus' disciples and friends were witnesses of the early +stages of the informal trial, in particular, John (John xviii. 15) and +Peter. It was during the progress of the early examination that Peter was +drawn into his denials by the comments made by the bystanders on his +connection with the accused. It has been suggested that the house of the +high-priest where Jesus was tried was built, like other Oriental houses, +about a court so that the room where Jesus was examined was open to view +from the court. In this case it is easy to see how Jesus could overhear +his disciple's strenuous denials of any acquaintance with him, and could +turn and give him that look which sent him out to weep bitterly (Luke +xxii. 61, 62). If it be further assumed that Annas and Caiaphas occupied +different sides of the same high-priestly palace, the double examination +reported by John would still be within hearing from the one court in which +the faithless disciple was a fascinated witness of his Master's trial. + +201. Humanly speaking, it may be said that the fate of Jesus was sealed +when the Sadducean leaders came to look on him seriously as a danger to +the State (John xi. 47-50, note the mention of chief priests). The +religious opposition was serious, and might have brought trouble, in some +such way as it seems to have done to John the Baptist (see Matt. xvii. +10-13; Luke xiii. 31, 32); but it is doubtful whether the governor would +have given much attention to a charge not urged by the men of influence in +Jerusalem. The notable thing in connection with the last days of Jesus' +life is the joint opposition of Sadducean priests and Pharisaic scribes. +That the populace easily changed their cry from "hosanna" to "crucify him" +is not surprising. Their hosannas were due to a complete misconception of +Jesus' aim and purpose; disappointed in him, they would be the earliest to +cry out against him, especially when the choice lay between him and a +genuine insurrectionist. + +202. Each fresh study of the trial of Jesus gives a fresh impression of +his greatness. He who but a few hours before was pouring out his soul in +prayer that his cup might pass, stands forth as the one calm and +undisturbed actor among all those who took part in the tragic doings of +that day. His judges and foes were all swayed by passion and self-interest +and were ready to make travesty of justice, from the leaders of the +sanhedrin who condemned him on one charge and accused him to the governor +on another, to the governor himself, who appeared determined to release +him if he could do it without risk of personal popularity, and who yet, in +order to avoid accusation at Rome, gave sentence according to the people's +will. The fickle populace crying "crucify him," the disciples who forsook +him, the rock-apostle who denied even so much as knowledge of the man, +show how all the currents of life about him were stirred and full of +tumult. In all this, of which he was the occasion and centre, he stands +the supreme example of dignity, self-mastery, and quietness. This is seen +in his silence in the presence of Annas and Caiaphas, and later before +Pilate; in his frank avowal of his Messianic claim in reply to the +high-priest's challenge, and of his kingly rank in answer to the +governor's question; and in the look of reproof which he turned upon +Peter. Not that he was without feeling. There is strong sense of outrage +in his words, "If I have spoken evil, bear witness of the evil, but if +well, why smitest thou me?" It was not the quietness of stoic +indifference, but of perfect self-devotion to the Father's will. He +maintained it from the time of his arrest to the last cry of trust with +which he committed his spirit to his Father. + +203. The scourging over, the mock homage of the soldiers done, he was led +out beyond the city wall to be crucified. The exact place of the +crucifixion can be determined as little as that of Gethsemane, though +there is a tradition from the fourth century, and in addition there are +many conjectures. Jesus was led, apparently, to the ordinary place of +criminal execution, and with two others, probably insurrectionary robbers +like those with whom Barabbas had been associated, he was crucified. Two +episodes in the journey to the place of crucifixion are recorded,--the +help which Simon of Cyrene was compelled to give to Jesus in carrying his +cross (Mark xv. 21), and the word of Jesus to those who, following him, +bewailed his fate (Luke xxiii. 27-31). + +204. Of the cruelty and torture of crucifixion much has been written and +often. It would be difficult to exaggerate it. The death by the cross was +a death by hunger and exhaustion in ordinary cases; it was thus torture +prolonged for many hours. It is noticeable, however, that it is not the +suffering but the disgrace and shame of the cross that occupied the +thought of the apostolic days. Indeed, were physical suffering chiefly to +be considered, it would have to be owned that the fact that Jesus died +within a few hours released him from the most excruciating pains incident +to this barbarous form of execution. The later ascetic thought loved, and +still loves, to dwell on the physical torments of the Lord's death. They +were severe enough to give us awe; but the biblical writers show a much +healthier mind, and their thought does not invite comparison between the +pains endured by the Master and those which some of his martyred followers +bore with great fortitude. The disgrace of the cross was the uttermost; +for the Romans it was the death of a slave, for the Jews it was patent +proof of the curse of God (Deut. xxi. 23). The obedience of Jesus was +unlimited when he submitted to death (Phil. ii. 8). It is on the shame of +the cross, and on the sacrifice of himself for the life of the world when +in obedience to his Father's will he "despised the shame," that the +thought of the apostolic day laid emphasis. In this experience Jesus found +himself in truth numbered with the transgressors; he was the object of +scorn for all them that passed by, they mocked at him, at his works, and +at his confident trust in God. In this last extremity the darkness of +Gethsemane again swept over Jesus' soul, when he cried out "My God, my +God," recalling the words of one of the saints of old in his hour of +distress (Ps. xxii.). Yet, like him, Jesus kept hold on the certainty of +deliverance; the darkness passed at length. + +205. The evangelists preserve several sayings of Jesus from the cross, the +records of the different gospels being remarkably diverse. Mark and +Matthew record the exclamation, "My God, my God _(Eloi, Eloi_), why hast +thou forsaken me," which the bystander misconstrued as a call for Elijah, +thinking this pseudo-Messiah was reproaching Elijah for failing to come to +his help. The same gospels tell of the loud cry with which Jesus died. +Luke omits the call _Eloi_, and gives in place of the last expiring cry +the prayer of trust, "Father, into thy hands I commend my spirit" (xxiii. +46). Earlier, however, this gospel tells of Jesus' word to the penitent +robber, "To-day shalt thou be with me in Paradise" (xxiii. 43), and of the +prayer for his foes, that is, for the Jewish people who blindly condemned +him (xxiii. 34). The oldest manuscripts cause some doubt whether this last +saying was originally a part of the Gospel of Luke. If it was not it would +belong in the same class with the story of the sinful woman which we now +find in John, both being authentic records of the life of Jesus, though +from some other source than that in which we now find them. The fourth +gospel gives quite an independent group of sayings. It interprets the +dying cry as, "It is finished" (xix. 30), and preceding this it gives the +cry, "I thirst" (xix. 28), which led to the offering of the vinegar of +which the first two gospels speak. Earlier it tells of the committal of +Mary to the care of the beloved disciple (xix. 26, 27). Of these seven +sayings, "Eloi," "I thirst," "Father, into thy hand I commend my spirit," +and "It is finished" belong to the last hours of the life of the crucified +one, after the darkness of which the first three gospels speak had +overshadowed the land. Of the cause of that darkness they give no hint, +for Luke's expression cannot mean an eclipse, since an eclipse at Passover +time, that is, at full moon, is an impossibility. The conjecture that +dense clouds hid the sun is common, and is as suitable as any other. +Whatever the cause, the evangelists saw in it a token of nature's awe at +the death of the Son of God. During the hours of the darkness the waves +swept over his soul, as the cry "my God" shows to our reverent thought. +But the last word of trust proves that the dying Jesus was not forsaken, +and that Calvary, like Gethsemane, was a battle won. The earlier sayings +all express Jesus' continued spirit of ministry, showing even in his +bitter pain his accustomed thoughtfulness for others' need. + +206. It is futile to speculate on the cause of Jesus' early death. He +certainly suffered a much shorter time than was ordinarily the case, as +appears in the fact that at sunset it was necessary to break the legs of +the robbers so as to hasten death, Jesus having already been some time +dead. There is something attractive in the theory of Dr. Stroud (The +Physical Cause of Christ's Death) that Jesus died of rupture of the heart. +It may have been true, but the evidences on which he based his argument +are insufficient for proof. To the Jews the death of their victim did not +give all the satisfaction they desired. In the first place, Pilate +insisted on mocking them by posting over the head of Jesus the placard, +"The King of the Jews" (see John xix. 19-22); moreover, their haste had +brought the crime into close proximity to the feast which they were eager +to keep from defilement; so that they had still to beg of Pilate that he +would hasten the death of the victims, that their bodies might not remain +to desecrate the following Sabbath sanctity (John xix. 31-37); while for +those who witnessed it the death of Jesus deepened the impression that a +hideous crime had been committed in the slaughter of an innocent man (Mark +xv. 39). + +207. Among the bystanders few of the disciples of Jesus were to be +found--they were hiding in fear. Yet some faithful women, and two +courageous councillors of Jerusalem, were bold enough to make their +loyalty known. These two men, Joseph of Arimathea and Nicodemus, were +members of the sanhedrin, but they had had no part in the condemnation of +Jesus; and after knowing that he was dead, Joseph begged of Pilate the +body, and he and Nicodemus took Jesus down from the cross and laid him in +a tomb which Joseph owned near the place of crucifixion, rendering such +tender ministries as were possible in the closing hours of the day. The +women who had witnessed his end meanwhile were arranging also to anoint +the body. They took notice where the two friends had laid him, and then +went away to rest on the Sabbath day, according to the commandment. + +208. To the Jews it was a high day, the first Sabbath in the eight days of +their holy feast (John xix. 31). They had eagerly guarded their conduct +that no ceremonial defilement might prevent their sharing in the paschal +feast. They believed that they had rid their nation of a dangerous +disturber of its peace, and men whose conscience shrank not from making +God's house a house of merchandise, who would punish one who ventured to +cure a mortal disease if it chanced to cross their Sabbath traditions, who +had condemned to death the holiest man and godliest teacher the world had +ever seen because he did not square with their heartless formalism,--such +men hardly had conscience enough to feel repentance or remorse for the +cowardly injustice and crime with which of their own choice they had +reddened their hands (Matt, xxvii. 25). They doubtless kept their feast +with satisfaction. Not a few hearts, however, were heavy with grief and +disappointed hope. They had believed that Jesus "was he that should redeem +Israel" (Luke xxiv. 21). Stunned, they could not throw away the faith +which he had kindled in their hearts. Yet he was dead, and only faintly, +if at all, did they recall his prediction of suffering and his certainty +of triumph through it all (John xx. 9). What remained for them was the +last tender ministry to their dead Lord. + + Outline of Events after the Resurrection + + + _The day of the resurrection--Sunday_. The visit of the women to the + tomb--Matt. xxviii. 1-8; Mark xvi. 1-8; Luke xxiv. 1-12; John xx. 1-10. + + Jesus' first appearance; to Mary--Matt. xxviii. 9 10; [Mark xvi. 9-11]; + John xx. 11-18. + + The report of the watch--Matt. xxviii. 11-15. + + The appearance to Simon Peter--I. Cor. xv. 5. + + The walk to Emmaus--[Mark xvi 12,13]; Luke xxiv. 13-35. + + The appearance to the ten in the evening--[Mark xvi. 14]; Luke xxiv. + 36-43; John xx. 19-25; I. Cor. xv. 5. + + _One week later--Sunday_. The appearance to the eleven, with + Thomas--John xx. 26-29. + + _Later appearances_. To seven disciples by the sea of Galilee--John + xxi. 1-24. + + To a company of disciples in. Galilee--Matt, xxviii. 16-20; [Mark xvi. + 15-18]; I. Cor. xv. 6. + + The appearance to James--I. Cor. xv. 7. + + To the disciples in Jerusalem, followed by the ascension--Mark xvi. 19, + 20; Luke xxiv. 44-53; Acts i. 1-12; I. Cor. xv. 7. + + + +IX + +The Resurrection + + + +209. Christianity as a historic religious movement starts from the +resurrection of Jesus from the dead. This is very clear in the preaching +and writings of Paul. The first distinctively Christian feature in his +address at Athens is his statement that God had designated Jesus to be +the judge of men by having "raised him from the dead" (Acts xvii. 31), and +for him the resurrection was the demonstration of the divinity of Christ +(Rom. i. 4), and the confirmation of the Christian hope (I. Cor. xv.). +With him the prime qualification for an apostle was that he should have +seen the risen Lord (I. Cor. ix. 1). The early preaching as recorded in +Acts shows the same feature, for after repeated testimony to the fact that +God had raised up Jesus, Peter summed up his address with the declaration, +"Let all the house of Israel therefore know assuredly, that God hath made +him both Lord and Christ, this Jesus whom ye crucified" (Acts ii. 36). In +fact the buoyancy of hope and confidence of faith which gave to the +despised followers of the Nazarene their strength resulted directly from +the experiences of the days which followed the deep gloom that settled +over the disciples when Jesus died. + +210. It can but seem strange to us that after Jesus had so often foretold +his death and the resurrection which should follow it, his disciples were +thrown into despair by the cross. Joseph of Arimathea and Nicodemus when +they embalmed his body may not have known of these teachings which Jesus +gave to the nearer circle of his followers, but it is difficult to believe +that the women who prepared their spices to anoint his body (Mark xvi. 1) +had heard nothing of these predictions, and it is certain that the +apostles who received with incredulity the first news of the resurrection +were the men whom Jesus had sought to prepare for this glorious victory. +The disciples do not seem to have finished "questioning among themselves +what the rising again from the dead should mean" (Mark ix. 10, compare +Luke xviii. 34) until Jesus himself explained it by his return to them +after his crucifixion. It was formerly common to conclude from the +scepticism of the disciples that Jesus could not have told them, as he is +reported to have done, that he would rise again the third day. It is now +widely conceded, however, that if he foresaw and foretold his death, he +surely coupled with it a promise of resurrection, otherwise he must have +surrendered his own conviction that he was Messiah; for a Messiah taken +and held captive by death was apparently as foreign to Jesus' thought as +it was unthinkable for the men of his generation. The inability of the +disciples to adjust their Messianic ideas to the death of their Master was +not removed by the rebuke Jesus administered to Peter at Caesarea Philippi; +their objections were only silenced. It would seem that even when they saw +his death to be inevitable, they were simply dumb with hope that in some +way he would come off victor; the cross and the tomb crushed out that +hope--at least from most of them. If one disciple, his closest friend, +recalled and believed his words when he saw the empty tomb (John xx. 8), +others were cast into still deeper sorrow by the report, and could only +say, "But we hoped that it was he which should redeem Israel" (Luke xxiv. +21). + +211. The light which banished the gloom from the hearts of Jesus' +followers dawned suddenly. There was no time for gradual readjustment of +ideas and the springing of hope from a faith which would not die. The +uniform early tradition is that Jesus showed himself alive to his +disciples "on the third day," that is, a little over thirty-six hours from +the time of his death. Not only the gospels, but Paul, who wrote many +years before our evangelists, testify to this (I. Cor. xv. 4), as does the +very early observance of the first day of the week as "the Lord's day," +and the substitution of "the third day" for "after three days" in the +gospels which made use of our Gospel of Mark (compare parallels with Mark +viii. 81; ix. 31; x. 34, and see Holtzmann, NtTh I. 309). Of the events +which occurred on that third day and after, our earliest account is that +of Paul. He gives a simple catalogue of the appearances of the risen Lord, +referring to them as well known, in fact as the familiar subject matter of +his earliest teaching (I. Cor. xv. 4-8). He gives definite date to none of +these appearances, indicating only their sequence. He tells of six +different manifestations, beginning with an appearance to Cephas on the +third day, then to the twelve, then to a large company of +disciples,--above five hundred,--then to James, then to all the apostles. +The sixth in the list is his own experience, which he puts in the same +class with the appearances of the first Easter morning. Two of these +instances are found only in Paul's account, the appearance to James and to +the five hundred brethren, though this last may probably be the same as is +referred to in the Gospel of Matthew (xxviii. 16-20). + +212. The gospel records are much fuller, but they differ from each other +even more than they do from Paul. Mark is unhappily incomplete, for the +last twelve verses in that gospel, as we have it, are lacking in the +oldest manuscripts, and were probably written by a second-century +Christian named Aristion, as a substitute for the proper end of the gospel +which seems by some accident to have been lost. These twelve verses are +clearly compiled from our other gospels. They have value as indicating the +currency of the complete tradition in the early second century, but they +contribute nothing to our knowledge of the resurrection. All, then, that +Mark tells is that the women who came early on the first day of the week +to anoint the body of Jesus found the tomb open and empty, and saw an +angel who bade them tell the disciples that the Lord had risen. How the +record originally continued no one knows, for Matthew and Luke use the +same general testimony up to the point where Mark breaks off, and then go +quite different ways. Of the two Matthew is closer to Mark than is Luke. +The first gospel adds to the record of the second an account of an +appearance of Jesus to the women as they went to report to the disciples, +and then tells of the meeting of Jesus with the disciples on a mountain in +Galilee, and his parting commission to them. It gives no account of the +ascension. Luke agrees with Mark in general concerning the visit of the +women to the tomb, the angelic vision, and the report to the disciples. He +says nothing of an appearance of Jesus to the women on their flight from +the tomb, but, if xxiv. 12 is genuine (see R.V. margin), he, like John, +tells of Peter's visit to the sepulchre. + +213. Luke further reports the appearances of Jesus to two on their way to +Emmaus, to Simon, and to the eleven in Jerusalem,--this last being blended +consciously or unconsciously with the final meeting of Jesus with the +disciples before his ascension. The genuine text of the gospel (xxiv. 50) +says nothing of the ascension itself, but clearly implies it. In contrast +with Matthew it is noticeable that Luke shows no knowledge of any +appearance of Jesus to his disciples in Galilee. John is quite independent +of Mark, as well as of Matthew and Luke. He mentions only Mary Magdalene +in connection with the early visit to the tomb, though perhaps he implies +the presence of others with her ("we" in xx. 2). He tells of a visit of +Peter and John to the tomb, of an appearance of Jesus to Mary Magdalene, +of an appearance to ten of the disciples in the evening, and a week later +to the eleven, including Thomas. So far this gospel makes no reference to +appearances in Galilee; but in the appendix (chapter xxi.) there is added +a manifestation to seven disciples as they were fishing on the Sea of +Galilee. + +214. Criticism which seeks to discredit the gospels, for instance most +recently Reville in his "Jesus de Nazareth," discovers two separate and +mutually exclusive lines of tradition,--one telling of appearances in +Galilee, represented by Mark and the last chapter in John, the other +telling of appearances in or near Jerusalem, and found in Luke and the +twentieth chapter of John. It is said that the gospels have sought to +blend the two cycles, as when Matthew tells of an appearance to the women +in Jerusalem on their way from the tomb, and when the last chapter of John +adds to the original gospel a Galilean appearance. Luke, however, who +makes no reference at all to Galilean manifestations, is taken to prove +that originally the one cycle knew nothing of the other. This theory +falls, however, before the uniform tradition of appearances on the third +day, which must have been in Jerusalem, and the very early testimony of +Paul to an appearance to above five hundred brethren at once, which could +not have been in Judea. It need not surprise us that there should have +been two cycles of tradition, not however mutually exclusive, if Jesus did +appear both in Jerusalem and in Galilee. The same kind of local interest +which is supposed to explain the one-sidedness of the synoptic story of +the public ministry would easily account for one line of tradition which +reported Galilean appearances, and another which reported those in +Jerusalem. Luke may have had access to information which furnished him +only the Jerusalem story. John and Peter, however, must have known the +wider facts. The very divergences and seeming contradictions of the +gospels, troublesome as they are, indicate how completely certainty +regarding the fact of the resurrection removed from the thought of the +apostolic day nice carefulness concerning the testimony to individual +manifestations of the risen Lord. Doubtless the first preaching rested, as +in the case of Paul, on a simple "I have seen the Lord." When later the +detailed testimony was wanted for written gospels, it had suffered the lot +common to orally transmitted records, and divergences had sprung up which +it is no longer possible for us to resolve. They do not, however, +challenge the fact which lies behind all the varied testimony. + +215. A general view of the events of that third day and those which +followed can be constructed from our gospels and Paul. Early on the first +day of the week certain women, including Mary Magdalene, Mary the mother +of James and Joses, Salome, Joanna, and others, came to anoint the body of +Jesus. On their arrival they found that the stone had been rolled back +from the tomb. Mary Magdalene saw that the grave was empty and ran to tell +Peter and John. The others saw also a vision of angels which said that +Jesus was alive and would see his disciples in Galilee, and ran to report +this to the disciples. Meanwhile Mary Magdalene returned, following Peter +and John who ran to see the tomb, and found it empty as she had said. She +lingered after they left, and Jesus appeared to her, she mistaking him at +first for the gardener. She then went to tell the disciples that she had +seen the Lord. These events evidently occurred in the early morning. The +next incident reported is that of the walk of two disciples, not of the +twelve, to Emmaus, and the appearance of Jesus to them. At first they did +not recognize him, not even when he taught them out of the scriptures the +necessity that the Messiah should die. He was made known when at evening +he sat down with them to a familiar meal. Either before or after this +event he had shown himself to Peter. This is the first manifestation +reported by Paul. If Luke xxiv. 12 is genuine (see R.V. margin), he also +tells that when the two again reached Jerusalem the apostles received them +with the news that Peter had seen the Lord. That same evening Jesus +appeared suddenly among the disciples in their well-guarded upper room. +His coming was such that he had to convince the disciples that he was not +simply a disembodied spirit. Luke says that he did this by bidding them +handle him, and by eating part of a fish before them. According to John, +Thomas was not with the others at this first meeting with the disciples. A +week later, presumably in Jerusalem, Jesus again manifested himself to the +little company, Thomas being with them, and dispelled the doubt of that +disciple who loved too deeply to indulge a hope which might only +disappoint. He had but to see in order to believe, and make supreme +confession of his faith. The next appearance was probably that to the +seven disciples by the Sea of Galilee, when Peter, who denied thrice, was +thrice tested concerning his love for his Lord. Then apparently followed +the meeting on the mountain reported in Matthew, which was probably the +same as the appearance to the five hundred brethren; then, probably still +in Galilee, Jesus appeared to his brother James, who from that time on was +a leader among the disciples. The next manifestation of which record is +preserved was the final one in Jerusalem, after which Jesus led his +disciples out as far as Bethany and was separated from them, henceforth to +be thought of by them as seated at the right hand of God. + +216. This construction of the story as given in the New Testament does +violence to the accounts in one particular. It holds that Matthew's report +of the meeting of Jesus with the women on their way from the tomb on +Easter morning is to be identified with his meeting with Mary Magdalene. +This can be done only if it is supposed that in the transmission of the +tradition the commission given the women by the angel (Mark xvi. 6f.) +became blended with the message given to Mary by the Lord (John xx. 17), +the result being virtually the same for the religious interest of the +first Christians, while for the historic interest of our days it +constitutes a discrepancy. The difficulty is less on this supposition than +on any other. It is highly significant that the account of the most +indubitable fact in the view of the early Christians is the most difficult +portion of the gospels for the exact harmonist to deal with. This is not +of serious moment for the historical student. It is rather a warning +against theoretical ideas of inspiration. + +217. The universal acknowledgment that the early Christians firmly +believed in the resurrection of their Lord has made the origin of that +firm conviction a question of primary importance. The simple facts as set +forth in the New Testament serve abundantly to account for the faith of +the early church, but they not only involve a large recognition of the +miraculous, they also contain perplexities for those who do not stumble at +the supernatural; hence there have been many attempts to find other +solutions of the problem. Some of the explanations offered may be +dismissed with a word: for instance, those which, in one form or other, +renew the old charge found in the first gospel, that the disciples stole +the body of Jesus, and then declared that he had risen; and those which +assume that the death of Jesus was apparent only, that he fainted on the +cross, and then the chill of the night air and of the sepulchre served to +revive him, so that in the morning he was able to leave the tomb and +appear to his disciples as one risen from the dead. This apparent-death +theory involves Jesus in an ugly deception, while the theory that the +disciples or any group of them removed the body of Jesus and then gave +currency to the notion that he had risen, builds the greatest ethical and +religious movement known to history on a lie. A slightly different +explanation which was very early suggested was that the Jews themselves, +or perhaps the gardener, had the body removed, and that when Mary found +the tomb empty she let her faith conclude that his absence must be due to +his resurrection. + +218. This last explanation has in recent times been revived in connection +with the so-called vision-hypothesis by Renan and Reville. Mary found the +tomb empty, and being herself of a highly strung nervous nature--she had +been cured by Jesus of seven devils--by thinking about the empty tomb she +soon worked herself into an ecstasy in which her eyes seemed to behold +what her heart desired to see. She communicated her vision to the others, +and by a sort of nervous contagion, they, too, fell to seeing visions, and +it is the report of these that we have in the gospels. The +vision-hypothesis takes with some, Strauss for instance, a different form. +These deny that the tomb was found empty at all, and regard this story as +a contribution of the later legend-making spirit. They hold that the +disciples fled from Jerusalem as soon as the death of Jesus was an assured +fact, and not until after they found themselves amid the familiar scenes +of Galilee, did their faith recover from the shock it had received in +Jerusalem. In Galilee the experiences of their life with Jesus were lived +over again, and the old confidence in him as Messiah revived. Thus +thinking about the Lord, their hearts would say, "He cannot have died," +and after a while their faith rose to the conviction which declared, "He +is not dead;" then they passed into an ecstatic mood and visions followed +which are the germ out of which the gospel stories have grown. + +219. These different forms of the vision-hypothesis have been subjected to +most searching criticism by Keim, who is all the more severe because his +own thought has so much that is akin to them. There are two objections +which refute the hypothesis. The first is that the uniform tradition +which connects the resurrection and the first appearances with the "third +day" after the crucifixion leaves far too short a time for the recovery of +faith and the growth of ecstatic feeling which are requisite for these +visions, even supposing that the disciples' faith had such recuperative +powers. The second is that once such an ecstatic mood was acquired it +would be according to experience in analogous cases for the visions to +continue, if not to increase, as the thought of the risen Lord grew more +clear and familiar; yet the tradition is uniform that the appearances of +the risen Christ ceased after, at most, a few weeks. The only later one +was that which led to the conversion of Paul; and though Paul was a man +somewhat given to ecstatic experiences (see II. Cor. xii.), he carefully +distinguishes in his own thought his seeing of the Lord and his heavenly +visions. In a word, the disciples of Jesus never showed a more healthy, +normal life than that which gave them strength to found a church of +believers in the resurrection in the face of persecution and scorn. + +220. Keim seeks to avoid the difficulties which his own acute criticism +disclosed in the ordinary vision-theory, by another which rejects the +gospel stories as legendary, yet frankly acknowledges that the faith of +the apostles in the resurrection was based on a miracle. Their certainty +was so unshakable, so uniform, so abiding, that it can be accounted for +only by acknowledging that they did actually see the Lord. This seeing, +however, was not with the eyes of sense, but with the spiritual vision, +which properly perceives what pertains to the spirit world into which the +glorified Lord had withdrawn when he died. In his spiritual estate he +manifested himself to his disciples, by a series of divinely caused and +therefore essentially objective visions, in which he proved to them +abundantly that he was alive, was victor over death, and had been exalted +by God to his right hand. This theory is not in itself offensive to faith. +It concedes that the belief of the disciples rested on actual disclosures +of himself to them by the glorified Lord. The difficulty with the theory +is that it relegates the empty tomb to the limbo of legend, though it is a +feature of the tradition which is found in all the gospels and clearly +implied in Paul (I. Cor. xv. 4; compare Rom. vi. 4); it also fails to show +how this glorified Christ came to be thought of by the disciples as +_risen_, rather than simply glorified in spirit. This criticism brings us +back to the necessity of recognizing a resurrection which was in some real +sense corporeal, difficult as that conception is for us. The gospels +assert this with great simplicity and delicate reserve. They represent +Jesus as returning to his disciples with a body which was superior to the +limitations which hedge our lives about. It may be well described by +Paul's words, "It is sown a natural body; it is raised a spiritual body." +Yet the records indicate that when he willed Jesus could offer himself to +the perception of other senses than sight and hearing--"handle me and see" +is not an invitation that we expect from a spiritual presence. If, +however, we have to confess an unsolved mystery here, and still more in +the record of his eating in the presence of the disciples (Luke xxiv. +41-43), it is permitted us to own that our knowledge of the possible +conditions of the fully perfected life are not such as to warrant great +dogmatism in criticising the account. The empty tomb, the objective +presence of the risen Jesus, the renewed faith of his followers, and their +new power are established data for our thought. With these, many of the +details may be left in mystery, because we have not yet light sufficient +to reveal to us all that we should like to know. + +221. The ascension of the risen Christ to his Father is the presupposition +of all the New Testament teaching. The Acts, the Epistles, and the +Apocalypse join in the representation that he is now at the right hand of +God. In fact it may be said that such a view is involved in the doctrine +of the resurrection, for the very idea of that victory was that death had +no more dominion over him. It is a fact, however, that none of our gospels +in their correct text (see Luke xxiv. 51, R.V. margin) tell of the +ascension. Luke clearly implies it, and John says that Jesus told Mary to +tell the disciples that he was about to ascend to his Father and their +Father. In Luke's later book, however (Acts i. 1-11), he gives a full +account of a last meeting of Jesus with the disciples, and of +his ascension to heaven before their eyes. This withdrawal in the cloud +must be understood as an acted parable; for, in reality, there is no +reason for thinking that the clouds which hung over Olivet that day were +any nearer God's presence than the ground on which the disciples stood. +For them, however, such a disappearance would signify vividly the +cessation of their earthly intercourse with their Lord, and his return to +his home with the Father. The word of Jesus to Mary (John xx. 17) may +fairly be interpreted to mean that Jesus had ascended to the Father on +the day of the resurrection, and that each of his subsequent +manifestations of himself were like that which later he granted to Paul +near Damascus. In fact it is easier to view the matter in this way than to +conceive of Jesus as sojourning in some hidden place for forty days after +his resurrection. What the disciples witnessed ten days before Pentecost +was a withdrawal similar to those which had separated him from them +frequently during the recent weeks, only now set before their eyes in such +a way as to tell them that these manifestations had reached an end; they +must henceforth wait for the other representative of God and Christ, the +Spirit, given to them at Pentecost. + +222. The faith with which the disciples waited for the promised spirit was +a very different faith from that which Peter confessed for his fellows at +Caesarea Philippi. It had the same supreme attachment to a personal friend +who had proved to be God's Anointed; the same readiness to let him lead +whithersoever he would; the same firm expectation of a restitution of all +things, in which God should set up his kingdom visibly, with Jesus as the +King of men. Now, however, their trust was much fuller than before, and +they looked for a still more glorious kingdom when their friend and Lord +should come from heaven to assume his reign. They expected Christ to +return soon in glory, yet his death and victory made them ready to endure +any persecution for him, certain that, like the sufferings which he +endured, it would lead to victory. These disciples had no idea that in +preaching a religion of personal attachment to their Master, in filling +all men's thoughts with his name, in building all hope on his return, and +guiding all life by his teaching and spirit, they were cutting their +moorings from the religion of their fathers. They remained loyal to the +law, they were constant in the worship; but they had poured new wine into +the bottles, and in time it proved the inadequacy of the old forms and +revolutionized the world's religious life. + + + + + +Part III + +The Minister + + + + +I + +The Friend of Men + + + +223. In nothing does the contrast between Jesus and John the Baptist +appear more clearly than in their attitude towards common social life. +John had his training and did his work apart from the homes of men. The +wilderness was his chosen and fit scene of labor. From this solitude he +sent forth his summons and warning to his people. They who sought him for +fuller teaching went after him and found him where he was. They then +returned to their homes and their work, leaving the prophet with his few +disciples in their seclusion. With Jesus it was otherwise. His first act, +after attaching to himself a few followers, was to go into Galilee to the +town of Cana, and there with them to partake in the festivities of a +wedding. While it is true that most of his teaching was by the wayside, +among the hills, or by the sea, it is still a surprise to discover how +often his ministry found its occasion as he was sitting at table in the +house of some friend, real or feigned. The genuine friendships of Jesus as +they appear in the gospels are among the most characteristic features of +his life--witness the home at Bethany, the women who followed him even to +the cross, and ministered to him of their substance, and the "beloved +disciple." Jesus calls attention to this contrast between himself and +John, reminding the people how some of the scornful pointed the finger at +himself as "a gluttonous man and a wine-bibber, a friend of publicans and +sinners." He received his training as a carpenter while John was in his +wilderness solitude. Men who would probably have stood with admiration +before John had he visited their synagogue, found Jesus too much one of +themselves, and would none of him as a prophet (Mark vi. 2, 3). + +224. A like contrast sets Jesus apart from the scribes of his day. These +were revered by the people, in part perhaps because they held the common +folk in such contempt. Their attitude was frank--"this multitude which +knoweth not the law is accursed" (John vii. 49). The popular enthusiasm +for Jesus filled them with scorn, until it began to give them alarm. They +were glad to be reverenced by the people, to interpret the law for them +"binding heavy burdens and grievous to be borne;" but showed little +genuine interest in them. Jesus, on the other hand, not only had the +reverence of the multitudes, but welcomed them. First his words and his +works drew them, then he himself enchained their hearts. Outcasts, rich +and poor, crowded into his company, and found him not only a teacher, a +prophet of righteousness rebuking their sins and calling to repentance, +but a friend, who was not ashamed to be seen in their homes, to have them +among his closest attendants, and to be known as their champion. It was +when such as these were pressing upon him to hear him that Jesus replied +to the criticism of the scribes in the three parables of recovered +treasure which stand among the rarest gems of the Master's teaching (Luke +xv.). + +225. One class only in the community failed of his sympathy,--the +self-righteous hypocrites, who thought that godliness consisted in +scrupulous regard for pious ceremonies, and that zeal was most laudable +when directed to the removal of motes from their brothers' eyes. For these +Jesus had words of rebuke and burning scorn. It has been common with some +to emphasize his friendship for the poor as if he chose them for their +poverty, and the unlettered for their ignorance. Yet Jesus had no faster +friends than the women who followed from Galilee and ministered to him of +their substance, and the two sanhedrists, Joseph whose new tomb received +his body, and Nicodemus whose liberality provided the spices which +embalmed him; for these, and not the Galilean fishermen, were faithful to +the last at the cross and at the grave. In no home did Jesus find a fuller +or more welcome friendship than in Bethany, where all that is told us of +its conditions suggests the opposite of poverty. The rich young ruler, who +showed his too great devotion to his possessions, would hardly have sought +out Jesus with his question, if he was known as the champion of poverty as +in itself essential to godliness. The demand made of him surprised him, +and was suited to his special case. Jesus saw clearly the difficulties +which wealth puts in the way of faith, but he recognized the power of God +to overcome them, and when Zaccheus turned disciple, the demand for +complete surrender of possessions was not repeated. On the contrary Jesus +taught his disciples that even "the unrighteous mammon" should be used to +win friends (Luke xvi. 9), so ministering unto some of "the least of these +my brethren" (Matt. xxv. 40). The beatitude in Luke's report of the +sermon on the mount (Luke vi. 20) was not for the poor as poor simply, but +for those poor folk lightly esteemed who had spiritual sense enough to +follow Jesus, while the well-to-do as a class were content with the +"consolation" already in hand. Jesus' interest was in character, wherever +it was manifest, whether in the repentance of a chief of the publicans, or +in the widow woman's gift of "all her living;" whether it appeared in the +hunger for truth shown by Nicodemus, a teacher of Israel, or in the woman +that was a sinner who washed his feet with her tears. He was the great +revealer of the worth of simple humanity, in man, woman, or child. Our +world has never seen another who so surely penetrated all masks or +disguising circumstances and found the man himself, and having found him +loved him. + +226. This sympathy for simple manhood was manifested in a genuine interest +in the common life of men in business, pleasure, or trouble. It is +significant that the first exercise of his miraculous power should have +been to relieve the embarrassment of his host at a wedding feast. +Doubtless we are to understand that the miracle had a deeper purpose than +simply supplying the needed wine (John ii. 11); but the significant thing +is that Jesus should choose to manifest his glory in this way. It shows a +genuine appreciation of social life quite impossible to an ascetic like +the Baptist. The same appears in the way Jesus allowed his publican +apostle to introduce him to his former associates, to the great scandal of +the Pharisees; for a feast at which Jesus and a number of publicans were +the chief guests accorded not with religion as they understood it. Jesus, +however, seems to have found it a welcome opportunity to seek some of his +lost sheep. The illustrations which he used in his teaching were often his +best introduction to the common heart, for they were drawn from the +occupations of the people who came to listen; while the aid Jesus gave to +his disciples in their fishing showed not only his power, but also his +respect for their work, a respect further proved when he called them to be +fishers of men. + +227. Beyond this interest in life's joy and its occupations was that +unfailing sympathy with its troubles which drew the multitudes to him. He +was far more than a healer; he studied to rid the people of the idea that +he was a mere miracle-monger. He healed them because he loved them, and he +asked of those who sought his help that they too should feel the personal +relation into which his power had brought them. This seems to be in part +the significance of his uniform demand for faith. Doubtless Mary, out of +whom he had cast seven devils, and Simon the leper, who seems to have +experienced his power to heal, are only single instances of many who found +in him far more than at first they sought. No further record remains of +the paralytic who carried off his bed, but left the burden of his sins +behind, nor of the woman who loved much because she had been forgiven +much, nor of the Samaritan whose life he uncovered that he might be able +to give her the living water. Some who had his help for body or heart may +have gone away forgetful, after the fashion of men, but in the company of +those who were bold to bear his name after his resurrection there must +have been many who could not forget. + +228. Jesus' interest in common life was genuine, and he entered into it +with his heart. The incident of the anointing of his feet as he sat a +guest in a Pharisee's house shows that he was keenly sensitive to the +treatment he received at the hands of men. He had nothing to say of the +slights his host had shown him, until that host began mentally to +criticise the woman who was ministering to him in her love and penitence. +Then with quiet dignity Jesus mentioned the several omissions of courtesy +which he had noticed since he came in, contrasting the woman's attention +with Simon's neglect (Luke vii. 36-50). One of the saddest things about +Gethsemane was Jesus' vain pleading with his disciples for sympathy in his +awful hour. They were too much dazed with awe and fear to lend him their +hearts' support. He recognized indeed that it was only a weakness of the +flesh; yet he craved their friendship's help, and repeatedly asked them to +watch with him, for his soul was exceeding sorrowful. In contrast with +this disappointment stands the joy with which Jesus heard from Peter the +confession which proved that the falling off of popular enthusiasm had not +shaken the loyalty of his chosen companions,--"Blessed art thou, Simon +Bar-Jonah: for flesh and blood have not revealed it unto thee, but my +Father which is in heaven" (Matt. xvi. 17). There is the sorrow of +loneliness as well as rebuke in his complaint, "O faithless generation, +how long shall I be with you? how long shall I bear with you?" (Mark ix. +19), and the lamentation over Jerusalem comes from a longing heart (Luke +xiii. 34). + +229. The independence of human sympathy which Jesus often showed is all +the more glorious for the evidence the gospels give of his longing for +it. When he put the question to the twelve, "Would ye also go away?" (John +vi. 67), there is no hint in his manner that their defection with the rest +would turn him at all from faithfully fulfilling the task appointed to him +by his Father. In fact only now and then did he allow his own hunger to +appear. Ordinarily he showed himself as the friend longing to help, but +not seeking ministry from others; he rather sought to win his disciples to +unselfishness by showing as well as saying that he came not to be +ministered unto but to minister. He washed the feet of his disciples to +rebuke their petty jealousies, but we have no hint that he showed that he +felt personal neglect. His own heart was full of "sorrow even unto death," +but his word was, "Let not your heart be troubled;" he asked in vain for +the sympathy of his nearest friends in Gethsemane, yet when the band came +to arrest him he pleaded, "Let these, the disciples, go their way." + + + + +II + +The Teacher with Authority + + + +230. To his contemporaries Jesus was primarily a teacher. The name by +which he is oftenest named in the gospels is Teacher,--translated Master +in the English versions and the equivalent of Rabbi in the language used +by Jesus (John i. 38). People thought of him as a rabbi approved of God by +his power to work miracles (John iii. 2), but it was not the miracles that +most impressed them. The popular comment was, "He taught them as one +having authority, and not as the scribes" (Matt. vii. 29). Two leading +characteristics of the scribes were their pride of learning, and their +bondage to tradition. In fact the learning of which they were proud was +knowledge of the body of tradition on whose sanctity they insisted; their +teaching was scholastic and pedantic, an endless citing of precedents and +discussion of trifles. To all this Jesus presented a refreshing contrast. +In commending truth to the people, he was content with a simple "verily," +and in defining duty he rested on his unsupported "I say unto you," even +when his dictum stood opposed to that which had been said to them of old +time. + +231. In this freedom from the bondage of tradition Jesus was not alone. +John the Baptist's message had been as simple and unsupported by appeal to +the elders. Jesus and John both revived the method of the older prophets, +and it is in large measure due to this that the people distinguished them +clearly from their ordinary teachers, and held them both to be prophets. +One thing involved in this authoritative method was a frank appeal to the +conscience of men. So completely had the scribes substituted memory of +tradition for appeal to the simple sense of right, that they were utterly +dazed when Jesus undertook to settle questions of Sabbath observance and +ceremonial cleanliness by asking his hearers to use their religious common +sense, and consider whether a man is not much better than a sheep, or +whether a man is not defiled rather by what comes out of his mouth than by +what enters into it (Matt. xii. 12; Mark vii. 15). Jesus was for his +generation the great discoverer of the conscience, and for all time the +champion of its dignity against finespun theory and traditional practice. +All his teaching has this quality in greater or less degree. It appears +when by means of the parable of the Good Samaritan he makes the lawyer +answer his own question (Luke x. 25-37), when he bids the multitude in +Jerusalem "judge not according to the appearance, but judge righteous +judgment" (John vii. 24), when he asks his inquisitors in the temple whose +image and superscription the coin they used in common business bears (Mark +xii. 16). His whole work in Galilee was proof of his confidence that in +earnest souls the conscience would be his ally, and that he could impress +himself on them far more indelibly than any sign from heaven could enforce +his claim. + +232. Jesus was not only independent of the traditions of the scribes, he +was also very free at times with the letter of the Old Testament. When by +a word he "made all meats clean" (Mark vii. 19), he set himself against +the permanent validity of the Levitical ritual. When the Pharisees pleaded +Moses for their authority in the matter of divorce, Jesus referred them +back of Moses to the original constitution of mankind (Matt. xix. 3-9). +His general attitude to the Sabbath was not only opposed to the traditions +of the scribes, it also disregarded the Old Testament conception of the +Sabbath as an institution. Yet Jesus took pains to declare that he came +not to set aside the old but to fulfil it (Matt. v. 17). The contrasts +which he draws between things said to them of old and his new teachings +(Matt. v. 21-48) look at first much like a doing away of the old. Jesus +did not so conceive them. He rather thought of them as fresh statements of +the idea which underlay the old; they fulfilled the old by realizing more +fully that which it had set before an earlier generation. He was the most +radical teacher the men of his day could conceive, but his work was +clearing rubbish away from the roots of venerable truth that it might bear +fruit, rather than rooting up the old to put something else in its place. + +233. The Old Testament was for Jesus a holy book. His mind was filled with +its stories and its language. In the teachings which have been preserved +for us he has made use of writings from all parts of the Jewish +scriptures--Law, Prophets, and Psalms. The Old Testament furnished him the +weapons for his own soul's struggle with temptation (Matt. iv. 4, 7, 10), +it gave him arguments for use against his opponents (Mark xii. 24-27; ii. +25-27), and it was for him an inexhaustible storehouse of illustration in +his teaching. When inquirers sought the way of life he pointed them to the +scriptures (Mark x. 19; see also John v. 39), and declared that the rising +of one from the dead would not avail for the warning of those who were +unmoved by Moses and the prophets (Luke xvi. 31). When Jesus' personal +attitude to the Old Testament is considered it is noticeable that while +his quotations and allusions cover a wide range, and show very general +familiarity with the whole book, there appears a decided predominance of +Deuteronomy, the last part of Isaiah, and the Psalms. It is not difficult +to see that these books are closer in spirit to his own thought than much +else in the old writings; his use of the scripture shows that some parts +appealed to him more than others. + +234. Jesus as a teacher was popular and practical rather than systematic +and theoretical. The freshness of his ideas is proof that he was not +lacking in thorough and orderly thinking, for his complete departure from +current conceptions of the kingdom of God indicates perfect mastery of +ethical and theological truth. It is all the more remarkable, therefore, +that so much of his profoundest teaching seems to have been almost +accidental. The most formal discourse preserved to us is the sermon on the +mount, in which human conduct is regulated by the thought of God as Father +and Searcher of hearts. For the rest the great ideas of Jesus have +utterance in response to specific conditions presented to him in his +ministry. His most radical sayings concerning the Sabbath followed a +criticism of his disciples for plucking ears of grain as they passed +through the fields on the Sabbath day (Mark ii. 23-28); his authority to +forgive sins was announced when a paralytic was brought to him for +healing (Mark ii. 1-12); so far as the gospels indicate, we should have +missed Jesus' clearest statement of the significance of his own death but +for the ambitious request of James and John (Mark x. 35-45). Examples of +the occasional character of his teaching might be greatly multiplied. He +did not seek to be the founder of a school; important as his teachings +were, they take a place in his work second to his personal influence on +his followers. He desired to win disciples whose faith in him would +withstand all shocks, rather than to train experts who would pass on his +ideas to others. His disciples did become experts, for we owe to them the +vivid presentation we have of the exalted and unique teaching of their +Master; but they were thus skilful because they surrendered themselves to +his personal mastery, and learned to know the springs of his own life and +thought. + +235. Nothing in the teaching of Jesus is more remarkable than his +confidence that men who believed in him would adequately represent him and +his message to the world. The parable of the Leaven seems to have set +forth his own method. We owe our gospels to no injunction given by him to +write down what he said and did. He impressed himself on his followers, +filled them with a love to himself which made them sensitive to his ideas +as a photographic plate is to light, teaching them his truth in forms that +did not at first show any effect on their thought, but were developed into +strength and clearness by the experiences of the passing years. Christian +ethics and theology are far more than an orderly presentation of the +teaching of Jesus; in so far as they are purely Christian they are the +systematic setting forth of truth involved, though not expressed, in what +he said and did in his ministry among men. His ideas were radical and +thoroughly revolutionary. His method, however, had in it all the patience +of God's working in nature, and the hidden noiseless power of an evolution +is its characteristic. Hence it was that he chose to teach some things +exclusively in figure. So great and unfamiliar a truth as the gradual +development of God's kingdom was unwelcome to the thought of his time. He +made it, therefore, the theme of many of his parables; and although the +disciples did not understand what he meant, the picture remained with +them, and in after years they grew up to his idea. + +236. Jesus' use of illustration is one of the most marked features of his +teaching. In one sense this simply proves him to be a genuine Oriental, +for to contemplate and present abstract truths in concrete form is +characteristic of the Semitic mind. In the case of Jesus, however, it +proves more: the variety and homeliness of his illustrations show how +completely conversant he was alike with common life and with spiritual +truth. There is a freedom and ease about his use of figurative language +which suggests, as nothing else could, his own clear certainty concerning +the things of which he spoke. The fact, too, that his mind dealt so +naturally with the highest thoughts has made his illustrations unique for +profound truth and simple beauty. Nearly the whole range of figurative +speech is represented in his recorded words, including forms like irony +and hyperbole, often held to be unnatural to such serious speech as his. + +237. Another figure has become almost identified with the name of +Jesus,--such abundant and incomparable use did he make of it. Parable +was, however, no invention of his, for the rabbis of his own and later +times, as well as the sages and prophets who went before them, made use of +it. As distinguished from other forms of illustration, the parable is a +picture true to actual human life, used to enforce a religious truth. The +picture may be drawn in detail, as in the story of the Lost Son (Luke xv. +11-32), or it may be the concisest narration possible, as in the parable +of the Leaven (Matt. xiii. 33); but it always retains its character as a +narrative true to human experience. It is this that gives parable the +peculiar value it has for religious teaching, since it brings unfamiliar +truth close home to every-day life. Like all the illustrations used by +Jesus, the parable was ordinarily chosen as a means of making clear the +spiritual truth which he was presenting. Illustration never finds place as +mere ornament in his addresses. His parables, however, were sometimes used +to baffle the unteachable and critical. Such was the case on the occasion +in Jesus' life when attention is first called in the gospels to this mode +of teaching (Mark iv. 1-34). The parable of the Sower would mean little to +hearers who held the crude and material ideas of the kingdom which +prevailed among Jesus' contemporaries. It was used as an invitation to +consider a great truth, and for teachable disciples was full of suggestion +and meaning; while for the critical curiosity of unfriendly hearers it was +only a pointless story,--a means adopted by Jesus to save his pearls from +being trampled under foot, and perhaps also to prevent too early a +decision against him on the part of his opponents. + +238. In nothing is Jesus' ease in handling deepest truth more apparent +than in his use of irony and hyperbole in his illustrations. In his +reference to the Pharisees as "ninety and nine just persons which need no +repentance" (Luke xv. 7), and in his question, "Many good works have I +shewed you from the Father, for which of these works do you stone me?" +(John x. 32), the irony is plain, but not any plainer than the rhetorical +exaggeration of his accusation against the scribes, "You strain out a gnat +and swallow a camel" (Matt, xxiii. 24), or his declaration that "it is +easier for a camel to go through a needle's eye than for a rich man to +enter into the kingdom of God" (Mark x. 25), or his charge, "If a man +cometh unto me and hateth not his own father and mother ... he cannot be +my disciple" (Luke xiv. 26). The force of these statements is in their +hyperbole. Only to an interpretation which regards the letter above the +spirit can they cause difficulty. In so far as they remove Jesus utterly +from the pedantic carefulness for words which marked the scribes they are +among the rare treasures of his teachings. The simple spirit will not busy +itself about finding something that may be called a needle's eye through +which a camel can pass by squeezing, nor will it seek a camel which could +conceivably be swallowed, nor will it stumble at a seeming command to hate +those for whom God's law, as emphasized indeed by Jesus (Mark vii. 6-13), +demands peculiar love and honor. The childlike spirit which is heir of +God's kingdom readily understands this warning against the snare of +riches, this rebuke of the hypocritical life, and this demand for a love +for the Master which shall take the first place in the heart. + +239. Jesus sometimes used object lessons as well as illustrations, and +for the same purpose,--to make his thought transparently clear to his +hearers. The demand for a childlike faith in order to enter the kingdom of +God was enforced by the presence of a little child whom Jesus set in the +midst of the circle to whom he was talking (Mark ix. 35-37). The unworthy +ambitions of the disciples were rebuked by Jesus' taking himself the +menial place and washing their feet (John xiii. 1-15). + +240. The simplicity and homeliness of Jesus' teaching are not more +remarkable than the alertness of mind which he showed on all occasions. +The comment of the fourth gospel, "he needed not that any one should bear +witness concerning man, for he himself knew what was in man" (ii. 25), +doubtless refers to his supernatural insight, but it also tells of his +quick perception of what was involved in each situation in which he found +himself. Whether it was Nicodemus coming to him by night, or the lawyer +asking, "Who is my neighbor?" or a dissatisfied heir demanding that his +brother divide the inheritance with him, or a group of Pharisees seeking +to undermine his power by attributing his cures to the devil, or trying to +entrap him by a question about tribute, Jesus was never caught unawares. +His absorption in heavenly truth was not accompanied by any blindness to +earthly facts. He knew what the men of his day were thinking about, what +they hoped for, to what follies they gave their hearts, and what sins hid +God from them. He was eminently a man of the people, thoroughly acquainted +with all that interested his fellows, and in the most natural, human way. +Whatever of the supernatural there was in his knowledge did not make it +unnatural. As he was socially at ease with the best and most cultivated +of his day, so he was intellectually the master of every situation. This +appears nowhere more strikingly than in his dealing with his pharisaic +critics. When they were shocked by his forgiveness of sins, or offended by +his indifference to the Sabbath tradition, or goaded into blasphemy by his +growing influence over the people, or troubled by his disciples' disregard +of the traditional washings, or when later they conspired to entrap him in +his speech,--from first to last he was so manifestly superior to his +opponents that they withdrew discomfited, until at length they in madness +killed, without reason, him against whom they could find no adequate +charge. His lack of "learning" (John vii. 15) was simply his innocence of +rabbinic training; he had no diploma from their schools. In keenness of +argument, however, and invincibleness of reasoning, as well as in the +clearness of his insight, he was ever their unapproachable superior. His +reply to the charge of league with Beelzebub is as merciless an exposure +of feeble malice as can be found in human literature. He was as worthy to +be Master of his disciples' thinking as he was to be Lord of their hearts. + +241. In the teaching of Jesus two topics have the leading place,--the +Kingdom of God, and Himself. His thought about himself calls for separate +consideration, but it may be remarked here that as his ministry progressed +he spoke with increasing frankness about his own claims. It became more +and more apparent that he sought to be Lord rather than Teacher simply, +and to impress men with himself rather than with his ideas. Yet his ideas +were constantly urged on his disciples, and they were summed up in his +conception of the kingdom of God, or the kingdom of heaven. This was the +topic, directly or indirectly, of far the greater part of his teaching. +The phrase was as familiar to his contemporaries as it is common in his +words; but his understanding of it was radically different from theirs. He +and they took it to mean the realization on earth of heavenly conditions +(kingdom of heaven), or of God's actual sovereignty over the world +(kingdom of God); but of the God whose will was thus to be realized they +conceived quite differently. Strictly speaking there is nothing novel in +the idea of God as Father which abounds in the teaching of Jesus. He never +offers it as novel, but takes it for granted that his hearers are familiar +with the name. It appears in some earlier writers both in and out of the +Old Testament. Yet no one of them uses it as constantly, as naturally, and +as confidently as did Jesus. With him it was the simple equivalent of his +idea of God, and it was central for his personal religious life as well as +for his teaching. "My Father" always lies back of references in his +teaching to "your Father." This is the key to what is novel in Jesus' idea +of the kingdom of God. His contemporaries thought of God as the covenant +king of Israel who would in his own time make good his promises, rid his +people of their foes, set them on high among the nations, establish his +law in their hearts, and rule over them as their king. The whole +conception, while in a real sense religious, was concerned more with the +nation than with individuals, and looked rather for temporal blessings +than for spiritual good. With Jesus the kingdom is the realization of +God's fatherly sway over the hearts of his children. It begins when men +come to own God as their Father, and seek to do his will for the love +they bear him. It shows development towards its full manifestation when +men as children of God look on each other as brothers, and govern conduct +by love which will no more limit itself to friends than God shuts off his +sunlight from sinners. From this love to God and men it will grow into a +new order of things in which God's will shall be done as it is in heaven, +even as from the little leaven the whole lump is leavened. Jesus did not +set aside the idea of a judgment, but while his fellows commonly made it +the inauguration, he made it the consummation of the kingdom; they thought +of it as the day of confusion for apostates and Gentiles, he taught that +it would be the day of condemnation of all unbrotherliness (Matt. xxv. +31-46). This central idea--a new order of life in which men have come to +love and obey God as their Father, and to love and live for men as their +brothers--attaches to itself naturally all the various phases of the +teaching of Jesus, including his emphasis on himself; for he made that +emphasis in order that, as the Way, the Truth, and the Life, he might lead +men unto the Father. + + + + +III + +Jesus' Knowledge of Truth + + + +242. The note of authority in the teaching of Jesus is evidence of his own +clear knowledge of the things of which he spoke. As if by swift intuition, +his mind penetrated to the heart of things. In the scriptures he saw the +underlying truth which should stand till heaven and earth shall pass +(Matt. v. 18); in the ceremonies of his people's religion he saw so +clearly the spiritual significance that he did not hesitate to sacrifice +the passing form (Mark vii. 14-23); such a theological development as the +pharisaic doctrine of the resurrection he unhesitatingly adopted because +he saw that it was based on the ultimate significance of the soul's +fellowship with God (Mark xiii. 24-27); he reduced religion and ethics to +simplicity by summing up all commandments in one,--Thou shalt love (Matt. +xxii. 37-40); and at the same time insisted as no other prophet had done +on the finality of conduct and the necessity of obedience (Matt. vii. +21-27). His penetration to the heart of an idea was nowhere more clear +than in his doctrine of the kingdom of God as realized in the filial soul, +and as involving a judgment which should take cognizance only of +brotherliness of conduct. It would not be difficult to show that all these +different aspects of his teaching grew naturally out of his knowledge of +God as his Father and the Father of all men; they were the fruit, +therefore, of personal certainty of ultimate and all-dominating truth. + +243. If the knowledge of Jesus had been shown only in matters of spiritual +truth, it would still have marked him as one apart from ordinary men. +There were other directions, however, in which he surpassed the common +mind. The fourth gospel declares that "he knew what was in man" (ii. 25), +and all the evangelists give evidence of such knowledge. Not only the +designation of Judas as the traitor, and of Peter as the one who should +deny him, before their weakness and sin had shown themselves, but also +Jesus' quick reading of the heart of the paralytic who was brought to him +for healing, and of the woman who washed his feet with her tears (Mark ii. +5; Luke vii. 47), and his knowledge of the character of Simon and +Nathanael (John i. 42, 47,) as well as his sure perception of the intent +of the various questioners whom he met, indicate that he had powers of +insight unshared by his fellow men. + +244. Furthermore, the gospels state explicitly that Jesus predicted his +own death from a time at least six months before the end (Matt. xvi. 21), +and they indicate that the idea was not new to him when he first +communicated it to his disciples (Matt. xvi. 23; Mark ii. 20). He viewed +his approaching death, moreover, as a necessity (Mark viii. 31-33), yet he +was no fatalist concerning it. He could still in Gethsemane plead with his +Father, to whom all things are possible, to open to him some other way of +accomplishing his work (Mark xiv. 36). The old Testament picture of the +suffering and dying servant of Jehovah (Isa. liii.) was doubtless +familiar to Jesus. Although it was not interpreted Messianically by the +scribes, Jesus probably applied it to himself when thinking of his death; +yet the predictions of the prophets always provided for a non-fulfilment +in case Israel should turn unto the Lord in truth (see Ezek. xxxiii. +10-20). Moreover, the contradiction which Jesus felt between his ideas and +those cherished by the leaders of his people, whether priests or scribes, +was so radical that his death might well seem inevitable; yet it was +possible that his people might repent, and Jerusalem consent to accept him +as God's anointed. Neither prophecy, nor the actual conditions of his +life, therefore, would give Jesus any fatalistic certainty of his coming +death. In Gethsemane his heart pleaded against it, while his will bowed +still to God in perfect loyalty. It is not for us to explain his +prediction of death by appealing to the connection which the apostolic +thought established between the death of Christ and the salvation of men, +for we are not competent to say that God could not have effected +redemption in some other way if the repentance of the Jews had, humanly +speaking, removed from Jesus the necessity of death. All that can be said +is that he knew the prophetic picture, knew also the hardness of heart +which had taken possession of the Jews, and knew that he must not swerve +from his course of obedience to what he saw to be God's will for him. +Since that obedience brought him into fatal opposition to human prejudice +and passion, he saw that he must die, and that such a death was one of the +steps in his establishment of God's kingdom among men. So he went on his +way ready "not to be ministered unto but to minister, and to give his +life a ransom for many" (Mark x. 45). + +245. With his prediction of his death the gospels usually associate a +prophecy of his speedy resurrection. As has been already remarked (sect. +210), it is being generally recognized that if Jesus believed that he was +the Messiah, he must have associated with the thought of death that of +victory over death, which for all Jewish minds meant a resurrection from +the dead. Jesus certainly taught that his death was part of his Messianic +work, it could not therefore be his end. The prediction of the +resurrection is the necessary corollary of his expectation of death; and +it may reverently be believed that his knowledge of it was intimately +involved with his certainty that it was as Messiah that he was to die. + +246. From the time when he began to tell his disciples that he must die, +Jesus began also to teach that his earthly ministry was not to finish his +work, but that he should return in glory from heaven to realize fully all +that was involved in the idea of God's kingdom. His predictions resemble +in form the representations found in the Book of Daniel and the Book of +Enoch; and the understanding of them is involved in difficulties like +those which beset such apocalyptic writings. In general, apocalypses were +written in times of great distress for God's people, and represented the +deliverance which should usher in God's kingdom as near at hand. One +feature of them is a complete lack of perspective in the picture of the +future. It may be that this fact will in part account for one great +perplexity in the apocalyptic sayings of Jesus. In the chief of these +(Mark xiii. and parallels), predictions of the destruction of Jerusalem +are so mingled with promises of his own second coming and the end of all +things that many have sought to resolve the difficulty by separating the +discourse into two different ones,--one a short Jewish apocalypse +predicting the destruction of Jerusalem and the coming of the Son of Man +within the life of that generation; the other, Jesus' own prediction of +the end of all things, concerning which he warns his disciples that they +be not deceived, but watch diligently and patiently for God's full +salvation. The difficulties of this discourse as it stands are so great +that any solution which accounts for all the facts must be welcomed. So +far as this analysis seeks to remove from the account of Jesus' own words +the references to a fulfilment of the predictions within the life of that +generation, it is confronted by other sayings of Jesus (Mark ix. 1) and by +the problem of the uniform belief of the apostolic age that he would +speedily return. That belief must have had some ground. What more natural +than that words of Jesus, rightly or wrongly understood, led to the common +Christian expectation? Some such analysis may yet establish itself as the +true solution of the difficulties; it may be, however, that in adopting +the apocalyptic form of discourse, Jesus also adopted its lack of +perspective, and spoke coincidently of future events in the progress of +the kingdom, which, in their complete realization at least, were widely +separated in time. In such a case it would not be strange if the disciples +looked for the fulfilment of all of the predictions within the limit +assigned for the accomplishment of some of them. + +247. Whatever the explanation of these difficulties, the gospels clearly +represent Jesus as predicting his own return in glory to establish his +kingdom,--a crowning evidence of his claim to supernatural knowledge. It +is all the more significant, therefore, that it is in connection with his +prediction of his future coming that he made the most definite declaration +of his own ignorance: "Of that day or that hour knoweth no one, not even +the angels in heaven, neither the Son, but the Father" (Mark xiii. 32). +This confession of the limitation of his knowledge is conclusive. Yet it +is not isolated. With his undoubted power to read "what was in man," he +was not independent of ordinary ways of learning facts. When the woman was +healed who touched the hem of his garment, Jesus knew that his power had +been exercised, but he discovered the object of his healing by asking, +"Who touched me?" and calling the woman out from the crowd to acknowledge +her blessing (Mark v. 30-34); when the centurion urged Jesus to heal his +boy without taking the trouble to come to his house, Jesus "marvelled" at +his faith (Matt. viii. 10); when he came to Bethany, assured of his +Father's answer to his prayer for the raising of Lazarus, he asked as +simply as any other one in the company, "Where have ye laid him?" (John +xi. 34). It should not be forgotten that his knowledge of approaching +death, resurrection, and return in glory did not prevent the earnest +pleading in Gethsemane, and it may be that his reply to the ambition of +James and John, it "is not mine to give" (Mark x. 40), is a confession of +ignorance as well as subordination to his Father. + +248. The supernatural knowledge of Jesus, so far as its exercise is +apparent in the gospels, was concerned with the truths intimately related +to his religious teaching or his Messianic work. There is no evidence +that it occupied itself at all with facts of nature or of history +discovered by others at a later day. When he says of God that "he maketh +his sun to rise on the evil and the good" (Matt. v. 45), there is no +evidence that he thought of the earth and its relation to the sun +differently from his contemporaries; it is probable that his thought +anticipated Galileo's discovery no more than do his words. Much the same +may be said with reference to the purely literary or historical questions +of Old Testament criticism, now so much discussed. If it is proved by just +interpretation of all the facts that the Pentateuch is only in an ideal +sense to be attributed to Moses, and that many of the psalms inscribed +with his name cannot have been written by David, the propriety of Jesus' +references to what "Moses said" (Mark vii. 10), and the validity of his +argument for the relative unimportance of the Davidic descent of the +Messiah, will not suffer. Had Jesus had in mind the ultimate facts +concerning the literary structure of the Pentateuch, he could not have +hoped to hold the attention of his hearers upon the religious teaching he +was seeking to enforce, unless he referred to the early books of the Old +Testament as written by Moses. Jesus did repeatedly go back of Moses to +more primitive origins (Mark x. 5, 6; John vii. 22); yet there is no +likelihood that the literary question was ever present in his thinking. +This phase of his intellectual life, like that which concerned his +knowledge of the natural universe, was in all probability one of the +points in which he was made like unto his brethren, sharing, as matter of +course, their views on questions that were indifferent for the spiritual +mission he came to fulfil. If this was the case, his argument from the one +hundred and tenth Psalm (Mark xii. 35-37) would simply give evidence that +he accepted the views of his time concerning the Psalm, and proceeded to +use it to correct other views of his time concerning what was of most +importance in the doctrine of the Messiah. The last of these was of vital +importance for his teaching; the first was for this teaching quite as +indifferent a matter as the relations of the earth and the sun in the +solar system. + +249. A more perplexing difficulty arises from his handling of the cases of +so-called demoniac possession. He certainly treated these invalids as if +they were actually under the control of demons: he rebuked, banished, gave +commands to the demons, and in this way wrought his cures upon the +possessed. It has already been remarked that the symptoms shown in the +cases cured by Jesus can be duplicated from cases of hysteria, epilepsy, +or insanity, which have come under modern medical examination. Three +questions then arise concerning his treatment of the possessed. 1. Did he +unquestioningly share the interpretation which his contemporaries put upon +the symptoms, and simply bring relief by his miraculous power? 2. Did he +know that those whom he healed were not afflicted by evil spirits, and +accommodate himself in his cures to their notions? 3. Does he prove by his +treatment that the unfortunates actually were being tormented by +diabolical agencies, which he banished by his word? The last of these +possibilities should not be held to be impossible until much more is known +than we now know about the mysterious phenomena of abnormal psychical +states. If this is the explanation of the maladies for Jesus' day, +however, it should be accepted also as the explanation of similar abnormal +symptoms when they appear in our modern life, for the old hypothesis of a +special activity of evil spirits at the time of the incarnation is +inadequate to account for the fact that in some quarters similar maladies +have been similarly explained from the earliest times until the present +day. If, however, he knew his people to be in error in ascribing these +afflictions to diabolical influence, he need have felt no call to correct +it. If the disease had been the direct effect of such a delusion, Jesus +would have encouraged the error by accommodating himself to the popular +notion. The idea of possession, however, was only an attempt to explain +very real distress. Jesus desired to cure, not to inform his patients. The +notion in no way interfered with his turning the thought of those he +healed towards God, the centre of help and of health. He is not open, +therefore, to the charge of having failed to free men from the thraldom of +superstition if he accommodated himself to their belief concerning +demoniac possession. His cure, and his infusion of true thoughts of God +into the heart, furnished an antidote to superstition more efficacious +than any amount of discussion of the truth or falseness of the current +explanation of the disease. On the other hand, if we are not ready to +conclude that the action of Jesus has demonstrated the validity of the +ancient explanation, we may acknowledge that it would do no violence to +his power, or dignity, or integrity, if it should be held that he did not +concern himself with an inquiry into the cause of the disease which +presented itself to him for help, but adopted unquestioningly the +explanation held by all his contemporaries, even as he used their +language, dress, manner of life, and in one particular, at least, their +representation of the life after death (Luke xvi. 22--Abraham's bosom). +His own confession of ignorance of a large item of religious knowledge +(Mark xiii. 32) leaves open the possibility that in so minor a matter as +the explanation of a common disease he simply shared the ideas of his +time. In this case, when one so afflicted came under his treatment, he +applied his supernatural power, even as in cases of leprosy or fever, and +cured the trouble, needing no scientific knowledge of its cause. If +accommodation or ignorance led Jesus to treat these sick folk as +possessed, it does not challenge his integrity nor his trustworthiness in +all the matters which belong properly to his own peculiar work. + +250. There is one incident in the gospels which favors the conclusion that +Jesus definitely adopted the current idea,--the permission granted by him +to the demons to go from the Gadarene into the herd of swine, and the +consequent drowning of the herd (Mark v. 11-13). On any theory this +incident is full of difficulty. Bernhard Weiss (LXt II. 226 ff.) holds +that Jesus accommodated himself to current views, and that the man, having +received for the possessing demons permission to go into the swine, was at +once seized by a final paroxysm, and rushed among the swine, stampeding +them so that they ran down the hillside into the sea. + +251. In recent years the view has been somewhat widely advocated that his +power over demoniacs was to Jesus himself one of the chief proofs of his +Messiahship. His words are quoted: "If I, by the Spirit of God, cast out +demons, then is the kingdom of God come upon you" (Matt. xii. 28); and "I +beheld Satan falling as lightning from heaven" (Luke x. 18). The first of +these is in the midst of an _ad hominem_ reply of Jesus to the charge that +he owed his power to a league with the devil (Matt. xii. 28); and the +second was his remark when the seventy reported with joy that the demons +were subject unto them (Luke x. 18). The gospels, however, trace his +certainty of his Messiahship to quite other causes, primarily to his +knowledge of himself as God's child, then to the Voice which, coming at +the baptism, summoned him as God's beloved Son to do the work of the +Messiah. Throughout his ministry Jesus exhibits a certainty of his mission +quite independent of external evidences,--"Even if I bear witness of +myself, my witness is true; for I know whence I came and whither I go" +(John viii. 14). + + + + +IV + +Jesus' Conception of Himself + + + +252. When Jesus called forth the confession of Peter at Caesarea Philippi +he brought into prominence the question which during the earlier stages of +the Galilean ministry he had studiously kept in the background. This is no +indication, however, that he was late in reaching a conclusion for himself +concerning his relation to the kingdom which he was preaching. From the +time of his baptism and temptation every manifestation of the inner facts +of his life shows unhesitating confidence in the reality of his call and +in his understanding of his mission. This is the case whether the fourth +gospel or the first three be appealed to for evidence. It is generally +felt that the Gospel of John presents its sharpest contrast to the +synoptic gospels in respect of the development of Jesus' self-disclosures. +A careful consideration of the first three gospels, however, shows that +the difference is not in Jesus' thought about himself. + +253. The first thing which impressed the people during the ministry in +Galilee was Jesus' assumption of authority, whether in teaching or in +action (Mark i. 27; Matt. vii. 28, 29). His method of teaching +distinguished him sharply from the scribes, who were constantly appealing +to the opinion of the elders to establish the validity of their +conclusions. Jesus taught with a simple "I say unto you." In this, +however, he differed not only from the scribes, but also from the +prophets, to whom in many ways he bore so strong a likeness. They +proclaimed their messages with the sanction of a "Thus saith the Lord;" he +did not hesitate to oppose the letter of scripture as well as the +tradition of the elders with his unsupported word (Matt. v. 38, 39; Mark +vii. 1-23). His teaching revealed his unhesitating certainty concerning +spiritual truth, and although he reverenced deeply the Jewish scriptures, +and knew that his work was the fulfilment of their promises, he used them +always as one whose superiority to God's earlier messengers was as +complete as his reverence for them. He was confident that what they +suggested of truth he was able to declare clearly; he used them as a +master does his tools. + +254. More striking than Jesus' independence in his teaching is the +calmness of his self-assertion when he was opposed by pharisaic criticism +and hostility. He preferred to teach the truth of the kingdom, working his +cures in such a way that men should think about God's goodness rather than +their healer's significance. Yet coincidently with this method of his +choice he did not hesitate to reply to pharisaic opposition with +unqualified self-assertion and exalted personal claim. Even if the +conflicts which Mark has gathered together at the opening of his gospel +(ii. 1 to iii. 6) did not all occur as early as he has placed them, the +nucleus of the group belongs to the early time. Since the people greatly +reverenced his critics, he felt it unnecessary to guard against arousing +undue enthusiasm by this frank avowal of his claims. He consequently +asserted his authority to forgive sins, his special mission to the sick in +soul whom the scribes shunned as defiling, his right to modify the +conception of Sabbath observance; even as, later, he warned his critics of +their fearful danger if they ascribed his good deeds to diabolical power +(Mark iii. 28-30), and as, after the collapse of popularity, he rebuked +them for making void the word of God by their tradition (Mark vii. 13). +His attitude to the scribes in Galilee from the beginning discloses as +definite Messianic claims as any ascribed by the fourth gospel to this +early period. + +255. These facts of the independence of Jesus in his teaching and his +self-assertion in response to criticism confirm the impression that his +answer to John the Baptist (Matt. xi. 2-6) gives the key to his method in +Galilee. In John's inquiry the question of Jesus' personal relation to the +kingdom was definitely asked. The answer, "Blessed is he whosoever shall +find none occasion of stumbling in me," showed plainly that Jesus was in +no doubt in the matter, although for the time he still preferred to let +his ministry be the means of leading men to form their conclusions +concerning him. What he brought into prominence at Caesarea Philippi, +therefore, was that which had been the familiar subject of his own +thinking from the time of his baptism. + +256. In the ministry subsequent to the confession of Peter the +self-disclosures of Jesus became more frequent and clear. His predictions +of his approaching death were at the time the greatest difficulty to his +disciples; when considered in their significance for his own life, +however, they prove that his conviction of his Messiahship was as +independent of current and inherited ideas as was his teaching concerning +the kingdom. When he came to see that death was the inevitable issue of +his work, he at once discovered in it a divine necessity; it does not seem +to have shaken in the least his certainty that he was the Messiah. +Associated with this conception of his death is the conviction which +appears in all the later teachings, that in rejecting him his people were +pronouncing their own doom. Because she would not accept him as her +deliverer, Jerusalem's "house was left unto her desolate" (Luke xiii. 35). +His sense of his supreme significance appears most clearly in some of the +later parables, such as The Marriage of the King's Son (Matt. xxii. 1-14) +and The Wicked Husbandmen (Matt. xxi. 33-44), which definitely connect the +condemnation of the chosen people with their rejection of God's Son. Two +other sayings in the first three gospels express the personal claim of +Jesus in the most exalted form,--his declaration on the return of the +seventy: "All things have been delivered unto me of my Father, and no man +knoweth who the Son is save the Father, and who the Father is save the +Son, and he to whomsoever the Son willeth to reveal him" (Luke x. 22; +Matt. xi. 27); and his confession of the limits of his own knowledge: "But +of that day and hour knoweth no one, not even the angels in heaven, +neither the Son, but the Father" (Mark xiii. 32). The confession of +ignorance, by the position given to the Son in the climax which denied +that any save the Father had a knowledge of the time of the end, is quite +as extraordinary as the claim to sole qualification to reveal the Father. + +257. The similarity of these last two sayings to the discourses in the +fourth gospel has often been remarked; the likeness is particularly close +between them and the claims of Jesus recorded in the fifth chapter of +John. It is interesting to note that in the incident which introduces the +discourse in that chapter Jesus shows that he preferred, after healing the +man at the pool, to avoid the attention of the multitudes, precisely as in +Galilee he sought to check too great popular excitement by withdrawing +from Capernaum after his first ministry there (Mark i. 35-39), and +enjoining silence on the leper who had been healed by him (Mark ii. 44). +When, however, he found himself opposed by the criticism of the Pharisees +he spoke with unhesitating self-assertion and exalted personal claim, even +as he did in like situations in Galilee. During his earlier ministry in +Judea he had not shown this reserve. The cleansing of the temple, although +it was no more than any prophet sure of his divine commission would have +done, was a bold challenge to the people to consider who he was who +ventured thus to criticise the priestly administration of God's house. In +his subsequent dealings with Nicodemus and the Samaritan woman Jesus +manifested a like readiness to draw attention to himself. From the time of +the feeding of the multitudes all four of the gospels represent him as +asserting his claims, with this difference, however, that in John it is +the rule rather than the exception to find sayings similar to the two in +which the self-assertion in the other gospels reaches its highest +expression. Although the method of Jesus varied at different times and in +different localities, yet it is evident that he stood before the people +from the first with the consciousness that he had the right to claim +their allegiance as no one of the prophets who preceded him would have +been bold to do. + +258. During the course of his ministry Jesus used of himself, or suffered +others to use with reference to him, many of the titles by which his +people were accustomed to refer to the Messiah. Thus he was named "the +Messiah" (Mark viii. 29; xiv. 61; John iv. 26); "the King of the Jews" +(Mark xv. 2; John i. 49; xviii. 33, 36, 37); "the Son of David" (Mark x. +47, 48; Matt. xv. 22; xxi. 9, 15); "the Holy One of God" (John vi. 69; +compare Mark i. 24); "the Prophet" (John vi. 14; vii. 40). It is evident +that none of these titles was common; they represent, rather, the bold +venture of more or less intelligent faith on the part of men who were +impressed by him. There are two names, however, that are more significant +of Jesus' thought about himself,--"the Son of God" and "the Son of Man." + +259. The latter of these titles is unique in the use Jesus made of it. +Excepting Stephen's speech (Acts vii. 56), it is found in the New +Testament only in the sayings of Jesus, and its precise significance is +still a subject of learned debate. The expression is found in the Old +Testament as a poetical equivalent for Man, usually with emphasis on human +frailty (Ps. viii. 4; Num. xxiii. 19; Isa. li. 12), though sometimes it +signifies special dignity (Ps. lxxx. 17). Ezekiel was regularly addressed +in his visions as Son of Man (Ezek. ii. 1 and often; see also Dan. viii. +17), probably in contrast with the divine majesty. + +260. In one of Daniel's visions (vii. 1-14) the world-kingdoms which had +oppressed God's people and were to be destroyed were symbolized by beasts +that came up out of the sea,--a winged lion, a bear, a four-headed winged +leopard, and a terrible ten-horned beast; in contrast with these the +kingdom of the saints of the Most High was represented by "one like unto a +son of man," who came with the clouds of heaven (vii. 13, 14). Here the +language is obviously poetic, and is used to suggest the unapproachable +superiority of the kingdom of heaven to the kingdoms of the world. The +expression "one like unto a son of man" is equivalent, therefore, to "one +resembling mankind." The vision in Daniel had great influence over the +author of the so-called Similitudes of Enoch (Book of Enoch, chapters +xxxvii. to lxxi.). He, however, personified the "one like unto a son of +man," and gave the title "the Son of Man" to the heavenly man who will +come at the end of all things, seated on God's throne, to judge the world. +This author used also the titles "the Elect One" and "the Righteous One" +(or "the Holy One of God"), but "the Son of Man" is the prevalent name for +the Messiah in these Similitudes. + +261. The facts thus stated do not account for Jesus' use of the +expression. Many of his sayings undoubtedly suggest a development of the +Daniel vision resembling that in the Similitudes. This does not prove that +Jesus or his disciples had read these writings, though it does suggest the +possibility that they knew them. It is probable, however, that the +apocalypses gave formulated expression to thoughts that were more widely +current than those writings ever came to be. The likeness between the +language of Jesus and that found in the Similitudes may therefore prove no +more than that the Daniel vision was more or less commonly interpreted of +a personal Messiah in Jesus' day. + +262. Much of the use of the title by Jesus, however, is completely foreign +to the ideas suggested by Enoch and Daniel. Besides apocalyptic sayings +like those in Enoch (Mark viii. 38 and often), the name occurs in +predictions of his sufferings and death (Mark viii. 31 and often), and in +claims to extraordinary if not essentially divine authority (Mark ii. 10, +28 and parallels); it is also used sometimes simply as an emphatic "I" +(Matt. xi. 19 and often). Whatever relation Jesus bore to the Enoch +writings, therefore, the name "the Son of Man" as he used it was his own +creation. + +263. Students of Aramaic have in recent years asserted that it was not +customary in the dialect which Jesus spoke to make distinction between +"the son of man" and "man," since the expression commonly used for "man" +would be literally translated "son of man." It is asserted, moreover, that +if our gospels be read substituting "man" for "the Son of Man" wherever it +appears, it will be found that many supposed Messianic claims become +general statements of Jesus' conception of the high prerogatives of man, +while in other places the name stands simply as an emphatic substitute for +the personal pronoun. Thus, for instance, Jesus is found to assert that +authority on earth to forgive sins belongs to man (Mark ii. 10), and, +toward the end of his course, to have taught simply that he himself must +meet with suffering (Mark viii. 31), and will come on the clouds to judge +the world (Mark viii. 38). The proportion of cases in which the general +reference is possible is, however, very small; and even if the +equivalence of "man" and "son of man" should be established, most of the +statements of Jesus in which our gospels use the latter expression exhibit +a conception of himself which challenges attention, transcending that +which would be tolerated in any other man. The debate concerning the usage +in the language spoken by Jesus is not yet closed, however, and Dr. Gustaf +Dalman (WJ I. 191-197) has recently argued that the equivalence of the two +expressions holds only in poetic passages, precisely as it does in Hebrew, +and that our gospels represent correctly a distinction observed by Jesus +when they report him, for instance, as saying in one sentence, "the +Sabbath was made for man" (Mark ii. 27), and in the next, "the Son of Man +is lord even of the Sabbath." The antecedent probability is so great that +the dialect of Jesus' time would be capable of expressing a distinction +found in the Hebrew of the Old Testament and in the Syriac of the +second-century version of the New Testament, that Dalman's opinion carries +much weight. + +264. Many of those who look for a distinct significance in the title "the +Son of Man," find in it a claim by Jesus to be the ideal or typical man, +in whom humanity has found its highest expression. It thus stands sharply +in contrast with "the Son of God," which is held to express his claim to +divinity. So understood, the titles represent truth early recognized by +the church in its thought about its Lord. Yet it must be acknowledged that +the conception "the ideal man" is too Hellenic to have been at home in the +thought of those to whom Jesus addressed his teaching. If the phrase +suggested anything more to his hearers than the human frailty or the +human dignity of him who bore it, it probably had a Messianic meaning like +that found in the Similitudes of Enoch. A hint of this understanding of +the name appears in the perplexed question reported in John (xii. 34): "We +have heard out of the law that the Messiah abideth forever; and how sayest +thou, The Son of Man must be lifted up? who is this Son of Man?" Here the +difficulty arose because the people identified the Son of Man with the +Messiah, yet could not conceive how such a Messiah could die. In fact, if +the conception of the Son of Man which is found in Enoch had obtained any +general currency among the people, either from that book or independently +of it, it was so foreign to the earthly condition and manner of life of +the Galilean prophet, that it would not have occurred to his hearers to +treat his use of the title as a Messianic claim until after that claim had +been published in some other and more definite form. Their Son of Man was +to come with the clouds of heaven, seated on God's throne, to execute +judgment on all sinners and apostates; the Nazarene fulfilled none of +these conditions. The name, as used by Jesus, was probably always an +enigma to the people, at least until he openly declared its Messianic +significance in his reply to the high-priest's question at his trial (Mark +xiv. 62), and gave the council the ground it desired for a charge of +blasphemy against him. + +265. What did this title signify to Jesus? His use of it alone can furnish +answer, and in this the variety is so great that it causes perplexity. +"The Son of Man came eating and drinking" is his description of his own +life in contrast with John the Baptist (Matt. xi. 18, 19). "The Son of +Man hath not where to lay his head" was his reply to one over-zealous +follower (Matt. viii. 20). Unseemly rivalry among his disciples was +rebuked by the reminder that "even the Son of Man came not to be +ministered unto but to minister" (Mark x. 42-45). When it became needful +to prepare the disciples for his approaching death he taught them that +"the Son of Man must suffer many things ... and be killed, and after three +days rise again" (Mark viii. 31). On the other hand, the paralytic's cure +was made to demonstrate that "the Son of Man hath authority upon the earth +to forgive sins" (Mark ii. 10). Similarly it is the Son of Man who after +his exaltation shall come "in the glory of his Father with the holy +angels" (Mark viii. 38). In these typical cases the title expresses Jesus' +consciousness of heavenly authority as well as self-sacrificing ministry, +of coming exaltation as well as present lowliness; and the suffering and +death which were the common lot of other sons of men were appointed for +this Son of Man by a divine necessity. The name is, therefore, more than a +substitute for the personal pronoun; it expresses Jesus' consciousness of +a mission that set him apart from the rest of men. + +266. We do not know how Jesus came to adopt this title. Its association +with the predictions of his coming glory shows that he knew that in him +the Daniel vision was to have fulfilment. The predictions of suffering and +death, however, are completely foreign to that apocalyptic conception, +being akin rather, as Professor Charles has suggested, to the prophecies +of the suffering servant in the Book of Isaiah (Book of Enoch, p. +314-317). Moreover, it may not be fanciful to find in his claims to +heavenly authority a hint of the thought of the eighth Psalm, "Thou madest +him to have dominion over the works of thy hands; thou hast put all things +under his feet" (see Dalman WJ I. 218). Although the name expresses a +consciousness of dignity, vicarious ministry, and authority, similar to +thoughts found in Daniel, Isaiah, and the Psalms, it was not deduced from +these scriptures by any synthesis of diverse ideas. It rather indicates +that Jesus in his own nature realized a synthesis which no amount of study +of scripture would ever have suggested. He drew his conception of himself +from his own self-knowledge, not from his Messianic meditations. On his +lips, then, "the Son of Man" indicates that he knew himself to be the Man +whom God had chosen to be Lord over all (compare Dalman as above). The +lowly estate which contradicted the Daniel vision prevented Jesus' hearers +from recognizing in the title a Messianic claim; for him, however, it was +the expression of the very heart of his Messianic consciousness. + +267. If Jesus gave expression to his official consciousness when he used +the name "the Son of Man," the title "the Son of God" may be said to +express his more personal thought about himself. It is necessary to +distinguish between the meaning of this title to the contemporaries of +Jesus and his own conception of it. In the popular thought "the Son of +God" was the designation of that man whom God would at length raise up and +crown with dignity and power for the deliverance of his people. This +meaning followed from the Messianic interpretation of the second Psalm, in +which the theocratic king is called God's son (Ps. ii. 7). In another +psalm, which Jesus himself quotes (John x. 34), magistrates and judges are +called "sons of the Most High" (lxxxii. 6). Another Old Testament use +casts light on this,--the designation of Israel as God's son, his +firstborn (Ex. iv. 22; Hos. i. 10), with which may be compared a +remarkable expression in the so-called Psalms of Solomon (xviii. 4), "Thy +chastisement was upon us [that is, Israel] as upon a son, firstborn, only +begotten." In all these passages that which constitutes a man the son of +God is God's choice of him for a special work, while Israel collectively +bears the title to suggest God's fatherly love for the people he had taken +for his own. The Messianic title, therefore, described not a metaphysical, +but an official or ethical, relation to God. It is certainly in this sense +that the high-priest asked Jesus "Art thou the Messiah the son of the +Blessed?" (Mark xiv. 61), and that the crowd about the cross flung their +taunts at him (Matt, xxvii. 43), and the demoniacs proclaimed their +knowledge of him (Mark iii. 11; v. 7). The name must be interpreted in +this sense also in the confession of Nathanael (John i. 49); moreover, it +was not the coupling of the names "Messiah" and "son of the living God" in +Peter's confession that gave it its great significance for Jesus. In all +of these cases there is no evidence that there has been any advance over +the theocratic significance which made the title "the Son of God" fitting +for the man chosen by God for the fulfilment of his promises. + +268. The case is different with the name by which Jesus was called at his +baptism (Mark i. 11). The difference here, however, arises not from +anything in the name as used on this occasion, but from that in Jesus +which acknowledged and accepted the title. With Jesus the consciousness +that God was his Father preceded the knowledge that as "his Son" he was to +undertake the work of the Messiah. The force of the call at the baptism is +found in the response which his own soul gave to the word "Thou art my +Son." The nature of that response is seen in his habitual reference to God +as in a peculiar sense _his_ Father. The name "Father" for God was used by +him in all his teaching, and there is no evidence that he or any of his +hearers regarded it as a novelty. Psalm ciii. 13 and Isaiah lxiii. 16 +indicate that the conception was natural to Jewish thinking. The unique +feature in Jesus' usage is his careful distinction between the general +references to "your Father" and his constant personal allusions to "my +Father." Witness the reply to his mother in the temple (Luke ii. 49); his +word to Peter, "Flesh and blood hath not revealed it unto thee, but my +Father which is in heaven" (Matt. xvi. 17), his solemn warning, "Not every +one that saith unto me Lord, Lord, shall enter into the kingdom of heaven, +but he that doeth the will of my Father which is in heaven" (Matt. vii. +21), and the promise, "Every one who shall confess me before men ... him +will I also confess before my Father" (Matt. x. 32). In the fourth gospel +the same intimate reference is common: so, for example, the temple is "my +Father's house" (ii. 16), the Sabbath cure is defended because "my Father +worketh even until now" (v. 17), the cures are done "in My Father's name" +(x. 25), "I am the vine, and my Father is the husbandman" (xv. 1). This +mode of expression discloses a consciousness of unique filial relation to +God which is independent of, even as it was antecedent to, the +consciousness of official relation. + +269. The full name "the Son of God" was seldom applied by Jesus to +himself, the only recorded instances being found in the fourth gospel (v. +25; ix. 35?; x. 36; xi. 4). He frequently acquiesced in the use of the +title by others in addressing him (for example, John i. 49; Matt. xvi. 16; +xxvi. 63f.; Mark xiv. 61f.; Luke xxii. 70); but for himself he preferred +the simpler phrase "the Son." This mode of expression occurs often in +John, and is found also in the two passages, already noticed, in which the +other gospels give clearest expression to the extraordinary self-assertion +of Jesus (Matt. xi. 27; Luke x. 22; and Mark xiii. 32). In the first of +them his claim to be the only one who can adequately reveal God is founded +on the consciousness that the relation between himself and God is so +intimate that God alone adequately knows him, whom men were so ready to +set at nought, and he alone knows God. This relation, in which he and God +stand together in contrast with all other men, is expressed by the +unqualified names, "the Father" and "the Son." In the second passage Jesus +confessed the limitation of his knowledge, but again in such a way as to +set himself and God in contrast not only with men, but also with "the +angels in heaven." Such assertions as these indicate that he who, knowing +his full humanity, chose the title "the Son of Man" to express his +consciousness that he had been appointed by God to be the Messiah, was yet +aware in his inner heart that his relation to God was even closer than +that in which he stood to men. + +270. There is no word in John which goes beyond the two self-declarations +of Jesus which crown the record of the other evangelists, yet in the +fourth gospel the same claim to unique relation to God is more frequently +and frankly avowed. The most unqualified assertion of intimacy--"I and the +Father are one" (x. 30)--states what is clearly implied throughout the +gospel (so xiv. 6-11; xvi. 25; and particularly xvii. 21, "that they may +be one, even as we are one"). It has often been said, and truly, that this +claim to unity with the Father, taken by itself, signifies no more than +perfect spiritual and ethical harmony with God. Yet when the words are +considered in their connection, and more particularly when the two supreme +self-declarations in the synoptic gospels are associated with them, they +express a sense of relation to God so utterly unique, so strongly +contrasting the Father and the Son with all others, that we cannot +conceive of any other man, even the saintliest, taking like words upon his +lips. + +271. These titles in which Jesus gave expression to his official and his +personal consciousness present clearly the problem which he offers to +human thought. Jesus stands before us in the gospels as a man aware of +completest kinship with his brethren, yet conscious at the same time of +standing nearer to God than he does to men. + +272. It is highly significant that the gospel which records most fully the +claim of Jesus to be more closely related to God than he was to men, most +fully records also his definite acknowledgment of dependence on his +Father, and of that Father's supremacy over him and all others. "The Son +can do nothing of himself" (John v. 19), "I speak not from myself" (xiv. +10), "my Father is greater than all" (x. 29), "the Father is greater than +I" (xiv. 28),--these confessions join with the common reference to God as +"him that sent me" (v. 30 and often) in giving voice to his own spirit of +reverence. It appears as clearly in his habitual submission to his +Father's will,--"My meat is to do the will of him that sent me, and to +accomplish his work" (John iv. 34); "I am come down from heaven, not to do +mine own will, but the will of him that sent me" (John vi. 38). This +submission reached its fulness in the prayer of Gethsemane, recorded in +the earlier gospels,--"Father, all things are possible unto thee; remove +this cup from me: howbeit not what I will, but what thou wilt" (Mark xiv. +36). Jesus was a man of prayer; not only in Gethsemane, but also +throughout his ministry he habitually sought his Father in that communion +in which the soul of man finds its light and strength for life's duty. +When he was baptized (Luke iii. 21), after the first flush of success in +Capernaum (Mark i. 35), before choosing the twelve (Luke vi. 12), before +the question at Caesarea Philippi (Luke ix. 18), at the transfiguration +(Luke ix. 29), on the cross (Luke xxiii. 46),--at all the crises of his +life he turned to God in prayer. Moreover, prayer was his habit, for it +was after a night of prayer which has no connection with any crisis +reported for us (Luke xi. 1), that he taught his disciples the Lord's +prayer in response to their requests. The prayer beside the grave of +Lazarus (John xi. 41, 42) suggests that his miracles were often, if not +always (compare Mark ix. 29), preceded by definite prayer to God. His +habit of prayer was the natural expression of his trust in God. From the +resistance to the temptations in the wilderness to the last cry, "Father, +into thy hands I commend my spirit," his life is an example of childlike +faith in God. + +273. Yet throughout his life of obedience and trust Jesus never gave one +indication that he felt the need of penitence when he came before God. He +perceived as no one else has ever done the searching inwardness of God's +law, and demanded of men that they tolerate no lower ambition than to be +like God, yet he never breathed a sigh of conscious failure, or gave sign +that he blushed when the eternal light shone into his own soul. He was +baptized, but without confession of sin. He challenged his enemies to +convict him of sin (John viii. 46). Such a challenge might have rested on +a man's certainty that his critics did not know his inner life; but +hypocrisy has no place in the character of Jesus. The reply to the rich +young ruler, "Why callest thou me good?" (Mark x. 18), even if it was a +confession that freedom from past sin was still far less than that +absolute goodness that God alone possesses, simply sets in stronger light +his silence concerning personal failure, and his omission in all his +praying to seek forgiveness. It is probable, however, that that reply +deals not with the "good" as the "ethically perfect," but as the +"supremely beneficent," so that Jesus simply reminded the seeker after +life that God alone is the one to be approached as the Gracious and +Merciful One by sinful men (see Dalman WJ I. 277). Thus the reply becomes +a fresh expression of the reverence of Jesus, and still further emphasizes +his failure to confess his sinfulness. + +274. In all this thought about himself Jesus stands before us as a man, +conscious of his close kinship with his fellows. Like them he hungered and +thirsted and grew weary, like them he longed for friendship and for +sympathy, like them he trusted God and prayed to God and learned still to +trust when his request was denied. He stands before us also as a man +conscious of being anointed by God for the great work which all the +prophets had foretold, and of being fully equipped with authority and +power and the promise of unapproachable dignity. Of deep religious spirit +and great reverence for the scriptures of his people, he yet used these +scriptures as a master does his tools, to serve his work rather than to +instruct him in it. He drew his knowledge from within and from above, and +proclaimed his own fulfilment of the scriptures when he filled them with +new meaning. A man always devout, always at prayer, he is never seen, like +Isaiah, prostrate before the Most High, crying, "I am undone" (Isa. vi. +5). In his moments of greatest seriousness and most manifest communion +with heaven he looked to God as his nearest of kin, and felt himself a +stranger on the earth fulfilling his Father's will. He felt heaven to be +his home not simply by God's gracious promise, but by the right of +previous possession. His kinship with men was a condescension, his natural +fellowship was with God. + +275. The miracles with which the gospels have filled the record of Jesus' +life have caused perplexity to many, and they belong with other mysterious +things recorded for us in the story of the past or occurring under the +incredulous observation of our scientific generation. They all pale, +however, before the unaccountable exception presented to universal human +experience by this Man of Nazareth. It confronts us when we think of the +unschooled Jew who, in his thought of God, rose not only above all of his +generation, but higher than all who had gone before him, or have come +after, one who built on the foundation of the past a superstructure of +religion new, and simple, and clearly heavenly. It confronts us when we +think of this Man who believed that it was given to him to establish the +kingdom that should fill the whole earth, and who had the boldness and the +faith to ignore the opposition of all the world's wisdom and of all its +enthroned power, and to fulfil his task as the woman does who hides her +leaven in the meal, content to wait for years, or millenniums, until his +truth shall conquer in the realization of God's will on earth even as it +is done in heaven. It confronts us when we consider that the Man who has +shown his brethren what obedience means, who has taught them to pray, who +has been for all these centuries the Way, the Truth, the Life, by whom +they come to God, habitually claimed without shadow of abashment or +slightest hint of conscious presumption, a nature, a relation to God, a +freedom from sin, that other men according to the measure of their +godliness would shun as blasphemy. If the personal claim was true, and not +the blind pretence of vanity, the Jesus of the gospels is the exception to +the uniform fact of human nature, but he is no longer unaccountable; and +if his claim was true, his knowledge of the absolute religion, and his +choice of the irresistible propaganda, are no less extraordinary, but they +are not unaccountable. Paul, whose life was transformed and his thinking +revolutionized by his meeting with the risen Jesus, thought on these +things and believed that "the name which, is above every name" was his by +right of nature as well as by the reward of obedience (Phil. ii. 5-11). +John, who leaned on Jesus' breast during his earthly life, and who +meditated on the meaning of that life through a ministry of many decades, +came to believe that he whom he had seen with his eyes, heard with his +ears, handled with his hands, was, indeed, "the Word made flesh" (John i. +14), through whom the very God revealed his love to men. Through all the +perplexities of doubt, amidst all the obscurings of irrelevant +speculations, the hearts of men to-day turn to this Jesus of Nazareth as +their supreme revelation of God, and find in him "the Master of their +thinking and the Lord of their lives." + +"Lord, to whom shall we go? Thou hast the words of eternal life. And we +have believed and know that thou art the Holy One of God." + + + + +Appendix + +Books of Reference on the Life of Jesus + + + +1. A concise account of the voluminous literature on this subject maybe +found at the close of the article JESUS CHRIST by Zockler in +_Schaff-Herzog, Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge_. Of the earlier of +the modern works it is well to mention David Friedrich Strauss, _Das Leben +Jesu_ (2 vols. 1835), in which he sought to reduce all the gospel miracles +to myths. August Neander, _Das Leben Jesu Christi_, 1837, wrote in +opposition to the attitude taken by Strauss. Both of these works have been +translated into English. Ernst Renan, _Vie de Jesus_ (1863, 16th ed. +1879), translated, _The Life of Jesus_ (1863), is a charming, though often +superficial and patronizing, presentation of the subject. For vivid word +pictures of scenes in the life of Jesus his book is unsurpassed. Renan's +inability to appreciate the more serious aspects of the work of Christ +appears constantly, while his effort to discover romance in the life of +Jesus is offensive. More important than any of these is Theodor Keim, +_Geschichte Jesu von Nazara_ (1867-72, 3 vols.), translated, _The History +of Jesus of Nazara_ (1876-81, 6 vols.). The author rejects the fourth +gospel and holds that Matthew is the most primitive of the synoptic +gospels; he does not reject the supernatural as such, but reduces it as +much as possible by recognizing a legendary element in the gospels. When +the work is read with these peculiarities in mind, it is one of the most +stimulating and spiritually illuminating treatments of the subject. + +2. Critically more trustworthy, and exegetically very valuable, is +Bernhard Weiss, _Das Leben Jesu_ (3d ed. 1889, 2 vols.), translated from +the first ed., _The Life of Christ_ (1883, 3 vols.). It is more helpful +for correct understanding of details than for a complete view of the Life +of Jesus. Rivalling Weiss in many ways, yet neither so exact nor so +trustworthy, though more interesting, is Willibald Beyschlag, _Das Leben +Jesu_ (3d ed. 1893, 2 vols.). The most important discussion in English is +Alfred Edersheim, _The Life and Times of Jesus the Messiah_ (1883 and +later editions, 2 vols.). This is valuable for its illustration of +conditions in Palestine in the time of Jesus by quotations from the +rabbinic literature. The material used is enormous, but is not always +treated with due criticism, and the book should be read with the fact in +mind that most of the rabbinic writings date from several centuries after +Christ. Schuerer (see below) should be used wherever possible as a +counter-balance. Dr. Edersheim follows the gospel story in detail; his +book is, therefore, a commentary as well as a biography. + +3. Albert Reville, _Jesus de Nazareth_ (1897, 2 vols.), aims to bring the +work of Renan up to date, and to supply some of the lacks which are felt +in the earlier treatise. The book is pretentious and learned. In some +parts, as in the treatment of the youth of Jesus, and of the sermon on the +mount, it is helpfully suggestive. The Jesus whom the author admires, +however, is the Jesus of Galilee. The journey to Jerusalem was a sad +mistake, and the assumption of the Messianic role a fall from the high +ideal maintained in the teaching in Galilee. In criticism M. Reville +accepts the two document synoptic theory, and assigns the fourth gospel to +about 140 A.D. He rejects the supernatural, explaining many of the +miracles as legendary embellishments of actual events. + +4. The most important treatment of the subject is the article JESUS CHRIST +by William Sanday in the _Hastings Bible Dictionary_ (1899). It is of the +highest value, discussing the subject topically with great clearness and +with a rare combination of learning and common sense. S. T. Andrews, _The +Life of Our Lord_ (2d ed. 1892), is a thorough and very useful study of +the gospels, considering minutely all questions of chronology, harmony, +and geography. It presents the different views with fairness, and offers +conservative conclusions. G. H. Gilbert, _The Student's Life of Jesus_ +(1896), is complete in plan and careful in treatment, while being very +concise. Dr. Gilbert faces the problems of the subject frankly, and his +treatment is scholarly and reverent. James Stalker, _The Life of Jesus +Christ_ (1880), is a short work whose value lies in the good conception +which it gives of the ministry of Jesus viewed as a whole. In simplicity, +insight, and clearness the book is a classic, though now somewhat out of +date. _Studies in the Life of Christ_, by A.M. Fairbairn (1882), is of +great value for the topics considered. The title indicates that the +treatment is fragmentary. The long treatises of Farrar (1875, 2 vols.) and +Geikie (1877, 2 vols.) are useful as commentaries on the words and works +of Jesus. Farrar often interprets most helpfully the essence of an +incident, and Geikie furnishes a mass of illustrative material from +rabbinic sources, though with less criticism than even Edersheim has used. +Neither of these works, however, deals with the fundamental problems of +the composition of the gospels, nor are they satisfactory on other +perplexing questions, for example, the miraculous birth. + +5. The most important accessory for the study of the life of Jesus is Emil +Schuerer, _Geschichte des Juedischen Volkes im Zeitalter Jesu Christi_ (2d +ed. 1886, 1890, 2 vols. A 3d ed. of 2d part in 2 vols., 1898), translated, +_A History of the Jewish People in the Time of Jesus Christ_ (1885-6, 5 +vols.). The political history of the Jews from 175 B.C. to 135 A.D., and +the intellectual and religious life of the times in which Jesus lived, +with the Jewish literature of Palestine and the dispersion, are all +treated with thoroughness and masterful learning. W. Baldensperger, _Das +Selbstbewusstsein Jesu im Lichte der messianischen Hoffnungen seiner +Zeit_ (2d ed. 1892), furnishes in the first part a survey of the Messianic +hopes of the Jews which is in many respects the most satisfactory account +that is accessible. The second part discusses the problem of Jesus' +conception of himself in a reverent and learned way. George Adam Smith, +_The Historical Geography of the Holy Land_ (1894), is indispensable for +the study of the physical features of the land as they bear on its +history, and on the work of Jesus. The maps are the best that have yet +appeared. + +6. Discussions of the Teaching of Jesus in works on Biblical Theology have +much that is important for the study of Jesus' life. The most significant +is H. H. Wendt, _Die Lehre Jesu_ (1886, 2 vols.). The second volume has +been translated _The Teaching of Jesus_ (1892, 2 vols.); the first volume +of the original work is an elaborate discussion of the sources, and has +not been done into English. Reference may be made especially to H. J. +Holtzmann, _Lehrbuch der Neutestamentlichen Theologie_ (1897, 2 vols.), +and also to G. H. Gilbert, _The Revelation of Jesus_ (1899). Gustaf +Dalman, _Die Worte Jesu_ (1898), of which the first volume only has +appeared, is a study of the meaning of the most significant expressions +used in the gospel records of the teaching of Jesus, made with the aid of +thorough knowledge of Aramaic usage and of the language of post-canonical +Jewish literature. + +7. A good synopsis or Harmony of the gospels is most useful. The best +_Harmony is_ that of Stevens and Burton (1894), which exhibits the +divergencies of the parallel accounts in the gospels as faithfully as the +agreements. A good synopsis of the Greek text of the first three gospels +is Huck, _Synapse_ (1892). Robinson's _Greek Harmony of the Gospels_, +edited by M. B. Biddle, using Tischendorf's text, has also valuable notes +discussing questions of harmony. + + + + +Abbreviations + + + +AndLOL Andrews, The Life of Our Lord, 2d ed., 1892. +BaldSJ Baldensperger, Das Selbstbewusstsein Jesu, 2d ed., 1892. +BeysLJ Beyschlag, Das Leben Jesu, 3d ed., 2 vols., 1893. +BovonNTTh Bovon, Theologie du Nouveau Testament, 1892. +DalmanWJ Dalman, Die Worte Jesu, I., 1898. +EdersLJM Edersheim, The Life and Times of Jesus the Messiah, 2 vols., + 1883. +FairbSLX Fairbairn, Studies in the Life of Christ, 1882. +GilbertLJ Gilbert, The Student's Life of Jesus, 1896. +GilbertRJ Gilbert, The Revelation of Jesus, 1899. +HoltzNtTh Holtzmann, Neutestamentliche Theologie, 2 vols., 1897. +KeimJN Keim, The History of Jesus of Nazara, 6 vols., 1876-81. +RevilleJN Reville, Jesus de Nazareth, 2 vols., 1897. +SandayHastBD Sanday, the article JESUS CHRIST in the Hastings Bible + Dictionary, 1899. +SchuererJPTX Schuerer, The History of the Jewish People in the Time of + Jesus Christ, 1885-86. Division I. vols. i. and ii.; Division + II. vols. i., ii., and iii. +SmithHGHL Smith, Historical Geography of the Holy Land, 1894. +SB Stevens and Burton, Harmony of the Gospels, 1894. +WeissLX Weiss, The Life of Christ, 3 vols., 1883. +WendtLJ Wendt, Die Lehre Jesu, 2 vols., 1886. +WendtTJ Wendt, The Teaching of Jesus, 2 vols., 1892. +EnBib Encyclopedia Biblica, 1899. +HastBD Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible, 1898. +SBD^2 Smith's Dictionary of the Bible, revision of the first volume + of the original English edition, 1893. + + + + +References + + + +Part I.--Preparatory + + +I + +The Historical Situation + +8. Read SandayHastBD II. 604-609. On the Land, its physical +characteristics, its political divisions, its climate, its roads, and its +varying civilization, SmithHGHL is unsurpassed. Its identifications of +disputed localities are cautions. Robinson, _Biblical Researches in +Palestine_, and Thomson, _The Land and the Book_, give fuller detail +concerning particular localities, but no such general view as Smith. + +9. On Political conditions, SchuererJPTX I. i. and ii. is the fullest and +most trustworthy treatise. More concise essays are Oscar Holtzmann, _Nt. +Zeitgeschichte_ (1895), 57-118; S. Mathews, _History of NT Times in +Palestine_ (1899), 1-158; Riggs, _Maccabean and Roman Periods of Jewish +History_ (1900), especially Sec.Sec. 206-234, 257-267, 276-282. On the Religious +Life and Parties in Palestine, SchuererJPTX II. i. and ii.; O. Holtzmann, +_NtZeitg_, 136-177; Mathews, _NT Times_, see index; Riggs, _Mac. and Rom. +Periods_, Sec.Sec. 235-256; Muirhead, _The Times of Christ_ (1898), 69-150. In +addition Wellhausen, _Die Pharisdaeer und die Sadducaeer_ (1874); on the +_Essenes_, Conybeare in HastBD I. 767-772, also Lightfoot, _Colossians_, +80-98, 347-419; Wellhausen, _Isr. u. jued. Geschichte_^3 (1897), 258-262; +on the Samaritans, A. Cowley, in _Expos_. V. i. 161-174; Jew. Quar. Rev. +VIII. (1896) 562-575. + +10. On the Messianic hope, SchuererJPTX II. ii. 126-187; BaldSJ 3-122; +Muirhead, _Times of Xt._, 112-150; Briggs, _Messiah of the Gospels_ +(1894), 1-40; WendtTJ I. 33-84; Mathews, _NT Times_, 159-169; Riggs, _Mac. +and Rom. Periods_, Sec.Sec. 251-256. + +11. On the language of Palestine see Arnold Meyer, _Jesu Muttersprache_ +(1896); DalmanWJ I. 1-57; SchuererJPTX II. i. 8-10, 47-51; Neubauer, +_Studia Biblica_, I. 39-74. + +12. On Jewish literature dating near the times of Jesus see SchuererJPTX +II. iii.; BaldSJ. 3-122; EdersLJM I. 31-39; Deane, _Pseudepigrapha_ +(1891); Thomson, _Books which influenced our Lord_, etc. (1891); and +special editions, such as Alexandre, _Sibylline Oracles_ (1869); Deane, +_The Wisdom of Solomon_ (1881); Charles, _The Book of Enoch_ (1893), _The +Apocalypse of Baruch_ (1896), _The Assumption of Moses_ (1897), and _The +Book of Jubilees_ (1895); Charles and Morfill, _The Secrets of Enoch_ +(1896); Ryle and James, _The Psalms of the Pharisees_ [Psalms of Solomon] +(1891); Bensly and James, _Fourth Esdras_ (1895); Charles, EnBib I. +213-250; HastBD I. 109f.; Porter, HastBD I. 110-123; James, EnBib I. +249-261. + + +II + +The Sources + +13. On the sources outside the gospels see Anthony, _Introduction to the +Life of Jesus_, 19-108; KeimJN I. 12-59; BeysLJ I. 59-72; GilbertLJ 74-78; +Knowling, _Witness of the Epistles_; Stevens, _Pauline Theol_. 204-208; +Sabatier, _Apostle Paul_, 76-85. On Josephus as a source see also +SchuererJPTX I. ii. 143-149; RevilleJN I. 272-280. On the individual +gospels see Burton, _The Purpose and Plan of the Four Gospels_ (Univ. +Chic. Press, 1900); Bruce, _With Open Face_, 1-61; Weiss, _Introduction to +N.T._, II. 239-386; Juelicher, _Einleitung i. d. NT_, 189-207. On Matthew, +Burton Bib. Wld. I. 1898, 37-44, 91-101; on Mark, Swete, _Comm. on Mark_, +ix-lxxxix; on Luke, Plummer, _Comm. on Luke_, xi-lxx; Mathews, Bib. Wld. +1895, I. 336-342, 448-455; on John, Burton, Bib. Wld. 1899, I. 16-41, +102-105; Westcott, _Comm. on John_, v-lxxvii; Rhees in Abbott's _The Bible +as Literature_, 281-297. On the synoptic question see Sanday SBD^2, +1217-1243, and Expositor, Feb.-June, 1891; Woods, _Studia Biblica_, II. +59-104; Salmon, _Introduction_^7, 99-151, 570-581; Stanton in HastBD II. +234-243; Juelicher, _Einl._ 207-227. A. Wright, _Composition of the Four +Gospels_ (1890) and _Some NT Problems_ (1898), defends the oral tradition +theory in a modified form. On possible dislocations in John see Spitta, +_Urchristentum_, I. 157-204; Bacon, Jour. Bib. Lit. 1894, 64-76; Burton, +Bib. Wld. 1899, I. 27-35. For the history of opinion see specially H. J. +Holtzmann, _Einl._^3 340-375. On the Johannine question see Sanday, +Expositor, Nov. 1891-May 1892; Schuerer, Cont. Rev. Sept. 1891; Watkins +SBD^2 1739-1764; Burton, Bib. Wld. 1899, I. 16-41; Reynolds in HastBD II. +694-722; Zahn, _Einl._ II. 445-564 (defends Johannine authorship); +Juelicher, _Einl._ 238-250 (rejects Johannine authorship). For the history +of opinion see Watkins, _Bampton Lecture_ for 1890; Holtzmann, _Einl._^3 +433-438. P. Ewald, _Hauptproblem der evang. Frage_, argues the +authenticity of the fourth gospel from the one-sidedness of the synoptic +story. See also Jour. Bib. Lit. 1898, I. 87-102. + +14. Reville proposes to reconstruct Jos. Ant. xviii. 3. 3 thus: "'At that +time appeared Jesus, a wise man, who did astonishing things. That is why a +good number of Jews and also of Greeks attached themselves to him.' Then +follows some phrase probably signifying that these adherents had committed +the error of proclaiming him Christ, and then 'denounced by the leading +men of the nation, this Jesus was condemned by Pilate to die on the cross. +But those who had loved him before persevered in their sentiment, and +still to-day there exists a class of people who take from him their name +Christians.'" + +15. On the testimony of Papias (Euseb. _Ch. Hist_. iii. 39. 4) see +Lightfoot, Cont. Rev. 1875, II. 379 ff., and McGiffert's notes in his +_Eusebius_, 170 ff. + +16. For a collection of probably genuine Agrapha see Ropes, _Die Spruche +Jesu_, 154-161, and Amer. Jour. Theol. 1897, 758-776; Resch, _Agrapha_, +gives a much longer list. He is criticised by Ropes. On lost and +uncanonical gospels see Salmon, _Intr._^7 173-190, 580-591; Kruger, _Early +Christian Literature_, 50-57. For the recently discovered Gospel of Peter +see Swete, _The Gospel of Peter_; and on the so-called _Sayings of Jesus_ +found in Egypt in 1896 see Harnack, _Expositor_, V. vi. 321-340, 401-416, +and essay by Sanday and Lock. _Apocryphal Gospels_ are most conveniently +found in _Ante-nicene Fathers_, VIII. 361-476. + + +III + +The Harmony of the Gospels + +17. The Diatessaron of Tatian is translated with notes by Hill, _The +Earliest Life of Christ_. See also _Ante-nic. Fathers_, IX. 35-138. + +18. For the extreme position concerning Doublets see Holtzmann, +_Hand-commentar zum NT_ I. passim. E. Haupt, Studien u. Kritiken, 1884, +25, remarks that Jesus must often have repeated his teaching in +essentially the same form. + + +IV + +Chronology + +19. For data and discussion of the various problems see Wieseler, +_Chronological Synopsis_; Lewin, _Fasti Sacra; _ KeimJN II. 379-402; +AndLOL 1-52; SchuererJPTX I. ii. 30-32, 105-143; O. Holtzmann, _NtZeitg_, +118-124, 125-127, 131-132; Turner HastBD I. 403-415; Ramsay, _Was Christ +born at Bethlehem_; and von Soden in EnBib. I. 799-812. For patristic +opinion concerning the length of Jesus' ministry, see HastBD I. 410. For +the argument for a one-year ministry, see KeimJN II. 398; O. Holtzmann, +_NtZeitg_, 131f. For two years, see Wieseler, _Chron. Synop_. 204-220; +WeissLX I. 389-392; Turner, in HastBD. For three years, see AndLOL +189-198; note by Robertson in Broadus, _Harmony of the Gospels_, 241-244. +Compare RevilleJN II. 227-231; Zahn, _Einl._ II. 516f. + + +V + +The Early Years + +20. On the problem of the Virgin birth see GilbertLJ 79-89; WeissLX I. +211-233; Swete, _Apos. Creed_, 42-55; Bruce, _Apologetics_, 407-413; +Ropes, Andover Rev. 1893, 695-712; FairbSLX 30-45; Godet, _Comm. on Luke_, +Rem. on chaps. I. and II.; BovonNTTh I. 198-217. These maintain +historicity. The other side: BeysLJ I. 148-174; Meyer, _Comm. on Matt_., +Rem. on 1.18; Keim JN II. 38-101; Reville, New World, 1892, 695-723, and +JN I. 361-408; HoltzmannNtTh I. 409-415. On the early years of +Jesus see EdersLJM I. 217-254; WeissLX I. 275-293; Hughes, _Manliness of +Xt_, 35-60; WendtTJ I. 90-96; Stapfer, _Jesus Christ before his Ministry; +_ FairbSLX 46-63; BeysLJ II. 44-65; RevilleJN I. 409-438. + +21. For some of the early legends concerning the birth and childhood of +Jesus, see the so-called _Protevangelium of James_, the _Gospel of +Pseudo-Matthew_, and the _Gospel of Thomas_, Ante-nic. Fathers, VIII. +361-383, 395-398. For Jewish calumnies see Laible, _J. X. im Thalmud_, +9-39. + +22. On the two genealogies see AndLOL 62-68; WeissLX I. 211-221; Godet on +Luke, iii. 23-38. These refer Luke's genealogy to Marv. Hervey SBD^2 +1145-1148, Plummer on Luke, iii. 23, EdersLJM I. 149, GilbertLJ 81f., +with the early fathers (see Plummer), refer both to Joseph. For the view +that they are unauthentic see Holtzmann, _Hand-comm._ I. 39-41; Bacon in +HastBD II. 137-141. + +23. On the "brethren" of Jesus see Mayor, HastBD I. 320-326; +AndrewsLOL 111-123. These make the brethren sons of Joseph and +Mary. Lightfoot, _Galatians_^10, 252-291, regards them as sons of Joseph +by a former marriage. + + +VI + +John the Baptist + +24. On the character and work of John the Baptist see KeimJN II. 201-266 +and references in the index under John the Baptist. Keim's is much the +most satisfactory treatment; it is, moreover, Keim at his best. See also +Ewald, _Hist, of Israel_, VI. 160-200; WeissLX I. 307-316; FairbSLX 64-79; +W. A. Stevens, Homil. Rev. 1891, II. 163 ff.; Bebb in HastBD II. 677-680; +Wellhausen _Isr. u. judische Geschichte_, 342f.; Feather, _Last of the +Prophets_. Reynolds, _John the Baptist_, obscures its excellencies by a +vast amount of irrelevant discussion. + +25. On the existence of a separate company of disciples of John see Mk. +ii. 18, Mt. ix. 14, Lk. v. 33; Mk. vi. 29, Mt. xiv. 12; Mt. xi. 2f., Lk. +vii. 18f.; Lk. xi. 1; Jn. i. 35f.; iii. 25; Ac. xix. 1-3. Consult +Lightfoot, _Colossians_, 400 ff.; Baldensperger, _Der Prolog des vierten +Evangeliums_, 93-152. + + +VII + +The Messianic Call + +26. On the baptism of Jesus see WendtTJ I. 96-101; EdersLJM I. 278-287; +BaldSJ 219-229. WeissLX I. 316-336 says that the baptism meant for Jesus, +already conscious of his Messiahship, "the close of his former life and +the opening of one perfectly new" (322); KeimJN II. 290-299 makes it an +act of consecration, but eliminates the Voice and Dove; BeysLJ I. 215-231 +thinks that Jesus, conscious of no sin, yet not aware of his Messiahship, +sought the baptism carrying "the sins and guilt of his people on his +heart, as if they were his own" (229). Against Beyschlag see E. Haupt in +Studien u. Kritiken, 1887, 381. Baldensperger shows clearly that the +Messianic call was a revelation to Jesus, not a conclusion from a course +of reasoning. + +27. On the temptation see WendtTJ I. 101-105; WeissLX I. 337-354; EdersLJM +I. 299-307; FairbairnSLX 80-98; BaldSJ 230-236; BeysLJ I. +231-237; KeimJN II. 317-329. All these see in temptation the necessary +result of the Messianic call at the baptism. + +28. The locality of the baptism of Jesus cannot be determined. Tradition +has fixed on one of the fords of the Jordan near Jericho, see SmithHGHL +496, note 1. On the probable location of Bethany (Bethabarah) (Jn. i. 28) +see discussion in AndLOL 146-151; EnBib 548; and especially Smith's note +as above. + +29. On the anointing of Jesus with the Holy Spirit see WeissLX I. 323-336; +BeysLJ I. 230f. For the influence of the Spirit in the later life of Jesus +see Mk. i. 12; Mt. iv. 1; Lk. iv. 1; iv. 14, 18, 21; Mk. iii. 29, 30; Mt. +xii. 28; Jn. iii. 34; compare Ac. i. 2; x. 38. Clearly these refer not to +the ethical and religious indwelling of the Divine Spirit (comp. Rom. i. +4), but to the special equipment for official duty. This is the OT sense, +see Ex. xxxi. 2-5; Jud. iii. 10; I. Sam. xi. 6; Isa. xi. 1f.; xlii. 1; +lxi. 1; and consult Schultz, _Old Test. Theol._ II. 202f. Jesus seems to +have needed a like divine equipment, notwithstanding his divine nature. +See GilbertLJ 121f. + +30. How this Messianic anointing is to be related to the doctrine of +Jesus' essential divine nature cannot be determined with certainty. It +must not be forgotten, however, that it is a _datum_ for Christology, and +that it cannot be explained away. It indicates one of the particulars in +which Jesus was made like unto his brethren. What was involved when the +Son of God "emptied himself and was made in the likeness of men" (Phil. +ii. 7) we can only vaguely conceive. Two views of early heretical sects +seem rightly to have been rejected. The Docetic view, held by some +Gnostics of the 2d cent., dates the incarnation from the baptism, but +distinguishes Christ from the human Jesus, who only served as a vehicle +for the manifestation of the Son of God; the Christ descended on Jesus at +the baptism, ascending again to heaven from the cross, compare Mt. iii. 16 +and xxvii. 50 in the Greek; see Schaff _Hist. of Xn Church_^2, II. 455f. +The recently discovered Gospel of Peter presents this view, Gosp. Pet. Sec. +5. The Nestorian view represents that the baptism was, in a sense, Jesus' +"birth from above" (Jn. iii. 3, 5); thus the incarnation was first +complete at the baptism though the Logos had been associated with Jesus +from the beginning. See Schaff, _Hist, of Xn Church_^2, III. 717 ff.; +Conybeare, _History of Xmas_, Amer. Jour. Theol. 1899, 1-21. + +31. The traditional locality of the temptation is a mountain near Jericho +called _Quarantana_, see AndLOL 155; the tradition seems to date no +further back than the crusades. It is, however, probable that the +"wilderness" (Mt. iv. 1, Mk. i. 12, Lk. iv. 1) is the same wilderness +mentioned in connection with John's earlier life and work (Mt. iii. 1, Mk. +i. 4), the region W and NW of the Dead Sea, see SmithHGHL 317. Others +(Stanley, _Sinai and Palestine_, 308; EdersLJM I. 300, 339 notes) hold +that the temptation took place in the desert regions SE of the sea of +Galilee; this is possibly correct, though the record in the gospels +suggests the wilderness of Judea. On the source of the temptation story +see WeissLX I. 339 ff.; BeysLJ I. 234; Bacon, Bib. Wld. 1900, I. 18-25. + + +VIII + +The First Disciples + +32. SandayHastBD II. 612f.; GilbertLJ 144-157; WeissLX I. 355-387; AndLOL +155-165; EdersLJM I. 336-363; BeysLJ II. 129-148 (assigns here a +considerable part of the synoptic account of work in Capernaum). + +33. _The early confessions_. On the genuineness of the Baptist's testimony +to "the Lamb of God" see M. Dods in _Expos. Gk. Test_. I .695f.; Westcott, +_Comm. on John_, 20; EdersLJM 1. 342 ff.; WeissLX 1. 362f. (thinks the +evangelist added "who taketh away the sin of the world"); Holtzmann, +_Hand-comm._ IV. 38f. holds that the evangelist has put in the mouth of +the Baptist a conception which was first current after the death of Jesus. +On the confessions of Nathanael and the others, see Jour. Bib. Lit. 1898, +21-30. + +34. _Cana_ is probably the modern Khirbet Kana, eight miles N of Nazareth. +A rival site is Kefr Kenna, three and one-half miles NE from Nazareth. See +EnBib and HastBD, also AndLOL 162-164. + +35. _The miracles of Jesus_ are challenged by modern thought. It is +customary in reading other documents than the N.T. instantly to relegate +the miraculous to the domain of legend. Miracles, however, are integral +parts of the story of Jesus' life, and those who attempt to write that +life eliminating the supernatural are constrained to recognize that he had +marvellous power as an exorcist and healer of some forms of nervous +disease. So E. A. Abbott, _The Spirit on the Waters_, 169-201. Our +knowledge of nature does not warrant a dogmatic definition of the limits +of the possible; see James, _The Will to Believe_, vii.-xiii., 299-327. +The question is confessedly one of adequate evidence. The evidence for the +supreme miracle--the transcendent character of Jesus--is clear, see Part +III. chap. iv.; and the miraculous element in the story of his life must +be considered in view of this supreme miracle. In association with him his +miracles gain in credibility. In estimating the evidence for them their +dignity and worthiness is important. What the devout imagination would do +in embellishing the story of Jesus is exhibited in the apocryphal gospels; +the miracles of the canonical gospels are of an entirely different type, +which commends them as authentic. By definition a miracle is an event not +explicable in terms of ordinary human experience. It is therefore futile +to attempt to picture the miracles of Jesus in their occurrence, for the +imagination has no material except that furnished by ordinary experience. +For our day the miracles are of importance chiefly for the exhibition they +give of the character of Jesus; they can be studied with this in view +without regard to the curious question how they happened. Read +SandayHastBD II. 624-628; and see Fisher, _Grounds of Christian and +Theistic Belief, _ chaps, iv.--vi., _Supernatural Origin of +Christianity_^3, chap, xi.; Bruce, _Miraculous Element in the Gospels; +Apologetics_, 409 ff.; Illingworth, _Divine Immanence_; Rainy, Orr, and +Dods, _The Supernatural in Christianity_. + + + +Part II.--The Ministry + + +I + +General Survey + +36. SandayHastBD II. 609f.; GilbertLJ 136-143; AndLOL 125-137; BeysLJ I. +256-295. + + +II + +The Early Ministry in Judea + +37. SandayHastBD II. 612^b-613^b; WeissLX II. 3-53; EdersLJM I. 364-429; +BeysLJ II. 147-168; GilbertLJ 158-179. + +38. On _the chronological significance of John iv_. 35 see AndLOL 183; +WeissLX II. 40; Wieseler, _Synop_. 212 ff, who find indication that the +journey was in December. EdersLJM I. 419f.; Turner in HastBD I. 408, find +indication of early summer. Some treat iv. 35 as a proverb with no +chronological significance; so Alford, _Comm. on John_. + +39. Geographical notes. _Aenon_ near Salim has not been identified. Most +favor a site in Samaria, seven miles from a place named Salim, which lay +four miles E of Shechem, see Conder, _Tent Work in Palestine_, II. 57, 58; +Stevens, Jour. Bib. Lit. 1883, 128-141. But can John have been baptizing +in Samaria? WeissLX II. 28 says "it is perfectly impossible that he [John] +can have taken up his station in Samaria." Other suggestions are: some +place in the Jordan valley (but then why remark on the abundance of water, +Jn. iii. 23?); near Jerusalem; and in the south of Judea. See AndLOL +173-175. _Sychar_ is the modern 'Askar, about a mile and three-quarters +from Nablus (Shechem), and half a mile N of Jacob's well. See SmithHGHL +367-375. + +40. General questions. _Was the temple twice cleansed?_ (see sect. 116). +Probably not. The two reports (Jn. ii. 13-22; Mk. xi. 15-18 ¶s) are +similar in respect of Jesus' indignation, its cause, its expression, its +result, and a consequent challenge of his authority. They differ in the +time of the event (John assigns to first Passover, synoptics to the last) +and in a possibly greater sternness in the synoptic account. These +differences are no greater than appear in other records of identical +events (compare Mt. viii. 5-13 with Lk. vii. 2-10), while the repetition +of such an act would probably have been met by serious opposition. If the +temple was cleansed but once, John indicates the true time. At the +beginning of the ministry it was a demand that the people follow the new +leader in the purification of God's house and the establishment of a truer +worship. At the end it could have had only a vindictive significance, +since the people had already signified to the clear insight of Jesus that +they would not accept his leadership. For two distinct cleansings see the +discussion in AndLOL 169f., 437; EdersLJM I. 373; Plummer on Luke xix. +45f. For one cleansing at the end see KeimJN V. 113-131. For one cleansing +at the beginning see WeissLX II. 6 ff.; BeysLJ II. 149 ff.; GilbertLJ 159 +ff. + +41. _The journey to Galilee_. Do John (iv. 1-4, 43-45) and Mark (i. 14 = +Mt. iv. 12; Lk. iv. 14) report the same journey? Both are journeys from +the south introducing work in Galilee; yet the reasons given for the +journey are different (compare Jn. iv. 1-3 with Mk. i. 14). If the +Pharisees had a hand in John's "delivering up" (Mk. i. 14; comp. Jos. Ant. +xviii. 5. 2), the same hostile movement may have impelled Jesus to leave +Judea. He may not have heard of John's imprisonment until after his +departure, or some time before he opened his new ministry in Galilee. See +GilbertLJ 173f. AndLOL 176-182 argues against the identification. + +42. _The nobleman's son_ (Jn. iv. 46-54). Is this a doublet of Mt. viii. +5-13; Lk. vii. 2-10? John differs from synoptics in the time, the place, +the disease, the suppliant, his plea, and Jesus' attitude. Matthew and +Mark differ from each other concerning the bearers of the centurion's +messages to Jesus. John's account is similar to synoptic superficially, +but is probably not a doublet. Compare Syro-Phoenician's daughter (Mk. vii. +29f.). See GilbertLJ 202; Meyer on John iv. 51-54; Plummer on Luke vii. +10. WeissLX II. 45-51 identifies. Read SandayHastBD II. 613. + + + +III and IV + +The Ministry in Galilee + +43. Read SandayHastBD II. 613-630; GilbertLJ 180-283. Consult WeissLX II. +44 to III. 153; EdersLJM I. 472 to II. 125; BeysLJ II. 140-147,168-294. +See AndLOL 209-363 for discussion of details, and KeimJN III. 10 to IV. +346 for an illuminating, though not unprejudiced, topical treatment. + +44. Geographical notes. _Capernaum_. The site is not clearly identified, +two ruins on the NW of Sea of Galilee are rival claimants,--Tell Hum and +Khan Minyeh. Tell Hum is advocated by Thomson, _Land and Book, Central +Pal. and Phoenicia_ (1882), 416-420; Khan Minyeh, by SmithHGHL 456, EnBib +I. 696 ff. Latter is probably correct. See AndLOL 224-237. + +_Bethsaida_. The full name is Bethsaida Julias, located at entrance of +Jordan into the Sea of Galilee. SmithEnBib I. 565f., SmithHGHL +457f., shows that there is no need of the hypothesis of a second Bethsaida +to meet the statement in Mk. vi. 45, or that in Jn. i. 44. See also AndLOL +230-236. Ewing HastBD I. 282f. renews the argument for two Bethsaidas. + +_Chorazin_ was probably the modern Kerazeh, about one mile N of Tell Hum, +and back from the lake. See SmithEnBib I. 751; SmithHGHL 456; +AndLOL 237f. + +45. _The mountain of the sermon on the mount_ (Mt. v. 1; Lk. vi. 12) +probably refers to the Galilean highlands as distinct from the shore of +the lake. More definite location is not possible. See AndLOL 268f.; +EdersLJM I. 524. The traditional site, the Horns of Hattin, is a hill +lying about seven miles SW from Khan Minyeh, which has near the top a +level place (Lk. vi. 17) flanked by two low peaks or "horns." + +46. _The country of the Gerasenes, Gadarenes, or Gergesenes_. Gadarenes is +the best attested reading in Mt. viii. 28, Gerasenes in Mk. v. 1 and Lk. +viii. 26; Gergesenes has only secondary attestation. Gadara is identified +with Um Keis on the Yarmuk, some six miles SE of the Sea of Galilee. This +cannot have been the site of the miracle, though it is possible that +Gadara may have controlled the country round about, including the shores +of the sea. Gerasa is the name of a city in the highlands of Gilead, +twenty miles E of Jordan, and thirty-five SE of the Sea of Galilee, and +it clearly cannot have been the scene of the miracle. Near the E shore of +the sea Thomson discovered the ruins of a village which now bears the name +Khersa. The formation of the land in the neighborhood closely suits the +narrative of the gospels. This is now accepted as the true identification. +See Thomson _Land and Book, Central Palestine_, 353-355; SBD^2 1097-1100; +HastBD II. 159f.; AndLOL 296-300. The name "Gadarenes" may indicate that +Gadara had jurisdiction over the region of Khersa; the names "Gerasenes" +and "Gergesenes" may be derived directly and independently from Khersa, or +may be corruptions due to the obscurity of Khersa. + +47. _The feeding of the five thousand_ took place on the E of the sea, in +a desert region, abundant in grass, and mountainous, and located in the +neighborhood of a place named Bethsaida. Near the ruins of Bethsaida +Julias is a plain called now Butaiha, "a smooth, grassy place near the sea +and the mountains," which meets the requirements of the narrative. See +AndLOL 322f. + +48. _The return of Jesus from the regions of Tyre "through Sidon"_ (Mk. +vii. 31) avoided Galilee, crossing N of Galilee to the territory of Philip +and "_the Decapolis_." This latter name applies to a group of free Greek +cities, situated for the most part E of the Jordan. Most of the cities of +the group were farther S than the Sea of Galilee; some, however, were E +and NE of that sea, hence Jesus' approach from Caesarea Philippi or +Damascus could be described as "through Decapolis." See SmithHGHL 593-608; +En Bib I. 1051 ff.; SchuererJPTX II. i. 94-121. + +49. Of _Magadan_ (Mt. xv. 39) or _Dalmanutha_ (Mk. viii. 10) all that is +known is that they must have been on the W coast of the Sea of Galilee. +They have never been identified, though there are many conjectures. See +SBD^2, HastBD, and En Bib. + +50. _Caesarea Philippi_ was situated at the easternmost and most important +of the sources of the Jordan, it is called Panias by Jos. Ant. xv. 10.3, +now Banias. Probably a sanctuary of the god Pan. Here Herod the Great +built a temple which he dedicated to Caesar; Philip the Tetrarch enlarged +the town and called it Caesarea Philippi. See SBD^2; HastBD; EnBib. + +51. _The mountain of the transfiguration_. The traditional site, since the +fourth century, is Tabor in Galilee. Most recent opinion has favored one +of the shoulders of Hermon, owing to the supposed connection of the event +with the sojourn near Caesarea Philippi. WeissLX III. 98 points out that +there is no evidence that Jesus lingered for "six days" (Mk. ix. 2) near +that town, and that therefore the effort to locate the transfiguration is +futile. GilbertLJ 274 thinks that Mk. ix. 30 is decisive in favor of a +place outside Galilee; he therefore holds to the common view that Hermon +is the true locality. See AndLOL 357f. + +52. General questions. _Was Jesus twice rejected at Nazareth?_ (comp. Lk. +iv. 16-30 with Mk. vi. 1-6^a; Mt. xiii. 54-58). Here are two accounts that +read like independent traditions of the same event; they agree concerning +the place, the teaching in the synagogue on the Sabbath, the astonishment +of the Nazarenes, their scornful question, and Jesus' rejoinder. Luke +makes no reference to the disciples (Mk. vi. 1) nor to the working of +miracles (Mk. vi. 5); Matthew and Mark, on the other hand, say nothing of +an attempt at violence. These differences are no more serious, however, +than appear in the two accounts of the appeal of the centurion to Jesus +(Mt. viii. 5-8; Lk. vii. 3-7). Moreover, Lk. iv. 23 indicates a time after +the ministry in Capernaum had won renown, which agrees with the place +given the rejection in Mark. The general statement (Lk. iv. 14f.) suggests +that the visit to Nazareth is given at the beginning as an instance of +"preaching in their synagogues." The three accounts probably refer to one +event reported independently. For identification see WeissLX III. 34; +Plummer on Luke iv. 30; GilbertLJ 254f. For two rejections see Godet's +supplementary note on Lk. iv. 16-30; Meyer on Mt. xiii. 53-58; EdersLJM I. +457, note 1; Wieseler, _Synopsis_, 278. BeysLJ I. 270 identifies but +prefers Luke's date. + +53. _Were there two miraculous draughts of fish?_ Lk. v. 1-11 is sometimes +identified with Jn. xxi. 3-13. So WendtLJ I. 211f., WeissLX II. 57f., and +Meyer on Luke v. 1-11. Against the identification see Alford, Godet, and +Plummer on the passage in Luke. The two are alike in scene, the night of +bootless toil, the great catch at Jesus' word. They differ in personnel, +antecedent relations of the fishermen with Jesus, the effect of the +miracle on Peter, and the subsequent teaching of Jesus, as well as in +time. These differences make identification difficult. + +54. _Where in the synoptic story should the journey to the feast in +Jerusalem_ (Jn. v.) _be placed?_ There is nothing in John's narrative to +identify the feast, although it is his custom to name the festivals to +which he refers (Passover, ii. 13, 23; vi. 4; xi. 55; xii. 1; Tabernacles, +vii. 2; Dedication, x. 22). Even if John wrote "the feast," rather than "a +feast" (the MSS. vary, A B D and seven other uncials omit the article), it +would be impossible to decide between Passover and Tabernacles. The +omission of the article suggests either that the feast was of minor +importance, or that its identification was of no significance for the +understanding of the following discourse. Since a year and four months +probably elapsed between the journey into Galilee (Jn. iv. 35) and the +next Passover mentioned in John (vi. 4), v. 1 may refer to any one of the +feasts of the Jewish year. The commonest interpretation prefers Purim, a +festival of a secular and somewhat hilarious type, which occurred on the +14th and 15th of Adar, a month before the Passover. It is difficult to +believe that this feast would have called Jesus to Jerusalem. See WeissLX +II. 391; GilbertLJ 137-139, 142, 234-235. Against this interpretation see +EdersLJM II. 765. Edersheim advocates the feast of Wood Gathering on the +15th of Ab--about our August. On this day all the people were permitted to +offer wood for the use of the altar in the temple, while during the rest +of the year the privilege was reserved for special families. See LJM II +765f.; Westcott, _Comm. on John_, add. note on v. 1, argues for the feast +of Trumpets, or the new moon of the month Tisri,--about our +September,--which was celebrated as the beginning of the civil year. +Others have suggested Pentecost, fifty days after the Passover; the day of +Atonement--but this was a fast, not a feast; and Tabernacles. The majority +of those who do not favor Purim prefer the Passover, notwithstanding the +difficulty of thinking that John would refer to this feast simply as "a +feast of the Jews." Read AndLOL 193-198, remembering that the question +must be considered independently of the question of the length of Jesus' +ministry. The impossibility of determining the feast renders the +adjustment of this visit to the synoptic story very uncertain. It may be +that there was some connection between the Sabbath controversy in Galilee +(Mk. ii. 23-28) and the criticism Jesus aroused in Jerusalem (Jn. v.). If +so, one of the spring feasts, Passover or Pentecost, would best suit the +circumstances; but this arrangement is quite uncertain. + +55. _Do the five conflicts of Mk. ii. 1 to iii. 6 belong at the early +place in the ministry of Jesus to which that gospel assigns them_? It is +commonly held that they do not, and the argument for a two-year ministry +rests on this assumption (see SandayHastBD II. 613). Holtzmann, +_Hand-commentar_ I. 9f., remarks that at least for the cure of the +paralytic and for the call and feast of Levi (Mk. ii. 1, 13, 15) the +evangelist was confident that he was following the actual order of events; +note the call of the fifth disciple, Mk. ii. 13, between the call of the +four, Mk. i. 16-20, and that of the twelve, iii. 16-19. The question about +fasting may owe its place (Mk. ii. 18-22) to association with the +criticism of Jesus for eating with publicans (Mk. ii. 16). In like manner +the second Sabbath conflict (Mk. iii. 1-6) may be attached to the first +(ii. 23-28) as a result of the identity of subject, for it is noteworthy +that Mark records only these two Sabbath conflicts; moreover, the plot of +Herodians and Pharisees to kill Jesus strongly suggests a later time for +the actual occurrence of this criticism. The first Sabbath question, +however, may belong early, as Mark has placed it. Weiss, Markusevangelium, +76, LX II. 232 ff., places these conflicts late. Edersheim, LJM II. 51 +ff., discusses the Sabbath controversies after the feeding of the +multitudes. RevilleJN II. 229 places the first of them early. + +56. _The sermon on the mount._ Luke (vi. 12-19 = Mk. iii. 13-19^a +indicates the place in the Galilean ministry; Matthew has therefore +anticipated in assigning it to the beginning. The identity of the two +sermons (Mt. v. 1 to vii. 27; Lk. vi. 20-49) is shown by the fact that +each begins with beatitudes, each closes with the parables of the wise and +foolish builders, each is followed by the cure of a centurian's servant in +Capernaum (Mt. viii. 5-13; Lk. vii. 1-10), and the teachings which are +found in each account are given in the same order. Matthew is much fuller +than Luke, many teachings given in the sermon in Matthew being found in +later contexts in Luke. Much of the sermon in Matthew, however, evidently +belonged to the original discourse, and was omitted by Luke, perhaps +because of less interest to Gentile than to Jewish Christians. The +following sections are found elsewhere in Luke, and were probably +associated with the sermon by the first evangelist: Mt. v. 25, 26; Lk. +xii. 58, 59; Mt. vi. 9-13; Lk. xi. 2-4; Mt. vi. 19-34; Lk. xii. 21-34; xi. +34-36; xvi. 13; Mt. vii. 7-11; Lk. xi. 9-13; Mt. vii. 13, 14; Lk. xiii. +24. The first evangelist's habit of grouping may explain also the presence +in his sermon of teachings which he himself has duplicated later, thus: +Mt. v. 29, 30 = xviii. 8,9; v. 32 = xix. 9, comp. Mk. x. 11, ix. 43-47, +Lk. xvi. 18; Mt. vi. 14, 15 = Mk. xi. 25. Matthew vii. 22, 23 has the +character of the teachings which follow the confession at Caesarea +Phillipi, and is quite unlike the other early teachings. It may belong to +the later time, for it was natural for the early Christians to associate +together teachings which the Lord uttered on widely separated occasions. +The sermon as originally given may be analyzed as follows: The privileges +of the heirs of the kingdom of God, Mt. v. 3-13; Lk. vi. 20-26; their +responsibilities, Mt. v. 13-16; the relation of the new to the old, Mt. v. +17-19; the text of the discourse, Mt. v. 20; the new conception of +morality, Mt. v. 21-48; Lk. vi. 27-36; the new practice of religion, Mt. +vi. 1-8, 16-18; warning against a censorious spirit, Mt. vii. 16-20; Lk. +vi. 43-46; the wise and foolish builders, Mt. vii. 24-27; Lk. vi. 47-49. + +57. _The discourse in parables._ Matthew gives seven parables at this +point (xiii.), Mark (iv. 1-34) has three, one of them is not given in +Matthew, Luke (viii. 4-18) gives in this connection but one,--the Sower. +Many think that the Tares of Matthew (xiii. 24-30, 36-43) is a doublet of +Mark's Seed growing secretly (iv. 26-29); so Weiss LX II. 209 note, +against which view see WendtLJ I. 178 f., and Bruce, _Parabolic Teaching +of Xt_, 119. Matthew has probably made here a group of parables, as in +chapters v. to vii. he has made a group of other teachings. The +interpretation of the Tares, and of the Draw-net (xiii. 40-43, 49, 50), +may indicate that these parables were spoken after Jesus began to teach +plainly concerning the end of the world (Mk. viii. 31 to ix. 1), Luke +gives the Mustard Seed and Leaven in another connection (xiii. 18-21), and +it may be that Matthew has taken them out of their true context to +associate them with the other parables of his group; yet in popular +teaching it must be recognized that illustrations are most likely to be +repeated in different situations. On the parables see Goebel, _The +Parables of Jesus_ (1890), Bruce, _The Parabolic Teaching of Christ_, 3d +ed. (1886), Juelicher, _Die Gleichnissreden Jesu_ (2 vols. 1899), and +the commentaries on the gospels. + +58. _The instructions to the twelve_. Mt. ix. 36 to xi. 1. x. 1, 5-14 +corresponds in general with Mk. vi. 7-11; Lk. ix. 1-5. The similarity is +closer, however, between x. 7-15 and Lk. x. 3-12--the instructions to the +seventy (see sect. A 68). The rest of Mt. x. (16-42) is paralleled by +teachings found in the closing discourses in the synoptic gospels, and in +teachings preserved in the section peculiar to Luke (ix. 51 to xviii. 14. +See SB sects. 88-92, footnotes). It is probable that here the first +evangelist has made a group of instructions to disciples gathered from all +parts of the Lord's teachings; such a collection was of great practical +value in the early time of persecution. + +59. _Did Jesus twice feed the multitudes_? All the gospels record the +feeding of the five thousand (Mt. xiv. 13-23; Mk. vi. 30-46; Lk. ix. +10-17; Jn. vi. 1-15), Matthew (xv. 32-38) and Mark (viii. 1-9) give also +the feeding of the four thousand. The similarities are so great that the +two accounts would be regarded as doublets if they occurred in different +gospels. The difficulty with such an identification is chiefly the +reference which in both Matthew (xvi. 9, 10) and Mark (viii. 19, 20) Jesus +is said to have made to the two feedings. The evangelists clearly +distinguished the two. In view of this fact the differences between the +accounts become important. These concern the occasion of the two miracles, +the number fed, the nationality of the multitudes (compare Jn. vi. 31 and +Mk. vii. 31), the number of loaves and of baskets of broken pieces (the +name for basket is different in the two cases, and is preserved +consistently in Mk. viii. 19, 20; Mt. xvi. 9, 10). See GilbertLJ 259-262, +Gould, and Swete, on Mk. viii. 1-9; Meyer, Alford, on Mt. xv. 32-38. +WeissLX II. 376f., BeysLJ I. 279f., WendtLJ I. 42, Holtzmann _Hand-comm._ +I. 186 ff., identify the accounts. See also SandayHastBD II. 629. + +60. _Did Peter twice confess faith in Jesus as Messiah_? Synoptics give +his confession at Caeesarea Philippi (Mk. viii. 27-30; Mt. xvi. 13-20; Lk. +ix. 18-21). John, however, gives a confession earlier at Capernaum (vi. +66-71). WeissLX III. 53 identifies the two, placing that in John at +Caesarea Philippi, since there is no evidence that all of the long +discourse of Jn. vi. was spoken in Capernaum the day after the feeding of +the five thousand. This may be correct, yet the marked recognition which +Jesus gave to the confession at Caesarea Philippi does not demand that he +first at that time received a confession of his disciples' faith. The +confession in Jn. vi. 68, 69 declared that the twelve were not shaken in +their faith by the recent defection of many disciples. At Caesarea Philippi +the confession was made after the revulsion of popular feeling had been +made fully evident, and after the twelve had had time for reaction of +enthusiasm consequent upon the growing coldness of the multitudes and +active opposition of the leaders. The confession of Caesarea Philippi holds +its unique significance, whether or not Jn. vi. 68 is identified with it. + +61. _The journey to Tabernacles_ (Jn. vii.). Where in the synoptic story +should it be placed? Lk. ix. 51 ff. records the final departure from +Galilee. The journey of Jn. vii. is the last journey from Galilee given in +John. Yet the two are very different. In John, Jesus went in haste, +unpremeditatedly, in secret, and unaccompanied, and confronted the people +with himself unexpectedly during the feast. In Luke (Mk. x. 1 and Mt. xix. +1 are so general that they give no aid) he advanced deliberately, with +careful plans, announcing his coming in advance, accompanied by many +disciples, with whom he went from place to place, arriving in Jerusalem +long after he had set out. The two journeys cannot be identified. John +seems to keep Jesus in the south after the Tabernacles, but his account +does not forbid a return to Galilee between Tabernacles and Dedication (x. +22). After the hurried visit to Tabernacles, Jesus probably went back to +Galilee, and gathered his disciples again for the final journey towards +his cross--for the visit to Jerusalem had given fresh evidence of the kind +of treatment he must expect in the capital (Jn. vii. 32, 45-52; viii. 59). +See AndLOL 369-379. Andrews suggests that the feast occurred before the +withdrawal to Caesarea Philippi (376); this is possible, but it seems more +natural to place it during the sojourn in Capernaum after the return from +the north (Mk. ix. 33-50). See SB, sects. 82-85. + +62. On the phenomena and interpretation of _Demoniac Possession_ see J. L. +Nevius, _Demon Possession and allied Themes_; Conybeare, Jew. Quar. Rev. +VIII. (1896) 576-608, IX. (1896-7) 59-114, 444-470, 581-603; J. Weiss in +_Reaelencyklopaedie_,^3 Hauck-Herzog, IV. 408-419; Binet, _Alterations of +Personality_, 325-356; James, _Psychology, _ I. 373-400; and the articles +on DEMONS in EnBib and HastBD. + + +The Journey through Perea to Jerusalem + +63. Read SandayHastBD II. 630-632; see GilbertLJ 298-310: WeissLX III. +157-223; KeimJN V, 1-64; BeysLJ I. 287-294. II. 333-419; AndLOL 365-420; +EdersLJM II. 126-360. + +64. This journey began sometime between Tabernacles and Dedication +(October and December) of the last year of Jesus' life, and continued +until the arrival in Bethany six days before the last Passover. + +65. Geographical notes. _Perea_--a part of the domain of Antipas--was the +Jewish territory E of the Jordan. Its northern limit seems to have been +marked by Pella (Jos. Wars, iii 3. 3) or Gadara (Wars, iv. 7. 3), and its +E boundary was marked by Philadelphia (Ant. xx. 1. 1); it extended S to +the domain of Aretas, king of Arabia. The population was mixed, though +predominatingly Jewish. Cities of the Decapolis, however, lay within the +limits of Perea, and introduced Greek life and ideas to the people. On the +highlands back from the Jordan it was a fertile and well populated land. +See SmithHGHL 539f.; SchuererJPTX II. i. 2-4. + +66. On _Bethany and Jericho_ see BDs and, for the latter, SmithHGHL 266 +ff. + +67. _Ephraim_, (John xi. 54) is generally identified with the Ephron of +II. Chron. xiii. 19 (Jos. Wars, iv. 9. 9). Robinson located it at et +Taiyibeh, 4 m. NE of Bethel, and 14 from Jerusalem. See HastBD l. 728; +SBD^2 975. + +68. General questions. _The mission of the seventy_. Luke records two +missions, that of the twelve (ix. 1-6), and that of the seventy (x. 1-24). +Many regard these as doublets, similar to the two feedings in Mark. So +WeissLX II. 307 ff., BeysLJ I. 275, WendtLJ I. 84f. In favor of this +conclusion emphasis is given to the fact that in Jewish thought seventy +symbolized the nations of the world as twelve symbolized Israel. It is +suggested that in his search for full records Luke came upon an account of +the mission of disciples which had already been modified in the interests +of Gentile Christianity, and failing to recognize its identity with the +account of the mission furnished by Mark, he added it in his peculiar +section. The similarity of the instructions given follows from the nature +of the case. A second sending out of disciples is suitable in view of the +entrance into a region hitherto unvisited. As Dr. Sanday has remarked, the +sayings connected by Luke with this mission bear witness to the +authenticity of the account. There is therefore no need to identify the +two missions. See particularly SandayHastBD II. 614, also GilbertLJ +226-230, Plummer's _Comm. on Luke_, 269 ff. Luke probably gives the +correct place for the thanksgiving, self-declaration, and invitation of +Jesus, in which the synoptists approach most nearly to the thought of John +(Lk. x. 21, 22; Mt. xi. 25-30). The return of the seventy (Lk. x. 17-20) +followed the woes addressed to the unbelieving cities (Lk. x. 13-16; Mt. +xi. 20-24). + +69. _The destination of the seventy_. It is customary to think of them as +sent to the various cities of Perea (see AndLOL 381-383). Were it not for +the words "whither he himself was about to come" (Lk. x. I), it would be +natural to conclude that they were sent E to Gerasa and Philadelphia, and +S to the regions of the Dead Sea. If John's account is accepted, Jesus +spent not a little time of the interval between his departure from Galilee +and his final arrival in Bethany in and near Jerusalem. It may be that +after the withdrawal from the Dedication he went far into the Perean +districts. But John x. 40 is against it. The question must be left +unanswered. The messengers may have visited places in all parts of +Palestine. + + +VI + +The Controversies of the Last Week + +70. See GilbertLJ 311-335; WeissLX III. 224-270; AndLOL 421-450; KeimJN V. +65-275; BeysLJ II. 422-434; EdersLJM II. 363-478; SandayHastBD II 632f. + +71. _The supper at Bethany_. John is definite, "six days before the +passover" (xii. I). Synoptists place it after the day of controversy, on +the Wednesday preceding the Passover (Mk. xiv. I, 3-9; Mt. xxvi. 2, 6-13). +John is probably correct. The rebuke of Judas (Jn. xii. 4-8) was probably +associated in the thought of the disciples with his later treachery; +consequently the synoptists report the plot of Judas and this supper in +close connection. + +72. _The Messianic entry into Jerusalem_ is regarded by Reville as a +surrender by Jesus of his lofty Messianic ideal in response to the +temptation to seek a popular following. Keim with finer insight says, +"Even if it had certainly been his wish to bring the kingdom of heaven +near in Jerusalem quietly and gradually, and with a healthy mental +progress, as in Galilee, yet ... in the face of the irritability of his +opponents, in the face of the powerful means at their disposal of crushing +him ... there remained but one chance,--reckless publicity, the conquest +of the partially prepared nation by means, not of force, but of idea.... +He came staking his life upon the venture, but also believing that God +must finish his work through life or death" (JN V. 100f.). + +73. _The question about the resurrection_ was probably a familiar +Sadducean problem with which they made merry at the expense of the +scribes. On the resurrection in Jewish thought see Charles, _Eschatology, +Hebrew, Jewish, and Christian_, by index. For the scepticism of the +Sadducees see also Ac. xxiii. 8; Jos. Wars, ii, 8. 14. + +74. On the "_great commandment_" see EdersLJM II. 403 ff. + +75. The eschatological discourse presents serious exegetical difficulties. +Many cut the knot by assuming that Mk. xiii. and ||s contain a little +Jewish apocalypse written shortly before the destruction of Jerusalem, +which has been blended with genuine predictions of Jesus concerning his +second coming. See Charles, _Eschatology_, 323-. 329; WendtLJ I. 9-21; +HoltzmannNtTH I. 325 ff.; and Bruce's criticism in _Expos. Gk. Test_. I. +287f., also Sanday's note in HastBD II. 635f. + +76. On _the relation of proselytes_ to Judaism see SchuererJPTX II. ii. +291-327. The synagogue in heathen lands drew to itself by its monotheism +and its pure ethics the finest spirits of paganism. But few of them, +however, submitted to circumcision, and became thus proselytes. Most of +them constituted the class of "them that fear God" to whom Paul constantly +appealed in his apostolic mission. The Greeks of Jn. xii. 20 ff. were +probably circumcised proselytes. + +77. On _Judas_ see Plummer in HastBD II. 796 ff.; EdersLJM II. 471-478; +WeissLX III. 285-289; AndLOL by index. De Quincey's essay on _Judas +Iscariot_ is an elaborate defence. + + +VII + +The Last Supper + +78. GilbertLJ 335-354; WeissLX III. 273-318; EdersLJM II. 479-532; AndLOL +450-497; KeimJN V. 275-343; BeysLJ II. 434-448; SandayHastBD II. 633-638. + +79. _The day of the last supper_. John seems clearly to place it on the +day before the Passover--13 Nisan. See xiii. I, 29; xviii. 28; xix. 14, +31, 42. Synoptists as clearly declare that the supper was prepared on the +"first day of unleavened bread, when they sacrificed the Passover" (Mk. +xiv. 12; see also Lk. xxii. 15); this is confirmed by the similarity +between the Passover ritual as tradition has preserved it, and the course +of events at the supper. Unless interpretation can remove the +contradiction, John must have the preference. WeissLX III. 273-282, BeysLJ +II. 390-399, accept John and correct the synoptists by him; thus the +supper anticipated the Passover. Some hold that John can be interpreted +harmoniously with synoptists, and be shown to indicate that the supper was +on the 14th Nisan. So EdersLJM II. 508, 566f., 612f.; AndLOL 452-481; +GilbertLJ 335-339. Others believe that a true interpretation of synoptists +shows that in calling the last supper a Passover they correctly represent +the character, but misapprehend the time, of the meal. For this argument +see Muirhead, _Times of Xt_, 163-169, and read SandayHastBD II. 633-636 +and his references. The debate is still on, but the advantage seems to be +with those who assign the supper to the 13th and the crucifixion to the +14th Nisan. + +80. _Did Jesus institute a memorial sacrament_? Read SandayHastBD II. +636-638, and Thayer, in Jour. Bib. Lit. 1899, 110-131; see also +McGiffert, _Apostolic Age_, 68 ff. note; HoltzmannNtTh I. 296-304. + +81. _The Passover ritual_. The order according to the rabbis was the +following: the first cup of wine and water was taken by the leader, who +gave thanks over it, and then it was shared by all (compare Lk. xxii. 17); +then the head of the company washed his hands--Dr. Edersheim connects with +this the washing of the disciples' feet, which changed the ceremony from +an act of distinction into one of humble service; after this the dishes +were brought on the table, then the leader dipped some of the bitter herbs +into salt water or vinegar, spoke a blessing, and partook of them, then +handed them to each of the company; then one of the loaves of unleavened +bread was broken; after this a second cup was filled, and before it was +drunk the significance of the Passover was explained by the leader in +reply to a question by the youngest of the company, after which the first +part of the Hallel (Ps. cxiii., cxiv.) was sung, and then the cup was +drunk; then followed the supper itself beginning with "the sop,"--a piece +of the paschal lamb, a piece of unleavened bread, and bitter herbs, +wrapped together and dipped in the vinegar,--which was passed around the +company (compare the sop which Jesus gave to Judas); after the supper came +a third cup, known as "the cup of blessing" (see I. Cor. x. 16); then +followed grace after meat; then a fourth cup, in connection with which the +remainder of the Hallel was sung (Ps. cxv. to cxviii.), followed by +certain other songs and prayers. See EdersLJM II. 496-512; AndLOL 488-494. + +82. _The washing of the disciples' feet_. John (xiii. 1-11) says this +occurred "during supper" (v. 2), and before the designation of the +traitor. Luke (xxii. 23-30) tells of a dispute about greatness among the +disciples. This dispute may have arisen over the assignment of places at +table (compare Lk. xiv. 7 ff.; Mk. x. 33-45); if so, the reason for the +lesson in humility is apparent. See AndLOL 482-484; EdersLJM II. 492-503. + +83. _Did Jesus twice predict Peter's denials_? Mark (xiv. 26-31) and +Matthew (xxvi. 30-35) place the prediction after the departure for +Gethsemane; Luke (xxii. 31-34) and John (xiii. 36-38), during the supper. +AndLOL 494 ff. thinks Peter was warned twice, EdersLJM. II. 535-537 holds +to one warning on the way to Gethsemane. Antecedent probability favors +this view. + +84. _Where in John should the institution of the sacrament be placed_? +Probably after the departure of Judas (Mark xiv. 21f.; Matt. xxvi. 26), +thus not before xiii. 30. The most likely place is between, verses 32 and +33. There is no break at this point, and it remains a mystery why John's +account of the passion omitted this central feature of early Christian +belief and practice. The omission argues for rather than against apostolic +authorship, as a forger would not have ventured to disregard the leading +service of the church in an account of the life of its Lord. See Westcott, +_Comm. on John_, 188. + +85. On the possible _disarrangement of the last discourses_ (xiii. 31 to +xvi. 33) in our text of John see Spitta, _Urchristentum_, I. 168-193; +Bacon, Jour. Bib. Lit. 1894, 64-76; Burton, Bib. Wld. 1899 I. 32. + + +VIII + +The Shadow of the Cross + +86. See GilbertLJ 354-384; AndLOL 497-588; WeissLX III. 319-381; BeysLJ I. +390-432, II. 448-473; EdersLJM II. 533-620; KeimJN VI. 1-274; SandayHastBD +II. 632f. + +87. On the location of _Gethsemane and Golgotha_ see AndLOL 499f., +575-588; and HastBD II. 164, 226f. + +88. On the progress of _Jesus' trial by the Jewish authorities, _ see +AndLOL 505-516; GilbertLJ 359-363. The _legality of the trial_ has been +carefully discussed by A. T. Innes, _The Trial of Jesus Christ_. + +89. On the form and sequence of _Peter's denials_, see Westcott, _Comm. +on John_, 263-266; AndLOL 516-521. + +90. The _Words from the Cross_. Matthew (xxvii. 46) and Mark (xv. 34) +report one; Luke (xxiii. 34?, 43, 46) adds three, omitting the one found +in Matthew and Mark; John adds three more (xix. 26f., 28, 30). Luke xxiii. +34 is bracketed by Westcott and Hort because omitted by a very important +group of MSS. ([Hebrew: aleph]^aBD*) and some early versions. The saying +is almost certainly authentic, though it may have been added to Luke by +some early copyist. See Westcott and Hort, _N.T. in Greek_, II. Appendix, +68; and Plummer, _Comm. on Luke_, 544f. + + +IX + +The Resurrection and Ascension + +91. Read SandayHastBD II. 638-643; see KeimJK VI. 274-383, for a still +valid criticism of the position of RevilleJN II. 428-478; see also WeissLX +III. 382-409; BeysLJ I. 433-481, II. 474-493; BovonNTTh I. 350-375; +GilbertLJ 385-405; Loofs, _Die Auferstehungsberichte und ihr Wert_; +EdersLJM II. 621-652; AndLOL 589-639. + +92. The last twelve verses of Mark (xvi. 9-20) are omitted by the oldest +MSS ([Hebrew: aleph]B) and by the recently discovered Sinaitic Syriac, as +well as by other versions and fathers. An Armenian MS. has been found +ascribing the section to one Ariston, or Aristion, a second century elder, +and this explanation of the origin of the verses is widely accepted. The +gospel cannot have ended with the words "for they were afraid," but no +satisfactory explanation of the condition of its text has been found. For +a recent hypothesis see Rohrbach, _Der Schluss des Markusevangeliums_; on +Aristion as the author, see Conybeare in Expos. IV. viii. (1893) 241, IV. +x. 219, V. ii. 401; see also SandayHastBD II. 638f., Bruce, _Expos. Gk. +Test_. I. 454f. For discussion of textual evidence see Westcott and Hort, +_NT in Greek_, II. Appendix, 28-51, and Burgon, _The last twelve verses +of St. Mark_ (a passionate defence). + +Luke xxiv. 51 is omitted by [Hebrew: aleph]*D and several old Latin MSS. +See Plummer and Bruce on the passage. + +93. "_After three days_." This formula, which appears often in Mark, is +altered in parallels in Matthew and Luke to "on the third day" (see +Concordance). Jesus died on Friday, lay in the tomb over Saturday, and +rose very early Sunday morning. Thus he spent a part of Friday, and a part +of Sunday, and all of Saturday in the grave. According to Jewish reckoning +this was counted three days. + +94. _Emmaus_. A village about 60 furlongs from Jerusalem. Cannot have been +the Emmaus in the Shephelah, 20 m. from Jerusalem. May have been el +Kubeibeh, 63 furlongs distant on the road from Jerusalem to Lydda. See +AndLOL 617-619; but also HastBD I. 700. + + + + +Part III.--The Minister + + +I + +The Friend of Men + +95. Head Mathews, _The Social Teachings of Jesus, _ especially 132-174; +see also Robinson, _The Saviour in the Newer Light_, 343 ff. + + +II + +The Teacher with Authority + +96. See WendtTJ I. 106-151; Stevens, _Theol. of the N.T._ 1-16; Beyschlag, +_N.T. Theology, I_. 31-34. In particular on the Parables see references in +sect. A 56. On the content of Jesus' teaching see WendtTJ 2 vols.; +Dalman, _Die Worte Jesu; Stevens, Theol. of the N.T._ 17-244; Beyschlag, +_N.T. Theol_. I. 27-299; Mathews, _Social Teaching of Jesus_; Gilbert, +_The Revelation of Jesus_; Bruce, _The Kingdom of God_. + + +III + +Jesus' Knowledge of Truth + +97. Adamson, _The Mind in Christ_; GilbertRJ 169f., 240-242; Schwartzkopf, +_The Prophecies of Jesus Christ_. + + +IV + +Jesus' Conception of Himself + +98. BaldSJ 125-282; Stalker, _Christology of Jesus_, HoltzmannNtTh I. +234-304; WendtTJ II. 122-183; GilbertRJ 167-228; Stevens, _Theol. of the +N.T._ 41-64, 199-212. On the title "Son of Man" see particularly DalmanWJ +I. 191-219; Charles, _Eschatology_, 214f. note; against, A. Meyer, _Jesu +Muttersprache_, 91-101, and others. See also HoltzmannNtTh I. +246-264. On the name "Son of God," see Dalman WJ I. 219-237; Holtzmann +NtTh I. 265-278; Stalker, _Christology_, 86-123; Gilbert, as above. On the +personal religion of Jesus see Burton, Bib. Wld. 1899, II. 394-403. For +the total impression of the character of Jesus, read Bushnell, _The +Character of Jesus_. + + + + +Indexes + + + + +Index of Names and Subjects + + + +[References are to pages.] + + +AEnon, site of, 288. +"After three days," 307. +Agrapha, 36, 149, 281. +Andrew, of Bethsaida, 92, 94, 118. +Angels, doctrine of, 10. +Annas, 191, 193, 194. +Antipas, 4, 192. +Apocalypse, 17f., 122, 124, 241. +Apocryphal gospels, 37, 281, 282. +Archelaus, 4, 5. +Aristion, author of Mark xvi. 9-20, 204f., 306f. +Assumption of Moses, 75 + +Baptism of John, see _John the Baptist_. +Baptism of Jesus, 83-86, 283f. +Barabbas, 174, 192. +Bethany beyond Jordan, 92, 284. +Bethany, supper at, 169, 301. +Bethsaida, site of, 290. +Books of reference, 273-277. +Brethren of Jesus, 63f., 283. + +Caesarea Philippi;, 4, 291. + confession at, see _Peter_. +Caiaphas, 191, 193, 194. +Cana of Galilee, 95, 222, 286. +Cananeans or Zealots, party of, 11, 74. +Capernaum, site of, 290. +Census under Quirinius, 11, 52-55. +Chorazin, site of, 290. + +Dalmanutha, 291. +Dalmanutha, Books of, 17f., 241, 254f. +Decapolis, the, 140, 291. +Dedication, feast of, 150, 154. +Demoniac possession, 131-133, 245-248, 299. +Devout, the, 13, 17. +Diatessaron of Tatian, 38, 47, 281. +Doublets, 44, 281. +Draughts of fish, miraculous, 293. + +Emmaus, site of, 307. +Enoch, Book of, 241, 256-258. +Ephraim, site of, 300. +Essenes, manner of living, 11-12; + their hope of Messiah, 16; + their settlement, 73; + relation to John the Baptist, 73, 77. + +Five thousand, the feeding of, 135f., 291. + +Gadarenes, country of, 247, 290f. +Genealogies of Jesus, 282. +Gethsemane, 177, 186, 188f., 265, 305. +Golgotha, 305. + +Herod the Great, 3; + began to rebuild temple, 49; + census during his reign, 54. +Herod Antipas, 4, 192. +Herodians, 14, 173. + +James, brother of John, 92, 94, 118. +Jesus, language of, 19, 62, 279; + date of birth, 52-56; + the miraculous conception, 58-61; + growth, physical, intellectual, moral, and spiritual, 61-66; + his brothers and sisters, 64; + visit to Jerusalem in his twelfth year, 66-68; + life in Nazareth, 68f.; + his baptism, 83-86; + his temptation, 86-91; + his first disciples, 92-95; + at Cana, 95; + his social friendliness, 96, 219f.; + the cleansing of the temple, 108-110; + talk with Nicodemus, 111; + the woman of Samaria, 112; + cure of nobleman's son, 113; + in retirement in Galilee, 113f.; + call of four disciples, 118; + popular enthusiasm and pharisaic opposition, 119-121; + his withdrawals and injunctions of silence, 122 ff.; + blasphemy of the Pharisees, 124; + the reply to John's message, 125; + his twofold aim in Galilee, 126; + his method, 127; + the sermon on the mount, 127f.; + the parables, 128f., 231f., 296f.; + instruction of the twelve, 130, 297; + his mighty works, 131f.; + his personal influence, 133; + the feeding of the five thousand, 135f.; + the revulsion in popular feeling, 136; + the controversy about hand washing, 139; + the withdrawal to the north, 138; + the demand for a sign, 139; + disciples warned against the Pharisees, 139; + the question at Caesarea Philippi, 141f.; + commendation of Peter, 143; + announcement of approaching death, 144; + rebuke of Peter, 145; + the transfiguration, 146f.; + the epileptic boy, 147; + rebuke of worldly ambition, 147f.; + Jesus and his brethren, 148; + at the feast of Tabernacles, 148; + return to Galilee, 150; + final departure from Galilee, 154; + the mission of the seventy, 158; + visit to the feast of Dedication, 159; + in Perea, 160; + the summons to Bethany, 161f.; + official determination to get rid of him, 161; + at Ephraim, 162; + question about divorce, 154; + blessing little children, 154; + the rich young ruler, 154; + request of Salome, 163; + Bartimeus, 163; + Zacchaeus, 163; + anointing at Bethany, 169; + the Messianic entry, 170f.; + the barren fig-tree, 172; + the questions of the leaders, 173f.; + counter question, 175; + denunciation of scribes, 175; + the widow's mites, 176; + visit of the Greeks. 176f.; + the eschatological discourse, 178; + bargain of Judas, 169, 178f.; + the last supper, 181-184; + dispute and foot washing, 184; + withdrawal of Judas, 184; + prediction of Peter's denials, 185; + discourse and prayer, 185-187; + Gethsemane, 188-190; + betrayal and arrest, 190f.; + trial by Jews, 191f.; + trial by Pilate, 192-194; + crucifixion, 195-198; + burial of Jesus, 199; + the resurrection, 201-210; + the ascension, 214f.; + Jesus' attitude to common life, 219-223; + his hunger for sympathy, 223; + Jesus as a teacher, 226f.; + his attitude to Old Testament, 227-229; + his confidence in men, 230f.; + his use of illustration, 231-233; + his alertness of mind, 234; + his leading ideas, 235 ff.; + his supernatural knowledge, 239-244; + his confession of ignorance, 243; + his kinship with men, 244f.; + treatment of demoniac possession, 245-248; + his certainty of his Messianic call, 249-254; + his adoption of Messianic titles, 254-264; + his consciousness of dependence on God, 264-266; + the problem of Jesus, 267-269. +John, Gospel of, 32-36, 40f., 181, 280, 305. +John the Baptist, 70-81; + notice by Josephus, 71f., 279f.; + his idea of the kingdom of God, 73; + his relation to current thought, 73-76; + his baptism, 77f., 83; + baptism of Jesus, 82-84; + the embassy from the priests, 92; + testimony--"the Lamb of God," 93, 286; + baptizing at AEnon, 112; + his self-effacing witness to Jesus, 79, 112; + hostility of the Pharisees, 113, 289; + arrest by Antipas, 71f., 113; + his message to Jesus, 125; + death in prison, 134f.; his significance, 79-81, 226; + the disciples of John, 112, 283; + literature about John, 283. +John, son of Zebedee, 36, 92, 94, 118, 193,269. +John of Gischals, 121. +Joseph of Arimathea, 182, 199. +Josephus, 22; + notice of John the Baptist, 71, 279f. +Judas of Galilee, 11, 121. +Judas the betrayer, 169, 181, 302; + the bargain, 178; + his selection as an apostle, 179; + his criticism of Mary at Bethany, 179; + his kiss, 190; + his remorse, 179. +Judea, province of, 6f. + +Kingdom of God, 68, 86, 90, 173, 190, 231, 232, 235 ff., 238, 241. + +Language used by Jesus, 19, 62, 279. +Last supper, the, 181-187, 303-305. +Lawyers, see _Scribes_. +Length of Jesus' ministry, 45-49. +Literature of the Jews, 18f., 279. +"Logia," ascribed to Matthew, 32, 42, 158. +Luke, Gospel of, 26f., 31f., 280. + +Mark, Gospel of, 25f., 27, 29, 32, 40, 42, 280, 294f.; + last twelve verses of, 204f., 306f. +Mary Magdalene, 134, 208. +Mary, the mother of Jesus, 59; + had other children, 60, 63f., 283. +Matthew, Gospel of, 23 ff., 27, 30f., 32, 280. +Messianic entry into Jerusalem, 170, 301f. +Messianic hope, the, 16-18, 87, 175, 279. +Miracles of Jesus, 96, 267, 286f. +Miraculous birth, the, 57-61, 232. +Mission of the twelve, 130, 297. +Mission of the seventy, 158, 300f. + +Nathanael, of Cana, 92, 94, 286. +Nazareth, the view from, 65f. + rejection at, 292. +Nicodemus, 111, 199. + +Papias, 22, 29, 34, 47, 102, 281. +Parables of Jesus, 128f., 231f., 296f. +Passover, the, 181, 187, 304. +Paul, 21, 36, 201, 206, 268. +Pentateuch, Jesus' references to, 244. +Perea, 104, 153f., 158, 299f. +Peter, 29, 34, 92, 94, 118, 185, 193, 305, 306; + confession of, 136, 142 ff., 297f. +Pharisees, the, 8-10; + attitude to John the Baptist, 82, 113, 289; + their blasphemy, 124, 156; + question about divorce, 154; + about tribute, 173; + about the great commandment, 174, 302. +Philip of Bethsaida, 92, 94, 176. +Philip the tetrarch, 4. +Pliny the younger, 21. +Pontius Pilate, 5, 192, 195. +Priests, the, 7f., 107; + and the temple market, 108. +Proselytes, 78, 176, 302. +Psalms, Jesus' use of the, 244. +Psalms of Solomon, 18, 261. +Publicans, 6, 72, 222. + +Quirinius, census under, 52-55. + +Religion of Jesus, 264 ff., 308. +Resurrection, pharisaic doctrine of, 10, 241; + Sadducean rejection of 10, 174. + +Sadducees, the, 8, 16, 82; + the question about the resurrection, 174, 303; + attitude towards Jesus, 193. +Samaria, 6f. + Jesus' journey through, 112. +Samaritans, how regarded, 14. +Sanhedrin, the great, at Jerusalem, 7, 13, 192. +Scribes, their business, 9; + power in the sanhedrin, 13; + their influence over the religious life, 14; + their hope of a Messiah, 16; + their washings, 78; + chief of them at Jerusalem, 107; + their pride of learning and their bondage to tradition, 228. +Sermon on the mount, 127, 290, 295f. +Signs, essential marks of the Messiah, 95, 131. +Soldiers in Palestine, 6, 72, 191. +Son of Man, the, 124f., 130f., 254-260, 308. +Son of God, the, 260-264, 308. +Star of the wise men, 56. +Suetonius, 21. +Sychar, site of, 288. +Synagogue, the, 14. +Synoptic gospels, 28. +Synoptic problem, 27-32, 279f. + +Tabernacles, feast of, 148, 150, 298f. +Tacitus, 3, 21, 54. +Tatian, 23, 38, 47, 281. +Taxes, Roman, in Judea, 6. +Temple at Jerusalem, 107; + market in 107; + cleansing of, 107, 288f. +Temptation of Jesus, 86-91, 145, 284; + locality of, 285; + source of the record, 90, 285. +Tertullian, 45, 53. +Thomas, 208. +Tiberius, 1, 21, 50. +Traditions of the elders, 9, 15f., 68, 74, 139. +Transfiguration, the, 146f., 292. +Trial of Jesus, the, 191-195, 305. + +Words from the cross, 196 ff., 306. + +Zealots, the, 11, 74, 122, 124. + + + + +Index of Scripture References + + + +Ex. + +iv. 22 261 +xix. 10 78 +xxiv. 1-11 183 + + + +Lev. + +xii. 8 61 +xxiii. 5-11 47 + + + +Num. + +xxiii. 19 254 + + + +Deut. + +vi. 4-9 62 +viii. 3 88 +xviii. 15 92 +xxi. 23 196 + + + +I. Sam. + +ii. 26 61 + + + +I. Kings. + +xvii. 1 72 + + + +II. Kings. + +i. 8 +xvii. 24-41 14 + + + +Ps. + +ii. 7 261 +viii. 4 254 +xxii. 196 +lxxx. 17 254 +lxxxii. 6 261 +ciii. 13 262 +cxiii., cxiv. 304 +cxv. to cxviii. 185, 304 + + + +Isa. + +i. 16 76 +vi. 5 267 +xi. 2 85 +xxxv. 5f. 126 +xlii. 1 85 +li. 2 254 +liii. 96, 239 +liii. 7 93 +lviii. 76 +lxi. 1f. 45, 85, 126 +lxiii. 16 262 + + + +Jer. + +xxxi. 31-34 111, 183 + + + +Ezek. + +ii. 1 254 +xxxiii. 10-20 240 +xxxvi. 25-27 111 + + +Dan. + +vi. 10 107 +vii. 1-14 254 +vii. 13f. 255 +viii. 17 254 + + +Hos. + +i. 10 261 + + +Joel. + +ii. 1-14 76 + + +Micah. + +vi. 8 76 + + +Matt. + +i. 1 to iv. 17 23 +ii. 1, 2 52 +iii. 7 74 +iii. 9 78 +iii. 10-12 82 +iii. 11 77 +iii. 14 82 +iii. 15 83 +iii. 16 285 +iv. 4, 7, 10 228 +iv. 7 89 +iv. 8 90 +iv. 10 90, 145 +iv. 12 101, 102, 106, 289 +iv. 12-17 24, 39, 115 +iv. 12 to xviii. 35 102 +iv. 13 106 +iv. 13-16 115 +iv. 17 118 +iv. 18-22 106, 115 +iv. 18 to xvi. 20 24 +iv. 23 115 +iv. 23-25 115 +v. 1 290 +v. 3-12 296 +v. 13-16 296 +v. 17 83, 228 +v. 17-19 296 +v. 18 238 +v. 20 296 +v. 21-48 228, 296 +v. 25f. 295 +v. 29f. 295 +v. 32 295 +v. 38, 39 250 +v. 45 244 +vi. 1-6 84 +vi. 1-18 64, 296 +vi. 2-4 176 +vi. 9-15 4, 117, 295 +vi. 19-34 103, 295 +vi. 24 179 +vi. 25-34 42 +vii. 1-6 296 +vii. 7-11 117, 295 +vii. 13f. 295 +vii. 15-21 296 +vii. 21 262 +vii. 21-27 238 +vii. 22f. 295 +vii. 24-27 296 +vii. 28, 29 226, 249 +viii. 2-4 115 +viii. 5 7 +viii. 5, 8 43 +viii. 5-13 41, 115, 288, 289 +viii. 10 243 +viii. 10-12 24 +viii. 14-17 115 +viii. 18, 23-27 116 +viii. 19-22 153 +viii. 20 259 +viii. 28-34 116 +ix. 1, 18-26 116 +ix. 2-8 115 +ix. 9-13 115 +ix. 14-17 115 +ix. 27-34 116 +ix. 35 116 +ix. 36 to xi. 1 116, 118, 297 +x. 1, 5-15 297 +x. 5f. 130 +x. 7-15 297 +x. 16-42 297 +x. 32 262 +xi. 2-6 251 +xi. 2-19 41, 116 +xi. 4-6 131 +xi. 11 80 +xi. 18f. 259 +xi. 19 96, 220, 256 +xi. 20-24 301 +xi. 20-30 153 +xi. 25-30 300 +xi. 27 252, 263 +xi. 28-30 160 +xii. 1-8 115 +xii. 9-14 115 +xii. 12 227 +xii. 15-21 115 +xii. 22-45 116, 156 +xii. 28 85, 248 +xii. 46-50 116 +xii. 50 145 +xiii. 1-53 116, 296 +xiii. 24-30 296 +xiii. 31-33 44, 17 +xiii. 40-43, 49, 50 296 +xiii. 54-58 116, 292 +xiii. 55 61, 63 +xiv. 1-12 116 +xiv. 1 to xxviii. 20 28 +xiv. 13-23 39, 116, 297 +xiv. 19 46 +xiv. 21-36 116 +xv. 1 43 +xv. 1-20 116 +xv. 13f. 150 +xv. 21-28 116 +xv. 21-31 140 +xv. 22 254 +xv. 24 130 +xv. 29-31 117 +xv. 32-38 117, 297 +xv. 39 291 +xv. 39 to xvi. 12 17 +xvi. 9f. 297 +xvi. 13-20 94, 117, 298 +xvi. 16 263 +xvi. 16ff. 142 +xvi. 17 142, 224, 262 +xvi. 21 118, 239 +xvi. 21-28 117 +xvi. 21 to xxviii. 20 24 +xvi. 23 239 +xvii. 1-13 117 +xvii. 10-13 193 +xvii. 14-20 117 +xvi. 22-23 117 +xvii. 24-27 117, 139 +xviii. 1-35 117, 148 +xviii. 4 220 +xviii. 12-14 44 +xix. 1f. 39, 153, 154, 298 +xix. 1 to xx. 34 104 +xix. 3-9 228 +xix. 3-12 153 +xix. 13-15 153 +xix. 16 to xx. 16 153 +xx. 17-19 153 +xx. 20-28 153 +xx. 29-34 153 +xxi. 1-11 166 +xxi. 1 to xxvii. 66 104 +xxi. 1 to xxviii. 20 39 +xxi. 4f. 170 +xxi. 9-15 254 +xxi. 14-16 172 +xxi. 17 166 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1-20 167 +xv. 2 254 +xv. 6-15 192 +xv. 21 182, 195 +xv. 21-41 167 +xv. 22 305 +xv. 34 20, 197, 306 +xv. 42 182 +xv. 42-47 167 +xv. 43 34 +xv. 46 182 +xvi. 1 202 +xvi. 1-8 201 +xvi. 6f. 209 +xvi. [9-20] 204f., 306 +xvi. [9-11] 201 +xvi. [12f.] 201 +xvi. [14] 201 +xvi. [15-18] 201 +xvi. 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304 +xxii. 28 87 +xxii. 31-34 185, 305 +xxii. 39-46 167 +xxii. 47-53 167 +xxii. 54-71 167 +xxii. 61f. 193 +xxii. 66-71 192 +xxii. 70 263 +xxiii. 1f. 192 +xxiii. 1-25 167 +xxiii. 4 192 +xxiii. 5-12 192 +xxiii. 13-16 192 +xxiii. 16-24 192 +xxiii. 26-49 167 +xxiii. 27-31 195 +xxiii. 34 197, 306, 307 +xxiii. 43 197, 306 +xxiii. 46 64, 197, 265, 306 +xxiii. 50-56 167 +xxiii. 56 182 +xxiv. 1-12 201 +xxiv. 12 205 +xxiv. 13-35 201 +xxiv. 21 200, 203 +xxiv. 36-43 201 +xxiv. 41-43 213 +xxiv. 44-53 201 +xxiv. 50 205 +xxiv. 51 214, 307 + + + +John. + + +i. 14 58, 269 +1. 19 to iv. 42 40, 101 +i. 25 78 +i. 26f. 93 +i. 28 92, 284 +i. 29 93 +i. 29-36 80 +i. 30-34 93 +i. 31 82 +i. 32-34 84 +i. 35f. 93 +i. 38 20, 226 +i. 40f., 43-45 92 +i. 41-45 142 +i. 42-47 239 +i. 44 290 +i. 49 94, 142, 254, 261, 263 +i. 51 95 +ii. 3-5 97 +ii. 11 222 +ii. 12 97 +ii. 13 46 +ii. 13-22 43, 106, 288 +ii. 16 262 +ii. 20 49 +ii. 22 96 +ii. 23 to iii. 15 106 +ii. 25 68, 141, 234, 239 +iii. 2 226 +iii. 16-21,30-36 32 +iii. 22-30 106 +iii. 24 46, 101 +iii. 23 288 +iii. 24,35 113 +iii. 30 80 +iii. 34 85, 86 +iv. 1-3 113 +iv. 1-3, 44 112 +iv. 1-4 289 +iv. 1-42 106 +iv. 1-45 102 +iv. 21-24 109 +iv. 25 14 +iv. 26 254 +iv. 30 95 +iv. 34 265 +iv. 35 107, 288, 293 +iv. 42 40 +iv. 43-45 39, 106, 286 +iv. 46-54 102, 106, 115, 289 +v. 1 40, 48, 293 +v. 1-9 32 +v. 1-47 102, 115 +v. 17 262 +v. 19 264 +v. 25 263 +v. 30 265 +v. 39 229 +vi. 1-15 39, 116 +vi. 1-71 102 +vi. 4 46, 138, 293 +vi. 14 25 +vi. 14f. 119 +vi. 15 89, 120, 135, 170 +vi. 16-21 116 +vi. 22-71 116 +vi. 30-32 87 +vi. 38 189, 265 +vi. 64 178, 180 +vi. 66 136 +vi. 67 225 +vi. 67-71 298 +vi. 68 81, 123 +vi. 68f. 142 +vi. 69 254 +vii. 1-10 39, 298 +vii. 1-52 117 +vii. 1 to viii. 59 103, 149 +vii. 2 138 +vii. 2-5 148 +vii. 5 64 +vii. 10 150 +vii. 15 235 +vii. 22 244 +vii. 23 32 +vii. 24 227 +vii. 25,32 160 +vii. 31 95 +vii. 32 299 +vii. 36 149 +vii. 40 254 +vii. 45-52 299 +vii. 49 13, 220 +vii. 50-52 111 +vii. 53 to viii. 11 37, 117, 149, 157 +viii. 12-59 117 +viii. 14 248 +viii. 15 157 +viii. 46 83, 266 +viii. 59 160, 299 +ix. 1 to x. 39 153 +ix. 1 to xi. 57 104 +ix. 10 158, 159 +ix. 35 263 +ix. 35-38 156 +x. 11-18 159 +x. 18 89 +x. 21 159 +x. 22 150, 155, 298 +x. 22, 40-42 58 +x. 24-39 159 +x. 25 161, 262 +x. 29 265 +x. 30 264 +x. 31-39 160 +x. 32 233 +x. 34 261 +x. 36 263 +x. 39 156 +x. 40 154, 155, 301 +x. 40-42 153, 160 +xi. 1-7 155 +xi. 1-46 153, 161 +xi. 4 263 +xi. 6 161 +xi. 34 243, 258 +xi. 41f. 161, 265 +xi. 47-50 193 +xi. 47-54 153, 161 +xi. 54 155, 162, 300 +xi. 55 to xii. 11 166 +xi. 55 to xix. 42 104 +xii. 1 46, 102, 163, 301 +xii. 1 to xxi. 25 39 +xii. 2 169 +xii. 4-8 301 +xii. 6 178 +xii. 7 169 +xii. 12f. 170 +xii. 12-19 166 +xii. 20-36 166, 176, 302 +xii. 23-36 168 +xii. 36^b(-50) 166 +xii. 37-43 32 +xiii. 1 181, 303 +xiii. 1-15 234, 304 +xiii. 1-30 167 +xiii. 21-30 184 +xiii. 23-26 185 +xiii. 29 178, 303 +xiii. 31 to xvi. 33 32, 167, 305 +xiii. 32f. 305 +xiii. 36-38 305 +xiv. 6-11 264 +xiv. 10 161, 265 +xiv. 28 265 +xiv. 30f. 32 +xv. 32, 167, 305 +xv. 1 262 +xvi. 32, 167, 305 +xvi. 25 264 +xvii. 1-26 167 +xvii. 21 264 +xviii. 1 167 +xviii. 1-12 167 +xviii. 8 190 +xviii. 11^b 189 +xviii. 12-27 167 +xviii. 15 193 +xviii. 28 182, 303 +xviii. 28 to xix. 16 167 +xviii. 31 192 +xviii. 33, 36f. 254 +xix. 7-12 192 +xix. 12-16 193 +xix. 14 606 +xix. 16-37 167 +xix. 19-22 198 +xix. 25 97 +xix. 26 97 +xix. 26f. 197, 306 +xix. 28 197, 306 +xix. 30 197, 306 +xix. 31 182, 199, 303 +xix. 31-37 198 +xix. 38 34 +xix. 38-42 167 +xix. 39 111 +xix. 42 303 +xx. 1-10 201 +xx. 2 206 +xx. 5-8 43 +xx. 8 203 +xx. 9 200 +xx. 9f., 24f. 93, 94 +xx. 14-18 201 +xx. 17 209, 214 +xx 19-25 201 +xx. 21 23 +xx. 26-29 201 +xx. 30 49 +xx. 30f. 32, 107 +xxi. 206 +xxi. 2 92 +xxi. 1-24 201 +xxi. 3-14 293 +xxi. 25 39 + + + +Acts. + + +i. 1-11 214 +i. 1-12 201 +i. 14 97 +ii. 36 202 +v. 36 89 +v. 37 53 +vii. 56 254 +xvii. 31 202 +xix. 1-7 80 +xx. 35 36 +xxi. 38 89 +xxiii. 8 302 + + + +Rom. + + +i. 3 21 +i. 4 202 +v. 19 21 +ix. 5 21 +xv. 3 21 + + + +I. Cor. + + +i. 23 190 +v. 7 183 +ix. 1 202 +x. 16 304 +xv. 202 +xv. 3-8 21, 105, 204 +xv. 4 204, 213 +xv. 5 201 +xv. 6 201 +xv. 6f. 162 +xv. 7 201 + + + +II. Cor. + + +v. 21 83 +viii. 9 21 +x. l 21 +xii. 212 + + + +Gal. + + +iii. 13 190 + + + +Phil. + + +ii. 5-11 21, 269 +ii. 7f. 190, 285 +ii. 8 196 + + + +II. Tim. + + +iii. 15 63 + + + +Heb. + + +ii. 17 61 +ii. 17f. 64 +ii. 18 87 +iv. 15 61, 63, 67 +v. 7 147 +v. 7-9 87 +vii. 26 57 +xii. 2 190 +xii. 13 190 + + + +I. Pet. + + +ii. 22 83 + + + + + + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's The Life of Jesus of Nazareth, by Rush Rhees + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE LIFE OF JESUS OF NAZARETH *** + +***** This file should be named 13228.txt or 13228.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/1/3/2/2/13228/ + +Produced by Distributed Proofreaders + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, +set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to +copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to +protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. 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