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| author | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-15 04:45:47 -0700 |
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| committer | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-15 04:45:47 -0700 |
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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text diff --git a/14989-8.txt b/14989-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..8bffd65 --- /dev/null +++ b/14989-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,5212 @@ +Project Gutenberg's Scientific American Supplement No. 822, by Various + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Scientific American Supplement No. 822 + Volume XXXII, Number 822. Issue Date October 3, 1891 + +Author: Various + +Release Date: February 9, 2005 [EBook #14989] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN *** + + + + +Produced by Juliet Sutherland and the Online Distributed Proofreading +Team at www.pgdp.net. + + + + + + +[Illustration] + + + + +SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT NO. 822 + + + + +NEW YORK, October 3, 1891 + +Scientific American Supplement. Vol. XXXII, No. 822. + +Scientific American established 1845 + +Scientific American Supplement, $5 a year. + +Scientific American and Supplement, $7 a year. + + * * * * * + + + + +TABLE OF CONTENTS. + + +I. ANTHROPOLOGY.--The Study of Mankind.--A review of Prof. + Max Muller's recent address before the British Association. 13141 + +II. CHEMISTRY.--Standards and Methods for the Polarimetric + Estimation of Sugars.--A U.S. internal revenue report on + the titular subject.--2 illustrations. 13138 + + The Formation of Starch in Leaves.--An interesting + examination into the physiological _role_ of leaves.--1 + illustration. 13138 + + The Water Molecule.--By A. GANSWINDT.--A very interesting + contribution to structural chemistry. 13137 + +III. CIVIL ENGINEERING.--Demolition of Rocks under Water + without Explosives.--Lobnitz System.--By EDWARD S. + CRAWLEY.--A method of removing rocks by combined + dredging and ramming as applied on the Suez Canal.--3 + illustrations. 13128 + +IV. ELECTRICITY.--Electrical Standards.--The English Board of + Trade commission's standards of electrical measurements. 13129 + + The London-Paris Telephone.--By W.H. PREECE, + F.R.S.--Details of the telephone between London and + Paris and its remarkable success.--6 illustrations. 13131 + + The Manufacture of Phosphorus by Electricity.--A new + industry based on dynamic electricity.--Full details. 13132 + + The Two or Three Phase Alternating Current Systems.--By + CARL HERING.--A new industrial development in electricity + fully described and graphically developed.--15 + illustrations. 13130 + +V. GEOGRAPHY AND EXPLORATION.--The Grand Falls of + Labrador.--The Bowdoin College exploring expedition and + its adventures and discoveries in Labrador. 13140 + +VI. MECHANICAL ENGINEERING.--Improved Changeable Speed + Gearing.--An ingenious method of obtaining different speeds + at will from a single driving shaft.--2 illustrations. 13129 + + Progress in Engineering.--Notes on the progress of the last + decade. 13129 + +VII. MEDICINE AND HYGIENE.--Eyesight.--Its Care during Infancy + and Youth.--By L. WEBSTER FOX, M.D.--A very timely + article on the preservation of sight and its deterioration + among civilized people. 13135 + + The Use of Compressed Air in Conjunction with Medicinal + Solutions in the Treatment of Nervous and Mental + Affections.--By J. LEONARD CORNING.--The enhancement of + the effects of remedies by subsequent application of + compressed air. 13134 + +VIII. MINERALOGY.--A Gem-Bearing Granite Vein in Western + Connecticut.--By L.P. GRATACAP.--A most interesting + mineral fissure yielding mica and gems recently opened. 13141 + +IX. NATURAL HISTORY.--Ants.--By RUTH WARD KAHN.--An + interesting presentation of the economy of ants. 13140 + +X. NAVAL ENGINEERING.--Armor Plating on Battleships--France + and Great Britain.--A comparison of the protective systems + of the French and English navies.--5 illustrations. 13127 + + The Redoutable.--An important member of the French + Mediterranean fleet described and illustrated.--1 + illustration. 13127 + +XI. TECHNOLOGY.--New Bleaching Apparatus.--A newly invented + apparatus for bleaching pulp.--2 illustrations. 13133 + + * * * * * + + + + +THE REDOUTABLE. + + +The central battery and barbette ship Redoutable, illustrated this +week, forms part of the French Mediterranean squadron, and although +launched as early as 1876 is still one of its most powerful ships. +Below are some of the principal dimensions and particulars of this +ironclad: + + Length 318 ft. 2 in. + Beam 64 " 8 " + Draught 25 " 6 " + Displacement 9200 tons. + Crew 706 officers and men. + +[Illustration: THE FRENCH CENTRAL BATTERY IRONCLAD REDOUTABLE.] + +The Redoutable is built partly of iron and partly of steel and is +similar in many respects to the ironclads Devastation and Courbet of +the same fleet, although rather smaller. She is completely belted with +14 in. armor, with a 15 in. backing, and has the central battery +armored with plates of 9½ in. in thickness. + +The engines are two in number, horizontal, and of the compound two +cylinder type, developing a horse power of 6,071, which on the trial +trip gave a speed of 14.66 knots per hour. Five hundred and ten tons +of coal are carried in the bunkers, which at a speed of 10 knots +should enable the ship to make a voyage of 2,800 knots. Torpedo +defense netting is fitted, and there are three masts with military +tops carrying Hotchkiss revolver machine guns. + +The offensive power of the ship consists of seven breechloading rifled +guns of 27 centimeters (10.63 in.), and weighing 24 tons each, six +breechloading rifled guns of 14 centimeters (5.51 in.), and +quick-firing and machine guns of the Hotchkiss systems. There are in +addition four torpedo discharge tubes, two on each side of the ship. +The positions of the guns are as follows: Four of 27 centimeters in +the central battery, two on each broadside; three 27 centimeter guns +on the upper deck in barbettes, one on each side amidships, and one +aft. The 14 centimeter guns are in various positions on the +broadsides, and the machine guns are fitted on deck, on the bridges, +and in the military tops, four of them also being mounted on what is +rather a novelty in naval construction, a gallery running round the +outside of the funnel, which was fitted when the ship was under +repairs some months ago. + +There are three electric light projectors, one forward on the upper +deck, one on the bridge just forward of the funnel, and one in the +mizzen top.--_Engineering._ + + * * * * * + + + + +ARMOR PLATING ON BATTLESHIPS: FRANCE AND GREAT BRITAIN. + + +The visit of the French squadron under Admiral Gervais to England has +revived in many a nautical mind the recollection of that oft-repeated +controversy as to the relative advantages of armored belts and +citadels. Now that a typical French battleship of the belted class has +been brought so prominently to our notice, it may not be considered an +inappropriate season to dwell shortly upon the various idiosyncrasies +of thought which have produced, in our two nations, types of war +vessels differing so materially from each other as to their protective +features. In order to facilitate a study of these features, the +accompanying sketch has been prepared, which shows at a glance the +relative quantities of armored surface that afford protection to the +Nile, the Camperdown, the Marceau, the Royal Sovereign, and the Dupuy +de Lôme; the first three of these vessels having been actually present +at the review on the 21st of August and the two others having been +selected as the latest efforts of shipbuilding skill in France and +Great Britain. Nothing but the armored surface in each several class +is shown, the same scale having been adhered to in all cases. + +[Illustration: Armored Surface for Various Ships] + +Two impressions cannot fail to be made upon our minds, both as to +French and British armor plate disposition. These two impressions, as +regards Great Britain, point to the Royal Sovereign as embodying the +idea of two protected stations with a narrow and partial connecting +belt; and to the Nile as embodying the idea of a vast and absolutely +protected raft. For France, we have the Marceau as representing the +wholly belted type with four disconnected but protected stations; and +the Dupuy de Lôme, in which the armor plating is thinned out to a +substance of only 4 in., so as entirely to cover the sides of the +vessel down to 5 ft, below the water line; this thickness of plating +being regarded as sufficient to break up upon its surface the dreaded +mélinite or guncotton shell, but permitting the passage of +armor-piercing projectiles right through from side to side; provision +being made to prevent damage from these latter to engines and vitals +by means of double-armored decks below, with a belt of cellulose +between them. Thus, as we have explained, two prominent ideas are +present in the disposition of armor upon the battleships of Great +Britain, as well as in that of the battleships of France. But, while +in our country these two ideas follow one another in the natural +sequence of development, from the Inflexible to the Royal Sovereign, +the citadel being gradually extended into two redoubts, and space +being left between the redoubts for an auxiliary battery--this latter +being, however, singularly placed above the armored belt, and _not +within its shelter_--in France, on the other hand, we find the second +idea to be a new departure altogether in armored protection, or rather +to be a return to the original thought which produced the Gloire and +vessels of her class. In point of fact, while we have always clung to +the armored citadel, France has discarded the belt altogether, and +gone in for speed and light armor, as well as for a much lighter class +of armament. Time alone, and the circumstances of actual warfare, can +prove which nation has adopted the wisest alternative. + +A glance at the engraving will show the striking contrast between the +existing service types as to armored surface. The Marceau appears +absolutely naked by the side of the solidly armed citadel of the Nile. +The contrast between the future types will be, of course, still more +striking, for the reasons given in the last paragraph. But while +remarking upon the paucity of heavy plating as exhibited in the +service French battleships, we would say one word for the angle at +which it is placed. The receding sides of the great vessels of France +give two very important attributes in their favor. In the first place, +a much broader platform at the water line is afforded to secure +steadiness of the ship and stable equilibrium, and the angle at which +the armor rests is so great as to present a very oblique surface to +the impact of projectiles. The trajectory of modern rifled guns is so +exceedingly flat that the angle of descent of the shot or shell is +practically _nil_. Were the sides of the Royal Sovereign to fall back +like those of the Marceau or Magenta, we seriously doubt whether any +projectile, however pointed, would effect penetration at all. We +conclude, then, that a comparison of the Marceau with the Nile as +regards protective features is so incontestably in favor of the +latter, that they cannot be classed together for a moment. In speed, +moreover, though this is not a point under consideration, the Nile has +the advantage. It is impossible, however, to avoid the conviction that +the Dupuy de Lôme would be a most powerful and disagreeable enemy for +either of the eight great ironclads of Great Britain now building to +encounter on service. The Hood and Royal Sovereign have many +vulnerable points. At any position outside of the dark and light +colored portions of armor plate indicated in our drawing, they could +be hulled with impunity with the lightest weapons. It is true that gun +detachments and ammunition will be secure within the internal +"crinolines," but how about the other men and _matériel_ between +decks? Now, the Dupuy de Lôme may be riddled through and through bf a +13½ in. shell if a Royal Sovereign ever succeeds in catching her; but +from lighter weapons her between decks is almost secure. We cannot +help feeling a sneaking admiration for the great French cruising +battleship, with her 6,300 tons and 14,000 horse power, giving an easy +speed of 20 knots in almost any weather, and protected by a complete 4 +in. steel panoply, which will explode the shells of most of our +secondary batteries on impact, or prevent their penetration. In fact, +there is little doubt that the interior of the Trafalgar, whether as +regards the secondary batteries or the unarmored ends, would be +probably found to be a safer and pleasanter situation, in the event of +action with a Dupuy de Lôme, than either of the naked batteries or the +upper works of the Royal Sovereign. This is what Sir E.J. Reed was so +anxious to point out at the meeting of naval architects in 1889, when +he described the modern British battleship as a "spoiled Trafalgar." +There was perhaps some reason in what he said.--_The Engineer._ + + * * * * * + + + + +DEMOLITION OF ROCKS UNDER WATER WITHOUT EXPLOSIVES-LOBNITZ SYSTEM.[1] + +[Footnote 1: Read before the Engineer's Club, Philadelphia. Translated +from _Nouvelles Anodes de la Construction,_ March, 1890.] + +By EDWIN S. CRAWLEY. + + +The methods of demolishing rocks by the use of explosives are always +attended by a certain amount of danger, while at the same time there +is always more or less uncertainty in regard to the final result of +the operation. Especially is this the case when the work must be +carried on without interrupting navigation and in the vicinity of +constructions that may receive injury from the explosions. + +Such were the conditions imposed in enlarging the Suez Canal in +certain parts where the ordinary dredges could not be used. + +Mr. Henry Lobnitz, engineer at Renfrew, has contrived a new method of +procedure, designed for the purpose of enlarging and deepening the +canal in those parts between the Bitter Lakes and Suez, where it runs +over a rocky bed. It was necessary to execute the work without +interrupting or obstructing traffic on the canal. + +The principle of the system consists in producing a shattering of the +rock by the action of a heavy mass let fall from a convenient height, +and acting like a projectile of artillery upon the wall of a fortress. + +From experiments made in the quarry of Craigmiller, near Edinburgh, +with a weight of two tons shod with a steel point, it was found that +with a fall of about 5.5 meters (18.04 ft.) there was broken up on an +average more than 0.113 cubic meter (0.148 cubic yard) of hard rock +per blow. The first blow, delivered 90 centimeters (2 ft. 11½ in.) +from the wall face, produced an almost imperceptible rent, a second or +a third blow applied at the same place extended this opening often to +a length of 1.50 meters (4 ft. 11 in.) and to a depth of from 90 to +120 centimeters (2 ft. 11 in. to 3 ft. 11 in.) The next blow opened +the fissure and detached the block of rock. + +The application of the same system under water upon an unknown surface +would obviously modify the conditions of the experiment. Nevertheless, +the results obtained with the "Derocheuse," the first dredging machine +constructed upon this principle, have realized the hopes of the +inventor. + +This dredging machine was launched on the Clyde and reached Port Said +in twenty days. It measures 55 meters (180 ft. 5 in.) in length, 12.20 +meters (40 ft. 1 in.) in breadth, and 3.65 meters (12 ft.) in depth. +Its mean draught of water is 2.75 meters (9 ft. 2½ in.) It is divided +into eighteen watertight compartments. Five steel-pointed battering +rams, each of four tons weight, are arranged in line upon each side of +the chain of buckets of the dredging machine. See Figs. 1 and 2. The +battering rams, suspended by chains, are raised by hydraulic power to +a height varying from 1.50 to 6 meters (4 ft. 11 in. to 19 ft. 8 in.), +and are then let fall upon the rock. The mechanism of the battering +rams is carried by a metallic cage which can be moved forward or +backward by the aid of steam as the needs of the work require. A +series of five battering rams gives from 200 to 300 blows per hour. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--LONGITUDINAL SECTION.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.--PLAN] + +A dredging machine combined with the apparatus just described, raises +the fragments of rock as they are detached from the bottom. A guide +wheel is provided, which supports the chain carrying the buckets, and +thus diminishes the stress upon the axles and bearings. With this +guide wheel or auxiliary drum there is no difficulty in dredging to a +depth of 12 meters (39 ft. 4 in.), while without this accessory it is +difficult to attain a depth of 9 meters (29 ft. 6 in.) + +A compound engine, with four cylinders of 200 indicated horse power, +drives, by means of friction gear, the chain, which carries the +buckets. If the buckets happen to strike against the rock, the +friction gear yields until the excess of resistance has disappeared. + +Fig. 3 indicates the manner in which the dredge is operated during the +work. It turns alternately about two spuds which are thrust +successively into the bottom and about which the dredge describes a +series of arcs in a zigzag fashion. These spuds are worked by +hydraulic power. + +A three ton hand crane is placed upon the bridge for use in making +repairs to the chain which carries the buckets. A six ton steam crane +is placed upon the top of the cage which supports the hydraulic +apparatus for raising the battering rams, thus permitting them to be +easily lifted and replaced. + +The dredging machine is also furnished with two screws driven by an +engine of 300 indicated horse power, as well as with two independent +boilers. Two independent series of pumps, with separate connections, +feed the hydraulic lifting apparatus, thus permitting repairs to be +made when necessary, without interrupting the work. A special machine +with three cylinders drives the pumps of the condenser. An accumulator +regulates the hydraulic pressure and serves to raise or lower the +spuds. + +At the end of the Suez Canal next to the Red Sea, the bottom consists +of various conglomerates containing gypsum, sandstone and sometimes +shells. It was upon a bed of this nature that the machine was first +put to work. The mean depth of water, originally 8.25 meters (26 ft. 3 +in.), was for a long time sufficient for the traffic of the canal; but +as the variations in level of the Red Sea are from 1.8 to 3 meters (5 +ft. 11 in. to 9 ft. 10 in.), the depth at the moment of low water is +scarcely adequate for the constantly increasing draught of water of +the steamers. Attempts were made to attack the rocky surface of the +bottom with powerful dredges, but this method was expensive because it +necessitated constant repairs to the dredges. + +[Illustration: FIG. 3.--DREDGE MOVEMENT.] + +These last, although of good construction, seldom raised more than 153 +cubic meters (200 cubic yards) in from eight to fifteen days. Their +daily advance was often only from sixty to ninety centimeters (about 2 +to 3 ft.), while with the "Derocheuse" it was possible to advance ten +times as rapidly in dredging to the same depth. The bottom upon which +the machine commenced its work was clean and of a true rocky nature. +It was soon perceived that this conglomerate, rich in gypsum, +possessed too great elasticity for the pointed battering rams to have +their proper effect upon it. Each blow made a hole of from fifteen to +sixty centimeters (6 in. to 2. ft.) in depth. A second blow, given +even very near to the first, formed a similar hole, leaving the bed of +the rock to all appearances intact between the two holes. This result, +due entirely to the special nature of the rock, led to the fear that +the action of the battering rams would be without effect. After some +experimentation it was found that the best results were obtained by +arranging the battering rams very near to the chain of buckets and by +working the dredge and battering rams simultaneously. The advance at +each oscillation was about 90 centimeters (about 3 ft.) + +The results obtained were as follows: At first the quantity extracted +varied much from day to day; but at the end of some weeks, on account +of the greater experience of the crew, more regularity was obtained. +The nature of the conglomerate was essentially variable, sometimes +hard and tenacious, like malleable iron, then suddenly changing into +friable masses surrounded by portions more elastic and richer in +gypsum. + +During the last five weeks at Port Tewfik, the expense, including the +repairs, was 8,850 francs ($1,770.00) for 1,600 cubic meters (2,093 +cubic yards) extracted. This would make the cost 5.52 francs per cubic +meter, or $0.84 per cubic yard, not including the insurance, the +interest and the depreciation of the plant. + +After some improvements in details, suggested by practice, the machine +was put in operation at Chalouf upon a hard rock, from 1.50 to 3 +meters (4 ft. 11 in. to 9 ft. 10 in.) thick. The battering rams were +given a fall of 1.80 meters (5 ft. 11 in.). To break the rock into +fragments small enough not to be rejected by the buckets of the +dredge, the operations of dredging and of disintegration were carried +on separately, permitting the battering rams to work at a greater +distance from the wall face. The time consumed in thus pulverizing the +rock by repeated blows was naturally found to be increased. It was +found more convenient to use only a single row of battering rams. The +production was from about seven to eleven cubic meters (9.2 to 14.4 +cubic yards) per hour. Toward the close of September, after it had +been demonstrated that the "Derocheuse" was capable of accomplishing +with celerity and economy the result for which it was designed, it was +purchased by the Suez Canal Company. + +During the month of September, an experiment, the details of which +were carefully noted, extending over a period of sixteen days, gave +the following results: + + Crew (33 men), 140 hours. 2,012.50 francs $402.50 + Coal, @ 87.50 francs ($7.50) per ton 787.50 francs 157.50 + Oil and supplies 220.00 francs 44.00 + Fresh water, 16 days 210.00 francs 42.00 + Sundries 42.50 francs 8.50 + ---------------- --------- + Total expense for removing 764 + cubic meters (999.2 cubic yards), 3,272.50 francs $654.50 + +Average, 4.28 francs per cubic meter ($0.65 per cubic yard). + +This result cannot be taken as a universal basis, because after a +year's use there are numerous repairs to make to the plant, which +would increase the average net cost. This, besides, does not include +the cost of removal of the dredged material, nor the depreciation, the +interest and the insurance. + +It should be added on the other hand, however, that the warm season +was far from being favorable to the energy and perseverance necessary +to carry on successfully experiments of this kind. The temperature, +even at midnight, was often 38° C. (100.4° F.). Still further, the work +was constantly interrupted by the passage of ships through the canal. +On an average not more than forty minutes' work to the hour was +obtained. Notwithstanding this, there were extracted at Chalouf, on an +average, 38.225 cubic meters (50 cubic yards) per day without +interrupting navigation. At Port Tewfik, where there was much less +inconvenience from the passage of ships, the work was carried on from +eight to eleven hours per day and the quantity extracted in this time +was generally more than 76 cubic meters (99.4 cubic yards). + +In most cases the system could be simplified. The engine which works +the dredge could, when not thus employed, be used to drive the pumps. +The propelling engine could also be used for the same purpose. + +The results obtained at Suez indicate the appreciable advantages +arising from the application of this system to the works of ports, +rivers and canals, and ever, to the work of cutting in the +construction of roads and railroads. + + * * * * * + + + + +PROGRESS IN ENGINEERING. + + +Mr. T. Forster Brown, in his address to the Mechanical Science Section +of the British Association, said that great progress had been made in +mechanical science since the British Association met in the +principality of Wales eleven years ago; and some of the results of +that progress were exemplified in our locomotives, and marine +engineering, and in such works as the Severn Tunnel, the Forth and Tay +Bridges, and the Manchester Ship Canal, which was now in progress of +construction. In mining, the progress had been slow, and it was a +remarkable fact that, with the exception of pumping, the machinery in +use in connection with mining operations in Great Britain had not, in +regard to economy, advanced so rapidly as had been the case in our +manufactures and marine. This was probably due, in metalliferous +mining, to the uncertain nature of the mineral deposits not affording +any adequate security to adventurers that the increased cost of +adopting improved appliances would be reimbursed; while in coal +mining, the cheapness of fuel, the large proportion which manual labor +bore to the total cost of producing coal, and the necessity for +producing large outputs with the simplest appliances, explained the +reluctance with which high pressure steam compound engines, and other +modes embracing the most modern and approved types of economizing +power had been adopted. Metalliferous mining, with the exception of +the working of iron ore, was not in a prosperous condition; but in +special localities, where the deposits of minerals were rich and +profitable, progress had been made within a recent period by the +adoption of more economical and efficient machinery, of which the +speaker quoted a number of examples. Reference was also made to the +rapid strides made in the use of electricity as a motive power, and to +the mechanical ventilation of mines by exhaustion of the air. + + +COAL MINES. + +Summarizing the position of mechanical science, as applied to the coal +mining industry in this country, Mr. Brown observed that there was a +general awakening to the necessity of adopting, in the newer and +deeper mines, more economical appliances. It was true it would be +impracticable, and probably unwise, to alter much of the existing +machinery, but, by the adoption of the best known types of electrical +plant, and air compression in our new and deep mines, the consumption +of coal per horse power would be reduced, and the extra expense, due +to natural causes, of producing minerals from greater depths would be +substantially lessened. The consumption of coal at the collieries of +Great Britain alone probably exceeded 10,000,000 tons per annum, and +the consumption per horse power was probably not less than 6 lb. of +coal, and it was not unreasonable to assume that, by the adoption of +more efficient machinery than was at present in general use, at least +one-half of the coal consumed could be saved. There was, therefore, in +the mines of Great Britain alone a wide and lucrative field for the +inventive ingenuity of mechanical engineers in economizing fuel, and +especially in the successful application of new methods for dealing +with underground haulage, in the inner workings of our collieries, +more especially in South Wales, where the number of horses still +employed was very large. + + +STEAM TRAMS AND ELECTRIC TRAMS. + +Considerable progress had within recent years been made in the +mechanical appliances intended to replace horses on our public tram +lines. The steam engine now in use in some of our towns had its +drawbacks as as well as its good qualities, as also had the endless +rope haulage, and in the case of the latter system, anxiety must be +felt when the ropes showed signs of wear. The electrically driven +trams appeared to work well. He had not, however, seen any published +data bearing on the relative cost per mile of these several systems, +and this information, when obtained, would be of interest. At the +present time, he understood, exhaustive trials were being made with an +ammonia gas engine, which, it was anticipated, would prove both more +economical and efficient than horses for tram roads. The gas was said +to be produced from the pure ammonia, obtained by distillation from +commercial ammonia, and was given off at a pressure varying from 100 +to 150 lb. per square inch. This ammonia was used in specially +constructed engines, and was then exhausted into a tank containing +water, which brought it back into its original form of commercial +ammonia, ready for redistillation, and, it was stated, with a +comparatively small loss. + + * * * * * + + + + +IMPROVED CHANGEABLE SPEED GEARING. + + +This is the invention of Lawrence Heath, of Macedon, N.Y., and relates +to that class of changeable speed gearing in which a center pinion +driven at a constant rate of speed drives directly and at different +rates of speed a series of pinions mounted in a surrounding revoluble +case or shell, so that by turning the shell one or another of the +secondary pinions may be brought into operative relation to the parts +to be driven therefrom. + +The aim of my invention is to so modify this system of gearing that +the secondary pinions may receive a very slow motion in relation to +that of the primary driving shaft, whereby the gearing is the better +adapted for the driving of the fertilizer-distributers of grain drills +from the main axle, and for other special uses. + +Fig. 1 is a side elevation. Fig. 2 is a vertical cross section. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.] + +A represents the main driving shaft or axle, driven constantly and at +a uniform speed, and B is the pinion-supporting case or shell, mounted +loosely on and revoluble around the axle, but held normally at rest by +means of a locking bolt, C, or other suitable locking device adapted +to enter notches, _c_, in the shell. + +D is the primary driving pinion, fixed firmly to the axle and +constantly engaging the pinion, E, mounted on a stud in the shell. The +pinion, E, is formed integral with or firmly secured to the smaller +secondary pinion, F, which in turn constantly engages and drives the +center pinion, G, mounted to turn loosely on the axle within the +shell, so that it is turned in the same direction as the axle, but at +a slower speed. + +F', F_{2}, F_{3}, F_{4}, etc., represent additional secondary pinions +grouped around the center pinion, mounted on studs in the shell, and +made of different diameters, so that they are driven by the center +pinion at different speeds. Each of the secondary pinions is formed +with a neck or journal, _f_, projected out through the side of the +shell, so that the external pinion, H, may be applied to any one of +the necks at will in order to communicate motion thence to the gear, +I, which occupies a fixed position, and from which the fertilizer or +other mechanism is driven. + +In order to drive the gear, I, at one speed or another, as may be +demanded, it is only necessary to apply the pinion, H, to the neck of +that secondary pinion which is turning at the appropriate speed and +then turn the shell bodily around the axle until the external pinion +is carried into engagement with gear I, when the shell is again locked +fast. The axle communicates motion through D, E, and P to the center +pinion, which in turn drives all the secondary pinions except F. If +the external pinion is applied to F, it will receive motion directly +therefrom; but if applied to either of the secondary pinions, it will +receive motion through or by way of the center pinion. It will be seen +that all the pinions are sustained and protected within the shell. + +The essence of the invention lies in the introduction of the pinions D +and E between the axle and the series of secondary pinions to reduce +the speed. + + * * * * * + + + + +ELECTRICAL STANDARDS. + + +_Nature_ states that the Queen's Printers are now issuing the Report +(dated July 23, 1891) to the President of the Board of Trade, of the +Committee appointed to consider the question of constructing standards +for the measurement of electricity. The committee included Mr. +Courtenay Boyle, C.B., Major P. Cardew, R.E., Mr. E. Graves, Mr. W.H. +Preece, F.R.S., Sir W. Thomson, F.R.S., Lord Rayleigh, F.R.S., Prof. +G. Carey Foster, F.R.S., Mr. R.T. Glazebrook, F.R. S., Dr. John +Hopkinson, F.R.S., Prof. W.E. Ayrton, F.R.S. + +In response to an invitation, the following gentlemen attended and +gave evidence: On behalf of the Association of Chambers of Commerce, +Mr. Thomas Parker and Mr. Hugh Erat Harrison; on behalf of the London +Council, Prof. Silvanus Thompson; on behalf of the London Chamber of +Commerce, Mr. R. E. Crompton. The Committee were indebted to Dr. J.A. +Fleming and Dr. A. Muirhead for valuable information and assistance; +and they state that they had the advantage of the experience and +advice of Mr. H. J. Chaney, the Superintendent of Weights and +Measures. The Secretary to the Committee was Sir T.W. P. Blomefield, +Bart. + +The following are the resolutions of the Committee: + + +_Resolutions._ + +(1) That it is desirable that new denominations of standards for the +measurement of electricity should be made and approved by Her Majesty +in Council as Board of Trade standards. + +(2) That the magnitudes of these standards should be determined on the +electro-magnetic system of measurement with reference to the +centimeter as unit of length, the gramme as unit of mass, and the +second as unit of time, and that by the terms centimeter and gramme +are meant the standards of those denominations deposited with the +Board of Trade. + +(3) That the standard of electrical resistance should be denominated +the ohm, and should have the value 1,000,000,000 in terms of the +centimeter and second. + +(4) That the resistance offered to an unvarying electric current by a +column of mercury of a constant cross sectional area of 1 square +millimeter, and of a length of 106.3 centimeters at the temperature of +melting ice may be adopted as 1 ohm. + +(5) That the value of the standard of resistance constructed by a +committee of the British Association for the Advancement of Science in +the years 1863 and 1864, and known as the British Association unit, +may be taken as 0.9866 of the ohm. + +(6) That a material standard, constructed in solid metal, and verified +by comparison with the British Association unit, should be adopted as +the standard ohm. + +(7) That for the purpose of replacing the standard, if lost, +destroyed, or damaged, and for ordinary use, a limited number of +copies should be constructed, which should be periodically compared +with the standard ohm and with the British Association unit. + +(8) That resistances constructed in solid metal should be adopted as +Board of Trade standards for multiples and sub-multiples of the ohm. + +(9) That the standard of electrical current should be denominated the +ampere, and should have the value one-tenth (0.1) in terms of the +centimeter, gramme, and second. + +(10) That an unvarying current which, when passed through a solution +of nitrate of silver in water, in accordance with the specification +attached to this report, deposits silver at the rate of 0.001118 of a +gramme per second, may be taken as a current of 1 ampere. + +(11) That an alternating current of 1 ampere shall mean a current such +that the square root of the time-average of the square of its strength +at each instant in amperes is unity. + +(12) That instruments constructed on the principle of the balance, in +which, by the proper disposition of the conductors, forces of +attraction and repulsion are produced, which depend upon the amount of +current passing, and are balanced by known weights, should be adopted +as the Board of Trade standards for the measurement of current, +whether unvarying or alternating. + +(13) That the standard of electrical pressure should be denominated +the volt, being the pressure which, if steadily applied to a conductor +whose resistance is 1 ohm, will produce a current of 1 ampere. + +(14) That the electrical pressure at a temperature of 62° F. between +the poles or electrodes of the voltaic cell known as Clark's cell may +be taken as not differing from a pressure of 1.433 volts by more than +an amount which will be determined by a sub-committee appointed to +investigate the question, who will prepare a specification for the +construction and use of the cell. + +(15) That an alternating pressure of 1 volt shall mean a pressure such +that the square root of the time average of the square of its value at +each instant in volts is unity. + +(16) That instruments constructed on the principle of Sir W. Thomson's +quadrant electrometer used idiostatically, and for high pressure +instruments on the principle of the balance, electrostatic forces +being balanced against a known weight, should be adopted as Board of +Trade standards for the measurement of pressure, whether unvarying or +alternating. + +We have adopted the system of electrical units originally defined by +the British Association for the Advancement of Science, and we have +found in its recent researches, as well as in the deliberations of the +International Congress on Electrical Units, held in Paris, valuable +guidance for determining the exact magnitudes of the several units of +electrical measurement, as well as for the verification of the +material standards. + +We have stated the relation between the proposed standard ohm and the +unit of resistance originally determined by the British Association, +and have also stated its relation to the mercurial standard adopted by +the International Conference. + +We find that considerations of practical importance make it +undesirable to adopt a mercurial standard; we have, therefore, +preferred to adopt a material standard constructed in solid metal. + +It appears to us to be necessary that in transactions between buyer +and seller, a legal character should henceforth be assigned to the +units of electrical measurement now suggested; and with this view, +that the issue of an Order in Council should be recommended, under the +Weights and Measures Act, in the form annexed to this report. + + +_Specification referred to in Resolution 10._ + +In the following specification the term silver voltameter means the +arrangement of apparatus by means of which an electric current is +passed through a solution of nitrate of silver in water. The silver +voltameter measures the total electrical quantity which has passed +during the time of the experiment, and by noting this time the time +average of the current, or if the current has been kept constant, the +current itself, can be deduced. + +In employing the silver voltameter to measure currents of about 1 +ampere, the following arrangements should be adopted. The kathode on +which the silver is to be deposited should take the form of a platinum +bowl not less than 10 cm. in diameter, and from 4 to 5 cm. in depth. + +The anode should be a plate of pure silver some 30 square cm. in area +and 2 or 3 millimeters in thickness. + +This is supported horizontally in the liquid near the top of the +solution by a platinum wire passed through holes in the plate at +opposite corners. To prevent the disintegrated silver which is formed +on the anode from falling on to the kathode, the anode should be +wrapped round with pure filter paper, secured at the back with sealing +wax. + +The liquid should consist of a neutral solution of pure silver +nitrate, containing about 15 parts by weight of the nitrate to 85 +parts of water. + +The resistance of the voltameter changes somewhat as the current +passes. To prevent these changes having too great an effect on the +current, some resistance besides that of the voltameter should be +inserted in the circuit. The total metallic resistance of the circuit +should not be less than 10 ohms. + +_Method of making a Measurement._--The platinum bowl is washed with +nitric acid and distilled water, dried by heat, and then left to cool +in a desiccator. When thoroughly dry, it is weighed carefully. + +It is nearly filled with the solution, and connected to the rest of +the circuit by being placed on a clean copper support, to which a +binding screw is attached. This copper support must be insulated. + +The anode is then immersed in the solution, so as to be well covered +by it, and supported in that position; the connections to the rest of +the circuit are made. + +Contact is made at the key, noting the time of contact. The current is +allowed to pass for not less than half an hour, and the time at which +contact is broken is observed. Care must be taken that the clock used +is keeping correct time during this interval. + +The solution is now removed from the bowl, and the deposit is washed +with distilled water and left to soak for at least six hours. It is +then rinsed successively with distilled water and absolute alcohol, +and dried in a hot-air bath at a temperature of about 160° C. After +cooling in a desiccator, it is weighed again. The gain in weight gives +the silver deposited. + +To find the current in amperes, this weight, expressed in grammes, +must be divided by the number of seconds during which the current has +been passed, and by 0.001118. + +The result will be the time average of the current, if during the +interval the current has varied. + +In determining by this method the constant of an instrument the +current should be kept as nearly constant as possible, and the +readings of the instrument taken at frequent observed intervals of +time. These observations give a curve from which the reading +corresponding to the mean current (time average of the current) can be +found. The current, as calculated by the voltameter, corresponds to +this reading. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE TWO OR THREE PHASE ALTERNATING CURRENT SYSTEMS. + +By CARL HERING. + + +The occasion of the transmission of power from Lauffen to Frankfort +has brought to the notice of the profession more than ever before the +two or three phase alternating current system, described as early as +1887-88 by various electricians, among whom are Tesla, Bradley, +Haselwander and others. As to who first invented it, we have nothing +to say here, but though known for some years it has not until quite +recently been of any great importance in practice. + +Within the last few years, however, Mr. M. Von Dolivo-Dobrowolsky, +electrical engineer of the Allgemeine Elektricitats Gesellschaft, of +Berlin, has occupied himself with these currents. His success with +motors run with such currents was the origin of the present great +transmission of power exhibit at Frankfort, the greatest transmission +ever attempted. His investigation in this new sphere, and his ability +to master the subject from a theoretical or mathematical standpoint, +has led him to find the objections, the theoretically best conditions, +etc. This, together with his ingenuity, has led him to devise an +entirely new and very ingenious modification, which will no doubt have +a very great effect on the development of alternating current motors. + +It is doubtless well known that if, as in Fig. 1, a Gramme ring +armature is connected to leads at four points as shown and a magnet is +revolved inside of it (or if the ring is revolved in a magnetic field +and the current led off by contact rings instead of a commutator), +there will be two alternating currents generated, which will differ +from each other in their phases only. When one is at a maximum the +other is zero. When such a double current is sent into a similarly +constructed motor it will produce or generate what might be called a +rotary field, which is shown diagrammatically in the six successive +positions in Fig. 2. The winding here is slightly different, but it +amounts to the same thing as far as we are concerned at present. This +is what Mr. Dobrowolsky calls an "elementary" or "simply" rotary +current, as used in the Tesla motors. A similar system, but having +three different currents instead of two, is the one used in the +Lauffen transmission experiment referred to above. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.] + +In investigating this subject Mr. Dobrowolsky found that the best +theoretical indications for such a system would be a large number of +circuits instead of only two or three, each differing from the next +one by only a small portion of a wave length; the larger their number +the better theoretically. The reason is that with a few currents the +resulting magnetism generated in the motor by these currents will +pulsate considerably, as shown in Fig. 3, in which the two full lines +show the currents differing by 90 degrees. The dotted line above these +shows how much the resulting magnetism will pulsate. With two such +currents this variation in magnetism will be about 40 degrees above +its lowest value. Now, such a variation in the field is undesirable, +as it produces objectionable induction effects, and it has the evil +effect of interfering with the starting of the motor loaded, besides +affecting the torque considerably if the speed should fall slightly +below that for synchronism. A perfect motor should not have these +faults, and it is designed to obviate them by striving to obtain a +revolving field in which the magnetism is as nearly constant as +possible. + +[Illustration: FIG. 3.] + +If there are two currents differing by 90 degrees, this variation of +the magnetism will be about 40 per cent.; with three currents +differing 60 degrees, about 14 per cent; with six currents differing +30 degrees it will be only about 4 per cent., and so on. It will be +seen, therefore, that by doubling the three-phase system the +pulsations are already very greatly reduced. But this would require +six wires, while the three-phase system requires only three wires (as +each of the three leads can readily be shown to serve as a return lead +for the other two in parallel). It is to combine the advantages of +both that he designed the following very ingenious system. By this +system he can obtain as small a difference of phase as desired, +without increasing the number of wires above three, a statement which +might at first seem paradoxical. + +Before explaining this ingenious system, it might be well to call +attention to a parallel case to the above in continuous current +machines and motors. The first dynamos were constructed with two +commutator bars. They were soon found to work much better with four, +and finally still better as the number of commutator bars (or coils) +was increased, up to a practical limit. Just as the pulsations in the +continuous current dynamos were detrimental to proper working, so are +these pulsations in few-phased alternating current motors, though the +objections manifest themselves in different ways--in the continuous +current motors as sparking and in the alternating current motors as +detrimental inductive effects. + +The underlying principle of this new system may be seen best in Figs. +4, 5, 6, 7 and 8. In Fig. 4 are shown two currents, I_{1} and I_{2}, +which differ from each other by an angle, D. Suppose these two +currents to be any neighboring currents in a simple rotary current +system. Now, if these two currents be united into one, as shown in the +lower part of the figure, the resulting current, I, will be about as +shown by the dotted line; that is, it will lie between the other two +and at its maximum point, and for a difference of phases equal to 90 +degrees it will be about 1.4 times as great as the maximum of either +of the others; the important feature is that the phase of this current +is midway between that of the other two. Fig. 5 shows the winding of a +cylinder armature and Fig. 7 that, of a Gramme armature for a simple +three-phase current with three leads, with which system we assume that +the reader is familiar. + +[Illustration: FIG. 4.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 5.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 6.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 7.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 8.] + +The two figures, 4 and 5 (or 7), correspond with each other in so far +as the currents in the three leads, shown in heavy lines, have a phase +between those of the two which compose them. Referring now to Fig. 6 +(or 8), which is precisely like Fig. 5 (or 7), except that it has an +additional winding shown in heavy lines, it will be seen that each of +the three leads, shown in heavy lines, is wound around the armature +before leaving it, forming an additional coil lying _between_ the two +coils with which it is in series. The phase of the heavy line currents +was shown in Fig. 4 to lie between the other two. Therefore, in the +armature in Fig. 6 (or 8) there will be six phases, while in Fig. 5 +there are only three, the number of leads (three) remaining the same +as before. This is the fundamental principle of this ingenious +invention. To have six phases in Fig. 5 would require six leads, but +in Fig. 6 precisely the same result is obtained with only three leads. +In the same way the three leads in Fig. 6 might again be combined and +passed around the armature again, and so on forming still more phases, +without increasing the number of leads. Figs. 7 and 8 compound with 5 +and 6 and show the same system for a Gramme ring instead of a cylinder +armature. + +As was stated in the early part of this description, the main object +in a rotary current motor is to have a magnetic field which is as +nearly constant in intensity as possible, and which changes only its +position, that is, its axis. But in Fig. 4 it was shown that the +current I (in dotted lines) is greater than the others (about as 1.4 +to 1 for a phase difference of 90 degrees). If therefore the coils in +Fig. 6 or 8 were all alike, the magnetism generated by the heavy line +coils would be greater than that generated by the others, and would +therefore produce very undesirable pulsations in the magnetic fields; +but as the magnetism depends on the ampere turns, it is necessary +merely to have correspondingly fewer turns on these coils, as compared +with the others. This is shown diagrammatically in Figs. 6 and 8, in +which the heavy line coils have less windings than the others. In +practice it is not always possible to obtain the exact ratio of 1 to +1.4, for instance, but even if this ratio is obtained only +approximately, it nevertheless reduces the pulsations very materially +below what they would be with half the number of phases. It is +therefore not necessary in practice to have more than an approximation +to the exact conditions. + +[Illustration: FIG. 9.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 10.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 11.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 12.] + +Fig. 9 shows a multiple phase armature having double the number of +phases as Fig. 1, and would according to the old system, therefore, +require eight leads. Fig. 10 shows the new system with the same number +of phases as in Fig. 9, but requiring only four leads instead of +eight. Figs. 11 and 12 correspond with Figs. 7 and 8 and show the +windings for a multipolar motor in the two systems. + +[Illustration: FIG. 13.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 14.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 15.] + +These figures show how a motor may be wound so as to be a multiple +phase motor, although the current entering the motor is a simple, +elementary three or two phase current, which can be transformed by +means of a simple three or two phase current transformer, before +entering the motor, such transformers as are used at present in the +Lauffen-Frankfort transmission. But the same principle as that for the +motor may also be applied to transformers themselves, as shown in +Figs. 13 and 14. Fig. 13 shows a set of transformers which are fed by +a simple three-phase current shown in heavy lines, and which gives in +its secondary circuit a multiple phase rotary current. The connections +for the primary circuit of a transformer with six coils are shown +diagrammatically in Fig. 15, the numbers 1 to 6 representing the +succession of the phases. Fig. 14 shows a transformer for a two-phase +current with four leads, transforming into a multiple phase current of +16 leads. The transformer in this figure is a single "interlocked" +transformer in which the fields are magnetically connected and not +independent of each other as in Fig. 13. This has advantages in the +regulation of currents, which do not exist in Fig. 13, but which need +not be entered into here. The transformers used in the Lauffen-Frankfort +transmission are similar, magnetically, to Fig. 14, only that they are +for a simple three-phase current in both primary and secondary +circuits. Attention is also called to the difference in the +connections of secondary circuits in Figs. 13 and 14; in the former +they are connected in a closed circuit similarly to an ordinary closed +circuit armature, while in Fig. 14 they are independent as far as the +currents themselves are concerned, though magnetically their cores are +connected. It is not the intention to enter into a discussion of the +relative values of these various connections, but merely to draw +attention to the wide range of the number of combinations which this +system admits of.--_Electrical World_. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE LONDON PARIS TELEPHONE.[1] + +[Footnote 1: Paper read before the British Association.--_Elec. +Engineer._] + +By W.H. Preece, F.R.S. + + +1. I have already on two occasions, at Newcastle and at Leeds, brought +this subject before Section G, and have given the details of the +length and construction of the proposed circuit. + +I have now to report not only that the line has been constructed and +opened to the public, but that its success, telephonic and commercial, +has exceeded the most sanguine anticipations. Speech has been +maintained with perfect clearness and accuracy. The line has proved to +be much better than it ought to have been, and the purpose of this +paper is to show the reason why. + +The lengths of the different sections of the circuit are as follows: + + London to St. Margaret's Bay 84.5 miles. + St. Margaret's Bay to Sangatte (cable). 23.0 " + Sangatte to Paris. 199.0 " + Paris underground. 4.8 " + ----- + Total. 311.3 " + +The resistances are as follows: + + Paris underground. 70 ohms. + French line. 294 " + Cable. 143 " + English line. 183 " + --- + Total (R) 693 " + +The capacities are as follows: + + Paris underground. 0.43 microfarads. + French line. 3.33 " + Cable. 5.52 " + English line. 1.32 " + ---- + Total (K). 10.62 " + + 693 × 10.62 = 7,359 = K R + +a product which indicates that speech should be very good. + + +2. _Trials of Apparatus._--The preliminary trials were made during the +month of March between the chief telegraph offices of the two +capitals, and the following microphone transmitters were compared: + + Ader. Pencil form. + Berliner. Granular form. + D'Arsonval. Pencil " + DeJongh. " " + Gower Bell. " " + Post office switch instrument. Granules and lamp filaments. + Roulez. Lamp filaments. + Turnbull. Pencil form. + Western Electric. Granular. + +The receivers consisted of the latest form of double-pole Bell +telephones with some Ader and D'Arsonval receivers for comparison. +After repeated trials it was finally decided that the Ader, +D'Arsonval, Gower-Bell (with double-pole receivers instead of tubes), +Roulez, and Western Electric were the best, and were approximately +equal. + +These instruments were, therefore, selected for the further +experiments, which consisted of using local extensions in Paris and +London. The wires were in the first instance extended at the Paris end +to the Observatory through an exchange at the Avenue des Gobelines. The +length of this local line is 7 kms. The wires are guttapercha-covered, +placed underground, and not suitable for giving the best results. + +The results were, however, fairly satisfactory. The wires were +extended to the Treasury in London by means of the ordinary +underground system. The distance is about two miles, and although the +volume of sound and clearness of articulation were perceptibly reduced +by these additions to the circuit, conversation was quite practicable. + +Further trials were also made from the Avenue des Gobelines on +underground wires of five kilometers long, and also with some renters +in Paris with fairly satisfactory results. The selected telephones +were equally efficient in all cases, which proves that to maintain +easy conversation when the trunk wires are extended to local points it +is only necessary that the local lines shall be of a standard not +lower than that of the trunk line. The experiments also confirm the +conclusion that long-distance speaking is solely a question of the +circuit and its environments, and not one of apparatus. The +instruments finally selected for actual work were Gower-Bell for +London and Roulez for Paris. + + +3. The results are certainly most satisfactory. There is no circuit in +or out of London on which speech is more perfect than it is between +London and Paris. In fact, it is better than I anticipated, and better +than calculation led me to expect. Speech has been possible not only +to Paris but through Paris to Bruxelles, and even, with difficulty, +through Paris to Marseilles, a distance of over 900 miles. The wires +between Paris and Marseilles are massive copper wires specially +erected for telephone business between those important places. + + +4. _Business Done._--The charge for a conversation between London and +Paris is 8 s. for three minutes' complete use of the wire. The demand +for the wire is very considerable. The average number of talks per +day, exclusive of Sunday, is 86. The maximum has been 108. We have had +as many as 19 per hour--the average is 15 during the busy hours of the +day. As an instance of what can be done, 150 words per minute have +been dictated in Paris and transcribed in London by shorthand writing. +Thus in three minutes 450 words were recorded, which at 8 s. cost five +words for a penny. + + +5. _Difficulties._--The difficulties met with in long-distance +speaking are several, and they may be divided into (a) those due to +external disturbances and (b) those due to internal opposition. + +(_a._) Every current rising and falling in the neighborhood of a +telephone line within a region, say, of 100 yards, whether the wire +conveying it be underground or overground, induces in the telephone +circuit another current, producing in the telephone a sound which +disturbs speech, and if the neighboring wires are numerous and busy, +as they are on our roads and railways, these sounds became confusing, +noisy, and ultimately entirely preventive of speech. This disturbance +is, however, completely removed by forming the telephone circuit of +two wires placed as near to each other as possible, and twisted around +each other without touching, so as to maintain the mean average +distance of each wire from surrounding conductors the same everywhere. +Thus similar currents are induced in each of the two wires, but being +opposite in direction, as far as the circuit is concerned, they +neutralize each other, and the circuit, therefore, becomes quite +silent. + +In England we make the two wires revolve completely round each other +in every four poles, but in France it is done in every six poles. The +reason for the change is the fact that in the English plan the actual +crossing of the wires takes place in the span between the poles, while +in the French plan it takes place at the poles. This is supposed to +reduce the liability of the wires to be thrown into contact with each +other by the wind, but, on the other hand, it diminishes the +geometrical symmetry of the wires--so very essential to insure +silence. As a matter of fact, contacts do not occur on well +constructed lines, and I think our English wires, being more +symmetrical, are freer from external disturbance than those in France. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.] + +(_b._) The internal opposition arises from the resistance, R, the +capacity, K, and the electromagnetic inertia, L, of the circuit. A +current of electricity takes time to rise to its maximum strength and +time to fall back again to zero. Every circuit has what is called its +time constant, _t_, Fig. 1, which regulates the number of current +waves which can be transmitted through it per second. This is the time +the current takes to rise from zero to its working maximum, and the +time it takes to fall from this maximum to zero again, shown by the +shaded portions of the figure; the duration of the working current +being immaterial, and shown by the unshaded portion. + +The most rapid form of quick telegraphy requires about 150 currents +per second, currents each of which must rise and fall in 1/150 of a +second, but for ordinary telephone speaking we must have about 1,500 +currents per second, or the time which each current rises from zero to +its maximum intensity must not exceed 1/3000 part of a second. The +time constant of a telephone circuit should therefore not be less than +0.0003 second. + +Resistance alone does not affect the time constant. It diminishes the +intensity or strength of the currents only; but resistance, combined +with electromagnetic inertia and with capacity, has a serious +retarding effect on the rate of rise and fall of the currents. They +increase the time constant and introduce a slowness which may be +called retardance, for they diminish the rate at which currents can be +transmitted. Now the retardance due to electromagnetic inertia +increases directly with the amount of electromagnetic inertia present, +but it diminishes with the amount of resistance of the conductor. It +is expressed by the ratio L/R while that due to capacity increases +directly, both with the capacity and with the resistance, and it is +expressed by the product, K R. The whole retardance, and, therefore, +the speed of working the circuit or the clearness of speech, is given, +by the equation + + L + --- + K R = t + R + +or L + K R² = R t + +Now in telegraphy we are not able altogether to eliminate L, but we +can counteract it, and if we can make Rt = 0, then + + L = - K R² + +which is the principle of the shunted condenser that has been +introduced with such signal success in our post office service, and +has virtually doubled the carrying capacity of our wires. + + K R = t + +This is done in telephony, and hence we obtain the law of retardance, +or the law by which we can calculate the distance to which speech is +possible. All my calculations for the London and Paris line were based +on this law, which experience has shown it to be true. + +How is electromagnetic inertia practically eliminated? First, by the +use of two massive copper wires, and secondly by symmetrically +revolving them around each other. Now L depends on the geometry of the +circuit, that is, on the relative form and position of the different +parts of the circuit, which is invariable for the same circuit, and is +represented by a coefficient, [lambda]. It depends also on the +magnetic qualities of the conductors employed and of the space +embraced by the circuit. This specific magnetic capacity is a variable +quantity, and is indicated by [mu] for the conductor and by [mu]_{0} +for air. It depends also on the rate at which currents rise and fall, +and this is indicated by the differential coefficient dC / dt. It +depends finally on the number of lines of force due to its own current +which cut the conductor in the proper direction; this is indicated by +[beta]. Combining these together we can represent the electromagnetic +inertia of a metallic telephone circuit as + + L = [lambda] ([mu] + [mu]_{0}) dC/dt × [beta] + +Now, [lambda] = 2 log (d²/a²) Hence the smaller we make the distance, +_d_, between the wires, and the greater we make their diameter, _a_, +the smaller becomes [lambda]. It is customary to call the value of +[mu] for air, and copper, 1, but this is purely artificial and +certainly not true. It must be very much less than one in every +medium, excepting the magnetic metals, so much so that in copper it +may be neglected altogether, while in the air it does not matter what +it is, for by the method of twisting one conductor round the other, +the magnetization of the air space by the one current of the circuit +rotating in one direction is exactly neutralized by that of the other +element of the circuit rotating in the opposite direction. + +Now, [beta], in two parallel conductors conveying currents of the same +sense, that is flowing in the same direction, is retarding, Fig. 2, +and is therefore a positive quantity, but when the currents flow in +opposite directions, as in a metallic loop, Fig. 3, they tend to +assist each other and are of a negative character. Hence in a metallic +telephone circuit we may neglect L _in toto_ as I have done. + +[Illustration: Fig 2.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 3.] + +I have never yet succeeded in tracing any evidence of electromagnetic +inertia in long single copper wires, while in iron wires the value of +L may certainly be taken at 0.005 henry per mile. + +In short metallic circuits, say of lengths up to 100 miles, this +negative quantity does not appear, but in the Paris-London circuit +this helpful mutual action of opposite currents comes on in a peculiar +way. The presence of the cable introduces a large capacity practically +in the center of the circuit. The result is that we have in each +branch of the circuit between the transmitter, say, at London and the +cable at Dover, extra currents at the commencement of the operation, +which, flowing in opposite directions, mutually react on each other, +and practically prepare the way for the working currents. The presence +of these currents proved by the fact that when the cable is +disconnected at Calais, as shown in Fig. 5, and telephones are +inserted in series, as shown at D and D', speech is as perfect between +London and St. Margaret's Bay as if the wires were connected across, +or as if the circuit were through to Paris. Their effect is precisely +the same as though the capacity of the aerial section were reduced by +a quantity, M, which is of the same dimension or character as K. +Hence, our retardance equation becomes + + R (K - M) = t + +[Illustration: Fig 4.] + +[Illustration: Fig 5.] + +Thus it happens that the London-Paris telephone works better than was +expected. The nature of M is probably equivalent to about 0.0075 [phi] +per mile, and therefore K should be also about 0.0075 [phi] instead of +0.0156 [phi] per mile. This helpful action of mutual induction is +present in all long circuits, and it is the reason why we were able to +speak to Brussels and even to Marseilles. It also appears in every +metallic loop, and vitiates the measurements of electromagnetic +inertia and of capacity of loops. Thus, if we measure the capacity of +a loop as compared with a single wire, the amount per mile may be 50 +per cent. greater than it ought to be; while if we measure the +capacity of one branch of a circuit under the conditions of the +London-Paris telephone line, it may be 50 per cent. less than it ought +to be. This effect of M is shown by the dotted line in Fig. 1. + +Telephonic currents--that is, currents induced in the secondary wire +of an induction coil due to the variation of microphonic currents in +the primary wire--are not alternating currents. They do not follow the +constant periodic law, and they are not true harmonic sine functions +of the time. The microphonic currents are intermittent or pulsatory, +and always flow in the same direction. The secondary currents are also +always of the same sign, as are the currents in a Ruhmkorff coil, and +as are the currents in high vacua with which Crookes has made us so +familiar. Moreover, the frequency of these currents is a very variable +quantity, not only due to the various tones of voices, but to the +various styles of articulation. Hence the laws of periodic alternate +currents following the sine function of the time fail when we come to +consider microphones and telephones. It is important to bear this in +mind, for nearly everything that has hitherto been written on the +subject assumes that telegraphic currents follow the periodic sine +law. The currents derived from Bell's original magneto-transmitters +are alternate, and comply more nearly with the law. The difference +between them and microphones is at once perceptible. Muffling and +disturbance due to the presence of electromagnetic inertia become +evident, which are absent with microphones. I tested this between +London and St. Margaret's, and found the effect most marked. + +7. _Lightning._--A metallic telephone circuit may have a static charge +induced upon it by a thunder cloud, as shown in Fig. 6. Such a charge +is an electric strain which is released when the charged cloud flashes +into the earth or into a neighboring cloud. If there be +electromagnetic inertia present, the charge will surge backward and +forward through the circuit until it dies out. If there be no E.M.F. +present it will cease suddenly, and neutrality will be attained at +once. Telephone circuits indicate the operation by peculiar and +characteristic sounds. An iron wire circuit produces a long swish or +sigh, but a copper wire circuit like the Paris-London telephone emits +a short, sharp report, like the crack of a pistol, which is sometimes +startling, and has created fear, but there is no danger or liability +to shock. Indeed, the start has more than once thrown the listener off +his stool, and has led to the belief that he was knocked down by +lightning. + +[Illustration: Fig 6.] + +8. The future of telephone working, especially in large cities, is one +of underground wires, and the way to get over the difficulties of this +kind of work is perfectly clear. We must have metallic circuits, +twisted wires, low resistance, and low capacity. In Paris a remarkable +cable, made by Fortin-Herman, gives an exceedingly low capacity--viz., +only 0.069 [phi] per mile. In the United States they are using a wire +insulated with paper which gives 0.08 [phi] per mile. We are using in +London Fowler-Waring cable giving a capacity of 1.8 [phi] per mile, +the capacity of gutta-covered wire being 3 [phi] per mile. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE MANUFACTURE OF PHOSPHORUS BY ELECTRICITY. + + +One of the most interesting of the modern applications of electricity +to the manufacture of chemicals is to be found in the recently +perfected process known as the Readman-Parker process, after the +inventors Dr. J.B. Readman, F.R.S.E., etc., of Edinburgh, and Mr. +Thomas Parker; the well known practical electrician, of Wolverhampton. + +Before giving an account of this process, which has advanced beyond +the experimental to the industrial stage, it may be well to recall the +fact that for several years past Dr. Readman has been devoting an +enormous expenditure of labor, time and money to the perfection of a +process which shall cheapen the production of phosphorus by dispensing +altogether with the use of sulphuric acid for decomposing the +phosphate of lime which forms the raw material of the phosphorus +manufacturer, and also with the employment of fire clay retorts for +distilling the desiccated mixture of phosphoric acid and carbon which +usually forms the second stage of the operation. + +The success of the recent applications of electricity in the +production of certain metals and alloys led Dr. Readman to try this +source of energy in the manufacture of phosphorus, and the results of +the first series of experiments were so encouraging that he took out +provisional protection on October 18, 1888, for preparing this +valuable substance by its means. + +The experiments were carried on at this time on a very small scale, +the power at disposal being very limited in amount. Yet the elements +of success appeared to be so great, and the decomposition of the raw +material was so complete, that the process was very soon prosecuted on +the large scale. + +After a good deal of negotiation with several firms that were in a +position to supply the electric energy required, Dr. Readman finally +made arrangements with the directors of the Cowles Company, limited, +of Milton, near Stoke-on-Trent, the well known manufacturers of alloys +of aluminum, for a lease of a portion of their works and for the use +of the entire electrical energy they produced for certain portions of +the day. + +The experiments on the large scale had not advanced very far before +Dr. Readman became aware that another application for letters patent +for producing phosphorus had been made by Mr. Thomas Parker, of +Wolverhampton, and his chemist, Mr. A.E. Robinson. Their joint patent +is dated December 5, 1888, and was thus applied for only seven weeks +after Dr. Readman's application had been lodged. + +It appeared that Mr. Parker had conducted a number of experiments +simultaneously but quite independently of those carried on by Dr. +Readman, and that he was quite unaware--as the latter was unaware--of +any other worker in this field. It was no small surprise, therefore, +to find during an interview which took place between these rival +inventors some time after the date referred to, that the two patents +were on practically the same lines, namely, the production of +phosphorus by electricity. + +Their interests lay so much together that, after some delay, they +arranged to jointly work out the process, and the result has been the +formation of a preliminary company and the erection on a large scale +of experimental plant in the neighborhood of Wolverhampton to prove +the commercial success of the new system of manufacturing phosphorus. + +Before describing these experimental works it may be as well to see +with what plant Dr. Readman has been working at the Cowles Company's +works. And here we may remark that we are indebted to a paper read by +Dr. Readman at the Philosophical Institution, Edinburgh, a short time +ago; this paper being the third of a series which during the last year +or two have been read by the same scientist on this branch of chemical +industry. Here is an abstract giving a description of the plant. The +works are near the Milton Station, on the North Staffordshire Railway. +The boilers for generating the steam required are of the +Babcock-Wilcox type, and are provided with "mechanical stokers;" the +steam engine is of 600 horse power, and is a compound condensing +horizontal tandem, made by Messrs. Pollitt & Wigzel, of Sowerby +Bridge. The fly wheel of this engine is 20 feet in diameter, and +weighs 30 tons, and is geared to the pulley of the dynamo, so that the +latter makes five revolutions for each revolution of the engine by +rope driving gear, consisting of eighteen ropes. The engine is an +extremely fine specimen of a modern steam engine; it works so silently +that a visitor standing with his back to the engine railings, at the +time the engine is being started, cannot tell whether it is in motion +or not. + +With regard to the dynamo, the spindle is of steel, 18 feet long, with +three bearings, one being placed on either side of the driving pulley. +The diameter is 7 inches in the bearings and 10 inches in the part +within the core. This part in the original forgings was 14 inches in +diameter, and was planed longitudinally, so as to leave four +projecting ribs or radial bars on which the core disks are driven, +each disk having four key ways corresponding to these ribs. There are +about 900 of these disks, the external diameter being 20 inches and +the total length of the core 36 inches. + +The armature winding consists of 128 copper bars, each 7/8 in. deep, +measured radially, by 3/8 in. wide. These bars are coupled up so as to +form thirty-two conductors only; this arrangement has been adopted to +avoid the heating from the Foucault currents, which, with 1½ in. +conductors, would have been very considerable. The bars are coupled at +the ends of the core across a certain chord and are insulated. + +The commutator is 20 inches long, and has sixty-four parts. The +current is collected by eight brushes mounted on a separate ring, +placed concentric to the commutator; and the current is led away from +these brushes by a large number of thin bands of sheet copper strapped +together into convenient groups. The field magnets are of the +horizontal double type. + +As this machine is virtually a series wound machine, the magnet coils +each consist of a few turns only of forged copper bars, 1½ in. wide by +1 in. thick, forged to fit the magnet cores. + +There is no insulation other than mica wedges to keep the bars from +touching the core. + +The dynamo furnishes a current of about 5,000 amperes, with an E.M.F. +of 50 to 60 volts, and three years ago was claimed to be the largest +machine, at least as regards quantity of current, in the world. + +The current from the dynamos is led by copper bars to an enormous "cut +out," calculated to fuse at 8,000 amperes. This is probably one of the +largest ever designed, and consists of a framework carrying twelve +lead plates, each 3½ in. × 1/16th in. thick. A current indicator is +inserted in the circuit consisting of a solenoid of nine turns. The +range of this indicator is such that the center circle of 360°=8,000 +amperes. + +The electrodes consisted of a bundle of nine carbons, each 2½ in. in +diameter, attached by casting into a head of cast iron. Each carbon +weighs 20 lb, and, when new, is about 48 inches long. + +The head of the electrode is screwed to the copper rods or "leads," +which can be readily connected with the flexible cable supplying the +current. + +The electric furnaces are rectangular troughs built of fire brick, +their internal dimensions being 60 in. × 20 in. × 36 in. deep. Into +each end is built a cast iron tube, through which the carbon +electrodes enter the furnace. + +The electrodes are so arranged that it is possible by means of +screwing to advance or withdraw them from the furnace. + +The whole current generated by the great dynamo of the Cowles Company +was passed through the furnace. + +In the experiments raw materials only were used, for it was evident +that it was only by the direct production of phosphorus from the +native minerals which contain it, such as the phosphates of lime, +magnesia, or alumina that there was any hope of superseding, in point +of economy, the existing process of manufacture. + +In the furnaces as used at Milton much difficulty was experienced in +distributing the heat over a sufficiently wide area. So locally +intense indeed was the heat within a certain zone, that all the oxygen +contained in the mixture was expelled and alloys of iron, aluminum, +and calcium combined with more or less silicon, and phosphorus were +produced. Some of these were of an extremely interesting nature. + +We now turn to a short account of the works and plant which have been +erected near Wolverhampton to prove the commercial success of the new +system of manufacturing phosphorus. + +The ground is situated on the banks of a canal and extends to about 10 +acres, which are wholly without buildings except those which have been +erected for the purposes of these industrial experiments. These +consist of boiler and engine houses, and large furnace sheds. + +There are three Babcock & Wilcox steam boilers of 160 horse power +each, and each capable of evaporating 5,000 lb. of water per hour. The +water tubes are 18 ft. long × 4 inches diameter, and the steam and +water drums 43 in. in diameter and 23½ ft. long, of steel 7/16 ths. +in. thick, provided with a double dead head safety valve, stop valves, +blow-off cock, water gauges, and steam gauge. + +The total heating surface on each boiler is 1,619 square feet and the +total grate surface is 30 square feet. + +The boilers are worked at 160 lb. pressure. + +The engine is a triple compound one of the type supplied for torpedo +boats, and built by the Yarrow Shipbuilding Company. It is fitted with +a Pickering governor for constant speed. The engine is capable of +delivering (with condenser) 1,200 indicated horse power, and without +condenser 250 indicated horse power less. + +With steam at 170 lb. pressure the engine worked at 350 revolutions +per minute, but it has been rearranged so as to deliver 700 indicated +horse power with 160 lb. steam pressure without condenser, and at 300 +revolutions per minute: + + The high pressure cylinder is 14½ inches diameter. + " intermediate " " 25 " " + " low pressure " " 32 " " + " stroke is 16 inches. + +The dynamo for producing the requisite amount of electric current +supplied to the furnaces is one of the well known Elwell-Parker type +of alternating current dynamos, designed to give 400 units of +electrical energy, equivalent to 536 indicated horse power. + +The armature in the machine is stationary, with double insulation +between the armature coils and the core, and also between the core and +the frame, and is so arranged that its two halves may be readily +connected in series or in parallel in accordance with the requirements +of the furnaces, e.g., at an electromotive force of 80 volts it will +give 5,000 amperes, and at 160 volts, 2,500 amperes when running at +300 revolutions per minute. + +The exciting current of the alternator is produced by an Elwell-Parker +shunt wound machine, driven direct from a pulley on the alternator +shaft, and so arranged as to give 90 amperes at 250 volts when running +at a speed of 800 revolutions per minute. From 60 to 70 amperes are +utilized in the alternator, the remainder being available for lighting +purposes (which is done through accumulators) and general experimental +purposes. + +The process is carried out in the following way: The raw materials, +all intimately and carefully mixed together, are introduced into the +furnace and the current is then turned on. Shortly afterward, +indications of phosphorus make their appearance. + +The vapors and gases from the furnace pass away to large copper +condensers--the first of which contains hot and the second cold +water--and finally pass away into the air. + +As the phosphorus forms, it distills off from the mixture, and the +residue forms a liquid slag at the bottom of the furnace. Fresh +phosphorus yielding material is then introduced at the top. In this +way the operation is a continuous one, and may be continued for days +without intermission. + +The charges for the furnace are made up with raw material, i.e., +native phosphates without any previous chemical treatment, and the +only manufactured material necessary--if such it may be called--is the +carbon to effect the reduction of the ores. + +The crude phosphorus obtained in the condensers is tolerably pure, and +is readily refined in the usual way. + +Dr. Readman and Mr. Parker have found that it is more advantageous to +use a series of furnaces instead of sending the entire current through +one furnace. These furnaces will each yield about 1½ cwt. of +phosphorus per day. + +Analyses of the slag show that the decomposition of the raw phosphates +is very perfect, for the percentage of phosphorus left in the slag +seldom exceeds 1 per cent.--_Chemical Trade Journal_. + + * * * * * + + + + +NEW BLEACHING APPARATUS. + + +The apparatus forming the subject of this invention was designed by +Francis A. Cloudman, Erwin B. Newcomb, and Frank H. Cloudman, of +Cumberland Mills, Me., and comprises a series of tanks or chests, two +or more in number, through which the material to be bleached is caused +to pass, being transferred from one to the next of the series in +order, while the bleaching agent is caused to pass through the series +of chests in the reverse order, and thus acts first and at full +strength upon the materials which have previously passed through all +but the last one of the series of chests and have already been +subjected to the bleaching agent of less strength. + +For convenience, the chest in which the material is first introduced +will be called the "first of the series" and the rest numbered in the +order in which the material is passed from one to the other, and it +will be understood that any desired number may be used, two, however, +being sufficient to carry on the process. + +The invention is shown embodied in an apparatus properly constructed +for treating pulp used for the manufacture of paper, and for +convenience the material to be bleached will be hereinafter referred +to as the pulp, although it is obvious that similar apparatus might be +used for bleaching other materials, although the apparatus might have +to be modified to adapt it for conveying other materials of different +nature than pulp from one bleaching chest to the other and for +separating out the bleaching liquid and conveying it from one chest to +the other in the reverse order to that in which the material passes +from one chest to the next. + +The pulp material with which the apparatus herein illustrated is +intended to be used is retained in suspension in the bleaching liquid +and flows readily through ducts or passages provided for it in the +apparatus in which the pulp to be bleached and the bleaching liquid +are introduced together at the bottom of each chest and flow upward +therethrough, while at the top of each chest there are two conveyors, +one for carrying the pulp from one chest to the next in order, while +the other carries the bleaching liquid from one tank to the next in +the reverse order, the said conveyors also acting to partially +separate the pulp from the liquid in which it has been suspended +during its upward passage through the chest. + +Suitable agitators may be employed for thoroughly mixing the materials +in the chest and in the apparatus shown the bleaching agent and +material to be bleached pass through each chest in the same +direction--namely from the bottom to the top--although they are +carried from one chest to the next in the reverse order, the material +to be bleached being primarily introduced into the chest at one end of +the series, while the bleaching agent or solution is introduced +primarily into the chest at the other end of the series. + +Fig. 1 is a plan view of an apparatus for bleaching in accordance with +this invention, comprising a series of four chests, and Fig. 2 is a +vertical longitudinal section of a modified arrangement of two chests +in line with one another, and with the conveyor for the material to be +bleached and the passage through which said material passes from the +top of one chest into the bottom of the next chest in the plane of +section. + +[Illustration: Fig. 1] + +The chests, _a_ _a2_ _a3_ _a4_, may be of any desired shape +and dimensions and any desired number may be used. Each of said chests +is provided with an inlet passage, _b_, opening into the same near its +bottom, and through this passage the materials are introduced. The +unbleached material, which may be paper pulp or material which is +readily held in suspension in a liquid and is capable of flowing or +being conveyed from one point to another in a semi-fluid condition, is +introduced through the inlet passage, _b_, to the first chest, _a_, of +the series, said pulp preferably having had as much as possible of the +liquid in which it was previously suspended removed without, however, +drying it, and, together with the said pulp, the bleaching agent which +has previously passed through the other chests of the series, as will +be hereinafter described, is introduced so that both enter together at +the lower portion of the first chest, _a_, of the series. The said +materials are caused to flow into the chest continuously, so that the +portion at each moment entering tends to displace that which has +already entered, thus causing the materials to rise gradually or flow +upward from the bottom to the top of the chest. + +Suitable stirring devices or agitators, _c_, may be employed to keep +the pulp in suspension and to expose it thoroughly and uniformly to +the liquid introduced with it. + +[Illustration: Fig. 2] + +When the materials (the pulp and the bleaching liquid) arrive at or +near the top of the chest, they are partially separated from one +another and removed from the chest at substantially the same rate that +they are introduced, as follows: Each chest is provided at its upper +part with a liquid conveyor, _d_, having a construction similar to +that of the device known as a "washer" in paper making machinery, +consisting of a rotating drum, the periphery of which is covered with +gauze, which permits the liquid to pass into it, but excludes the pulp +suspended in the liquid, the said drum containing blades or buckets +that raise the liquid which thus enters through the gauze and +discharges it at _d2_ near the axis of said drum. There is one of +these washers in each one of the series of chests, and each discharges +the liquid taken from its corresponding chest into the inlet pipe of +the next preceding chest of the series, the washer in the chest, +_a4_, for example, delivering into the inlet passage, _b_, of the +chest, _a2_, and so on, while the washer of the first chest, _a_, +of the series delivers into a discharge pipe, _e_, through which the +liquid may be permitted to run to waste or conveyed to any suitable +receptacle, if it is desired to subject it to chemical action for the +purpose of renewing its bleaching powers or obtaining the chemical +agents that may be contained within it. + +The operation of the washers in removing the liquid from the upper +part of the chest tends to thicken the pulp therein, and the said +thickened pulp is conveyed from one chest to the next in the series by +any suitable conveying device, _f_ (shown in this instance as a worm +working in a trough or case, _f2_), which may be made foraminous +for the purpose of permitting the liquid to drain out of the pulp that +is being carried through by the worm, in order that the pulp may be +introduced into the next chest of the series as free as possible from +the liquid in which it has been suspended while in the chest from +which it is just taken. The pulp is thus conveyed from one chest in +the series to the inlet passage leading to the next chest of the +series, and in the said inlet passage it meets the liquid coming in +the reverse order from the next chest beyond in the series, the pulp +and liquid thus commingling in the inlet pipe and entering the chest +together, and being thoroughly mixed by the agitators in passing +through the chest by the continued action of fresh material entering +and of the conveyors taking the material out from the chests. In the +last of the series of chests into which the pulp is introduced the +fresh or strong bleaching liquid is introduced through a suitable +inlet pipe, _g_, and the pulp conveyor, _f_, that takes the pulp from +the last chest, delivers it into a pipe, _h_, by which it may be +conveyed to any desired point, the said pulp having been sufficiently +bleached before arriving at the said pipe, _h_. It will be seen that +by these means all the pulp is thoroughly and uniformly subjected to +the bleaching agent and that the bleaching is gradually performed in +all parts of the pulp, which is first acted upon by the weaker +bleaching agent that has previously operated upon the pulp before +treated, and that finally, when nearly bleached, the pulp is acted +upon by the bleaching material of full strength, this action being far +more efficient than when the materials are simply mixed together, the +unbleached material with the strong bleaching agent, and allowed to +remain together until the bleaching operation is finished, in which +plan the bleaching agent loses its strength as the bleaching operation +approaches completion, so that when the pulp is nearly bleached it is +operated upon by a very weak bleaching agent. By having the pulp +transferred from one chest to the next in the reverse order to that in +which the liquid is transferred it will be seen that all parts of the +pulp are acted upon uniformly and equally and that the operation may +go on continuously for an indefinite period of time without +necessitating stopping to empty the vats, as is the case when the +liquor only is transferred from one vat to the next. A pump may be +used for lifting the bleaching liquid, as shown, for example, at _k_, +Fig. 1. where said pump is used to raise the liquid delivered from the +chest, _a2_, and discharge it into the trough, _m_, by which the +pulp is carried to the inlet pipe, _b_. By the use of the pump, _h_, a +stronger flow of the liquid into the pipe _b_, of the first chest, +_a_, is effected than if it were taken directly from the washer of the +chest, _a2_, which is desirable, as the pulp is delivered in the +trough, _m_, with but little moisture. + +It is obvious that the construction of the apparatus may be varied +considerably without materially changing the essential features of +operation. For example, the washers might be dispensed with and the +liquid permitted to flow through suitable strainers from one chest to +the next in order, by gravity, the successive chests in the order of +the passage of the pulp being placed each at a higher level than the +preceding one, and it is also obvious that the construction of the +pulp conveyors might be widely varied, it being essential only that +means should be provided for removing the pulp from one chest and +delivering it into the next while carrying only a small amount of the +liquid from one chest to the next with the pulp. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE USE OF COMPRESSED AIR IN CONJUNCTION WITH MEDICINAL SOLUTIONS IN +THE TREATMENT OF NERVOUS AND MENTAL AFFECTIONS. + +BEING A NEW SYSTEM OF CEREBRO-SPINAL THERAPEUTICS. + +By J. LEONARD CORNING, A.M., M.D., New York, Consultant in Nervous +Diseases to St. Francis Hospital, St. Mary's Hospital, the Hackensack +Hospital, etc. + + +To merely facilitate the introduction of medicinal agents into the +system by way of the air passages, in the form of gases, medicated or +non-medicated, has heretofore constituted the principal motive among +physicians for invoking the aid of compressed air. The experiments of +Paul Bert with nitrous oxide and oxygen gas, performed over fourteen +years ago, and the more recent proposals of See, are illustrations in +point. + +The objects of which I have been in search are quite different from +the foregoing, and have reference not to the introduction of the +remedy, but to the enhancement of its effects after exhibition. Let me +be more explicit on this point, by stating at once that, in +contradistinction to my predecessors, I shall endeavor to show that by +far the most useful service derivable from compressed air is found in +its ability to enhance and perpetuate the effects of soluble remedies +(introduced hypodermically, by the mouth, or otherwise) upon the +internal organs, and more especially upon the cerebro-spinal axis. +Some chemical affinity between the remedy employed and the protoplasm +of the nerve cell is, of course, assumed to exist; and it is with the +enhancement of this affinity--this bond of union between the medicinal +solution and the nervous element--that we shall chiefly concern +ourselves in the following discussion. + +By way of introduction, I may recall the fact that my attention was +directed several years since to the advisability of devising some +means by the aid of which medicinal substances, and more especially +anæsthetics, might be made to localize, intensify, and perpetuate +their action upon the peripheral nerves. The simple problem in +physiology and mechanics involved in this question I was fortunate +enough to solve quite a long time ago; and I must confess that in the +retrospect these undertakings in themselves do not seem to me of great +magnitude, though in their practical application their significance +appears more considerable. Herein lies, it may be, the explanation of +the interest which these studies excited in the profession at the time +of their publication. These things are, however, a part of medical +history; and I merely refer to them at this time because they have led +me to resume the solution of a far greater problem--that of +intensifying, perpetuating, and (to some extent at least) localizing +the effects of remedies upon the brain and spinal cord. I speak of +resuming these studies because, as far back as 1880 and 1882, I made +some attempts--albeit rather abortive--in the same direction. + +In constructing the argument for the following study, I am beholden +more especially to three facts, the knowledge of which came to me as +the direct result of experimental tests. One may place confidence, +therefore, in the procedure which I have based upon these premises, +for at no point, I think, in the following argument will mere +affirmation be found to have usurped the place of sound induction. +Without anticipating further, then, let me specify as briefly as may +be the nature of these facts. + + +PREMISES OF ARGUMENT. _First Fact._--The amount of ether, chloroform, +chloral hydrate, the bromides, strychnine, and many other remedies, +required to produce physiological effects upon the cerebro-spinal +mechanism may be reduced by first securing a ligature around the +central portion of one or several of the limbs of an animal, so as to +interrupt both the arterial and venous circulation. + +The proof and explanation of this may be thus presented: + +In the first place, it is well known that children and small animals +are affected by much smaller quantities of anæsthetics and other +medicinal substances than are required to produce equal effects in men +and large animals. + +At first sight, there appears to exist a certain definite relation +between the weight of the animal and the quantity of medicament +required to produce physiological effects. On closer inquiry, however, +we find behind this proposition the deeper truth that the real +proportion is between the magnitude of the blood-mass and the amount +of medicament. Thus, if we withdraw a considerable amount of blood +from a large dog, we may be able to affect him by much smaller doses +than those required under ordinary circumstances; and, among human +beings, we find the anæmic much more susceptible to remedies than the +full-blooded of equal weight. + +The degree of saturation of the blood-mass with the remedy is +obviously, then, the principal thing; the greater the amount of blood, +the more remedy--everything else being equal--we shall have to give in +order to obtain definite results. + +If we wish to embody the proposition in a mathematical statement, we +may do so in the following simple manner: + +Let a represent the total quantity of blood, _b_, the amount of remedy +exhibited, and _x_ the magnitude of the physiological effect. We shall +then have the simple formula, x = b / a. + +Again, if we withdraw a certain quantity of blood from the circulation +by venesection, and call that amount _d_, we shall then have the +formula x = b / (a-d). + +But, if we wish to act upon the organs of the trunk, and more +especially upon those contained within the cerebro-spinal canal, it is +not necessary to resort to such a drastic expedient as copious +blood-letting; for, in place of this, we may dam up and effectually +eliminate from the rest of the body a certain amount of blood by +passing a ligature around the central portion of one or several +extremities, so as to interrupt the circulation in both artery and +vein. When this has been done it is clear that we may introduce a +remedy into the system by way of the stomach, or hypodermically into +some portion of the trunk; and it is equally certain that a remedy so +introduced will be diluted only in the ratio of the amount of blood +freely circulating, and more especially by that contained within the +trunk and head. That which is incarcerated behind the ligatures is as +effectually withdrawn from the realm of physiological action as though +it had been abstracted by the surgeon's knife. Elimination by the +knife and elimination by the ligature are, for present purposes, then, +one and the same thing. Hence, if we let _d'_ represent the amount of +blood incarcerated behind the ligatures, _x_ the magnitude of the +physiological effect which we are seeking, _b_ the amount of remedy +exhibited, and a the total amount of blood contained in the whole +organism, we shall have the formula, + + b b + x = ------ = ----- + a - d' a - d + +Several years since, I had an excellent opportunity of proving the +truth of the foregoing, in connection with the administration of ether +in the case of a patient who resisted all attempts to anæsthetize him +in the ordinary way. + +The case in question was a man under treatment at the Manhattan Eye +and Ear Hospital, upon whom it was deemed advisable to perform an +operation. As has been said, the ordinary means of inducing anæsthesia +had proved ineffectual, for the man was a confirmed drunkard; and it +was at this juncture that I was called in consultation and requested +by my friend, Dr. David Webster, one of the surgeons of the hospital, +to endeavor to devise some means of getting the man under the +influence of the anæsthetic. + +The procedure which I suggested was this:[3] Around the upper part of +each thigh a flat rubber tourniquet was tightly drawn and secured in +place in the usual manner. By this means the sequestration of all the +blood contained in the lower limbs was accomplished; but, inasmuch as +both artery and vein were compressed, only the amount of blood usually +contained in each limb was shut off from the rest of the body--which +would not have been the case had we contented ourselves with merely +compressing the veins, as some have done. + +[Footnote 3: On the "Effective and Rapid Induction of General +Anæsthesia," the New York _Medical Journal_, October 22 and December +24, 1887.] + +In subsequently commenting on my published report of this case, that +most accomplished writer and physician, Henry M. Lyman--than whom +there is no greater authority on anæsthesia--observes that the plan +proposed and adopted by me on this occasion (that of compressing both +vein and artery) is far preferable to compression of the vein alone. + +The reason for this is not far to seek. When we compress the veins +alone there is a rapid accumulation of blood in the extremities +through the accessions derived from the uninterrupted arteries. Now, +as this blood is derived from the trunk, and consequently also from +the organs contained within the cerebro-spinal canal, there is danger +of syncope and even heart failure. When, on the other hand, both +artery and vein are compressed no such derivative action occurs, and +all danger is, consequently, removed. With an apology for this brief +digression, I now return to the interesting case which has given rise +to it. + +Having, as previously stated, applied tourniquets to the central +portion of the lower limbs, the ether cap was placed over the mouth +and nose of the patient, and in an incredibly short time he was +unconscious, and the surgeons were able to go on with the operation. + +The late Dr. Cornelius R. Agnew and many other members of the staff of +the hospital were present, and gave emphatic expressions of approval. + +Dr. F.W. Ring, assistant surgeon to the Manhattan Eye and Ear +Hospital, declared that both the amount of ether and the time consumed +in its administration were infinitesimal when compared with what had +been expended in previous efforts at inducing anæsthesia in the usual +way. The facts brought out on this occasion with regard to the +administration of ether have since been repeatedly verified by +different observers; so that at the present day their validity cannot +be questioned. I will merely add, however, that I have long known that +the dosage of phenacetin, antipyrine, morphine, chloralamid, chloral, +the bromides, and many other remedies might be reduced by resort to +the same procedure; all of which is merely equivalent to stating that +their pharmaco-dynamic energy may be increased in this way. And this +brings us to the second fact, which requires no special elaboration, +and may be stated thus: + +_Second Fact._--The duration of the effect of a remedy upon the +cerebro-spinal axis is in the inverse ratio of its volatility; and +this is equally true whether the remedy be given with or without the +precautions previously detailed. For example, the anæsthetic effects +of ether disappear shortly after removal of the inhaler, whether we +apply tourniquets to the extremities or not; but, on the other hand, +the analgesic influence of antipyrin, phenacetin, morphine, and other +like remedies lasts very much longer, and their dose may be reduced, +or--what is the same thing--their pharmaco-dynamic potency may be +enhanced by the sequestration of the blood contained within the +extremities. So far as I know, I was the first to announce this fact. +In so far as a simple expression of the above truth is concerned, we +may employ the following formula: + +Let _a_ represent the normal blood-mass contained in the entire body, +_d_ the amount of blood sequestrated by the ligatures, _b_ the amount +of the remedy, _c_ the volatility of the remedy, and _x_ the +pharmaco-dynamic potency of which we are in search; we shall then have + + b + x = ----------- + (a - d') × c + +We now arrive at our third fact, which will require more extensive +elaboration. + +_Third Fact._--The pharmaco-dynamic potency of stimulants, sedatives, +analgesics, and probably of all remedies which possess a chemical +affinity for nervous matter, is enhanced by exhibiting them (the +remedies) in solution or soluble form--hypodermically, by the mouth, +or per rectum--while the subject remains in a condensed atmosphere. +And, as a corollary, it may be stated that this increase, this +enhancement of the potency of the remedy is, within certain limits, in +the ratio of the atmospheric condensation. + +To express this truth mathematically is not difficult. Thus, when a +represents the amount of blood of the whole body, _b_ the amount of +the remedy, _e_ the amount of atmospheric compression, and _x_ the +pharmaco-dynamic potentiality which we are seeking, we shall then have +the simple formula: + + b x e + x = ----- + a + +A definite conception of the truth of this proposition will, I think, +be more readily attained by the presentation of the steps which led me +to its discovery. + +Let me begin, then, by stating that my attention was attracted several +years ago by that unique complex of symptoms known as the "caisson or +tunnel disease." As most physicians are aware, the caisson disease is +an affection of the spinal cord, due to a sudden transition from a +relatively high atmospheric pressure to one much lower. Hence, those +who work in caissons, or submerged tunnels, under an external pressure +of two atmospheres or even more, are liable to be attacked by the +disease shortly after leaving the tunnel. The seizure never, however, +occurs while the subject is in the caisson, or in other words, while +he remains under pressure. Moreover, when the transition from the +condensed atmosphere to that of ordinary density is gradually +accomplished, which may be done by letting the air escape from the +lock very slowly, the caisson disease is rarely if ever set up. It is +the systematic disregard of this principle by those who work in +compressed air that is responsible, or largely responsible, for the +occurrence of the disease. + +The chief clinical features of the caisson disease are pain, which may +be relatively mild, as when confined to a circumscribed area of one +extremity, or of frightful intensity, as when it appears in the ears, +knees, back, or abdomen; anæsthesia and paralysis, usually of +paraplegic type; bladder symptoms, assuming the form of retention or +incontinence; and, more rarely, rectal disturbances (usually +incontinence). + +These phenomena, or rather some of them, appear some time within half +an hour after the subject has left the compressed atmosphere. It was +while investigating this most interesting affection as it occurred in +the course of the construction of the Hudson River tunnel, that I was +able, at the same time, to study the effects of compressed air upon +the organism, and especially upon the nervous system, as exhibited in +a large number of persons. + +The results of these studies I now submit without hesitation, and in all +candor, to the judgment of the profession, believing, as I certainly do, +that their practical significance from a neuro-therapeutic standpoint is +assured. Without anticipating, however, let me state that the first +thing which impressed me about compressed air was its extraordinary +effect upon cerebral and cerebro-spinal function. + +Those who remain for a certain length of time, not too long, however, +in the condensed atmosphere, exhibit a most striking exacerbation of +mental and physical vigor. They go up and down ladders, lift heavy +weights, are more or less exhilarated, and, in short, behave as though +under the influence of a stimulant. + +Hardly had I observed these things, which are perfectly well known to +those who have been able to familiarize themselves with the ordinary +effects of compressed air as used in caissons and submarine works of +various kinds, when my attention became attracted by what at first +appeared to be a phenomenon of trivial importance. In a word, I +observed that some of the men exposed to the effects of the compressed +air were more exhilarated by it than others. Upon superficial +reflection one might have supposed that this discrepancy in +physiological effect was to be accounted for merely on the basis of +constitutional idiosyncrasy; maturer thought, however, convinced me +that the exaggerated effects of the condensed air were both too +numerous and too constant to be amenable to such an explanation. This +led me to study the habits of the men; and thus it was that I arrived +at a discovery of real practical value to neurotherapy. To be brief, I +found that a certain percentage of the men, before entering the +compressed air employed in the construction of the Hudson River +tunnel, were in the habit of drinking a quantity of alcohol, usually +in the form of whisky. So long as these men remained outside the +tunnel, where the atmospheric conditions were normal, they were not +visibly affected by their potations. When, however, they entered the +compressed air of the tunnel, but a short time elapsed before they +became exhilarated to an inordinate degree, acting, as one of the +foremen graphically expressed it, "as though they owned the town." + +On the other hand, when the customary draught of alcohol was withheld +from them, these same men were no more, if as much, exhilarated on +entering the compressed air as were their fellows. + +The effects of alcohol, then, are enhanced by exposing the subject to +the influence of an atmosphere condensed to a considerable degree +beyond that of the normal atmosphere. + +Acting on the hint derived from this discovery, I proceeded to +administer absinthe, ether, the wine of coca, vermouth, champagne, and +other stimulants, before exposing the subject to the influence of the +condensed atmosphere, and invariably observed analogous effects, i.e., +palpable augmentation of the physiological effects of the remedy. + +Upon what principle does this augmentation of physiological effect +depend? how is it to be accounted for? + +In my opinion, the answer to this question may be given as follows: In +the first place, we know that the primary effect of the compressed air +upon the organism must be to force the blood from the surface of the +body toward the interior, and especially into the cerebro-spinal +canal. Or, to express it more succinctly, the blood will be forced in +the direction of the least resistance, that is, into the soft organs +inclosed by bony walls, which latter completely shut out the element +of counter-pressure. Now, when the blood stream is freighted with a +soluble chemical of some sort--let us say, for the present, with +alcohol--this medicated blood will exert its greatest chemical effect +where the tension--the pressure--is greatest, that is, in the +cerebro-spinal canal. The reason for this is found in the fact that +endosmosis is most pronounced where the blood pressure is greatest. +This explanation of why the effects of alcohol are enhanced by +exposing the individual who has taken it to the effects of a condensed +atmosphere will, I believe, appeal to the physiological conceptions of +most medical men. It was the above course of reasoning which, at this +stage of the argument, led me to the idea that, just as the effects of +stimulating substances are enhanced by exposing the subject to the +influence of compressed air, so, inversely, sedatives and analgesics, +when brought in solution into the blood stream, either hypodermically +or by the stomach, might be greatly enhanced in effect by causing the +subject to remain, while under their influence, in a condensed +atmosphere. + +When I came to investigate the validity of these predictions, as I did +shortly after the introduction of antipyrin, phenacetin, and the other +members of the same group of compounds, I found my predictions +verified, and, indeed, exceeded. To summarize the whole matter, I +ascertained that not only could therapeutic effects be obtained from +much smaller doses by exposing the subject to the influence of a +condensed atmosphere, but, what was of equal interest, I found that +the analgesic influence of the remedies was much more permanent, was +prolonged, in short, by this mode of administration. When we consider +how great must be the nutritive changes in the nervous system, and +especially in the cerebro-spinal axis, consequent upon increasing the +blood pressure in this way, I hardly think that these things should be +matters of astonishment. + + +CONCERNING THE PRACTICAL APPLICATION OF THE FOREGOING FACTS.--Truths +like the foregoing possess, however, much more than a theoretical +interest, and we should be greatly lacking in perspicuity did we not +seek to derive from them something further than a foundation for mere +speculation. Indeed, the whole tenor of these facts is opposed to such +a course, for, view them as we may, the thought inevitably arises that +here are things which contain the germ of some practical acquisition. +This, at least, is the impression which they engendered in my own +mind--an impression which, being unable to rid myself of, I have +allowed to fructify. Nor has regret followed this tenacity of purpose, +since, by the _combination_ of the three principles previously +enunciated, I have been able to devise a procedure which, in my hands, +has yielded flattering results in the treatment of a wide range of +nervous affections, and notably so in melancholia, chorea, insomnia, +neurasthenia, and painful conditions of various kinds. + + +RECAPITULATION OF ARGUMENT.--The method in question consists, then, in +the combination of the three facts already elucidated. To +recapitulate, they are: + +1. That the effects of remedies upon the cerebro-spinal axis may be +enhanced by the sequestration of the blood contained in one or more +extremities, previous to the administration of the medicament. This is +only another way of saying that the quantity of a remedy required to +produce a given physiological effect may be reduced by any expedient +which suspends, or sequestrates, the blood in one or more extremities. +As has been previously said, however, care should be exercised to +avoid dangerous exsanguination of the trunk, and consequently of the +respiratory and cardiac centers contained in the medulla. This may be +done by compressing the central portion of both artery and vein; but I +shall presently indicate a better way of accomplishing the same thing. + +2. The duration of the effect of a remedy upon the cerebro-spinal axis +is in the inverse ratio of its volatility. For this reason the +anæsthetic effects of ether disappear shortly after removal of the +inhaler, whereas solutions of antipyrin, phenacetin, morphine, and +other salts possessing an affinity for nervous tissue exert much more +permanent effects upon the cerebro-spinal system. + +It is evident, therefore, that the administration of remedies designed +to exert an influence upon the central nervous system in the form of +gases must be far inferior to the exhibition of potent solutions +hypodermically or by the mouth. + +3. The pharmaco-dynamic potency of stimulants, sedatives, analgesics, +and probably of all remedies possessing a chemical affinity for +nervous matter, is enhanced by exhibiting them (the remedies) in +solution, or at least in _soluble form while the subject remains in a +condensed atmosphere_. + +And, as a corollary to this, it may be stated that this increase--this +enhancement of therapeutic effect--is, within physiological limits, in +the ratio of the atmospheric condensation. By physiological limits we +mean simply that there is a degree of atmospheric condensation beyond +which we cannot go without jeopardizing the well-being of the subject. + +(_To be continued_.) + + * * * * * + + + + +EYESIGHT: ITS CARE DURING INFANCY AND YOUTH.[1] + +[Footnote 1: A lecture delivered before the Franklin Institute, +December 5, 1890.--_From the Journal of the Institute_.] + +By L. WEBSTER FOX, M.D. + + +Medical science, as taught in our medical colleges to-day, has two +objects in view: (1) the prevention of disease; (2) the amelioration +of disease and its cure. Some of our advanced thinkers are suggesting +a new mode of practice, that is the prevention of disease by proper +hygienic measures. Chairs are being established and professors +appointed to deliver lectures on hygiene. Of what value is the +application of therapeutics if the human economy is so lowered in its +vital forces that dissolution is inevitable? Is it not better to +prevent disease than to try the cure after it has become established, +or has honeycombed the constitution? + +These few preliminary remarks are _apropos_ to what is to follow in +the subject which I have selected as the topic for discussion this +evening. + +Vision is the most useful of all the senses. It is the one gift which +we should cherish and guard the most. And at no time in one's life is +it more precious than in infancy and youth. + +In infancy, when the child is developing, the one great avenue to the +unfolding, or more properly speaking, the development, of the +intellect is through the eye. The eye at this period holds in abeyance +all the other senses. The child, when insensible to touch, taste, +smell or hearing, will become aroused to action by a bright light or +bright colors, or the movement of any illuminated object, proving to +all that light is essential to the development of the first and most +important sense. Again, the infant of but six days of age will +recognize a candle flame, while its second sense and second in +importance to its development--hearing--will not be recognized for +_six_ weeks to two months. Taste, touch and smell follow in regular +sequence. Inasmuch as light makes thus early an impression on the +delicate organ of vision, how necessary it behooves us to guard the +infant from too bright lights or too much exposure in our bright +climate. Mothers--not only the young mother with her first child, but +also those who have had several children--are too apt to try to quiet +a restless child by placing it near a bright flame; much evil to the +future use of those eyes is the outgrowth of such a pernicious habit. +Light throws into action certain cells of that wonderful structure of +the eye, the retina, and an over stimulus perverts the action of those +cells. The result is that by this over-stimulation the seeds of future +trouble are sown. Let the adult gaze upon the arc of an electric light +or into the sun, and for many moments, nay hours, that individual has +dancing before his vision scintillations and phosphenes. His direct +vision becomes blurred, and as in the case of a certain individual I +have in mind, there may be a permanent loss of sight. Parents should +take the first precaution in the child's life, and not expose it to a +light too bright or glaring. When in the open air let the child's eyes +be protected from the direct rays of the sun. While it is impossible +to give all children the advantage of green fields and outdoor +ramblings, yet nature never intended that civilization should debar +the innocent child from such surroundings. + +An anecdote is related of a French ophthalmic surgeon, that a +distinguished patient applied to him for relief from a visual defect; +the surgeon advised him to go into the country and look out upon the +green fields. The green color with its soothing effect soon brought +about a restoration of vision. What I wish to illustrate by this +anecdote is that children should be allowed the green fields as their +best friend in early life. It tones up the system and rests the eye. +After outdoor exercise and plenty of it, we should turn our attention +to the home surroundings of our little ones. The overheated rooms of +the average American home I am sure have more to do with the growing +tendency of weak eyes than we feel like admitting. Look at these frail +hot-house plants, and can any one believe that such bodies nourished +in almost pestilential atmosphere can nourish such delicate organs of +vision, and keep them ready for the enormous amount of work each +little eye performs daily? The brain developing so rapidly wills with +an increasing rapidity the eye to do increasing duties; note the +result--a tendency to impoverished circulation first, and the eye with +its power to give the brain a new picture in an infinitesimal short +space of time means lightning-like circulation--the eye must give way +by its own exhaustion. + +Civilization is the progenitor of many eye diseases. + +After a boy has grown to that age when it becomes necessary for him to +begin the education prescribed by the wise men, obstacles are placed +in his way to aid again in causing deterioration of vision. It is not +so much the overcrowded condition of our school rooms as the enormous +amount of work that causes deterioration of sight. Our children begin +their school life at a time when they are too young. A child at six +years of age who is forced to study all day or even a part of a day +will not run the same race that one will who commences his studies at +ten--all things being equal. The law prescribes that so much time must +be devoted to study, so many forms must be passed, so many books must +be read, so many pages of composition written--all probably in badly +lighted rooms, or by artificial light. Note the effect. First, +possibly, distant vision gives way; the teacher, sympathizing with the +overburdened child, tries to make the burden lighter by changing his +position in the room or placing him under the cross light from a +window; as the evil progresses, the child is taken to an ophthalmic +surgeon, and the inevitable result, glasses, rightly called "crutches +for the eyes," are given. What would be thought of a cause which would +weaken the legs of that boy so that he would have to use crutches to +carry him through life? If civilization be responsible for an evil, +let our efforts be put forth in finding a remedy for that evil. + +A discussion, in a recent number of the _British Medical Journal_,[2] +on "The Claims and Limitations of Physical Education in Schools," has +many valuable hints which should be followed by educators in this +country. Dr. Carter, in the leading paper on this subject, makes the +pregnant remark: "If the hope is entertained of building up a science +of education, the medical profession must combine with the profession +of teaching, in order to direct investigation and to collect material +essential to generalization. Without such co-operation educational +workers must continue to flounder in the morasses of empiricism, and +be content to purchase relative safety at the cost of slow progress, +or no progress at all." In other words, an advisory medical board +should coexist with our board of public education, to try to hold in +check or prevent a further "cruelty in trying to be kind." Private +institutions of education recognize the importance of physical +training and development, and in such institutions the deterioration +of vision is in proportion less than in institutions where physical +training is not considered. In one school of over 200 middle class +girls, Dr. Carter found that, during a period of six years, no fewer +than ten per cent. of the total number of girls admitted during that +time have been compelled to take one or more terms' leave of absence, +and of the present number twenty-eight per cent. have medical +certificates exempting them from gymnastic exercise and 10.25 per +cent. of the total present number wear eye glasses of some kind or +other. From my own experience the same number of students in our +schools would show about the same percentage of visual defects. These +questions are of such growing importance that not only instructors, +but the medical fraternity, should not rest until these evils are +eradicated. + +[Footnote 2: Nov. 1, 1890.] + +Dr. J.W. Ballantyne, of Edinburgh, in a lecture[3] on diseases of +infancy and childhood, says: "The education of the young people of a +nation is to that nation a subject of vital importance." The same +writer quotes the startling statement made by Prof. Pfluger, that of +45,000 children examined in Germany more than one-half were suffering +from defective eyesight, while in some schools the proportion of the +short sighted was seventy or eighty per cent., and, crowning all, was +the Heidelberg Gymnasium, with 100 per cent. These figures, the result +of a careful examination, are simply startling, and almost make one +feel that it were better to return to the old Greek method of teaching +by word of mouth. + +[Footnote 3: _Lancet_. Nov. 1, 1890.] + +Prof. Pfluger attributes this large amount of bad sight to +insufficient lighting of school rooms, badly printed books, etc. One +must agree with a certain writer, who says: "Schools are absolute +manufactories of the short sighted, a variety of the human race which +has been created within historic time, and which has enormously +increased in number during the present century." Granting that many +predisposing causes of defective vision cannot be eliminated from the +rules laid down by our city fathers in acquiring an education, it +would be well if the architects of school buildings would bear in mind +that light when admitted into class rooms should not fall directly +into the faces of children, but desks should be so arranged that the +light must be sufficiently strong and fall upon the desk from the left +hand side. My attention has repeatedly been called to the cross lights +in a school room. The light falling directly into the eyes contracts +the pupil which is already contracted by the action of the muscle of +accommodation in its effort to give a clearer picture to the brain. +This has a tendency to elongate the eyeball, and as a permanent result +we have near sightedness. Where the eyeball has an unnatural shortness +this same action manifests itself by headaches, chorea, nausea, +dyspepsia, and ultimately a prematurely breaking down of health. The +first symptom of failing sight is a hyper-secretion of tears, burning +of the eyelids, loss of eyelashes, and congestion either of the +eyelids or the eyeball proper. + +The natural condition of aboriginal man is far sighted. His wild life, +his nomadic nature, his seeking for game, his watching for enemies, +his abstention from continued near work, have given him this +protection. Humboldt speaks of the wonderful distant vision of the +South American Indians; another traveler in Russia of the power of +vision one of his guides possessed, who could see the rings of Saturn. +My recent examinations among Indian children of both sexes also +confirm this. While the comparison is not quite admissible, yet the +recent investigations carried on by Lang and Barrett, who examined the +eyes of certain mammalia, found that the larger number were +hypermetropic or far sighted. With all the difficulties which +naturally surround such an examination they found that in fifty-two +eyes of rabbits, thirty-six were hypermetropic and astigmatic, eight +were hypermetropic only, five were myopic and astigmatic, and others +presented mixed astigmatism. In the eyes of the guinea pig about the +same proportion of hypermetropia existed. The eyes of five rats +examined gave the following result: Some were far sighted, others were +hypermetropic and astigmatic, one was slightly myopic and one had +mixed astigmatism. Of six cows, five were hypermetropic and astigmatic +and one was slightly myopic. + +Six horses were also examined, of which one had normal sight, three +were hypermetropic and astigmatic, and two had a slight degree of +astigmatism. They also examined other animals, and the same proportion +of hypermetropia existed. These gentlemen found that as an optical +instrument the eye of the horse, cow, cat and rabbit is superior to +that of the rat, mouse and guinea pig. + +I have for the last five years devoted considerable attention to the +vision of the Indian children who are pupils at two institutions in +this city. I have at various times made careful records of each +individual pupil and have from time to time compared them. Up to the +present there is a growing tendency toward myopia or short +sightedness, i.e., more pupils from year to year require near sighted +glasses. The natural condition of their eyes is far sighted and the +demands upon them are producing many nervous or reflex symptoms, pain +over the frontal region and headaches. A good illustration of the +latter trouble is showing itself in a young Indian boy, who is at +present undergoing an examination of his vision as a probable cause +for his headaches. This boy is studying music; one year ago he +practiced two hours daily on the piano and studied from three to five +hours besides. This year his work has been increased; he is now +troubled with severe headaches, and after continued near work for some +time letters become blurred and run together. This boy is far sighted +and astigmatic; glasses will correct his defect, and it will be +interesting to note whether his eyes will eventually grow into near +sighted ones. I have several cases where the defective vision has been +due entirely to other causes, such as inflammation of the cornea, +weakening this part of the eye, and the effect in trying to see +producing an elongation of the anterior portion of the eyeball, and +this in turn producing myopia. The eye of the Indian does not differ +materially from that of any deeply pigmented race. The eyeball is +smaller than in the Caucasian, but when we examine the interior we +find the same distribution of the blood vessels and same shape of the +optic nerves. The pigment deposit in the choroid is excessive and +gives, as a background to the retina, a beautiful silvery sheen when +examined with the ophthalmoscope. One thing which I noticed +particularly was the absence of this excessive deposit of pigment and +absence of this watered silk appearance in the half breeds, they +taking after the white race. + +Many of the intraocular diseases common among the white children were +also absent, especially those diseases which are the result of near +work. + +It is a well known fact among breeders of animals that where animals +are too highly or finely bred, the eye is the organ first to show a +retrogression from the normal. In an examination by myself some years +ago among deaf mutes, I found the offspring of consanguineous +marriages much affected, and while not only were many afflicted with +inflammatory conditions of the choroid and retina, their average +vision was much below the normal. + +My quoting Messrs. Lang and Barrett's figures was to bring more +prominently to the notice of my hearers the fact that the eyes of +primitive man resembled the eyes of the lower mammalia and that the +natural eye as an organ of vision was hypermetropic, or far sighted, +and that civilization was the cause of the myopic or near sighted eye. +Nature always compensates in some way. I grant that the present +demands of civilization could not be filled by the far sighted eye, +but the evil which is the outgrowth of present demands does not stop +when we have reached the normal eye, but the cause once excited, the +coats of this eye continue to give way, and myopia or a near sighted +condition is the result. + +Among three hundred Indians examined, I found when I got to the +Creeks, a tribe which has been semi-civilized for many years, myopia +to be the prevailing visual defect. + +Without going into statistics, I am convinced from my experience that +the State must look into this subject and give our public school +system of education more attention, or we, as a people, will be known +as a "spectacled race." + +Myopia or short-sightedness among the Germans is growing at a +tremendous rate. While I do not believe that the German children +perform more work than our own children, there is one cause for this +defect which has never been touched upon by writers, and that is the +shape of the head. The broad, flat face, or German type, as I would +call it, has not the deep orbit of the more narrow, sharp-featured +face of the American type. The eye of the German standing out more +prominently, and, in consequence, less protected, is thereby more +prone to grow into a near-sighted eye. One of the significant results +of hard study was recently brought to my notice by looking over the +statistics on the schools of Munich in 1889. In those schools 2,327 +children suffered from defective sight, 996 boys and 1,331 girls. + +Of 1,000 boys in the first or elementary class, 36 are short-sighted; +in the second, 49; in the third, 70; in the fourth, 94; in the fifth, +108; in the sixth, 104; and in the last and seventh, 108. The number +of short-sighted boys, therefore, from the first class to the seventh +increases about three-fold. In the case of girls, the increase is from +37 to 119. + +These statistics in themselves show us the effects of overwork, +incessant reading or study by defective gas or lamp light, or from an +over-stimulating light, as the arc light, late hours, dissipation, and +frequent rubbing of the eye, also fatigue, sudden changes from +darkness to light, and, what is probably worse than all, reading on +railway trains. The constant oscillations of the car cause an +over-activity of the muscle of accommodation, which soon becomes +exhausted; the brain willing the eye to give it a clear photograph +continues to force the ciliary muscle, which muscle governs the +accommodation, in renewed activity, and the result may easily be +foretold. + +The fond parents finding that the vitiated air of the city is making +their once rosy-cheeked children turn pale, seek a remedy in the fresh +air of the country. The children find their way to city schools; this +necessitates traveling so many miles a day in railway cars. The +children take this opportunity of preparing their studies while _en +route_ to the city, and here is where they get their first eye-strain. +Children have the example set them by their parents or business men, +who read the daily papers on the trains. Children are great imitators, +and when their attention is called to the evil, quote their parents' +example, and they follow it. No wonder each generation is growing more +effeminate. + +The light in sick rooms should never fall directly on the eyes, nor +should the rooms be either too dark or too light. + +The Esquimaux and Indians long ago noted the fact that sunlight +reflected from freshly fallen snow would soon cause blindness. + +The natives of northern Africa blacken themselves around the eyes to +prevent ophthalmia from the glare of the hot sand. In Fiji the +natives, when they go fishing, blacken their faces. My friend. Dr. +Bartelott, presented me with a pair of eye protectors, which he +brought from Alaska. The natives use them to protect themselves from +snow blindness. These snow spectacles, or snow eyes, as they are +called, are usually made out of pine wood, which is washed upon their +shores, drift wood from southern climes. + +The posterior surface is deeply excavated, to prevent its obstructing +the free motion of the eye lids; on each side a notch is cut at the +lower margin to allow a free passage for the tears. The upper margin +of the front surface is more prominent than the under, to act as a +shade to the eyes. The inner surface is blackened to absorb the +excessive light. The openings are horizontal slits. The eyes are thus +protected from the dazzling effect of the light. + +My friend, Dr. Grady, of Omaha, communicated to me a history of three +hunters who almost lost their eyesight by too long exposure to the +bright rays of the sun falling on snow. + +The abuse of tobacco leads to impairment of vision in the growing +youth. Cigarette smoking is an evil. I am inclined to believe that the +poison inhaled arrests the growth of boys; surely it prevents a mental +development, and, when carried to excess, affects vision more by +lessening the power of nerve conduction than acting directly on the +eye. + +It is not the one cigarette which the boy smokes that does the harm, +but it is the one, two, or three packages smoked daily. This excessive +smoking thoroughly perverts all the functions which should be at their +best to aid this growing youth. First we have failing digestion, +restless nights, suspension of growth, lack of mental development, the +loss of nerve tone, loss of the power of accommodation in vision, +failing sight, headaches, enfeeblement of the heart. Let a man who is +a habitual smoker of cigars attempt to smoke even one package of +cigarettes and he will complain of nausea, dry throat, and loss of +appetite. If a strong man is so much affected by this poison, how much +less can a boy resist the inroads of such poisons? In Germany the law +forbids the sale of cigarettes to growing boys. New York State has a +similar law, and why should our own or any other State be behind in +passing prohibitory laws against this evil?--and this is a growing +evil. + +I have never seen a case of tobacco amblyopia in boyhood, but such a +condition is not infrequent in adults. In boys the action of nicotine +acts especially upon the heart, the impulse is rendered weaker and +intermittent, and many young boys lay the seeds of organic disease +which sooner or later culminates fatally. Boys should be prohibited +from smoking, first by their parents, second by law, but not such laws +whose enforcement is a failure, third by placing a heavy fine upon +dealers who sell to minors. The pernicious evil of intoxication is no +less an evil upon the nervous system of a youth than is the habit of +cigarette smoking, but, fortunately, this habit is less common. Having +traced from aboriginal man to the present civilized individual the +cause of his myopia, what must we do to prevent a further +deterioration of vision? Unfortunately, the physician of our country +is not, as I am told, like the Japanese physician. Our medical men are +called to attend people who are ill and to try to get them well--the +Japanese physician is paid only to keep his patients in health. + +The first effort parents should make is to see that their children +have plenty of outdoor exercise. Good, warm clothing in winter, and +light texture cloth in summer. A great difference of opinion exists as +to the age at which a child should begin its studies. I feel sure that +the boy who commences his studies at ten will far outrun the one who +commences study at six. Every child should commence his lessons in the +best kindergarten, the nursery. Let object lessons be his primer--let +him be taught by word of mouth--then, when his brain is what it should +be for a boy of ten, his eyes will be the better able to bear the +fatigue of the burdens which will be forced upon him. Listen to what +Milton has left on record as a warning to those young boys or girls +who insist upon reading or studying at night with bad illumination. + +"My father destined me, from a child, for the pursuits of polite +learning, which I prosecuted with such eagerness that, after I was +twelve years old, I rarely retired to bed, from my lucubrations, till +midnight. This was the first thing which proved pernicious to my eyes, +to the natural weakness of which were added frequent headaches." + +Milton went blind when comparatively a young man, and it was always to +him a great grief. Galileo, the great astronomer, also went blind by +overwork. It was written of him, "The noblest eye which ever nature +made is darkened--an eye so privileged, and gifted with such rare +powers, that it may truly be said to have seen more than the eyes of +all that are gone, and to have opened the eyes of all that are to +come." + +When the defect of far sightedness or near sightedness exists, we have +but one recourse--_spectacles_. + +Some time ago I published, in the _Medical and Surgical Reporter_ an +article on the history of spectacles. The widespread interest which +this paper created has stimulated me to continue the research, and +since this article appeared I have been able to gather other +additional historical data to what has been described as an invention +for "poor old men when their sight grows weak." + +The late Wendell Phillips, in his lecture on the "Lost Arts," speaks +of the ancients having magnifying glasses. "Cicero said that he had +seen the entire _Iliad_, which is a poem as large as the New +Testament, written on a skin so that it could be rolled up in the +compass of a nut shell;" it would have been impossible either to have +written this, or to have read it, without the aid of a magnifying +glass. + +In Parma, a ring 2,000 years old is shown which once belonged to +Michael Angelo. On the stone are engraved the figures of seven women. +You must have the aid of a glass in order to distinguish the forms at +all. Another _intaglio_ is spoken of--the figure is that of the god +Hercules; by the aid of glasses, you can distinguish the interlacing +muscles and count every separate hair on the eyebrows. Mr. Phillips +again speaks of a stone 20 inches long and 10 wide containing a whole +treatise on mathematics, which would be perfectly illegible without +glasses. Now, our author says, if we are unable to read and see these +minute details without glasses, you may suppose the men who did the +engraving had pretty strong spectacles. + +"The Emperor Nero, who was short sighted, occupied the imperial box at +the Coliseum, and, to look down into the arena, a space covering six +acres, the area of the Coliseum, was obliged, as Pliny says, to look +through a ring with a gem in it--no doubt a concave glass--to see more +clearly the sword play of the gladiators. Again, we read of Mauritius, +who stood on the promontory of his island and could sweep over the sea +with an optical instrument to watch the ships of the enemy. This tells +us that the telescope is not a modern invention." + +Lord Kingsborough, speaking of the ancient Mexicans, says: "They were +acquainted with many scientific instruments of strange invention, +whether the telescope may not have been of the number is uncertain, +but the thirteenth plate of _Dupaix's Monuments_, part second, which +represents a man holding something of a similar nature to his eye, +affords reason to suppose that they knew how to improve the powers of +vision. + +Our first positive knowledge of spectacles is gathered from the +writings of Roger Bacon, who died in 1292.[3] Bacon says: "This +instrument (a plano-convex glass or large segment of a sphere) is +useful to old men and to those who have weak eyes, for they may see +the smallest letters sufficiently magnified." + +[Footnote 3: _Med. and Surg. Reporter_.] + +Alexander de Spina, who died in 1313, had a pair of spectacles made +for himself by an optician who had the secret of their invention. De +Spina was so much pleased with them that he made the invention public. + +Monsieur Spoon fixes the date of the invention between 1280 and 1311. +In a manuscript written in 1299 by Pissazzo, the author says: "I find +myself so pressed by age that I can neither read nor write without +those glasses they call spectacles, lately invented, to the great +advantage of poor old men when their sight grows weak." Friar Jordan, +who died in Pisa in 1311, says in one of his sermons, which was +published in 1305, that "it is not twenty years since the art of +making spectacles was found out, and is indeed one of the best and +most necessary inventions in the world." In the fourteenth century +spectacles were not uncommon and Italy excelled in their manufacture. +From Italy the art was carried into Holland, then to Nuremberg, +Germany. In a church in Florence is a fresco representing St. Jerome +(1480). Among the several things represented is an inkhorn, pair of +scissors, etc. We also find a pair of spectacles, or _pince-nez_--the +glasses are large and round and framed in bone. + +It was not until 1575 that Maurolicus, of Messina, pointed out the +cause of near sightedness and far sightedness and explained how +concave glasses corrected the former and convex glasses the latter +defect. + +In the wake of advanced, education stalks the spectacle age. Any one +watching a passing crowd cannot fail but note the great number of +people wearing spectacles. Unfortunately it is not limited to adults, +but our youths of both sexes go to make up this army of ametropes. + +At what age should children first wear glasses? This is a much +debatable question. Where there is simply a defect of vision I should +never prescribe a pair of glasses for a child under ten years of age. +A child under this age runs many risks of injury to the eyeball by +accident to the glasses, and to cut the eye with glass is a very +serious affair. Rather let a child go without study, or even with +impaired vision, than run the risk of a permanent loss of sight. + +Another source of evil I must call your attention to, and that is the +indiscriminate use of glasses given by itinerant venders of spectacles +who claim a thorough knowledge of the eye, who make examination free, +but charge double price for glasses. + +Persons, before submitting themselves into the hands of opticians, +should know that they are not suffering from any incipient disease of +their eyes. I do not, for a moment, claim that a practical optician +cannot give you a pair of glasses which will make you see--he does +nothing more than hand you a number of pairs of glasses and you select +the one pair which you think answers the purpose. How can anyone but a +medical man know that the impairment of vision does not arise from +diminished sensibility of the retina? If so, the glasses just +purchased, which may be comfortable for a time, may cause an +irreparable loss of vision. Every ophthalmic surgeon will tell you +that he has had a number of such cases. Do not be misguided by +purchasing cheap spectacles. Glasses advertised as having "remarkable +qualities" are always to be passed by. They have "remarkable +qualities;" they always leave the person wearing them worse at the end +of a few months. Whenever an eye finds relief in a shaded or colored +glass, something is going wrong with the interior of that eye. Seek +advice, but do not trust the eyes of yourself, much less those of your +children, in the hands of the opticians who advertise their +examinations free. + +Such individuals should be brought before a tribunal and the matter +sifted as to whether the sense of sight is less to be taken care of +than if that same patient were ill with pneumonia and a druggist were +to prescribe remedies which might or might not aid this patient. If +one man must comply with the law, why should not the other? Our +medical colleges are lengthening the course of studies; the advances +in the various departments of science demand this. It is by the aid of +the ophthalmoscope that many obscure diseases are diagnosed, and while +it is impossible for every young man who obtains a diploma to become +thoroughly proficient in the use of this instrument, yet the eye shows +to him many conditions which guide him to the road of successful +treatment. Think of a case of optic neuritis--inflammation of the +optic nerve--going to an optician and fitting one set of glasses after +another until the patient suddenly discovers that blindness is +inevitable. Many individuals, and very intelligent ones at that, think +that so long as a glass makes them see, that is all they need. When we +know that scarcely two eyes are alike, we can at once feel that it is +very important that each eye should be properly adjusted for a glass; +by this we are sure of having comfort in reading and preserving +vision. + +There is a very important defect in vision which should be detected as +early in life as possible, and that is color blindness. The boy who is +a color blind will always remain a color blind, and as forty in every +1,000 of the male sex are color blind, it is essential that they know +their defect, and train their course accordingly. It would be to the +advantage of all boys to undergo such an examination once in their +school life; a color blind would be useless where the selection of +color entered into his life work. If a boy had a talent for drawing or +engraving, and were color blind, he would make a success of his life, +whereas if he would attempt to mix paints of different colors he would +be a failure. + +I shall not dwell upon the scientific part of color blindness, nor +discuss either the Young-Helmholtz or the Hering theories of color +defect, but shall deal with its practical use in everyday life. + +Until the year 1853, very little was known about color blindness, and +much less written about it. + +Dr. George Wilson, in 1853, wrote several articles, which were +published in the _Edinburgh Monthly Journal of Medical Science._ These +articles created such an interest in the scientific world that Dr. +Wilson brought out a book, entitled "Researches on Color Blindness," +two years later. So thoroughly did Dr. Wilson sift this subject that +no writer up to the present day has added anything practical to what +was then known. + +Dr. Wilson writes in his preface: "The most practical relation of +color blindness is that which it has to railway and ship signals." He +further states: "The professions for which color blindness most +seriously disqualifies are those of the sailor and railway servant, +who have daily to peril human life and property on the indication +which a colored flag or a lamp seems to give." + +Dr. Bickerton, in an article on this same subject, speaking of the +careless way in which lights were used on ships at sea, says: "Until +the year 1852, there were no definite rules regarding the carrying of +lights at night by vessels at sea.... At this time the subject of +color blindness had not awakened the attention of practical observers, +and had the fact been known that between three and four per cent. of +the whole male population are color blind, some other mode might have +been devised to indicate the positions of vessels at night than by +showing red and green lights." + +If it is so very important to have sailors with good color perception, +where, at least, four men are on the lookout, how much more important +is it to have our engine drivers with perfect color perception, where +one man alone watches the signal of safety or danger. + +The growth of our railway system is constantly increasing. We have +to-day probably 150,000 men employed in this service. The boys +attending public schools to-day in a few years will have to fill the +ranks of these men. How important for these boys to know that they +have not this defect. If the forty boys in every 1,000 are found, what +is to be done with them? The engraver, the wood cut engraver, the +etcher, all wish apprentices. I am also informed that these +occupations pay well. It requires talent to fill them, and here is an +opening for the color blind. Hear what a color blind writes:[4] "I beg +to offer some particulars of my own case, trusting it may be of use to +you. I am an engraver, and strange as it may appear, my defective +vision is, to a certain extent, a useful and valuable quality. Thus, +an engraver has two negative colors to deal with, i.e., white and +black. Now, when I look at a picture, I see it only in white and +black, or light and shade, and any want of harmony in the coloring of +a picture is immediately made manifest by a corresponding discord in +the arrangement of its light and shade or, as artists term it, the +_effect_. I find at times many of my brother engravers in doubt how to +translate certain colors of pictures which to me are matters of +decided certainty and ease. Thus, to me it is valuable." Having +already spoken about the importance of having all boys undergo an +examination for color blindness once in their school lives, we have +two very good reasons for making this suggestion. + +[Footnote 4: Wilson, p. 27.] + +First, prevent a boy following a trade or occupation where he is +incapacitated, and, secondly, let him be trained for a certain trade +or occupation when the defect exists. The savage races possess the +perception of color to a greater degree than do civilized races. I +have just concluded an examination of 250 Indian children; 100 were +boys. Had I selected 100 white boys from various parts of the United +States I would have found at least five color blinds; among the Indian +boys I did not find a single one. Some years ago I examined 250 Indian +boys and found two color blind, a very low percentage when compared +with the whites. Among the Indian girls I did not find any. When we +know that only two females in every 1,000 among whites are color +blind, it is not surprising that I did not find any examples among the +Indian girls. + +The usual tests for color blindness are the matching of wools; the +common error the color blind falls into is matching a bright scarlet +with a green. On one occasion, a color blind gentleman found fault +with his wife for wearing, as he thought, a bright scarlet dress, when +in point of fact she was wearing a bright green. Another color blind +who was very fond of drawing, once painted a red tree in a landscape +without being aware that he had done so. + +Among the whites it affects all classes. It is found as relatively +common among the intelligent as the illiterate, and unfortunately, up +to the present, we have not discovered any remedy for this defect. + +Without quoting many instances where a color blind man was responsible +for accidents at sea, I must quote a case where an officer on the +watch issued an order to "port" his vessel, which, if his order had +been carried out, would have caused a collision, and a probable +serious loss of life. + +The letter was written by Capt. Coburn, and is to be found in the +_Mercantile Marine Reporter_, vol. xiv. + +"The steamer Neera was on a voyage from Liverpool to Alexandria. One +night, shortly after passing Gibraltar, at about 10.30 p.m., I went on +the bridge, which was then in charge of the third officer, a man of +about forty-five years of age, and who up to that time I had supposed +to be a trustworthy officer, and competent in every way. I walked up +and down the bridge until about 11 p.m., when the third officer and I +almost simultaneously saw a light at about two points on the starboard +bow. I at once saw it was a green light, and knew that no action was +called for. To my surprise, the third officer called out to the man at +the wheel, 'port,' which he was about to do, when I countermanded the +order, and told him to steady his helm, which he did, and we passed +the other steamer safely about half a mile apart. I at once asked the +third officer why he had ported his helm to a green light on the +starboard bow, but he insisted it was a red light which he had first +seen. I tried him repeatedly after this, and although he sometimes +gave a correct description of the color of the light, he was as often +incorrect, and it was evidently all guesswork. On my return, I applied +to have him removed from the ship, as he was, in my opinion, quite +unfit to have charge of the deck at night, and this application was +granted. After this occurrence I always, when taking a strange officer +to sea, remained on the bridge with him at night until I had tested +his ability to distinguish colors. I cannot imagine anything more +dangerous or more likely to lead to fatal accidents than a color blind +man on a steamer's bridge." + +A similar experience is thus related by Capt. Heasley, of Liverpool: +"After passing through the Straits of Gibraltar, the second officer, +who had charge of the deck, gave the order to 'port,' much to my +astonishment, for the lights to be seen about a point on the starboard +bow were a masthead and green light, but he maintained that it was a +masthead and red, and not until both ships were nearly abreast would +he acknowledge his mistake. I may add that during the rest of the +voyage I never saw him making the same mistake. As a practical seaman +I consider a great many accidents at sea arise from color blindness." + +Dr. Farquharson has brought this subject before the House of Commons +in England and measures are being taken which will insure to the +traveling public immunity from accidents at sea. I need not mention +that the majority of railways of our country have a system of +examinations which prevents a color blind entering their service. + +Dr. Wilson makes the suggestion that he noticed a singular expression +in the eyes of certain of the color blind difficult to describe. "In +some it amounted to a startled expression, as if they were alarmed; in +others, to an eager, aimless glance, as if seeking to perceive +something but unable to find it; and in certain others to an almost +vacant stare, as if their eyes were fixed upon objects beyond the +limit of vision. The expression referred to, which is not at all times +equally pronounced, never altogether leaves the eyes which it seems to +characterize." + +Dr. B. Joy Jeffries, of Boston, has recently written an article on +this same topic, but unfortunately I have not his pamphlet at hand to +quote his views on this subject. + +In this lecture I have shown that the normal eye is far sighted. The +mammalia have this kind of an eye; the Indian the same. The white man +is fast becoming near sighted. The civilized Indian is also showing +the effects of continuous near work; and now the question arises. What +are we to do to prevent further deterioration of vision? The fault +lies at our own doors. Let us try to correct these now existing evils, +so that future generations will, instead of censuring us, thank us for +our wisdom. + +To aid in a feeble way for the protection of posterity I have +formulated ten rules on the preservation of vision: + +(1) Do not allow light to fall upon the face of a sleeping infant. + +(2) Do not allow babies to gaze at a bright light. + +(3) Do not send children to school before the age of ten. + +(4) Do not allow children to keep their eyes too long on a near +object, at any one time. + +(5) Do not allow them to study much by artificial light. + +(6) Do not allow them to use books with small type. + +(7) Do not allow them to read in a railway carriage. + +(8) Do not allow boys to smoke tobacco, especially cigarettes. + +(9) Do not necessarily ascribe headaches to indigestion. The eyes may +be the exciting cause. + +(10) Do not allow the itinerant spectacle vender to prescribe glasses. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE WATER MOLECULE.[1] + +[Footnote 1: Translated from the _Pharmaceutische Centralhalle_, by +A.G. Vogeler.--_Western Druggist_.] + +By A. GANSWINDT. + + +"Water consists of one atom of oxygen and two atoms of hydrogen." This +proposition will not be disputed in the least by the author; still, it +may be profitable to indulge in a few stereo-chemic speculations as to +the nature of the water molecule and to draw the inevitable +conclusions. + +From the time of the discovery, some 110 years ago, that water is a +compound body, made up of oxygen and hydrogen, the notion prevailed up +to within a quarter of a century that it was composed of even +equivalents of the elements named, and all but the youngest students +of chemistry well remember how its formula was written HO, the atomic +weight of oxygen being expressed by 8, making the molecular weight of +water (H=1 + O=8) 9. But the vapor density of water, referred to +air, is 0.635, and this number multiplied by the constant 28.87, gives +18 as the molecular weight of water, or exactly twice that accepted by +chemists. This discrepancy led to closer observations, and it was +eventually found that in decomposing water, by whatever method +(excepting only electrolysis), not more than the eighteenth part in +hydrogen of the water decomposed was ever obtained, or, in other +words, only just one-half the weight deducible from the formula HO = +9. The conclusion was irresistible that in a water molecule two atoms +of hydrogen must be assumed, and, as a natural sequence, followed the +doubling of the molecular weight of water to 18, represented by the +modern formula H_{2}O. + +Both the theory and the practice of substitution enable us to further +prove the presence of two hydrogen atoms in a water molecule. +Decomposing water by sodium, only one-half of the hydrogen contained +is eliminated, the other half, together with all of the oxygen, +uniting with the metal to form sodium hydroxide, H_{2}O + Na = H + +NaHO. Doubling the amount of sodium does not alter the result, for +decomposition according to the equation H_{2}O + 2Na = H_{2} + Na_{2}O +never happens. Introducing the ethyl group into the water molecule and +reacting under appropriate conditions with ethyl iodide upon water, +the ethyl group displaces one atom of hydrogen, and, uniting with the +hydroxyl residue, forms ethyl alcohol, thus: H_{2}O + C_{2}H_{5}I = +C_{2}H_{5}OH + HI. Halogens do not act directly on water, hence we may +not properly speak of halogen substitution products. By the action, +however, of phosphorus haloids on water an analogous splitting of the +water molecule is again observed, one-half of the hydrogen uniting +with the halogen to form an acid, the hydroxyl residue then forming a +phosphorus compound, thus: PCl_{3} + 3H_{2}O = 3HCl + P(OH)_{3}. + +Now these examples, which might readily be multiplied, prove not only +the presence of _two_ hydrogen atoms in the water molecule, but they +further demonstrate that these two atoms _differ from each other_ in +respect to their form of combination and power of substitution. The +two hydrogen atoms are certainly not of equal value, whence it follows +that the accepted formula for water: + + H + > O + H + +or as preferred by some: H-O-H, is not in conformity with established +facts. Expressed as here shown, both hydrogen atoms are assigned equal +values, when in fact only _one of the atoms is united to oxygen in +form of hydroxyl_, while the second is loosely attached to the +univalent hydroxyl group. Viewed in this light, water then is +decomposed according to the equation: H_{2}O = H + (OH), never in this +manner: H_{2}O = 2H + O. Hence, water must be considered as a +combination of one hydrogen atom with one molecule of hydroxyl, +expressed by the formula H(OH), and it is this atom of hydrogen _not_ +united to oxygen which is eliminated in the generation of oxygen or +substituted by metals and alkyl groups. The hydrogen in the hydroxyl +group cannot be substituted, excepting it be the entire group as such; +this is proved by the action of the halogens, in their phosphorus +compounds, upon water, when the halogen takes the place of the +hydroxyl group, but never that of the hydrogen. + +Now as to some logical deductions from the foregoing considerations. +Hydrogen is by many looked upon as a true metal. This theory cannot be +directly proved by the above, but it is certainly greatly strengthened +thereby. To compare. Hydrogen is a powerful reducing agent; it is +similarly affected by the halogens, the hydroxyl group, the acid +radicals, oxygen and sulphur; hydrogen and members of the univalent +alkali metals group are readily interchangeable; it forms superoxides +analogous to the metals; its analogy to the alkali metals as exhibited +in the following: + + H H(OH) HCl HNO_{3} H_{2}SO_{4} H_{2}S H_{2}O_{2} + K K(OH) KCl KNO_{3} Na_{2}SO_{4} Na_{2}S K_{2}O + +But if we consider hydrogen as a gasiform metal, we naturally arrive +at the conclusion that _water is the hydroxide of this gasiform +metal_, that is _hydrogen hydroxide_, while gaseous hydrochloric and +hydrosulphuric acids would be looked upon as respectively the chloride +and the sulphide of the metal hydrogen. This would then lead to +curious conclusions concerning the hydroxyl group. This group would, +by this theory, become an oxygenated metal radical similar to the +hypothetical bismuthyl and uranyl, and yet one in which the metallic +character has disappeared as completely as in the ferrocyanic group. + +An entirely new light is shed by this view upon the composition of +hydrogen peroxide, which would be looked at as two free hydroxyl +groups joined together thus: (OH)--(OH), analogous to our di-ethyl, +diphenyl, dicyanogen, etc. Considered as dihydroxyl, it would explain +the instability of this compound. + +The ethers proper would also be placed in a new light by this new +conception of the constitution of the water molecule. The hydrogen in +the hydroxyl group, as is known, may be substituted by an alkyl group. +For instance, an alkyl may be substituted for the hydroxyl hydrogen in +an alcohol molecule, when an ether results. According to the new +theory this ether will no longer be considered as two alkyl groups +connected by an oxygen atom, but as a compound built up on the type of +water by the union of an alkyl group and an alkoxyl group. Thus +ethylic ether would not be represented by + + C_{2}H_{5} + > O, + C_{2}H_{5} + +as heretofore, but by the formula C_{2}H_{5}(OC_{2}H_{5}), which is +ethyl-ethoxol. Acetone would admit of a similar explanation. + +Finally the assumption of dissimilarity in character of the hydrogen +atoms in the water molecule possibly may lead to the discovery of a +number of unlocked for isomerides. + +Thus, by appropriate methods, it ought to become possible to introduce +the alkyl groups solely into the hydroxyl group (instead of into the +place of the loosely attached H-atom). In that case chemists might +arrive at an isomeride of methyl alcohol of the formula H.(OCH_{3}), +or at methoxyl hydride, a compound not alcoholic in character, or at a +nitroxyl hydride, H(ONO_{2}), not of an acidic nature. Oxychlorides +would be classed with this latter category, that is, they would be +looked on as water in which the free hydrogen atom has been +substituted by the metal, and the hydrogen atom of the hydroxyl by +chlorine. This example, indeed, furnishes a most characteristic +illustration of our theory. In the case just now assumed we arrive at +the oxychloride; when, however, the metal and chlorine change places +in the water molecule, the isomeric hypochlorous salts are the result. +It is true that such cases of isomerism are as yet unknown, but we do +know that certain metals, in our present state of knowledge, yield +oxychlorides only, while others only form hypochlorous salts. This +condition also explains why hypochlorites still possesses the +bleaching power of chlorine, while the same is not true of +oxychlorides. However, it seems needless to multiply examples in +further illustration of the theory. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE FORMATION OF STARCH IN LEAVES. + + +In 1750, Bonnet, a Genevese naturalist, remarked that leaves immersed +in water became covered in the sun with small bubbles of a gas that he +compared to small pearls. In 1772, Priestley, after discovering that +the sojourn of animals in a confined atmosphere renders it +irrespirable, investigated the influence of plants placed in the same +conditions, and he relates, in these words, the discovery that he made +on the subject: + +"I put a sprig of mint in a quantity of air in which a candle had +ceased to burn, and I found that, ten days later, another candle was +able to burn therein perfectly well." It is to him, therefore, that is +due the honor of having ascertained that plants exert an action upon +the atmosphere contrary to that exerted by animals. Priestley, +however, was not completely master of his fine experiment; he was +ignorant of the fact, notably, that the oxygen is disengaged by plants +only as long as they are under the influence of light. + +This important discovery is due to Ingenhouse. Finally, it was +Sennebier who showed that oxygen is obtained from leaves only when +carbonic acid has been introduced into the atmosphere where they +remain. Later on, T. De Saussure and Boussingault inquired into the +conditions most favorable to assimilation. Boussingault demonstrated, +in addition, that the volume of carbonic acid absorbed was equal to +that of the oxygen emitted. Now we know, through a common chemical +experiment, that carbonic acid contains its own volume of oxygen. It +was supposed, then, that carbonic acid was decomposed by sunlight into +carbon and oxygen. Things, however, do not proceed so simply. In fact, +it is certain that, before the complete decomposition into carbon and +oxygen, there comes a moment in which there is oxygen on the one hand +and oxide of carbon (CO_{2} = O + CO) on the other. + +The decomposition, having reached this point, can go no further, for +the oxide of carbon is indecomposable by leaves, as the following +experiment proves. + +If we put phosphorus and some leaves into an inert gas, such as +hydrogen, we in the first place observe the formation of the white +fumes of phosphoric acid due to the oxidation of the phosphorus by the +oxygen contained in the leaves. This phosphoric acid dissolves in the +water of the test glass and the latter becomes transparent again. If, +now, we introduce some oxide of carbon, we remark in the sun no +formation of phosphoric acid, and this proves that there is no +emission of oxygen. + +[Illustration: DEMONSTRATION THAT STARCH IS FORMED IN LEAVES ONLY AT +THE POINTS TOUCHED BY LIGHT.] + +This latter hypothesis of the decomposition of carbonic acid into a +half volume of vapor of carbon and one volume of oxygen being +rejected, the idea occurred to consider the carbonic acid in a +hydrated state and to write it CO_{2}HO. + +In this case, we should have by the action of chlorophyl: 2CO_{2}HO +(carbonic acid) = 4O (oxygen) + C_{2}H_{2}O_{2} (methylic aldehyde). + +This aldehyde is a body that can be polymerized, that is to say, is +capable of combining with itself a certain number of times to form +complexer bodies, especially glucose. This formation of a sugar by +means of methylic aldehyde is not a simple hypothesis, since, on the +one hand, Mr. Loew has executed it by starting from methylic aldehyde, +and, on the other, we find this glucose in leaves by using Fehling's +solution. + +The glucose formed, it is admissible that a new polymerization with +elimination of water produces starch. The latter, in fact, through the +action of an acid, is capable of regenerating glucose. + +It may, therefore, be supposed that the decomposition of carbonic acid +by leaves brings about the formation of starch through the following +transformations: (1) The decomposition of the carbonic acid with +emission of oxygen and production of methylic aldehyde; (2) +polymerization of methylic aldehyde and formation of glucose; (3) +combination of several molecules of glucose with elimination of water; +formation of starch. + +Starch is thus the first stable product of chlorophylian activity. Is +there, in fact, starch in leaves? It is easy to reveal its presence by +the blue coloration that it assumes in contact with iodine in a leaf +bleached by boiling alcohol. + +Mr. Deherain has devised a nice method of demonstrating that this +formation of starch, and consequently the decomposition of carbonic +acid, can occur only under the influence of sunlight. He pointed it +out to us in his course of lectures at the School of Grignon, and +asked us to repeat the experiment. We succeeded, and now make the +_modus operandi_ known to our readers. + +The leaf that gave the best result was that of the _Aristolochia +Sipho_. The leaf, adherent to the plant, is entirely inclosed between +two pieces of perfectly opaque black paper. That which corresponds to +the upper surface of the limb bears cut-out characters, which are here +the initials of Mr. Deherain. The two screens are fastened to the leaf +by means of a mucilage of gum arabic that will easily cede to the +action of warm water at the end of the experiment. + +The exposure is made in the morning, before sunrise. At this moment, +the leaf contains no starch; that which was formed during the +preceding day has emigrated during the night toward the interior of +the plant. + +After a few hours of a good insolation, the leaf is picked off. Then +the gum which holds the papers together is dissolved by immersion in +warm water. The decolorizing is easily effected through boiling +alcohol, which dissolves the chlorophyl and leaves the leaf slightly +yellowish and perfectly translucent. + +There is nothing more to do then but dip the leaf in tincture of +iodine. If the insolation has been good, and if the screens have been +well gummed so that no penumbra has been produced upon the edge of the +letters, a perfectly sharp image will be instantly obtained. The +excess of iodine is removed by washing with alcohol and water, and the +leaf is then dried and preserved between the leaves of a book. + +It is well before decolorizing the leaf to immerse it in a solution of +potassa; the chlorophylian starch then swells and success is rendered +easier.--_Lartigue and Malpeaux, in La Nature_. + + * * * * * + + + + +STANDARDS AND METHODS FOR THE POLARIMETRIC ESTIMATION OF SUGARS.[1] + +[Footnote 1: Report to the United States Internal Revenue Department +by C.A. Crampton, Chemist of U.S. Internal Revenue; H.W. Wiley, Chief +Chemist of U.S. Department of Agriculture; and O.H. Tittmann, +Assistant in Charge of Weights and Measures, U.S. Coast and Geodetic +Survey.] + + +Section 1, paragraph 231, of the act entitled "An act to reduce +revenue and equalize duties on imports and for other purposes," +approved October 1, 1890, provides: + +"231. That on and after July 1, eighteen hundred and ninety-one, and +until July 1, nineteen hundred and five, there shall be paid, from any +moneys in the Treasury not otherwise appropriated, under the +provisions of section three thousand six hundred and eighty-nine of +the Revised Statutes, to the producer of sugar testing not less than +ninety degrees by the polariscope, from beets, sorghum, or sugar cane +grown within the United States, or from maple sap produced within the +United States, a bounty of two cents per pound; and upon such sugar +testing less than ninety degrees by the polariscope, and not less than +eighty degrees, a bounty of one and three-fourth cents per pound, +under such rules and regulations as the Commissioner of Internal +Revenue, with the approval of the Secretary of the Treasury, shall +prescribe." + +It is the opinion of this Commission that the expression "testing ... +degrees by the polariscope," used with reference to sugar in the act, +is to be considered as meaning the percentage of pure sucrose the +sugar contains, as ascertained by polarimetric estimation. + +It is evident that a high degree of accuracy is necessary in the +examination of sugars by the Bureau of Internal Revenue, under the +provisions of this act, inasmuch as the difference of one-tenth of one +per cent. in the amount of sucrose contained in a sugar may, if it is +on the border line of 80°, decide whether the producer is entitled to +a bounty of 1¾ cents per pound (an amount nearly equivalent to the +market value of such sugar) or to no bounty whatever. It is desirable, +therefore, that the highest possible degree of accuracy should be +secured in the work, for while many sugars will doubtless vary far +enough from either of the two standard percentages fixed upon in the +act, viz., 80° and 90°, to admit of a wide margin of error without +material consequences, yet a considerable proportion will approximate +to them so closely that a difference of a few tenths of a degree in +the polarization will change the classification of the sugar. + +A very high degree of accuracy may be obtained in the optical +estimation of sugars, if the proper conditions are observed. Such +conditions are (1) accurately graded and adjusted instruments, +weights, flasks, tubes, etc.; (2) skilled and practiced observers; (3) +a proper arrangement of the laboratories in which the work is +performed; and (4) a close adherence to the most approved methods of +manipulation. + +On the other hand, if due observance is not paid to these conditions, +the sources of error are numerous, and inaccurate results inevitable. + +We will endeavor to point out in this report the best means of meeting +the proper conditions for obtaining the highest degree of accuracy +consistent with fairly rapid work. It would be manifestly impossible +to observe so great a refinement of accuracy in this work as would be +employed in exact scientific research. + +This would be unnecessary for the end in view, and impossible on +account of the amount of time that would be required. + + +I.--INSTRUMENTS AND APPARATUS. + +It is of the greatest importance that the polariscopes and all +apparatus used in the work shall be carefully and accurately adjusted +and graduated, and upon a single and uniform system of standardization. +Recent investigations of the polarimetric work done in the customs +branch of the Treasury Department have shown that a very considerable +part of the want of agreement in the results obtained at the different +ports was due to a lack of uniformity in the standardization of the +instruments and apparatus. + +_(a.) The Polariscope._--There are many different forms of this +instrument used. Some are adapted for use with ordinary white light, +and some with monochromatic light, such as sodium ray. They are +graduated and adjusted upon various standards, all more or less +arbitrary. Some, for example, have their scales based upon the +displacement of the polarized ray produced by a quartz plate of a +certain thickness; others upon the displacement produced by an +arbitrary quantity of pure sucrose, dissolved and made up to a certain +volume and polarized in a certain definite length of column. It would +be very desirable to have an absolute standard set for polariscopic +measurements, to which all instruments could be referred, and in the +terms of which all such work could be stated. This commission has +information that an investigation is now in progress under the +direction of the German imperial government, having for its end and +purpose the determination of such data as will serve for the +establishment of an absolute standard. When this is accomplished it +can easily be made a matter of international agreement, and all future +forms of instruments be based upon it. This commission would suggest +that the attention of the proper authorities should be called to the +desirability of official action by this government with a view to +co-operation with other countries for the adoption of international +standards for polarimetric work. Until this is done, however, it will +be necessary for the Internal Revenue Bureau to adopt, provisionally, +one of the best existing forms of polariscope, and by carefully +defining the scale of this instrument, establish a basis for its +polarimetric work which will be a close approximation to an absolute +standard, and upon which it can rely in case of any dispute arising as +to the results obtained by the officers of the bureau. + +For the instrument to be provisionally adopted by the Internal Revenue +Bureau, this commission would recommend the "half shadow" instrument +made by Franz Schmidt & Haensch, Berlin. This instrument is adapted +for use with white light illumination, from coal oil or gas lamps. It +is convenient and easy to read, requiring no delicate discrimination +of colors by the observer, and can be used even by a person who is +color blind. + +This form of instrument is adjusted to the Ventzke scale, which, for +the purposes of this report, is defined to be such that 1° of the +scale is the one hundredth part of the rotation produced in the plane +of polarization of white light in a column 200 mm. long by a standard +solution of chemically pure sucrose at 17.5° C. The standard solution +of sucrose in distilled water being such as to contain, at 17.5° C. in +100 c.c., 26.048 grms. of sucrose. + +In this definition the weights and volumes are to be considered as +absolute, all weighings being referred to a vacuum. + +The definition should properly be supplemented with a statement of the +equivalent circular rotation in degrees, minutes, and seconds that +would be produced by the standard solution of sugar used to read 100° +on the scale. This constant is now a matter of investigation, and it +is thought best not to give any of the hitherto accepted values. When +this is established, it is recommended that it be incorporated in a +revision of the regulations of the internal revenue relative to sugar, +in order to make still more definite and exact the official definition +of the Ventzke scale. + +The instruments should be adjusted by means of control quartz plates, +three different plates being used for complete adjustment, one reading +approximately 100° on the scale, one 90°, and one 80°. + +These control quartz plates should have their exact values ascertained +in terms of the Ventzke scale by the office of weights and measures by +comparison with the standard quartz plates in possession of that +office, in strict accordance with the foregoing definition, and should +also be accompanied by tables giving their values for temperatures +from 10° to 35°. + +_(b.) Weights._--The weights used should be of solid brass, and should +be standardized by the office of weights and measures. + +_(c.) Flask._--The flasks used should be of such a capacity as to +contain at 17.5° C. 100.06 cubic centimeters, when filled in such a +manner that the lowest point of the meniscus of the surface of the +liquid just touches the graduation mark. The flasks will be +standardized to contain this volume in order that the results shall +conform to the scale recommended for adoption without numerical +reduction of the weighings to vacuo. They should be calibrated by the +office of weights and measures. + +_(d.) Tubes._--The tubes used should be of brass or glass, 200 and 100 +millimeters in length, and should be measured by the office of weights +and measures. + +_(e.) Balances._--The balances used should be sensitive to at least +one milligramme. + + +II.--SKILLED OBSERVERS. + +The commission recommends that the work of polarizing sugars be placed +in the hands of chemists, or at least of persons who are familiar with +the use of the polariscope and have some knowledge of the theory of +its construction and of chemical manipulations. To this end we would +suggest that applicants for positions where such work is to be done +should be obliged to undergo a competitive examination in order to +test their fitness for the work that is to be required of them. + + +III.--ARRANGEMENT OF LABORATORIES. + +The arrangement of the rooms in which polarizations are performed has +an important bearing upon the accuracy of the results obtained. + +Polariscopic observations are made more readily and accurately if the +eye of the observer is screened from diffused light; therefore, a +partial darkening of the room, which may be accomplished by means of +curtains or hangings, is an advantage. On the other hand, the +temperature at which the observation is made has a very considerable +influence upon the results obtained, so that the arrangements for +darkening the room must not be such as will interfere with its proper +ventilation. Otherwise the heat from the lamps used, if confined +within a small room, will cause considerable variations in the +temperature of the room from time to time. + +The proper conditions will best be met, in our opinion, by placing the +lamps either in a separate room from that in which the instruments +are, and perforating the wall or partition between the two rooms for +the light to reach the end of the instruments, or in a ventilated hood +with the walls perforated in a like manner. By lining the wall or +partition on both sides with asbestos paper, and inserting a plate of +plane glass in the aperture through which the light passes, the +increase of temperature from the radiation of the lamp will be still +further avoided. With the lamps separated from the instruments in this +manner, the space in which the instruments are contained is readily +darkened without much danger of its temperature being unduly raised. + +Some light, of course, is necessary for reading the scales, and if +artificial light is employed for this purpose, the sources chosen +should be such that as little heat as possible will be generated by +them. Small incandescent electric lights are best for such purpose. +Refinements of this kind cannot always be used, of course, but the +prime requisite with reference to the avoidance of temperature errors +is that all operations--filling the flasks and tubes, reading the +solutions, controlling the instrument with standard quartz plates, +etc.--should be done at one and the same temperature, and that this +temperature be a constant one, that is, not varying greatly at +different hours of the day. For example, the room should not be +allowed to become cold at night, so that it is at low temperature in +the morning when work is begun, and then rapidly heated up during the +day. The polariscope should not be exposed to the direct rays of the +sun during part of the day, and should not be near artificial sources +of heat, such as steam boilers, furnaces, flues, etc. + +The tables upon which the instruments stand should be level. + + +IV.--METHODS OF MANIPULATION. + +The methods of manipulation used in the polarization of sugar are of +prime importance. They consist in weighing out the sugar, dissolving +it, clarifying the solution, making it up to standard volume, +filtering, filling the observation tube, regulating the illumination, +and making the polariscopic reading. + +The proper conduct of these processes, in connection with the use of +accurately graduated apparatus, is the only surety against the +numerous sources of error which may be encountered. Different sugars +require different treatment in clarification, and much must +necessarily be left to the judgment and experience of the operator. + +The following directions are based upon various official procedures +such as the one used in the United States custom houses, the method +prescribed by the German government, etc. They embody also the result +of recent research in regard to sources of error in polarimetric +estimation of sugar: + + +DIRECTIONS FOR THE POLARIZATION OF SUGAR. + +1.--_Description of Instrument and Manner of Using._ + +The instrument employed is known as the half shadow apparatus of +Schmidt and Haensch. It is shown in the following cut. + +[Illustration] + +The tube N contains the illuminating system of lenses and is placed +next to the lamp; the polarizing prism is at O, and the analyzing +prism at H. The quartz wedge compensating system is contained in the +portions of the tube marked F, E, G, and is controlled by the milled +head M. The tube J carries a small telescope, through which the field +of the instrument is viewed, and just above is the reading tube K, +which is provided with a mirror and magnifying lens for reading the +scale. + +The tube containing the sugar solution is shown in position in the +trough between the two ends of the instrument. In using the instrument +the lamp is placed at a distance of at least 200 mm. from the end; the +observer seats himself at the opposite end in such a manner as to +bring his eye in line with the tube J. The telescope is moved in or +out until the proper focus is secured, so as to give a clearly defined +image, when the field of the instrument will appear as a round, +luminous disk, divided into two halves by a vertical line passing +through the center, and darker on one half of the disk than on the +other. If the observer, still looking through the telescope, will now +grasp the milled head M and rotate it, first one way and then the +other, he will find that the appearance of the field changes, and at a +certain point the dark half becomes light, and the light half dark. By +rotating the milled head delicately backward and forward over this +point he will be able to find the exact position of the quartz wedge +operated by it, in which the field is neutral, or of the same +intensity of light on both halves. + +[Illustration] + +The three different appearances presented by the field are best shown +in the above diagram. With the milled head set at the point which +gives the appearance of the middle disk as shown, the eye of the +observer is raised to the reading tube, K, and the position of the +scale is noted. It will be seen that the scale proper is attached to +the quartz wedge, which is moved by the milled head, and attached to +the other quartz wedge is a small scale called a vernier which is +fixed, and which serves for the exact determination of the movable +scale with reference to it. On each side of the zero line of the +vernier a space corresponding to nine divisions of the movable scale +is divided into ten equal parts. By this device the fractional part of +a degree indicated by the position of the zero line is ascertained in +tenths; it is only necessary to count from zero, until a line is found +which makes a continuous line with one on the movable scale. + +With the neutral field as indicated above, the zero of the movable +scale should correspond closely with the zero of the vernier unless +the zero point is out of adjustment. + +If the observer desires to secure an exact adjustment of the zero of +the scale, or in any case if the latter deviates more than one-half of +a degree, the zero lines are made to coincide by moving the milled +head and securing a neutral field at this point by means of the small +key which comes with the instrument, and which fits into a nipple on +the left hand side of F, the fixed quartz wedge of the compensating +system. This nipple must not be confounded with a similar nipple on +the right hand side of the analyzing prism, H, which it fits as well, +but which must never be touched, as the adjustment of the instrument +would be seriously disturbed by moving it. With the key on the proper +nipple it is turned one way or the other until the field is neutral. +Unless the deviation of the zero be greater than 0.5°, it will not be +necessary to use the key, but only to note the amount of the +deviation, and for this purpose the observer must not be content with +a single setting, but must perform the operation five or six times, +and take the mean of these different readings. If one or more of the +readings show a deviation of more than 0.3° from the general average, +they should be rejected as incorrect. Between each observation the eye +should be allowed 10 to 20 seconds of rest. + +The "setting" of the zero having been performed as above, the +determination of the accurate adjustment of the instrument by means of +the "control" quartz plates is proceeded with. Three such plates will +be furnished with each polariscope, which have "sugar values" +respectively approximating 80°, 90°, and 100°. These values may vary +with the temperature, and tables are furnished with them which give +their exact value at different temperatures, from 10° to 35° C. + +One of these plates is placed in the instrument, and the field +observed; it will be seen that the uniform appearance of the field is +changed. The milled head is turned to the right until the exact point +of neutrality is re-established, just as described above in setting +the zero. The scale is read, the observation repeated, the reading +taken again, and so on until five or six readings have been made. The +average is taken, readings being rejected which show a divergence of +more than 0.3, and the result corrected for the deviation of the zero +point, if any was found, the deviation being added if it was to the +left, and subtracted if to the right. If the adjustment of the +instrument be correct, the result should be the value of the control +plate used, as ascertained from the table, for the temperature of 20°. +Each of the three plates is read in the instrument in this way. A +variation of 0.3 from the established values may be allowed for errors +of observation, temperature, etc., but in the hands of a careful +observer a deviation greater than this with one of the three plates, +after a careful setting of the zero, shows that the instrument is not +accurately adjusted. + +The complete verification of the accurate adjustment of the +polariscope by means of three control plates, as given above, should +be employed whenever it is set up for the first time by the officer +using it, whenever it has sustained any serious shock or injury, and +whenever it has been transported from one place to another. It should +also be done at least once a week while the instrument is in active +use. + +After the complete verification has been performed as described, +further checking of the instrument is done by means of one control +plate alone, the one approximating 90°, and the setting of the zero +point is dispensed with, the indication of the scale for sugar +solutions being corrected by the amount of deviation shown in the +reading of the 90° control plate from its established value as +ascertained from the table, at the temperature of the room. + +For example: A sugar solution polarizes 80.5; the control plate just +before had given a polarization of 91.4, the temperature of the room +during both observations being 25° C. According to the table the value +of the control plate at 25° C. is 91.7; the reading is, therefore, 0.3 +too low, and 0.3 is added to the reading of the sugar solution, making +the corrected result 80.8. The temperature of the room should be +ascertained from a standardized thermometer placed close to the +instrument and in such a position as to be subject to the same +conditions. + + +PREPARATION OF THE SUGAR SOLUTION FOR POLARIZATION. + +If the sample is not entirely uniform it must be thoroughly mixed +before weighing out, after all the lumps are broken up, best with a +mortar and pestle. Then 26.048 grammes are weighed out on the balance +in the tared German silver dish furnished for this purpose. Care must +be taken that the operations of mixing and weighing out are not unduly +prolonged, otherwise the sample may easily suffer considerable loss of +moisture, especially in a warm room. The portion of sugar weighed out +is washed by means of a jet from a wash bottle into a 100 c.c. flask, +the dish being well rinsed three or four times and the rinsings added +to the contents of the flask. The water used must be either distilled +water or clear water which has been found to have no optical activity. +After the dish has been thoroughly rinsed, enough water is added to +bring the contents of the flask to about 80 c.c. and it is gently +rotated until all the sugar has dissolved. The flask should be held by +the neck with the thumb and finger, and the bulb not handled during +this operation. Care must be taken that no particle of the sugar or +solution is lost. To determine if all the sugar is dissolved, the +flask is held above the level of the eye, in which position any +undissolved crystals can be easily seen at the bottom. The character +of the solution is now observed. If it be colorless or of a very light +straw color, and not opalescent, so that it will give a clear +transparent liquid on filtration through paper, the volume is made up +directly with water to the 100 c.c. mark on the flask. Most sugar +solutions, however, will require the addition of a clarifying or +decolorizing agent in order to render them sufficiently clear and +colorless to polarize. In such case, before making up to the mark, a +saturated solution of subacetate of lead is added. + +The quantity of this agent required will vary according to the quality +of the sugar; for sugar which has been grained in the strike pan and +washed in the centrifugals, from 3 to 15 drops will be required; for +sugar grained in the strike pan but not well washed in the +centrifugals, that is, sugar intended for refining purposes, from 15 +to 30 drops will be required; for sugar not grained in the strike pan, +that is, "wagon" or "string sugar," "second sugar," etc., from 1 to 3 +c.c. will be required. After adding the solution of subacetate of lead +the flask must be gently shaken, so as to mix it with the sugar +solution. If the proper amount has been added, the precipitate will +usually subside rapidly, but if not, the operator may judge of the +completeness of the precipitation by holding the flask above the level +of the eye and allowing an additional drop of subacetate of lead to +flow down the side of the flask into the solution; if this drop leaves +a clear track along the glass through the solution it indicates that +the precipitation is complete; if, on the other hand, all traces of +the drop are lost on entering the solution, it indicates that an +additional small quantity of the subacetate of lead is required. The +operator must learn by experience the point where the addition should +cease; a decided excess of subacetate of lead solution should never be +used. + +The use of subacetate of lead should, in all cases, be followed by the +addition of "alumina cream" (aluminic hydrate suspended in water)[2] +in about double the volume of the subacetate solution used, for the +purpose of completing the clarification, precipitating excess of lead, +and facilitating filtration. In many cases of high grade sugars, +especially beet sugars, the use of alumina alone will be sufficient +for clarification without the previous addition of subacetate of lead. + + [Footnote 2: Prepared as follows: Shake up powdered commercial + alum with water at ordinary temperature until a saturated + solution is obtained. Set aside a little of the solution, and to + the residue add ammonia, little by little, stirring between + additions, until the mixture is alkaline to litmus paper. Then + drop in additions of the portion left aside, until the mixture + is just acid to litmus paper. By this procedure a cream of + aluminum hydroxide is obtained suspended in a solution of + ammonium sulphate, the presence of which is not at all + detrimental for sugar work when added after subacetate of lead, + the ammonium sulphate precipitating whatever excess of lead may + be present.] + +The solution is now made up to the mark by the addition of distilled +water in the following manner. The flask, grasped by the neck between +the thumb and finger, is held before the operator in an upright +position, so that the mark is at the level of the eye, and distilled +water is added drop by drop from a siphon bottle or wash bottle, until +the lowest point of the curve or meniscus formed by the surface of the +liquid just touches the mark. If bubbles hinder the operation, they +may be broken up by adding a single drop of ether, or a spray from an +ether atomizer, before making up to the mark. The mouth of the flask +is now tightly closed with the thumb, and the contents of the flask +are thoroughly mixed by turning and shaking. The entire solution is +now poured upon the filter, using for this purpose a funnel large +enough to contain all the 100 c.c. at once, and a watch glass is +placed over the funnel during filtration to prevent a concentration of +the solution by evaporation. + +The funnel and vessel used to receive the filtrate must be perfectly +dry. The first portion of the filtrate, about 20 to 30 c.c., should be +rejected entirely, as its concentration may be affected by a previous +hygroscopic moisture content of the filter paper. It may also be +necessary to return subsequent portions to the filter until the liquid +passes through perfectly clear. + +If a satisfactory clarification has not been obtained, the entire +operation must be repeated, since only with solutions that are +entirely clear and bright can accurate polarimetric observations be +made. + +When a sufficient quantity of the clear liquid has passed through the +filter, the 200 mm. observation tube is filled with it. The 100 mm. +tube should never be used except in rare cases, when notwithstanding +all the means used to effect the proper decolorization of the +solution, it is still too dark to polarize in the 200 mm. tube. In +such cases the shorter tube may be used, and its reading multiplied by +two. The zero deviation must then be determined and applied to the +product. This will give the reading which would have been obtained if +a 200 mm. tube could have been used, and it only remains to apply the +correction determined by the use of the control plate as previously +described. + +Example: + + Solution reads in 100 mm. tube 47.0 + Multiplied by 2 2.0 + ---- + Product 94.0 + Zero reads plus 0.3 0.3 + ---- + Solution would read in 200 mm. tube 93.7 + + Reading of control plate 90.4 + Sugar value of control plate 90.5 + ---- + Instrument too low by 0.1 + Add 0.1 to 93.7 + ---- + Correct polarization of solution 93.8 + +Before filling the tube it must either be thoroughly dried by pushing +a plug of filter paper through it, or it must be rinsed several times +with the solution itself. The cover glasses must also be clean and +dry, and without serious defects or scratches. Unnecessary warming of +the tube by the hand during filling should be avoided; it is closed at +one end with the screw cap and cover glass, and grasped by the other +end with the thumb and finger. The solution is poured into it until +its curved surface projects slightly above the opening, the air +bubbles allowed time to rise, and the cover glass pushed horizontally +over the end of the tube in such a manner that the excess of liquid is +carried over the side, leaving the cover glass exactly closing the +tube with no air bubbles beneath it, and with no portion of the liquid +upon its upper surface. If this result is not attained, the operation +must be repeated, the cover glass being rubbed clean and dry, and the +solution again brought up over the end by adding a few more drops. The +cover glass being in position, the tube is closed by screwing on the +cap. The greatest care must be observed in screwing down the caps that +they do not press too tightly upon the cover glasses; by such pressure +the glasses themselves may become optically active, and cause +erroneous readings when placed in the instrument. It should therefore +be ascertained that the rubber washers are in position over the cover +glasses, and the caps should be screwed on lightly. It must also be +remembered that a cover glass, once compressed, may part with its +acquired optical activity very slowly, and some time must be allowed +to elapse before it is used again. + +The polariscopic reading may now be taken, an observation on the 90° +control plate having been made immediately before as previously +described. Then without altering the position of the instrument +relative to the light, or changing the character of the latter in any +way, the tube filled with the sugar solution is substituted for the +control plate. The telescope is adjusted, if necessary, so as to give +a sharply defined field, which must appear round and clear. (This +condition must be fulfilled before the observation is performed, as it +is essential to accuracy.) The milled head is turned until the neutral +point is found, and the reading is taken exactly as previously +described, the operation repeated five or six times, the average taken +with the rejection of aberrant readings, the average figure corrected +for the deviation shown by the control observation from the sugar +value of the control plate at the temperature of observation as given +in the table, and the result taken as the polarization of the sugar. +When a series of successive polarizations is made under the same +conditions as regards temperature, position of the instrument with +relation to the high intensity, of the light, etc., the control +observation need not be made before each polarization, one such +observation being sufficient for the entire series. The control must +be repeated at least once an hour, however, and oftener when the +operator has reason to think that any of the factors indicated above +have been altered, for any such alteration of conditions may change +the zero point of the instrument. + +In the polarization of the quartz plates, as also in the polarization +of very white sugars, difficulty may be experienced in obtaining a +complete correspondence of both halves of the field. With a little +practice this may be overcome and the neutral point found, but when it +cannot, the ordinary telescope of the instrument may be replaced by +another, which is furnished with the polariscope and which carries a +yellow plate. This removes the difficulty and renders it possible, +even for one not well accustomed to the instrument, to set it at the +exact point of neutrality. + + +SUMMARIZED SOURCES OF ERROR. + +The following principal sources of error must be especially guarded +against: + +1. Drying out of sample during weighing. + +2. Excess of subacetate of lead solution in clarification. + +3. Incomplete mixing of solution after making up to mark. + +4. Imperfect clarification or filtration. + +5. Concentration of solution by evaporation during filtration. + +6. Undue compression of the cover glass. + +7. Alteration of the temperature of room, position of instrument, or +intensity of light while the observation or control observation is +being performed. + +8. Performances of polarization with a cloudy, dim, or not completely +round or sharply defined field. + +In closing this report the members of this commission hereby signify +their intention to promote uniformity and accuracy by adopting and +using the standards and general plan of procedure recommended in this +report in the polarimetric determinations over which, in their +respective branches of government work, they have control. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE GRAND FALLS OF LABRADOR. + + +Hamilton Inlet, or Ionektoke, as the Esquimaus call it, is the outlet +to the largest river on the Labrador Peninsula, and of great +importance to commerce, Rigolet, the headquarters of the Hudson Bay +Company in this region, being situated on its shores. This inlet is +the great waterway to Central Labrador, extending into the interior +for nearly 200 miles. + +This immense basin is undoubtedly of glacial origin, evidences of ice +erosion being plainly seen. It is divided into two general basins, +connected by the "narrows," a small strait, through which the water +rushes with frightful rapidity at each tide. Into the head of the +inlet flows the Hamilton, or Grand River, an exploration of which, +though attended with the greatest danger and privation, has enticed +many men to these barren shores. Perhaps the most successful +expedition thus far was that of Mr. Holme, an Englishman, who, in the +summer of 1888, went as far as Lake Waminikapon, where, by failure of +his provisions, he was obliged to turn back, leaving the main object +of the trip, the discovery of the Grand Falls, wholly unaccomplished. + +It has been left for Bowdoin College to accomplish the work left +undone by Mr. Holme, to do honor to herself and her country by not +only discovering, measuring, and photographing the falls, but making +known the general features of the inland plateau, the geological +structure of the continent, and the course of the river. + +On Sunday, July 26, a party of the Bowdoin expedition, consisting of +Messrs. Cary, Cole, Young, and Smith, equipped with two Rushton boats +and a complement of provisions and instruments, left the schooner at +the head of the inlet for a five weeks' trip into the interior, the +ultimate object being the discovery of the Grand Falls. The mouth of +the river, which is about one mile wide, is blockaded by immense sand +bars, which have been laid down gradually by the erosive power of the +river. These bars extend far out into Goose Bay, at the head of Lake +Melville, and it is impossible to approach the shores except in a +small boat. Twenty-five miles up the river are the first falls, a +descent of the water of twenty-five feet, forming a beautiful sight. +Here a cache of provisions was made, large enough to carry the party +back to the appointed meeting place at Northwest River. The carry +around the first falls is about one and a half miles in length, and +very difficult on account of the steep sides of the river. + +From the first falls to Gull Island Lake, forty miles above, the river +is alternately quick and dead water. Part of it is very heavy rapids, +over which it was necessary to track, and in some places to double the +crews. Each boat had a tow line of fifty feet, and in tracking the end +was taken ashore by one of the crew of two, while the boat was kept +off the bank by the other man with an oar. At the Horseshoe Rapids, +ten miles above Gull Island Lake, an accident happened which +threatened to put a stop to further progress of the expedition. While +tracking around a steep point in crossing these rapids the boat which +Messrs. Cary and Smith were tracking was overturned, dumping +barometer, shotgun, and ax into the river, together with nearly +one-half the total amount of provisions. In the swift water of the +rapids all these things were irrevocably lost, a very serious loss at +this stage in the expedition. On this day so great was the force of +the water that only one mile was made, and that only with the greatest +difficulty. + +Just above the mouth of the Nimpa River, which enters the Grand River +twenty-five miles above Gull Island Lake, a second cache of provisions +was made, holding enough to carry the party to their first cache at +the first falls. One of the boats was now found to be leaking badly, +and a stop was made to pitch the cracks and repair her, making +necessary the loss of a few hours. From Nimpa River to the Mouni +Rapids, at the entrance to Lake Waminikapon, the water was found to be +fairly smooth, and good progress was made. The change in the scenery, +too, is noticeable, becoming more magnificent and grand. The +mountains, which are bolder and more barren, approach much nearer to +each other on each side of the river, and at the base of these grim +sentinels the river flows silvery and silently. The Mouni Rapids, +through which the water passes from Lake Waminikapon, presented the +next obstacle to further progress, but the swift water here was soon +passed, and well repaid the traveler with the sight here presented +almost unexpectedly to his view. + +The lake was entered about 4 o'clock in the afternoon, and, as the +narrow entrance was passed, the sun poured its full rich light on +rocky mountains stretching as far away as the eye could reach, on each +side of the lake, and terminating in rocky cliffs from 600 to 800 feet +in perpendicular height, which formed the shores or confines of the +lake. Across Lake Waminikapon, which is, more properly speaking, not a +lake at all, but rather a widening of the river bed, the progress was +very good, the water having no motion to retard the boats, and forty +miles were made during the day. + +Here a misfortune, which had been threatening for several days, came +upon the party. Mr. Young's arm was so swollen, from the shoulder to +finger tips, that he could scarcely move it, the pain being excessive. +It had been brought on doubtless by cold and exposure. Seeing that he +could be of no further use to the party, it was decided to divide +forces, Mr. Smith returning with the sick man to Rigolet for medical +assistance. The separation took place August 8, when the party had +been on the river eleven days. The party were very sorry to return at +this point, since from the best information which they could get in +regard to the distance, the falls were but fifty miles above them. +Under the circumstances, however, there was no help for it. So Smith +and Young, bidding their friends good fortune, started on their return +trip. The mouth of the river was reached in three days, a little less +than one-third the time consumed in going up, and that, too, with only +one man to handle the boat. + +On the way down the river another party, composed of Messrs. Bryant +and Kenaston of Philadelphia, was met, who were on the same business +as the Bowdoin party, the discovery of the falls. Mr. Bryant handed to +Mr. Young a twenty-five pound can of flour, which, he said, he had +found in the whirlpool below the first falls. It had been in the boat +which was overturned in the Horseshoe Rapids, and had made the journey +to the first falls, a distance of over fifty miles, without denting or +injuring the can in any way. It was a great relief to the Bryant party +to learn the cause of the mishap, as they had feared a more serious +calamity. + +After the departure of the other two, Messrs. Cary and Cole +encountered much rapid water, so that their progress was necessarily +slow. On the third day, when they had proceeded sixty-five miles above +Lake Waminikapon, and had seen no indications of any falls, the +rapidity of the current forced them to leave the river and make any +further progress on foot. The boat was cached at this point, together +with all that was left of provisions and instruments except the +compass and food for six days. They left just enough provisions to +carry them to their last cache at Ninipi River, and hoped, by careful +use of the remainder, to find the object of their search. If they had +not enough provisions, then they must turn back, leaving reports of +falls as destitute of confirmation as ever. + +The land bordering the river at this point was heavily wooded, and in +places where the river shore could not be followed on account of the +cliffs, their progress was necessarily slow. Finding an elevation of +land at no great distance from them, they ascended it for a general +survey of the country. Far away in the distance could be seen the +current of the Grand River flowing sluggishly but majestically on its +course to the sea. Lakes on all sides were visible, most of them +probably of glacial origin. Descending from this mountain, which the +explorers christened Mount Bowdoin, a course was laid on the river +bank, where camp was made that night. Being now somewhat weak from +hard labor and insufficient food, their progress was slow through the +thick wood, but on the next night camp was made on the edge of the +plateau or table land of Labrador. + +After proceeding a short distance on the next day, Aug. 13, a loud +roar was heard in the distance, and a course was laid for the river at +the nearest point. The river at this point, about one mile above the +falls, was 500 yards wide, narrowing to fifty yards a short distance +below, where great clouds of spray floating in the air warned the +weary travelers that their object had been attained. Quickly they +proceeded to the scene, and a magnificent sight burst upon their view. + +Grand Falls, though not approaching the incredible height attributed +to it by legendary accounts of the Indians, is a grand fall of water. +Its total descent is accomplished in a series of falls aggregating +nearly 500 feet. The greatest perpendicular descent is not over 200 +feet. The half dozen falls between this grand descent and the bed of +the river on the plateau vary from ten to twenty-five feet, adding to +the majesty and grandeur of the scene. It was with great difficulty +that the bottom of the falls was reached and a photograph of the scene +taken. + +After leaving the plateau and plunging over the falls, the waters +enter an immense cañon or gorge, nearly 40 miles long and 300 yards +wide, the perpendicular sides of which rise to a height of from 300 to +500 feet. The sides of this cañon show it to be hollowed out of solid +Archæan rock. Through this cañon the water rushes with terrific +rapidity, making passage by boat wholly impossible. Many erroneous +stories have been told in regard to the height of these falls, all of +them greatly exaggerating the descent of the water. The Indians of +this locality of the tribe of the Nascopee or the race of Crees have +long believed the falls to be haunted by an evil spirit, who punished +with death any one who might dare to look upon them. The height of +land or plateau which constitutes the interior of the Labrador +peninsula is from 2,000 to 2,500 feet above the sea level, fairly +heavily wooded with spruce, fir, hackmatack, and birch, and not at all +the desolate waste it has been pictured by many writers. The +barrenness of Labrador is confined to the coast, and one cannot enter +the interior in any direction without being struck by the latent +possibilities of the peninsula were it not for the abundance of flies +and mosquitoes. Their greed is insatiable, and at times the two men +were weakened from the loss of blood occasioned by these insects. + +The object of the expedition being attained, the return trip was +begun, and the sight of the cached boat and provisions eagerly watched +for. On Aug. 15 the camp was sighted, but to their horror they saw +smoke issuing from the spot. It at once flashed upon their minds what +had taken place, and when they arrived they found that their fears had +been all too truly realized. Charred remains of the boat, a burned +octant, and a few unexploded cartridges were all that remained of the +meager outfit upon which they depended to take them to the mouth of +the river, a distance of over 250 miles. The camp fire, not having +been completely extinguished, had burned the boat and destroyed all +their provisions. + +It was truly a hard outlook for them, but no time must be lost if +provisions were to be obtained. Hastily a raft was constructed, the +logs being bound together with spruce roots. In this way, by +alternately walking and rafting, the mouth of the river was reached +Aug. 29. On the way down the river five rafts had been made and +abandoned. The only weapon was a small pocket revolver, and with the +products of this weapon, mostly red squirrels and a few fish, they +lived until they reached the different caches. Many a meal was made of +one red squirrel divided between them, and upon such food they were +compelled to make the best time possible. On the way up the river the +shoes of one of the party had given wholly out, and he was obliged to +make a rude pair of slippers from the back of a leather pack. With +torn clothes and hungry bodies they presented a hard sight indeed when +they joined their friends at Rigolet on the 1st of September. The +party composed of Messrs. Bryant and Kenaston was passed by Cary and +Cole while on the way down, but was not seen. Probably this occurred +on Lake Waminikapon, the width of the lake preventing one party from +seeing the other. It seemed a waste of time and energy that two +expeditions in the same summer should be sent upon the same object, +but neither party knew of the intention of the other until it was too +late to turn back. + +Grand River has long been a highway for the dependents of the Hudson +Bay Company. The company formerly had a post on Lake Waminikapon, and +another, called Height of Land, on the plateau. Provisions were +carried to these posts, and furs brought from them by way of Grand +River, the parties proceeding as far as the lake, and then, leaving +Grand River some distance below the cañon, no longer being able to +follow it on account of the swiftness of the water, they carried their +canoes across the land to a chain of lakes connecting with the post. +This station has been given up many years, and the river is used now +chiefly be Indians and hunters in the winter. + +It has long been known that Hamilton Inlet was of glacial origin, the +immense basin hollowed out by this erosive agent being 150 miles in +length. How much further this immense valley extended has never been +known. Mr. Cary says that the same basin which forms Hamilton Inlet +and enters Lake Melville, the two being connected by twelve miles of +narrows, extends up the Grand River Valley as far as Gull Island Lake, +the whole forming one grand glacial record. From Lake Melville to Gull +Island the bed was being gradually filled in by the deposits of the +river, but the contour of the basin is the same here as below. The bed +of the country here is Archæan rock, and many beautiful specimens of +labradorite dot the shores. In the distance the grim peaks of the +Mealy Mountains stand out in bold relief against the sky. + +The country about this interior basin is heavily wooded, and spars of +75 feet can be obtained in generous numbers. Were it not for the +native inhabitants, mosquitoes, and flies, the interior would present +conditions charming enough to tempt any lover of nature. It is the +abundance of these invincible foes which make interior life a burden +and almost an impossibility. To these inhabitants alone Grand Falls +has ceased to chant its melodious tune. Hereafter its melodious ripple +will be heard by Bowdoin College, which, in the name of its explorers, +Cary and Cole, claims the honor of its discovery.--_New York Times_. + + * * * * * + + + + +ANTS. + +By RUTH WARD KAHN. + + +Astronomy has made us all familiar with the conception of the world +over our heads. We no longer speculate with Epicurus and Anaxagoras +whether the sun may be as large as a quoit, or even as large as +Peloponnesus. We are satisfied that the greater and the lesser lights +are worlds, some of them greatly exceeding our own in magnitude. + +In a little poem of Dante Rossetti's, he describes a mood of violent +grief in which, sitting with his head bowed between his knees, he +unconsciously eyes the wood spurge growing at his feet, till from +those terrible moments he carries away the one trivial fact cut into +his brain for all time, that "the wood spurge has a cup of three." In +some such mood of troubled thought, flung perhaps full length on the +turf, have we not as unconsciously and intently watched a little ant, +trudging across our prostrate form, intent upon its glorious polity: a +creature to which we, with our great spiritual world of thought and +emotion and will, have no existence except as a sudden and +inconvenient upheaval of parti-colored earth to be scaled, of unknown +geological formation, but wholly worthless as having no bearing upon +the one great end of their life--the care of larvæ. + +If we hold with Mr. Wallace that the chief difference between man and +the lower animals is that of kind and not of degree--that man is +possessed of an intelligent will that appoints its own ends, of a +conscience that imposes upon him a "categorical imperative," of +spiritual faculties that apprehend and worship the invisible--yet we +must admit that his lower animal nature, which forms, as it, were, the +platform of the spiritual, is built up of lower organisms. + +If we hold with Professor Allman that thought, will, and conscience, +though only manifesting themselves through the medium of cerebral +protoplasm, are not its properties any more than the invisible earth +elements which lie beyond the violet are the property of the medium +which, by altering their refrangibility, makes them its own--then the +study of the exact nature and properties of the transmitting medium is +equally necessary. Indeed, the whole position can only be finally +established of defining experimentally the necessary limitation of the +medium, and proving the inefficiency of the lower data to account with +the higher. + +It is these considerations of the wider issues that give such a +peculiar interest to the patient observations which have recently been +brought to bear upon the habits of the social insects, especially of +ants, which, living in communities, present so many of the conditions +of human life, and the development of the "tribal self" from these +conditions, to which Professor Clifford attributed the genesis of +moral sense. + +In order to pass in review these interesting observations and bring +out their significance, I must go over ground which is doubtless +familiar to most of my readers. + +The winged ants, which often excite surprise, are simply the virgin +queens and the males. They are entirely dependent upon the workers, +and are reared in the same nest. September is the month usually +selected as the marriage season, and in the early twilight of a warm +day the air will be dark with the winged lovers. After the wedding +trip the female tears off her wings--partly by pulling, but mostly by +contortions of her body--for her life under ground would render wings +not only unnecessary, but cumbersome; while the male is not exposed to +the danger of being eaten by his cannibal spouse, as among spiders, +nor to be set upon and assassinated by infuriated spinsters, as among +bees, but drags out a precarious existence for a few days, and then +either dies or is devoured by insectivorous insects. There is reason +to believe that some females are fertilized before leaving the nest. I +have observed flights of the common _Formica rufa_, in which the +females flew away solitary and to great distances before they +descended. In such cases it is certain that they were fertilized +before their flight. + +When a fertilized queen starts a colony it proceeds much in this way: +When a shaft has been sunk deep enough to insure safety, or a +sheltered position secured underneath the trunk of a tree or a stone, +the queen in due time deposits her first eggs, which are carefully +reared and nourished. The first brood consists wholly of workers, and +numbers between twenty-five and forty in some species, but is smaller +in others. The mother ant seeks food for herself and her young till +the initial brood are matured, when they take up the burden of life, +supply the rapidly increasing family with food, as well as the mother +ant, enlarge the quarters, share in the necessary duties, and, in +short, become the _real_ workers of the nest before they are scarcely +out of the shell. The mother ant is seldom allowed to peer beyond her +dark quarters, and then only in company with her body guard. She is +fed and cared for by the workers, and she in turn assists them in the +rearing of the young, and has even been known to give her strength for +the extension of the formicary grounds. Several queens often exist in +one nest, and I have seen workers drag newly fertilized queens into a +formicary to enlarge their resources. As needs be, the quantity of +eggs laid is very great, for the loss of life in the ranks of the +workers is very large; few survive the season of their hatching, +although queens have been known to live eight years. (Lubbock.) + +The ant life has four well marked periods: First, the egg; second, the +grub or larva; third, the chrysalis or pupa; fourth, the imago, or +perfect insect. The eggs are small, ovate, yellowish white objects, +which hatch in about fifteen to thirty days. The larvæ are small +legless grubs, quite large at the apex of the abdomen and tapering +toward the head. Both eggs and pupa are incessantly watched and +tended, licked and fed, and carried to a place of safety in time of +danger. The larvæ are ingeniously sorted as regards age and size, and +are never mixed. The larvæ period generally extends through a month, +although often much longer, and in most species when the larvæ pass +into pupæ they spin a cocoon of white or straw color, looking much +like a shining pebble. Other larvæ do not spin a cocoon, but spend the +pupal state naked. When they mature they are carefully assisted from +their shells by the workers, which also assist in unfolding and +smoothing out the legs. The whole life of the formicary centers upon +the young, which proves they have reached a degree of civilization +unknown even in some forms of higher life. + +It is curious that, notwithstanding the labor of so many excellent +observers, and though ants swarm in every field and wood, we should +find so much difficulty in the history of these insects, and that so +much obscurity should rest upon some of their habits. Forel and +Ebrard, after repeated observations, maintain that in no single +instance has an isolated female been known to bring her young to +maturity. This is in direct contradiction to Lubbock's theory, who +repeatedly tried introducing a new fertile queen into another nest of +_Lasius flavus_, and always with the result that the workers became +very excited and killed her, even though in one case the nest was +without a queen. Of the other kinds, he isolated two pairs of _Myrmica +ruginodis_, and, though the males died, the queens lived and brought +their offspring to perfection; and nearly a year after their +captivity, Sir John Lubbock watched the first young workers carrying +the larvæ about, thereby proving the accuracy of Huber's statement, +with some species at least. In spite of this convincing testimony, +Lepeletier St. Fargeau is of the opinion that the nests originate with +a solitary queen, as was first given. + +The ants indigenous to Leadville, besides feeding on small flies, +insects, and caterpillars--the carcasses of which they may be seen +dragging to their nests--show the greatest avidity for sweet liquids. +They are capable of absorbing large quantities, which they disgorge +into the mouths of their companions. In winter time, when the ants are +nearly torpid and do not require much nourishment, two or three ants +told off as foragers are sufficient to provide for the whole nest. We +all know how ants keep their herds in the shape of aphides, or ant +cows, which supply them with the sweet liquid they exude. I have often +observed an ant gently stroking the back of an aphide with its antennæ +to coax it to give down its sweet fluid, much in the same way as a +dairy maid would induce a cow to give down its milk by a gentle +manipulation of its udders. Some species, principally the masons and +miners, remove their aphides to plants in the immediate vicinity of +their nest, or even introduce them into the ant home. In the interior +of most nests is also found the small blind beetle (_Claviger_) +glistening, and of a uniform red, its mouth of so singular a +conformation that it is incapable of feeding itself. The ants +carefully feed these poor dependent creatures, and in turn lick the +sweet liquid which they secrete and exude. These little _Coleoptera_ +are only found in the nests of some species; when introduced into the +nests of others they excite great bewilderment, and, after having been +carefully turned over and examined, are killed in a short time as a +useless commodity. Another active species of _Coleoptera_, of the +family _Staphylini_, is also found in ant nests. I have discovered one +in the nest of _Formica rufa_ in the Jewish cemetery in Leadville. +Furnished with wings, it does not remain in the nest, but is forced to +return thither by the strange incapacity to feed itself. Like the +_Claviger_, it repays its kind nurses by the sweet liquid it exudes, +and which is retained by a tuft of hair on either side of the abdomen +beneath the wings, which the creature lifts in order that the ant may +get at its honeyed recompense. Such mutual services between creatures +in no way allied is a most curious fact in the animal world.--_Popular +Science News._ + + * * * * * + + + + +A GEM-BEARING GRANITE VEIN IN WESTERN CONNECTICUT. + +By L.P. GRATACAP. + + +In the county of Litchfield, Conn., in the midst of some of the most +attractive hill country of that region, a very striking mineral +fissure has been opened by Mr. S.L. Wilson, which, in both its +scientific and commercial aspects, is equally important and +interesting. It is a broad crevice, widened at the point of excavation +into something like a pocket and filled, between its inclosing walls +of gneiss, with a granitic mass whose elements have crystallized +separately, so that an almost complete mineralogical separation has +been effected of quartz, mica, and feldspar, while associated +aggregates, as beryl and garnet, have formed under conditions that +make them valuable gem fabrics. + +The vein has a strike south of west and north of east and a distinct +dip northwest, by which it is brought below the gneiss rock, which +forms an overhanging wall, on the northerly side of the granitic mass, +while on the southerly edge the same gneiss rock makes an almost +vertical foot wall, and exhibits a sharp surface of demarkation and +contact. The rock has been worked as an open cut through short lateral +"plunges," or tunnels have been used for purposes of exploration in +the upper part of its extent. Its greatest width appears to be +fifty-one feet, and the present exposure of its length three hundred. +It undergoes compression at its upper end, and its complete extinction +upon the surface of the country at that point seems probable. At its +lower end at the foot of the slope wherein the whole mass appears, it +reveals considerable development, and affords further opportunities +for examination, and, possibly, profitable investment. It has been +formed by a powerful thrust coincident with the crumpling of the +entire region, whereby deeply seated beds have become liquefied, and +the magma either forced outward through a longitudinal vent or brought +to the surface by a process of progressive fusion as the heated +complex rose through superincumbent strata dissipated by its entrance +and contributing their substance to its contents. The present exposure +of the vein has been produced by denudation, as the coarsely +crystalline and dismembered condition of the granite, with its large +individuals of garnet and beryl, and the dense, glassy texture of the +latter, indicate a process of slow cooling and complete separation, +and for this result the congealing magma must necessarily have been +sealed in by strata through which its heat was disseminated slowly. + +For upon the most cursory inspection of the vein, the eye is arrested +at once by the large masses of crystalline orthoclase, the heavy beds +of a gray, brecciated quartz and the zones and columns of large leaved +mica. It was to secure the latter that Mr. Wilson first exploited this +locality, and only latterly have the more precious contents of the +vein imparted to it a new and more significant character. The mica, +called by Mr. Atwood, the superintendent of the work, "book mica," +occurs in thick crystals, ranged heterogeneously together in stringers +and "chimneys," and brilliantly reflecting the sunlight from their +diversely commingled laminæ. This mica yields stove sheets of about +two to three by four or five inches, and is of an excellent, +transparent quality. It seems to be a true muscovite, and is seldom +marred by magnetic markings or crystalline inclusions that would +interfere with its industrial use. Seams of decomposition occur, and a +yellowish scaly product, composed of hydrated mica flakes, fills them. +The mica does not everywhere present this coarsely crystalline +appearance, but in flexures and lines of union with the quartz and +orthoclase is degraded to a mica schist upon whose surfaces appear +uranates of lime and copper (autunite and torbernite), and in which +are inclosed garnet crystals of considerable size and beauty. The +enormous masses of clean feldspar made partially "graphic" by quartz +inclosures are a conspicuous feature of the mine. In one part of the +mine, wooden props support an overhanging ledge almost entirely +composed of feldspar, which underneath passes into the gray brecciated +quartz, which again grades into a white, more compact quartz rock. It +is in this gray brecciated quartz that the beryls are found. These +beautiful stones vary extremely in quality and color. Many of the +large crystals are opaque, extensively fractured, and irregular in +grain, but are found to inclose, especially at their centers, cores of +gem-making material. + +The colors of the beryls grade from an almost colorless mineral +(goshenite) though faintly green, with blue reflections, yellowish +green of a peculiar oily liquidity (davidsonite), to honey yellows +which form the so-called "golden beryls" of the trade, and which have +a considerable value. These stones have a hardness of 8, and when cut +display much brilliancy. Many assume the true aquamarine tints, and +others seem to be almost identical with the "Diamond of the Rhine," +which as early as the end of the fifteenth century was used as a +"fraudulent substitute for the true diamond" (King). Few, very few, +belong to the blue grades, and the best of these cannot compare with +those from Royalston, Mass. Those of amber and honey shades are +beautiful objects, and under artificial light have a fascination far +exceeding the olivine or chrysoberyl. These are not as frequent as the +paler varieties, but when found excite the admiration of visitor and +expert. It seems hardly probable that any true emeralds will be +uncovered and the yellow beryls may not increase in number. Their use +in the arts will be improved by combining them with other stones and +by preparing the larger specimens for single stone rings. + +Very effective combinations of the aquamarine and blue species with +the yellow may be recommended. Tourmaline appears in some quantity, +forming almost a schist at some points, but no specimens of any value +have been extracted, the color being uniformly black. The garnets are +large trapezohedral-faced crystals of an intense color, but penetrated +with rifts and flaws. Many, no doubt, will afford serviceable gem +material, but their resources have not yet been tested by the +lapidary. + +While granite considered as a building stone presents a complex of +quartz, mica, and feldspar so confusedly intercrystallized as to make +a homogeneous composite, in the present mass, like the larger and +similar developments in North Carolina, these elements have excluded +each other in their crystallization, and are found as three separate +groups only sparingly intermingled. The proportions of the constituent +minerals which form granite, according to Prof. Phillips, are twenty +parts of potash feldspar (orthoclase), five parts of quartz, and two +parts of potash mica (muscovite), and a survey of Mr. Wilson's quarry +exhibits these approximate relations with surprising force. + +There can be but little doubt that this vein is a capital example of +hydrothermal fusion, whereby in original gneissic strata, at a +moderate temperature and considerable depth, through the action of +contained water, with the physical accompaniment of plication, a +solution of the country rock has been accomplished. And the cooling +and recrystallization has gone on so slowly that the elements of +granite have preserved a physical isolation, while the associated +silicates formed in the midst of this magma have attained a supremely +close and compact texture, owing to the favorable conditions of slow +growth giving them gem consistencies. The further development of the +vein may reveal interesting facts, and especially the following +downward of the rock mass, which we suspect will contract into a +narrower vein. At present the order of crystallization and separation +of the mineralogical units seems to have been feldspar, mica, garnet, +beryl, quartz. + +In the artificial preparation of crystals it is invariably found that +perfect and symmetrical crystals, and crystals of large size, are +produced by slow, undisturbed cooling of solutions; the quiet +accretion permits complete molecular freedom and the crystal is built +up with precision. Nor is this all. In mixtures of chemical compounds +it is presumable that the separate factors will disengage themselves +from each other more and more completely, and form in purer masses as +the congelation is slowly carried on. A sort of concretionary affinity +comes into play, and the different chemical units congregate together. +At least such has been the case in the granitic magma of which Mr. +Wilson now possesses the solidified results. The feldspar, the quartz, +the mica, have approximately excluded each other, and appear side by +side in unmixed purity. And does it not seem probable that this +deliberate process of solidification has produced in the beryls, found +in the center of the vein at the points of slowest radiation, the +glassy gem texture which now makes them available for the purposes of +art and decoration? + + * * * * * + + + + +THE STUDY OF MANKIND. + + +Professor Max Muller, who presided over the Anthropological Section of +the British Association, said that if one tried to recall what +anthropology was in 1847, and then considered what it was now, its +progress seemed most marvelous. These last fifty years had been an age +of discovery in Africa, Central Asia, America, Polynesia, and +Australia, such as could hardly be matched in any previous century. +But what seemed to him even more important than the mere increase of +material was the new spirit in which anthropology had been studied +during the last generation. He did not depreciate the labors of +so-called dilettanti, who were after all lovers of knowledge, and in a +study such as that of anthropology, the labors of these volunteers, or +franc-tireurs, had often proved most valuable. But the study of man in +every part of the world had ceased to be a subject for curiosity only. +It had been raised to the dignity and also the responsibility of a +real science, and was now guided by principles as strict and rigorous +as any other science. Many theories which were very popular fifty +years ago were now completely exploded; nay, some of the very +principles by which the science was then guided had been discarded. +Among all serious students, whether physiologists or philologists, it +was by this time recognized that the divorce between ethnology and +philology, granted if only for incompatibility of temper, had been +productive of nothing but good. + + +CLASSIFICATION. + +Instead of attempting to classify mankind as a whole, students were +now engaged in classifying skulls, hair, teeth, and skin. Many solid +results had been secured by these special researches; but as yet, no +two classifications, based on these characteristics, had been made to +run parallel. The most natural classification was, no doubt, that +according to the color of the skin. This gave us a black, a brown, a +yellow, a red, and a white race, with several subdivisions. This +classification had often been despised as unscientific; but might +still turn out far more valuable than at present supposed. The next +classification was that by the color of the eyes, as black, brown, +hazel, gray, and blue. This subject had also attracted much attention +of late, and, within certain limits, the results have proved very +valuable. The most favorite classification, however, had always been +that according to the skulls. The skull, as the shell of the brain, +had by many students been supposed to betray something of the +spiritual essence of man; and who could doubt that the general +features of the skull, if taken in large averages, did correspond to +the general features of human character? We had only to look around to +see men with heads like a cannon ball and others with heads like a +hawk. This distinction had formed the foundation for a more scientific +classification into brachycephalic, dolichocephalic, and mesocephalic +skulls. If we examined any large collection of skulls we had not much +difficulty in arranging them under these three classes; but if, after +we had done this, we looked at the nationality of each skull, we found +the most hopeless confusion. Pruner Vey, as Peschel told us in his +"Volkerkunde," had observed brachycephalic and dolichocephalic skulls +in children born of the same mother; and if we consider how many women +had been carried away into captivity by Mongolians in their inroads +into China, India, and Germany, we could not feel surprised if we +found some long heads among the round heads of those Central Asiatic +hordes. + + +DIFFERENCES IN SKULLS. + +Only we must not adopt the easy expedient of certain anthropologists +who, when they found dolichocephalic and brachycephalic skulls in the +same tomb, at once jump to the conclusion that they must have belonged +to two different races. When, for instance, two dolichocephalic and +three brachycephalic skulls were discovered in the same tomb at +Alexanderpol, we were told at once that this proved nothing as to the +simultaneous occurrence of different skulls in the same family; nay, +that it proved the very contrary of what it might seem to prove. It +was clear, we were assured, that the two dolichocephalic skulls +belonged to Aryan chiefs and the three brachycephalic skulls to their +non-Aryan slaves, who were killed and buried with their masters, +according to a custom well known to Herodotus. This sounded very +learned, but was it really quite straightforward? Besides the general +division of skulls into dolichocephalic, brachycephalic, and +mesocephalic, other divisions had been undertaken, according to the +height of the skull, and again according to the maxillary and the +facial angles. This latter division gave us orthognatic, prognathic, +and mesognathic skulls. Lastly, according to the peculiar character of +the hair, we might distinguish two great divisions, the people with +woolly hair (Ulotriches) and people with smooth hair (Lissotriches). +The former were subdivided into Lophocomi, people with tufts of hair, +and Eriocomi, or people with fleecy hair. The latter were divided into +Euthycomi, straight haired, and Euplocomi, wavy haired. It had been +shown that these peculiarities of the hair depended on the peculiar +form of the hair tubes, which in cross sections were found to be +either round or elongated in different ways. All these classifications, +to which several more might be added, those according to the orbits of +the eyes, the outlines of the nose, and the width of the pelvis, were +by themselves extremely useful. But few of them only, if any, ran +strictly parallel. Now let them consider whether there could be any +organic connection between the shape of the skull, the facial angle, +the conformation of the hair, or the color of the skin on one side, +and what we called the great families of language on the other. + + +CONNECTION OF LANGUAGE AND PHYSICAL CONFORMATION. + +That we spoke at all might rightly be called a work of nature, _opera +naturale_, as Dante said long ago; but that we spoke thus or thus, +_cosi o cosi_, that, as the same Dante said, depended on our +pleasure--that was our work. To imagine, therefore, that as a matter +of necessity, or as a matter of fact, dolichocephalic skulls had +anything to do with Aryan, mesophalic with Semitic, or brachycephalic +with Turanian speech, was nothing but the wildest random thought. It +could convey no rational meaning whatever; we might as well say that +all painters were dolichocephalic, and all musicians brachycephalic, +or that all lophocomic tribes worked in gold, and all lisocomic tribes +in silver. If anything must be ascribed to prehistoric times, surely +the differentiation of the human skull, the human hair and the human +skin would have to be ascribed to that distant period. No one, he +believed, had ever maintained that a mesocephalic skull was split or +differentiated into a dolichocephalic and a brachycephalic variety in +the bright sunshine of history. Nevertheless, he had felt for years +that knowledge of languages must be considered in future as a _sine +qua non_ for every anthropologist. How few of the books in which we +trusted with regard to the characteristic peculiarities of savage +races had been written by men who had lived among them for ten or +twenty years, and who had learned their languages till they could +speak them as well as the natives themselves. It was no excuse to say +that any traveler who had eyes to see and ears to hear could form a +correct estimate of the doings and sayings of savage tribes. + + +TRAVELERS' IMPRESSIONS. + +It was not so, as anthropologists knew from sad experience. Suppose a +traveler came to a camp where he saw thousands of men and women +dancing round the image of a young bull. Suppose that the dancers were +all stark naked, that after a time they began to fight, and that at +the end of their orgies there were three thousand corpses lying about +weltering in their blood. Would not a casual traveler have described +such savages as worse than the negroes of Dahomey? Yet these savages +were really the Jews, the chosen people of God. The image was the +golden calf, the priest was Aaron, and the chief who ordered the +massacre was Moses. We might read the 32d chapter of Exodus in a very +different sense. A traveler who could have conversed with Aaron and +Moses might have understood the causes of the revolt and the necessity +of the massacre. But without this power of interrogation and mutual +explanation, no travelers, however graphic and amusing their stories +might be, could be trusted; no statements of theirs could be used by +the anthropologist for truly scientific purposes. If anthropology was +to maintain its high position as a real science, its alliance with +linguistic studies could not be too close. Its weakest points had +always been those where it trusted to the statements of authorities +ignorant of language and of the science of language. Its greatest +triumphs had been achieved by men such as Dr. Hahn, Bishops Callaway +and Colenso, Dr. W. Gill and last, not least, Mr. Man, who had +combined the minute accuracy of the scholar with the comprehensive +grasp of the anthropologist, and were thus enabled to use the key of +language to unlock the perplexities of savage customs, savage laws and +legends, and, particularly, of savage religions and mythologies. If +this alliance between anthropology and philology became real, then, +and then only, might we hope to see Bunsen's prophecy fulfilled, that +anthropology would become the highest branch of that science for which +the British Association was instituted. + + * * * * * + + +A NEW CATALOGUE OF VALUABLE PAPERS + +Contained in SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT during the past ten years, +sent _free of charge_ to any address. MUNN & CO., 361 Broadway, New +York. + + * * * * * + + +THE SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN + +ARCHITECTS AND BUILDERS EDITION. + +$2.50 a Year. 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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Scientific American Supplement No. 822 + Volume XXXII, Number 822. Issue Date October 3, 1891 + +Author: Various + +Release Date: February 9, 2005 [EBook #14989] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN *** + + + + +Produced by Juliet Sutherland and the Online Distributed Proofreading +Team at www.pgdp.net. + + + + + + +</pre> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/title.png"><img src="./images/title_th.png" alt="Title"></a></p> +<h1>SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT NO. 822</h1> +<h2>NEW YORK, October 3, 1891</h2> +<h4>Scientific American Supplement. Vol. XXXII, No. 822.</h4> +<h4>Scientific American established 1845</h4> +<h4>Scientific American Supplement, $5 a year.</h4> +<h4>Scientific American and Supplement, $7 a year.</h4> +<hr /> +<div class="ctr"><table summary="Contents" border="0" cellspacing="5"> +<tr> +<th colspan="2">TABLE OF CONTENTS.</th> +</tr> +<tr> +<td valign="top">I.</td> +<td><a href="#ART01">ANTHROPOLOGY.—The Study of Mankind.—A review of Prof. +Max Muller's recent address before the British Association.</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td valign="top">II.</td> +<td><a href="#ART02">CHEMISTRY.—Standards and Methods for the Polarimetric Estimation +of Sugars.—A U.S. internal revenue report on the titular +subject.—2 illustrations.</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#ART03">The Formation of Starch in Leaves.—An interesting examination +into the physiological <i>role</i> of leaves.—1 illustration.</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#ART04">The Water Molecule.—By A. GANSWINDT.—A very interesting +contribution to structural chemistry.</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td valign="top">III.</td> +<td><a href="#ART05">CIVIL ENGINEERING.—Demolition of Rocks under Water +without Explosives.—Lobnitz System.—By EDWARD S. CRAWLEY.—A +method of removing rocks by combined dredging and +ramming as applied on the Suez Canal.—3 illustrations.</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td valign="top">IV.</td> +<td><a href="#ART06">ELECTRICITY.—Electrical Standards.—The English Board of +Trade commission's standards of electrical measurements.</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#ART07">The London-Paris Telephone.—By W.H. PREECE, F.R.S.—Details +of the telephone between London and Paris and its remarkable +success.—6 illustrations.</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#ART08">The Manufacture of Phosphorus by Electricity.—A new industry +based on dynamic electricity.—Full details.</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#ART09">The Two or Three Phase Alternating Current Systems.—By +CARL HERING.—A new industrial development in electricity +fully described and graphically developed.—15 illustrations.</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td valign="top">V.</td> +<td><a href="#ART10">GEOGRAPHY AND EXPLORATION.—The Grand Falls of +Labrador.—The Bowdoin College exploring expedition and its adventures +and discoveries in Labrador.</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td valign="top">VI.</td> +<td><a href="#ART11">MECHANICAL ENGINEERING.—Improved Changeable Speed +Gearing.—An ingenious method of obtaining different speeds at +will from a single driving shaft.—2 illustrations.</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#ART12">Progress in Engineering.—Notes on the progress of the last +decade.</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td valign="top">VII.</td> +<td><a href="#ART13">MEDICINE AND HYGIENE.—Eyesight.—Its Care during Infancy +and Youth.—By L. WEBSTER FOX, M.D.—A very timely +article on the preservation of sight and its deterioration among +civilized people.</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#ART14">The Use of Compressed Air in Conjunction with Medicinal Solutions +in the Treatment of Nervous and Mental Affections.—By +J. LEONARD CORNING.—The enhancement of the effects of remedies +by subsequent application of compressed air.</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td valign="top">VIII.</td> +<td><a href="#ART15">MINERALOGY.—A Gem-Bearing Granite Vein in Western +Connecticut.—By L.P. GRATACAP.—A most interesting mineral +fissure yielding mica and gems recently opened.</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td valign="top">IX.</td> +<td><a href="#ART16">NATURAL HISTORY.—Ants.—By RUTH WARD KAHN.—An +interesting presentation of the economy of ants.</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td valign="top">X.</td> +<td><a href="#ART17">NAVAL ENGINEERING.—Armor Plating on Battleships—France +and Great Britain.—A comparison of the protective systems +of the French and English navies.—5 illustrations.</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#ART18">The Redoutable.—An important member of the French Mediterranean +fleet described and illustrated.—1 illustration.</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td valign="top">XI.</td> +<td><a href="#ART19">TECHNOLOGY.—New Bleaching Apparatus.—A newly invented +apparatus for bleaching pulp.—2 illustrations.</a></td> +</tr> +</table> +</div> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="Page_13127" id="Page_13127"></a><a name="ART18" id="ART18"></a>THE REDOUTABLE.</h2> + +<p>The central battery and barbette ship Redoutable, illustrated this +week, forms part of the French Mediterranean squadron, and although +launched as early as 1876 is still one of its most powerful ships. +Below are some of the principal dimensions and particulars of this +ironclad:</p> + +<div class="ctr"> +<table border="0" summary="Dimension, Value"> +<colgroup span="3"><col align="left"><col span="2" align="right"></colgroup> +<tr><td>Length</td><td>318 ft.</td><td>2 in.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Beam</td><td>64 ft.</td><td>8 in.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Draught</td><td>25 ft.</td><td>6 in.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Displacement</td><td colspan="2">9200 tons.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Crew</td><td colspan="2">706 officers and men.</td></tr> +</table> +</div> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/01-1.png"> +<img src="./images/01-1_th.png" alt="THE FRENCH CENTRAL BATTERY IRONCLAD REDOUTABLE." /> +</a><br />THE FRENCH CENTRAL BATTERY IRONCLAD REDOUTABLE.</p> + +<p>The Redoutable is built partly of iron and partly of steel and is +similar in many respects to the ironclads Devastation and Courbet of +the same fleet, although rather smaller. She is completely belted with +14 in. armor, with a 15 in. backing, and has the central battery +armored with plates of 9½ in. in thickness.</p> + +<p>The engines are two in number, horizontal, and of the compound two +cylinder type, developing a horse power of 6,071, which on the trial +trip gave a speed of 14.66 knots per hour. Five hundred and ten tons +of coal are carried in the bunkers, which at a speed of 10 knots +should enable the ship to make a voyage of 2,800 knots. Torpedo +defense netting is fitted, and there are three masts with military +tops carrying Hotchkiss revolver machine guns.</p> + +<p>The offensive power of the ship consists of seven breechloading rifled +guns of 27 centimeters (10.63 in.), and weighing 24 tons each, six +breechloading rifled guns of 14 centimeters (5.51 in.), and +quick-firing and machine guns of the Hotchkiss systems. There are in +addition four torpedo discharge tubes, two on each side of the ship. +The positions of the guns are as follows: Four of 27 centimeters in +the central battery, two on each broadside; three 27 centimeter guns +on the upper deck in barbettes, one on each side amidships, and one +aft. The 14 centimeter guns are in various positions on the +broadsides, and the machine guns are fitted on deck, on the bridges, +and in the military tops, four of them also being mounted on what is +rather a novelty in naval construction, a gallery running round the +outside of the funnel, which was fitted when the ship was under +repairs some months ago.</p> + +<p>There are three electric light projectors, one forward on the upper +deck, one on the bridge just forward of the funnel, and one in the +mizzen top.—<i>Engineering.</i></p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="ART17" id="ART17"></a>ARMOR PLATING ON BATTLESHIPS: FRANCE AND GREAT BRITAIN.</h2> + +<p>The visit of the French squadron under Admiral Gervais to England has +revived in many a nautical mind the recollection of that oft-repeated +controversy as to the relative advantages of armored belts and +citadels. Now that a typical French battleship of the belted class has +been brought so prominently to our notice, it may not be considered an +inappropriate season to dwell shortly upon the various idiosyncrasies +of thought which have produced, in our two nations, types of war +vessels differing so materially from each other as to their protective +features. In order to facilitate a study of these features, the +accompanying sketch has been prepared, which shows at a glance the +relative quantities of armored surface that afford protection to the +Nile, the Camperdown, the Marceau, the Royal Sovereign, and the Dupuy +de Lôme; the first three of these vessels having been actually present +at the review on the 21st of August and the two others having been +selected as the latest efforts of shipbuilding skill in France and +Great Britain. Nothing but the armored surface in each several class +is shown, the same scale having been adhered to in all cases.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/02-armor.png"> +<img src="./images/02-armor_th.png" alt="Armored Surface of Various Ships" /> +</a></p> + +<p>Two impressions cannot fail to be made upon our minds, both as to +French and British armor plate disposition. These two impressions, as +regards Great Britain, point to the Royal Sovereign as embodying the +idea of two protected stations with a narrow and partial connecting +belt; and to the Nile as embodying the idea of a vast and absolutely +protected raft. For France, we have the Marceau as representing the +wholly belted type with four disconnected but protected stations; and +the Dupuy de Lôme, in which the armor plating is thinned out to a +substance of only 4 in., so as entirely to cover the sides of the +vessel down to 5 ft, below the water line; this thickness of plating +being regarded as sufficient to break up upon its surface the dreaded +mélinite or guncotton shell, but permitting the passage of +armor-piercing projectiles right through from side to side; provision +being made to prevent damage from these latter to engines and vitals +by means of double-armored decks below, with a belt of cellulose +between them. Thus, as we have explained, two prominent ideas are +present in the disposition of armor upon the battleships of Great +Britain, as well as in that of the battleships of France. But, while +in our country these two ideas follow one another in the natural +sequence of development, from the Inflexible to the Royal Sovereign, +the citadel being gradually extended into two redoubts, and space +being left between the redoubts for an auxiliary battery—this latter +being, however, singularly placed above the armored belt, and <i>not +within its shelter</i>—in France, on the other hand, we find the second +idea to be a new departure altogether in armored protection, or rather +to be a return to the original thought which produced the Gloire and +vessels of her class. In point of fact, while we have always clung to +the armored citadel, France has discarded the belt altogether, and +gone in for speed and light armor, as well as for a much lighter class +of armament. Time alone, and the circumstances of actual warfare, can +prove which nation has adopted the wisest alternative.</p> + +<p>A glance at the engraving will show the striking contrast between the +existing service types as to armored surface. The Marceau appears +absolutely naked by the side of the solidly armed citadel of the Nile. +The contrast between the future types will be, of course, still more +striking, for the reasons given in the last paragraph. But while +remarking upon the paucity of heavy plating as exhibited in the +service French battleships, we would say one word for the angle at +which it is placed. The receding sides of the great vessels of France +give two very important attributes in their favor. In the first place, +a much broader platform at the water line is afforded to secure +steadiness <a name="Page_13128" id="Page_13128"></a>of the ship and stable equilibrium, and the angle at which +the armor rests is so great as to present a very oblique surface to +the impact of projectiles. The trajectory of modern rifled guns is so +exceedingly flat that the angle of descent of the shot or shell is +practically <i>nil</i>. Were the sides of the Royal Sovereign to fall back +like those of the Marceau or Magenta, we seriously doubt whether any +projectile, however pointed, would effect penetration at all. We +conclude, then, that a comparison of the Marceau with the Nile as +regards protective features is so incontestably in favor of the +latter, that they cannot be classed together for a moment. In speed, +moreover, though this is not a point under consideration, the Nile has +the advantage. It is impossible, however, to avoid the conviction that +the Dupuy de Lôme would be a most powerful and disagreeable enemy for +either of the eight great ironclads of Great Britain now building to +encounter on service. The Hood and Royal Sovereign have many +vulnerable points. At any position outside of the dark and light +colored portions of armor plate indicated in our drawing, they could +be hulled with impunity with the lightest weapons. It is true that gun +detachments and ammunition will be secure within the internal +"crinolines," but how about the other men and <i>matériel</i> between +decks? Now, the Dupuy de Lôme may be riddled through and through bf a +13½ in. shell if a Royal Sovereign ever succeeds in catching her; but +from lighter weapons her between decks is almost secure. We cannot +help feeling a sneaking admiration for the great French cruising +battleship, with her 6,300 tons and 14,000 horse power, giving an easy +speed of 20 knots in almost any weather, and protected by a complete 4 +in. steel panoply, which will explode the shells of most of our +secondary batteries on impact, or prevent their penetration. In fact, +there is little doubt that the interior of the Trafalgar, whether as +regards the secondary batteries or the unarmored ends, would be +probably found to be a safer and pleasanter situation, in the event of +action with a Dupuy de Lôme, than either of the naked batteries or the +upper works of the Royal Sovereign. This is what Sir E.J. Reed was so +anxious to point out at the meeting of naval architects in 1889, when +he described the modern British battleship as a "spoiled Trafalgar." +There was perhaps some reason in what he said.—<i>The Engineer. </i></p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="ART05" id="ART05"></a>DEMOLITION OF ROCKS UNDER WATER WITHOUT EXPLOSIVES-LOBNITZ +SYSTEM.<a name="FNanchor_1" id="FNanchor_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1"><sup>1</sup></a></h2> + +<h3>By EDWIN S. CRAWLEY.</h3> + +<p>The methods of demolishing rocks by the use of explosives are always +attended by a certain amount of danger, while at the same time there +is always more or less uncertainty in regard to the final result of +the operation. Especially is this the case when the work must be +carried on without interrupting navigation and in the vicinity of +constructions that may receive injury from the explosions.</p> + +<p>Such were the conditions imposed in enlarging the Suez Canal in +certain parts where the ordinary dredges could not be used.</p> + +<p>Mr. Henry Lobnitz, engineer at Renfrew, has contrived a new method of +procedure, designed for the purpose of enlarging and deepening the +canal in those parts between the Bitter Lakes and Suez, where it runs +over a rocky bed. It was necessary to execute the work without +interrupting or obstructing traffic on the canal.</p> + +<p>The principle of the system consists in producing a shattering of the +rock by the action of a heavy mass let fall from a convenient height, +and acting like a projectile of artillery upon the wall of a fortress.</p> + +<p>From experiments made in the quarry of Craigmiller, near Edinburgh, +with a weight of two tons shod with a steel point, it was found that +with a fall of about 5.5 meters (18.04 ft.) there was broken up on an +average more than 0.113 cubic meter (0.148 cubic yard) of hard rock +per blow. The first blow, delivered 90 centimeters (2 ft. 11½ in.) +from the wall face, produced an almost imperceptible rent, a second or +a third blow applied at the same place extended this opening often to +a length of 1.50 meters (4 ft. 11 in.) and to a depth of from 90 to +120 centimeters (2 ft. 11 in. to 3 ft. 11 in.) The next blow opened +the fissure and detached the block of rock.</p> + +<p>The application of the same system under water upon an unknown surface +would obviously modify the conditions of the experiment. Nevertheless, +the results obtained with the "Derocheuse," the first dredging machine +constructed upon this principle, have realized the hopes of the +inventor.</p> + +<p>This dredging machine was launched on the Clyde and reached Port Said +in twenty days. It measures 55 meters (180 ft. 5 in.) in length, 12.20 +meters (40 ft. 1 in.) in breadth, and 3.65 meters (12 ft.) in depth. +Its mean draught of water is 2.75 meters (9 ft. 2½ in.) It is divided +into eighteen watertight compartments. Five steel-pointed battering +rams, each of four tons weight, are arranged in line upon each side of +the chain of buckets of the dredging machine. See Figs. 1 and 2. The +battering rams, suspended by chains, are raised by hydraulic power to +a height varying from 1.50 to 6 meters (4 ft. 11 in. to 19 ft. 8 in.), +and are then let fall upon the rock. The mechanism of the battering +rams is carried by a metallic cage which can be moved forward or +backward by the aid of steam as the needs of the work require. A +series of five battering rams gives from 200 to 300 blows per hour.</p> + +<p class="ctr"> +<img src="./images/02-fig1.png" alt="FIG. 1." /><br /> +FIG. 1.—LONGITUDINAL SECTION.</p> + +<p class="ctr"> +<img src="./images/02-fig2.png" alt="FIG. 2." /><br /> +FIG. 2.—PLAN</p> + +<p>A dredging machine combined with the apparatus just described, raises +the fragments of rock as they are detached from the bottom. A guide +wheel is provided, which supports the chain carrying the buckets, and +thus diminishes the stress upon the axles and bearings. With this +guide wheel or auxiliary drum there is no difficulty in dredging to a +depth of 12 meters (39 ft. 4 in.), while without this accessory it is +difficult to attain a depth of 9 meters (29 ft. 6 in.)</p> + +<p>A compound engine, with four cylinders of 200 indicated horse power, +drives, by means of friction gear, the chain, which carries the +buckets. If the buckets happen to strike against the rock, the +friction gear yields until the excess of resistance has disappeared.</p> + +<p>Fig. 3 indicates the manner in which the dredge is operated during the +work. It turns alternately about two spuds which are thrust +successively into the bottom and about which the dredge describes a +series of arcs in a zigzag fashion. These spuds are worked by +hydraulic power.</p> + + +<p class="ctr"> +<img src="./images/02-fig3.png" alt="FIG. 3." /><br /> +FIG. 3.—DREDGE MOVEMENT.</p> + +<p>A three ton hand crane is placed upon the bridge for use in making +repairs to the chain which carries the buckets. A six ton steam crane +is placed upon the top of the cage which supports the hydraulic +apparatus for raising the battering rams, thus permitting them to be +easily lifted and replaced.</p> + +<p>The dredging machine is also furnished with two screws driven by an +engine of 300 indicated horse power, as well as with two independent +boilers. Two independent series of pumps, with separate connections, +feed the hydraulic lifting apparatus, thus permitting repairs to be +made when necessary, without interrupting the work. A special machine +with three cylinders drives the pumps of the condenser. An accumulator +regulates the hydraulic pressure and serves to raise or lower the +spuds.</p> + +<p>At the end of the Suez Canal next to the Red Sea, the bottom consists +of various conglomerates containing gypsum, sandstone and sometimes +shells. It was upon a bed of this nature that the machine was first +put to work. The mean depth of water, originally 8.25 meters (26 ft. 3 +in.), was for a long time sufficient for the traffic of the canal; but +as the variations in level of the Red Sea are from 1.8 to 3 meters (5 +ft. 11 in. to 9 ft. 10 in.), the depth at the moment of low water is +scarcely adequate for the constantly increasing draught of water of +the steamers. Attempts were made to attack the rocky surface of the +bottom with powerful dredges, but this method was expensive because it +necessitated constant repairs to the dredges.</p> + +<p>These last, although of good construction, seldom raised more than 153 +cubic meters (200 cubic yards) in from eight to fifteen days. Their +daily advance was often only from sixty to ninety centimeters (about 2 +to 3 ft.), while with the "Derocheuse" it was possible to advance ten +times as rapidly in dredging to the same depth. The bottom upon which +the machine commenced its work was clean and of a true rocky nature. +It was soon perceived that this conglomerate, rich in gypsum, +possessed too great elasticity for the pointed battering rams to have +their proper effect upon it. Each blow made a hole of from fifteen to +sixty centimeters (6 in. to 2. ft.) in depth. A second blow, given +even very near to the first, formed a similar hole, leaving the bed of +the rock to all appearances intact between the two holes. This result, +due entirely to the special nature of the rock, led to the fear that +the action of the battering rams would be without effect. After some +experimentation it was found that the best results were obtained by +arranging the battering rams very near to the chain of buckets and by +working the dredge and battering rams simultaneously. The advance at +each oscillation was about 90 centimeters (about 3 ft.)</p> + +<p>The results obtained were as follows: At first the quantity extracted +varied much from day to day; but at the end of some weeks, on account +of the greater experience of the crew, more regularity was obtained. +The nature of the conglomerate was essentially variable, sometimes +hard and tenacious, like malleable iron, then suddenly changing into +friable masses surrounded by portions more elastic and richer in +gypsum.</p> + +<p>During the last five weeks at Port Tewfik, the expense, including the +repairs, was 8,850 francs ($1,770.00) for 1,600 cubic meters (2,093 +cubic yards) extracted. This would make the cost 5.52 francs per cubic +meter, or $0.84 per cubic yard, not including the insurance, the +interest and the depreciation of the plant.</p> + +<p>After some improvements in details, suggested by practice, the machine +was put in operation at Chalouf upon a hard rock, from 1.50 to 3 +meters (4 ft. 11 in. to 9 ft. 10 in.) thick. The battering rams were +given a fall of 1.80 meters (5 ft. 11 in.). To break the rock into +<a name="Page_13129" id="Page_13129"></a>fragments small enough not to be rejected by the buckets of the +dredge, the operations of dredging and of disintegration were carried +on separately, permitting the battering rams to work at a greater +distance from the wall face. The time consumed in thus pulverizing the +rock by repeated blows was naturally found to be increased. It was +found more convenient to use only a single row of battering rams. The +production was from about seven to eleven cubic meters (9.2 to 14.4 +cubic yards) per hour. Toward the close of September, after it had +been demonstrated that the "Derocheuse" was capable of accomplishing +with celerity and economy the result for which it was designed, it was +purchased by the Suez Canal Company.</p> + +<p>During the month of September, an experiment, the details of which +were carefully noted, extending over a period of sixteen days, gave +the following results:</p> + + +<div class="ctr"> +<table border="0" summary="Item, Francs, Dollars" width="80%"> +<colgroup span="3"><col align="left"><col align="right" span="2"></colgroup> +<tr><td>Crew (33 men), 140 hours.</td><td>2,012.50 francs</td><td>$402.50</td></tr> +<tr><td>Coal, @ 87.50 francs ($7.50) per ton</td><td>787.50 francs</td><td>157.50</td></tr> +<tr><td>Oil and supplies</td><td>220.00 francs</td><td>44.00</td></tr> +<tr><td>Fresh water, 16 days</td><td>210.00 francs</td><td>42.00</td></tr> +<tr><td>Sundries</td><td>42.50 francs</td><td>8.50</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td>—————</td><td>———</td></tr> +<tr><td>Total expense for removing<br /> 764 cubic meters (999.2 cubic yards),</td><td>3,272.50 francs</td><td>$654.50</td></tr> +</table> +</div> + +<p class="ctr">Average, 4.28 francs per cubic meter ($0.65 per cubic yard).</p> + +<p>This result cannot be taken as a universal basis, because after a +year's use there are numerous repairs to make to the plant, which +would increase the average net cost. This, besides, does not include +the cost of removal of the dredged material, nor the depreciation, the +interest and the insurance.</p> + +<p>It should be added on the other hand, however, that the warm season +was far from being favorable to the energy and perseverance necessary +to carry on successfully experiments of this kind. The temperature, +even at midnight, was often 38°C. (100.4° F.). Still further, the work +was constantly interrupted by the passage of ships through the canal. +On an average not more than forty minutes' work to the hour was +obtained. Notwithstanding this, there were extracted at Chalouf, on an +average, 38.225 cubic meters (50 cubic yards) per day without +interrupting navigation. At Port Tewfik, where there was much less +inconvenience from the passage of ships, the work was carried on from +eight to eleven hours per day and the quantity extracted in this time +was generally more than 76 cubic meters (99.4 cubic yards).</p> + +<p>In most cases the system could be simplified. The engine which works +the dredge could, when not thus employed, be used to drive the pumps. +The propelling engine could also be used for the same purpose.</p> + +<p>The results obtained at Suez indicate the appreciable advantages +arising from the application of this system to the works of ports, +rivers and canals, and ever, to the work of cutting in the +construction of roads and railroads.</p> + +<a name="Footnote_1" id="Footnote_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1">[1]</a><div class="note">Read before the Engineer's Club, Philadelphia. Translated from <i>Nouvelles Anodes de la Construction,</i> March, 1890.</div> +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="ART12" id="ART12"></a>PROGRESS IN ENGINEERING.</h2> + +<p>Mr. T. Forster Brown, in his address to the Mechanical Science Section +of the British Association, said that great progress had been made in +mechanical science since the British Association met in the +principality of Wales eleven years ago; and some of the results of +that progress were exemplified in our locomotives, and marine +engineering, and in such works as the Severn Tunnel, the Forth and Tay +Bridges, and the Manchester Ship Canal, which was now in progress of +construction. In mining, the progress had been slow, and it was a +remarkable fact that, with the exception of pumping, the machinery in +use in connection with mining operations in Great Britain had not, in +regard to economy, advanced so rapidly as had been the case in our +manufactures and marine. This was probably due, in metalliferous +mining, to the uncertain nature of the mineral deposits not affording +any adequate security to adventurers that the increased cost of +adopting improved appliances would be reimbursed; while in coal +mining, the cheapness of fuel, the large proportion which manual labor +bore to the total cost of producing coal, and the necessity for +producing large outputs with the simplest appliances, explained the +reluctance with which high pressure steam compound engines, and other +modes embracing the most modern and approved types of economizing +power had been adopted. Metalliferous mining, with the exception of +the working of iron ore, was not in a prosperous condition; but in +special localities, where the deposits of minerals were rich and +profitable, progress had been made within a recent period by the +adoption of more economical and efficient machinery, of which the +speaker quoted a number of examples. Reference was also made to the +rapid strides made in the use of electricity as a motive power, and to +the mechanical ventilation of mines by exhaustion of the air.</p> + +<h3>COAL MINES.</h3> + +<p>Summarizing the position of mechanical science, as applied to the coal +mining industry in this country, Mr. Brown observed that there was a +general awakening to the necessity of adopting, in the newer and +deeper mines, more economical appliances. It was true it would be +impracticable, and probably unwise, to alter much of the existing +machinery, but, by the adoption of the best known types of electrical +plant, and air compression in our new and deep mines, the consumption +of coal per horse power would be reduced, and the extra expense, due +to natural causes, of producing minerals from greater depths would be +substantially lessened. The consumption of coal at the collieries of +Great Britain alone probably exceeded 10,000,000 tons per annum, and +the consumption per horse power was probably not less than 6 lb. of +coal, and it was not unreasonable to assume that, by the adoption of +more efficient machinery than was at present in general use, at least +one-half of the coal consumed could be saved. There was, therefore, in +the mines of Great Britain alone a wide and lucrative field for the +inventive ingenuity of mechanical engineers in economizing fuel, and +especially in the successful application of new methods for dealing +with underground haulage, in the inner workings of our collieries, +more especially in South Wales, where the number of horses still +employed was very large.</p> + +<h3>STEAM TRAMS AND ELECTRIC TRAMS.</h3> + +<p>Considerable progress had within recent years been made in the +mechanical appliances intended to replace horses on our public tram +lines. The steam engine now in use in some of our towns had its +drawbacks as as well as its good qualities, as also had the endless +rope haulage, and in the case of the latter system, anxiety must be +felt when the ropes showed signs of wear. The electrically driven +trams appeared to work well. He had not, however, seen any published +data bearing on the relative cost per mile of these several systems, +and this information, when obtained, would be of interest. At the +present time, he understood, exhaustive trials were being made with an +ammonia gas engine, which, it was anticipated, would prove both more +economical and efficient than horses for tram roads. The gas was said +to be produced from the pure ammonia, obtained by distillation from +commercial ammonia, and was given off at a pressure varying from 100 +to 150 lb. per square inch. This ammonia was used in specially +constructed engines, and was then exhausted into a tank containing +water, which brought it back into its original form of commercial +ammonia, ready for redistillation, and, it was stated, with a +comparatively small loss.</p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="ART11" id="ART11"></a>IMPROVED CHANGEABLE SPEED GEARING.</h2> + +<p>This is the invention of Lawrence Heath, of Macedon, N.Y., and relates +to that class of changeable speed gearing in which a center pinion +driven at a constant rate of speed drives directly and at different +rates of speed a series of pinions mounted in a surrounding revoluble +case or shell, so that by turning the shell one or another of the +secondary pinions may be brought into operative relation to the parts +to be driven therefrom.</p> + +<p>The aim of my invention is to so modify this system of gearing that +the secondary pinions may receive a very slow motion in relation to +that of the primary driving shaft, whereby the gearing is the better +adapted for the driving of the fertilizer-distributers of grain drills +from the main axle, and for other special uses.</p> + +<p>Fig. 1 is a side elevation. Fig. 2 is a vertical cross section.</p> + +<p class="ctr"> +<img src="./images/03-fig1.png" alt="FIG. 1." /><br /> +FIG. 1.</p> + +<p class="ctr"> +<img src="./images/03-fig2.png" alt="FIG. 2." /><br /> +FIG. 2.</p> + +<p>A represents the main driving shaft or axle, driven constantly and at +a uniform speed, and B is the pinion-supporting case or shell, mounted +loosely on and revoluble around the axle, but held normally at rest by +means of a locking bolt, C, or other suitable locking device adapted +to enter notches, <i>c</i>, in the shell.</p> + +<p>D is the primary driving pinion, fixed firmly to the axle and +constantly engaging the pinion, E, mounted on a stud in the shell. The +pinion, E, is formed integral with or firmly secured to the smaller +secondary pinion, F, which in turn constantly engages and drives the +center pinion, G, mounted to turn loosely on the axle within the +shell, so that it is turned in the same direction as the axle, but at +a slower speed.</p> + +<p>F', F<sub>2</sub>, F<sub>3</sub>, F<sub>4</sub>, etc., represent additional secondary pinions +grouped around the center pinion, mounted on studs in the shell, and +made of different diameters, so that they are driven by the center +pinion at different speeds. Each of the secondary pinions is formed +with a neck or journal, <i>f</i>, projected out through the side of the +shell, so that the external pinion, H, may be applied to any one of +the necks at will in order to communicate motion thence to the gear, +I, which occupies a fixed position, and from which the fertilizer or +other mechanism is driven.</p> + +<p>In order to drive the gear, I, at one speed or another, as may be +demanded, it is only necessary to apply the pinion, H, to the neck of +that secondary pinion which is turning at the appropriate speed and +then turn the shell bodily around the axle until the external pinion +is carried into engagement with gear I, when the shell is again locked +fast. The axle communicates motion through D, E, and P to the center +pinion, which in turn drives all the secondary pinions except F. If +the external pinion is applied to F, it will receive motion directly +therefrom; but if applied to either of the secondary pinions, it will +receive motion through or by way of the center pinion. It will be seen +that all the pinions are sustained and protected within the shell.</p> + +<p>The essence of the invention lies in the introduction of the pinions D +and E between the axle and the series of secondary pinions to reduce +the speed.</p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="ART06" id="ART06"></a>ELECTRICAL STANDARDS.</h2> + +<p><i>Nature</i> states that the Queen's Printers are now issuing the Report +(dated July 23, 1891) to the President of the Board of Trade, of the +Committee appointed to consider the question of constructing standards +for the measurement of electricity. The committee included Mr. +Courtenay Boyle, C.B., Major P. Cardew, R.E., Mr. E. Graves, Mr. W.H. +Preece, F.R.S., Sir W. Thomson, F.R.S., Lord Rayleigh, F.R.S., Prof. +G. Carey Foster, F.R.S., Mr. R.T. Glazebrook, F.R. S., Dr. John +Hopkinson, F.R.S., Prof. W.E. Ayrton, F.R.S.</p> + +<p>In response to an invitation, the following gentlemen attended and +gave evidence: On behalf of the Association of Chambers of Commerce, +Mr. Thomas Parker and Mr. Hugh Erat Harrison; on behalf of the London +Council, Prof. Silvanus Thompson; on behalf of the London Chamber of +Commerce, Mr. R. E. Crompton. The Committee were indebted to Dr. J.A. +Fleming and Dr. A. Muirhead for valuable information and assistance; +and they state that they had the advantage of the experience and +advice of Mr. H. J. Chaney, the Superintendent of Weights and +Measures. The Secretary to the Committee was Sir T.W. P. Blomefield, +Bart.</p> + +<p>The following are the resolutions of the Committee:</p> + +<h3><i>Resolutions.</i></h3> + +<p>(1) That it is desirable that new denominations of standards for the +measurement of electricity should be made and approved by Her Majesty +in Council as Board of Trade standards.</p> + +<p>(2) That the magnitudes of these standards should be determined on the +electro-magnetic system of measurement with reference to the +centimeter as unit of length, the gramme as unit of mass, and the +second as unit of time, and that by the terms centimeter and gramme +are meant the standards of those denominations deposited with the +Board of Trade.</p> + +<p>(3) That the standard of electrical resistance should be denominated +the ohm, and should have the value 1,000,000,000 in terms of the +centimeter and second.</p> + +<p>(4) That the resistance offered to an unvarying electric current by a +column of mercury of a constant cross sectional area of 1 square +millimeter, and of a length of 106.3 centimeters at the temperature of +melting ice may be adopted as 1 ohm.</p> + +<p>(5) That the value of the standard of resistance constructed by a +committee of the British Association for the Advancement of Science in +the years 1863 and 1864, and known as the British Association unit, +may be taken as 0.9866 of the ohm.</p> + +<p>(6) That a material standard, constructed in solid metal, and verified +by comparison with the British Association unit, should be adopted as +the standard ohm.</p> + +<p>(7) That for the purpose of replacing the standard, if lost, +destroyed, or damaged, and for ordinary use, a limited number of +copies should be constructed, which should be periodically compared +with the standard ohm and with the British Association unit.</p> + +<p>(8) That resistances constructed in solid metal should be adopted as +Board of Trade standards for multiples and sub-multiples of the ohm.</p> + +<p>(9) That the standard of electrical current should be denominated the +ampere, and should have the value one-tenth (0.1) in terms of the +centimeter, gramme, and second.</p> + +<p>(10) That an unvarying current which, when passed through a solution +of nitrate of silver in water, in accordance with the specification +attached to this report, deposits silver at the rate of 0.001118 of a +gramme per second, may be taken as a current of 1 ampere.</p> + +<p>(11) That an alternating current of 1 ampere shall mean a current such +that the square root of the time-average of the square of its strength +at each instant in amperes is unity.</p> + +<p>(12) That instruments constructed on the principle of the balance, in +which, by the proper disposition of the conductors, forces of +attraction and repulsion are produced, which depend upon the amount of +current passing, and are balanced by known weights, should be adopted +as the Board of Trade standards for the measurement of current, +whether unvarying or alternating.</p> + +<p>(13) That the standard of electrical pressure should be denominated +the volt, being the pressure which, if steadily applied to a conductor +whose resistance is 1 ohm, will produce a current of 1 ampere.</p> + +<p>(14) That the electrical pressure at a temperature of 62° F. between +the poles or electrodes of the voltaic cell known as Clark's cell may +be taken as not differing from a pressure of 1.433 volts by more than +an amount which will be determined by a sub-committee appointed to +investigate the question, who will prepare a specification for the +construction and use of the cell.</p> + +<p>(15) That an alternating pressure of 1 volt shall mean a pressure such +that the square root of the time average of the square of its value at +each instant in volts is unity.</p> + +<p>(16) That instruments constructed on the principle of Sir W. Thomson's +quadrant electrometer used idiostatically, and for high pressure +instruments on the principle of the balance, electrostatic forces +being balanced against a known weight, should be adopted as Board of +Trade standards for the measurement of pressure, whether unvarying or +alternating.</p> + +<p><a name="Page_13130" id="Page_13130"></a>We have adopted the system of electrical units originally defined by +the British Association for the Advancement of Science, and we have +found in its recent researches, as well as in the deliberations of the +International Congress on Electrical Units, held in Paris, valuable +guidance for determining the exact magnitudes of the several units of +electrical measurement, as well as for the verification of the +material standards.</p> + +<p>We have stated the relation between the proposed standard ohm and the +unit of resistance originally determined by the British Association, +and have also stated its relation to the mercurial standard adopted by +the International Conference.</p> + +<p>We find that considerations of practical importance make it +undesirable to adopt a mercurial standard; we have, therefore, +preferred to adopt a material standard constructed in solid metal.</p> + +<p>It appears to us to be necessary that in transactions between buyer +and seller, a legal character should henceforth be assigned to the +units of electrical measurement now suggested; and with this view, +that the issue of an Order in Council should be recommended, under the +Weights and Measures Act, in the form annexed to this report.</p> + +<h3><i>Specification referred to in Resolution 10.</i></h3> + +<p>In the following specification the term silver voltameter means the +arrangement of apparatus by means of which an electric current is +passed through a solution of nitrate of silver in water. The silver +voltameter measures the total electrical quantity which has passed +during the time of the experiment, and by noting this time the time +average of the current, or if the current has been kept constant, the +current itself, can be deduced.</p> + +<p>In employing the silver voltameter to measure currents of about 1 +ampere, the following arrangements should be adopted. The kathode on +which the silver is to be deposited should take the form of a platinum +bowl not less than 10 cm. in diameter, and from 4 to 5 cm. in depth.</p> + +<p>The anode should be a plate of pure silver some 30 square cm. in area +and 2 or 3 millimeters in thickness.</p> + +<p>This is supported horizontally in the liquid near the top of the +solution by a platinum wire passed through holes in the plate at +opposite corners. To prevent the disintegrated silver which is formed +on the anode from falling on to the kathode, the anode should be +wrapped round with pure filter paper, secured at the back with sealing +wax.</p> + +<p>The liquid should consist of a neutral solution of pure silver +nitrate, containing about 15 parts by weight of the nitrate to 85 +parts of water.</p> + +<p>The resistance of the voltameter changes somewhat as the current +passes. To prevent these changes having too great an effect on the +current, some resistance besides that of the voltameter should be +inserted in the circuit. The total metallic resistance of the circuit +should not be less than 10 ohms.</p> + +<p><i>Method of making a Measurement.</i>—The platinum bowl is washed with +nitric acid and distilled water, dried by heat, and then left to cool +in a desiccator. When thoroughly dry, it is weighed carefully.</p> + +<p>It is nearly filled with the solution, and connected to the rest of +the circuit by being placed on a clean copper support, to which a +binding screw is attached. This copper support must be insulated.</p> + +<p>The anode is then immersed in the solution, so as to be well covered +by it, and supported in that position; the connections to the rest of +the circuit are made.</p> + +<p>Contact is made at the key, noting the time of contact. The current is +allowed to pass for not less than half an hour, and the time at which +contact is broken is observed. Care must be taken that the clock used +is keeping correct time during this interval.</p> + +<p>The solution is now removed from the bowl, and the deposit is washed +with distilled water and left to soak for at least six hours. It is +then rinsed successively with distilled water and absolute alcohol, +and dried in a hot-air bath at a temperature of about 160° C. After +cooling in a desiccator, it is weighed again. The gain in weight gives +the silver deposited.</p> + +<p>To find the current in amperes, this weight, expressed in grammes, +must be divided by the number of seconds during which the current has +been passed, and by 0.001118.</p> + +<p>The result will be the time average of the current, if during the +interval the current has varied.</p> + +<p>In determining by this method the constant of an instrument the +current should be kept as nearly constant as possible, and the +readings of the instrument taken at frequent observed intervals of +time. These observations give a curve from which the reading +corresponding to the mean current (time average of the current) can be +found. The current, as calculated by the voltameter, corresponds to +this reading.</p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="ART09" id="ART09"></a>THE TWO OR THREE PHASE ALTERNATING CURRENT SYSTEMS.</h2> + +<h3>By CARL HERING.</h3> + +<p>The occasion of the transmission of power from Lauffen to Frankfort +has brought to the notice of the profession more than ever before the +two or three phase alternating current system, described as early as +1887-88 by various electricians, among whom are Tesla, Bradley, +Haselwander and others. As to who first invented it, we have nothing +to say here, but though known for some years it has not until quite +recently been of any great importance in practice.</p> + +<p>Within the last few years, however, Mr. M. Von Dolivo-Dobrowolsky, +electrical engineer of the Allgemeine Elektricitats Gesellschaft, of +Berlin, has occupied himself with these currents. His success with +motors run with such currents was the origin of the present great +transmission of power exhibit at Frankfort, the greatest transmission +ever attempted. His investigation in this new sphere, and his ability +to master the subject from a theoretical or mathematical standpoint, +has led him to find the objections, the theoretically best conditions, +etc. This, together with his ingenuity, has led him to devise an +entirely new and very ingenious modification, which will no doubt have +a very great effect on the development of alternating current motors.</p> + +<p>It is doubtless well known that if, as in Fig. 1, a Gramme ring +armature is connected to leads at four points as shown and a magnet is +revolved inside of it (or if the ring is revolved in a magnetic field +and the current led off by contact rings instead of a commutator), +there will be two alternating currents generated, which will differ +from each other in their phases only. When one is at a maximum the +other is zero. When such a double current is sent into a similarly +constructed motor it will produce or generate what might be called a +rotary field, which is shown diagrammatically in the six successive +positions in Fig. 2. The winding here is slightly different, but it +amounts to the same thing as far as we are concerned at present. This +is what Mr. Dobrowolsky calls an "elementary" or "simply" rotary +current, as used in the Tesla motors. A similar system, but having +three different currents instead of two, is the one used in the +Lauffen transmission experiment referred to above.</p> + +<p class="ctr"> +<img src="./images/04-fig1.png" alt="FIG. 1." /><br /> +FIG. 1.</p> + +<p class="ctr"> +<img src="./images/04-fig2.png" alt="FIG. 2." /><br /> +FIG. 2.</p> + +<p>In investigating this subject Mr. Dobrowolsky found that the best +theoretical indications for such a system would be a large number of +circuits instead of only two or three, each differing from the next +one by only a small portion of a wave length; the larger their number +the better theoretically. The reason is that with a few currents the +resulting magnetism generated in the motor by these currents will +pulsate considerably, as shown in Fig. 3, in which the two full lines +show the currents differing by 90 degrees. The dotted line above these +shows how much the resulting magnetism will pulsate. With two such +currents this variation in magnetism will be about 40 degrees above +its lowest value. Now, such a variation in the field is undesirable, +as it produces objectionable induction effects, and it has the evil +effect of interfering with the starting of the motor loaded, besides +affecting the torque considerably if the speed should fall slightly +below that for synchronism. A perfect motor should not have these +faults, and it is designed to obviate them by striving to obtain a +revolving field in which the magnetism is as nearly constant as +possible.</p> + +<p class="ctr"> +<img src="./images/04-fig3.png" alt="FIG. 3." /><br /> +FIG. 3.</p> + +<p>If there are two currents differing by 90 degrees, this variation of +the magnetism will be about 40 per cent.; with three currents +differing 60 degrees, about 14 per cent; with six currents differing +30 degrees it will be only about 4 per cent., and so on. It will be +seen, therefore, that by doubling the three-phase system the +pulsations are already very greatly reduced. But this would require +six wires, while the three-phase system requires only three wires (as +each of the three leads can readily be shown to serve as a return lead +for the other two in parallel). It is to combine the advantages of +both that he designed the following very ingenious system. By this +system he can obtain as small a difference of phase as desired, +without increasing the number of wires above three, a statement which +might at first seem paradoxical.</p> + +<p>Before explaining this ingenious system, it might be well to call +attention to a parallel case to the above in continuous current +machines and motors. The first dynamos were constructed with two +commutator bars. They were soon found to work much better with four, +and finally still better as the number of commutator bars (or coils) +was increased, up to a practical limit. Just as the pulsations in the +continuous current dynamos were detrimental to proper working, so are +these pulsations in few-phased alternating current motors, though the +objections manifest themselves in different ways—in the continuous +current motors as sparking and in the alternating current motors as +detrimental inductive effects.</p> + +<p>The underlying principle of this new system may be seen best in Figs. +4, 5, 6, 7 and 8. In Fig. 4 are shown two currents, I<sub>1</sub> and I<sub>2</sub>, +which differ from each other <a name="Page_13131" id="Page_13131"></a>by an angle, D. Suppose these two +currents to be any neighboring currents in a simple rotary current +system. Now, if these two currents be united into one, as shown in the +lower part of the figure, the resulting current, I, will be about as +shown by the dotted line; that is, it will lie between the other two +and at its maximum point, and for a difference of phases equal to 90 +degrees it will be about 1.4 times as great as the maximum of either +of the others; the important feature is that the phase of this current +is midway between that of the other two. Fig. 5 shows the winding of a +cylinder armature and Fig. 7 that, of a Gramme armature for a simple +three-phase current with three leads, with which system we assume that +the reader is familiar.</p> + +<p class="ctr"> +<img src="./images/04-fig4.png" alt="FIG. 4." /><br /> +FIG. 4.</p> + +<p class="ctr"> +<img src="./images/04-fig5.png" alt="FIG. 5." /><br /> +FIG. 5.</p> + + +<p>The two figures, 4 and 5 (or 7), correspond with each other in so far +as the currents in the three leads, shown in heavy lines, have a phase +between those of the two which compose them. Referring now to Fig. 6 +(or 8), which is precisely like Fig. 5 (or 7), except that it has an +additional winding shown in heavy lines, it will be seen that each of +the three leads, shown in heavy lines, is wound around the armature +before leaving it, forming an additional coil lying <i>between</i> the two +coils with which it is in series. The phase of the heavy line currents +was shown in Fig. 4 to lie between the other two. Therefore, in the +armature in Fig. 6 (or 8) there will be six phases, while in Fig. 5 +there are only three, the number of leads (three) remaining the same +as before. This is the fundamental principle of this ingenious +invention. To have six phases in Fig. 5 would require six leads, but +in Fig. 6 precisely the same result is obtained with only three +leads. In the same way the three leads in Fig. 6 might again be +combined and passed around the armature again, and so on forming still +more phases, without increasing the number of leads. Figs. 7 and 8 +compound with 5 and 6 and show the same system for a Gramme ring +instead of a cylinder armature.</p> + +<p class="ctr"> +<img src="./images/04-fig6.png" alt="FIG. 6." /><br /> +FIG. 6.</p> + +<p class="ctr"> +<img src="./images/04-fig7.png" alt="FIG. 7." /><br /> +FIG. 7.</p> + +<p class="ctr"> +<img src="./images/04-fig8.png" alt="FIG. 8." /><br /> +FIG. 8.</p> + + +<p>As was stated in the early part of this description, the main object +in a rotary current motor is to have a magnetic field which is as +nearly constant in intensity as possible, and which changes only its +position, that is, its axis. But in Fig. 4 it was shown that the +current I (in dotted lines) is greater than the others (about as 1.4 +to 1 for a phase difference of 90 degrees). If therefore the coils in +Fig. 6 or 8 were all alike, the magnetism generated by the heavy line +coils would be greater than that generated by the others, and would +therefore produce very undesirable pulsations in the magnetic fields; +but as the magnetism depends on the ampere turns, it is necessary +merely to have correspondingly fewer turns on these coils, as compared +with the others. This is shown diagrammatically in Figs. 6 and 8, in +which the heavy line coils have less windings than the others. In +practice it is not always possible to obtain the exact ratio of 1 to +1.4, for instance, but even if this ratio is obtained only +approximately, it nevertheless reduces the pulsations very materially +below what they would be with half the number of phases. It is +therefore not necessary in practice to have more than an approximation +to the exact conditions.</p> + +<p class="ctr"> +<img src="./images/05-fig9.png" alt="FIG. 9." /><br /> +FIG. 9.</p> + +<p class="ctr"> +<img src="./images/05-fig10.png" alt="FIG. 10." /><br /> +FIG. 10.</p> + +<p class="ctr"> +<img src="./images/05-fig11.png" alt="FIG. 11." /><br /> +FIG. 11.</p> + +<p class="ctr"> +<img src="./images/05-fig12.png" alt="FIG. 12." /><br /> +FIG. 12.</p> + + +<p>Fig. 9 shows a multiple phase armature having double the number of +phases as Fig. 1, and would according to the old system, therefore, +require eight leads. Fig. 10 shows the new system with the same number +of phases as in Fig. 9, but requiring only four leads instead of +eight. Figs. 11 and 12 correspond with Figs. 7 and 8 and show the +windings for a multipolar motor in the two systems.</p> + +<p class="ctr"> +<img src="./images/05-fig13.png" alt="FIG. 13." /><br /> +FIG. 13.</p> + +<p class="ctr"> +<img src="./images/05-fig14.png" alt="FIG. 14." /><br /> +FIG. 14.</p> + +<p class="ctr"> +<img src="./images/05-fig15.png" alt="FIG. 15." /><br /> +FIG. 15.</p> + +<p>These figures show how a motor may be wound so as to be a multiple +phase motor, although the current entering the motor is a simple, +elementary three or two phase current, which can be transformed by +means of a simple three or two phase current transformer, before +entering the motor, such transformers as are used at present in the +Lauffen-Frankfort transmission. But the same principle as that for the +motor may also be applied to transformers themselves, as shown in +Figs. 13 and 14. Fig. 13 shows a set of transformers which are fed by +a simple three-phase current shown in heavy lines, and which gives in +its secondary circuit a multiple phase rotary current. The connections +for the primary circuit of a transformer with six coils are shown +diagrammatically in Fig. 15, the numbers 1 to 6 representing the +succession of the phases. Fig. 14 shows a transformer for a two-phase +current with four leads, transforming into a multiple phase current of +16 leads. The transformer in this figure is a single "interlocked" +transformer in which the fields are magnetically connected and not +independent of each other as in Fig. 13. This has advantages in the +regulation of currents, which do not exist in Fig. 13, but which need +not be entered into here. The transformers used in the +Lauffen-Frankfort transmission are similar, magnetically, to Fig. 14, +only that they are for a simple three-phase current in both primary +and secondary circuits. Attention is also called to the difference in +the connections of secondary circuits in Figs. 13 and 14; in the +former they are connected in a closed circuit similarly to an ordinary +closed circuit armature, while in Fig. 14 they are independent as far +as the currents themselves are concerned, though magnetically their +cores are connected. It is not the intention to enter into a +discussion of the relative values of these various connections, but +merely to draw attention to the wide range of the number of +combinations which this system admits of.—<i>Electrical World</i>.</p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="ART07" id="ART07"></a>THE LONDON PARIS TELEPHONE.<a name="FNanchor_2" id="FNanchor_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2"><sup>1</sup></a></h2> + +<h3>By W.H. Preece, F.R.S.</h3> + +<p>1. I have already on two occasions, at Newcastle and at Leeds, brought +this subject before Section G, and have given the details of the +length and construction of the proposed circuit.</p> + +<p>I have now to report not only that the line has been constructed and +opened to the public, but that its success, telephonic and commercial, +has exceeded the most sanguine anticipations. Speech has been +maintained with perfect clearness and accuracy. The line has proved to +be much better than it ought to have been, and the purpose of this +paper is to show the reason why.</p> + +<p>The lengths of the different sections of the circuit are as follows:</p> +<div class="ctr"> +<table border="0" summary="Section, Length"> +<colgroup span="3"><col align="left"><col align="right"><col align="center"></colgroup> +<tr><td>London to St. Margaret's Bay</td><td>84.5</td><td>miles.</td></tr> +<tr><td>St. Margaret's Bay to Sangatte (cable).</td><td>23.0</td><td>"</td></tr> +<tr><td>Sangatte to Paris.</td><td>199.0</td><td>"</td></tr> +<tr><td>Paris underground.</td><td>4.8</td><td>"</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td>———</td></tr> +<tr><td>Total.</td><td>311.3</td><td>"</td></tr> +</table></div> + + +<p>The resistances are as follows:</p> + +<div class="ctr"><table border="0" summary=""> +<colgroup span="3"><col align="left"><col align="right"><col align="center"></colgroup> +<tr><td>Paris underground.</td><td>70</td><td>ohms.</td></tr> +<tr><td>French line.</td><td>294</td><td>"</td></tr> +<tr><td>Cable.</td><td>143</td><td>"</td></tr> +<tr><td>English line.</td><td>183</td><td>"</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td>——</td></tr> +<tr><td>Total (R)</td><td>693</td><td>"</td></tr> +</table></div> + + +<p>The capacities are as follows:</p> + +<div class="ctr"><table border="0" summary=""> +<colgroup span="3"><col align="left"><col align="right"><col align="center"></colgroup> +<tr><td>Paris underground.</td><td>0.43</td><td>microfarads.</td></tr> +<tr><td>French line.</td><td>3.33</td><td>"</td></tr> +<tr><td>Cable.</td><td>5.52</td><td>"</td></tr> +<tr><td>English line.</td><td>1.32</td><td>"</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td>——</td></tr> +<tr><td>Total (K).</td><td>10.62</td><td>"</td></tr> +</table></div> + + +<p class="ctr">693 × 10.62 = 7,359 = K R</p> + +<p>a product which indicates that speech should be very good.</p> + +<p>2. <i>Trials of Apparatus.</i>—The preliminary trials were made during the +month of March between the chief telegraph offices of the two +capitals, and the following microphone transmitters were compared:</p> + +<div class="ctr"> +<table border="0" summary="" width="75%"> +<colgroup span="2" align="left"></colgroup> +<tr><td>Ader.</td><td>Pencil form.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Berliner.</td><td>Granular form.</td></tr> +<tr><td>D'Arsonval.</td><td>Pencil form.</td></tr> +<tr><td>DeJongh.</td><td>Pencil form.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Gower Bell.</td><td>Pencil form.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Post office switch instrument.</td><td>Granules and lamp filaments.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Roulez.</td><td>Lamp filaments.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Turnbull.</td><td>Pencil form.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Western Electric.</td><td>Granular.</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>The receivers consisted of the latest form of double-pole Bell +telephones with some Ader and D'Arsonval receivers for comparison. +After repeated trials it was finally decided that the Ader, +D'Arsonval, Gower-Bell (with double-pole receivers instead of tubes), +Roulez, and Western Electric were the best, and were approximately +equal.</p> + +<p>These instruments were, therefore, selected for the further +experiments, which consisted of using local extensions in Paris and +London. The wires were in the first instance extended at the Paris end +to the Observatory through an exchange at the Avenue des Gobelines. +The length of this local line is 7 kms. The wires are +guttapercha-covered, placed underground, and not suitable for giving +the best results.</p> + +<p>The results were, however, fairly satisfactory. The wires were +extended to the Treasury in London by means of the ordinary +underground system. The distance is about two miles, and although the +volume of sound and clearness of articulation were perceptibly reduced +by these additions to the circuit, conversation was quite practicable.</p> + +<p>Further trials were also made from the Avenue des Gobelines on +underground wires of five kilometers long, and also with some renters +in Paris with fairly satisfactory results. The selected telephones +were equally efficient in all cases, which proves that to maintain +easy conversation when the trunk wires are extended to local points it +is only necessary that the local lines shall be of a standard not +lower than that of the trunk line. The experiments also confirm the +conclusion that long-distance speaking is solely a question of the +circuit and its environments, and not one of apparatus. The +instruments finally selected for actual work were Gower-Bell for +London and Roulez for Paris.</p> + +<p>3. The results are certainly most satisfactory. There is no circuit in +or out of London on which speech is more perfect than it is between +London and Paris. In <a name="Page_13132" id="Page_13132"></a>fact, it is better than I anticipated, and +better than calculation led me to expect. Speech has been possible not +only to Paris but through Paris to Bruxelles, and even, with +difficulty, through Paris to Marseilles, a distance of over 900 miles. +The wires between Paris and Marseilles are massive copper wires +specially erected for telephone business between those important +places.</p> + +<p>4. <i>Business Done.</i>—The charge for a conversation between London and +Paris is 8 s. for three minutes' complete use of the wire. The demand +for the wire is very considerable. The average number of talks per +day, exclusive of Sunday, is 86. The maximum has been 108. We have had +as many as 19 per hour—the average is 15 during the busy hours of the +day. As an instance of what can be done, 150 words per minute have +been dictated in Paris and transcribed in London by shorthand writing. +Thus in three minutes 450 words were recorded, which at 8 s. cost five +words for a penny.</p> + +<p>5. <i>Difficulties.</i>—The difficulties met with in long-distance +speaking are several, and they may be divided into (<i>a</i>) those due to +external disturbances and (<i>b</i>) those due to internal opposition.</p> + +<p>(<i>a.</i>) Every current rising and falling in the neighborhood of a +telephone line within a region, say, of 100 yards, whether the wire +conveying it be underground or overground, induces in the telephone +circuit another current, producing in the telephone a sound which +disturbs speech, and if the neighboring wires are numerous and busy, +as they are on our roads and railways, these sounds became confusing, +noisy, and ultimately entirely preventive of speech. This disturbance +is, however, completely removed by forming the telephone circuit of +two wires placed as near to each other as possible, and twisted around +each other without touching, so as to maintain the mean average +distance of each wire from surrounding conductors the same everywhere. +Thus similar currents are induced in each of the two wires, but being +opposite in direction, as far as the circuit is concerned, they +neutralize each other, and the circuit, therefore, becomes quite +silent.</p> + +<p>In England we make the two wires revolve completely round each other +in every four poles, but in France it is done in every six poles. The +reason for the change is the fact that in the English plan the actual +crossing of the wires takes place in the span between the poles, while +in the French plan it takes place at the poles. This is supposed to +reduce the liability of the wires to be thrown into contact with each +other by the wind, but, on the other hand, it diminishes the +geometrical symmetry of the wires—so very essential to insure +silence. As a matter of fact, contacts do not occur on well +constructed lines, and I think our English wires, being more +symmetrical, are freer from external disturbance than those in France.</p> + +<p class="ctr"> +<img src="./images/06-fig1.png" alt="FIG. 1." /><br /> +FIG. 1.</p> + +<p>(<i>b</i>.) The internal opposition arises from the resistance, R, the +capacity, K, and the electromagnetic inertia, L, of the circuit. A +current of electricity takes time to rise to its maximum strength and +time to fall back again to zero. Every circuit has what is called its +time constant, <i>t</i>, Fig. 1, which regulates the number of current +waves which can be transmitted through it per second. This is the time +the current takes to rise from zero to its working maximum, and the +time it takes to fall from this maximum to zero again, shown by the +shaded portions of the figure; the duration of the working current +being immaterial, and shown by the unshaded portion.</p> + +<p>The most rapid form of quick telegraphy requires about 150 currents +per second, currents each of which must rise and fall in 1/150 of a +second, but for ordinary telephone speaking we must have about 1,500 +currents per second, or the time which each current rises from zero to +its maximum intensity must not exceed 1/3000 part of a second. The +time constant of a telephone circuit should therefore not be less than +0.0003 second.</p> + +<p>Resistance alone does not affect the time constant. It diminishes the +intensity or strength of the currents only; but resistance, combined +with electromagnetic inertia and with capacity, has a serious +retarding effect on the rate of rise and fall of the currents. They +increase the time constant and introduce a slowness which may be +called retardance, for they diminish the rate at which currents can be +transmitted. Now the retardance due to electromagnetic inertia +increases directly with the amount of electromagnetic inertia present, +but it diminishes with the amount of resistance of the conductor. It +is expressed by the ratio L/R while that due to capacity increases +directly, both with the capacity and with the resistance, and it is +expressed by the product, K R. The whole retardance, and, therefore, +the speed of working the circuit or the clearness of speech, is given, +by the equation</p> + +<p class="ctr">(L / R ) + K R = t</p> + +<p>or</p> +<p class="ctr">L + K R² = R t</p> + +<p>Now in telegraphy we are not able altogether to eliminate L, but we +can counteract it, and if we can make Rt = Q, then</p> + +<p class="ctr">L = - K R²</p> + +<p>which is the principle of the shunted condenser that has been +introduced with such signal success in our post office service, and +has virtually doubled the carrying capacity of our wires.</p> + +<p class="ctr"> K R = t</p> + +<p>This is done in telephony, and hence we obtain the law of retardance, +or the law by which we can calculate the distance to which speech is +possible. All my calculations for the London and Paris line were +based on this law, which experience has shown it to be true.</p> + +<p>How is electromagnetic inertia practically eliminated? First, by the +use of two massive copper wires, and secondly by symmetrically +revolving them around each other. Now L depends on the geometry of the +circuit, that is, on the relative form and position of the different +parts of the circuit, which is invariable for the same circuit, and is +represented by a coefficient, λ. It depends also on the +magnetic qualities of the conductors employed and of the space +embraced by the circuit. This specific magnetic capacity is a variable +quantity, and is indicated by μ for the conductor and by μ<sub>0</sub> +for air. It depends also on the rate at which currents rise and fall, +and this is indicated by the differential coefficient dC / dt. It +depends finally on the number of lines of force due to its own current +which cut the conductor in the proper direction; this is indicated by +β. Combining these together we can represent the electromagnetic +inertia of a metallic telephone circuit as</p> + + +<p class="ctr"> L = λ (μ + μ<sub>0</sub>) dC/dt × β</p> + +<p>Now,</p> +<p class="ctr">λ = 2 log ( d<sup>2</sup> / a<sup>2</sup>)</p> + +<p>Hence the smaller we make the distance, <i>d</i>, between the wires, and +the greater we make their diameter, <i>a</i>, the smaller becomes λ. +It is customary to call the value of μ for air, and copper, 1, but +this is purely artificial and certainly not true. It must be very much +less than one in every medium, excepting the magnetic metals, so much +so that in copper it may be neglected altogether, while in the air it +does not matter what it is, for by the method of twisting one +conductor round the other, the magnetization of the air space by the +one current of the circuit rotating in one direction is exactly +neutralized by that of the other element of the circuit rotating in +the opposite direction.</p> + +<p>Now, β, in two parallel conductors conveying currents of the same +sense, that is flowing in the same direction, is retarding, Fig. 2, +and is therefore a positive quantity, but when the currents flow in +opposite directions, as in a metallic loop, Fig. 3, they tend to +assist each other and are of a negative character. Hence in a metallic +telephone circuit we may neglect L <i>in toto</i> as I have done.</p> + +<p class="ctr"> +<img src="./images/06-fig2.png" alt="FIG. 2." /><br /> +FIG. 2.</p> + +<p class="ctr"> +<img src="./images/06-fig3.png" alt="FIG. 3." /><br /> +FIG. 3.</p> + +<p>I have never yet succeeded in tracing any evidence of electromagnetic +inertia in long single copper wires, while in iron wires the value of +L may certainly be taken at 0.005 henry per mile.</p> + +<p>In short metallic circuits, say of lengths up to 100 miles, this +negative quantity does not appear, but in the Paris-London circuit +this helpful mutual action of opposite currents comes on in a peculiar +way. The presence of the cable introduces a large capacity practically +in the center of the circuit. The result is that we have in each +branch of the circuit between the transmitter, say, at London and the +cable at Dover, extra currents at the commencement of the operation, +which, flowing in opposite directions, mutually react on each other, +and practically prepare the way for the working currents. The presence +of these currents proved by the fact that when the cable is +disconnected at Calais, as shown in Fig. 5, and telephones are +inserted in series, as shown at D and D', speech is as perfect between +London and St. Margaret's Bay as if the wires were connected across, +or as if the circuit were through to Paris. Their effect is precisely +the same as though the capacity of the aerial section were reduced by +a quantity, M, which is of the same dimension or character as K. +Hence, our retardance equation becomes</p> + +<p class="ctr"> R (K - M) = t</p> + +<p class="ctr"> +<img src="./images/06-fig4.png" alt="FIG. 4." /><br /> +FIG. 4.</p> + +<p class="ctr"> +<img src="./images/06-fig5.png" alt="FIG. 5." /><br /> +FIG. 5.</p> + +<p>Thus it happens that the London-Paris telephone works better than was +expected. The nature of M is probably equivalent to about 0.0075 φ +per mile, and therefore K should be also about 0.0075 φ instead of +0.0156 φ per mile. This helpful action of mutual induction is +present in all long circuits, and it is the reason why we were able to +speak to Brussels and even to Marseilles. It also appears in every +metallic loop, and vitiates the measurements of electromagnetic +inertia and of capacity of loops. Thus, if we measure the capacity of +a loop as compared with a single wire, the amount per mile may be 50 +per cent. greater than it ought to be; while if we measure the +capacity of one branch of a circuit under the conditions of the +London-Paris telephone line, it may be 50 per cent. less than it +ought to be. This effect of M is shown by the dotted line in Fig. 1.</p> + +<p>Telephonic currents—that is, currents induced in the secondary wire +of an induction coil due to the variation of microphonic currents in +the primary wire—are not alternating currents. They do not follow the +constant periodic law, and they are not true harmonic sine functions +of the time. The microphonic currents are intermittent or pulsatory, +and always flow in the same direction. The secondary currents are also +always of the same sign, as are the currents in a Ruhmkorff coil, and +as are the currents in high vacua with which Crookes has made us so +familiar. Moreover, the frequency of these currents is a very variable +quantity, not only due to the various tones of voices, but to the +various styles of articulation. Hence the laws of periodic alternate +currents following the sine function of the time fail when we come to +consider microphones and telephones. It is important to bear this in +mind, for nearly everything that has hitherto been written on the +subject assumes that telegraphic currents follow the periodic sine +law. The currents derived from Bell's original magneto-transmitters +are alternate, and comply more nearly with the law. The difference +between them and microphones is at once perceptible. Muffling and +disturbance due to the presence of electromagnetic inertia become +evident, which are absent with microphones. I tested this between +London and St. Margaret's, and found the effect most marked.</p> + +<p>7. <i>Lightning.</i>—A metallic telephone circuit may have a static charge +induced upon it by a thunder cloud, as shown in Fig. 6. Such a charge +is an electric strain which is released when the charged cloud flashes +into the earth or into a neighboring cloud. If there be +electromagnetic inertia present, the charge will surge backward and +forward through the circuit until it dies out. If there be no E.M.F. +present it will cease suddenly, and neutrality will be attained at +once. Telephone circuits indicate the operation by peculiar and +characteristic sounds. An iron wire circuit produces a long swish or +sigh, but a copper wire circuit like the Paris-London telephone emits +a short, sharp report, like the crack of a pistol, which is sometimes +startling, and has created fear, but there is no danger or liability +to shock. Indeed, the start has more than once thrown the listener off +his stool, and has led to the belief that he was knocked down by +lightning.</p> + +<p class="ctr"> +<img src="./images/06-fig6.png" alt="FIG. 6." /><br /> +FIG. 6.</p> + +<p>8. The future of telephone working, especially in large cities, is one +of underground wires, and the way to get over the difficulties of this +kind of work is perfectly clear. We must have metallic circuits, +twisted wires, low resistance, and low capacity. In Paris a remarkable +cable, made by Fortin-Herman, gives an exceedingly low capacity—viz., +only 0.069 φ per mile. In the United States they are using a wire +insulated with paper which gives 0.08 φ per mile. We are using in +London Fowler-Waring cable giving a capacity of 1.8 φ per mile, +the capacity of gutta-covered wire being 3 φ per mile.</p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="ART08" id="ART08"></a>THE MANUFACTURE OF PHOSPHORUS BY ELECTRICITY.</h2> + +<p>One of the most interesting of the modern applications of electricity +to the manufacture of chemicals is to be found in the recently +perfected process known as the Readman-Parker process, after the +inventors Dr. J.B. Readman, F.R.S.E., etc., of Edinburgh, and Mr. +Thomas Parker; the well known practical electrician, of Wolverhampton.</p> + +<p>Before giving an account of this process, which has advanced beyond +the experimental to the industrial stage, it may be well to recall the +fact that for several years past Dr. Readman has been devoting an +enormous expenditure of labor, time and money to the perfection of a +process which shall cheapen the production of phosphorus by dispensing +altogether with the use of sulphuric acid for decomposing the +phosphate of lime which forms the raw material of the phosphorus +manufacturer, and also with the employment of fire clay retorts for +distilling the desiccated mixture of phosphoric acid and carbon which +usually forms the second stage of the operation.</p> + +<p>The success of the recent applications of electricity in the +production of certain metals and alloys led Dr. Readman to try this +source of energy in the manufacture of phosphorus, and the results of +the first series of experiments were so encouraging that he took out +provisional protection on October 18, 1888, for preparing this +valuable substance by its means.</p> + +<p>The experiments were carried on at this time on a very small scale, +the power at disposal being very limited in amount. Yet the elements +of success appeared to be so great, and the decomposition of the raw +material was so complete, that the process was very soon prosecuted on +the large scale.</p> + +<p>After a good deal of negotiation with several firms that were in a +position to supply the electric energy required, Dr. Readman finally +made arrangements with the directors of the Cowles Company, limited, +of Milton, near Stoke-on-Trent, the well known manufacturers of alloys +of aluminum, for a lease of a portion of their works and for the use +of the entire electrical energy they produced for certain portions of +the day.</p> + +<p>The experiments on the large scale had not advanced very far before +Dr. Readman became aware that another application for letters patent +for producing phosphorus had been made by Mr. Thomas Parker, of +Wolverhampton, and his chemist, Mr. A.E. Robinson. Their joint patent +is dated December 5, 1888, and was thus applied for only seven weeks +after Dr. Readman's application had been lodged.</p> + +<p>It appeared that Mr. Parker had conducted a number of experiments +simultaneously but quite independently of those carried on by Dr. +Readman, and that he was quite unaware—as the latter was unaware<a name="Page_13133" id="Page_13133"></a>—of +any other worker in this field. It was no small surprise, therefore, +to find during an interview which took place between these rival +inventors some time after the date referred to, that the two patents +were on practically the same lines, namely, the production of +phosphorus by electricity.</p> + +<p>Their interests lay so much together that, after some delay, they +arranged to jointly work out the process, and the result has been the +formation of a preliminary company and the erection on a large scale +of experimental plant in the neighborhood of Wolverhampton to prove +the commercial success of the new system of manufacturing phosphorus.</p> + +<p>Before describing these experimental works it may be as well to see +with what plant Dr. Readman has been working at the Cowles Company's +works. And here we may remark that we are indebted to a paper read by +Dr. Readman at the Philosophical Institution, Edinburgh, a short time +ago; this paper being the third of a series which during the last year +or two have been read by the same scientist on this branch of chemical +industry. Here is an abstract giving a description of the plant. The +works are near the Milton Station, on the North Staffordshire Railway. +The boilers for generating the steam required are of the +Babcock-Wilcox type, and are provided with "mechanical stokers;" the +steam engine is of 600 horse power, and is a compound condensing +horizontal tandem, made by Messrs. Pollitt & Wigzel, of Sowerby +Bridge. The fly wheel of this engine is 20 feet in diameter, and +weighs 30 tons, and is geared to the pulley of the dynamo, so that the +latter makes five revolutions for each revolution of the engine by +rope driving gear, consisting of eighteen ropes. The engine is an +extremely fine specimen of a modern steam engine; it works so silently +that a visitor standing with his back to the engine railings, at the +time the engine is being started, cannot tell whether it is in motion +or not.</p> + +<p>With regard to the dynamo, the spindle is of steel, 18 feet long, with +three bearings, one being placed on either side of the driving pulley. +The diameter is 7 inches in the bearings and 10 inches in the part +within the core. This part in the original forgings was 14 inches in +diameter, and was planed longitudinally, so as to leave four +projecting ribs or radial bars on which the core disks are driven, +each disk having four key ways corresponding to these ribs. There are +about 900 of these disks, the external diameter being 20 inches and +the total length of the core 36 inches.</p> + +<p>The armature winding consists of 128 copper bars, each 7/8 in. deep, +measured radially, by 3/8 in. wide. These bars are coupled up so as to +form thirty-two conductors only; this arrangement has been adopted to +avoid the heating from the Foucault currents, which, with 1½ in. +conductors, would have been very considerable. The bars are coupled at +the ends of the core across a certain chord and are insulated.</p> + +<p>The commutator is 20 inches long, and has sixty-four parts. The +current is collected by eight brushes mounted on a separate ring, +placed concentric to the commutator; and the current is led away from +these brushes by a large number of thin bands of sheet copper strapped +together into convenient groups. The field magnets are of the +horizontal double type.</p> + +<p>As this machine is virtually a series wound machine, the magnet coils +each consist of a few turns only of forged copper bars, 1½ in. wide by +1 in. thick, forged to fit the magnet cores.</p> + +<p>There is no insulation other than mica wedges to keep the bars from +touching the core.</p> + +<p>The dynamo furnishes a current of about 5,000 amperes, with an E.M.F. +of 50 to 60 volts, and three years ago was claimed to be the largest +machine, at least as regards quantity of current, in the world.</p> + +<p>The current from the dynamos is led by copper bars to an enormous "cut +out," calculated to fuse at 8,000 amperes. This is probably one of the +largest ever designed, and consists of a framework carrying twelve +lead plates, each 3½ in. × 1/16th in. thick. A current indicator is +inserted in the circuit consisting of a solenoid of nine turns. The +range of this indicator is such that the center circle of 360°=8,000 +amperes.</p> + +<p>The electrodes consisted of a bundle of nine carbons, each 2½ in. in +diameter, attached by casting into a head of cast iron. Each carbon +weighs 20 lb, and, when new, is about 48 inches long.</p> + +<p>The head of the electrode is screwed to the copper rods or "leads," +which can be readily connected with the flexible cable supplying the +current.</p> + +<p>The electric furnaces are rectangular troughs built of fire brick, +their internal dimensions being 60 in. × 20 in. × 36 in. deep. Into +each end is built a cast iron tube, through which the carbon +electrodes enter the furnace.</p> + +<p>The electrodes are so arranged that it is possible by means of +screwing to advance or withdraw them from the furnace.</p> + +<p>The whole current generated by the great dynamo of the Cowles Company +was passed through the furnace.</p> + +<p>In the experiments raw materials only were used, for it was evident +that it was only by the direct production of phosphorus from the +native minerals which contain it, such as the phosphates of lime, +magnesia, or alumina that there was any hope of superseding, in point +of economy, the existing process of manufacture.</p> + +<p>In the furnaces as used at Milton much difficulty was experienced in +distributing the heat over a sufficiently wide area. So locally +intense indeed was the heat within a certain zone, that all the oxygen +contained in the mixture was expelled and alloys of iron, aluminum, +and calcium combined with more or less silicon, and phosphorus were +produced. Some of these were of an extremely interesting nature.</p> + +<p>We now turn to a short account of the works and plant which have been +erected near Wolverhampton to prove the commercial success of the new +system of manufacturing phosphorus.</p> + +<p>The ground is situated on the banks of a canal and extends to about 10 +acres, which are wholly without buildings except those which have been +erected for the purposes of these industrial experiments. These +consist of boiler and engine houses, and large furnace sheds.</p> + +<p>There are three Babcock & Wilcox steam boilers of 160 horse power +each, and each capable of evaporating 5,000 lb. of water per hour. The +water tubes are 18 ft. long × 4 inches diameter, and the steam and +water drums 43 in. in diameter and 23½ ft. long, of steel 7/16 ths. +in. thick, provided with a double dead head safety valve, stop valves, +blow-off cock, water gauges, and steam gauge.</p> + +<p>The total heating surface on each boiler is 1,619 square feet and the +total grate surface is 30 square feet.</p> + +<p>The boilers are worked at 160 lb. pressure.</p> + +<p>The engine is a triple compound one of the type supplied for torpedo +boats, and built by the Yarrow Shipbuilding Company. It is fitted with +a Pickering governor for constant speed. The engine is capable of +delivering (with condenser) 1,200 indicated horse power, and without +condenser 250 indicated horse power less.</p> + +<p>With steam at 170 lb. pressure the engine worked at 350 revolutions +per minute, but it has been rearranged so as to deliver 700 indicated +horse power with 160 lb. steam pressure without condenser, and at 300 +revolutions per minute:</p> + +<table align="center" border="0" summary=""> +<colgroup span="5" align="center"></colgroup> +<tr><td>The</td><td>high</td><td>pressure cylinder is</td><td>14½</td><td>inches diameter.</td></tr> +<tr><td>"</td><td>intermediate</td><td>"</td><td>25</td><td>"</td></tr> +<tr><td>"</td><td>low pressure</td><td>"</td><td>32</td><td>" </td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="5" align="left">The stroke is 16 inches.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>The dynamo for producing the requisite amount of electric current +supplied to the furnaces is one of the well known Elwell-Parker type +of alternating current dynamos, designed to give 400 units of +electrical energy, equivalent to 536 indicated horse power.</p> + +<p>The armature in the machine is stationary, with double insulation +between the armature coils and the core, and also between the core and +the frame, and is so arranged that its two halves may be readily +connected in series or in parallel in accordance with the requirements +of the furnaces, <i>e.g.</i>, at an electromotive force of 80 volts it will +give 5,000 amperes, and at 160 volts, 2,500 amperes when running at +300 revolutions per minute.</p> + +<p>The exciting current of the alternator is produced by an Elwell-Parker +shunt wound machine, driven direct from a pulley on the alternator +shaft, and so arranged as to give 90 amperes at 250 volts when running +at a speed of 800 revolutions per minute. From 60 to 70 amperes are +utilized in the alternator, the remainder being available for lighting +purposes (which is done through accumulators) and general experimental +purposes.</p> + +<p>The process is carried out in the following way: The raw materials, +all intimately and carefully mixed together, are introduced into the +furnace and the current is then turned on. Shortly afterward, +indications of phosphorus make their appearance.</p> + +<p>The vapors and gases from the furnace pass away to large copper +condensers—the first of which contains hot and the second cold +water—and finally pass away into the air.</p> + +<p>As the phosphorus forms, it distills off from the mixture, and the +residue forms a liquid slag at the bottom of the furnace. Fresh +phosphorus yielding material is then introduced at the top. In this +way the operation is a continuous one, and may be continued for days +without intermission.</p> + +<p>The charges for the furnace are made up with raw material, <i>i.e.</i>, +native phosphates without any previous chemical treatment, and the +only manufactured material necessary—if such it may be called—is the +carbon to effect the reduction of the ores.</p> + +<p>The crude phosphorus obtained in the condensers is tolerably pure, and +is readily refined in the usual way.</p> + +<p>Dr. Readman and Mr. Parker have found that it is more advantageous to +use a series of furnaces instead of sending the entire current through +one furnace. These furnaces will each yield about 1½ cwt. of +phosphorus per day.</p> + +<p>Analyses of the slag show that the decomposition of the raw phosphates +is very perfect, for the percentage of phosphorus left in the slag +seldom exceeds 1 per cent.—<i>Chemical Trade Journal</i>.</p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="ART19" id="ART19"></a>NEW BLEACHING APPARATUS.</h2> + +<p>The apparatus forming the subject of this invention was designed by +Francis A. Cloudman, Erwin B. Newcomb, and Frank H. Cloudman, of +Cumberland Mills, Me., and comprises a series of tanks or chests, two +or more in number, through which the material to be bleached is caused +to pass, being transferred from one to the next of the series in +order, while the bleaching agent is caused to pass through the series +of chests in the reverse order, and thus acts first and at full +strength upon the materials which have previously passed through all +but the last one of the series of chests and have already been +subjected to the bleaching agent of less strength.</p> + +<p>For convenience, the chest in which the material is first introduced +will be called the "first of the series" and the rest numbered in the +order in which the material is passed from one to the other, and it +will be understood that any desired number may be used, two, however, +being sufficient to carry on the process.</p> + +<p>The invention is shown embodied in an apparatus properly constructed +for treating pulp used for the manufacture of paper, and for +convenience the material to be bleached will be hereinafter referred +to as the pulp, although it is obvious that similar apparatus might be +used for bleaching other materials, although the apparatus might have +to be modified to adapt it for conveying other materials of different +nature than pulp from one bleaching chest to the other and for +separating out the bleaching liquid and conveying it from one chest to +the other in the reverse order to that in which the material passes +from one chest to the next.</p> + +<p>The pulp material with which the apparatus herein illustrated is +intended to be used is retained in suspension in the bleaching liquid +and flows readily through ducts or passages provided for it in the +apparatus in which the pulp to be bleached and the bleaching liquid +are introduced together at the bottom of each chest and flow upward +therethrough, while at the top of each chest there are two conveyors, +one for carrying the pulp from one chest to the next in order, while +the other carries the bleaching liquid from one tank to the next in +the reverse order, the said conveyors also acting to partially +separate the pulp from the liquid in which it has been suspended +during its upward passage through the chest.</p> + +<p>Suitable agitators may be employed for thoroughly mixing the materials +in the chest and in the apparatus shown the bleaching agent and +material to be bleached pass through each chest in the same +direction—namely from the bottom to the top—although they are +carried from one chest to the next in the reverse order, the material +to be bleached being primarily introduced into the chest at one end of +the series, while the bleaching agent or solution is introduced +primarily into the chest at the other end of the series.</p> + +<p>Fig. 1 is a plan view of an apparatus for bleaching in accordance with +this invention, comprising a series of four chests, and Fig. 2 is a +vertical longitudinal section of a modified arrangement of two chests +in line with one another, and with the conveyor for the material to be +bleached and the passage through which said material passes from the +top of one chest into the bottom of the next chest in the plane of +section.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/07-fig1.png"> +<img src="./images/07-fig1_th.png" alt="FIG. 1." /></a><br /> +Fig. 1.</p> + + +<p>The chests, <i>a</i> <i>a<sup>2</sup></i> <i>a<sup>3</sup></i> <i>a<sup>4</sup></i>, may be of any desired shape +and dimensions and any desired number may be used. Each of said chests +is provided with an inlet passage, <i>b</i>, opening into the same near its +bottom, and through this passage the materials are introduced. The +unbleached material, which may be paper pulp or material which is +readily held in suspension in a liquid and is capable of flowing or +being conveyed from one point to another in a semi-fluid condition, is +introduced through the inlet passage, <i>b</i>, to the first chest, <i>a</i>, of +the series, said pulp preferably having had as much as possible of the +liquid in which it was previously suspended removed without, however, +drying it, and, together with the said pulp, the bleaching agent which +has previously passed through the other chests of the series, as will +be hereinafter described, is introduced so that both enter together at +the lower portion of the first chest, <i>a</i>, of the series. The said +materials are caused to flow into the chest continuously, so that the +portion at each moment entering tends to displace that which has +already entered, thus causing the materials to rise gradually or flow +upward from the bottom to the top of the chest.</p> + +<p>Suitable stirring devices or agitators, <i>c</i>, may be employed to keep +the pulp in suspension and to expose it thoroughly and uniformly to +the liquid introduced with it.</p> + +<p class="ctr"> +<img src="./images/06-fig2.png" alt="FIG. 2." /><br /> +Fig. 2.</p> + +<p>When the materials (the pulp and the bleaching liquid) arrive at or +near the top of the chest, they are partially separated from one +another and removed from the chest at substantially the same rate that +they are introduced, as follows: Each chest is provided at its upper +part with a liquid conveyor, <i>d</i>, having a construction similar to +that of the device known as a "washer" in paper making machinery, +consisting of a rotating drum, the periphery of which is covered with +gauze, which permits the liquid to pass into it, but excludes the pulp +suspended in the liquid, the said drum containing blades or buckets +that raise the liquid which thus enters through the gauze and +discharges it at <i>d<sup>2</sup></i> near the axis of said drum. There is one of +these washers in each one of the series of chests, and each discharges +the liquid taken from its corresponding chest into the inlet pipe of +the next preceding chest of the series, the washer in the chest, +<i>a<sup>4</sup></i>, for example, delivering into the inlet passage, <i>b</i>, of the +chest, <i>a<sup>2</sup></i>, and so on, while the washer of the first chest, <i>a</i>, +of the series delivers into a discharge pipe, <i>e</i>, through which the +liquid may be permitted to run to waste or conveyed to any suitable +receptacle, if it is desired to subject it to chemical action for the +purpose of renewing its bleaching powers or obtaining the chemical +agents that may be contained within it.</p> + +<p>The operation of the washers in removing the liquid from the upper +part of the chest tends to thicken the pulp therein, and the said +thickened pulp is conveyed from one chest to the next in the series by +any suitable conveying device, <i>f</i> (shown in this instance as a worm +working in a trough or case, <i>f<sup>2</sup></i>), which may be made foraminous +for the purpose of permitting the liquid to drain out of the pulp that +is being carried through by the worm, in order that the pulp may be +introduced into the next chest of the series as free as possible from +the liquid in which it has been suspended while in the chest from +which it is just taken. The pulp is thus conveyed from one chest in +the series to the inlet passage leading to the next chest of the +series, and in the <a name="Page_13134" id="Page_13134"></a>said inlet passage it meets the liquid coming in +the reverse order from the next chest beyond in the series, the pulp +and liquid thus commingling in the inlet pipe and entering the chest +together, and being thoroughly mixed by the agitators in passing +through the chest by the continued action of fresh material entering +and of the conveyors taking the material out from the chests. In the +last of the series of chests into which the pulp is introduced the +fresh or strong bleaching liquid is introduced through a suitable +inlet pipe, <i>g</i>, and the pulp conveyor, <i>f</i>, that takes the pulp from +the last chest, delivers it into a pipe, <i>h</i>, by which it may be +conveyed to any desired point, the said pulp having been sufficiently +bleached before arriving at the said pipe, <i>h</i>. It will be seen that +by these means all the pulp is thoroughly and uniformly subjected to +the bleaching agent and that the bleaching is gradually performed in +all parts of the pulp, which is first acted upon by the weaker +bleaching agent that has previously operated upon the pulp before +treated, and that finally, when nearly bleached, the pulp is acted +upon by the bleaching material of full strength, this action being far +more efficient than when the materials are simply mixed together, the +unbleached material with the strong bleaching agent, and allowed to +remain together until the bleaching operation is finished, in which +plan the bleaching agent loses its strength as the bleaching operation +approaches completion, so that when the pulp is nearly bleached it is +operated upon by a very weak bleaching agent. By having the pulp +transferred from one chest to the next in the reverse order to that in +which the liquid is transferred it will be seen that all parts of the +pulp are acted upon uniformly and equally and that the operation may +go on continuously for an indefinite period of time without +necessitating stopping to empty the vats, as is the case when the +liquor only is transferred from one vat to the next. A pump may be +used for lifting the bleaching liquid, as shown, for example, at <i>k</i>, +Fig. 1. where said pump is used to raise the liquid delivered from the +chest, <i>a<sup>2</sup></i>, and discharge it into the trough, <i>m</i>, by which the +pulp is carried to the inlet pipe, <i>b</i>. By the use of the pump, <i>h</i>, a +stronger flow of the liquid into the pipe <i>b</i>, of the first chest, +<i>a</i>, is effected than if it were taken directly from the washer of the +chest, <i>a<sup>2</sup></i>, which is desirable, as the pulp is delivered in the +trough, <i>m</i>, with but little moisture.</p> + +<p>It is obvious that the construction of the apparatus may be varied +considerably without materially changing the essential features of +operation. For example, the washers might be dispensed with and the +liquid permitted to flow through suitable strainers from one chest to +the next in order, by gravity, the successive chests in the order of +the passage of the pulp being placed each at a higher level than the +preceding one, and it is also obvious that the construction of the +pulp conveyors might be widely varied, it being essential only that +means should be provided for removing the pulp from one chest and +delivering it into the next while carrying only a small amount of the +liquid from one chest to the next with the pulp.</p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="ART14" id="ART14"></a>THE USE OF COMPRESSED AIR IN CONJUNCTION WITH MEDICINAL SOLUTIONS +IN THE TREATMENT OF NERVOUS AND MENTAL AFFECTIONS.</h2> + +<h3>BEING A NEW SYSTEM OF CEREBRO-SPINAL THERAPEUTICS.</h3> + +<h3>By J. LEONARD CORNING, A.M., M.D., New York, Consultant in Nervous +Diseases to St. Francis Hospital, St. Mary's Hospital, the Hackensack +Hospital, etc.</h3> + +<p>To merely facilitate the introduction of medicinal agents into the +system by way of the air passages, in the form of gases, medicated or +non-medicated, has heretofore constituted the principal motive among +physicians for invoking the aid of compressed air. The experiments of +Paul Bert with nitrous oxide and oxygen gas, performed over fourteen +years ago, and the more recent proposals of See, are illustrations in +point.</p> + +<p>The objects of which I have been in search are quite different from +the foregoing, and have reference not to the introduction of the +remedy, but to the enhancement of its effects after exhibition. Let me +be more explicit on this point, by stating at once that, in +contradistinction to my predecessors, I shall endeavor to show that by +far the most useful service derivable from compressed air is found in +its ability to enhance and perpetuate the effects of soluble remedies +(introduced hypodermically, by the mouth, or otherwise) upon the +internal organs, and more especially upon the cerebro-spinal axis. +Some chemical affinity between the remedy employed and the protoplasm +of the nerve cell is, of course, assumed to exist; and it is with the +enhancement of this affinity—this bond of union between the medicinal +solution and the nervous element—that we shall chiefly concern +ourselves in the following discussion.</p> + +<p>By way of introduction, I may recall the fact that my attention was +directed several years since to the advisability of devising some +means by the aid of which medicinal substances, and more especially +anæsthetics, might be made to localize, intensify, and perpetuate +their action upon the peripheral nerves. The simple problem in +physiology and mechanics involved in this question I was fortunate +enough to solve quite a long time ago; and I must confess that in the +retrospect these undertakings in themselves do not seem to me of great +magnitude, though in their practical application their significance +appears more considerable. Herein lies, it may be, the explanation of +the interest which these studies excited in the profession at the time +of their publication. These things are, however, a part of medical +history; and I merely refer to them at this time because they have led +me to resume the solution of a far greater problem—that of +intensifying, perpetuating, and (to some extent at least) localizing +the effects of remedies upon the brain and spinal cord. I speak of +resuming these studies because, as far back as 1880 and 1882, I made +some attempts—albeit rather abortive—in the same direction.</p> + +<p>In constructing the argument for the following study, I am beholden +more especially to three facts, the knowledge of which came to me as +the direct result of experimental tests. One may place confidence, +therefore, in the procedure which I have based upon these premises, +for at no point, I think, in the following argument will mere +affirmation be found to have usurped the place of sound induction. +Without anticipating further, then, let me specify as briefly as may +be the nature of these facts.</p> + +<p>PREMISES OF ARGUMENT. <i>First Fact.</i>—The amount of ether, chloroform, +chloral hydrate, the bromides, strychnine, and many other remedies, +required to produce physiological effects upon the cerebro-spinal +mechanism may be reduced by first securing a ligature around the +central portion of one or several of the limbs of an animal, so as to +interrupt both the arterial and venous circulation.</p> + +<p>The proof and explanation of this may be thus presented:</p> + +<p>In the first place, it is well known that children and small animals +are affected by much smaller quantities of anæsthetics and other +medicinal substances than are required to produce equal effects in men +and large animals.</p> + +<p>At first sight, there appears to exist a certain definite relation +between the weight of the animal and the quantity of medicament +required to produce physiological effects. On closer inquiry, however, +we find behind this proposition the deeper truth that the real +proportion is between the magnitude of the blood-mass and the amount +of medicament. Thus, if we withdraw a considerable amount of blood +from a large dog, we may be able to affect him by much smaller doses +than those required under ordinary circumstances; and, among human +beings, we find the anæmic much more susceptible to remedies than the +full-blooded of equal weight.</p> + +<p>The degree of saturation of the blood-mass with the remedy is +obviously, then, the principal thing; the greater the amount of blood, +the more remedy—everything else being equal—we shall have to give in +order to obtain definite results.</p> + +<p>If we wish to embody the proposition in a mathematical statement, we +may do so in the following simple manner:</p> + +<p>Let a represent the total quantity of blood, <i>b</i>, the amount of remedy +exhibited, and <i>x</i> the magnitude of the physiological effect. We shall +then have the simple formula, x = b / a.</p> + +<p>Again, if we withdraw a certain quantity of blood from the circulation +by venesection, and call that amount <i>d</i>, we shall then have the +formula</p> + +<p class="ctr"> x = b / ( a - d )</p> + +<p>But, if we wish to act upon the organs of the trunk, and more +especially upon those contained within the cerebro-spinal canal, it is +not necessary to resort to such a drastic expedient as copious +blood-letting; for, in place of this, we may dam up and effectually +eliminate from the rest of the body a certain amount of blood by +passing a ligature around the central portion of one or several +extremities, so as to interrupt the circulation in both artery and +vein. When this has been done it is clear that we may introduce a +remedy into the system by way of the stomach, or hypodermically into +some portion of the trunk; and it is equally certain that a remedy so +introduced will be diluted only in the ratio of the amount of blood +freely circulating, and more especially by that contained within the +trunk and head. That which is incarcerated behind the ligatures is as +effectually withdrawn from the realm of physiological action as though +it had been abstracted by the surgeon's knife. Elimination by the +knife and elimination by the ligature are, for present purposes, then, +one and the same thing. Hence, if we let <i>d'</i> represent the amount of +blood incarcerated behind the ligatures, <i>x</i> the magnitude of the +physiological effect which we are seeking, <i>b</i> the amount of remedy +exhibited, and a the total amount of blood contained in the whole +organism, we shall have the formula,</p> + +<p class="ctr"> x = b / ( a - d' ) = b / ( a - d )</p> + +<p>Several years since, I had an excellent opportunity of proving the +truth of the foregoing, in connection with the administration of ether +in the case of a patient who resisted all attempts to anæsthetize him +in the ordinary way.</p> + +<p>The case in question was a man under treatment at the Manhattan Eye +and Ear Hospital, upon whom it was deemed advisable to perform an +operation. As has been said, the ordinary means of inducing anæsthesia +had proved ineffectual, for the man was a confirmed drunkard; and it +was at this juncture that I was called in consultation and requested +by my friend, Dr. David Webster, one of the surgeons of the hospital, +to endeavor to devise some means of getting the man under the +influence of the anæsthetic.</p> + +<p>The procedure which I suggested was this:<a name="FNanchor_3" id="FNanchor_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3"><sup>2</sup></a> Around the upper part of +each thigh a flat rubber tourniquet was tightly drawn and secured in +place in the usual manner. By this means the sequestration of all the +blood contained in the lower limbs was accomplished; but, inasmuch as +both artery and vein were compressed, only the amount of blood usually +contained in each limb was shut off from the rest of the body—which +would not have been the case had we contented ourselves with merely +compressing the veins, as some have done.</p> + +<p>In subsequently commenting on my published report of this case, that +most accomplished writer and physician, Henry M. Lyman—than whom +there is no greater authority on anæsthesia—observes that the plan +proposed and adopted by me on this occasion (that of compressing both +vein and artery) is far preferable to compression of the vein alone.</p> + +<p>The reason for this is not far to seek. When we compress the veins +alone there is a rapid accumulation of blood in the extremities +through the accessions derived from the uninterrupted arteries. Now, +as this blood is derived from the trunk, and consequently also from +the organs contained within the cerebro-spinal canal, there is danger +of syncope and even heart failure. When, on the other hand, both +artery and vein are compressed no such derivative action occurs, and +all danger is, consequently, removed. With an apology for this brief +digression, I now return to the interesting case which has given rise +to it.</p> + +<p>Having, as previously stated, applied tourniquets to the central +portion of the lower limbs, the ether cap was placed over the mouth +and nose of the patient, and in an incredibly short time he was +unconscious, and the surgeons were able to go on with the operation.</p> + +<p>The late Dr. Cornelius R. Agnew and many other members of the staff of +the hospital were present, and gave emphatic expressions of approval.</p> + +<p>Dr. F.W. Ring, assistant surgeon to the Manhattan Eye and Ear +Hospital, declared that both the amount of ether and the time consumed +in its administration were infinitesimal when compared with what had +been expended in previous efforts at inducing anæsthesia in the usual +way. The facts brought out on this occasion with regard to the +administration of ether have since been repeatedly verified by +different observers; so that at the present day their validity cannot +be questioned. I will merely add, however, that I have long known that +the dosage of phenacetin, antipyrine, morphine, chloralamid, chloral, +the bromides, and many other remedies might be reduced by resort to +the same procedure; all of which is merely equivalent to stating that +their pharmaco-dynamic energy may be increased in this way. And this +brings us to the second fact, which requires no special elaboration, +and may be stated thus:</p> + +<p><i>Second Fact.</i>—The duration of the effect of a remedy upon the +cerebro-spinal axis is in the inverse ratio of its volatility; and +this is equally true whether the remedy be given with or without the +precautions previously detailed. For example, the anæsthetic effects +of ether disappear shortly after removal of the inhaler, whether we +apply tourniquets to the extremities or not; but, on the other hand, +the analgesic influence of antipyrin, phenacetin, morphine, and other +like remedies lasts very much longer, and their dose may be reduced, +or—what is the same thing—their pharmaco-dynamic potency may be +enhanced by the sequestration of the blood contained within the +extremities. So far as I know, I was the first to announce this fact. +In so far as a simple expression of the above truth is concerned, we +may employ the following formula:</p> + +<p>Let <i>a</i> represent the normal blood-mass contained in the entire body, +<i>d</i> the amount of blood sequestrated by the ligatures, <i>b</i> the amount +of the remedy, <i>c</i> the volatility of the remedy, and <i>x</i> the +pharmaco-dynamic potency of which we are in search; we shall then have</p> + +<p class="ctr"> x = b / { ( a - d ) × c }</p> + +<p>We now arrive at our third fact, which will require more extensive +elaboration.</p> + +<p><i>Third Fact.</i>—The pharmaco-dynamic potency of stimulants, sedatives, +analgesics, and probably of all remedies which possess a chemical +affinity for nervous matter, is enhanced by exhibiting them (the +remedies) in solution or soluble form—hypodermically, by the mouth, +or per rectum—while the subject remains in a condensed atmosphere. +And, as a corollary, it may be stated that this increase, this +enhancement of the potency of the remedy is, within certain limits, in +the ratio of the atmospheric condensation.</p> + +<p>To express this truth mathematically is not difficult. Thus, when a +represents the amount of blood of the whole body, <i>b</i> the amount of +the remedy, <i>e</i> the amount of atmospheric compression, and <i>x</i> the +pharmaco-dynamic potentiality which we are seeking, we shall then have +the simple formula:</p> + +<p class="ctr">x = ( b x e ) / a</p> + +<p>A definite conception of the truth of this proposition will, I think, +be more readily attained by the presentation of the steps which led me +to its discovery.</p> + +<p>Let me begin, then, by stating that my attention was attracted several +years ago by that unique complex of symptoms known as the "caisson or +tunnel disease." As most physicians are aware, the caisson disease is +an affection of the spinal cord, due to a sudden transition from a +relatively high atmospheric pressure to one much lower. Hence, those +who work in caissons, or submerged tunnels, under an external pressure +of two atmospheres or even more, are liable to be attacked by the +disease shortly after leaving the tunnel. The seizure never, however, +occurs while the subject is in the caisson, or in other words, while +he remains under pressure. Moreover, when the transition from the +condensed atmosphere to that of ordinary density is gradually +accomplished, which may be done by letting the air escape from the +lock very slowly, the caisson disease is rarely if ever set up. It is +the systematic disregard of this principle by those who work in +compressed air that is responsible, or largely responsible, for the +occurrence of the disease.</p> + +<p>The chief clinical features of the caisson disease are pain, which may +be relatively mild, as when confined to a circumscribed area of one +extremity, or of frightful intensity, as when it appears in the ears, +knees, back, or abdomen; anæsthesia and paralysis, usually of +paraplegic type; bladder symptoms, assuming the form of retention or +incontinence; and, more rarely, rectal disturbances (usually +incontinence).</p> + +<p>These phenomena, or rather some of them, appear some time within half +an hour after the subject has left the compressed atmosphere. It was +while investigating this most interesting affection as it occurred in +the course of the construction of the Hudson River tunnel, that I was +able, at the same time, to study the effects of compressed air upon +the organism, and especially upon the nervous system, as exhibited in +a large number of persons.</p> + +<p>The results of these studies I now submit without hesitation, and in +all candor, to the judgment of the profession, believing, as I +certainly do, that their practical significance from a +neuro-therapeutic standpoint is assured. Without anticipating, +however, let me state that the first thing which impressed me about +compressed air was its extraordinary effect upon cerebral and +cerebro-spinal function.</p> + +<p>Those who remain for a certain length of time, not too long, however, +in the condensed atmosphere, exhibit a most striking exacerbation of +mental and physical vigor. They go up and down ladders, lift heavy +weights, are more or less exhilarated, and, in short, behave as though +under the influence of a stimulant.</p> + +<p>Hardly had I observed these things, which are perfectly well known to +those who have been able to <a name="Page_13135" id="Page_13135"></a>familiarize themselves with the ordinary +effects of compressed air as used in caissons and submarine works of +various kinds, when my attention became attracted by what at first +appeared to be a phenomenon of trivial importance. In a word, I +observed that some of the men exposed to the effects of the compressed +air were more exhilarated by it than others. Upon superficial +reflection one might have supposed that this discrepancy in +physiological effect was to be accounted for merely on the basis of +constitutional idiosyncrasy; maturer thought, however, convinced me +that the exaggerated effects of the condensed air were both too +numerous and too constant to be amenable to such an explanation. This +led me to study the habits of the men; and thus it was that I arrived +at a discovery of real practical value to neurotherapy. To be brief, I +found that a certain percentage of the men, before entering the +compressed air employed in the construction of the Hudson River +tunnel, were in the habit of drinking a quantity of alcohol, usually +in the form of whisky. So long as these men remained outside the +tunnel, where the atmospheric conditions were normal, they were not +visibly affected by their potations. When, however, they entered the +compressed air of the tunnel, but a short time elapsed before they +became exhilarated to an inordinate degree, acting, as one of the +foremen graphically expressed it, "as though they owned the town."</p> + +<p>On the other hand, when the customary draught of alcohol was withheld +from them, these same men were no more, if as much, exhilarated on +entering the compressed air as were their fellows.</p> + +<p>The effects of alcohol, then, are enhanced by exposing the subject to +the influence of an atmosphere condensed to a considerable degree +beyond that of the normal atmosphere.</p> + +<p>Acting on the hint derived from this discovery, I proceeded to +administer absinthe, ether, the wine of coca, vermouth, champagne, and +other stimulants, before exposing the subject to the influence of the +condensed atmosphere, and invariably observed analogous effects, +<i>i.e.</i>, palpable augmentation of the physiological effects of the +remedy.</p> + +<p>Upon what principle does this augmentation of physiological effect +depend? how is it to be accounted for?</p> + +<p>In my opinion, the answer to this question may be given as follows: In +the first place, we know that the primary effect of the compressed air +upon the organism must be to force the blood from the surface of the +body toward the interior, and especially into the cerebro-spinal +canal. Or, to express it more succinctly, the blood will be forced in +the direction of the least resistance, that is, into the soft organs +inclosed by bony walls, which latter completely shut out the element +of counter-pressure. Now, when the blood stream is freighted with a +soluble chemical of some sort—let us say, for the present, with +alcohol—this medicated blood will exert its greatest chemical effect +where the tension—the pressure—is greatest, that is, in the +cerebro-spinal canal. The reason for this is found in the fact that +endosmosis is most pronounced where the blood pressure is greatest. +This explanation of why the effects of alcohol are enhanced by +exposing the individual who has taken it to the effects of a condensed +atmosphere will, I believe, appeal to the physiological conceptions of +most medical men. It was the above course of reasoning which, at this +stage of the argument, led me to the idea that, just as the effects of +stimulating substances are enhanced by exposing the subject to the +influence of compressed air, so, inversely, sedatives and analgesics, +when brought in solution into the blood stream, either hypodermically +or by the stomach, might be greatly enhanced in effect by causing the +subject to remain, while under their influence, in a condensed +atmosphere.</p> + +<p>When I came to investigate the validity of these predictions, as I did +shortly after the introduction of antipyrin, phenacetin, and the other +members of the same group of compounds, I found my predictions +verified, and, indeed, exceeded. To summarize the whole matter, I +ascertained that not only could therapeutic effects be obtained from +much smaller doses by exposing the subject to the influence of a +condensed atmosphere, but, what was of equal interest, I found that +the analgesic influence of the remedies was much more permanent, was +prolonged, in short, by this mode of administration. When we consider +how great must be the nutritive changes in the nervous system, and +especially in the cerebro-spinal axis, consequent upon increasing the +blood pressure in this way, I hardly think that these things should be +matters of astonishment.</p> + +<p>CONCERNING THE PRACTICAL APPLICATION OF THE FOREGOING FACTS.—Truths +like the foregoing possess, however, much more than a theoretical +interest, and we should be greatly lacking in perspicuity did we not +seek to derive from them something further than a foundation for mere +speculation. Indeed, the whole tenor of these facts is opposed to such +a course, for, view them as we may, the thought inevitably arises that +here are things which contain the germ of some practical acquisition. +This, at least, is the impression which they engendered in my own +mind—an impression which, being unable to rid myself of, I have +allowed to fructify. Nor has regret followed this tenacity of purpose, +since, by the <i>combination</i> of the three principles previously +enunciated, I have been able to devise a procedure which, in my hands, +has yielded flattering results in the treatment of a wide range of +nervous affections, and notably so in melancholia, chorea, insomnia, +neurasthenia, and painful conditions of various kinds.</p> + +<p>RECAPITULATION OF ARGUMENT.—The method in question consists, then, in +the combination of the three facts already elucidated. To +recapitulate, they are:</p> + +<p>1. That the effects of remedies upon the cerebro-spinal axis may be +enhanced by the sequestration of the blood contained in one or more +extremities, previous to the administration of the medicament. This is +only another way of saying that the quantity of a remedy required to +produce a given physiological effect may be reduced by any expedient +which suspends, or sequestrates, the blood in one or more extremities. +As has been previously said, however, care should be exercised to +avoid dangerous exsanguination of the trunk, and consequently of the +respiratory and cardiac centers contained in the medulla. This may be +done by compressing the central portion of both artery and vein; but +I shall presently indicate a better way of accomplishing the same +thing.</p> + +<p>2. The duration of the effect of a remedy upon the cerebro-spinal axis +is in the inverse ratio of its volatility. For this reason the +anæsthetic effects of ether disappear shortly after removal of the +inhaler, whereas solutions of antipyrin, phenacetin, morphine, and +other salts possessing an affinity for nervous tissue exert much more +permanent effects upon the cerebro-spinal system.</p> + +<p>It is evident, therefore, that the administration of remedies designed +to exert an influence upon the central nervous system in the form of +gases must be far inferior to the exhibition of potent solutions +hypodermically or by the mouth.</p> + +<p>3. The pharmaco-dynamic potency of stimulants, sedatives, analgesics, +and probably of all remedies possessing a chemical affinity for +nervous matter, is enhanced by exhibiting them (the remedies) in +solution, or at least in <i>soluble form while the subject remains in a +condensed atmosphere</i>.</p> + +<p>And, as a corollary to this, it may be stated that this increase—this +enhancement of therapeutic effect—is, within physiological limits, in +the ratio of the atmospheric condensation. By physiological limits we +mean simply that there is a degree of atmospheric condensation beyond +which we cannot go without jeopardizing the well-being of the subject.</p> + +<p class="ctr">(<i>To be continued</i>.)</p> + + +<a name="Footnote_2" id="Footnote_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2">[1]</a><div class="note"><p>Paper read before the British Association.—<i>Elec. +Engineer.</i></p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_3" id="Footnote_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3">[2]</a><div class="note"><p>On the "Effective and Rapid Induction of General +Anæsthesia," the New York <i>Medical Journal</i>, October 22 and December +24, 1887.</p></div> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="ART13" id="ART13"></a>EYESIGHT: ITS CARE DURING INFANCY AND YOUTH.<a name="FNanchor_4" id="FNanchor_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4"><sup>1</sup></a></h2> + +<h3>By L. WEBSTER FOX, M.D.</h3> + +<p>Medical science, as taught in our medical colleges to-day, has two +objects in view: (1) the prevention of disease; (2) the amelioration +of disease and its cure. Some of our advanced thinkers are suggesting +a new mode of practice, that is the prevention of disease by proper +hygienic measures. Chairs are being established and professors +appointed to deliver lectures on hygiene. Of what value is the +application of therapeutics if the human economy is so lowered in its +vital forces that dissolution is inevitable? Is it not better to +prevent disease than to try the cure after it has become established, +or has honeycombed the constitution?</p> + +<p>These few preliminary remarks are <i>apropos</i> to what is to follow in +the subject which I have selected as the topic for discussion this +evening.</p> + +<p>Vision is the most useful of all the senses. It is the one gift which +we should cherish and guard the most. And at no time in one's life is +it more precious than in infancy and youth.</p> + +<p>In infancy, when the child is developing, the one great avenue to the +unfolding, or more properly speaking, the development, of the +intellect is through the eye. The eye at this period holds in abeyance +all the other senses. The child, when insensible to touch, taste, +smell or hearing, will become aroused to action by a bright light or +bright colors, or the movement of any illuminated object, proving to +all that light is essential to the development of the first and most +important sense. Again, the infant of but six days of age will +recognize a candle flame, while its second sense and second in +importance to its development—hearing—will not be recognized for +<i>six</i> weeks to two months. Taste, touch and smell follow in regular +sequence. Inasmuch as light makes thus early an impression on the +delicate organ of vision, how necessary it behooves us to guard the +infant from too bright lights or too much exposure in our bright +climate. Mothers—not only the young mother with her first child, but +also those who have had several children—are too apt to try to quiet +a restless child by placing it near a bright flame; much evil to the +future use of those eyes is the outgrowth of such a pernicious habit. +Light throws into action certain cells of that wonderful structure of +the eye, the retina, and an over stimulus perverts the action of those +cells. The result is that by this over-stimulation the seeds of future +trouble are sown. Let the adult gaze upon the arc of an electric light +or into the sun, and for many moments, nay hours, that individual has +dancing before his vision scintillations and phosphenes. His direct +vision becomes blurred, and as in the case of a certain individual I +have in mind, there may be a permanent loss of sight. Parents should +take the first precaution in the child's life, and not expose it to a +light too bright or glaring. When in the open air let the child's eyes +be protected from the direct rays of the sun. While it is impossible +to give all children the advantage of green fields and outdoor +ramblings, yet nature never intended that civilization should debar +the innocent child from such surroundings.</p> + +<p>An anecdote is related of a French ophthalmic surgeon, that a +distinguished patient applied to him for relief from a visual defect; +the surgeon advised him to go into the country and look out upon the +green fields. The green color with its soothing effect soon brought +about a restoration of vision. What I wish to illustrate by this +anecdote is that children should be allowed the green fields as their +best friend in early life. It tones up the system and rests the eye. +After outdoor exercise and plenty of it, we should turn our attention +to the home surroundings of our little ones. The overheated rooms of +the average American home I am sure have more to do with the growing +tendency of weak eyes than we feel like admitting. Look at these frail +hot-house plants, and can any one believe that such bodies nourished +in almost pestilential atmosphere can nourish such delicate organs of +vision, and keep them ready for the enormous amount of work each +little eye performs daily? The brain developing so rapidly wills with +an increasing rapidity the eye to do increasing duties; note the +result—a tendency to impoverished circulation first, and the eye with +its power to give the brain a new picture in an infinitesimal short +space of time means lightning-like circulation—the eye must give way +by its own exhaustion.</p> + +<p>Civilization is the progenitor of many eye diseases.</p> + +<p>After a boy has grown to that age when it becomes necessary for him to +begin the education prescribed by the wise men, obstacles are placed +in his way to aid again in causing deterioration of vision. It is not +so much the overcrowded condition of our school rooms as the enormous +amount of work that causes deterioration of sight. Our children begin +their school life at a time when they are too young. A child at six +years of age who is forced to study all day or even a part of a day +will not run the same race that one will who commences his studies at +ten—all things being equal. The law prescribes that so much time must +be devoted to study, so many forms must be passed, so many books must +be read, so many pages of composition written—all probably in badly +lighted rooms, or by artificial light. Note the effect. First, +possibly, distant vision gives way; the teacher, sympathizing with the +overburdened child, tries to make the burden lighter by changing his +position in the room or placing him under the cross light from a +window; as the evil progresses, the child is taken to an ophthalmic +surgeon, and the inevitable result, glasses, rightly called "crutches +for the eyes," are given. What would be thought of a cause which would +weaken the legs of that boy so that he would have to use crutches to +carry him through life? If civilization be responsible for an evil, +let our efforts be put forth in finding a remedy for that evil.</p> + +<p>A discussion, in a recent number of the <i>British Medical Journal</i>,<a name="FNanchor_5" id="FNanchor_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5"><sup>2</sup></a> +on "The Claims and Limitations of Physical Education in Schools," has +many valuable hints which should be followed by educators in this +country. Dr. Carter, in the leading paper on this subject, makes the +pregnant remark: "If the hope is entertained of building up a science +of education, the medical profession must combine with the profession +of teaching, in order to direct investigation and to collect material +essential to generalization. Without such co-operation educational +workers must continue to flounder in the morasses of empiricism, and +be content to purchase relative safety at the cost of slow progress, +or no progress at all." In other words, an advisory medical board +should coexist with our board of public education, to try to hold in +check or prevent a further "cruelty in trying to be kind." Private +institutions of education recognize the importance of physical +training and development, and in such institutions the deterioration +of vision is in proportion less than in institutions where physical +training is not considered. In one school of over 200 middle class +girls, Dr. Carter found that, during a period of six years, no fewer +than ten per cent. of the total number of girls admitted during that +time have been compelled to take one or more terms' leave of absence, +and of the present number twenty-eight per cent. have medical +certificates exempting them from gymnastic exercise and 10.25 per +cent. of the total present number wear eye glasses of some kind or +other. From my own experience the same number of students in our +schools would show about the same percentage of visual defects. These +questions are of such growing importance that not only instructors, +but the medical fraternity, should not rest until these evils are +eradicated.</p> + +<p>Dr. J.W. Ballantyne, of Edinburgh, in a lecture<a name="FNanchor_6" id="FNanchor_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6"><sup>3</sup></a> on diseases of +infancy and childhood, says: "The education of the young people of a +nation is to that nation a subject of vital importance." The same +writer quotes the startling statement made by Prof. Pfluger, that of +45,000 children examined in Germany more than one-half were suffering +from defective eyesight, while in some schools the proportion of the +short sighted was seventy or eighty per cent., and, crowning all, was +the Heidelberg Gymnasium, with 100 per cent. These figures, the result +of a careful examination, are simply startling, and almost make one +feel that it were better to return to the old Greek method of teaching +by word of mouth.</p> + +<p>Prof. Pfluger attributes this large amount of bad sight to +insufficient lighting of school rooms, badly printed books, etc. One +must agree with a certain writer, who says: "Schools are absolute +manufactories of the short sighted, a variety of the human race which +has been created within historic time, and which has enormously +increased in number during the present century." Granting that many +predisposing causes of defective vision cannot be eliminated from the +rules laid down by our city fathers in acquiring an education, it +would be well if the architects of school buildings would bear in mind +that light when admitted into class rooms should not fall directly +into the faces of children, but desks should be so arranged that the +light must be sufficiently strong and fall upon the desk from the left +hand side. My attention has repeatedly been called to the cross lights +in a school room. The light falling directly into the eyes contracts +the pupil which is already contracted by the action of the muscle of +accommodation in its effort to give a clearer picture to the brain. +This has a tendency to elongate the eyeball, and as a permanent result +we have near sightedness. Where the eyeball has an unnatural shortness +this same action manifests itself by headaches, chorea, nausea, +dyspepsia, and ultimately a prematurely breaking down of health. The +first symptom of failing sight is a hyper-secretion of tears, burning +of the eyelids, loss of eyelashes, and congestion either of the +eyelids or the eyeball proper.</p> + +<p>The natural condition of aboriginal man is far sighted. His wild life, +his nomadic nature, his seeking for game, his watching for enemies, +his abstention from continued near work, have given him this +protection. Humboldt speaks of the wonderful distant vision of the +South American Indians; another traveler in Russia of the power of +vision one of his guides possessed, who could see the rings of Saturn. +My recent examinations among Indian children of both sexes also +confirm this. While the comparison is not quite admissible, yet the +recent investigations carried on by Lang and Barrett, who examined the +eyes of certain mammalia, found that the larger number were +hypermetropic or far sighted. With all the difficulties which +naturally surround such an examination they found that in fifty-two +eyes of rabbits, thirty-six were hypermetropic and astigmatic, eight +were hypermetropic only, five were myopic and astigmatic, and others +presented mixed astigmatism. In the eyes of the guinea pig about the +same proportion of hypermetropia existed. The eyes of five rats +examined gave the following result: Some were far sighted, others were +hypermetropic and astigmatic, one was slightly myopic and one had +mixed astigmatism. Of six cows, <a name="Page_13136" id="Page_13136"></a>five were hypermetropic and +astigmatic and one was slightly myopic.</p> + +<p>Six horses were also examined, of which one had normal sight, three +were hypermetropic and astigmatic, and two had a slight degree of +astigmatism. They also examined other animals, and the same proportion +of hypermetropia existed. These gentlemen found that as an optical +instrument the eye of the horse, cow, cat and rabbit is superior to +that of the rat, mouse and guinea pig.</p> + +<p>I have for the last five years devoted considerable attention to the +vision of the Indian children who are pupils at two institutions in +this city. I have at various times made careful records of each +individual pupil and have from time to time compared them. Up to the +present there is a growing tendency toward myopia or short +sightedness, <i>i.e.</i>, more pupils from year to year require near +sighted glasses. The natural condition of their eyes is far sighted +and the demands upon them are producing many nervous or reflex +symptoms, pain over the frontal region and headaches. A good +illustration of the latter trouble is showing itself in a young Indian +boy, who is at present undergoing an examination of his vision as a +probable cause for his headaches. This boy is studying music; one year +ago he practiced two hours daily on the piano and studied from three +to five hours besides. This year his work has been increased; he is +now troubled with severe headaches, and after continued near work for +some time letters become blurred and run together. This boy is far +sighted and astigmatic; glasses will correct his defect, and it will +be interesting to note whether his eyes will eventually grow into near +sighted ones. I have several cases where the defective vision has been +due entirely to other causes, such as inflammation of the cornea, +weakening this part of the eye, and the effect in trying to see +producing an elongation of the anterior portion of the eyeball, and +this in turn producing myopia. The eye of the Indian does not differ +materially from that of any deeply pigmented race. The eyeball is +smaller than in the Caucasian, but when we examine the interior we +find the same distribution of the blood vessels and same shape of the +optic nerves. The pigment deposit in the choroid is excessive and +gives, as a background to the retina, a beautiful silvery sheen when +examined with the ophthalmoscope. One thing which I noticed +particularly was the absence of this excessive deposit of pigment and +absence of this watered silk appearance in the half breeds, they +taking after the white race.</p> + +<p>Many of the intraocular diseases common among the white children were +also absent, especially those diseases which are the result of near +work.</p> + +<p>It is a well known fact among breeders of animals that where animals +are too highly or finely bred, the eye is the organ first to show a +retrogression from the normal. In an examination by myself some years +ago among deaf mutes, I found the offspring of consanguineous +marriages much affected, and while not only were many afflicted with +inflammatory conditions of the choroid and retina, their average +vision was much below the normal.</p> + +<p>My quoting Messrs. Lang and Barrett's figures was to bring more +prominently to the notice of my hearers the fact that the eyes of +primitive man resembled the eyes of the lower mammalia and that the +natural eye as an organ of vision was hypermetropic, or far sighted, +and that civilization was the cause of the myopic or near sighted eye. +Nature always compensates in some way. I grant that the present +demands of civilization could not be filled by the far sighted eye, +but the evil which is the outgrowth of present demands does not stop +when we have reached the normal eye, but the cause once excited, the +coats of this eye continue to give way, and myopia or a near sighted +condition is the result.</p> + +<p>Among three hundred Indians examined, I found when I got to the +Creeks, a tribe which has been semi-civilized for many years, myopia +to be the prevailing visual defect.</p> + +<p>Without going into statistics, I am convinced from my experience that +the State must look into this subject and give our public school +system of education more attention, or we, as a people, will be known +as a "spectacled race."</p> + +<p>Myopia or short-sightedness among the Germans is growing at a +tremendous rate. While I do not believe that the German children +perform more work than our own children, there is one cause for this +defect which has never been touched upon by writers, and that is the +shape of the head. The broad, flat face, or German type, as I would +call it, has not the deep orbit of the more narrow, sharp-featured +face of the American type. The eye of the German standing out more +prominently, and, in consequence, less protected, is thereby more +prone to grow into a near-sighted eye. One of the significant results +of hard study was recently brought to my notice by looking over the +statistics on the schools of Munich in 1889. In those schools 2,327 +children suffered from defective sight, 996 boys and 1,331 girls.</p> + +<p>Of 1,000 boys in the first or elementary class, 36 are short-sighted; +in the second, 49; in the third, 70; in the fourth, 94; in the fifth, +108; in the sixth, 104; and in the last and seventh, 108. The number +of short-sighted boys, therefore, from the first class to the seventh +increases about three-fold. In the case of girls, the increase is from +37 to 119.</p> + +<p>These statistics in themselves show us the effects of overwork, +incessant reading or study by defective gas or lamp light, or from an +over-stimulating light, as the arc light, late hours, dissipation, and +frequent rubbing of the eye, also fatigue, sudden changes from +darkness to light, and, what is probably worse than all, reading on +railway trains. The constant oscillations of the car cause an +over-activity of the muscle of accommodation, which soon becomes +exhausted; the brain willing the eye to give it a clear photograph +continues to force the ciliary muscle, which muscle governs the +accommodation, in renewed activity, and the result may easily be +foretold.</p> + +<p>The fond parents finding that the vitiated air of the city is making +their once rosy-cheeked children turn pale, seek a remedy in the fresh +air of the country. The children find their way to city schools; this +necessitates traveling so many miles a day in railway cars. The +children take this opportunity of preparing their studies while <i>en +route</i> to the city, and here is where they get their first eye-strain. +Children have the example set them by their parents or business men, +who read the daily papers on the trains. Children are great +imitators, and when their attention is called to the evil, quote their +parents' example, and they follow it. No wonder each generation is +growing more effeminate.</p> + +<p>The light in sick rooms should never fall directly on the eyes, nor +should the rooms be either too dark or too light.</p> + +<p>The Esquimaux and Indians long ago noted the fact that sunlight +reflected from freshly fallen snow would soon cause blindness.</p> + +<p>The natives of northern Africa blacken themselves around the eyes to +prevent ophthalmia from the glare of the hot sand. In Fiji the +natives, when they go fishing, blacken their faces. My friend. Dr. +Bartelott, presented me with a pair of eye protectors, which he +brought from Alaska. The natives use them to protect themselves from +snow blindness. These snow spectacles, or snow eyes, as they are +called, are usually made out of pine wood, which is washed upon their +shores, drift wood from southern climes.</p> + +<p>The posterior surface is deeply excavated, to prevent its obstructing +the free motion of the eye lids; on each side a notch is cut at the +lower margin to allow a free passage for the tears. The upper margin +of the front surface is more prominent than the under, to act as a +shade to the eyes. The inner surface is blackened to absorb the +excessive light. The openings are horizontal slits. The eyes are thus +protected from the dazzling effect of the light.</p> + +<p>My friend, Dr. Grady, of Omaha, communicated to me a history of three +hunters who almost lost their eyesight by too long exposure to the +bright rays of the sun falling on snow.</p> + +<p>The abuse of tobacco leads to impairment of vision in the growing +youth. Cigarette smoking is an evil. I am inclined to believe that the +poison inhaled arrests the growth of boys; surely it prevents a mental +development, and, when carried to excess, affects vision more by +lessening the power of nerve conduction than acting directly on the +eye.</p> + +<p>It is not the one cigarette which the boy smokes that does the harm, +but it is the one, two, or three packages smoked daily. This excessive +smoking thoroughly perverts all the functions which should be at their +best to aid this growing youth. First we have failing digestion, +restless nights, suspension of growth, lack of mental development, the +loss of nerve tone, loss of the power of accommodation in vision, +failing sight, headaches, enfeeblement of the heart. Let a man who is +a habitual smoker of cigars attempt to smoke even one package of +cigarettes and he will complain of nausea, dry throat, and loss of +appetite. If a strong man is so much affected by this poison, how much +less can a boy resist the inroads of such poisons? In Germany the law +forbids the sale of cigarettes to growing boys. New York State has a +similar law, and why should our own or any other State be behind in +passing prohibitory laws against this evil?—and this is a growing +evil.</p> + +<p>I have never seen a case of tobacco amblyopia in boyhood, but such a +condition is not infrequent in adults. In boys the action of nicotine +acts especially upon the heart, the impulse is rendered weaker and +intermittent, and many young boys lay the seeds of organic disease +which sooner or later culminates fatally. Boys should be prohibited +from smoking, first by their parents, second by law, but not such laws +whose enforcement is a failure, third by placing a heavy fine upon +dealers who sell to minors. The pernicious evil of intoxication is no +less an evil upon the nervous system of a youth than is the habit of +cigarette smoking, but, fortunately, this habit is less common. Having +traced from aboriginal man to the present civilized individual the +cause of his myopia, what must we do to prevent a further +deterioration of vision? Unfortunately, the physician of our country +is not, as I am told, like the Japanese physician. Our medical men are +called to attend people who are ill and to try to get them well—the +Japanese physician is paid only to keep his patients in health.</p> + +<p>The first effort parents should make is to see that their children +have plenty of outdoor exercise. Good, warm clothing in winter, and +light texture cloth in summer. A great difference of opinion exists as +to the age at which a child should begin its studies. I feel sure that +the boy who commences his studies at ten will far outrun the one who +commences study at six. Every child should commence his lessons in the +best kindergarten, the nursery. Let object lessons be his primer—let +him be taught by word of mouth—then, when his brain is what it should +be for a boy of ten, his eyes will be the better able to bear the +fatigue of the burdens which will be forced upon him. Listen to what +Milton has left on record as a warning to those young boys or girls +who insist upon reading or studying at night with bad illumination.</p> + +<p>"My father destined me, from a child, for the pursuits of polite +learning, which I prosecuted with such eagerness that, after I was +twelve years old, I rarely retired to bed, from my lucubrations, till +midnight. This was the first thing which proved pernicious to my eyes, +to the natural weakness of which were added frequent headaches."</p> + +<p>Milton went blind when comparatively a young man, and it was always to +him a great grief. Galileo, the great astronomer, also went blind by +overwork. It was written of him, "The noblest eye which ever nature +made is darkened—an eye so privileged, and gifted with such rare +powers, that it may truly be said to have seen more than the eyes of +all that are gone, and to have opened the eyes of all that are to +come."</p> + +<p>When the defect of far sightedness or near sightedness exists, we have +but one recourse—<i>spectacles</i>.</p> + +<p>Some time ago I published, in the <i>Medical and Surgical Reporter</i> an +article on the history of spectacles. The widespread interest which +this paper created has stimulated me to continue the research, and +since this article appeared I have been able to gather other +additional historical data to what has been described as an invention +for "poor old men when their sight grows weak."</p> + +<p>The late Wendell Phillips, in his lecture on the "Lost Arts," speaks +of the ancients having magnifying glasses. "Cicero said that he had +seen the entire <i>Iliad</i>, which is a poem as large as the New +Testament, written on a skin so that it could be rolled up in the +compass of a nut shell;" it would have been impossible either to have +written this, or to have read it, without the aid of a magnifying +glass.</p> + +<p>In Parma, a ring 2,000 years old is shown which once belonged to +Michael Angelo. On the stone are engraved the figures of seven women. +You must have the aid of a glass in order to distinguish the forms at +all. Another <i>intaglio</i> is spoken of—the figure is that of the god +Hercules; by the aid of glasses, you can distinguish the interlacing +muscles and count every separate hair on the eyebrows. Mr. Phillips +again speaks of a stone 20 inches long and 10 wide containing a whole +treatise on mathematics, which would be perfectly illegible without +glasses. Now, our author says, if we are unable to read and see these +minute details without glasses, you may suppose the men who did the +engraving had pretty strong spectacles.</p> + +<p>"The Emperor Nero, who was short sighted, occupied the imperial box at +the Coliseum, and, to look down into the arena, a space covering six +acres, the area of the Coliseum, was obliged, as Pliny says, to look +through a ring with a gem in it—no doubt a concave glass—to see more +clearly the sword play of the gladiators. Again, we read of Mauritius, +who stood on the promontory of his island and could sweep over the sea +with an optical instrument to watch the ships of the enemy. This tells +us that the telescope is not a modern invention."</p> + +<p>Lord Kingsborough, speaking of the ancient Mexicans, says: "They were +acquainted with many scientific instruments of strange invention, +whether the telescope may not have been of the number is uncertain, +but the thirteenth plate of <i>Dupaix's Monuments</i>, part second, which +represents a man holding something of a similar nature to his eye, +affords reason to suppose that they knew how to improve the powers of +vision.</p> + +<p>Our first positive knowledge of spectacles is gathered from the +writings of Roger Bacon, who died in 1292.<a name="FNanchor_7" id="FNanchor_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7"><sup>3</sup></a> Bacon says: "This +instrument (a plano-convex glass or large segment of a sphere) is +useful to old men and to those who have weak eyes, for they may see +the smallest letters sufficiently magnified."</p> + +<p>Alexander de Spina, who died in 1313, had a pair of spectacles made +for himself by an optician who had the secret of their invention. De +Spina was so much pleased with them that he made the invention public.</p> + +<p>Monsieur Spoon fixes the date of the invention between 1280 and 1311. +In a manuscript written in 1299 by Pissazzo, the author says: "I find +myself so pressed by age that I can neither read nor write without +those glasses they call spectacles, lately invented, to the great +advantage of poor old men when their sight grows weak." Friar Jordan, +who died in Pisa in 1311, says in one of his sermons, which was +published in 1305, that "it is not twenty years since the art of +making spectacles was found out, and is indeed one of the best and +most necessary inventions in the world." In the fourteenth century +spectacles were not uncommon and Italy excelled in their manufacture. +From Italy the art was carried into Holland, then to Nuremberg, +Germany. In a church in Florence is a fresco representing St. Jerome +(1480). Among the several things represented is an inkhorn, pair of +scissors, etc. We also find a pair of spectacles, or <i>pince-nez</i>—the +glasses are large and round and framed in bone.</p> + +<p>It was not until 1575 that Maurolicus, of Messina, pointed out the +cause of near sightedness and far sightedness and explained how +concave glasses corrected the former and convex glasses the latter +defect.</p> + +<p>In the wake of advanced, education stalks the spectacle age. Any one +watching a passing crowd cannot fail but note the great number of +people wearing spectacles. Unfortunately it is not limited to adults, +but our youths of both sexes go to make up this army of ametropes.</p> + +<p>At what age should children first wear glasses? This is a much +debatable question. Where there is simply a defect of vision I should +never prescribe a pair of glasses for a child under ten years of age. +A child under this age runs many risks of injury to the eyeball by +accident to the glasses, and to cut the eye with glass is a very +serious affair. Rather let a child go without study, or even with +impaired vision, than run the risk of a permanent loss of sight.</p> + +<p>Another source of evil I must call your attention to, and that is the +indiscriminate use of glasses given by itinerant venders of spectacles +who claim a thorough knowledge of the eye, who make examination free, +but charge double price for glasses.</p> + +<p>Persons, before submitting themselves into the hands of opticians, +should know that they are not suffering from any incipient disease of +their eyes. I do not, for a moment, claim that a practical optician +cannot give you a pair of glasses which will make you see—he does +nothing more than hand you a number of pairs of glasses and you select +the one pair which you think answers the purpose. How can anyone but a +medical man know that the impairment of vision does not arise from +diminished sensibility of the retina? If so, the glasses just +purchased, which may be comfortable for a time, may cause an +irreparable loss of vision. Every ophthalmic surgeon will tell you +that he has had a number of such cases. Do not be misguided by +purchasing cheap spectacles. Glasses advertised as having "remarkable +qualities" are always to be passed by. They have "remarkable +qualities;" they always leave the person wearing them worse at the end +of a few months. Whenever an eye finds relief in a shaded or colored +glass, something is going wrong with the interior of that eye. Seek +advice, but do not trust the eyes of yourself, much less those of your +children, in the hands of the opticians who advertise their +examinations free.</p> + +<p>Such individuals should be brought before a tribunal and the matter +sifted as to whether the sense of sight is less to be taken care of +than if that same patient were ill with pneumonia and a druggist were +to prescribe remedies which might or might not aid this patient. If +one man must comply with the law, why should not the other? Our +medical colleges are lengthening the course of studies; the advances +in the various departments of science demand this. It is by the aid of +the ophthalmoscope that many obscure diseases are diagnosed, and while +it is impossible for every young man who obtains a diploma to become +thoroughly proficient in the use of this instrument, yet the eye shows +to him many conditions which guide him to the road of successful +treatment. Think of a case of optic neuritis—inflammation of the +optic nerve—going to an optician and fitting one set of glasses after +another until the patient suddenly discovers that blindness is +<a name="Page_13137" id="Page_13137"></a>inevitable. Many individuals, and very intelligent ones at that, +think that so long as a glass makes them see, that is all they need. +When we know that scarcely two eyes are alike, we can at once feel +that it is very important that each eye should be properly adjusted +for a glass; by this we are sure of having comfort in reading and +preserving vision.</p> + +<p>There is a very important defect in vision which should be detected as +early in life as possible, and that is color blindness. The boy who is +a color blind will always remain a color blind, and as forty in every +1,000 of the male sex are color blind, it is essential that they know +their defect, and train their course accordingly. It would be to the +advantage of all boys to undergo such an examination once in their +school life; a color blind would be useless where the selection of +color entered into his life work. If a boy had a talent for drawing or +engraving, and were color blind, he would make a success of his life, +whereas if he would attempt to mix paints of different colors he would +be a failure.</p> + +<p>I shall not dwell upon the scientific part of color blindness, nor +discuss either the Young-Helmholtz or the Hering theories of color +defect, but shall deal with its practical use in everyday life.</p> + +<p>Until the year 1853, very little was known about color blindness, and +much less written about it.</p> + +<p>Dr. George Wilson, in 1853, wrote several articles, which were +published in the <i>Edinburgh Monthly Journal of Medical Science.</i> These +articles created such an interest in the scientific world that Dr. +Wilson brought out a book, entitled "Researches on Color Blindness," +two years later. So thoroughly did Dr. Wilson sift this subject that +no writer up to the present day has added anything practical to what +was then known.</p> + +<p>Dr. Wilson writes in his preface: "The most practical relation of +color blindness is that which it has to railway and ship signals." He +further states: "The professions for which color blindness most +seriously disqualifies are those of the sailor and railway servant, +who have daily to peril human life and property on the indication +which a colored flag or a lamp seems to give."</p> + +<p>Dr. Bickerton, in an article on this same subject, speaking of the +careless way in which lights were used on ships at sea, says: "Until +the year 1852, there were no definite rules regarding the carrying of +lights at night by vessels at sea.... At this time the subject of +color blindness had not awakened the attention of practical observers, +and had the fact been known that between three and four per cent. of +the whole male population are color blind, some other mode might have +been devised to indicate the positions of vessels at night than by +showing red and green lights."</p> + +<p>If it is so very important to have sailors with good color perception, +where, at least, four men are on the lookout, how much more important +is it to have our engine drivers with perfect color perception, where +one man alone watches the signal of safety or danger.</p> + +<p>The growth of our railway system is constantly increasing. We have +to-day probably 150,000 men employed in this service. The boys +attending public schools to-day in a few years will have to fill the +ranks of these men. How important for these boys to know that they +have not this defect. If the forty boys in every 1,000 are found, what +is to be done with them? The engraver, the wood cut engraver, the +etcher, all wish apprentices. I am also informed that these +occupations pay well. It requires talent to fill them, and here is an +opening for the color blind. Hear what a color blind writes:<a name="FNanchor_8" id="FNanchor_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8"><sup>8</sup></a> "I beg +to offer some particulars of my own case, trusting it may be of use to +you. I am an engraver, and strange as it may appear, my defective +vision is, to a certain extent, a useful and valuable quality. Thus, +an engraver has two negative colors to deal with, <i>i.e.</i>, white and +black. Now, when I look at a picture, I see it only in white and +black, or light and shade, and any want of harmony in the coloring of +a picture is immediately made manifest by a corresponding discord in +the arrangement of its light and shade or, as artists term it, the +<i>effect</i>. I find at times many of my brother engravers in doubt how to +translate certain colors of pictures which to me are matters of +decided certainty and ease. Thus, to me it is valuable." Having +already spoken about the importance of having all boys undergo an +examination for color blindness once in their school lives, we have +two very good reasons for making this suggestion.</p> + +<p>First, prevent a boy following a trade or occupation where he is +incapacitated, and, secondly, let him be trained for a certain trade +or occupation when the defect exists. The savage races possess the +perception of color to a greater degree than do civilized races. I +have just concluded an examination of 250 Indian children; 100 were +boys. Had I selected 100 white boys from various parts of the United +States I would have found at least five color blinds; among the Indian +boys I did not find a single one. Some years ago I examined 250 Indian +boys and found two color blind, a very low percentage when compared +with the whites. Among the Indian girls I did not find any. When we +know that only two females in every 1,000 among whites are color +blind, it is not surprising that I did not find any examples among the +Indian girls.</p> + +<p>The usual tests for color blindness are the matching of wools; the +common error the color blind falls into is matching a bright scarlet +with a green. On one occasion, a color blind gentleman found fault +with his wife for wearing, as he thought, a bright scarlet dress, when +in point of fact she was wearing a bright green. Another color blind +who was very fond of drawing, once painted a red tree in a landscape +without being aware that he had done so.</p> + +<p>Among the whites it affects all classes. It is found as relatively +common among the intelligent as the illiterate, and unfortunately, up +to the present, we have not discovered any remedy for this defect.</p> + +<p>Without quoting many instances where a color blind man was responsible +for accidents at sea, I must quote a case where an officer on the +watch issued an order to "port" his vessel, which, if his order had +been carried out, would have caused a collision, and a probable +serious loss of life.</p> + +<p>The letter was written by Capt. Coburn, and is to be found in the +<i>Mercantile Marine Reporter</i>, vol. xiv.</p> + +<p>"The steamer Neera was on a voyage from Liverpool to Alexandria. One +night, shortly after passing Gibraltar, at about 10.30 p.m., I went on +the bridge, which was then in charge of the third officer, a man of +about forty-five years of age, and who up to that time I had supposed +to be a trustworthy officer, and competent in every way. I walked up +and down the bridge until about 11 p.m., when the third officer and I +almost simultaneously saw a light at about two points on the starboard +bow. I at once saw it was a green light, and knew that no action was +called for. To my surprise, the third officer called out to the man at +the wheel, 'port,' which he was about to do, when I countermanded the +order, and told him to steady his helm, which he did, and we passed +the other steamer safely about half a mile apart. I at once asked the +third officer why he had ported his helm to a green light on the +starboard bow, but he insisted it was a red light which he had first +seen. I tried him repeatedly after this, and although he sometimes +gave a correct description of the color of the light, he was as often +incorrect, and it was evidently all guesswork. On my return, I applied +to have him removed from the ship, as he was, in my opinion, quite +unfit to have charge of the deck at night, and this application was +granted. After this occurrence I always, when taking a strange officer +to sea, remained on the bridge with him at night until I had tested +his ability to distinguish colors. I cannot imagine anything more +dangerous or more likely to lead to fatal accidents than a color blind +man on a steamer's bridge."</p> + +<p>A similar experience is thus related by Capt. Heasley, of Liverpool: +"After passing through the Straits of Gibraltar, the second officer, +who had charge of the deck, gave the order to 'port,' much to my +astonishment, for the lights to be seen about a point on the starboard +bow were a masthead and green light, but he maintained that it was a +masthead and red, and not until both ships were nearly abreast would +he acknowledge his mistake. I may add that during the rest of the +voyage I never saw him making the same mistake. As a practical seaman +I consider a great many accidents at sea arise from color blindness."</p> + +<p>Dr. Farquharson has brought this subject before the House of Commons +in England and measures are being taken which will insure to the +traveling public immunity from accidents at sea. I need not mention +that the majority of railways of our country have a system of +examinations which prevents a color blind entering their service.</p> + +<p>Dr. Wilson makes the suggestion that he noticed a singular expression +in the eyes of certain of the color blind difficult to describe. "In +some it amounted to a startled expression, as if they were alarmed; in +others, to an eager, aimless glance, as if seeking to perceive +something but unable to find it; and in certain others to an almost +vacant stare, as if their eyes were fixed upon objects beyond the +limit of vision. The expression referred to, which is not at all times +equally pronounced, never altogether leaves the eyes which it seems to +characterize."</p> + +<p>Dr. B. Joy Jeffries, of Boston, has recently written an article on +this same topic, but unfortunately I have not his pamphlet at hand to +quote his views on this subject.</p> + +<p>In this lecture I have shown that the normal eye is far sighted. The +mammalia have this kind of an eye; the Indian the same. The white man +is fast becoming near sighted. The civilized Indian is also showing +the effects of continuous near work; and now the question arises. What +are we to do to prevent further deterioration of vision? The fault +lies at our own doors. Let us try to correct these now existing evils, +so that future generations will, instead of censuring us, thank us for +our wisdom.</p> + +<p>To aid in a feeble way for the protection of posterity I have +formulated ten rules on the preservation of vision:</p> + +<p>(1) Do not allow light to fall upon the face of a sleeping infant.</p> + +<p>(2) Do not allow babies to gaze at a bright light.</p> + +<p>(3) Do not send children to school before the age of ten.</p> + +<p>(4) Do not allow children to keep their eyes too long on a near +object, at any one time.</p> + +<p>(5) Do not allow them to study much by artificial light.</p> + +<p>(6) Do not allow them to use books with small type.</p> + +<p>(7) Do not allow them to read in a railway carriage.</p> + +<p>(8) Do not allow boys to smoke tobacco, especially cigarettes.</p> + +<p>(9) Do not necessarily ascribe headaches to indigestion. The eyes may +be the exciting cause.</p> + +<p>(10) Do not allow the itinerant spectacle vender to prescribe glasses.</p> + +<a name="Footnote_4" id="Footnote_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4">[1]</a><div class="note"><p>A lecture delivered before the Franklin Institute, +December 5, 1890.—<i>From the Journal of the Institute</i>.</p></div> +<a name="Footnote_5" id="Footnote_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5">[2]</a><div class="note"><p>Nov. 1, 1890.</p></div> +<a name="Footnote_6" id="Footnote_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6">[3]</a><div class="note"><p><i>Lancet</i>. Nov. 1, 1890.</p></div> +<a name="Footnote_7" id="Footnote_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7">[4]</a><div class="note"><p><i>Med. and Surg. Reporter</i>.</p></div> +<a name="Footnote_8" id="Footnote_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8">[5]</a><div class="note"><p>Wilson, p. 27.</p></div> + +<hr /> + + +<h2><a name="ART04" id="ART04"></a>THE WATER MOLECULE.<a name="FNanchor_9" id="FNanchor_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9"><sup>1</sup></a></h2> + +<h3>By A. GANSWINDT.</h3> + +<p>"Water consists of one atom of oxygen and two atoms of hydrogen." This +proposition will not be disputed in the least by the author; still, it +may be profitable to indulge in a few stereo-chemic speculations as to +the nature of the water molecule and to draw the inevitable +conclusions.</p> + +<p>From the time of the discovery, some 110 years ago, that water is a +compound body, made up of oxygen and hydrogen, the notion prevailed up +to within a quarter of a century that it was composed of even +equivalents of the elements named, and all but the youngest students +of chemistry well remember how its formula was written HO, the atomic +weight of oxygen being expressed by 8, making the molecular weight of +water (H = 1 + O = 8) 9. But the vapor density of water, referred to +air, is 0.635, and this number multiplied by the constant 28.87, gives +18 as the molecular weight of water, or exactly twice that accepted by +chemists. This discrepancy led to closer observations, and it was +eventually found that in decomposing water, by whatever method +(excepting only electrolysis), not more than the eighteenth part in +hydrogen of the water decomposed was ever obtained, or, in other +words, only just one-half the weight deducible from the formula HO = +9. The conclusion was irresistible that in a water molecule two atoms +of hydrogen must be assumed, and, as a natural sequence, followed the +doubling of the molecular weight of water to 18, represented by the +modern formula H<sub>2</sub>O.</p> + +<p>Both the theory and the practice of substitution enable us to further +prove the presence of two hydrogen atoms in a water molecule. +Decomposing water by sodium, only one-half of the hydrogen contained +is eliminated, the other half, together with all of the oxygen, +uniting with the metal to form sodium hydroxide, H<sub>2</sub>O + Na = H + +NaHO. Doubling the amount of sodium does not alter the result, for +decomposition according to the equation H<sub>2</sub>O + 2Na = H<sub>2</sub> + Na<sub>2</sub>O +never happens. Introducing the ethyl group into the water molecule and +reacting under appropriate conditions with ethyl iodide upon water, +the ethyl group displaces one atom of hydrogen, and, uniting with the +hydroxyl residue, forms ethyl alcohol, thus: H<sub>2</sub>O + C<sub>2</sub>H<sub>5</sub>I = +C<sub>2</sub>H<sub>5</sub>OH + HI. Halogens do not act directly on water, hence we may +not properly speak of halogen substitution products. By the action, +however, of phosphorus haloids on water an analogous splitting of the +water molecule is again observed, one-half of the hydrogen uniting +with the halogen to form an acid, the hydroxyl residue then forming a +phosphorus compound, thus: PCl<sub>3</sub> + 3H<sub>2</sub>O = 3HCl + P(OH)<sub>3</sub>.</p> + +<p>Now these examples, which might readily be multiplied, prove not only +the presence of <i>two</i> hydrogen atoms in the water molecule, but they +further demonstrate that these two atoms <i>differ from each other</i> in +respect to their form of combination and power of substitution. The +two hydrogen atoms are certainly not of equal value, whence it follows +that the accepted formula for water:</p> + + +<div class="ctr"><table summary="H2O Representation"> +<tr><td>H</td><td rowspan="2"><span style="font-size: x-large">></span><td rowspan="2">O</td></tr> +<tr><td>H</td></tr></table></div> + +<p>or as preferred by some: H-O-H, is not in conformity with established +facts. Expressed as here shown, both hydrogen atoms are assigned equal +values, when in fact only <i>one of the atoms is united to oxygen in +form of hydroxyl</i>, while the second is loosely attached to the +univalent hydroxyl group. Viewed in this light, water then is +decomposed according to the equation: H<sub>2</sub>O = H + (OH), never in this +manner: H<sub>2</sub>O = 2H + O. Hence, water must be considered as a +combination of one hydrogen atom with one molecule of hydroxyl, +expressed by the formula H(OH), and it is this atom of hydrogen <i>not</i> +united to oxygen which is eliminated in the generation of oxygen or +substituted by metals and alkyl groups. The hydrogen in the hydroxyl +group cannot be substituted, excepting it be the entire group as such; +this is proved by the action of the halogens, in their phosphorus +compounds, upon water, when the halogen takes the place of the +hydroxyl group, but never that of the hydrogen.</p> + +<p>Now as to some logical deductions from the foregoing considerations. +Hydrogen is by many looked upon as a true metal. This theory cannot be +directly proved by the above, but it is certainly greatly strengthened +thereby. To compare. Hydrogen is a powerful reducing agent; it is +similarly affected by the halogens, the hydroxyl group, the acid +radicals, oxygen and sulphur; hydrogen and members of the univalent +alkali metals group are readily interchangeable; it forms superoxides +analogous to the metals; its analogy to the alkali metals as exhibited +in the following:</p> + +<p class="ind">H H(OH) HCl HNO<sub>3</sub> H<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub> H<sub>2</sub>S H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub><br /> +K K(OH) KCl KNO<sub>3</sub> Na<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub> Na<sub>2</sub>S K<sub>2</sub>O</p> + +<p>But if we consider hydrogen as a gasiform metal, we naturally arrive +at the conclusion that <i>water is the hydroxide of this gasiform +metal</i>, that is <i>hydrogen hydroxide</i>, while gaseous hydrochloric and +hydrosulphuric acids would be looked upon as respectively the chloride +and the sulphide of the metal hydrogen. This would then lead to +curious conclusions concerning the hydroxyl group. This group would, +by this theory, become an oxygenated metal radical similar to the +hypothetical bismuthyl and uranyl, and yet one in which the metallic +character has disappeared as completely as in the ferrocyanic group.</p> + +<p>An entirely new light is shed by this view upon the composition of +hydrogen peroxide, which would be looked at as two free hydroxyl +groups joined together thus: (OH)—(OH), analogous to our di-ethyl, +diphenyl, dicyanogen, etc. Considered as dihydroxyl, it would explain +the instability of this compound.</p> + +<p>The ethers proper would also be placed in a new light by this new +conception of the constitution of the water molecule. The hydrogen in +the hydroxyl group, as is known, may be substituted by an alkyl group. +For instance, an alkyl may be substituted for the hydroxyl hydrogen in +an alcohol molecule, when an ether results. According to the new +theory this ether will no longer be considered as two alkyl groups +connected by an oxygen atom, but as a compound built up on the type of +water by the union of an alkyl group and an alkoxyl group. Thus +ethylic ether would not be represented by</p> + +<div class="ctr"><table summary="Ethylic Ether Representation"> +<tr><td>C<sub>2</sub>H<sub>5</sub></td><td rowspan="2"><span style="font-size: x-large">></span></td><td rowspan="2">O</td></tr> +<tr><td>C<sub>2</sub>H<sub>5</sub></td></tr> +</table> +</div> + +<p>as heretofore, but by the formula C<sub>2</sub>H<sub>5</sub>(OC<sub>2</sub>H<sub>5</sub>), which is +ethyl-ethoxol. Acetone would admit of a similar explanation.</p> + +<p>Finally the assumption of dissimilarity in character of the hydrogen +atoms in the water molecule possibly may lead to the discovery of a +number of unlocked for isomerides.</p> + +<p>Thus, by appropriate methods, it ought to become possible to introduce +the alkyl groups solely into the hydroxyl group (instead of into the +place of the loosely attached H-atom). In that case chemists might +arrive at an isomeride of methyl alcohol of the formula H.(OCH<sub>3</sub>), +or at methoxyl hydride, a compound not alcoholic in character, or at a +nitroxyl hydride, H(ONO<sub>2</sub>), not of an acidic nature. Oxychlorides +would be classed with this latter category, that is, they would be +looked on as water in which the free hydrogen atom has been +substituted by the metal, and the hydrogen atom of the hydroxyl by +chlorine. This example, indeed, furnishes a most characteristic +illustration of our theory. In the case just now assumed we arrive at +the oxychloride; when, however, the metal and chlorine change places +in the water molecule, the isomeric hypochlorous salts are the result. +It is true that such cases of isomerism are as yet unknown, but we do +know that certain metals, in our present state of knowledge, yield +oxychlorides only, while others only form hypochlorous salts. This +condition also explains why hypochlorites still possesses the +bleaching power of chlorine, while the same is not true of +oxychlorides. However, it seems needless to multiply examples in +further illustration of the theory.</p> + + +<a name="Footnote_9" id="Footnote_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9">[1]</a><div class="note"><p> Translated from the <i>Pharmaceutische Centralhalle</i>, by +A.G. Vogeler.—<i>Western Druggist</i>.</p></div> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="Page_13138" id="Page_13138"></a><a name="ART03" id="ART03"></a>THE FORMATION OF STARCH IN LEAVES.</h2> + +<p>In 1750, Bonnet, a Genevese naturalist, remarked that leaves immersed +in water became covered in the sun with small bubbles of a gas that he +compared to small pearls. In 1772, Priestley, after discovering that +the sojourn of animals in a confined atmosphere renders it +irrespirable, investigated the influence of plants placed in the same +conditions, and he relates, in these words, the discovery that he made +on the subject:</p> + +<p>"I put a sprig of mint in a quantity of air in which a candle had +ceased to burn, and I found that, ten days later, another candle was +able to burn therein perfectly well." It is to him, therefore, that is +due the honor of having ascertained that plants exert an action upon +the atmosphere contrary to that exerted by animals. Priestley, +however, was not completely master of his fine experiment; he was +ignorant of the fact, notably, that the oxygen is disengaged by plants +only as long as they are under the influence of light.</p> + +<p>This important discovery is due to Ingenhouse. Finally, it was +Sennebier who showed that oxygen is obtained from leaves only when +carbonic acid has been introduced into the atmosphere where they +remain. Later on, T. De Saussure and Boussingault inquired into the +conditions most favorable to assimilation. Boussingault demonstrated, +in addition, that the volume of carbonic acid absorbed was equal to +that of the oxygen emitted. Now we know, through a common chemical +experiment, that carbonic acid contains its own volume of oxygen. It +was supposed, then, that carbonic acid was decomposed by sunlight into +carbon and oxygen. Things, however, do not proceed so simply. In fact, +it is certain that, before the complete decomposition into carbon and +oxygen, there comes a moment in which there is oxygen on the one hand +and oxide of carbon (CO<sub>2</sub> = O + CO) on the other.</p> + +<p>The decomposition, having reached this point, can go no further, for +the oxide of carbon is indecomposable by leaves, as the following +experiment proves.</p> + +<p>If we put phosphorus and some leaves into an inert gas, such as +hydrogen, we in the first place observe the formation of the white +fumes of phosphoric acid due to the oxidation of the phosphorus by the +oxygen contained in the leaves. This phosphoric acid dissolves in the +water of the test glass and the latter becomes transparent again. If, +now, we introduce some oxide of carbon, we remark in the sun no +formation of phosphoric acid, and this proves that there is no +emission of oxygen.</p> + +<p class="ctr"> +<img src="./images/12-1.png" alt="Leaf With Letters Where Exposed to Light" /><br /> +DEMONSTRATION THAT STARCH IS FORMED IN LEAVES<br />ONLY AT +THE POINTS TOUCHED BY LIGHT.</p> + +<p>This latter hypothesis of the decomposition of carbonic acid into a +half volume of vapor of carbon and one volume of oxygen being +rejected, the idea occurred to consider the carbonic acid in a +hydrated state and to write it CO<sub>2</sub>HO.</p> + +<p>In this case, we should have by the action of chlorophyl: 2CO<sub>2</sub>HO +(carbonic acid) = 4O (oxygen) + C<sub>2</sub>H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub> (methylic aldehyde).</p> + +<p>This aldehyde is a body that can be polymerized, that is to say, is +capable of combining with itself a certain number of times to form +complexer bodies, especially glucose. This formation of a sugar by +means of methylic aldehyde is not a simple hypothesis, since, on the +one hand, Mr. Loew has executed it by starting from methylic aldehyde, +and, on the other, we find this glucose in leaves by using Fehling's +solution.</p> + +<p>The glucose formed, it is admissible that a new polymerization with +elimination of water produces starch. The latter, in fact, through the +action of an acid, is capable of regenerating glucose.</p> + +<p>It may, therefore, be supposed that the decomposition of carbonic acid +by leaves brings about the formation of starch through the following +transformations: (1) The decomposition of the carbonic acid with +emission of oxygen and production of methylic aldehyde; (2) +polymerization of methylic aldehyde and formation of glucose; (3) +combination of several molecules of glucose with elimination of water; +formation of starch.</p> + +<p>Starch is thus the first stable product of chlorophylian activity. Is +there, in fact, starch in leaves? It is easy to reveal its presence by +the blue coloration that it assumes in contact with iodine in a leaf +bleached by boiling alcohol.</p> + +<p>Mr. Deherain has devised a nice method of demonstrating that this +formation of starch, and consequently the decomposition of carbonic +acid, can occur only under the influence of sunlight. He pointed it +out to us in his course of lectures at the School of Grignon, and +asked us to repeat the experiment. We succeeded, and now make the +<i>modus operandi</i> known to our readers.</p> + +<p>The leaf that gave the best result was that of the <i>Aristolochia +Sipho</i>. The leaf, adherent to the plant, is entirely inclosed between +two pieces of perfectly opaque black paper. That which corresponds to +the upper surface of the limb bears cut-out characters, which are +here the initials of Mr. Deherain. The two screens are fastened to the +leaf by means of a mucilage of gum arabic that will easily cede to the +action of warm water at the end of the experiment.</p> + +<p>The exposure is made in the morning, before sunrise. At this moment, +the leaf contains no starch; that which was formed during the +preceding day has emigrated during the night toward the interior of +the plant.</p> + +<p>After a few hours of a good insolation, the leaf is picked off. Then +the gum which holds the papers together is dissolved by immersion in +warm water. The decolorizing is easily effected through boiling +alcohol, which dissolves the chlorophyl and leaves the leaf slightly +yellowish and perfectly translucent.</p> + +<p>There is nothing more to do then but dip the leaf in tincture of +iodine. If the insolation has been good, and if the screens have been +well gummed so that no penumbra has been produced upon the edge of the +letters, a perfectly sharp image will be instantly obtained. The +excess of iodine is removed by washing with alcohol and water, and the +leaf is then dried and preserved between the leaves of a book.</p> + +<p>It is well before decolorizing the leaf to immerse it in a solution of +potassa; the chlorophylian starch then swells and success is rendered +easier.—<i>Lartigue and Malpeaux, in La Nature</i>.</p> + +<hr /> + + +<h2><a name="ART02" id="ART02"></a>STANDARDS AND METHODS FOR THE POLARIMETRIC ESTIMATION OF +SUGARS.<a name="FNanchor_10" id="FNanchor_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10"><sup>1</sup></a></h2> + +<p>Section 1, paragraph 231, of the act entitled "An act to reduce +revenue and equalize duties on imports and for other purposes," +approved October 1, 1890, provides:</p> + +<p>"231. That on and after July 1, eighteen hundred and ninety-one, and +until July 1, nineteen hundred and five, there shall be paid, from any +moneys in the Treasury not otherwise appropriated, under the +provisions of section three thousand six hundred and eighty-nine of +the Revised Statutes, to the producer of sugar testing not less than +ninety degrees by the polariscope, from beets, sorghum, or sugar cane +grown within the United States, or from maple sap produced within the +United States, a bounty of two cents per pound; and upon such sugar +testing less than ninety degrees by the polariscope, and not less than +eighty degrees, a bounty of one and three-fourth cents per pound, +under such rules and regulations as the Commissioner of Internal +Revenue, with the approval of the Secretary of the Treasury, shall +prescribe."</p> + +<p>It is the opinion of this Commission that the expression "testing ... +degrees by the polariscope," used with reference to sugar in the act, +is to be considered as meaning the percentage of pure sucrose the +sugar contains, as ascertained by polarimetric estimation.</p> + +<p>It is evident that a high degree of accuracy is necessary in the +examination of sugars by the Bureau of Internal Revenue, under the +provisions of this act, inasmuch as the difference of one-tenth of one +per cent. in the amount of sucrose contained in a sugar may, if it is +on the border line of 80°, decide whether the producer is entitled to +a bounty of 1¾ cents per pound (an amount nearly equivalent to the +market value of such sugar) or to no bounty whatever. It is desirable, +therefore, that the highest possible degree of accuracy should be +secured in the work, for while many sugars will doubtless vary far +enough from either of the two standard percentages fixed upon in the +act, viz., 80° and 90°, to admit of a wide margin of error without +material consequences, yet a considerable proportion will approximate +to them so closely that a difference of a few tenths of a degree in +the polarization will change the classification of the sugar.</p> + +<p>A very high degree of accuracy may be obtained in the optical +estimation of sugars, if the proper conditions are observed. Such +conditions are (1) accurately graded and adjusted instruments, +weights, flasks, tubes, etc.; (2) skilled and practiced observers; (3) +a proper arrangement of the laboratories in which the work is +performed; and (4) a close adherence to the most approved methods of +manipulation.</p> + +<p>On the other hand, if due observance is not paid to these conditions, +the sources of error are numerous, and inaccurate results inevitable.</p> + +<p>We will endeavor to point out in this report the best means of meeting +the proper conditions for obtaining the highest degree of accuracy +consistent with fairly rapid work. It would be manifestly impossible +to observe so great a refinement of accuracy in this work as would be +employed in exact scientific research.</p> + +<p>This would be unnecessary for the end in view, and impossible on +account of the amount of time that would be required.</p> + +<h3>I.—INSTRUMENTS AND APPARATUS.</h3> + +<p>It is of the greatest importance that the polariscopes and all +apparatus used in the work shall be carefully and accurately adjusted +and graduated, and upon a single and uniform system of +standardization. Recent investigations of the polarimetric work done +in the customs branch of the Treasury Department have shown that a +very considerable part of the want of agreement in the results +obtained at the different ports was due to a lack of uniformity in the +standardization of the instruments and apparatus.</p> + +<p><i>(a.) The Polariscope.</i>—There are many different forms of this +instrument used. Some are adapted for use with ordinary white light, +and some with monochromatic light, such as sodium ray. They are +graduated and adjusted upon various standards, all more or less +arbitrary. Some, for example, have their scales based upon the +displacement of the polarized ray produced by a quartz plate of a +certain thickness; others upon the displacement produced by an +arbitrary quantity of pure sucrose, dissolved and made up to a certain +volume and polarized in a certain definite length of column. It would +be very desirable to have an absolute standard set for polariscopic +measurements, to which all instruments could be referred, and in the +terms of which all such work could be stated. This commission has +information that an investigation is now in progress under the +direction of the German imperial government, having for its end and +purpose the determination of such data as will serve for the +establishment of an absolute standard. When this is accomplished it +can easily be made a matter of international agreement, and all future +forms of instruments be based upon it. This commission would suggest +that the attention of the proper authorities should be called to the +desirability of official action by this government with a view to +co-operation with other countries for the adoption of international +standards for polarimetric work. Until this is done, however, it will +be necessary for the Internal Revenue Bureau to adopt, provisionally, +one of the best existing forms of polariscope, and by carefully +defining the scale of this instrument, establish a basis for its +polarimetric work which will be a close approximation to an absolute +standard, and upon which it can rely in case of any dispute arising as +to the results obtained by the officers of the bureau.</p> + +<p>For the instrument to be provisionally adopted by the Internal Revenue +Bureau, this commission would recommend the "half shadow" instrument +made by Franz Schmidt & Haensch, Berlin. This instrument is adapted +for use with white light illumination, from coal oil or gas lamps. It +is convenient and easy to read, requiring no delicate discrimination +of colors by the observer, and can be used even by a person who is +color blind.</p> + +<p>This form of instrument is adjusted to the Ventzke scale, which, for +the purposes of this report, is defined to be such that 1° of the +scale is the one hundredth part of the rotation produced in the plane +of polarization of white light in a column 200 mm. long by a standard +solution of chemically pure sucrose at 17.5° C. The standard solution +of sucrose in distilled water being such as to contain, at 17.5° C. in +100 c.c., 26.048 grms. of sucrose.</p> + +<p>In this definition the weights and volumes are to be considered as +absolute, all weighings being referred to a vacuum.</p> + +<p>The definition should properly be supplemented with a statement of the +equivalent circular rotation in degrees, minutes, and seconds that +would be produced by the standard solution of sugar used to read 100° +on the scale. This constant is now a matter of investigation, and it +is thought best not to give any of the hitherto accepted values. When +this is established, it is recommended that it be incorporated in a +revision of the regulations of the internal revenue relative to sugar, +in order to make still more definite and exact the official definition +of the Ventzke scale.</p> + +<p>The instruments should be adjusted by means of control quartz plates, +three different plates being used for complete adjustment, one reading +approximately 100° on the scale, one 90°, and one 80°.</p> + +<p>These control quartz plates should have their exact values ascertained +in terms of the Ventzke scale by the office of weights and measures by +comparison with the standard quartz plates in possession of that +office, in strict accordance with the foregoing definition, and should +also be accompanied by tables giving their values for temperatures +from 10° to 35°.</p> + +<p><i>(b.) Weights.</i>—The weights used should be of solid brass, and should +be standardized by the office of weights and measures.</p> + +<p><i>(c.) Flask.</i>—The flasks used should be of such a capacity as to +contain at 17.5° C. 100.06 cubic centimeters, when filled in such a +manner that the lowest point of the meniscus of the surface of the +liquid just touches the graduation mark. The flasks will be +standardized to contain this volume in order that the results shall +conform to the scale recommended for adoption without numerical +reduction of the weighings to vacuo. They should be calibrated by the +office of weights and measures.</p> + +<p><i>(d.) Tubes.</i>—The tubes used should be of brass or glass, 200 and 100 +millimeters in length, and should be measured by the office of weights +and measures.</p> + +<p><i>(e.) Balances.</i>—The balances used should be sensitive to at least +one milligramme.</p> + +<h3>II.—SKILLED OBSERVERS.</h3> + +<p>The commission recommends that the work of polarizing sugars be placed +in the hands of chemists, or at least of persons who are familiar with +the use of the polariscope and have some knowledge of the theory of +its construction and of chemical manipulations. To this end we would +suggest that applicants for positions where such work is to be done +should be obliged to undergo a competitive examination in order to +test their fitness for the work that is to be required of them.</p> + +<h3>III.—ARRANGEMENT OF LABORATORIES.</h3> + +<p>The arrangement of the rooms in which polarizations are performed has +an important bearing upon the accuracy of the results obtained.</p> + +<p>Polariscopic observations are made more readily and accurately <a name="Page_13139" id="Page_13139"></a>if the +eye of the observer is screened from diffused light; therefore, a +partial darkening of the room, which may be accomplished by means of +curtains or hangings, is an advantage. On the other hand, the +temperature at which the observation is made has a very considerable +influence upon the results obtained, so that the arrangements for +darkening the room must not be such as will interfere with its proper +ventilation. Otherwise the heat from the lamps used, if confined +within a small room, will cause considerable variations in the +temperature of the room from time to time.</p> + +<p>The proper conditions will best be met, in our opinion, by placing the +lamps either in a separate room from that in which the instruments +are, and perforating the wall or partition between the two rooms for +the light to reach the end of the instruments, or in a ventilated hood +with the walls perforated in a like manner. By lining the wall or +partition on both sides with asbestos paper, and inserting a plate of +plane glass in the aperture through which the light passes, the +increase of temperature from the radiation of the lamp will be still +further avoided. With the lamps separated from the instruments in this +manner, the space in which the instruments are contained is readily +darkened without much danger of its temperature being unduly raised.</p> + +<p>Some light, of course, is necessary for reading the scales, and if +artificial light is employed for this purpose, the sources chosen +should be such that as little heat as possible will be generated by +them. Small incandescent electric lights are best for such purpose. +Refinements of this kind cannot always be used, of course, but the +prime requisite with reference to the avoidance of temperature errors +is that all operations—filling the flasks and tubes, reading the +solutions, controlling the instrument with standard quartz plates, +etc.—should be done at one and the same temperature, and that this +temperature be a constant one, that is, not varying greatly at +different hours of the day. For example, the room should not be +allowed to become cold at night, so that it is at low temperature in +the morning when work is begun, and then rapidly heated up during the +day. The polariscope should not be exposed to the direct rays of the +sun during part of the day, and should not be near artificial sources +of heat, such as steam boilers, furnaces, flues, etc.</p> + +<p>The tables upon which the instruments stand should be level.</p> + +<h3>IV.—METHODS OF MANIPULATION.</h3> + +<p>The methods of manipulation used in the polarization of sugar are of +prime importance. They consist in weighing out the sugar, dissolving +it, clarifying the solution, making it up to standard volume, +filtering, filling the observation tube, regulating the illumination, +and making the polariscopic reading.</p> + +<p>The proper conduct of these processes, in connection with the use of +accurately graduated apparatus, is the only surety against the +numerous sources of error which may be encountered. Different sugars +require different treatment in clarification, and much must +necessarily be left to the judgment and experience of the operator.</p> + +<p>The following directions are based upon various official procedures +such as the one used in the United States custom houses, the method +prescribed by the German government, etc. They embody also the result +of recent research in regard to sources of error in polarimetric +estimation of sugar:</p> + +<h3>DIRECTIONS FOR THE POLARIZATION OF SUGAR.</h3> + +<p>1.—<i>Description of Instrument and Manner of Using.</i></p> + +<p>The instrument employed is known as the half shadow apparatus of +Schmidt and Haensch. It is shown in the following cut.</p> + +<p class="ctr"> +<img src="./images/13-1.png" alt="Half Shadow Apparatus" /></p> + +<p>The tube N contains the illuminating system of lenses and is placed +next to the lamp; the polarizing prism is at O, and the analyzing +prism at H. The quartz wedge compensating system is contained in the +portions of the tube marked F, E, G, and is controlled by the milled +head M. The tube J carries a small telescope, through which the field +of the instrument is viewed, and just above is the reading tube K, +which is provided with a mirror and magnifying lens for reading the +scale.</p> + +<p>The tube containing the sugar solution is shown in position in the +trough between the two ends of the instrument. In using the instrument +the lamp is placed at a distance of at least 200 mm. from the end; the +observer seats himself at the opposite end in such a manner as to +bring his eye in line with the tube J. The telescope is moved in or +out until the proper focus is secured, so as to give a clearly defined +image, when the field of the instrument will appear as a round, +luminous disk, divided into two halves by a vertical line passing +through the center, and darker on one half of the disk than on the +other. If the observer, still looking through the telescope, will now +grasp the milled head M and rotate it, first one way and then the +other, he will find that the appearance of the field changes, and at a +certain point the dark half becomes light, and the light half dark. By +rotating the milled head delicately backward and forward over this +point he will be able to find the exact position of the quartz wedge +operated by it, in which the field is neutral, or of the same +intensity of light on both halves.</p> + +<p class="ctr"> +<img src="./images/13-2.png" alt="Three circles--dark/light, all dark, light/dark" /></p> + +<p>The three different appearances presented by the field are best shown +in the above diagram. With the milled head set at the point which +gives the appearance of the middle disk as shown, the eye of the +observer is raised to the reading tube, K, and the position of the +scale is noted. It will be seen that the scale proper is attached to +the quartz wedge, which is moved by the milled head, and attached to +the other quartz wedge is a small scale called a vernier which is +fixed, and which serves for the exact determination of the movable +scale with reference to it. On each side of the zero line of the +vernier a space corresponding to nine divisions of the movable scale +is divided into ten equal parts. By this device the fractional part of +a degree indicated by the position of the zero line is ascertained in +tenths; it is only necessary to count from zero, until a line is found +which makes a continuous line with one on the movable scale.</p> + +<p>With the neutral field as indicated above, the zero of the movable +scale should correspond closely with the zero of the vernier unless +the zero point is out of adjustment.</p> + +<p>If the observer desires to secure an exact adjustment of the zero of +the scale, or in any case if the latter deviates more than one-half of +a degree, the zero lines are made to coincide by moving the milled +head and securing a neutral field at this point by means of the small +key which comes with the instrument, and which fits into a nipple on +the left hand side of F, the fixed quartz wedge of the compensating +system. This nipple must not be confounded with a similar nipple on +the right hand side of the analyzing prism, H, which it fits as well, +but which must never be touched, as the adjustment of the instrument +would be seriously disturbed by moving it. With the key on the proper +nipple it is turned one way or the other until the field is neutral. +Unless the deviation of the zero be greater than 0.5°, it will not be +necessary to use the key, but only to note the amount of the +deviation, and for this purpose the observer must not be content with +a single setting, but must perform the operation five or six times, +and take the mean of these different readings. If one or more of the +readings show a deviation of more than 0.3° from the general average, +they should be rejected as incorrect. Between each observation the eye +should be allowed 10 to 20 seconds of rest.</p> + +<p>The "setting" of the zero having been performed as above, the +determination of the accurate adjustment of the instrument by means of +the "control" quartz plates is proceeded with. Three such plates will +be furnished with each polariscope, which have "sugar values" +respectively approximating 80°, 90°, and 100°. These values may vary +with the temperature, and tables are furnished with them which give +their exact value at different temperatures, from 10° to 35° C.</p> + +<p>One of these plates is placed in the instrument, and the field +observed; it will be seen that the uniform appearance of the field is +changed. The milled head is turned to the right until the exact point +of neutrality is re-established, just as described above in setting +the zero. The scale is read, the observation repeated, the reading +taken again, and so on until five or six readings have been made. The +average is taken, readings being rejected which show a divergence of +more than 0.3, and the result corrected for the deviation of the zero +point, if any was found, the deviation being added if it was to the +left, and subtracted if to the right. If the adjustment of the +instrument be correct, the result should be the value of the control +plate used, as ascertained from the table, for the temperature of 20°. +Each of the three plates is read in the instrument in this way. A +variation of 0.3 from the established values may be allowed for errors +of observation, temperature, etc., but in the hands of a careful +observer a deviation greater than this with one of the three plates, +after a careful setting of the zero, shows that the instrument is not +accurately adjusted.</p> + +<p>The complete verification of the accurate adjustment of the +polariscope by means of three control plates, as given above, should +be employed whenever it is set up for the first time by the officer +using it, whenever it has sustained any serious shock or injury, and +whenever it has been transported from one place to another. It should +also be done at least once a week while the instrument is in active +use.</p> + +<p>After the complete verification has been performed as described, +further checking of the instrument is done by means of one control +plate alone, the one approximating 90°, and the setting of the zero +point is dispensed with, the indication of the scale for sugar +solutions being corrected by the amount of deviation shown in the +reading of the 90° control plate from its established value as +ascertained from the table, at the temperature of the room.</p> + +<p>For example: A sugar solution polarizes 80.5; the control plate just +before had given a polarization of 91.4, the temperature of the room +during both observations being 25° C. According to the table the value +of the control plate at 25° C. is 91.7; the reading is, therefore, 0.3 +too low, and 0.3 is added to the reading of the sugar solution, making +the corrected result 80.8. The temperature of the room should be +ascertained from a standardized thermometer placed close to the +instrument and in such a position as to be subject to the same +conditions.</p> + +<h3>PREPARATION OF THE SUGAR SOLUTION FOR POLARIZATION.</h3> + +<p>If the sample is not entirely uniform it must be thoroughly mixed +before weighing out, after all the lumps are broken up, best with a +mortar and pestle. Then 26.048 grammes are weighed out on the balance +in the tared German silver dish furnished for this purpose. Care must +be taken that the operations of mixing and weighing out are not unduly +prolonged, otherwise the sample may easily suffer considerable loss of +moisture, especially in a warm room. The portion of sugar weighed out +is washed by means of a jet from a wash bottle into a 100 c.c. flask, +the dish being well rinsed three or four times and the rinsings added +to the contents of the flask. The water used must be either distilled +water or clear water which has been found to have no optical activity. +After the dish has been thoroughly rinsed, enough water is added to +bring the contents of the flask to about 80 c.c. and it is gently +rotated until all the sugar has dissolved. The flask should be held by +the neck with the thumb and finger, and the bulb not handled during +this operation. Care must be taken that no particle of the sugar or +solution is lost. To determine if all the sugar is dissolved, the +flask is held above the level of the eye, in which position any +undissolved crystals can be easily seen at the bottom. The character +of the solution is now observed. If it be colorless or of a very light +straw color, and not opalescent, so that it will give a clear +transparent liquid on filtration through paper, the volume is made up +directly with water to the 100 c.c. mark on the flask. Most sugar +solutions, however, will require the addition of a clarifying or +decolorizing agent in order to render them sufficiently clear and +colorless to polarize. In such case, before making up to the mark, a +saturated solution of subacetate of lead is added.</p> + +<p>The quantity of this agent required will vary according to the quality +of the sugar; for sugar which has been grained in the strike pan and +washed in the centrifugals, from 3 to 15 drops will be required; for +sugar grained in the strike pan but not well washed in the +centrifugals, that is, sugar intended for refining purposes, from 15 +to 30 drops will be required; for sugar not grained in the strike pan, +that is, "wagon" or "string sugar," "second sugar," etc., from 1 to 3 +c.c. will be required. After adding the solution of subacetate of lead +the flask must be gently shaken, so as to mix it with the sugar +solution. If the proper amount has been added, the precipitate will +usually subside rapidly, but if not, the operator may judge of the +completeness of the precipitation by holding the flask above the level +of the eye and allowing an additional drop of subacetate of lead to +flow down the side of the flask into the solution; if this drop leaves +a clear track along the glass through the solution it indicates that +the precipitation is complete; if, on the other hand, all traces of +the drop are lost on entering the solution, it indicates that an +additional small quantity of the subacetate of lead is required. The +operator must learn by experience the point where the addition should +cease; a decided excess of subacetate of lead solution should never be +used.</p> + +<p>The use of subacetate of lead should, in all cases, be followed by the +addition of "alumina cream" (aluminic hydrate suspended in water)<a name="FNanchor_11" id="FNanchor_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11"><sup>2</sup></a> +in about double the volume of the subacetate solution used, for the +purpose of completing the clarification, precipitating excess of lead, +and facilitating filtration. In many cases of high grade sugars, +especially beet sugars, the use of alumina alone will be sufficient +for clarification without the previous addition of subacetate of lead.</p> + +<p>The solution is now made up to the mark by the addition of distilled +water in the following manner. The flask, grasped by the neck between +the thumb and finger, is held before the operator in an upright +position, so that the mark is at the level of the eye, and distilled +water is added drop by drop from a siphon bottle or wash bottle, until +the lowest point of the curve or meniscus formed by the surface of the +liquid just touches the mark. If bubbles hinder the operation, they +may be broken up by adding a single drop of ether, or a spray from an +ether atomizer, before making up to the mark. The mouth of the flask +is now tightly closed with the thumb, and the contents of the flask +are thoroughly mixed by turning and shaking. The entire solution is +now poured upon the filter, using for this purpose a funnel large +enough to contain all the 100 c.c. at once, and a watch glass is +placed over the funnel during filtration to prevent a concentration of +the solution by evaporation.</p> + +<p>The funnel and vessel used to receive the filtrate must be perfectly +dry. The first portion of the filtrate, about 20 to 30 c.c., should be +rejected entirely, as its concentration may be affected by a previous +hygroscopic moisture content of the filter paper. It may also be +necessary to return subsequent portions to the filter until the liquid +passes through perfectly clear.</p> + +<p>If a satisfactory clarification has not been obtained, the entire +operation must be repeated, since only with solutions that are +entirely clear and bright can accurate polarimetric observations be +made.</p> + +<p>When a sufficient quantity of the clear liquid has passed through the +filter, the 200 mm. observation tube is filled with it. The 100 mm. +tube should never be used except in rare cases, when notwithstanding +all the means used to effect the proper decolorization of the +solution, it is still too dark to polarize in the 200 mm. tube. In +such cases the shorter tube may be used, and its reading multiplied by +two. The zero deviation must then be determined and applied to the +product. This will give the reading which would have been obtained if +a 200 mm. tube could have been used, and it only remains to apply the +correction determined by the use of the control plate as previously +described.</p> + +<p>Example:</p> + + +<div class="ctr"><table border="0" width="50%" summary=""> +<colgroup span="2"><col align="left"><col align="right"></colgroup> +<tr><td>Solution reads in 100 mm. tube</td><td>47.0</td></tr> +<tr><td>Multiplied by 2</td><td>2.0</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td>——</td></tr> +<tr><td>Product</td><td>94.0</td></tr> +<tr><td>Zero reads plus 0.3</td><td>0.3</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td>——</td></tr> +<tr><td>Solution would read in 200 mm. tube</td><td>93.7</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr><td>Reading of control plate</td><td>90.4</td></tr> +<tr><td>Sugar value of control plate</td><td>90.5</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td>——</td></tr> +<tr><td>Instrument too low by</td><td>0.1</td></tr> +<tr><td>Add 0.1 to</td><td>93.7</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td>——</td></tr> +<tr><td>Correct polarization of solution</td><td>93.8</td></tr> +</table></div> + + +<p>Before filling the tube it must either be thoroughly dried by pushing +a plug of filter paper through it, or it must be rinsed several times +with the solution itself. The cover glasses must also be clean and +dry, and without serious defects or scratches. Unnecessary warming of +the tube by the hand during filling should be avoided; it is closed at +one end with the screw cap and cover glass, and grasped by the other +end with the thumb and finger. The solution is poured into it until +its curved surface projects slightly above the opening, the air +bubbles allowed time to rise, and the cover glass pushed horizontally +over the end of the tube in such a manner that the excess of liquid is +carried over the side, leaving the cover glass exactly closing the +tube with no air bubbles beneath it, and with no portion of the liquid +upon its upper surface. If <a name="Page_13140" id="Page_13140"></a>this result is not attained, the operation +must be repeated, the cover glass being rubbed clean and dry, and the +solution again brought up over the end by adding a few more drops. The +cover glass being in position, the tube is closed by screwing on the +cap. The greatest care must be observed in screwing down the caps that +they do not press too tightly upon the cover glasses; by such pressure +the glasses themselves may become optically active, and cause +erroneous readings when placed in the instrument. It should therefore +be ascertained that the rubber washers are in position over the cover +glasses, and the caps should be screwed on lightly. It must also be +remembered that a cover glass, once compressed, may part with its +acquired optical activity very slowly, and some time must be allowed +to elapse before it is used again.</p> + +<p>The polariscopic reading may now be taken, an observation on the 90° +control plate having been made immediately before as previously +described. Then without altering the position of the instrument +relative to the light, or changing the character of the latter in any +way, the tube filled with the sugar solution is substituted for the +control plate. The telescope is adjusted, if necessary, so as to give +a sharply defined field, which must appear round and clear. (This +condition must be fulfilled before the observation is performed, as it +is essential to accuracy.) The milled head is turned until the neutral +point is found, and the reading is taken exactly as previously +described, the operation repeated five or six times, the average taken +with the rejection of aberrant readings, the average figure corrected +for the deviation shown by the control observation from the sugar +value of the control plate at the temperature of observation as given +in the table, and the result taken as the polarization of the sugar. +When a series of successive polarizations is made under the same +conditions as regards temperature, position of the instrument with +relation to the high intensity, of the light, etc., the control +observation need not be made before each polarization, one such +observation being sufficient for the entire series. The control must +be repeated at least once an hour, however, and oftener when the +operator has reason to think that any of the factors indicated above +have been altered, for any such alteration of conditions may change +the zero point of the instrument.</p> + +<p>In the polarization of the quartz plates, as also in the polarization +of very white sugars, difficulty may be experienced in obtaining a +complete correspondence of both halves of the field. With a little +practice this may be overcome and the neutral point found, but when it +cannot, the ordinary telescope of the instrument may be replaced by +another, which is furnished with the polariscope and which carries a +yellow plate. This removes the difficulty and renders it possible, +even for one not well accustomed to the instrument, to set it at the +exact point of neutrality.</p> + +<h3>SUMMARIZED SOURCES OF ERROR.</h3> + +<p>The following principal sources of error must be especially guarded +against:</p> + +<p>1. Drying out of sample during weighing.</p> + +<p>2. Excess of subacetate of lead solution in clarification.</p> + +<p>3. Incomplete mixing of solution after making up to mark.</p> + +<p>4. Imperfect clarification or filtration.</p> + +<p>5. Concentration of solution by evaporation during filtration.</p> + +<p>6. Undue compression of the cover glass.</p> + +<p>7. Alteration of the temperature of room, position of instrument, or +intensity of light while the observation or control observation is +being performed.</p> + +<p>8. Performances of polarization with a cloudy, dim, or not completely +round or sharply defined field.</p> + +<p>In closing this report the members of this commission hereby signify +their intention to promote uniformity and accuracy by adopting and +using the standards and general plan of procedure recommended in this +report in the polarimetric determinations over which, in their +respective branches of government work, they have control.</p> + +<a name="Footnote_10" id="Footnote_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10">[1]</a><div class="note"><p> Report to the United States Internal Revenue Department +by C.A. Crampton, Chemist of U.S. Internal Revenue; H.W. Wiley, Chief +Chemist of U.S. Department of Agriculture; and O.H. Tittmann, +Assistant in Charge of Weights and Measures, U.S. Coast and Geodetic +Survey.</p></div> + +<a name="Footnote_11" id="Footnote_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11">[2]</a><div class="note"> +<p>Prepared as follows: Shake up powdered commercial alum +with water at ordinary temperature until a saturated solution is +obtained. Set aside a little of the solution, and to the residue add +ammonia, little by little, stirring between additions, until the +mixture is alkaline to litmus paper. Then drop in additions of the +portion left aside, until the mixture is just acid to litmus paper. By +this procedure a cream of aluminum hydroxide is obtained suspended in +a solution of ammonium sulphate, the presence of which is not at all +detrimental for sugar work when added after subacetate of lead, the +ammonium sulphate precipitating whatever excess of lead may be +present.</p></div> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="ART10" id="ART10"></a>THE GRAND FALLS OF LABRADOR.</h2> + +<p>Hamilton Inlet, or Ionektoke, as the Esquimaus call it, is the outlet +to the largest river on the Labrador Peninsula, and of great +importance to commerce, Rigolet, the headquarters of the Hudson Bay +Company in this region, being situated on its shores. This inlet is +the great waterway to Central Labrador, extending into the interior +for nearly 200 miles.</p> + +<p>This immense basin is undoubtedly of glacial origin, evidences of ice +erosion being plainly seen. It is divided into two general basins, +connected by the "narrows," a small strait, through which the water +rushes with frightful rapidity at each tide. Into the head of the +inlet flows the Hamilton, or Grand River, an exploration of which, +though attended with the greatest danger and privation, has enticed +many men to these barren shores. Perhaps the most successful +expedition thus far was that of Mr. Holme, an Englishman, who, in the +summer of 1888, went as far as Lake Waminikapon, where, by failure of +his provisions, he was obliged to turn back, leaving the main object +of the trip, the discovery of the Grand Falls, wholly unaccomplished.</p> + +<p>It has been left for Bowdoin College to accomplish the work left +undone by Mr. Holme, to do honor to herself and her country by not +only discovering, measuring, and photographing the falls, but making +known the general features of the inland plateau, the geological +structure of the continent, and the course of the river.</p> + +<p>On Sunday, July 26, a party of the Bowdoin expedition, consisting of +Messrs. Cary, Cole, Young, and Smith, equipped with two Rushton boats +and a complement of provisions and instruments, left the schooner at +the head of the inlet for a five weeks' trip into the interior, the +ultimate object being the discovery of the Grand Falls. The mouth of +the river, which is about one mile wide, is blockaded by immense sand +bars, which have been laid down gradually by the erosive power of the +river. These bars extend far out into Goose Bay, at the head of Lake +Melville, and it is impossible to approach the shores except in a +small boat. Twenty-five miles up the river are the first falls, a +descent of the water of twenty-five feet, forming a beautiful sight. +Here a cache of provisions was made, large enough to carry the party +back to the appointed meeting place at Northwest River. The carry +around the first falls is about one and a half miles in length, and +very difficult on account of the steep sides of the river.</p> + +<p>From the first falls to Gull Island Lake, forty miles above, the river +is alternately quick and dead water. Part of it is very heavy rapids, +over which it was necessary to track, and in some places to double the +crews. Each boat had a tow line of fifty feet, and in tracking the end +was taken ashore by one of the crew of two, while the boat was kept +off the bank by the other man with an oar. At the Horseshoe Rapids, +ten miles above Gull Island Lake, an accident happened which +threatened to put a stop to further progress of the expedition. While +tracking around a steep point in crossing these rapids the boat which +Messrs. Cary and Smith were tracking was overturned, dumping +barometer, shotgun, and ax into the river, together with nearly +one-half the total amount of provisions. In the swift water of the +rapids all these things were irrevocably lost, a very serious loss at +this stage in the expedition. On this day so great was the force of +the water that only one mile was made, and that only with the greatest +difficulty.</p> + +<p>Just above the mouth of the Nimpa River, which enters the Grand River +twenty-five miles above Gull Island Lake, a second cache of provisions +was made, holding enough to carry the party to their first cache at +the first falls. One of the boats was now found to be leaking badly, +and a stop was made to pitch the cracks and repair her, making +necessary the loss of a few hours. From Nimpa River to the Mouni +Rapids, at the entrance to Lake Waminikapon, the water was found to be +fairly smooth, and good progress was made. The change in the scenery, +too, is noticeable, becoming more magnificent and grand. The +mountains, which are bolder and more barren, approach much nearer to +each other on each side of the river, and at the base of these grim +sentinels the river flows silvery and silently. The Mouni Rapids, +through which the water passes from Lake Waminikapon, presented the +next obstacle to further progress, but the swift water here was soon +passed, and well repaid the traveler with the sight here presented +almost unexpectedly to his view.</p> + +<p>The lake was entered about 4 o'clock in the afternoon, and, as the +narrow entrance was passed, the sun poured its full rich light on +rocky mountains stretching as far away as the eye could reach, on each +side of the lake, and terminating in rocky cliffs from 600 to 800 feet +in perpendicular height, which formed the shores or confines of the +lake. Across Lake Waminikapon, which is, more properly speaking, not a +lake at all, but rather a widening of the river bed, the progress was +very good, the water having no motion to retard the boats, and forty +miles were made during the day.</p> + +<p>Here a misfortune, which had been threatening for several days, came +upon the party. Mr. Young's arm was so swollen, from the shoulder to +finger tips, that he could scarcely move it, the pain being excessive. +It had been brought on doubtless by cold and exposure. Seeing that he +could be of no further use to the party, it was decided to divide +forces, Mr. Smith returning with the sick man to Rigolet for medical +assistance. The separation took place August 8, when the party had +been on the river eleven days. The party were very sorry to return at +this point, since from the best information which they could get in +regard to the distance, the falls were but fifty miles above them. +Under the circumstances, however, there was no help for it. So Smith +and Young, bidding their friends good fortune, started on their return +trip. The mouth of the river was reached in three days, a little less +than one-third the time consumed in going up, and that, too, with only +one man to handle the boat.</p> + +<p>On the way down the river another party, composed of Messrs. Bryant +and Kenaston of Philadelphia, was met, who were on the same business +as the Bowdoin party, the discovery of the falls. Mr. Bryant handed to +Mr. Young a twenty-five pound can of flour, which, he said, he had +found in the whirlpool below the first falls. It had been in the boat +which was overturned in the Horseshoe Rapids, and had made the journey +to the first falls, a distance of over fifty miles, without denting or +injuring the can in any way. It was a great relief to the Bryant party +to learn the cause of the mishap, as they had feared a more serious +calamity.</p> + +<p>After the departure of the other two, Messrs. Cary and Cole +encountered much rapid water, so that their progress was necessarily +slow. On the third day, when they had proceeded sixty-five miles above +Lake Waminikapon, and had seen no indications of any falls, the +rapidity of the current forced them to leave the river and make any +further progress on foot. The boat was cached at this point, together +with all that was left of provisions and instruments except the +compass and food for six days. They left just enough provisions to +carry them to their last cache at Ninipi River, and hoped, by careful +use of the remainder, to find the object of their search. If they had +not enough provisions, then they must turn back, leaving reports of +falls as destitute of confirmation as ever.</p> + +<p>The land bordering the river at this point was heavily wooded, and in +places where the river shore could not be followed on account of the +cliffs, their progress was necessarily slow. Finding an elevation of +land at no great distance from them, they ascended it for a general +survey of the country. Far away in the distance could be seen the +current of the Grand River flowing sluggishly but majestically on its +course to the sea. Lakes on all sides were visible, most of them +probably of glacial origin. Descending from this mountain, which the +explorers christened Mount Bowdoin, a course was laid on the river +bank, where camp was made that night. Being now somewhat weak from +hard labor and insufficient food, their progress was slow through the +thick wood, but on the next night camp was made on the edge of the +plateau or table land of Labrador.</p> + +<p>After proceeding a short distance on the next day, Aug. 13, a loud +roar was heard in the distance, and a course was laid for the river at +the nearest point. The river at this point, about one mile above the +falls, was 500 yards wide, narrowing to fifty yards a short distance +below, where great clouds of spray floating in the air warned the +weary travelers that their object had been attained. Quickly they +proceeded to the scene, and a magnificent sight burst upon their view.</p> + +<p>Grand Falls, though not approaching the incredible height attributed +to it by legendary accounts of the Indians, is a grand fall of water. +Its total descent is accomplished in a series of falls aggregating +nearly 500 feet. The greatest perpendicular descent is not over 200 +feet. The half dozen falls between this grand descent and the bed of +the river on the plateau vary from ten to twenty-five feet, adding to +the majesty and grandeur of the scene. It was with great difficulty +that the bottom of the falls was reached and a photograph of the scene +taken.</p> + +<p>After leaving the plateau and plunging over the falls, the waters +enter an immense cañon or gorge, nearly 40 miles long and 300 yards +wide, the perpendicular sides of which rise to a height of from 300 to +500 feet. The sides of this cañon show it to be hollowed out of solid +Archæan rock. Through this cañon the water rushes with terrific +rapidity, making passage by boat wholly impossible. Many erroneous +stories have been told in regard to the height of these falls, all of +them greatly exaggerating the descent of the water. The Indians of +this locality of the tribe of the Nascopee or the race of Crees have +long believed the falls to be haunted by an evil spirit, who punished +with death any one who might dare to look upon them. The height of +land or plateau which constitutes the interior of the Labrador +peninsula is from 2,000 to 2,500 feet above the sea level, fairly +heavily wooded with spruce, fir, hackmatack, and birch, and not at all +the desolate waste it has been pictured by many writers. The +barrenness of Labrador is confined to the coast, and one cannot enter +the interior in any direction without being struck by the latent +possibilities of the peninsula were it not for the abundance of flies +and mosquitoes. Their greed is insatiable, and at times the two men +were weakened from the loss of blood occasioned by these insects.</p> + +<p>The object of the expedition being attained, the return trip was +begun, and the sight of the cached boat and provisions eagerly watched +for. On Aug. 15 the camp was sighted, but to their horror they saw +smoke issuing from the spot. It at once flashed upon their minds what +had taken place, and when they arrived they found that their fears had +been all too truly realized. Charred remains of the boat, a burned +octant, and a few unexploded cartridges were all that remained of the +meager outfit upon which they depended to take them to the mouth of +the river, a distance of over 250 miles. The camp fire, not having +been completely extinguished, had burned the boat and destroyed all +their provisions.</p> + +<p>It was truly a hard outlook for them, but no time must be lost if +provisions were to be obtained. Hastily a raft was constructed, the +logs being bound together with spruce roots. In this way, by +alternately walking and rafting, the mouth of the river was reached +Aug. 29. On the way down the river five rafts had been made and +abandoned. The only weapon was a small pocket revolver, and with the +products of this weapon, mostly red squirrels and a few fish, they +lived until they reached the different caches. Many a meal was made of +one red squirrel divided between them, and upon such food they were +compelled to make the best time possible. On the way up the river the +shoes of one of the party had given wholly out, and he was obliged to +make a rude pair of slippers from the back of a leather pack. With +torn clothes and hungry bodies they presented a hard sight indeed when +they joined their friends at Rigolet on the 1st of September. The +party composed of Messrs. Bryant and Kenaston was passed by Cary and +Cole while on the way down, but was not seen. Probably this occurred +on Lake Waminikapon, the width of the lake preventing one party from +seeing the other. It seemed a waste of time and energy that two +expeditions in the same summer should be sent upon the same object, +but neither party knew of the intention of the other until it was too +late to turn back.</p> + +<p>Grand River has long been a highway for the dependents of the Hudson +Bay Company. The company formerly had a post on Lake Waminikapon, and +another, called Height of Land, on the plateau. Provisions were +carried to these posts, and furs brought from them by way of Grand +River, the parties proceeding as far as the lake, and then, leaving +Grand River some distance below the cañon, no longer being able to +follow it on account of the swiftness of the water, they carried their +canoes across the land to a chain of lakes connecting with the post. +This station has been given up many years, and the river is used now +chiefly be Indians and hunters in the winter.</p> + +<p>It has long been known that Hamilton Inlet was of glacial origin, the +immense basin hollowed out by this erosive agent being 150 miles in +length. How much further this immense valley extended has never been +known. Mr. Cary says that the same basin which forms Hamilton Inlet +and enters Lake Melville, the two being connected by twelve miles of +narrows, extends up the Grand River Valley as far as Gull Island Lake, +the whole forming one grand glacial record. From Lake Melville to Gull +Island the bed was being gradually filled in by the deposits of the +river, but the contour of the basin is the same here as below. The bed +of the country here is Archæan rock, and many beautiful specimens of +labradorite dot the shores. In the distance the grim peaks of the +Mealy Mountains stand out in bold relief against the sky.</p> + +<p>The country about this interior basin is heavily wooded, and spars of +75 feet can be obtained in generous numbers. Were it not for the +native inhabitants, mosquitoes, and flies, the interior would present +conditions charming enough to tempt any lover of nature. It is the +abundance of these invincible foes which make interior life a burden +and almost an impossibility. To these inhabitants alone Grand Falls +has ceased to chant its melodious tune. Hereafter its melodious ripple +will be heard by Bowdoin College, which, in the name of its explorers, +Cary and Cole, claims the honor of its discovery.—<i>New York Times</i>.</p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="ART16" id="ART16"></a>ANTS.</h2> + +<h3>By RUTH WARD KAHN.</h3> + +<p>Astronomy has made us all familiar with the conception of the world +over our heads. We no longer speculate with Epicurus and Anaxagoras +whether the sun may be as large as a quoit, or even as large as +Peloponnesus. We are satisfied that the greater and the lesser lights +are worlds, some of them greatly exceeding our own in magnitude.</p> + +<p>In a little poem of Dante Rossetti's, he describes a mood of violent +grief in which, sitting with his head <a name="Page_13141" id="Page_13141"></a>bowed between his knees, he +unconsciously eyes the wood spurge growing at his feet, till from +those terrible moments he carries away the one trivial fact cut into +his brain for all time, that "the wood spurge has a cup of three." In +some such mood of troubled thought, flung perhaps full length on the +turf, have we not as unconsciously and intently watched a little ant, +trudging across our prostrate form, intent upon its glorious polity: a +creature to which we, with our great spiritual world of thought and +emotion and will, have no existence except as a sudden and +inconvenient upheaval of parti-colored earth to be scaled, of unknown +geological formation, but wholly worthless as having no bearing upon +the one great end of their life—the care of larvæ.</p> + +<p>If we hold with Mr. Wallace that the chief difference between man and +the lower animals is that of kind and not of degree—that man is +possessed of an intelligent will that appoints its own ends, of a +conscience that imposes upon him a "categorical imperative," of +spiritual faculties that apprehend and worship the invisible—yet we +must admit that his lower animal nature, which forms, as it, were, the +platform of the spiritual, is built up of lower organisms.</p> + +<p>If we hold with Professor Allman that thought, will, and conscience, +though only manifesting themselves through the medium of cerebral +protoplasm, are not its properties any more than the invisible earth +elements which lie beyond the violet are the property of the medium +which, by altering their refrangibility, makes them its own—then the +study of the exact nature and properties of the transmitting medium is +equally necessary. Indeed, the whole position can only be finally +established of defining experimentally the necessary limitation of the +medium, and proving the inefficiency of the lower data to account with +the higher.</p> + +<p>It is these considerations of the wider issues that give such a +peculiar interest to the patient observations which have recently been +brought to bear upon the habits of the social insects, especially of +ants, which, living in communities, present so many of the conditions +of human life, and the development of the "tribal self" from these +conditions, to which Professor Clifford attributed the genesis of +moral sense.</p> + +<p>In order to pass in review these interesting observations and bring +out their significance, I must go over ground which is doubtless +familiar to most of my readers.</p> + +<p>The winged ants, which often excite surprise, are simply the virgin +queens and the males. They are entirely dependent upon the workers, +and are reared in the same nest. September is the month usually +selected as the marriage season, and in the early twilight of a warm +day the air will be dark with the winged lovers. After the wedding +trip the female tears off her wings—partly by pulling, but mostly by +contortions of her body—for her life under ground would render wings +not only unnecessary, but cumbersome; while the male is not exposed to +the danger of being eaten by his cannibal spouse, as among spiders, +nor to be set upon and assassinated by infuriated spinsters, as among +bees, but drags out a precarious existence for a few days, and then +either dies or is devoured by insectivorous insects. There is reason +to believe that some females are fertilized before leaving the nest. I +have observed flights of the common <i>Formica rufa</i>, in which the +females flew away solitary and to great distances before they +descended. In such cases it is certain that they were fertilized +before their flight.</p> + +<p>When a fertilized queen starts a colony it proceeds much in this way: +When a shaft has been sunk deep enough to insure safety, or a +sheltered position secured underneath the trunk of a tree or a stone, +the queen in due time deposits her first eggs, which are carefully +reared and nourished. The first brood consists wholly of workers, and +numbers between twenty-five and forty in some species, but is smaller +in others. The mother ant seeks food for herself and her young till +the initial brood are matured, when they take up the burden of life, +supply the rapidly increasing family with food, as well as the mother +ant, enlarge the quarters, share in the necessary duties, and, in +short, become the <i>real</i> workers of the nest before they are scarcely +out of the shell. The mother ant is seldom allowed to peer beyond her +dark quarters, and then only in company with her body guard. She is +fed and cared for by the workers, and she in turn assists them in the +rearing of the young, and has even been known to give her strength for +the extension of the formicary grounds. Several queens often exist in +one nest, and I have seen workers drag newly fertilized queens into a +formicary to enlarge their resources. As needs be, the quantity of +eggs laid is very great, for the loss of life in the ranks of the +workers is very large; few survive the season of their hatching, +although queens have been known to live eight years. (Lubbock.)</p> + +<p>The ant life has four well marked periods: First, the egg; second, the +grub or larva; third, the chrysalis or pupa; fourth, the imago, or +perfect insect. The eggs are small, ovate, yellowish white objects, +which hatch in about fifteen to thirty days. The larvæ are small +legless grubs, quite large at the apex of the abdomen and tapering +toward the head. Both eggs and pupa are incessantly watched and +tended, licked and fed, and carried to a place of safety in time of +danger. The larvæ are ingeniously sorted as regards age and size, and +are never mixed. The larvæ period generally extends through a month, +although often much longer, and in most species when the larvæ pass +into pupæ they spin a cocoon of white or straw color, looking much +like a shining pebble. Other larvæ do not spin a cocoon, but spend the +pupal state naked. When they mature they are carefully assisted from +their shells by the workers, which also assist in unfolding and +smoothing out the legs. The whole life of the formicary centers upon +the young, which proves they have reached a degree of civilization +unknown even in some forms of higher life.</p> + +<p>It is curious that, notwithstanding the labor of so many excellent +observers, and though ants swarm in every field and wood, we should +find so much difficulty in the history of these insects, and that so +much obscurity should rest upon some of their habits. Forel and +Ebrard, after repeated observations, maintain that in no single +instance has an isolated female been known to bring her young to +maturity. This is in direct contradiction to Lubbock's theory, who +repeatedly tried introducing a new fertile queen into another nest of +<i>Lasius flavus</i>, and always with the result that the workers became +very excited and killed her, even though in one case the nest was +without a queen. Of the other kinds, he isolated two pairs of <i>Myrmica +ruginodis</i>, and, though the males died, the queens lived and brought +their offspring to perfection; and nearly a year after their +captivity, Sir John Lubbock watched the first young workers carrying +the larvæ about, thereby proving the accuracy of Huber's statement, +with some species at least. In spite of this convincing testimony, +Lepeletier St. Fargeau is of the opinion that the nests originate with +a solitary queen, as was first given.</p> + +<p>The ants indigenous to Leadville, besides feeding on small flies, +insects, and caterpillars—the carcasses of which they may be seen +dragging to their nests—show the greatest avidity for sweet liquids. +They are capable of absorbing large quantities, which they disgorge +into the mouths of their companions. In winter time, when the ants are +nearly torpid and do not require much nourishment, two or three ants +told off as foragers are sufficient to provide for the whole nest. We +all know how ants keep their herds in the shape of aphides, or ant +cows, which supply them with the sweet liquid they exude. I have often +observed an ant gently stroking the back of an aphide with its antennæ +to coax it to give down its sweet fluid, much in the same way as a +dairy maid would induce a cow to give down its milk by a gentle +manipulation of its udders. Some species, principally the masons and +miners, remove their aphides to plants in the immediate vicinity of +their nest, or even introduce them into the ant home. In the interior +of most nests is also found the small blind beetle (<i>Claviger</i>) +glistening, and of a uniform red, its mouth of so singular a +conformation that it is incapable of feeding itself. The ants +carefully feed these poor dependent creatures, and in turn lick the +sweet liquid which they secrete and exude. These little <i>Coleoptera</i> +are only found in the nests of some species; when introduced into the +nests of others they excite great bewilderment, and, after having been +carefully turned over and examined, are killed in a short time as a +useless commodity. Another active species of <i>Coleoptera</i>, of the +family <i>Staphylini</i>, is also found in ant nests. I have discovered one +in the nest of <i>Formica rufa</i> in the Jewish cemetery in Leadville. +Furnished with wings, it does not remain in the nest, but is forced to +return thither by the strange incapacity to feed itself. Like the +<i>Claviger</i>, it repays its kind nurses by the sweet liquid it exudes, +and which is retained by a tuft of hair on either side of the abdomen +beneath the wings, which the creature lifts in order that the ant may +get at its honeyed recompense. Such mutual services between creatures +in no way allied is a most curious fact in the animal world.—<i>Popular +Science News.</i></p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="ART15" id="ART15"></a>A GEM-BEARING GRANITE VEIN IN WESTERN CONNECTICUT.</h2> + +<h3>By L.P. GRATACAP.</h3> + +<p>In the county of Litchfield, Conn., in the midst of some of the most +attractive hill country of that region, a very striking mineral +fissure has been opened by Mr. S.L. Wilson, which, in both its +scientific and commercial aspects, is equally important and +interesting. It is a broad crevice, widened at the point of excavation +into something like a pocket and filled, between its inclosing walls +of gneiss, with a granitic mass whose elements have crystallized +separately, so that an almost complete mineralogical separation has +been effected of quartz, mica,and feldspar, while associated +aggregates, as beryl and garnet, have formed under conditions that +make them valuable gem fabrics.</p> + +<p>The vein has a strike south of west and north of east and a distinct +dip northwest, by which it is brought below the gneiss rock, which +forms an overhanging wall, on the northerly side of the granitic mass, +while on the southerly edge the same gneiss rock makes an almost +vertical foot wall, and exhibits a sharp surface of demarkation and +contact. The rock has been worked as an open cut through short lateral +"plunges," or tunnels have been used for purposes of exploration in +the upper part of its extent. Its greatest width appears to be +fifty-one feet, and the present exposure of its length three hundred. +It undergoes compression at its upper end, and its complete extinction +upon the surface of the country at that point seems probable. At its +lower end at the foot of the slope wherein the whole mass appears, it +reveals considerable development, and affords further opportunities +for examination, and, possibly, profitable investment. It has been +formed by a powerful thrust coincident with the crumpling of the +entire region, whereby deeply seated beds have become liquefied, and +the magma either forced outward through a longitudinal vent or brought +to the surface by a process of progressive fusion as the heated +complex rose through superincumbent strata dissipated by its entrance +and contributing their substance to its contents. The present exposure +of the vein has been produced by denudation, as the coarsely +crystalline and dismembered condition of the granite, with its large +individuals of garnet and beryl, and the dense, glassy texture of the +latter, indicate a process of slow cooling and complete separation, +and for this result the congealing magma must necessarily have been +sealed in by strata through which its heat was disseminated slowly.</p> + +<p>For upon the most cursory inspection of the vein, the eye is arrested +at once by the large masses of crystalline orthoclase, the heavy beds +of a gray, brecciated quartz and the zones and columns of large leaved +mica. It was to secure the latter that Mr. Wilson first exploited this +locality, and only latterly have the more precious contents of the +vein imparted to it a new and more significant character. The mica, +called by Mr. Atwood, the superintendent of the work, "book mica," +occurs in thick crystals, ranged heterogeneously together in stringers +and "chimneys," and brilliantly reflecting the sunlight from their +diversely commingled laminæ. This mica yields stove sheets of about +two to three by four or five inches, and is of an excellent, +transparent quality. It seems to be a true muscovite, and is seldom +marred by magnetic markings or crystalline inclusions that would +interfere with its industrial use. Seams of decomposition occur, and a +yellowish scaly product, composed of hydrated mica flakes, fills them. +The mica does not everywhere present this coarsely crystalline +appearance, but in flexures and lines of union with the quartz and +orthoclase is degraded to a mica schist upon whose surfaces appear +uranates of lime and copper (autunite and torbernite), and in which +are inclosed garnet crystals of considerable size and beauty. The +enormous masses of clean feldspar made partially "graphic" by quartz +inclosures are a conspicuous feature of the mine. In one part of the +mine, wooden props support an overhanging ledge almost entirely +composed of feldspar, which underneath passes into the gray brecciated +quartz, which again grades into a white, more compact quartz rock. It +is in this gray brecciated quartz that the beryls are found. These +beautiful stones vary extremely in quality and color. Many of the +large crystals are opaque, extensively fractured, and irregular in +grain, but are found to inclose, especially at their centers, cores of +gem-making material.</p> + +<p>The colors of the beryls grade from an almost colorless mineral +(goshenite) though faintly green, with blue reflections, yellowish +green of a peculiar oily liquidity (davidsonite), to honey yellows +which form the so-called "golden beryls" of the trade, and which have +a considerable value. These stones have a hardness of 8,and when cut +display much brilliancy. Many assume the true aquamarine tints, and +others seem to be almost identical with the "Diamond of the Rhine," +which as early as the end of the fifteenth century was used as a +"fraudulent substitute for the true diamond" (King). Few, very few, +belong to the blue grades, and the best of these cannot compare with +those from Royalston, Mass. Those of amber and honey shades are +beautiful objects, and under artificial light have a fascination far +exceeding the olivine or chrysoberyl. These are not as frequent as the +paler varieties, but when found excite the admiration of visitor and +expert. It seems hardly probable that any true emeralds will be +uncovered and the yellow beryls may not increase in number. Their use +in the arts will be improved by combining them with other stones and +by preparing the larger specimens for single stone rings.</p> + +<p>Very effective combinations of the aquamarine and blue species with +the yellow may be recommended. Tourmaline appears in some quantity, +forming almost a schist at some points, but no specimens of any value +have been extracted, the color being uniformly black. The garnets are +large trapezohedral-faced crystals of an intense color, but penetrated +with rifts and flaws. Many, no doubt, will afford serviceable gem +material, but their resources have not yet been tested by the +lapidary.</p> + +<p>While granite considered as a building stone presents a complex of +quartz, mica, and feldspar so confusedly intercrystallized as to make +a homogeneous composite, in the present mass, like the larger and +similar developments in North Carolina, these elements have excluded +each other in their crystallization, and are found as three separate +groups only sparingly intermingled. The proportions of the constituent +minerals which form granite, according to Prof. Phillips, are twenty +parts of potash feldspar (orthoclase), five parts of quartz, and two +parts of potash mica (muscovite), and a survey of Mr. Wilson's quarry +exhibits these approximate relations with surprising force.</p> + +<p>There can be but little doubt that this vein is a capital example of +hydrothermal fusion, whereby in original gneissic strata, at a +moderate temperature and considerable depth, through the action of +contained water, with the physical accompaniment of plication, a +solution of the country rock has been accomplished. And the cooling +and recrystallization has gone on so slowly that the elements of +granite have preserved a physical isolation, while the associated +silicates formed in the midst of this magma have attained a supremely +close and compact texture, owing to the favorable conditions of slow +growth giving them gem consistencies. The further development of the +vein may reveal interesting facts, and especially the following +downward of the rock mass, which we suspect will contract into a +narrower vein. At present the order of crystallization and separation +of the mineralogical units seems to have been feldspar, mica, garnet, +beryl, quartz.</p> + +<p>In the artificial preparation of crystals it is invariably found that +perfect and symmetrical crystals, and crystals of large size, are +produced by slow, undisturbed cooling of solutions; the quiet +accretion permits complete molecular freedom and the crystal is built +up with precision. Nor is this all. In mixtures of chemical compounds +it is presumable that the separate factors will disengage themselves +from each other more and more completely, and form in purer masses as +the congelation is slowly carried on. A sort of concretionary affinity +comes into play, and the different chemical units congregate together. +At least such has been the case in the granitic magma of which Mr. +Wilson now possesses the solidified results. The feldspar, the quartz, +the mica, have approximately excluded each other, and appear side by +side in unmixed purity. And does it not seem probable that this +deliberate process of solidification has produced in the beryls, found +in the center of the vein at the points of slowest radiation, the +glassy gem texture which now makes them available for the purposes of +art and decoration?</p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="ART01" id="ART01"></a>THE STUDY OF MANKIND.</h2> + +<p>Professor Max Muller, who presided over the Anthropological Section of +the British Association, said that if one tried to recall what +anthropology was in 1847, and then considered what it was now, its +progress seemed most marvelous. These last fifty years had been an age +of discovery in Africa, Central Asia, America, Polynesia, and +Australia, such as could hardly be matched in any previous century. +But what seemed to him even more important than the mere increase of +material was the new spirit in which anthropology had been studied +during the last generation. He did not depreciate the labors of +so-called dilettanti, who were after all lovers of knowledge, and in a +study such as that of anthropology, the labors of these volunteers, or +franc-tireurs, had often proved most valuable. But the study of man in +every part of the world had ceased to be a subject for curiosity only. +It had been raised to the dignity and also the responsibility of a +real science, and was now guided by principles as strict and rigorous +as any other science. Many theories which were very popular fifty +years ago were now completely exploded; nay, some of the very +principles by which the science was then guided had <a name="Page_13142" id="Page_13142"></a>been discarded. +Among all serious students, whether physiologists or philologists, it +was by this time recognized that the divorce between ethnology and +philology, granted if only for incompatibility of temper, had been +productive of nothing but good.</p> + +<h3>CLASSIFICATION.</h3> + +<p>Instead of attempting to classify mankind as a whole, students were +now engaged in classifying skulls, hair, teeth, and skin. Many solid +results had been secured by these special researches; but as yet, no +two classifications, based on these characteristics, had been made to +run parallel. The most natural classification was, no doubt, that +according to the color of the skin. This gave us a black, a brown, a +yellow, a red, and a white race, with several subdivisions. This +classification had often been despised as unscientific; but might +still turn out far more valuable than at present supposed. The next +classification was that by the color of the eyes, as black, brown, +hazel, gray, and blue. This subject had also attracted much attention +of late, and, within certain limits, the results have proved very +valuable. The most favorite classification, however, had always been +that according to the skulls. The skull, as the shell of the brain, +had by many students been supposed to betray something of the +spiritual essence of man; and who could doubt that the general +features of the skull, if taken in large averages, did correspond to +the general features of human character? We had only to look around to +see men with heads like a cannon ball and others with heads like a +hawk. This distinction had formed the foundation for a more scientific +classification into brachycephalic, dolichocephalic, and mesocephalic +skulls. If we examined any large collection of skulls we had not much +difficulty in arranging them under these three classes; but if, after +we had done this, we looked at the nationality of each skull, we found +the most hopeless confusion. Pruner Vey, as Peschel told us in his +"Volkerkunde," had observed brachycephalic and dolichocephalic skulls +in children born of the same mother; and if we consider how many women +had been carried away into captivity by Mongolians in their inroads +into China, India, and Germany, we could not feel surprised if we +found some long heads among the round heads of those Central Asiatic +hordes.</p> + +<h3>DIFFERENCES IN SKULLS.</h3> + +<p>Only we must not adopt the easy expedient of certain anthropologists +who, when they found dolichocephalic and brachycephalic skulls in the +same tomb, at once jump to the conclusion that they must have belonged +to two different races. When, for instance, two dolichocephalic and +three brachycephalic skulls were discovered in the same tomb at +Alexanderpol, we were told at once that this proved nothing as to the +simultaneous occurrence of different skulls in the same family; nay, +that it proved the very contrary of what it might seem to prove. It +was clear, we were assured, that the two dolichocephalic skulls +belonged to Aryan chiefs and the three brachycephalic skulls to their +non-Aryan slaves, who were killed and buried with their masters, +according to a custom well known to Herodotus. This sounded very +learned, but was it really quite straightforward? Besides the general +division of skulls into dolichocephalic, brachycephalic, and +mesocephalic, other divisions had been undertaken, according to the +height of the skull, and again according to the maxillary and the +facial angles. This latter division gave us orthognatic, prognathic, +and mesognathic skulls. Lastly, according to the peculiar character of +the hair, we might distinguish two great divisions, the people with +woolly hair (Ulotriches) and people with smooth hair (Lissotriches). +The former were subdivided into Lophocomi, people with tufts of hair, +and Eriocomi, or people with fleecy hair. The latter were divided into +Euthycomi, straight haired, and Euplocomi, wavy haired. It had been +shown that these peculiarities of the hair depended on the peculiar +form of the hair tubes, which in cross sections were found to be +either round or elongated in different ways. All these +classifications, to which several more might be added, those according +to the orbits of the eyes, the outlines of the nose, and the width of +the pelvis, were by themselves extremely useful. But few of them only, +if any, ran strictly parallel. Now let them consider whether there +could be any organic connection between the shape of the skull, the +facial angle, the conformation of the hair, or the color of the skin +on one side, and what we called the great families of language on the +other.</p> + +<h3>CONNECTION OF LANGUAGE AND PHYSICAL CONFORMATION.</h3> + +<p>That we spoke at all might rightly be called a work of nature, <i>opera +naturale</i>, as Dante said long ago; but that we spoke thus or thus, +<i>cosi o cosi</i>, that, as the same Dante said, depended on our +pleasure—that was our work. To imagine, therefore, that as a matter +of necessity, or as a matter of fact, dolichocephalic skulls had +anything to do with Aryan, mesophalic with Semitic, or brachycephalic +with Turanian speech, was nothing but the wildest random thought. It +could convey no rational meaning whatever; we might as well say that +all painters were dolichocephalic, and all musicians brachycephalic, +or that all lophocomic tribes worked in gold, and all lisocomic tribes +in silver. If anything must be ascribed to prehistoric times, surely +the differentiation of the human skull, the human hair and the human +skin would have to be ascribed to that distant period. No one, he +believed, had ever maintained that a mesocephalic skull was split or +differentiated into a dolichocephalic and a brachycephalic variety in +the bright sunshine of history. Nevertheless, he had felt for years +that knowledge of languages must be considered in future as a <i>sine +qua non</i> for every anthropologist. How few of the books in which we +trusted with regard to the characteristic peculiarities of savage +races had been written by men who had lived among them for ten or +twenty years, and who had learned their languages till they could +speak them as well as the natives themselves. It was no excuse to say +that any traveler who had eyes to see and ears to hear could form a +correct estimate of the doings and sayings of savage tribes.</p> + +<h3>TRAVELERS' IMPRESSIONS.</h3> + +<p>It was not so, as anthropologists knew from sad experience. Suppose a +traveler came to a camp where he saw thousands of men and women +dancing round the image of a young bull. Suppose that the dancers were +all stark naked, that after a time they began to fight, and that at +the end of their orgies there were three thousand corpses lying about +weltering in their blood. Would not a casual traveler have described +such savages as worse than the negroes of Dahomey? Yet these savages +were really the Jews, the chosen people of God. The image was the +golden calf, the priest was Aaron, and the chief who ordered the +massacre was Moses. We might read the 32d chapter of Exodus in a very +different sense. A traveler who could have conversed with Aaron and +Moses might have understood the causes of the revolt and the necessity +of the massacre. But without this power of interrogation and mutual +explanation, no travelers, however graphic and amusing their stories +might be, could be trusted; no statements of theirs could be used by +the anthropologist for truly scientific purposes. If anthropology was +to maintain its high position as a real science, its alliance with +linguistic studies could not be too close. Its weakest points had +always been those where it trusted to the statements of authorities +ignorant of language and of the science of language. Its greatest +triumphs had been achieved by men such as Dr. Hahn, Bishops Callaway +and Colenso, Dr. W. Gill and last, not least, Mr. Man, who had +combined the minute accuracy of the scholar with the comprehensive +grasp of the anthropologist, and were thus enabled to use the key of +language to unlock the perplexities of savage customs, savage laws and +legends, and, particularly, of savage religions and mythologies. If +this alliance between anthropology and philology became real, then, +and then only, might we hope to see Bunsen's prophecy fulfilled, that +anthropology would become the highest branch of that science for which +the British Association was instituted.</p> + +<hr /> + +<h3>A New Catalogue of Valuable Papers</h3> + +<p>Contained in SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT during the past ten years, +sent <i>free of charge</i> to any address. 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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Scientific American Supplement No. 822 + Volume XXXII, Number 822. Issue Date October 3, 1891 + +Author: Various + +Release Date: February 9, 2005 [EBook #14989] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN *** + + + + +Produced by Juliet Sutherland and the Online Distributed Proofreading +Team at www.pgdp.net. + + + + + + +[Illustration] + + + + +SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT NO. 822 + + + + +NEW YORK, October 3, 1891 + +Scientific American Supplement. Vol. XXXII, No. 822. + +Scientific American established 1845 + +Scientific American Supplement, $5 a year. + +Scientific American and Supplement, $7 a year. + + * * * * * + + + + +TABLE OF CONTENTS. + + +I. ANTHROPOLOGY.--The Study of Mankind.--A review of Prof. + Max Muller's recent address before the British Association. 13141 + +II. CHEMISTRY.--Standards and Methods for the Polarimetric + Estimation of Sugars.--A U.S. internal revenue report on + the titular subject.--2 illustrations. 13138 + + The Formation of Starch in Leaves.--An interesting + examination into the physiological _role_ of leaves.--1 + illustration. 13138 + + The Water Molecule.--By A. GANSWINDT.--A very interesting + contribution to structural chemistry. 13137 + +III. CIVIL ENGINEERING.--Demolition of Rocks under Water + without Explosives.--Lobnitz System.--By EDWARD S. + CRAWLEY.--A method of removing rocks by combined + dredging and ramming as applied on the Suez Canal.--3 + illustrations. 13128 + +IV. ELECTRICITY.--Electrical Standards.--The English Board of + Trade commission's standards of electrical measurements. 13129 + + The London-Paris Telephone.--By W.H. PREECE, + F.R.S.--Details of the telephone between London and + Paris and its remarkable success.--6 illustrations. 13131 + + The Manufacture of Phosphorus by Electricity.--A new + industry based on dynamic electricity.--Full details. 13132 + + The Two or Three Phase Alternating Current Systems.--By + CARL HERING.--A new industrial development in electricity + fully described and graphically developed.--15 + illustrations. 13130 + +V. GEOGRAPHY AND EXPLORATION.--The Grand Falls of + Labrador.--The Bowdoin College exploring expedition and + its adventures and discoveries in Labrador. 13140 + +VI. MECHANICAL ENGINEERING.--Improved Changeable Speed + Gearing.--An ingenious method of obtaining different speeds + at will from a single driving shaft.--2 illustrations. 13129 + + Progress in Engineering.--Notes on the progress of the last + decade. 13129 + +VII. MEDICINE AND HYGIENE.--Eyesight.--Its Care during Infancy + and Youth.--By L. WEBSTER FOX, M.D.--A very timely + article on the preservation of sight and its deterioration + among civilized people. 13135 + + The Use of Compressed Air in Conjunction with Medicinal + Solutions in the Treatment of Nervous and Mental + Affections.--By J. LEONARD CORNING.--The enhancement of + the effects of remedies by subsequent application of + compressed air. 13134 + +VIII. MINERALOGY.--A Gem-Bearing Granite Vein in Western + Connecticut.--By L.P. GRATACAP.--A most interesting + mineral fissure yielding mica and gems recently opened. 13141 + +IX. NATURAL HISTORY.--Ants.--By RUTH WARD KAHN.--An + interesting presentation of the economy of ants. 13140 + +X. NAVAL ENGINEERING.--Armor Plating on Battleships--France + and Great Britain.--A comparison of the protective systems + of the French and English navies.--5 illustrations. 13127 + + The Redoutable.--An important member of the French + Mediterranean fleet described and illustrated.--1 + illustration. 13127 + +XI. TECHNOLOGY.--New Bleaching Apparatus.--A newly invented + apparatus for bleaching pulp.--2 illustrations. 13133 + + * * * * * + + + + +THE REDOUTABLE. + + +The central battery and barbette ship Redoutable, illustrated this +week, forms part of the French Mediterranean squadron, and although +launched as early as 1876 is still one of its most powerful ships. +Below are some of the principal dimensions and particulars of this +ironclad: + + Length 318 ft. 2 in. + Beam 64 " 8 " + Draught 25 " 6 " + Displacement 9200 tons. + Crew 706 officers and men. + +[Illustration: THE FRENCH CENTRAL BATTERY IRONCLAD REDOUTABLE.] + +The Redoutable is built partly of iron and partly of steel and is +similar in many respects to the ironclads Devastation and Courbet of +the same fleet, although rather smaller. She is completely belted with +14 in. armor, with a 15 in. backing, and has the central battery +armored with plates of 91/2 in. in thickness. + +The engines are two in number, horizontal, and of the compound two +cylinder type, developing a horse power of 6,071, which on the trial +trip gave a speed of 14.66 knots per hour. Five hundred and ten tons +of coal are carried in the bunkers, which at a speed of 10 knots +should enable the ship to make a voyage of 2,800 knots. Torpedo +defense netting is fitted, and there are three masts with military +tops carrying Hotchkiss revolver machine guns. + +The offensive power of the ship consists of seven breechloading rifled +guns of 27 centimeters (10.63 in.), and weighing 24 tons each, six +breechloading rifled guns of 14 centimeters (5.51 in.), and +quick-firing and machine guns of the Hotchkiss systems. There are in +addition four torpedo discharge tubes, two on each side of the ship. +The positions of the guns are as follows: Four of 27 centimeters in +the central battery, two on each broadside; three 27 centimeter guns +on the upper deck in barbettes, one on each side amidships, and one +aft. The 14 centimeter guns are in various positions on the +broadsides, and the machine guns are fitted on deck, on the bridges, +and in the military tops, four of them also being mounted on what is +rather a novelty in naval construction, a gallery running round the +outside of the funnel, which was fitted when the ship was under +repairs some months ago. + +There are three electric light projectors, one forward on the upper +deck, one on the bridge just forward of the funnel, and one in the +mizzen top.--_Engineering._ + + * * * * * + + + + +ARMOR PLATING ON BATTLESHIPS: FRANCE AND GREAT BRITAIN. + + +The visit of the French squadron under Admiral Gervais to England has +revived in many a nautical mind the recollection of that oft-repeated +controversy as to the relative advantages of armored belts and +citadels. Now that a typical French battleship of the belted class has +been brought so prominently to our notice, it may not be considered an +inappropriate season to dwell shortly upon the various idiosyncrasies +of thought which have produced, in our two nations, types of war +vessels differing so materially from each other as to their protective +features. In order to facilitate a study of these features, the +accompanying sketch has been prepared, which shows at a glance the +relative quantities of armored surface that afford protection to the +Nile, the Camperdown, the Marceau, the Royal Sovereign, and the Dupuy +de Lome; the first three of these vessels having been actually present +at the review on the 21st of August and the two others having been +selected as the latest efforts of shipbuilding skill in France and +Great Britain. Nothing but the armored surface in each several class +is shown, the same scale having been adhered to in all cases. + +[Illustration: Armored Surface for Various Ships] + +Two impressions cannot fail to be made upon our minds, both as to +French and British armor plate disposition. These two impressions, as +regards Great Britain, point to the Royal Sovereign as embodying the +idea of two protected stations with a narrow and partial connecting +belt; and to the Nile as embodying the idea of a vast and absolutely +protected raft. For France, we have the Marceau as representing the +wholly belted type with four disconnected but protected stations; and +the Dupuy de Lome, in which the armor plating is thinned out to a +substance of only 4 in., so as entirely to cover the sides of the +vessel down to 5 ft, below the water line; this thickness of plating +being regarded as sufficient to break up upon its surface the dreaded +melinite or guncotton shell, but permitting the passage of +armor-piercing projectiles right through from side to side; provision +being made to prevent damage from these latter to engines and vitals +by means of double-armored decks below, with a belt of cellulose +between them. Thus, as we have explained, two prominent ideas are +present in the disposition of armor upon the battleships of Great +Britain, as well as in that of the battleships of France. But, while +in our country these two ideas follow one another in the natural +sequence of development, from the Inflexible to the Royal Sovereign, +the citadel being gradually extended into two redoubts, and space +being left between the redoubts for an auxiliary battery--this latter +being, however, singularly placed above the armored belt, and _not +within its shelter_--in France, on the other hand, we find the second +idea to be a new departure altogether in armored protection, or rather +to be a return to the original thought which produced the Gloire and +vessels of her class. In point of fact, while we have always clung to +the armored citadel, France has discarded the belt altogether, and +gone in for speed and light armor, as well as for a much lighter class +of armament. Time alone, and the circumstances of actual warfare, can +prove which nation has adopted the wisest alternative. + +A glance at the engraving will show the striking contrast between the +existing service types as to armored surface. The Marceau appears +absolutely naked by the side of the solidly armed citadel of the Nile. +The contrast between the future types will be, of course, still more +striking, for the reasons given in the last paragraph. But while +remarking upon the paucity of heavy plating as exhibited in the +service French battleships, we would say one word for the angle at +which it is placed. The receding sides of the great vessels of France +give two very important attributes in their favor. In the first place, +a much broader platform at the water line is afforded to secure +steadiness of the ship and stable equilibrium, and the angle at which +the armor rests is so great as to present a very oblique surface to +the impact of projectiles. The trajectory of modern rifled guns is so +exceedingly flat that the angle of descent of the shot or shell is +practically _nil_. Were the sides of the Royal Sovereign to fall back +like those of the Marceau or Magenta, we seriously doubt whether any +projectile, however pointed, would effect penetration at all. We +conclude, then, that a comparison of the Marceau with the Nile as +regards protective features is so incontestably in favor of the +latter, that they cannot be classed together for a moment. In speed, +moreover, though this is not a point under consideration, the Nile has +the advantage. It is impossible, however, to avoid the conviction that +the Dupuy de Lome would be a most powerful and disagreeable enemy for +either of the eight great ironclads of Great Britain now building to +encounter on service. The Hood and Royal Sovereign have many +vulnerable points. At any position outside of the dark and light +colored portions of armor plate indicated in our drawing, they could +be hulled with impunity with the lightest weapons. It is true that gun +detachments and ammunition will be secure within the internal +"crinolines," but how about the other men and _materiel_ between +decks? Now, the Dupuy de Lome may be riddled through and through bf a +131/2 in. shell if a Royal Sovereign ever succeeds in catching her; but +from lighter weapons her between decks is almost secure. We cannot +help feeling a sneaking admiration for the great French cruising +battleship, with her 6,300 tons and 14,000 horse power, giving an easy +speed of 20 knots in almost any weather, and protected by a complete 4 +in. steel panoply, which will explode the shells of most of our +secondary batteries on impact, or prevent their penetration. In fact, +there is little doubt that the interior of the Trafalgar, whether as +regards the secondary batteries or the unarmored ends, would be +probably found to be a safer and pleasanter situation, in the event of +action with a Dupuy de Lome, than either of the naked batteries or the +upper works of the Royal Sovereign. This is what Sir E.J. Reed was so +anxious to point out at the meeting of naval architects in 1889, when +he described the modern British battleship as a "spoiled Trafalgar." +There was perhaps some reason in what he said.--_The Engineer._ + + * * * * * + + + + +DEMOLITION OF ROCKS UNDER WATER WITHOUT EXPLOSIVES-LOBNITZ SYSTEM.[1] + +[Footnote 1: Read before the Engineer's Club, Philadelphia. Translated +from _Nouvelles Anodes de la Construction,_ March, 1890.] + +By EDWIN S. CRAWLEY. + + +The methods of demolishing rocks by the use of explosives are always +attended by a certain amount of danger, while at the same time there +is always more or less uncertainty in regard to the final result of +the operation. Especially is this the case when the work must be +carried on without interrupting navigation and in the vicinity of +constructions that may receive injury from the explosions. + +Such were the conditions imposed in enlarging the Suez Canal in +certain parts where the ordinary dredges could not be used. + +Mr. Henry Lobnitz, engineer at Renfrew, has contrived a new method of +procedure, designed for the purpose of enlarging and deepening the +canal in those parts between the Bitter Lakes and Suez, where it runs +over a rocky bed. It was necessary to execute the work without +interrupting or obstructing traffic on the canal. + +The principle of the system consists in producing a shattering of the +rock by the action of a heavy mass let fall from a convenient height, +and acting like a projectile of artillery upon the wall of a fortress. + +From experiments made in the quarry of Craigmiller, near Edinburgh, +with a weight of two tons shod with a steel point, it was found that +with a fall of about 5.5 meters (18.04 ft.) there was broken up on an +average more than 0.113 cubic meter (0.148 cubic yard) of hard rock +per blow. The first blow, delivered 90 centimeters (2 ft. 111/2 in.) +from the wall face, produced an almost imperceptible rent, a second or +a third blow applied at the same place extended this opening often to +a length of 1.50 meters (4 ft. 11 in.) and to a depth of from 90 to +120 centimeters (2 ft. 11 in. to 3 ft. 11 in.) The next blow opened +the fissure and detached the block of rock. + +The application of the same system under water upon an unknown surface +would obviously modify the conditions of the experiment. Nevertheless, +the results obtained with the "Derocheuse," the first dredging machine +constructed upon this principle, have realized the hopes of the +inventor. + +This dredging machine was launched on the Clyde and reached Port Said +in twenty days. It measures 55 meters (180 ft. 5 in.) in length, 12.20 +meters (40 ft. 1 in.) in breadth, and 3.65 meters (12 ft.) in depth. +Its mean draught of water is 2.75 meters (9 ft. 21/2 in.) It is divided +into eighteen watertight compartments. Five steel-pointed battering +rams, each of four tons weight, are arranged in line upon each side of +the chain of buckets of the dredging machine. See Figs. 1 and 2. The +battering rams, suspended by chains, are raised by hydraulic power to +a height varying from 1.50 to 6 meters (4 ft. 11 in. to 19 ft. 8 in.), +and are then let fall upon the rock. The mechanism of the battering +rams is carried by a metallic cage which can be moved forward or +backward by the aid of steam as the needs of the work require. A +series of five battering rams gives from 200 to 300 blows per hour. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--LONGITUDINAL SECTION.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.--PLAN] + +A dredging machine combined with the apparatus just described, raises +the fragments of rock as they are detached from the bottom. A guide +wheel is provided, which supports the chain carrying the buckets, and +thus diminishes the stress upon the axles and bearings. With this +guide wheel or auxiliary drum there is no difficulty in dredging to a +depth of 12 meters (39 ft. 4 in.), while without this accessory it is +difficult to attain a depth of 9 meters (29 ft. 6 in.) + +A compound engine, with four cylinders of 200 indicated horse power, +drives, by means of friction gear, the chain, which carries the +buckets. If the buckets happen to strike against the rock, the +friction gear yields until the excess of resistance has disappeared. + +Fig. 3 indicates the manner in which the dredge is operated during the +work. It turns alternately about two spuds which are thrust +successively into the bottom and about which the dredge describes a +series of arcs in a zigzag fashion. These spuds are worked by +hydraulic power. + +A three ton hand crane is placed upon the bridge for use in making +repairs to the chain which carries the buckets. A six ton steam crane +is placed upon the top of the cage which supports the hydraulic +apparatus for raising the battering rams, thus permitting them to be +easily lifted and replaced. + +The dredging machine is also furnished with two screws driven by an +engine of 300 indicated horse power, as well as with two independent +boilers. Two independent series of pumps, with separate connections, +feed the hydraulic lifting apparatus, thus permitting repairs to be +made when necessary, without interrupting the work. A special machine +with three cylinders drives the pumps of the condenser. An accumulator +regulates the hydraulic pressure and serves to raise or lower the +spuds. + +At the end of the Suez Canal next to the Red Sea, the bottom consists +of various conglomerates containing gypsum, sandstone and sometimes +shells. It was upon a bed of this nature that the machine was first +put to work. The mean depth of water, originally 8.25 meters (26 ft. 3 +in.), was for a long time sufficient for the traffic of the canal; but +as the variations in level of the Red Sea are from 1.8 to 3 meters (5 +ft. 11 in. to 9 ft. 10 in.), the depth at the moment of low water is +scarcely adequate for the constantly increasing draught of water of +the steamers. Attempts were made to attack the rocky surface of the +bottom with powerful dredges, but this method was expensive because it +necessitated constant repairs to the dredges. + +[Illustration: FIG. 3.--DREDGE MOVEMENT.] + +These last, although of good construction, seldom raised more than 153 +cubic meters (200 cubic yards) in from eight to fifteen days. Their +daily advance was often only from sixty to ninety centimeters (about 2 +to 3 ft.), while with the "Derocheuse" it was possible to advance ten +times as rapidly in dredging to the same depth. The bottom upon which +the machine commenced its work was clean and of a true rocky nature. +It was soon perceived that this conglomerate, rich in gypsum, +possessed too great elasticity for the pointed battering rams to have +their proper effect upon it. Each blow made a hole of from fifteen to +sixty centimeters (6 in. to 2. ft.) in depth. A second blow, given +even very near to the first, formed a similar hole, leaving the bed of +the rock to all appearances intact between the two holes. This result, +due entirely to the special nature of the rock, led to the fear that +the action of the battering rams would be without effect. After some +experimentation it was found that the best results were obtained by +arranging the battering rams very near to the chain of buckets and by +working the dredge and battering rams simultaneously. The advance at +each oscillation was about 90 centimeters (about 3 ft.) + +The results obtained were as follows: At first the quantity extracted +varied much from day to day; but at the end of some weeks, on account +of the greater experience of the crew, more regularity was obtained. +The nature of the conglomerate was essentially variable, sometimes +hard and tenacious, like malleable iron, then suddenly changing into +friable masses surrounded by portions more elastic and richer in +gypsum. + +During the last five weeks at Port Tewfik, the expense, including the +repairs, was 8,850 francs ($1,770.00) for 1,600 cubic meters (2,093 +cubic yards) extracted. This would make the cost 5.52 francs per cubic +meter, or $0.84 per cubic yard, not including the insurance, the +interest and the depreciation of the plant. + +After some improvements in details, suggested by practice, the machine +was put in operation at Chalouf upon a hard rock, from 1.50 to 3 +meters (4 ft. 11 in. to 9 ft. 10 in.) thick. The battering rams were +given a fall of 1.80 meters (5 ft. 11 in.). To break the rock into +fragments small enough not to be rejected by the buckets of the +dredge, the operations of dredging and of disintegration were carried +on separately, permitting the battering rams to work at a greater +distance from the wall face. The time consumed in thus pulverizing the +rock by repeated blows was naturally found to be increased. It was +found more convenient to use only a single row of battering rams. The +production was from about seven to eleven cubic meters (9.2 to 14.4 +cubic yards) per hour. Toward the close of September, after it had +been demonstrated that the "Derocheuse" was capable of accomplishing +with celerity and economy the result for which it was designed, it was +purchased by the Suez Canal Company. + +During the month of September, an experiment, the details of which +were carefully noted, extending over a period of sixteen days, gave +the following results: + + Crew (33 men), 140 hours. 2,012.50 francs $402.50 + Coal, @ 87.50 francs ($7.50) per ton 787.50 francs 157.50 + Oil and supplies 220.00 francs 44.00 + Fresh water, 16 days 210.00 francs 42.00 + Sundries 42.50 francs 8.50 + ---------------- --------- + Total expense for removing 764 + cubic meters (999.2 cubic yards), 3,272.50 francs $654.50 + +Average, 4.28 francs per cubic meter ($0.65 per cubic yard). + +This result cannot be taken as a universal basis, because after a +year's use there are numerous repairs to make to the plant, which +would increase the average net cost. This, besides, does not include +the cost of removal of the dredged material, nor the depreciation, the +interest and the insurance. + +It should be added on the other hand, however, that the warm season +was far from being favorable to the energy and perseverance necessary +to carry on successfully experiments of this kind. The temperature, +even at midnight, was often 38 deg. C. (100.4 deg. F.). Still further, the work +was constantly interrupted by the passage of ships through the canal. +On an average not more than forty minutes' work to the hour was +obtained. Notwithstanding this, there were extracted at Chalouf, on an +average, 38.225 cubic meters (50 cubic yards) per day without +interrupting navigation. At Port Tewfik, where there was much less +inconvenience from the passage of ships, the work was carried on from +eight to eleven hours per day and the quantity extracted in this time +was generally more than 76 cubic meters (99.4 cubic yards). + +In most cases the system could be simplified. The engine which works +the dredge could, when not thus employed, be used to drive the pumps. +The propelling engine could also be used for the same purpose. + +The results obtained at Suez indicate the appreciable advantages +arising from the application of this system to the works of ports, +rivers and canals, and ever, to the work of cutting in the +construction of roads and railroads. + + * * * * * + + + + +PROGRESS IN ENGINEERING. + + +Mr. T. Forster Brown, in his address to the Mechanical Science Section +of the British Association, said that great progress had been made in +mechanical science since the British Association met in the +principality of Wales eleven years ago; and some of the results of +that progress were exemplified in our locomotives, and marine +engineering, and in such works as the Severn Tunnel, the Forth and Tay +Bridges, and the Manchester Ship Canal, which was now in progress of +construction. In mining, the progress had been slow, and it was a +remarkable fact that, with the exception of pumping, the machinery in +use in connection with mining operations in Great Britain had not, in +regard to economy, advanced so rapidly as had been the case in our +manufactures and marine. This was probably due, in metalliferous +mining, to the uncertain nature of the mineral deposits not affording +any adequate security to adventurers that the increased cost of +adopting improved appliances would be reimbursed; while in coal +mining, the cheapness of fuel, the large proportion which manual labor +bore to the total cost of producing coal, and the necessity for +producing large outputs with the simplest appliances, explained the +reluctance with which high pressure steam compound engines, and other +modes embracing the most modern and approved types of economizing +power had been adopted. Metalliferous mining, with the exception of +the working of iron ore, was not in a prosperous condition; but in +special localities, where the deposits of minerals were rich and +profitable, progress had been made within a recent period by the +adoption of more economical and efficient machinery, of which the +speaker quoted a number of examples. Reference was also made to the +rapid strides made in the use of electricity as a motive power, and to +the mechanical ventilation of mines by exhaustion of the air. + + +COAL MINES. + +Summarizing the position of mechanical science, as applied to the coal +mining industry in this country, Mr. Brown observed that there was a +general awakening to the necessity of adopting, in the newer and +deeper mines, more economical appliances. It was true it would be +impracticable, and probably unwise, to alter much of the existing +machinery, but, by the adoption of the best known types of electrical +plant, and air compression in our new and deep mines, the consumption +of coal per horse power would be reduced, and the extra expense, due +to natural causes, of producing minerals from greater depths would be +substantially lessened. The consumption of coal at the collieries of +Great Britain alone probably exceeded 10,000,000 tons per annum, and +the consumption per horse power was probably not less than 6 lb. of +coal, and it was not unreasonable to assume that, by the adoption of +more efficient machinery than was at present in general use, at least +one-half of the coal consumed could be saved. There was, therefore, in +the mines of Great Britain alone a wide and lucrative field for the +inventive ingenuity of mechanical engineers in economizing fuel, and +especially in the successful application of new methods for dealing +with underground haulage, in the inner workings of our collieries, +more especially in South Wales, where the number of horses still +employed was very large. + + +STEAM TRAMS AND ELECTRIC TRAMS. + +Considerable progress had within recent years been made in the +mechanical appliances intended to replace horses on our public tram +lines. The steam engine now in use in some of our towns had its +drawbacks as as well as its good qualities, as also had the endless +rope haulage, and in the case of the latter system, anxiety must be +felt when the ropes showed signs of wear. The electrically driven +trams appeared to work well. He had not, however, seen any published +data bearing on the relative cost per mile of these several systems, +and this information, when obtained, would be of interest. At the +present time, he understood, exhaustive trials were being made with an +ammonia gas engine, which, it was anticipated, would prove both more +economical and efficient than horses for tram roads. The gas was said +to be produced from the pure ammonia, obtained by distillation from +commercial ammonia, and was given off at a pressure varying from 100 +to 150 lb. per square inch. This ammonia was used in specially +constructed engines, and was then exhausted into a tank containing +water, which brought it back into its original form of commercial +ammonia, ready for redistillation, and, it was stated, with a +comparatively small loss. + + * * * * * + + + + +IMPROVED CHANGEABLE SPEED GEARING. + + +This is the invention of Lawrence Heath, of Macedon, N.Y., and relates +to that class of changeable speed gearing in which a center pinion +driven at a constant rate of speed drives directly and at different +rates of speed a series of pinions mounted in a surrounding revoluble +case or shell, so that by turning the shell one or another of the +secondary pinions may be brought into operative relation to the parts +to be driven therefrom. + +The aim of my invention is to so modify this system of gearing that +the secondary pinions may receive a very slow motion in relation to +that of the primary driving shaft, whereby the gearing is the better +adapted for the driving of the fertilizer-distributers of grain drills +from the main axle, and for other special uses. + +Fig. 1 is a side elevation. Fig. 2 is a vertical cross section. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.] + +A represents the main driving shaft or axle, driven constantly and at +a uniform speed, and B is the pinion-supporting case or shell, mounted +loosely on and revoluble around the axle, but held normally at rest by +means of a locking bolt, C, or other suitable locking device adapted +to enter notches, _c_, in the shell. + +D is the primary driving pinion, fixed firmly to the axle and +constantly engaging the pinion, E, mounted on a stud in the shell. The +pinion, E, is formed integral with or firmly secured to the smaller +secondary pinion, F, which in turn constantly engages and drives the +center pinion, G, mounted to turn loosely on the axle within the +shell, so that it is turned in the same direction as the axle, but at +a slower speed. + +F', F_{2}, F_{3}, F_{4}, etc., represent additional secondary pinions +grouped around the center pinion, mounted on studs in the shell, and +made of different diameters, so that they are driven by the center +pinion at different speeds. Each of the secondary pinions is formed +with a neck or journal, _f_, projected out through the side of the +shell, so that the external pinion, H, may be applied to any one of +the necks at will in order to communicate motion thence to the gear, +I, which occupies a fixed position, and from which the fertilizer or +other mechanism is driven. + +In order to drive the gear, I, at one speed or another, as may be +demanded, it is only necessary to apply the pinion, H, to the neck of +that secondary pinion which is turning at the appropriate speed and +then turn the shell bodily around the axle until the external pinion +is carried into engagement with gear I, when the shell is again locked +fast. The axle communicates motion through D, E, and P to the center +pinion, which in turn drives all the secondary pinions except F. If +the external pinion is applied to F, it will receive motion directly +therefrom; but if applied to either of the secondary pinions, it will +receive motion through or by way of the center pinion. It will be seen +that all the pinions are sustained and protected within the shell. + +The essence of the invention lies in the introduction of the pinions D +and E between the axle and the series of secondary pinions to reduce +the speed. + + * * * * * + + + + +ELECTRICAL STANDARDS. + + +_Nature_ states that the Queen's Printers are now issuing the Report +(dated July 23, 1891) to the President of the Board of Trade, of the +Committee appointed to consider the question of constructing standards +for the measurement of electricity. The committee included Mr. +Courtenay Boyle, C.B., Major P. Cardew, R.E., Mr. E. Graves, Mr. W.H. +Preece, F.R.S., Sir W. Thomson, F.R.S., Lord Rayleigh, F.R.S., Prof. +G. Carey Foster, F.R.S., Mr. R.T. Glazebrook, F.R. S., Dr. John +Hopkinson, F.R.S., Prof. W.E. Ayrton, F.R.S. + +In response to an invitation, the following gentlemen attended and +gave evidence: On behalf of the Association of Chambers of Commerce, +Mr. Thomas Parker and Mr. Hugh Erat Harrison; on behalf of the London +Council, Prof. Silvanus Thompson; on behalf of the London Chamber of +Commerce, Mr. R. E. Crompton. The Committee were indebted to Dr. J.A. +Fleming and Dr. A. Muirhead for valuable information and assistance; +and they state that they had the advantage of the experience and +advice of Mr. H. J. Chaney, the Superintendent of Weights and +Measures. The Secretary to the Committee was Sir T.W. P. Blomefield, +Bart. + +The following are the resolutions of the Committee: + + +_Resolutions._ + +(1) That it is desirable that new denominations of standards for the +measurement of electricity should be made and approved by Her Majesty +in Council as Board of Trade standards. + +(2) That the magnitudes of these standards should be determined on the +electro-magnetic system of measurement with reference to the +centimeter as unit of length, the gramme as unit of mass, and the +second as unit of time, and that by the terms centimeter and gramme +are meant the standards of those denominations deposited with the +Board of Trade. + +(3) That the standard of electrical resistance should be denominated +the ohm, and should have the value 1,000,000,000 in terms of the +centimeter and second. + +(4) That the resistance offered to an unvarying electric current by a +column of mercury of a constant cross sectional area of 1 square +millimeter, and of a length of 106.3 centimeters at the temperature of +melting ice may be adopted as 1 ohm. + +(5) That the value of the standard of resistance constructed by a +committee of the British Association for the Advancement of Science in +the years 1863 and 1864, and known as the British Association unit, +may be taken as 0.9866 of the ohm. + +(6) That a material standard, constructed in solid metal, and verified +by comparison with the British Association unit, should be adopted as +the standard ohm. + +(7) That for the purpose of replacing the standard, if lost, +destroyed, or damaged, and for ordinary use, a limited number of +copies should be constructed, which should be periodically compared +with the standard ohm and with the British Association unit. + +(8) That resistances constructed in solid metal should be adopted as +Board of Trade standards for multiples and sub-multiples of the ohm. + +(9) That the standard of electrical current should be denominated the +ampere, and should have the value one-tenth (0.1) in terms of the +centimeter, gramme, and second. + +(10) That an unvarying current which, when passed through a solution +of nitrate of silver in water, in accordance with the specification +attached to this report, deposits silver at the rate of 0.001118 of a +gramme per second, may be taken as a current of 1 ampere. + +(11) That an alternating current of 1 ampere shall mean a current such +that the square root of the time-average of the square of its strength +at each instant in amperes is unity. + +(12) That instruments constructed on the principle of the balance, in +which, by the proper disposition of the conductors, forces of +attraction and repulsion are produced, which depend upon the amount of +current passing, and are balanced by known weights, should be adopted +as the Board of Trade standards for the measurement of current, +whether unvarying or alternating. + +(13) That the standard of electrical pressure should be denominated +the volt, being the pressure which, if steadily applied to a conductor +whose resistance is 1 ohm, will produce a current of 1 ampere. + +(14) That the electrical pressure at a temperature of 62 deg. F. between +the poles or electrodes of the voltaic cell known as Clark's cell may +be taken as not differing from a pressure of 1.433 volts by more than +an amount which will be determined by a sub-committee appointed to +investigate the question, who will prepare a specification for the +construction and use of the cell. + +(15) That an alternating pressure of 1 volt shall mean a pressure such +that the square root of the time average of the square of its value at +each instant in volts is unity. + +(16) That instruments constructed on the principle of Sir W. Thomson's +quadrant electrometer used idiostatically, and for high pressure +instruments on the principle of the balance, electrostatic forces +being balanced against a known weight, should be adopted as Board of +Trade standards for the measurement of pressure, whether unvarying or +alternating. + +We have adopted the system of electrical units originally defined by +the British Association for the Advancement of Science, and we have +found in its recent researches, as well as in the deliberations of the +International Congress on Electrical Units, held in Paris, valuable +guidance for determining the exact magnitudes of the several units of +electrical measurement, as well as for the verification of the +material standards. + +We have stated the relation between the proposed standard ohm and the +unit of resistance originally determined by the British Association, +and have also stated its relation to the mercurial standard adopted by +the International Conference. + +We find that considerations of practical importance make it +undesirable to adopt a mercurial standard; we have, therefore, +preferred to adopt a material standard constructed in solid metal. + +It appears to us to be necessary that in transactions between buyer +and seller, a legal character should henceforth be assigned to the +units of electrical measurement now suggested; and with this view, +that the issue of an Order in Council should be recommended, under the +Weights and Measures Act, in the form annexed to this report. + + +_Specification referred to in Resolution 10._ + +In the following specification the term silver voltameter means the +arrangement of apparatus by means of which an electric current is +passed through a solution of nitrate of silver in water. The silver +voltameter measures the total electrical quantity which has passed +during the time of the experiment, and by noting this time the time +average of the current, or if the current has been kept constant, the +current itself, can be deduced. + +In employing the silver voltameter to measure currents of about 1 +ampere, the following arrangements should be adopted. The kathode on +which the silver is to be deposited should take the form of a platinum +bowl not less than 10 cm. in diameter, and from 4 to 5 cm. in depth. + +The anode should be a plate of pure silver some 30 square cm. in area +and 2 or 3 millimeters in thickness. + +This is supported horizontally in the liquid near the top of the +solution by a platinum wire passed through holes in the plate at +opposite corners. To prevent the disintegrated silver which is formed +on the anode from falling on to the kathode, the anode should be +wrapped round with pure filter paper, secured at the back with sealing +wax. + +The liquid should consist of a neutral solution of pure silver +nitrate, containing about 15 parts by weight of the nitrate to 85 +parts of water. + +The resistance of the voltameter changes somewhat as the current +passes. To prevent these changes having too great an effect on the +current, some resistance besides that of the voltameter should be +inserted in the circuit. The total metallic resistance of the circuit +should not be less than 10 ohms. + +_Method of making a Measurement._--The platinum bowl is washed with +nitric acid and distilled water, dried by heat, and then left to cool +in a desiccator. When thoroughly dry, it is weighed carefully. + +It is nearly filled with the solution, and connected to the rest of +the circuit by being placed on a clean copper support, to which a +binding screw is attached. This copper support must be insulated. + +The anode is then immersed in the solution, so as to be well covered +by it, and supported in that position; the connections to the rest of +the circuit are made. + +Contact is made at the key, noting the time of contact. The current is +allowed to pass for not less than half an hour, and the time at which +contact is broken is observed. Care must be taken that the clock used +is keeping correct time during this interval. + +The solution is now removed from the bowl, and the deposit is washed +with distilled water and left to soak for at least six hours. It is +then rinsed successively with distilled water and absolute alcohol, +and dried in a hot-air bath at a temperature of about 160 deg. C. After +cooling in a desiccator, it is weighed again. The gain in weight gives +the silver deposited. + +To find the current in amperes, this weight, expressed in grammes, +must be divided by the number of seconds during which the current has +been passed, and by 0.001118. + +The result will be the time average of the current, if during the +interval the current has varied. + +In determining by this method the constant of an instrument the +current should be kept as nearly constant as possible, and the +readings of the instrument taken at frequent observed intervals of +time. These observations give a curve from which the reading +corresponding to the mean current (time average of the current) can be +found. The current, as calculated by the voltameter, corresponds to +this reading. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE TWO OR THREE PHASE ALTERNATING CURRENT SYSTEMS. + +By CARL HERING. + + +The occasion of the transmission of power from Lauffen to Frankfort +has brought to the notice of the profession more than ever before the +two or three phase alternating current system, described as early as +1887-88 by various electricians, among whom are Tesla, Bradley, +Haselwander and others. As to who first invented it, we have nothing +to say here, but though known for some years it has not until quite +recently been of any great importance in practice. + +Within the last few years, however, Mr. M. Von Dolivo-Dobrowolsky, +electrical engineer of the Allgemeine Elektricitats Gesellschaft, of +Berlin, has occupied himself with these currents. His success with +motors run with such currents was the origin of the present great +transmission of power exhibit at Frankfort, the greatest transmission +ever attempted. His investigation in this new sphere, and his ability +to master the subject from a theoretical or mathematical standpoint, +has led him to find the objections, the theoretically best conditions, +etc. This, together with his ingenuity, has led him to devise an +entirely new and very ingenious modification, which will no doubt have +a very great effect on the development of alternating current motors. + +It is doubtless well known that if, as in Fig. 1, a Gramme ring +armature is connected to leads at four points as shown and a magnet is +revolved inside of it (or if the ring is revolved in a magnetic field +and the current led off by contact rings instead of a commutator), +there will be two alternating currents generated, which will differ +from each other in their phases only. When one is at a maximum the +other is zero. When such a double current is sent into a similarly +constructed motor it will produce or generate what might be called a +rotary field, which is shown diagrammatically in the six successive +positions in Fig. 2. The winding here is slightly different, but it +amounts to the same thing as far as we are concerned at present. This +is what Mr. Dobrowolsky calls an "elementary" or "simply" rotary +current, as used in the Tesla motors. A similar system, but having +three different currents instead of two, is the one used in the +Lauffen transmission experiment referred to above. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.] + +In investigating this subject Mr. Dobrowolsky found that the best +theoretical indications for such a system would be a large number of +circuits instead of only two or three, each differing from the next +one by only a small portion of a wave length; the larger their number +the better theoretically. The reason is that with a few currents the +resulting magnetism generated in the motor by these currents will +pulsate considerably, as shown in Fig. 3, in which the two full lines +show the currents differing by 90 degrees. The dotted line above these +shows how much the resulting magnetism will pulsate. With two such +currents this variation in magnetism will be about 40 degrees above +its lowest value. Now, such a variation in the field is undesirable, +as it produces objectionable induction effects, and it has the evil +effect of interfering with the starting of the motor loaded, besides +affecting the torque considerably if the speed should fall slightly +below that for synchronism. A perfect motor should not have these +faults, and it is designed to obviate them by striving to obtain a +revolving field in which the magnetism is as nearly constant as +possible. + +[Illustration: FIG. 3.] + +If there are two currents differing by 90 degrees, this variation of +the magnetism will be about 40 per cent.; with three currents +differing 60 degrees, about 14 per cent; with six currents differing +30 degrees it will be only about 4 per cent., and so on. It will be +seen, therefore, that by doubling the three-phase system the +pulsations are already very greatly reduced. But this would require +six wires, while the three-phase system requires only three wires (as +each of the three leads can readily be shown to serve as a return lead +for the other two in parallel). It is to combine the advantages of +both that he designed the following very ingenious system. By this +system he can obtain as small a difference of phase as desired, +without increasing the number of wires above three, a statement which +might at first seem paradoxical. + +Before explaining this ingenious system, it might be well to call +attention to a parallel case to the above in continuous current +machines and motors. The first dynamos were constructed with two +commutator bars. They were soon found to work much better with four, +and finally still better as the number of commutator bars (or coils) +was increased, up to a practical limit. Just as the pulsations in the +continuous current dynamos were detrimental to proper working, so are +these pulsations in few-phased alternating current motors, though the +objections manifest themselves in different ways--in the continuous +current motors as sparking and in the alternating current motors as +detrimental inductive effects. + +The underlying principle of this new system may be seen best in Figs. +4, 5, 6, 7 and 8. In Fig. 4 are shown two currents, I_{1} and I_{2}, +which differ from each other by an angle, D. Suppose these two +currents to be any neighboring currents in a simple rotary current +system. Now, if these two currents be united into one, as shown in the +lower part of the figure, the resulting current, I, will be about as +shown by the dotted line; that is, it will lie between the other two +and at its maximum point, and for a difference of phases equal to 90 +degrees it will be about 1.4 times as great as the maximum of either +of the others; the important feature is that the phase of this current +is midway between that of the other two. Fig. 5 shows the winding of a +cylinder armature and Fig. 7 that, of a Gramme armature for a simple +three-phase current with three leads, with which system we assume that +the reader is familiar. + +[Illustration: FIG. 4.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 5.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 6.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 7.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 8.] + +The two figures, 4 and 5 (or 7), correspond with each other in so far +as the currents in the three leads, shown in heavy lines, have a phase +between those of the two which compose them. Referring now to Fig. 6 +(or 8), which is precisely like Fig. 5 (or 7), except that it has an +additional winding shown in heavy lines, it will be seen that each of +the three leads, shown in heavy lines, is wound around the armature +before leaving it, forming an additional coil lying _between_ the two +coils with which it is in series. The phase of the heavy line currents +was shown in Fig. 4 to lie between the other two. Therefore, in the +armature in Fig. 6 (or 8) there will be six phases, while in Fig. 5 +there are only three, the number of leads (three) remaining the same +as before. This is the fundamental principle of this ingenious +invention. To have six phases in Fig. 5 would require six leads, but +in Fig. 6 precisely the same result is obtained with only three leads. +In the same way the three leads in Fig. 6 might again be combined and +passed around the armature again, and so on forming still more phases, +without increasing the number of leads. Figs. 7 and 8 compound with 5 +and 6 and show the same system for a Gramme ring instead of a cylinder +armature. + +As was stated in the early part of this description, the main object +in a rotary current motor is to have a magnetic field which is as +nearly constant in intensity as possible, and which changes only its +position, that is, its axis. But in Fig. 4 it was shown that the +current I (in dotted lines) is greater than the others (about as 1.4 +to 1 for a phase difference of 90 degrees). If therefore the coils in +Fig. 6 or 8 were all alike, the magnetism generated by the heavy line +coils would be greater than that generated by the others, and would +therefore produce very undesirable pulsations in the magnetic fields; +but as the magnetism depends on the ampere turns, it is necessary +merely to have correspondingly fewer turns on these coils, as compared +with the others. This is shown diagrammatically in Figs. 6 and 8, in +which the heavy line coils have less windings than the others. In +practice it is not always possible to obtain the exact ratio of 1 to +1.4, for instance, but even if this ratio is obtained only +approximately, it nevertheless reduces the pulsations very materially +below what they would be with half the number of phases. It is +therefore not necessary in practice to have more than an approximation +to the exact conditions. + +[Illustration: FIG. 9.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 10.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 11.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 12.] + +Fig. 9 shows a multiple phase armature having double the number of +phases as Fig. 1, and would according to the old system, therefore, +require eight leads. Fig. 10 shows the new system with the same number +of phases as in Fig. 9, but requiring only four leads instead of +eight. Figs. 11 and 12 correspond with Figs. 7 and 8 and show the +windings for a multipolar motor in the two systems. + +[Illustration: FIG. 13.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 14.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 15.] + +These figures show how a motor may be wound so as to be a multiple +phase motor, although the current entering the motor is a simple, +elementary three or two phase current, which can be transformed by +means of a simple three or two phase current transformer, before +entering the motor, such transformers as are used at present in the +Lauffen-Frankfort transmission. But the same principle as that for the +motor may also be applied to transformers themselves, as shown in +Figs. 13 and 14. Fig. 13 shows a set of transformers which are fed by +a simple three-phase current shown in heavy lines, and which gives in +its secondary circuit a multiple phase rotary current. The connections +for the primary circuit of a transformer with six coils are shown +diagrammatically in Fig. 15, the numbers 1 to 6 representing the +succession of the phases. Fig. 14 shows a transformer for a two-phase +current with four leads, transforming into a multiple phase current of +16 leads. The transformer in this figure is a single "interlocked" +transformer in which the fields are magnetically connected and not +independent of each other as in Fig. 13. This has advantages in the +regulation of currents, which do not exist in Fig. 13, but which need +not be entered into here. The transformers used in the Lauffen-Frankfort +transmission are similar, magnetically, to Fig. 14, only that they are +for a simple three-phase current in both primary and secondary +circuits. Attention is also called to the difference in the +connections of secondary circuits in Figs. 13 and 14; in the former +they are connected in a closed circuit similarly to an ordinary closed +circuit armature, while in Fig. 14 they are independent as far as the +currents themselves are concerned, though magnetically their cores are +connected. It is not the intention to enter into a discussion of the +relative values of these various connections, but merely to draw +attention to the wide range of the number of combinations which this +system admits of.--_Electrical World_. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE LONDON PARIS TELEPHONE.[1] + +[Footnote 1: Paper read before the British Association.--_Elec. +Engineer._] + +By W.H. Preece, F.R.S. + + +1. I have already on two occasions, at Newcastle and at Leeds, brought +this subject before Section G, and have given the details of the +length and construction of the proposed circuit. + +I have now to report not only that the line has been constructed and +opened to the public, but that its success, telephonic and commercial, +has exceeded the most sanguine anticipations. Speech has been +maintained with perfect clearness and accuracy. The line has proved to +be much better than it ought to have been, and the purpose of this +paper is to show the reason why. + +The lengths of the different sections of the circuit are as follows: + + London to St. Margaret's Bay 84.5 miles. + St. Margaret's Bay to Sangatte (cable). 23.0 " + Sangatte to Paris. 199.0 " + Paris underground. 4.8 " + ----- + Total. 311.3 " + +The resistances are as follows: + + Paris underground. 70 ohms. + French line. 294 " + Cable. 143 " + English line. 183 " + --- + Total (R) 693 " + +The capacities are as follows: + + Paris underground. 0.43 microfarads. + French line. 3.33 " + Cable. 5.52 " + English line. 1.32 " + ---- + Total (K). 10.62 " + + 693 x 10.62 = 7,359 = K R + +a product which indicates that speech should be very good. + + +2. _Trials of Apparatus._--The preliminary trials were made during the +month of March between the chief telegraph offices of the two +capitals, and the following microphone transmitters were compared: + + Ader. Pencil form. + Berliner. Granular form. + D'Arsonval. Pencil " + DeJongh. " " + Gower Bell. " " + Post office switch instrument. Granules and lamp filaments. + Roulez. Lamp filaments. + Turnbull. Pencil form. + Western Electric. Granular. + +The receivers consisted of the latest form of double-pole Bell +telephones with some Ader and D'Arsonval receivers for comparison. +After repeated trials it was finally decided that the Ader, +D'Arsonval, Gower-Bell (with double-pole receivers instead of tubes), +Roulez, and Western Electric were the best, and were approximately +equal. + +These instruments were, therefore, selected for the further +experiments, which consisted of using local extensions in Paris and +London. The wires were in the first instance extended at the Paris end +to the Observatory through an exchange at the Avenue des Gobelines. The +length of this local line is 7 kms. The wires are guttapercha-covered, +placed underground, and not suitable for giving the best results. + +The results were, however, fairly satisfactory. The wires were +extended to the Treasury in London by means of the ordinary +underground system. The distance is about two miles, and although the +volume of sound and clearness of articulation were perceptibly reduced +by these additions to the circuit, conversation was quite practicable. + +Further trials were also made from the Avenue des Gobelines on +underground wires of five kilometers long, and also with some renters +in Paris with fairly satisfactory results. The selected telephones +were equally efficient in all cases, which proves that to maintain +easy conversation when the trunk wires are extended to local points it +is only necessary that the local lines shall be of a standard not +lower than that of the trunk line. The experiments also confirm the +conclusion that long-distance speaking is solely a question of the +circuit and its environments, and not one of apparatus. The +instruments finally selected for actual work were Gower-Bell for +London and Roulez for Paris. + + +3. The results are certainly most satisfactory. There is no circuit in +or out of London on which speech is more perfect than it is between +London and Paris. In fact, it is better than I anticipated, and better +than calculation led me to expect. Speech has been possible not only +to Paris but through Paris to Bruxelles, and even, with difficulty, +through Paris to Marseilles, a distance of over 900 miles. The wires +between Paris and Marseilles are massive copper wires specially +erected for telephone business between those important places. + + +4. _Business Done._--The charge for a conversation between London and +Paris is 8 s. for three minutes' complete use of the wire. The demand +for the wire is very considerable. The average number of talks per +day, exclusive of Sunday, is 86. The maximum has been 108. We have had +as many as 19 per hour--the average is 15 during the busy hours of the +day. As an instance of what can be done, 150 words per minute have +been dictated in Paris and transcribed in London by shorthand writing. +Thus in three minutes 450 words were recorded, which at 8 s. cost five +words for a penny. + + +5. _Difficulties._--The difficulties met with in long-distance +speaking are several, and they may be divided into (a) those due to +external disturbances and (b) those due to internal opposition. + +(_a._) Every current rising and falling in the neighborhood of a +telephone line within a region, say, of 100 yards, whether the wire +conveying it be underground or overground, induces in the telephone +circuit another current, producing in the telephone a sound which +disturbs speech, and if the neighboring wires are numerous and busy, +as they are on our roads and railways, these sounds became confusing, +noisy, and ultimately entirely preventive of speech. This disturbance +is, however, completely removed by forming the telephone circuit of +two wires placed as near to each other as possible, and twisted around +each other without touching, so as to maintain the mean average +distance of each wire from surrounding conductors the same everywhere. +Thus similar currents are induced in each of the two wires, but being +opposite in direction, as far as the circuit is concerned, they +neutralize each other, and the circuit, therefore, becomes quite +silent. + +In England we make the two wires revolve completely round each other +in every four poles, but in France it is done in every six poles. The +reason for the change is the fact that in the English plan the actual +crossing of the wires takes place in the span between the poles, while +in the French plan it takes place at the poles. This is supposed to +reduce the liability of the wires to be thrown into contact with each +other by the wind, but, on the other hand, it diminishes the +geometrical symmetry of the wires--so very essential to insure +silence. As a matter of fact, contacts do not occur on well +constructed lines, and I think our English wires, being more +symmetrical, are freer from external disturbance than those in France. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.] + +(_b._) The internal opposition arises from the resistance, R, the +capacity, K, and the electromagnetic inertia, L, of the circuit. A +current of electricity takes time to rise to its maximum strength and +time to fall back again to zero. Every circuit has what is called its +time constant, _t_, Fig. 1, which regulates the number of current +waves which can be transmitted through it per second. This is the time +the current takes to rise from zero to its working maximum, and the +time it takes to fall from this maximum to zero again, shown by the +shaded portions of the figure; the duration of the working current +being immaterial, and shown by the unshaded portion. + +The most rapid form of quick telegraphy requires about 150 currents +per second, currents each of which must rise and fall in 1/150 of a +second, but for ordinary telephone speaking we must have about 1,500 +currents per second, or the time which each current rises from zero to +its maximum intensity must not exceed 1/3000 part of a second. The +time constant of a telephone circuit should therefore not be less than +0.0003 second. + +Resistance alone does not affect the time constant. It diminishes the +intensity or strength of the currents only; but resistance, combined +with electromagnetic inertia and with capacity, has a serious +retarding effect on the rate of rise and fall of the currents. They +increase the time constant and introduce a slowness which may be +called retardance, for they diminish the rate at which currents can be +transmitted. Now the retardance due to electromagnetic inertia +increases directly with the amount of electromagnetic inertia present, +but it diminishes with the amount of resistance of the conductor. It +is expressed by the ratio L/R while that due to capacity increases +directly, both with the capacity and with the resistance, and it is +expressed by the product, K R. The whole retardance, and, therefore, +the speed of working the circuit or the clearness of speech, is given, +by the equation + + L + --- + K R = t + R + +or L + K R squared = R t + +Now in telegraphy we are not able altogether to eliminate L, but we +can counteract it, and if we can make Rt = 0, then + + L = - K R squared + +which is the principle of the shunted condenser that has been +introduced with such signal success in our post office service, and +has virtually doubled the carrying capacity of our wires. + + K R = t + +This is done in telephony, and hence we obtain the law of retardance, +or the law by which we can calculate the distance to which speech is +possible. All my calculations for the London and Paris line were based +on this law, which experience has shown it to be true. + +How is electromagnetic inertia practically eliminated? First, by the +use of two massive copper wires, and secondly by symmetrically +revolving them around each other. Now L depends on the geometry of the +circuit, that is, on the relative form and position of the different +parts of the circuit, which is invariable for the same circuit, and is +represented by a coefficient, [lambda]. It depends also on the +magnetic qualities of the conductors employed and of the space +embraced by the circuit. This specific magnetic capacity is a variable +quantity, and is indicated by [mu] for the conductor and by [mu]_{0} +for air. It depends also on the rate at which currents rise and fall, +and this is indicated by the differential coefficient dC / dt. It +depends finally on the number of lines of force due to its own current +which cut the conductor in the proper direction; this is indicated by +[beta]. Combining these together we can represent the electromagnetic +inertia of a metallic telephone circuit as + + L = [lambda] ([mu] + [mu]_{0}) dC/dt x [beta] + +Now, [lambda] = 2 log (d squared/a squared) Hence the smaller we make the distance, +_d_, between the wires, and the greater we make their diameter, _a_, +the smaller becomes [lambda]. It is customary to call the value of +[mu] for air, and copper, 1, but this is purely artificial and +certainly not true. It must be very much less than one in every +medium, excepting the magnetic metals, so much so that in copper it +may be neglected altogether, while in the air it does not matter what +it is, for by the method of twisting one conductor round the other, +the magnetization of the air space by the one current of the circuit +rotating in one direction is exactly neutralized by that of the other +element of the circuit rotating in the opposite direction. + +Now, [beta], in two parallel conductors conveying currents of the same +sense, that is flowing in the same direction, is retarding, Fig. 2, +and is therefore a positive quantity, but when the currents flow in +opposite directions, as in a metallic loop, Fig. 3, they tend to +assist each other and are of a negative character. Hence in a metallic +telephone circuit we may neglect L _in toto_ as I have done. + +[Illustration: Fig 2.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 3.] + +I have never yet succeeded in tracing any evidence of electromagnetic +inertia in long single copper wires, while in iron wires the value of +L may certainly be taken at 0.005 henry per mile. + +In short metallic circuits, say of lengths up to 100 miles, this +negative quantity does not appear, but in the Paris-London circuit +this helpful mutual action of opposite currents comes on in a peculiar +way. The presence of the cable introduces a large capacity practically +in the center of the circuit. The result is that we have in each +branch of the circuit between the transmitter, say, at London and the +cable at Dover, extra currents at the commencement of the operation, +which, flowing in opposite directions, mutually react on each other, +and practically prepare the way for the working currents. The presence +of these currents proved by the fact that when the cable is +disconnected at Calais, as shown in Fig. 5, and telephones are +inserted in series, as shown at D and D', speech is as perfect between +London and St. Margaret's Bay as if the wires were connected across, +or as if the circuit were through to Paris. Their effect is precisely +the same as though the capacity of the aerial section were reduced by +a quantity, M, which is of the same dimension or character as K. +Hence, our retardance equation becomes + + R (K - M) = t + +[Illustration: Fig 4.] + +[Illustration: Fig 5.] + +Thus it happens that the London-Paris telephone works better than was +expected. The nature of M is probably equivalent to about 0.0075 [phi] +per mile, and therefore K should be also about 0.0075 [phi] instead of +0.0156 [phi] per mile. This helpful action of mutual induction is +present in all long circuits, and it is the reason why we were able to +speak to Brussels and even to Marseilles. It also appears in every +metallic loop, and vitiates the measurements of electromagnetic +inertia and of capacity of loops. Thus, if we measure the capacity of +a loop as compared with a single wire, the amount per mile may be 50 +per cent. greater than it ought to be; while if we measure the +capacity of one branch of a circuit under the conditions of the +London-Paris telephone line, it may be 50 per cent. less than it ought +to be. This effect of M is shown by the dotted line in Fig. 1. + +Telephonic currents--that is, currents induced in the secondary wire +of an induction coil due to the variation of microphonic currents in +the primary wire--are not alternating currents. They do not follow the +constant periodic law, and they are not true harmonic sine functions +of the time. The microphonic currents are intermittent or pulsatory, +and always flow in the same direction. The secondary currents are also +always of the same sign, as are the currents in a Ruhmkorff coil, and +as are the currents in high vacua with which Crookes has made us so +familiar. Moreover, the frequency of these currents is a very variable +quantity, not only due to the various tones of voices, but to the +various styles of articulation. Hence the laws of periodic alternate +currents following the sine function of the time fail when we come to +consider microphones and telephones. It is important to bear this in +mind, for nearly everything that has hitherto been written on the +subject assumes that telegraphic currents follow the periodic sine +law. The currents derived from Bell's original magneto-transmitters +are alternate, and comply more nearly with the law. The difference +between them and microphones is at once perceptible. Muffling and +disturbance due to the presence of electromagnetic inertia become +evident, which are absent with microphones. I tested this between +London and St. Margaret's, and found the effect most marked. + +7. _Lightning._--A metallic telephone circuit may have a static charge +induced upon it by a thunder cloud, as shown in Fig. 6. Such a charge +is an electric strain which is released when the charged cloud flashes +into the earth or into a neighboring cloud. If there be +electromagnetic inertia present, the charge will surge backward and +forward through the circuit until it dies out. If there be no E.M.F. +present it will cease suddenly, and neutrality will be attained at +once. Telephone circuits indicate the operation by peculiar and +characteristic sounds. An iron wire circuit produces a long swish or +sigh, but a copper wire circuit like the Paris-London telephone emits +a short, sharp report, like the crack of a pistol, which is sometimes +startling, and has created fear, but there is no danger or liability +to shock. Indeed, the start has more than once thrown the listener off +his stool, and has led to the belief that he was knocked down by +lightning. + +[Illustration: Fig 6.] + +8. The future of telephone working, especially in large cities, is one +of underground wires, and the way to get over the difficulties of this +kind of work is perfectly clear. We must have metallic circuits, +twisted wires, low resistance, and low capacity. In Paris a remarkable +cable, made by Fortin-Herman, gives an exceedingly low capacity--viz., +only 0.069 [phi] per mile. In the United States they are using a wire +insulated with paper which gives 0.08 [phi] per mile. We are using in +London Fowler-Waring cable giving a capacity of 1.8 [phi] per mile, +the capacity of gutta-covered wire being 3 [phi] per mile. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE MANUFACTURE OF PHOSPHORUS BY ELECTRICITY. + + +One of the most interesting of the modern applications of electricity +to the manufacture of chemicals is to be found in the recently +perfected process known as the Readman-Parker process, after the +inventors Dr. J.B. Readman, F.R.S.E., etc., of Edinburgh, and Mr. +Thomas Parker; the well known practical electrician, of Wolverhampton. + +Before giving an account of this process, which has advanced beyond +the experimental to the industrial stage, it may be well to recall the +fact that for several years past Dr. Readman has been devoting an +enormous expenditure of labor, time and money to the perfection of a +process which shall cheapen the production of phosphorus by dispensing +altogether with the use of sulphuric acid for decomposing the +phosphate of lime which forms the raw material of the phosphorus +manufacturer, and also with the employment of fire clay retorts for +distilling the desiccated mixture of phosphoric acid and carbon which +usually forms the second stage of the operation. + +The success of the recent applications of electricity in the +production of certain metals and alloys led Dr. Readman to try this +source of energy in the manufacture of phosphorus, and the results of +the first series of experiments were so encouraging that he took out +provisional protection on October 18, 1888, for preparing this +valuable substance by its means. + +The experiments were carried on at this time on a very small scale, +the power at disposal being very limited in amount. Yet the elements +of success appeared to be so great, and the decomposition of the raw +material was so complete, that the process was very soon prosecuted on +the large scale. + +After a good deal of negotiation with several firms that were in a +position to supply the electric energy required, Dr. Readman finally +made arrangements with the directors of the Cowles Company, limited, +of Milton, near Stoke-on-Trent, the well known manufacturers of alloys +of aluminum, for a lease of a portion of their works and for the use +of the entire electrical energy they produced for certain portions of +the day. + +The experiments on the large scale had not advanced very far before +Dr. Readman became aware that another application for letters patent +for producing phosphorus had been made by Mr. Thomas Parker, of +Wolverhampton, and his chemist, Mr. A.E. Robinson. Their joint patent +is dated December 5, 1888, and was thus applied for only seven weeks +after Dr. Readman's application had been lodged. + +It appeared that Mr. Parker had conducted a number of experiments +simultaneously but quite independently of those carried on by Dr. +Readman, and that he was quite unaware--as the latter was unaware--of +any other worker in this field. It was no small surprise, therefore, +to find during an interview which took place between these rival +inventors some time after the date referred to, that the two patents +were on practically the same lines, namely, the production of +phosphorus by electricity. + +Their interests lay so much together that, after some delay, they +arranged to jointly work out the process, and the result has been the +formation of a preliminary company and the erection on a large scale +of experimental plant in the neighborhood of Wolverhampton to prove +the commercial success of the new system of manufacturing phosphorus. + +Before describing these experimental works it may be as well to see +with what plant Dr. Readman has been working at the Cowles Company's +works. And here we may remark that we are indebted to a paper read by +Dr. Readman at the Philosophical Institution, Edinburgh, a short time +ago; this paper being the third of a series which during the last year +or two have been read by the same scientist on this branch of chemical +industry. Here is an abstract giving a description of the plant. The +works are near the Milton Station, on the North Staffordshire Railway. +The boilers for generating the steam required are of the +Babcock-Wilcox type, and are provided with "mechanical stokers;" the +steam engine is of 600 horse power, and is a compound condensing +horizontal tandem, made by Messrs. Pollitt & Wigzel, of Sowerby +Bridge. The fly wheel of this engine is 20 feet in diameter, and +weighs 30 tons, and is geared to the pulley of the dynamo, so that the +latter makes five revolutions for each revolution of the engine by +rope driving gear, consisting of eighteen ropes. The engine is an +extremely fine specimen of a modern steam engine; it works so silently +that a visitor standing with his back to the engine railings, at the +time the engine is being started, cannot tell whether it is in motion +or not. + +With regard to the dynamo, the spindle is of steel, 18 feet long, with +three bearings, one being placed on either side of the driving pulley. +The diameter is 7 inches in the bearings and 10 inches in the part +within the core. This part in the original forgings was 14 inches in +diameter, and was planed longitudinally, so as to leave four +projecting ribs or radial bars on which the core disks are driven, +each disk having four key ways corresponding to these ribs. There are +about 900 of these disks, the external diameter being 20 inches and +the total length of the core 36 inches. + +The armature winding consists of 128 copper bars, each 7/8 in. deep, +measured radially, by 3/8 in. wide. These bars are coupled up so as to +form thirty-two conductors only; this arrangement has been adopted to +avoid the heating from the Foucault currents, which, with 11/2 in. +conductors, would have been very considerable. The bars are coupled at +the ends of the core across a certain chord and are insulated. + +The commutator is 20 inches long, and has sixty-four parts. The +current is collected by eight brushes mounted on a separate ring, +placed concentric to the commutator; and the current is led away from +these brushes by a large number of thin bands of sheet copper strapped +together into convenient groups. The field magnets are of the +horizontal double type. + +As this machine is virtually a series wound machine, the magnet coils +each consist of a few turns only of forged copper bars, 11/2 in. wide by +1 in. thick, forged to fit the magnet cores. + +There is no insulation other than mica wedges to keep the bars from +touching the core. + +The dynamo furnishes a current of about 5,000 amperes, with an E.M.F. +of 50 to 60 volts, and three years ago was claimed to be the largest +machine, at least as regards quantity of current, in the world. + +The current from the dynamos is led by copper bars to an enormous "cut +out," calculated to fuse at 8,000 amperes. This is probably one of the +largest ever designed, and consists of a framework carrying twelve +lead plates, each 31/2 in. x 1/16th in. thick. A current indicator is +inserted in the circuit consisting of a solenoid of nine turns. The +range of this indicator is such that the center circle of 360 deg.=8,000 +amperes. + +The electrodes consisted of a bundle of nine carbons, each 21/2 in. in +diameter, attached by casting into a head of cast iron. Each carbon +weighs 20 lb, and, when new, is about 48 inches long. + +The head of the electrode is screwed to the copper rods or "leads," +which can be readily connected with the flexible cable supplying the +current. + +The electric furnaces are rectangular troughs built of fire brick, +their internal dimensions being 60 in. x 20 in. x 36 in. deep. Into +each end is built a cast iron tube, through which the carbon +electrodes enter the furnace. + +The electrodes are so arranged that it is possible by means of +screwing to advance or withdraw them from the furnace. + +The whole current generated by the great dynamo of the Cowles Company +was passed through the furnace. + +In the experiments raw materials only were used, for it was evident +that it was only by the direct production of phosphorus from the +native minerals which contain it, such as the phosphates of lime, +magnesia, or alumina that there was any hope of superseding, in point +of economy, the existing process of manufacture. + +In the furnaces as used at Milton much difficulty was experienced in +distributing the heat over a sufficiently wide area. So locally +intense indeed was the heat within a certain zone, that all the oxygen +contained in the mixture was expelled and alloys of iron, aluminum, +and calcium combined with more or less silicon, and phosphorus were +produced. Some of these were of an extremely interesting nature. + +We now turn to a short account of the works and plant which have been +erected near Wolverhampton to prove the commercial success of the new +system of manufacturing phosphorus. + +The ground is situated on the banks of a canal and extends to about 10 +acres, which are wholly without buildings except those which have been +erected for the purposes of these industrial experiments. These +consist of boiler and engine houses, and large furnace sheds. + +There are three Babcock & Wilcox steam boilers of 160 horse power +each, and each capable of evaporating 5,000 lb. of water per hour. The +water tubes are 18 ft. long x 4 inches diameter, and the steam and +water drums 43 in. in diameter and 231/2 ft. long, of steel 7/16 ths. +in. thick, provided with a double dead head safety valve, stop valves, +blow-off cock, water gauges, and steam gauge. + +The total heating surface on each boiler is 1,619 square feet and the +total grate surface is 30 square feet. + +The boilers are worked at 160 lb. pressure. + +The engine is a triple compound one of the type supplied for torpedo +boats, and built by the Yarrow Shipbuilding Company. It is fitted with +a Pickering governor for constant speed. The engine is capable of +delivering (with condenser) 1,200 indicated horse power, and without +condenser 250 indicated horse power less. + +With steam at 170 lb. pressure the engine worked at 350 revolutions +per minute, but it has been rearranged so as to deliver 700 indicated +horse power with 160 lb. steam pressure without condenser, and at 300 +revolutions per minute: + + The high pressure cylinder is 141/2 inches diameter. + " intermediate " " 25 " " + " low pressure " " 32 " " + " stroke is 16 inches. + +The dynamo for producing the requisite amount of electric current +supplied to the furnaces is one of the well known Elwell-Parker type +of alternating current dynamos, designed to give 400 units of +electrical energy, equivalent to 536 indicated horse power. + +The armature in the machine is stationary, with double insulation +between the armature coils and the core, and also between the core and +the frame, and is so arranged that its two halves may be readily +connected in series or in parallel in accordance with the requirements +of the furnaces, e.g., at an electromotive force of 80 volts it will +give 5,000 amperes, and at 160 volts, 2,500 amperes when running at +300 revolutions per minute. + +The exciting current of the alternator is produced by an Elwell-Parker +shunt wound machine, driven direct from a pulley on the alternator +shaft, and so arranged as to give 90 amperes at 250 volts when running +at a speed of 800 revolutions per minute. From 60 to 70 amperes are +utilized in the alternator, the remainder being available for lighting +purposes (which is done through accumulators) and general experimental +purposes. + +The process is carried out in the following way: The raw materials, +all intimately and carefully mixed together, are introduced into the +furnace and the current is then turned on. Shortly afterward, +indications of phosphorus make their appearance. + +The vapors and gases from the furnace pass away to large copper +condensers--the first of which contains hot and the second cold +water--and finally pass away into the air. + +As the phosphorus forms, it distills off from the mixture, and the +residue forms a liquid slag at the bottom of the furnace. Fresh +phosphorus yielding material is then introduced at the top. In this +way the operation is a continuous one, and may be continued for days +without intermission. + +The charges for the furnace are made up with raw material, i.e., +native phosphates without any previous chemical treatment, and the +only manufactured material necessary--if such it may be called--is the +carbon to effect the reduction of the ores. + +The crude phosphorus obtained in the condensers is tolerably pure, and +is readily refined in the usual way. + +Dr. Readman and Mr. Parker have found that it is more advantageous to +use a series of furnaces instead of sending the entire current through +one furnace. These furnaces will each yield about 11/2 cwt. of +phosphorus per day. + +Analyses of the slag show that the decomposition of the raw phosphates +is very perfect, for the percentage of phosphorus left in the slag +seldom exceeds 1 per cent.--_Chemical Trade Journal_. + + * * * * * + + + + +NEW BLEACHING APPARATUS. + + +The apparatus forming the subject of this invention was designed by +Francis A. Cloudman, Erwin B. Newcomb, and Frank H. Cloudman, of +Cumberland Mills, Me., and comprises a series of tanks or chests, two +or more in number, through which the material to be bleached is caused +to pass, being transferred from one to the next of the series in +order, while the bleaching agent is caused to pass through the series +of chests in the reverse order, and thus acts first and at full +strength upon the materials which have previously passed through all +but the last one of the series of chests and have already been +subjected to the bleaching agent of less strength. + +For convenience, the chest in which the material is first introduced +will be called the "first of the series" and the rest numbered in the +order in which the material is passed from one to the other, and it +will be understood that any desired number may be used, two, however, +being sufficient to carry on the process. + +The invention is shown embodied in an apparatus properly constructed +for treating pulp used for the manufacture of paper, and for +convenience the material to be bleached will be hereinafter referred +to as the pulp, although it is obvious that similar apparatus might be +used for bleaching other materials, although the apparatus might have +to be modified to adapt it for conveying other materials of different +nature than pulp from one bleaching chest to the other and for +separating out the bleaching liquid and conveying it from one chest to +the other in the reverse order to that in which the material passes +from one chest to the next. + +The pulp material with which the apparatus herein illustrated is +intended to be used is retained in suspension in the bleaching liquid +and flows readily through ducts or passages provided for it in the +apparatus in which the pulp to be bleached and the bleaching liquid +are introduced together at the bottom of each chest and flow upward +therethrough, while at the top of each chest there are two conveyors, +one for carrying the pulp from one chest to the next in order, while +the other carries the bleaching liquid from one tank to the next in +the reverse order, the said conveyors also acting to partially +separate the pulp from the liquid in which it has been suspended +during its upward passage through the chest. + +Suitable agitators may be employed for thoroughly mixing the materials +in the chest and in the apparatus shown the bleaching agent and +material to be bleached pass through each chest in the same +direction--namely from the bottom to the top--although they are +carried from one chest to the next in the reverse order, the material +to be bleached being primarily introduced into the chest at one end of +the series, while the bleaching agent or solution is introduced +primarily into the chest at the other end of the series. + +Fig. 1 is a plan view of an apparatus for bleaching in accordance with +this invention, comprising a series of four chests, and Fig. 2 is a +vertical longitudinal section of a modified arrangement of two chests +in line with one another, and with the conveyor for the material to be +bleached and the passage through which said material passes from the +top of one chest into the bottom of the next chest in the plane of +section. + +[Illustration: Fig. 1] + +The chests, _a_ _a2_ _a3_ _a4_, may be of any desired shape +and dimensions and any desired number may be used. Each of said chests +is provided with an inlet passage, _b_, opening into the same near its +bottom, and through this passage the materials are introduced. The +unbleached material, which may be paper pulp or material which is +readily held in suspension in a liquid and is capable of flowing or +being conveyed from one point to another in a semi-fluid condition, is +introduced through the inlet passage, _b_, to the first chest, _a_, of +the series, said pulp preferably having had as much as possible of the +liquid in which it was previously suspended removed without, however, +drying it, and, together with the said pulp, the bleaching agent which +has previously passed through the other chests of the series, as will +be hereinafter described, is introduced so that both enter together at +the lower portion of the first chest, _a_, of the series. The said +materials are caused to flow into the chest continuously, so that the +portion at each moment entering tends to displace that which has +already entered, thus causing the materials to rise gradually or flow +upward from the bottom to the top of the chest. + +Suitable stirring devices or agitators, _c_, may be employed to keep +the pulp in suspension and to expose it thoroughly and uniformly to +the liquid introduced with it. + +[Illustration: Fig. 2] + +When the materials (the pulp and the bleaching liquid) arrive at or +near the top of the chest, they are partially separated from one +another and removed from the chest at substantially the same rate that +they are introduced, as follows: Each chest is provided at its upper +part with a liquid conveyor, _d_, having a construction similar to +that of the device known as a "washer" in paper making machinery, +consisting of a rotating drum, the periphery of which is covered with +gauze, which permits the liquid to pass into it, but excludes the pulp +suspended in the liquid, the said drum containing blades or buckets +that raise the liquid which thus enters through the gauze and +discharges it at _d2_ near the axis of said drum. There is one of +these washers in each one of the series of chests, and each discharges +the liquid taken from its corresponding chest into the inlet pipe of +the next preceding chest of the series, the washer in the chest, +_a4_, for example, delivering into the inlet passage, _b_, of the +chest, _a2_, and so on, while the washer of the first chest, _a_, +of the series delivers into a discharge pipe, _e_, through which the +liquid may be permitted to run to waste or conveyed to any suitable +receptacle, if it is desired to subject it to chemical action for the +purpose of renewing its bleaching powers or obtaining the chemical +agents that may be contained within it. + +The operation of the washers in removing the liquid from the upper +part of the chest tends to thicken the pulp therein, and the said +thickened pulp is conveyed from one chest to the next in the series by +any suitable conveying device, _f_ (shown in this instance as a worm +working in a trough or case, _f2_), which may be made foraminous +for the purpose of permitting the liquid to drain out of the pulp that +is being carried through by the worm, in order that the pulp may be +introduced into the next chest of the series as free as possible from +the liquid in which it has been suspended while in the chest from +which it is just taken. The pulp is thus conveyed from one chest in +the series to the inlet passage leading to the next chest of the +series, and in the said inlet passage it meets the liquid coming in +the reverse order from the next chest beyond in the series, the pulp +and liquid thus commingling in the inlet pipe and entering the chest +together, and being thoroughly mixed by the agitators in passing +through the chest by the continued action of fresh material entering +and of the conveyors taking the material out from the chests. In the +last of the series of chests into which the pulp is introduced the +fresh or strong bleaching liquid is introduced through a suitable +inlet pipe, _g_, and the pulp conveyor, _f_, that takes the pulp from +the last chest, delivers it into a pipe, _h_, by which it may be +conveyed to any desired point, the said pulp having been sufficiently +bleached before arriving at the said pipe, _h_. It will be seen that +by these means all the pulp is thoroughly and uniformly subjected to +the bleaching agent and that the bleaching is gradually performed in +all parts of the pulp, which is first acted upon by the weaker +bleaching agent that has previously operated upon the pulp before +treated, and that finally, when nearly bleached, the pulp is acted +upon by the bleaching material of full strength, this action being far +more efficient than when the materials are simply mixed together, the +unbleached material with the strong bleaching agent, and allowed to +remain together until the bleaching operation is finished, in which +plan the bleaching agent loses its strength as the bleaching operation +approaches completion, so that when the pulp is nearly bleached it is +operated upon by a very weak bleaching agent. By having the pulp +transferred from one chest to the next in the reverse order to that in +which the liquid is transferred it will be seen that all parts of the +pulp are acted upon uniformly and equally and that the operation may +go on continuously for an indefinite period of time without +necessitating stopping to empty the vats, as is the case when the +liquor only is transferred from one vat to the next. A pump may be +used for lifting the bleaching liquid, as shown, for example, at _k_, +Fig. 1. where said pump is used to raise the liquid delivered from the +chest, _a2_, and discharge it into the trough, _m_, by which the +pulp is carried to the inlet pipe, _b_. By the use of the pump, _h_, a +stronger flow of the liquid into the pipe _b_, of the first chest, +_a_, is effected than if it were taken directly from the washer of the +chest, _a2_, which is desirable, as the pulp is delivered in the +trough, _m_, with but little moisture. + +It is obvious that the construction of the apparatus may be varied +considerably without materially changing the essential features of +operation. For example, the washers might be dispensed with and the +liquid permitted to flow through suitable strainers from one chest to +the next in order, by gravity, the successive chests in the order of +the passage of the pulp being placed each at a higher level than the +preceding one, and it is also obvious that the construction of the +pulp conveyors might be widely varied, it being essential only that +means should be provided for removing the pulp from one chest and +delivering it into the next while carrying only a small amount of the +liquid from one chest to the next with the pulp. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE USE OF COMPRESSED AIR IN CONJUNCTION WITH MEDICINAL SOLUTIONS IN +THE TREATMENT OF NERVOUS AND MENTAL AFFECTIONS. + +BEING A NEW SYSTEM OF CEREBRO-SPINAL THERAPEUTICS. + +By J. LEONARD CORNING, A.M., M.D., New York, Consultant in Nervous +Diseases to St. Francis Hospital, St. Mary's Hospital, the Hackensack +Hospital, etc. + + +To merely facilitate the introduction of medicinal agents into the +system by way of the air passages, in the form of gases, medicated or +non-medicated, has heretofore constituted the principal motive among +physicians for invoking the aid of compressed air. The experiments of +Paul Bert with nitrous oxide and oxygen gas, performed over fourteen +years ago, and the more recent proposals of See, are illustrations in +point. + +The objects of which I have been in search are quite different from +the foregoing, and have reference not to the introduction of the +remedy, but to the enhancement of its effects after exhibition. Let me +be more explicit on this point, by stating at once that, in +contradistinction to my predecessors, I shall endeavor to show that by +far the most useful service derivable from compressed air is found in +its ability to enhance and perpetuate the effects of soluble remedies +(introduced hypodermically, by the mouth, or otherwise) upon the +internal organs, and more especially upon the cerebro-spinal axis. +Some chemical affinity between the remedy employed and the protoplasm +of the nerve cell is, of course, assumed to exist; and it is with the +enhancement of this affinity--this bond of union between the medicinal +solution and the nervous element--that we shall chiefly concern +ourselves in the following discussion. + +By way of introduction, I may recall the fact that my attention was +directed several years since to the advisability of devising some +means by the aid of which medicinal substances, and more especially +anaesthetics, might be made to localize, intensify, and perpetuate +their action upon the peripheral nerves. The simple problem in +physiology and mechanics involved in this question I was fortunate +enough to solve quite a long time ago; and I must confess that in the +retrospect these undertakings in themselves do not seem to me of great +magnitude, though in their practical application their significance +appears more considerable. Herein lies, it may be, the explanation of +the interest which these studies excited in the profession at the time +of their publication. These things are, however, a part of medical +history; and I merely refer to them at this time because they have led +me to resume the solution of a far greater problem--that of +intensifying, perpetuating, and (to some extent at least) localizing +the effects of remedies upon the brain and spinal cord. I speak of +resuming these studies because, as far back as 1880 and 1882, I made +some attempts--albeit rather abortive--in the same direction. + +In constructing the argument for the following study, I am beholden +more especially to three facts, the knowledge of which came to me as +the direct result of experimental tests. One may place confidence, +therefore, in the procedure which I have based upon these premises, +for at no point, I think, in the following argument will mere +affirmation be found to have usurped the place of sound induction. +Without anticipating further, then, let me specify as briefly as may +be the nature of these facts. + + +PREMISES OF ARGUMENT. _First Fact._--The amount of ether, chloroform, +chloral hydrate, the bromides, strychnine, and many other remedies, +required to produce physiological effects upon the cerebro-spinal +mechanism may be reduced by first securing a ligature around the +central portion of one or several of the limbs of an animal, so as to +interrupt both the arterial and venous circulation. + +The proof and explanation of this may be thus presented: + +In the first place, it is well known that children and small animals +are affected by much smaller quantities of anaesthetics and other +medicinal substances than are required to produce equal effects in men +and large animals. + +At first sight, there appears to exist a certain definite relation +between the weight of the animal and the quantity of medicament +required to produce physiological effects. On closer inquiry, however, +we find behind this proposition the deeper truth that the real +proportion is between the magnitude of the blood-mass and the amount +of medicament. Thus, if we withdraw a considerable amount of blood +from a large dog, we may be able to affect him by much smaller doses +than those required under ordinary circumstances; and, among human +beings, we find the anaemic much more susceptible to remedies than the +full-blooded of equal weight. + +The degree of saturation of the blood-mass with the remedy is +obviously, then, the principal thing; the greater the amount of blood, +the more remedy--everything else being equal--we shall have to give in +order to obtain definite results. + +If we wish to embody the proposition in a mathematical statement, we +may do so in the following simple manner: + +Let a represent the total quantity of blood, _b_, the amount of remedy +exhibited, and _x_ the magnitude of the physiological effect. We shall +then have the simple formula, x = b / a. + +Again, if we withdraw a certain quantity of blood from the circulation +by venesection, and call that amount _d_, we shall then have the +formula x = b / (a-d). + +But, if we wish to act upon the organs of the trunk, and more +especially upon those contained within the cerebro-spinal canal, it is +not necessary to resort to such a drastic expedient as copious +blood-letting; for, in place of this, we may dam up and effectually +eliminate from the rest of the body a certain amount of blood by +passing a ligature around the central portion of one or several +extremities, so as to interrupt the circulation in both artery and +vein. When this has been done it is clear that we may introduce a +remedy into the system by way of the stomach, or hypodermically into +some portion of the trunk; and it is equally certain that a remedy so +introduced will be diluted only in the ratio of the amount of blood +freely circulating, and more especially by that contained within the +trunk and head. That which is incarcerated behind the ligatures is as +effectually withdrawn from the realm of physiological action as though +it had been abstracted by the surgeon's knife. Elimination by the +knife and elimination by the ligature are, for present purposes, then, +one and the same thing. Hence, if we let _d'_ represent the amount of +blood incarcerated behind the ligatures, _x_ the magnitude of the +physiological effect which we are seeking, _b_ the amount of remedy +exhibited, and a the total amount of blood contained in the whole +organism, we shall have the formula, + + b b + x = ------ = ----- + a - d' a - d + +Several years since, I had an excellent opportunity of proving the +truth of the foregoing, in connection with the administration of ether +in the case of a patient who resisted all attempts to anaesthetize him +in the ordinary way. + +The case in question was a man under treatment at the Manhattan Eye +and Ear Hospital, upon whom it was deemed advisable to perform an +operation. As has been said, the ordinary means of inducing anaesthesia +had proved ineffectual, for the man was a confirmed drunkard; and it +was at this juncture that I was called in consultation and requested +by my friend, Dr. David Webster, one of the surgeons of the hospital, +to endeavor to devise some means of getting the man under the +influence of the anaesthetic. + +The procedure which I suggested was this:[3] Around the upper part of +each thigh a flat rubber tourniquet was tightly drawn and secured in +place in the usual manner. By this means the sequestration of all the +blood contained in the lower limbs was accomplished; but, inasmuch as +both artery and vein were compressed, only the amount of blood usually +contained in each limb was shut off from the rest of the body--which +would not have been the case had we contented ourselves with merely +compressing the veins, as some have done. + +[Footnote 3: On the "Effective and Rapid Induction of General +Anaesthesia," the New York _Medical Journal_, October 22 and December +24, 1887.] + +In subsequently commenting on my published report of this case, that +most accomplished writer and physician, Henry M. Lyman--than whom +there is no greater authority on anaesthesia--observes that the plan +proposed and adopted by me on this occasion (that of compressing both +vein and artery) is far preferable to compression of the vein alone. + +The reason for this is not far to seek. When we compress the veins +alone there is a rapid accumulation of blood in the extremities +through the accessions derived from the uninterrupted arteries. Now, +as this blood is derived from the trunk, and consequently also from +the organs contained within the cerebro-spinal canal, there is danger +of syncope and even heart failure. When, on the other hand, both +artery and vein are compressed no such derivative action occurs, and +all danger is, consequently, removed. With an apology for this brief +digression, I now return to the interesting case which has given rise +to it. + +Having, as previously stated, applied tourniquets to the central +portion of the lower limbs, the ether cap was placed over the mouth +and nose of the patient, and in an incredibly short time he was +unconscious, and the surgeons were able to go on with the operation. + +The late Dr. Cornelius R. Agnew and many other members of the staff of +the hospital were present, and gave emphatic expressions of approval. + +Dr. F.W. Ring, assistant surgeon to the Manhattan Eye and Ear +Hospital, declared that both the amount of ether and the time consumed +in its administration were infinitesimal when compared with what had +been expended in previous efforts at inducing anaesthesia in the usual +way. The facts brought out on this occasion with regard to the +administration of ether have since been repeatedly verified by +different observers; so that at the present day their validity cannot +be questioned. I will merely add, however, that I have long known that +the dosage of phenacetin, antipyrine, morphine, chloralamid, chloral, +the bromides, and many other remedies might be reduced by resort to +the same procedure; all of which is merely equivalent to stating that +their pharmaco-dynamic energy may be increased in this way. And this +brings us to the second fact, which requires no special elaboration, +and may be stated thus: + +_Second Fact._--The duration of the effect of a remedy upon the +cerebro-spinal axis is in the inverse ratio of its volatility; and +this is equally true whether the remedy be given with or without the +precautions previously detailed. For example, the anaesthetic effects +of ether disappear shortly after removal of the inhaler, whether we +apply tourniquets to the extremities or not; but, on the other hand, +the analgesic influence of antipyrin, phenacetin, morphine, and other +like remedies lasts very much longer, and their dose may be reduced, +or--what is the same thing--their pharmaco-dynamic potency may be +enhanced by the sequestration of the blood contained within the +extremities. So far as I know, I was the first to announce this fact. +In so far as a simple expression of the above truth is concerned, we +may employ the following formula: + +Let _a_ represent the normal blood-mass contained in the entire body, +_d_ the amount of blood sequestrated by the ligatures, _b_ the amount +of the remedy, _c_ the volatility of the remedy, and _x_ the +pharmaco-dynamic potency of which we are in search; we shall then have + + b + x = ----------- + (a - d') x c + +We now arrive at our third fact, which will require more extensive +elaboration. + +_Third Fact._--The pharmaco-dynamic potency of stimulants, sedatives, +analgesics, and probably of all remedies which possess a chemical +affinity for nervous matter, is enhanced by exhibiting them (the +remedies) in solution or soluble form--hypodermically, by the mouth, +or per rectum--while the subject remains in a condensed atmosphere. +And, as a corollary, it may be stated that this increase, this +enhancement of the potency of the remedy is, within certain limits, in +the ratio of the atmospheric condensation. + +To express this truth mathematically is not difficult. Thus, when a +represents the amount of blood of the whole body, _b_ the amount of +the remedy, _e_ the amount of atmospheric compression, and _x_ the +pharmaco-dynamic potentiality which we are seeking, we shall then have +the simple formula: + + b x e + x = ----- + a + +A definite conception of the truth of this proposition will, I think, +be more readily attained by the presentation of the steps which led me +to its discovery. + +Let me begin, then, by stating that my attention was attracted several +years ago by that unique complex of symptoms known as the "caisson or +tunnel disease." As most physicians are aware, the caisson disease is +an affection of the spinal cord, due to a sudden transition from a +relatively high atmospheric pressure to one much lower. Hence, those +who work in caissons, or submerged tunnels, under an external pressure +of two atmospheres or even more, are liable to be attacked by the +disease shortly after leaving the tunnel. The seizure never, however, +occurs while the subject is in the caisson, or in other words, while +he remains under pressure. Moreover, when the transition from the +condensed atmosphere to that of ordinary density is gradually +accomplished, which may be done by letting the air escape from the +lock very slowly, the caisson disease is rarely if ever set up. It is +the systematic disregard of this principle by those who work in +compressed air that is responsible, or largely responsible, for the +occurrence of the disease. + +The chief clinical features of the caisson disease are pain, which may +be relatively mild, as when confined to a circumscribed area of one +extremity, or of frightful intensity, as when it appears in the ears, +knees, back, or abdomen; anaesthesia and paralysis, usually of +paraplegic type; bladder symptoms, assuming the form of retention or +incontinence; and, more rarely, rectal disturbances (usually +incontinence). + +These phenomena, or rather some of them, appear some time within half +an hour after the subject has left the compressed atmosphere. It was +while investigating this most interesting affection as it occurred in +the course of the construction of the Hudson River tunnel, that I was +able, at the same time, to study the effects of compressed air upon +the organism, and especially upon the nervous system, as exhibited in +a large number of persons. + +The results of these studies I now submit without hesitation, and in all +candor, to the judgment of the profession, believing, as I certainly do, +that their practical significance from a neuro-therapeutic standpoint is +assured. Without anticipating, however, let me state that the first +thing which impressed me about compressed air was its extraordinary +effect upon cerebral and cerebro-spinal function. + +Those who remain for a certain length of time, not too long, however, +in the condensed atmosphere, exhibit a most striking exacerbation of +mental and physical vigor. They go up and down ladders, lift heavy +weights, are more or less exhilarated, and, in short, behave as though +under the influence of a stimulant. + +Hardly had I observed these things, which are perfectly well known to +those who have been able to familiarize themselves with the ordinary +effects of compressed air as used in caissons and submarine works of +various kinds, when my attention became attracted by what at first +appeared to be a phenomenon of trivial importance. In a word, I +observed that some of the men exposed to the effects of the compressed +air were more exhilarated by it than others. Upon superficial +reflection one might have supposed that this discrepancy in +physiological effect was to be accounted for merely on the basis of +constitutional idiosyncrasy; maturer thought, however, convinced me +that the exaggerated effects of the condensed air were both too +numerous and too constant to be amenable to such an explanation. This +led me to study the habits of the men; and thus it was that I arrived +at a discovery of real practical value to neurotherapy. To be brief, I +found that a certain percentage of the men, before entering the +compressed air employed in the construction of the Hudson River +tunnel, were in the habit of drinking a quantity of alcohol, usually +in the form of whisky. So long as these men remained outside the +tunnel, where the atmospheric conditions were normal, they were not +visibly affected by their potations. When, however, they entered the +compressed air of the tunnel, but a short time elapsed before they +became exhilarated to an inordinate degree, acting, as one of the +foremen graphically expressed it, "as though they owned the town." + +On the other hand, when the customary draught of alcohol was withheld +from them, these same men were no more, if as much, exhilarated on +entering the compressed air as were their fellows. + +The effects of alcohol, then, are enhanced by exposing the subject to +the influence of an atmosphere condensed to a considerable degree +beyond that of the normal atmosphere. + +Acting on the hint derived from this discovery, I proceeded to +administer absinthe, ether, the wine of coca, vermouth, champagne, and +other stimulants, before exposing the subject to the influence of the +condensed atmosphere, and invariably observed analogous effects, i.e., +palpable augmentation of the physiological effects of the remedy. + +Upon what principle does this augmentation of physiological effect +depend? how is it to be accounted for? + +In my opinion, the answer to this question may be given as follows: In +the first place, we know that the primary effect of the compressed air +upon the organism must be to force the blood from the surface of the +body toward the interior, and especially into the cerebro-spinal +canal. Or, to express it more succinctly, the blood will be forced in +the direction of the least resistance, that is, into the soft organs +inclosed by bony walls, which latter completely shut out the element +of counter-pressure. Now, when the blood stream is freighted with a +soluble chemical of some sort--let us say, for the present, with +alcohol--this medicated blood will exert its greatest chemical effect +where the tension--the pressure--is greatest, that is, in the +cerebro-spinal canal. The reason for this is found in the fact that +endosmosis is most pronounced where the blood pressure is greatest. +This explanation of why the effects of alcohol are enhanced by +exposing the individual who has taken it to the effects of a condensed +atmosphere will, I believe, appeal to the physiological conceptions of +most medical men. It was the above course of reasoning which, at this +stage of the argument, led me to the idea that, just as the effects of +stimulating substances are enhanced by exposing the subject to the +influence of compressed air, so, inversely, sedatives and analgesics, +when brought in solution into the blood stream, either hypodermically +or by the stomach, might be greatly enhanced in effect by causing the +subject to remain, while under their influence, in a condensed +atmosphere. + +When I came to investigate the validity of these predictions, as I did +shortly after the introduction of antipyrin, phenacetin, and the other +members of the same group of compounds, I found my predictions +verified, and, indeed, exceeded. To summarize the whole matter, I +ascertained that not only could therapeutic effects be obtained from +much smaller doses by exposing the subject to the influence of a +condensed atmosphere, but, what was of equal interest, I found that +the analgesic influence of the remedies was much more permanent, was +prolonged, in short, by this mode of administration. When we consider +how great must be the nutritive changes in the nervous system, and +especially in the cerebro-spinal axis, consequent upon increasing the +blood pressure in this way, I hardly think that these things should be +matters of astonishment. + + +CONCERNING THE PRACTICAL APPLICATION OF THE FOREGOING FACTS.--Truths +like the foregoing possess, however, much more than a theoretical +interest, and we should be greatly lacking in perspicuity did we not +seek to derive from them something further than a foundation for mere +speculation. Indeed, the whole tenor of these facts is opposed to such +a course, for, view them as we may, the thought inevitably arises that +here are things which contain the germ of some practical acquisition. +This, at least, is the impression which they engendered in my own +mind--an impression which, being unable to rid myself of, I have +allowed to fructify. Nor has regret followed this tenacity of purpose, +since, by the _combination_ of the three principles previously +enunciated, I have been able to devise a procedure which, in my hands, +has yielded flattering results in the treatment of a wide range of +nervous affections, and notably so in melancholia, chorea, insomnia, +neurasthenia, and painful conditions of various kinds. + + +RECAPITULATION OF ARGUMENT.--The method in question consists, then, in +the combination of the three facts already elucidated. To +recapitulate, they are: + +1. That the effects of remedies upon the cerebro-spinal axis may be +enhanced by the sequestration of the blood contained in one or more +extremities, previous to the administration of the medicament. This is +only another way of saying that the quantity of a remedy required to +produce a given physiological effect may be reduced by any expedient +which suspends, or sequestrates, the blood in one or more extremities. +As has been previously said, however, care should be exercised to +avoid dangerous exsanguination of the trunk, and consequently of the +respiratory and cardiac centers contained in the medulla. This may be +done by compressing the central portion of both artery and vein; but I +shall presently indicate a better way of accomplishing the same thing. + +2. The duration of the effect of a remedy upon the cerebro-spinal axis +is in the inverse ratio of its volatility. For this reason the +anaesthetic effects of ether disappear shortly after removal of the +inhaler, whereas solutions of antipyrin, phenacetin, morphine, and +other salts possessing an affinity for nervous tissue exert much more +permanent effects upon the cerebro-spinal system. + +It is evident, therefore, that the administration of remedies designed +to exert an influence upon the central nervous system in the form of +gases must be far inferior to the exhibition of potent solutions +hypodermically or by the mouth. + +3. The pharmaco-dynamic potency of stimulants, sedatives, analgesics, +and probably of all remedies possessing a chemical affinity for +nervous matter, is enhanced by exhibiting them (the remedies) in +solution, or at least in _soluble form while the subject remains in a +condensed atmosphere_. + +And, as a corollary to this, it may be stated that this increase--this +enhancement of therapeutic effect--is, within physiological limits, in +the ratio of the atmospheric condensation. By physiological limits we +mean simply that there is a degree of atmospheric condensation beyond +which we cannot go without jeopardizing the well-being of the subject. + +(_To be continued_.) + + * * * * * + + + + +EYESIGHT: ITS CARE DURING INFANCY AND YOUTH.[1] + +[Footnote 1: A lecture delivered before the Franklin Institute, +December 5, 1890.--_From the Journal of the Institute_.] + +By L. WEBSTER FOX, M.D. + + +Medical science, as taught in our medical colleges to-day, has two +objects in view: (1) the prevention of disease; (2) the amelioration +of disease and its cure. Some of our advanced thinkers are suggesting +a new mode of practice, that is the prevention of disease by proper +hygienic measures. Chairs are being established and professors +appointed to deliver lectures on hygiene. Of what value is the +application of therapeutics if the human economy is so lowered in its +vital forces that dissolution is inevitable? Is it not better to +prevent disease than to try the cure after it has become established, +or has honeycombed the constitution? + +These few preliminary remarks are _apropos_ to what is to follow in +the subject which I have selected as the topic for discussion this +evening. + +Vision is the most useful of all the senses. It is the one gift which +we should cherish and guard the most. And at no time in one's life is +it more precious than in infancy and youth. + +In infancy, when the child is developing, the one great avenue to the +unfolding, or more properly speaking, the development, of the +intellect is through the eye. The eye at this period holds in abeyance +all the other senses. The child, when insensible to touch, taste, +smell or hearing, will become aroused to action by a bright light or +bright colors, or the movement of any illuminated object, proving to +all that light is essential to the development of the first and most +important sense. Again, the infant of but six days of age will +recognize a candle flame, while its second sense and second in +importance to its development--hearing--will not be recognized for +_six_ weeks to two months. Taste, touch and smell follow in regular +sequence. Inasmuch as light makes thus early an impression on the +delicate organ of vision, how necessary it behooves us to guard the +infant from too bright lights or too much exposure in our bright +climate. Mothers--not only the young mother with her first child, but +also those who have had several children--are too apt to try to quiet +a restless child by placing it near a bright flame; much evil to the +future use of those eyes is the outgrowth of such a pernicious habit. +Light throws into action certain cells of that wonderful structure of +the eye, the retina, and an over stimulus perverts the action of those +cells. The result is that by this over-stimulation the seeds of future +trouble are sown. Let the adult gaze upon the arc of an electric light +or into the sun, and for many moments, nay hours, that individual has +dancing before his vision scintillations and phosphenes. His direct +vision becomes blurred, and as in the case of a certain individual I +have in mind, there may be a permanent loss of sight. Parents should +take the first precaution in the child's life, and not expose it to a +light too bright or glaring. When in the open air let the child's eyes +be protected from the direct rays of the sun. While it is impossible +to give all children the advantage of green fields and outdoor +ramblings, yet nature never intended that civilization should debar +the innocent child from such surroundings. + +An anecdote is related of a French ophthalmic surgeon, that a +distinguished patient applied to him for relief from a visual defect; +the surgeon advised him to go into the country and look out upon the +green fields. The green color with its soothing effect soon brought +about a restoration of vision. What I wish to illustrate by this +anecdote is that children should be allowed the green fields as their +best friend in early life. It tones up the system and rests the eye. +After outdoor exercise and plenty of it, we should turn our attention +to the home surroundings of our little ones. The overheated rooms of +the average American home I am sure have more to do with the growing +tendency of weak eyes than we feel like admitting. Look at these frail +hot-house plants, and can any one believe that such bodies nourished +in almost pestilential atmosphere can nourish such delicate organs of +vision, and keep them ready for the enormous amount of work each +little eye performs daily? The brain developing so rapidly wills with +an increasing rapidity the eye to do increasing duties; note the +result--a tendency to impoverished circulation first, and the eye with +its power to give the brain a new picture in an infinitesimal short +space of time means lightning-like circulation--the eye must give way +by its own exhaustion. + +Civilization is the progenitor of many eye diseases. + +After a boy has grown to that age when it becomes necessary for him to +begin the education prescribed by the wise men, obstacles are placed +in his way to aid again in causing deterioration of vision. It is not +so much the overcrowded condition of our school rooms as the enormous +amount of work that causes deterioration of sight. Our children begin +their school life at a time when they are too young. A child at six +years of age who is forced to study all day or even a part of a day +will not run the same race that one will who commences his studies at +ten--all things being equal. The law prescribes that so much time must +be devoted to study, so many forms must be passed, so many books must +be read, so many pages of composition written--all probably in badly +lighted rooms, or by artificial light. Note the effect. First, +possibly, distant vision gives way; the teacher, sympathizing with the +overburdened child, tries to make the burden lighter by changing his +position in the room or placing him under the cross light from a +window; as the evil progresses, the child is taken to an ophthalmic +surgeon, and the inevitable result, glasses, rightly called "crutches +for the eyes," are given. What would be thought of a cause which would +weaken the legs of that boy so that he would have to use crutches to +carry him through life? If civilization be responsible for an evil, +let our efforts be put forth in finding a remedy for that evil. + +A discussion, in a recent number of the _British Medical Journal_,[2] +on "The Claims and Limitations of Physical Education in Schools," has +many valuable hints which should be followed by educators in this +country. Dr. Carter, in the leading paper on this subject, makes the +pregnant remark: "If the hope is entertained of building up a science +of education, the medical profession must combine with the profession +of teaching, in order to direct investigation and to collect material +essential to generalization. Without such co-operation educational +workers must continue to flounder in the morasses of empiricism, and +be content to purchase relative safety at the cost of slow progress, +or no progress at all." In other words, an advisory medical board +should coexist with our board of public education, to try to hold in +check or prevent a further "cruelty in trying to be kind." Private +institutions of education recognize the importance of physical +training and development, and in such institutions the deterioration +of vision is in proportion less than in institutions where physical +training is not considered. In one school of over 200 middle class +girls, Dr. Carter found that, during a period of six years, no fewer +than ten per cent. of the total number of girls admitted during that +time have been compelled to take one or more terms' leave of absence, +and of the present number twenty-eight per cent. have medical +certificates exempting them from gymnastic exercise and 10.25 per +cent. of the total present number wear eye glasses of some kind or +other. From my own experience the same number of students in our +schools would show about the same percentage of visual defects. These +questions are of such growing importance that not only instructors, +but the medical fraternity, should not rest until these evils are +eradicated. + +[Footnote 2: Nov. 1, 1890.] + +Dr. J.W. Ballantyne, of Edinburgh, in a lecture[3] on diseases of +infancy and childhood, says: "The education of the young people of a +nation is to that nation a subject of vital importance." The same +writer quotes the startling statement made by Prof. Pfluger, that of +45,000 children examined in Germany more than one-half were suffering +from defective eyesight, while in some schools the proportion of the +short sighted was seventy or eighty per cent., and, crowning all, was +the Heidelberg Gymnasium, with 100 per cent. These figures, the result +of a careful examination, are simply startling, and almost make one +feel that it were better to return to the old Greek method of teaching +by word of mouth. + +[Footnote 3: _Lancet_. Nov. 1, 1890.] + +Prof. Pfluger attributes this large amount of bad sight to +insufficient lighting of school rooms, badly printed books, etc. One +must agree with a certain writer, who says: "Schools are absolute +manufactories of the short sighted, a variety of the human race which +has been created within historic time, and which has enormously +increased in number during the present century." Granting that many +predisposing causes of defective vision cannot be eliminated from the +rules laid down by our city fathers in acquiring an education, it +would be well if the architects of school buildings would bear in mind +that light when admitted into class rooms should not fall directly +into the faces of children, but desks should be so arranged that the +light must be sufficiently strong and fall upon the desk from the left +hand side. My attention has repeatedly been called to the cross lights +in a school room. The light falling directly into the eyes contracts +the pupil which is already contracted by the action of the muscle of +accommodation in its effort to give a clearer picture to the brain. +This has a tendency to elongate the eyeball, and as a permanent result +we have near sightedness. Where the eyeball has an unnatural shortness +this same action manifests itself by headaches, chorea, nausea, +dyspepsia, and ultimately a prematurely breaking down of health. The +first symptom of failing sight is a hyper-secretion of tears, burning +of the eyelids, loss of eyelashes, and congestion either of the +eyelids or the eyeball proper. + +The natural condition of aboriginal man is far sighted. His wild life, +his nomadic nature, his seeking for game, his watching for enemies, +his abstention from continued near work, have given him this +protection. Humboldt speaks of the wonderful distant vision of the +South American Indians; another traveler in Russia of the power of +vision one of his guides possessed, who could see the rings of Saturn. +My recent examinations among Indian children of both sexes also +confirm this. While the comparison is not quite admissible, yet the +recent investigations carried on by Lang and Barrett, who examined the +eyes of certain mammalia, found that the larger number were +hypermetropic or far sighted. With all the difficulties which +naturally surround such an examination they found that in fifty-two +eyes of rabbits, thirty-six were hypermetropic and astigmatic, eight +were hypermetropic only, five were myopic and astigmatic, and others +presented mixed astigmatism. In the eyes of the guinea pig about the +same proportion of hypermetropia existed. The eyes of five rats +examined gave the following result: Some were far sighted, others were +hypermetropic and astigmatic, one was slightly myopic and one had +mixed astigmatism. Of six cows, five were hypermetropic and astigmatic +and one was slightly myopic. + +Six horses were also examined, of which one had normal sight, three +were hypermetropic and astigmatic, and two had a slight degree of +astigmatism. They also examined other animals, and the same proportion +of hypermetropia existed. These gentlemen found that as an optical +instrument the eye of the horse, cow, cat and rabbit is superior to +that of the rat, mouse and guinea pig. + +I have for the last five years devoted considerable attention to the +vision of the Indian children who are pupils at two institutions in +this city. I have at various times made careful records of each +individual pupil and have from time to time compared them. Up to the +present there is a growing tendency toward myopia or short +sightedness, i.e., more pupils from year to year require near sighted +glasses. The natural condition of their eyes is far sighted and the +demands upon them are producing many nervous or reflex symptoms, pain +over the frontal region and headaches. A good illustration of the +latter trouble is showing itself in a young Indian boy, who is at +present undergoing an examination of his vision as a probable cause +for his headaches. This boy is studying music; one year ago he +practiced two hours daily on the piano and studied from three to five +hours besides. This year his work has been increased; he is now +troubled with severe headaches, and after continued near work for some +time letters become blurred and run together. This boy is far sighted +and astigmatic; glasses will correct his defect, and it will be +interesting to note whether his eyes will eventually grow into near +sighted ones. I have several cases where the defective vision has been +due entirely to other causes, such as inflammation of the cornea, +weakening this part of the eye, and the effect in trying to see +producing an elongation of the anterior portion of the eyeball, and +this in turn producing myopia. The eye of the Indian does not differ +materially from that of any deeply pigmented race. The eyeball is +smaller than in the Caucasian, but when we examine the interior we +find the same distribution of the blood vessels and same shape of the +optic nerves. The pigment deposit in the choroid is excessive and +gives, as a background to the retina, a beautiful silvery sheen when +examined with the ophthalmoscope. One thing which I noticed +particularly was the absence of this excessive deposit of pigment and +absence of this watered silk appearance in the half breeds, they +taking after the white race. + +Many of the intraocular diseases common among the white children were +also absent, especially those diseases which are the result of near +work. + +It is a well known fact among breeders of animals that where animals +are too highly or finely bred, the eye is the organ first to show a +retrogression from the normal. In an examination by myself some years +ago among deaf mutes, I found the offspring of consanguineous +marriages much affected, and while not only were many afflicted with +inflammatory conditions of the choroid and retina, their average +vision was much below the normal. + +My quoting Messrs. Lang and Barrett's figures was to bring more +prominently to the notice of my hearers the fact that the eyes of +primitive man resembled the eyes of the lower mammalia and that the +natural eye as an organ of vision was hypermetropic, or far sighted, +and that civilization was the cause of the myopic or near sighted eye. +Nature always compensates in some way. I grant that the present +demands of civilization could not be filled by the far sighted eye, +but the evil which is the outgrowth of present demands does not stop +when we have reached the normal eye, but the cause once excited, the +coats of this eye continue to give way, and myopia or a near sighted +condition is the result. + +Among three hundred Indians examined, I found when I got to the +Creeks, a tribe which has been semi-civilized for many years, myopia +to be the prevailing visual defect. + +Without going into statistics, I am convinced from my experience that +the State must look into this subject and give our public school +system of education more attention, or we, as a people, will be known +as a "spectacled race." + +Myopia or short-sightedness among the Germans is growing at a +tremendous rate. While I do not believe that the German children +perform more work than our own children, there is one cause for this +defect which has never been touched upon by writers, and that is the +shape of the head. The broad, flat face, or German type, as I would +call it, has not the deep orbit of the more narrow, sharp-featured +face of the American type. The eye of the German standing out more +prominently, and, in consequence, less protected, is thereby more +prone to grow into a near-sighted eye. One of the significant results +of hard study was recently brought to my notice by looking over the +statistics on the schools of Munich in 1889. In those schools 2,327 +children suffered from defective sight, 996 boys and 1,331 girls. + +Of 1,000 boys in the first or elementary class, 36 are short-sighted; +in the second, 49; in the third, 70; in the fourth, 94; in the fifth, +108; in the sixth, 104; and in the last and seventh, 108. The number +of short-sighted boys, therefore, from the first class to the seventh +increases about three-fold. In the case of girls, the increase is from +37 to 119. + +These statistics in themselves show us the effects of overwork, +incessant reading or study by defective gas or lamp light, or from an +over-stimulating light, as the arc light, late hours, dissipation, and +frequent rubbing of the eye, also fatigue, sudden changes from +darkness to light, and, what is probably worse than all, reading on +railway trains. The constant oscillations of the car cause an +over-activity of the muscle of accommodation, which soon becomes +exhausted; the brain willing the eye to give it a clear photograph +continues to force the ciliary muscle, which muscle governs the +accommodation, in renewed activity, and the result may easily be +foretold. + +The fond parents finding that the vitiated air of the city is making +their once rosy-cheeked children turn pale, seek a remedy in the fresh +air of the country. The children find their way to city schools; this +necessitates traveling so many miles a day in railway cars. The +children take this opportunity of preparing their studies while _en +route_ to the city, and here is where they get their first eye-strain. +Children have the example set them by their parents or business men, +who read the daily papers on the trains. Children are great imitators, +and when their attention is called to the evil, quote their parents' +example, and they follow it. No wonder each generation is growing more +effeminate. + +The light in sick rooms should never fall directly on the eyes, nor +should the rooms be either too dark or too light. + +The Esquimaux and Indians long ago noted the fact that sunlight +reflected from freshly fallen snow would soon cause blindness. + +The natives of northern Africa blacken themselves around the eyes to +prevent ophthalmia from the glare of the hot sand. In Fiji the +natives, when they go fishing, blacken their faces. My friend. Dr. +Bartelott, presented me with a pair of eye protectors, which he +brought from Alaska. The natives use them to protect themselves from +snow blindness. These snow spectacles, or snow eyes, as they are +called, are usually made out of pine wood, which is washed upon their +shores, drift wood from southern climes. + +The posterior surface is deeply excavated, to prevent its obstructing +the free motion of the eye lids; on each side a notch is cut at the +lower margin to allow a free passage for the tears. The upper margin +of the front surface is more prominent than the under, to act as a +shade to the eyes. The inner surface is blackened to absorb the +excessive light. The openings are horizontal slits. The eyes are thus +protected from the dazzling effect of the light. + +My friend, Dr. Grady, of Omaha, communicated to me a history of three +hunters who almost lost their eyesight by too long exposure to the +bright rays of the sun falling on snow. + +The abuse of tobacco leads to impairment of vision in the growing +youth. Cigarette smoking is an evil. I am inclined to believe that the +poison inhaled arrests the growth of boys; surely it prevents a mental +development, and, when carried to excess, affects vision more by +lessening the power of nerve conduction than acting directly on the +eye. + +It is not the one cigarette which the boy smokes that does the harm, +but it is the one, two, or three packages smoked daily. This excessive +smoking thoroughly perverts all the functions which should be at their +best to aid this growing youth. First we have failing digestion, +restless nights, suspension of growth, lack of mental development, the +loss of nerve tone, loss of the power of accommodation in vision, +failing sight, headaches, enfeeblement of the heart. Let a man who is +a habitual smoker of cigars attempt to smoke even one package of +cigarettes and he will complain of nausea, dry throat, and loss of +appetite. If a strong man is so much affected by this poison, how much +less can a boy resist the inroads of such poisons? In Germany the law +forbids the sale of cigarettes to growing boys. New York State has a +similar law, and why should our own or any other State be behind in +passing prohibitory laws against this evil?--and this is a growing +evil. + +I have never seen a case of tobacco amblyopia in boyhood, but such a +condition is not infrequent in adults. In boys the action of nicotine +acts especially upon the heart, the impulse is rendered weaker and +intermittent, and many young boys lay the seeds of organic disease +which sooner or later culminates fatally. Boys should be prohibited +from smoking, first by their parents, second by law, but not such laws +whose enforcement is a failure, third by placing a heavy fine upon +dealers who sell to minors. The pernicious evil of intoxication is no +less an evil upon the nervous system of a youth than is the habit of +cigarette smoking, but, fortunately, this habit is less common. Having +traced from aboriginal man to the present civilized individual the +cause of his myopia, what must we do to prevent a further +deterioration of vision? Unfortunately, the physician of our country +is not, as I am told, like the Japanese physician. Our medical men are +called to attend people who are ill and to try to get them well--the +Japanese physician is paid only to keep his patients in health. + +The first effort parents should make is to see that their children +have plenty of outdoor exercise. Good, warm clothing in winter, and +light texture cloth in summer. A great difference of opinion exists as +to the age at which a child should begin its studies. I feel sure that +the boy who commences his studies at ten will far outrun the one who +commences study at six. Every child should commence his lessons in the +best kindergarten, the nursery. Let object lessons be his primer--let +him be taught by word of mouth--then, when his brain is what it should +be for a boy of ten, his eyes will be the better able to bear the +fatigue of the burdens which will be forced upon him. Listen to what +Milton has left on record as a warning to those young boys or girls +who insist upon reading or studying at night with bad illumination. + +"My father destined me, from a child, for the pursuits of polite +learning, which I prosecuted with such eagerness that, after I was +twelve years old, I rarely retired to bed, from my lucubrations, till +midnight. This was the first thing which proved pernicious to my eyes, +to the natural weakness of which were added frequent headaches." + +Milton went blind when comparatively a young man, and it was always to +him a great grief. Galileo, the great astronomer, also went blind by +overwork. It was written of him, "The noblest eye which ever nature +made is darkened--an eye so privileged, and gifted with such rare +powers, that it may truly be said to have seen more than the eyes of +all that are gone, and to have opened the eyes of all that are to +come." + +When the defect of far sightedness or near sightedness exists, we have +but one recourse--_spectacles_. + +Some time ago I published, in the _Medical and Surgical Reporter_ an +article on the history of spectacles. The widespread interest which +this paper created has stimulated me to continue the research, and +since this article appeared I have been able to gather other +additional historical data to what has been described as an invention +for "poor old men when their sight grows weak." + +The late Wendell Phillips, in his lecture on the "Lost Arts," speaks +of the ancients having magnifying glasses. "Cicero said that he had +seen the entire _Iliad_, which is a poem as large as the New +Testament, written on a skin so that it could be rolled up in the +compass of a nut shell;" it would have been impossible either to have +written this, or to have read it, without the aid of a magnifying +glass. + +In Parma, a ring 2,000 years old is shown which once belonged to +Michael Angelo. On the stone are engraved the figures of seven women. +You must have the aid of a glass in order to distinguish the forms at +all. Another _intaglio_ is spoken of--the figure is that of the god +Hercules; by the aid of glasses, you can distinguish the interlacing +muscles and count every separate hair on the eyebrows. Mr. Phillips +again speaks of a stone 20 inches long and 10 wide containing a whole +treatise on mathematics, which would be perfectly illegible without +glasses. Now, our author says, if we are unable to read and see these +minute details without glasses, you may suppose the men who did the +engraving had pretty strong spectacles. + +"The Emperor Nero, who was short sighted, occupied the imperial box at +the Coliseum, and, to look down into the arena, a space covering six +acres, the area of the Coliseum, was obliged, as Pliny says, to look +through a ring with a gem in it--no doubt a concave glass--to see more +clearly the sword play of the gladiators. Again, we read of Mauritius, +who stood on the promontory of his island and could sweep over the sea +with an optical instrument to watch the ships of the enemy. This tells +us that the telescope is not a modern invention." + +Lord Kingsborough, speaking of the ancient Mexicans, says: "They were +acquainted with many scientific instruments of strange invention, +whether the telescope may not have been of the number is uncertain, +but the thirteenth plate of _Dupaix's Monuments_, part second, which +represents a man holding something of a similar nature to his eye, +affords reason to suppose that they knew how to improve the powers of +vision. + +Our first positive knowledge of spectacles is gathered from the +writings of Roger Bacon, who died in 1292.[3] Bacon says: "This +instrument (a plano-convex glass or large segment of a sphere) is +useful to old men and to those who have weak eyes, for they may see +the smallest letters sufficiently magnified." + +[Footnote 3: _Med. and Surg. Reporter_.] + +Alexander de Spina, who died in 1313, had a pair of spectacles made +for himself by an optician who had the secret of their invention. De +Spina was so much pleased with them that he made the invention public. + +Monsieur Spoon fixes the date of the invention between 1280 and 1311. +In a manuscript written in 1299 by Pissazzo, the author says: "I find +myself so pressed by age that I can neither read nor write without +those glasses they call spectacles, lately invented, to the great +advantage of poor old men when their sight grows weak." Friar Jordan, +who died in Pisa in 1311, says in one of his sermons, which was +published in 1305, that "it is not twenty years since the art of +making spectacles was found out, and is indeed one of the best and +most necessary inventions in the world." In the fourteenth century +spectacles were not uncommon and Italy excelled in their manufacture. +From Italy the art was carried into Holland, then to Nuremberg, +Germany. In a church in Florence is a fresco representing St. Jerome +(1480). Among the several things represented is an inkhorn, pair of +scissors, etc. We also find a pair of spectacles, or _pince-nez_--the +glasses are large and round and framed in bone. + +It was not until 1575 that Maurolicus, of Messina, pointed out the +cause of near sightedness and far sightedness and explained how +concave glasses corrected the former and convex glasses the latter +defect. + +In the wake of advanced, education stalks the spectacle age. Any one +watching a passing crowd cannot fail but note the great number of +people wearing spectacles. Unfortunately it is not limited to adults, +but our youths of both sexes go to make up this army of ametropes. + +At what age should children first wear glasses? This is a much +debatable question. Where there is simply a defect of vision I should +never prescribe a pair of glasses for a child under ten years of age. +A child under this age runs many risks of injury to the eyeball by +accident to the glasses, and to cut the eye with glass is a very +serious affair. Rather let a child go without study, or even with +impaired vision, than run the risk of a permanent loss of sight. + +Another source of evil I must call your attention to, and that is the +indiscriminate use of glasses given by itinerant venders of spectacles +who claim a thorough knowledge of the eye, who make examination free, +but charge double price for glasses. + +Persons, before submitting themselves into the hands of opticians, +should know that they are not suffering from any incipient disease of +their eyes. I do not, for a moment, claim that a practical optician +cannot give you a pair of glasses which will make you see--he does +nothing more than hand you a number of pairs of glasses and you select +the one pair which you think answers the purpose. How can anyone but a +medical man know that the impairment of vision does not arise from +diminished sensibility of the retina? If so, the glasses just +purchased, which may be comfortable for a time, may cause an +irreparable loss of vision. Every ophthalmic surgeon will tell you +that he has had a number of such cases. Do not be misguided by +purchasing cheap spectacles. Glasses advertised as having "remarkable +qualities" are always to be passed by. They have "remarkable +qualities;" they always leave the person wearing them worse at the end +of a few months. Whenever an eye finds relief in a shaded or colored +glass, something is going wrong with the interior of that eye. Seek +advice, but do not trust the eyes of yourself, much less those of your +children, in the hands of the opticians who advertise their +examinations free. + +Such individuals should be brought before a tribunal and the matter +sifted as to whether the sense of sight is less to be taken care of +than if that same patient were ill with pneumonia and a druggist were +to prescribe remedies which might or might not aid this patient. If +one man must comply with the law, why should not the other? Our +medical colleges are lengthening the course of studies; the advances +in the various departments of science demand this. It is by the aid of +the ophthalmoscope that many obscure diseases are diagnosed, and while +it is impossible for every young man who obtains a diploma to become +thoroughly proficient in the use of this instrument, yet the eye shows +to him many conditions which guide him to the road of successful +treatment. Think of a case of optic neuritis--inflammation of the +optic nerve--going to an optician and fitting one set of glasses after +another until the patient suddenly discovers that blindness is +inevitable. Many individuals, and very intelligent ones at that, think +that so long as a glass makes them see, that is all they need. When we +know that scarcely two eyes are alike, we can at once feel that it is +very important that each eye should be properly adjusted for a glass; +by this we are sure of having comfort in reading and preserving +vision. + +There is a very important defect in vision which should be detected as +early in life as possible, and that is color blindness. The boy who is +a color blind will always remain a color blind, and as forty in every +1,000 of the male sex are color blind, it is essential that they know +their defect, and train their course accordingly. It would be to the +advantage of all boys to undergo such an examination once in their +school life; a color blind would be useless where the selection of +color entered into his life work. If a boy had a talent for drawing or +engraving, and were color blind, he would make a success of his life, +whereas if he would attempt to mix paints of different colors he would +be a failure. + +I shall not dwell upon the scientific part of color blindness, nor +discuss either the Young-Helmholtz or the Hering theories of color +defect, but shall deal with its practical use in everyday life. + +Until the year 1853, very little was known about color blindness, and +much less written about it. + +Dr. George Wilson, in 1853, wrote several articles, which were +published in the _Edinburgh Monthly Journal of Medical Science._ These +articles created such an interest in the scientific world that Dr. +Wilson brought out a book, entitled "Researches on Color Blindness," +two years later. So thoroughly did Dr. Wilson sift this subject that +no writer up to the present day has added anything practical to what +was then known. + +Dr. Wilson writes in his preface: "The most practical relation of +color blindness is that which it has to railway and ship signals." He +further states: "The professions for which color blindness most +seriously disqualifies are those of the sailor and railway servant, +who have daily to peril human life and property on the indication +which a colored flag or a lamp seems to give." + +Dr. Bickerton, in an article on this same subject, speaking of the +careless way in which lights were used on ships at sea, says: "Until +the year 1852, there were no definite rules regarding the carrying of +lights at night by vessels at sea.... At this time the subject of +color blindness had not awakened the attention of practical observers, +and had the fact been known that between three and four per cent. of +the whole male population are color blind, some other mode might have +been devised to indicate the positions of vessels at night than by +showing red and green lights." + +If it is so very important to have sailors with good color perception, +where, at least, four men are on the lookout, how much more important +is it to have our engine drivers with perfect color perception, where +one man alone watches the signal of safety or danger. + +The growth of our railway system is constantly increasing. We have +to-day probably 150,000 men employed in this service. The boys +attending public schools to-day in a few years will have to fill the +ranks of these men. How important for these boys to know that they +have not this defect. If the forty boys in every 1,000 are found, what +is to be done with them? The engraver, the wood cut engraver, the +etcher, all wish apprentices. I am also informed that these +occupations pay well. It requires talent to fill them, and here is an +opening for the color blind. Hear what a color blind writes:[4] "I beg +to offer some particulars of my own case, trusting it may be of use to +you. I am an engraver, and strange as it may appear, my defective +vision is, to a certain extent, a useful and valuable quality. Thus, +an engraver has two negative colors to deal with, i.e., white and +black. Now, when I look at a picture, I see it only in white and +black, or light and shade, and any want of harmony in the coloring of +a picture is immediately made manifest by a corresponding discord in +the arrangement of its light and shade or, as artists term it, the +_effect_. I find at times many of my brother engravers in doubt how to +translate certain colors of pictures which to me are matters of +decided certainty and ease. Thus, to me it is valuable." Having +already spoken about the importance of having all boys undergo an +examination for color blindness once in their school lives, we have +two very good reasons for making this suggestion. + +[Footnote 4: Wilson, p. 27.] + +First, prevent a boy following a trade or occupation where he is +incapacitated, and, secondly, let him be trained for a certain trade +or occupation when the defect exists. The savage races possess the +perception of color to a greater degree than do civilized races. I +have just concluded an examination of 250 Indian children; 100 were +boys. Had I selected 100 white boys from various parts of the United +States I would have found at least five color blinds; among the Indian +boys I did not find a single one. Some years ago I examined 250 Indian +boys and found two color blind, a very low percentage when compared +with the whites. Among the Indian girls I did not find any. When we +know that only two females in every 1,000 among whites are color +blind, it is not surprising that I did not find any examples among the +Indian girls. + +The usual tests for color blindness are the matching of wools; the +common error the color blind falls into is matching a bright scarlet +with a green. On one occasion, a color blind gentleman found fault +with his wife for wearing, as he thought, a bright scarlet dress, when +in point of fact she was wearing a bright green. Another color blind +who was very fond of drawing, once painted a red tree in a landscape +without being aware that he had done so. + +Among the whites it affects all classes. It is found as relatively +common among the intelligent as the illiterate, and unfortunately, up +to the present, we have not discovered any remedy for this defect. + +Without quoting many instances where a color blind man was responsible +for accidents at sea, I must quote a case where an officer on the +watch issued an order to "port" his vessel, which, if his order had +been carried out, would have caused a collision, and a probable +serious loss of life. + +The letter was written by Capt. Coburn, and is to be found in the +_Mercantile Marine Reporter_, vol. xiv. + +"The steamer Neera was on a voyage from Liverpool to Alexandria. One +night, shortly after passing Gibraltar, at about 10.30 p.m., I went on +the bridge, which was then in charge of the third officer, a man of +about forty-five years of age, and who up to that time I had supposed +to be a trustworthy officer, and competent in every way. I walked up +and down the bridge until about 11 p.m., when the third officer and I +almost simultaneously saw a light at about two points on the starboard +bow. I at once saw it was a green light, and knew that no action was +called for. To my surprise, the third officer called out to the man at +the wheel, 'port,' which he was about to do, when I countermanded the +order, and told him to steady his helm, which he did, and we passed +the other steamer safely about half a mile apart. I at once asked the +third officer why he had ported his helm to a green light on the +starboard bow, but he insisted it was a red light which he had first +seen. I tried him repeatedly after this, and although he sometimes +gave a correct description of the color of the light, he was as often +incorrect, and it was evidently all guesswork. On my return, I applied +to have him removed from the ship, as he was, in my opinion, quite +unfit to have charge of the deck at night, and this application was +granted. After this occurrence I always, when taking a strange officer +to sea, remained on the bridge with him at night until I had tested +his ability to distinguish colors. I cannot imagine anything more +dangerous or more likely to lead to fatal accidents than a color blind +man on a steamer's bridge." + +A similar experience is thus related by Capt. Heasley, of Liverpool: +"After passing through the Straits of Gibraltar, the second officer, +who had charge of the deck, gave the order to 'port,' much to my +astonishment, for the lights to be seen about a point on the starboard +bow were a masthead and green light, but he maintained that it was a +masthead and red, and not until both ships were nearly abreast would +he acknowledge his mistake. I may add that during the rest of the +voyage I never saw him making the same mistake. As a practical seaman +I consider a great many accidents at sea arise from color blindness." + +Dr. Farquharson has brought this subject before the House of Commons +in England and measures are being taken which will insure to the +traveling public immunity from accidents at sea. I need not mention +that the majority of railways of our country have a system of +examinations which prevents a color blind entering their service. + +Dr. Wilson makes the suggestion that he noticed a singular expression +in the eyes of certain of the color blind difficult to describe. "In +some it amounted to a startled expression, as if they were alarmed; in +others, to an eager, aimless glance, as if seeking to perceive +something but unable to find it; and in certain others to an almost +vacant stare, as if their eyes were fixed upon objects beyond the +limit of vision. The expression referred to, which is not at all times +equally pronounced, never altogether leaves the eyes which it seems to +characterize." + +Dr. B. Joy Jeffries, of Boston, has recently written an article on +this same topic, but unfortunately I have not his pamphlet at hand to +quote his views on this subject. + +In this lecture I have shown that the normal eye is far sighted. The +mammalia have this kind of an eye; the Indian the same. The white man +is fast becoming near sighted. The civilized Indian is also showing +the effects of continuous near work; and now the question arises. What +are we to do to prevent further deterioration of vision? The fault +lies at our own doors. Let us try to correct these now existing evils, +so that future generations will, instead of censuring us, thank us for +our wisdom. + +To aid in a feeble way for the protection of posterity I have +formulated ten rules on the preservation of vision: + +(1) Do not allow light to fall upon the face of a sleeping infant. + +(2) Do not allow babies to gaze at a bright light. + +(3) Do not send children to school before the age of ten. + +(4) Do not allow children to keep their eyes too long on a near +object, at any one time. + +(5) Do not allow them to study much by artificial light. + +(6) Do not allow them to use books with small type. + +(7) Do not allow them to read in a railway carriage. + +(8) Do not allow boys to smoke tobacco, especially cigarettes. + +(9) Do not necessarily ascribe headaches to indigestion. The eyes may +be the exciting cause. + +(10) Do not allow the itinerant spectacle vender to prescribe glasses. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE WATER MOLECULE.[1] + +[Footnote 1: Translated from the _Pharmaceutische Centralhalle_, by +A.G. Vogeler.--_Western Druggist_.] + +By A. GANSWINDT. + + +"Water consists of one atom of oxygen and two atoms of hydrogen." This +proposition will not be disputed in the least by the author; still, it +may be profitable to indulge in a few stereo-chemic speculations as to +the nature of the water molecule and to draw the inevitable +conclusions. + +From the time of the discovery, some 110 years ago, that water is a +compound body, made up of oxygen and hydrogen, the notion prevailed up +to within a quarter of a century that it was composed of even +equivalents of the elements named, and all but the youngest students +of chemistry well remember how its formula was written HO, the atomic +weight of oxygen being expressed by 8, making the molecular weight of +water (H=1 + O=8) 9. But the vapor density of water, referred to +air, is 0.635, and this number multiplied by the constant 28.87, gives +18 as the molecular weight of water, or exactly twice that accepted by +chemists. This discrepancy led to closer observations, and it was +eventually found that in decomposing water, by whatever method +(excepting only electrolysis), not more than the eighteenth part in +hydrogen of the water decomposed was ever obtained, or, in other +words, only just one-half the weight deducible from the formula HO = +9. The conclusion was irresistible that in a water molecule two atoms +of hydrogen must be assumed, and, as a natural sequence, followed the +doubling of the molecular weight of water to 18, represented by the +modern formula H_{2}O. + +Both the theory and the practice of substitution enable us to further +prove the presence of two hydrogen atoms in a water molecule. +Decomposing water by sodium, only one-half of the hydrogen contained +is eliminated, the other half, together with all of the oxygen, +uniting with the metal to form sodium hydroxide, H_{2}O + Na = H + +NaHO. Doubling the amount of sodium does not alter the result, for +decomposition according to the equation H_{2}O + 2Na = H_{2} + Na_{2}O +never happens. Introducing the ethyl group into the water molecule and +reacting under appropriate conditions with ethyl iodide upon water, +the ethyl group displaces one atom of hydrogen, and, uniting with the +hydroxyl residue, forms ethyl alcohol, thus: H_{2}O + C_{2}H_{5}I = +C_{2}H_{5}OH + HI. Halogens do not act directly on water, hence we may +not properly speak of halogen substitution products. By the action, +however, of phosphorus haloids on water an analogous splitting of the +water molecule is again observed, one-half of the hydrogen uniting +with the halogen to form an acid, the hydroxyl residue then forming a +phosphorus compound, thus: PCl_{3} + 3H_{2}O = 3HCl + P(OH)_{3}. + +Now these examples, which might readily be multiplied, prove not only +the presence of _two_ hydrogen atoms in the water molecule, but they +further demonstrate that these two atoms _differ from each other_ in +respect to their form of combination and power of substitution. The +two hydrogen atoms are certainly not of equal value, whence it follows +that the accepted formula for water: + + H + > O + H + +or as preferred by some: H-O-H, is not in conformity with established +facts. Expressed as here shown, both hydrogen atoms are assigned equal +values, when in fact only _one of the atoms is united to oxygen in +form of hydroxyl_, while the second is loosely attached to the +univalent hydroxyl group. Viewed in this light, water then is +decomposed according to the equation: H_{2}O = H + (OH), never in this +manner: H_{2}O = 2H + O. Hence, water must be considered as a +combination of one hydrogen atom with one molecule of hydroxyl, +expressed by the formula H(OH), and it is this atom of hydrogen _not_ +united to oxygen which is eliminated in the generation of oxygen or +substituted by metals and alkyl groups. The hydrogen in the hydroxyl +group cannot be substituted, excepting it be the entire group as such; +this is proved by the action of the halogens, in their phosphorus +compounds, upon water, when the halogen takes the place of the +hydroxyl group, but never that of the hydrogen. + +Now as to some logical deductions from the foregoing considerations. +Hydrogen is by many looked upon as a true metal. This theory cannot be +directly proved by the above, but it is certainly greatly strengthened +thereby. To compare. Hydrogen is a powerful reducing agent; it is +similarly affected by the halogens, the hydroxyl group, the acid +radicals, oxygen and sulphur; hydrogen and members of the univalent +alkali metals group are readily interchangeable; it forms superoxides +analogous to the metals; its analogy to the alkali metals as exhibited +in the following: + + H H(OH) HCl HNO_{3} H_{2}SO_{4} H_{2}S H_{2}O_{2} + K K(OH) KCl KNO_{3} Na_{2}SO_{4} Na_{2}S K_{2}O + +But if we consider hydrogen as a gasiform metal, we naturally arrive +at the conclusion that _water is the hydroxide of this gasiform +metal_, that is _hydrogen hydroxide_, while gaseous hydrochloric and +hydrosulphuric acids would be looked upon as respectively the chloride +and the sulphide of the metal hydrogen. This would then lead to +curious conclusions concerning the hydroxyl group. This group would, +by this theory, become an oxygenated metal radical similar to the +hypothetical bismuthyl and uranyl, and yet one in which the metallic +character has disappeared as completely as in the ferrocyanic group. + +An entirely new light is shed by this view upon the composition of +hydrogen peroxide, which would be looked at as two free hydroxyl +groups joined together thus: (OH)--(OH), analogous to our di-ethyl, +diphenyl, dicyanogen, etc. Considered as dihydroxyl, it would explain +the instability of this compound. + +The ethers proper would also be placed in a new light by this new +conception of the constitution of the water molecule. The hydrogen in +the hydroxyl group, as is known, may be substituted by an alkyl group. +For instance, an alkyl may be substituted for the hydroxyl hydrogen in +an alcohol molecule, when an ether results. According to the new +theory this ether will no longer be considered as two alkyl groups +connected by an oxygen atom, but as a compound built up on the type of +water by the union of an alkyl group and an alkoxyl group. Thus +ethylic ether would not be represented by + + C_{2}H_{5} + > O, + C_{2}H_{5} + +as heretofore, but by the formula C_{2}H_{5}(OC_{2}H_{5}), which is +ethyl-ethoxol. Acetone would admit of a similar explanation. + +Finally the assumption of dissimilarity in character of the hydrogen +atoms in the water molecule possibly may lead to the discovery of a +number of unlocked for isomerides. + +Thus, by appropriate methods, it ought to become possible to introduce +the alkyl groups solely into the hydroxyl group (instead of into the +place of the loosely attached H-atom). In that case chemists might +arrive at an isomeride of methyl alcohol of the formula H.(OCH_{3}), +or at methoxyl hydride, a compound not alcoholic in character, or at a +nitroxyl hydride, H(ONO_{2}), not of an acidic nature. Oxychlorides +would be classed with this latter category, that is, they would be +looked on as water in which the free hydrogen atom has been +substituted by the metal, and the hydrogen atom of the hydroxyl by +chlorine. This example, indeed, furnishes a most characteristic +illustration of our theory. In the case just now assumed we arrive at +the oxychloride; when, however, the metal and chlorine change places +in the water molecule, the isomeric hypochlorous salts are the result. +It is true that such cases of isomerism are as yet unknown, but we do +know that certain metals, in our present state of knowledge, yield +oxychlorides only, while others only form hypochlorous salts. This +condition also explains why hypochlorites still possesses the +bleaching power of chlorine, while the same is not true of +oxychlorides. However, it seems needless to multiply examples in +further illustration of the theory. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE FORMATION OF STARCH IN LEAVES. + + +In 1750, Bonnet, a Genevese naturalist, remarked that leaves immersed +in water became covered in the sun with small bubbles of a gas that he +compared to small pearls. In 1772, Priestley, after discovering that +the sojourn of animals in a confined atmosphere renders it +irrespirable, investigated the influence of plants placed in the same +conditions, and he relates, in these words, the discovery that he made +on the subject: + +"I put a sprig of mint in a quantity of air in which a candle had +ceased to burn, and I found that, ten days later, another candle was +able to burn therein perfectly well." It is to him, therefore, that is +due the honor of having ascertained that plants exert an action upon +the atmosphere contrary to that exerted by animals. Priestley, +however, was not completely master of his fine experiment; he was +ignorant of the fact, notably, that the oxygen is disengaged by plants +only as long as they are under the influence of light. + +This important discovery is due to Ingenhouse. Finally, it was +Sennebier who showed that oxygen is obtained from leaves only when +carbonic acid has been introduced into the atmosphere where they +remain. Later on, T. De Saussure and Boussingault inquired into the +conditions most favorable to assimilation. Boussingault demonstrated, +in addition, that the volume of carbonic acid absorbed was equal to +that of the oxygen emitted. Now we know, through a common chemical +experiment, that carbonic acid contains its own volume of oxygen. It +was supposed, then, that carbonic acid was decomposed by sunlight into +carbon and oxygen. Things, however, do not proceed so simply. In fact, +it is certain that, before the complete decomposition into carbon and +oxygen, there comes a moment in which there is oxygen on the one hand +and oxide of carbon (CO_{2} = O + CO) on the other. + +The decomposition, having reached this point, can go no further, for +the oxide of carbon is indecomposable by leaves, as the following +experiment proves. + +If we put phosphorus and some leaves into an inert gas, such as +hydrogen, we in the first place observe the formation of the white +fumes of phosphoric acid due to the oxidation of the phosphorus by the +oxygen contained in the leaves. This phosphoric acid dissolves in the +water of the test glass and the latter becomes transparent again. If, +now, we introduce some oxide of carbon, we remark in the sun no +formation of phosphoric acid, and this proves that there is no +emission of oxygen. + +[Illustration: DEMONSTRATION THAT STARCH IS FORMED IN LEAVES ONLY AT +THE POINTS TOUCHED BY LIGHT.] + +This latter hypothesis of the decomposition of carbonic acid into a +half volume of vapor of carbon and one volume of oxygen being +rejected, the idea occurred to consider the carbonic acid in a +hydrated state and to write it CO_{2}HO. + +In this case, we should have by the action of chlorophyl: 2CO_{2}HO +(carbonic acid) = 4O (oxygen) + C_{2}H_{2}O_{2} (methylic aldehyde). + +This aldehyde is a body that can be polymerized, that is to say, is +capable of combining with itself a certain number of times to form +complexer bodies, especially glucose. This formation of a sugar by +means of methylic aldehyde is not a simple hypothesis, since, on the +one hand, Mr. Loew has executed it by starting from methylic aldehyde, +and, on the other, we find this glucose in leaves by using Fehling's +solution. + +The glucose formed, it is admissible that a new polymerization with +elimination of water produces starch. The latter, in fact, through the +action of an acid, is capable of regenerating glucose. + +It may, therefore, be supposed that the decomposition of carbonic acid +by leaves brings about the formation of starch through the following +transformations: (1) The decomposition of the carbonic acid with +emission of oxygen and production of methylic aldehyde; (2) +polymerization of methylic aldehyde and formation of glucose; (3) +combination of several molecules of glucose with elimination of water; +formation of starch. + +Starch is thus the first stable product of chlorophylian activity. Is +there, in fact, starch in leaves? It is easy to reveal its presence by +the blue coloration that it assumes in contact with iodine in a leaf +bleached by boiling alcohol. + +Mr. Deherain has devised a nice method of demonstrating that this +formation of starch, and consequently the decomposition of carbonic +acid, can occur only under the influence of sunlight. He pointed it +out to us in his course of lectures at the School of Grignon, and +asked us to repeat the experiment. We succeeded, and now make the +_modus operandi_ known to our readers. + +The leaf that gave the best result was that of the _Aristolochia +Sipho_. The leaf, adherent to the plant, is entirely inclosed between +two pieces of perfectly opaque black paper. That which corresponds to +the upper surface of the limb bears cut-out characters, which are here +the initials of Mr. Deherain. The two screens are fastened to the leaf +by means of a mucilage of gum arabic that will easily cede to the +action of warm water at the end of the experiment. + +The exposure is made in the morning, before sunrise. At this moment, +the leaf contains no starch; that which was formed during the +preceding day has emigrated during the night toward the interior of +the plant. + +After a few hours of a good insolation, the leaf is picked off. Then +the gum which holds the papers together is dissolved by immersion in +warm water. The decolorizing is easily effected through boiling +alcohol, which dissolves the chlorophyl and leaves the leaf slightly +yellowish and perfectly translucent. + +There is nothing more to do then but dip the leaf in tincture of +iodine. If the insolation has been good, and if the screens have been +well gummed so that no penumbra has been produced upon the edge of the +letters, a perfectly sharp image will be instantly obtained. The +excess of iodine is removed by washing with alcohol and water, and the +leaf is then dried and preserved between the leaves of a book. + +It is well before decolorizing the leaf to immerse it in a solution of +potassa; the chlorophylian starch then swells and success is rendered +easier.--_Lartigue and Malpeaux, in La Nature_. + + * * * * * + + + + +STANDARDS AND METHODS FOR THE POLARIMETRIC ESTIMATION OF SUGARS.[1] + +[Footnote 1: Report to the United States Internal Revenue Department +by C.A. Crampton, Chemist of U.S. Internal Revenue; H.W. Wiley, Chief +Chemist of U.S. Department of Agriculture; and O.H. Tittmann, +Assistant in Charge of Weights and Measures, U.S. Coast and Geodetic +Survey.] + + +Section 1, paragraph 231, of the act entitled "An act to reduce +revenue and equalize duties on imports and for other purposes," +approved October 1, 1890, provides: + +"231. That on and after July 1, eighteen hundred and ninety-one, and +until July 1, nineteen hundred and five, there shall be paid, from any +moneys in the Treasury not otherwise appropriated, under the +provisions of section three thousand six hundred and eighty-nine of +the Revised Statutes, to the producer of sugar testing not less than +ninety degrees by the polariscope, from beets, sorghum, or sugar cane +grown within the United States, or from maple sap produced within the +United States, a bounty of two cents per pound; and upon such sugar +testing less than ninety degrees by the polariscope, and not less than +eighty degrees, a bounty of one and three-fourth cents per pound, +under such rules and regulations as the Commissioner of Internal +Revenue, with the approval of the Secretary of the Treasury, shall +prescribe." + +It is the opinion of this Commission that the expression "testing ... +degrees by the polariscope," used with reference to sugar in the act, +is to be considered as meaning the percentage of pure sucrose the +sugar contains, as ascertained by polarimetric estimation. + +It is evident that a high degree of accuracy is necessary in the +examination of sugars by the Bureau of Internal Revenue, under the +provisions of this act, inasmuch as the difference of one-tenth of one +per cent. in the amount of sucrose contained in a sugar may, if it is +on the border line of 80 deg., decide whether the producer is entitled to +a bounty of 13/4 cents per pound (an amount nearly equivalent to the +market value of such sugar) or to no bounty whatever. It is desirable, +therefore, that the highest possible degree of accuracy should be +secured in the work, for while many sugars will doubtless vary far +enough from either of the two standard percentages fixed upon in the +act, viz., 80 deg. and 90 deg., to admit of a wide margin of error without +material consequences, yet a considerable proportion will approximate +to them so closely that a difference of a few tenths of a degree in +the polarization will change the classification of the sugar. + +A very high degree of accuracy may be obtained in the optical +estimation of sugars, if the proper conditions are observed. Such +conditions are (1) accurately graded and adjusted instruments, +weights, flasks, tubes, etc.; (2) skilled and practiced observers; (3) +a proper arrangement of the laboratories in which the work is +performed; and (4) a close adherence to the most approved methods of +manipulation. + +On the other hand, if due observance is not paid to these conditions, +the sources of error are numerous, and inaccurate results inevitable. + +We will endeavor to point out in this report the best means of meeting +the proper conditions for obtaining the highest degree of accuracy +consistent with fairly rapid work. It would be manifestly impossible +to observe so great a refinement of accuracy in this work as would be +employed in exact scientific research. + +This would be unnecessary for the end in view, and impossible on +account of the amount of time that would be required. + + +I.--INSTRUMENTS AND APPARATUS. + +It is of the greatest importance that the polariscopes and all +apparatus used in the work shall be carefully and accurately adjusted +and graduated, and upon a single and uniform system of standardization. +Recent investigations of the polarimetric work done in the customs +branch of the Treasury Department have shown that a very considerable +part of the want of agreement in the results obtained at the different +ports was due to a lack of uniformity in the standardization of the +instruments and apparatus. + +_(a.) The Polariscope._--There are many different forms of this +instrument used. Some are adapted for use with ordinary white light, +and some with monochromatic light, such as sodium ray. They are +graduated and adjusted upon various standards, all more or less +arbitrary. Some, for example, have their scales based upon the +displacement of the polarized ray produced by a quartz plate of a +certain thickness; others upon the displacement produced by an +arbitrary quantity of pure sucrose, dissolved and made up to a certain +volume and polarized in a certain definite length of column. It would +be very desirable to have an absolute standard set for polariscopic +measurements, to which all instruments could be referred, and in the +terms of which all such work could be stated. This commission has +information that an investigation is now in progress under the +direction of the German imperial government, having for its end and +purpose the determination of such data as will serve for the +establishment of an absolute standard. When this is accomplished it +can easily be made a matter of international agreement, and all future +forms of instruments be based upon it. This commission would suggest +that the attention of the proper authorities should be called to the +desirability of official action by this government with a view to +co-operation with other countries for the adoption of international +standards for polarimetric work. Until this is done, however, it will +be necessary for the Internal Revenue Bureau to adopt, provisionally, +one of the best existing forms of polariscope, and by carefully +defining the scale of this instrument, establish a basis for its +polarimetric work which will be a close approximation to an absolute +standard, and upon which it can rely in case of any dispute arising as +to the results obtained by the officers of the bureau. + +For the instrument to be provisionally adopted by the Internal Revenue +Bureau, this commission would recommend the "half shadow" instrument +made by Franz Schmidt & Haensch, Berlin. This instrument is adapted +for use with white light illumination, from coal oil or gas lamps. It +is convenient and easy to read, requiring no delicate discrimination +of colors by the observer, and can be used even by a person who is +color blind. + +This form of instrument is adjusted to the Ventzke scale, which, for +the purposes of this report, is defined to be such that 1 deg. of the +scale is the one hundredth part of the rotation produced in the plane +of polarization of white light in a column 200 mm. long by a standard +solution of chemically pure sucrose at 17.5 deg. C. The standard solution +of sucrose in distilled water being such as to contain, at 17.5 deg. C. in +100 c.c., 26.048 grms. of sucrose. + +In this definition the weights and volumes are to be considered as +absolute, all weighings being referred to a vacuum. + +The definition should properly be supplemented with a statement of the +equivalent circular rotation in degrees, minutes, and seconds that +would be produced by the standard solution of sugar used to read 100 deg. +on the scale. This constant is now a matter of investigation, and it +is thought best not to give any of the hitherto accepted values. When +this is established, it is recommended that it be incorporated in a +revision of the regulations of the internal revenue relative to sugar, +in order to make still more definite and exact the official definition +of the Ventzke scale. + +The instruments should be adjusted by means of control quartz plates, +three different plates being used for complete adjustment, one reading +approximately 100 deg. on the scale, one 90 deg., and one 80 deg.. + +These control quartz plates should have their exact values ascertained +in terms of the Ventzke scale by the office of weights and measures by +comparison with the standard quartz plates in possession of that +office, in strict accordance with the foregoing definition, and should +also be accompanied by tables giving their values for temperatures +from 10 deg. to 35 deg.. + +_(b.) Weights._--The weights used should be of solid brass, and should +be standardized by the office of weights and measures. + +_(c.) Flask._--The flasks used should be of such a capacity as to +contain at 17.5 deg. C. 100.06 cubic centimeters, when filled in such a +manner that the lowest point of the meniscus of the surface of the +liquid just touches the graduation mark. The flasks will be +standardized to contain this volume in order that the results shall +conform to the scale recommended for adoption without numerical +reduction of the weighings to vacuo. They should be calibrated by the +office of weights and measures. + +_(d.) Tubes._--The tubes used should be of brass or glass, 200 and 100 +millimeters in length, and should be measured by the office of weights +and measures. + +_(e.) Balances._--The balances used should be sensitive to at least +one milligramme. + + +II.--SKILLED OBSERVERS. + +The commission recommends that the work of polarizing sugars be placed +in the hands of chemists, or at least of persons who are familiar with +the use of the polariscope and have some knowledge of the theory of +its construction and of chemical manipulations. To this end we would +suggest that applicants for positions where such work is to be done +should be obliged to undergo a competitive examination in order to +test their fitness for the work that is to be required of them. + + +III.--ARRANGEMENT OF LABORATORIES. + +The arrangement of the rooms in which polarizations are performed has +an important bearing upon the accuracy of the results obtained. + +Polariscopic observations are made more readily and accurately if the +eye of the observer is screened from diffused light; therefore, a +partial darkening of the room, which may be accomplished by means of +curtains or hangings, is an advantage. On the other hand, the +temperature at which the observation is made has a very considerable +influence upon the results obtained, so that the arrangements for +darkening the room must not be such as will interfere with its proper +ventilation. Otherwise the heat from the lamps used, if confined +within a small room, will cause considerable variations in the +temperature of the room from time to time. + +The proper conditions will best be met, in our opinion, by placing the +lamps either in a separate room from that in which the instruments +are, and perforating the wall or partition between the two rooms for +the light to reach the end of the instruments, or in a ventilated hood +with the walls perforated in a like manner. By lining the wall or +partition on both sides with asbestos paper, and inserting a plate of +plane glass in the aperture through which the light passes, the +increase of temperature from the radiation of the lamp will be still +further avoided. With the lamps separated from the instruments in this +manner, the space in which the instruments are contained is readily +darkened without much danger of its temperature being unduly raised. + +Some light, of course, is necessary for reading the scales, and if +artificial light is employed for this purpose, the sources chosen +should be such that as little heat as possible will be generated by +them. Small incandescent electric lights are best for such purpose. +Refinements of this kind cannot always be used, of course, but the +prime requisite with reference to the avoidance of temperature errors +is that all operations--filling the flasks and tubes, reading the +solutions, controlling the instrument with standard quartz plates, +etc.--should be done at one and the same temperature, and that this +temperature be a constant one, that is, not varying greatly at +different hours of the day. For example, the room should not be +allowed to become cold at night, so that it is at low temperature in +the morning when work is begun, and then rapidly heated up during the +day. The polariscope should not be exposed to the direct rays of the +sun during part of the day, and should not be near artificial sources +of heat, such as steam boilers, furnaces, flues, etc. + +The tables upon which the instruments stand should be level. + + +IV.--METHODS OF MANIPULATION. + +The methods of manipulation used in the polarization of sugar are of +prime importance. They consist in weighing out the sugar, dissolving +it, clarifying the solution, making it up to standard volume, +filtering, filling the observation tube, regulating the illumination, +and making the polariscopic reading. + +The proper conduct of these processes, in connection with the use of +accurately graduated apparatus, is the only surety against the +numerous sources of error which may be encountered. Different sugars +require different treatment in clarification, and much must +necessarily be left to the judgment and experience of the operator. + +The following directions are based upon various official procedures +such as the one used in the United States custom houses, the method +prescribed by the German government, etc. They embody also the result +of recent research in regard to sources of error in polarimetric +estimation of sugar: + + +DIRECTIONS FOR THE POLARIZATION OF SUGAR. + +1.--_Description of Instrument and Manner of Using._ + +The instrument employed is known as the half shadow apparatus of +Schmidt and Haensch. It is shown in the following cut. + +[Illustration] + +The tube N contains the illuminating system of lenses and is placed +next to the lamp; the polarizing prism is at O, and the analyzing +prism at H. The quartz wedge compensating system is contained in the +portions of the tube marked F, E, G, and is controlled by the milled +head M. The tube J carries a small telescope, through which the field +of the instrument is viewed, and just above is the reading tube K, +which is provided with a mirror and magnifying lens for reading the +scale. + +The tube containing the sugar solution is shown in position in the +trough between the two ends of the instrument. In using the instrument +the lamp is placed at a distance of at least 200 mm. from the end; the +observer seats himself at the opposite end in such a manner as to +bring his eye in line with the tube J. The telescope is moved in or +out until the proper focus is secured, so as to give a clearly defined +image, when the field of the instrument will appear as a round, +luminous disk, divided into two halves by a vertical line passing +through the center, and darker on one half of the disk than on the +other. If the observer, still looking through the telescope, will now +grasp the milled head M and rotate it, first one way and then the +other, he will find that the appearance of the field changes, and at a +certain point the dark half becomes light, and the light half dark. By +rotating the milled head delicately backward and forward over this +point he will be able to find the exact position of the quartz wedge +operated by it, in which the field is neutral, or of the same +intensity of light on both halves. + +[Illustration] + +The three different appearances presented by the field are best shown +in the above diagram. With the milled head set at the point which +gives the appearance of the middle disk as shown, the eye of the +observer is raised to the reading tube, K, and the position of the +scale is noted. It will be seen that the scale proper is attached to +the quartz wedge, which is moved by the milled head, and attached to +the other quartz wedge is a small scale called a vernier which is +fixed, and which serves for the exact determination of the movable +scale with reference to it. On each side of the zero line of the +vernier a space corresponding to nine divisions of the movable scale +is divided into ten equal parts. By this device the fractional part of +a degree indicated by the position of the zero line is ascertained in +tenths; it is only necessary to count from zero, until a line is found +which makes a continuous line with one on the movable scale. + +With the neutral field as indicated above, the zero of the movable +scale should correspond closely with the zero of the vernier unless +the zero point is out of adjustment. + +If the observer desires to secure an exact adjustment of the zero of +the scale, or in any case if the latter deviates more than one-half of +a degree, the zero lines are made to coincide by moving the milled +head and securing a neutral field at this point by means of the small +key which comes with the instrument, and which fits into a nipple on +the left hand side of F, the fixed quartz wedge of the compensating +system. This nipple must not be confounded with a similar nipple on +the right hand side of the analyzing prism, H, which it fits as well, +but which must never be touched, as the adjustment of the instrument +would be seriously disturbed by moving it. With the key on the proper +nipple it is turned one way or the other until the field is neutral. +Unless the deviation of the zero be greater than 0.5 deg., it will not be +necessary to use the key, but only to note the amount of the +deviation, and for this purpose the observer must not be content with +a single setting, but must perform the operation five or six times, +and take the mean of these different readings. If one or more of the +readings show a deviation of more than 0.3 deg. from the general average, +they should be rejected as incorrect. Between each observation the eye +should be allowed 10 to 20 seconds of rest. + +The "setting" of the zero having been performed as above, the +determination of the accurate adjustment of the instrument by means of +the "control" quartz plates is proceeded with. Three such plates will +be furnished with each polariscope, which have "sugar values" +respectively approximating 80 deg., 90 deg., and 100 deg.. These values may vary +with the temperature, and tables are furnished with them which give +their exact value at different temperatures, from 10 deg. to 35 deg. C. + +One of these plates is placed in the instrument, and the field +observed; it will be seen that the uniform appearance of the field is +changed. The milled head is turned to the right until the exact point +of neutrality is re-established, just as described above in setting +the zero. The scale is read, the observation repeated, the reading +taken again, and so on until five or six readings have been made. The +average is taken, readings being rejected which show a divergence of +more than 0.3, and the result corrected for the deviation of the zero +point, if any was found, the deviation being added if it was to the +left, and subtracted if to the right. If the adjustment of the +instrument be correct, the result should be the value of the control +plate used, as ascertained from the table, for the temperature of 20 deg.. +Each of the three plates is read in the instrument in this way. A +variation of 0.3 from the established values may be allowed for errors +of observation, temperature, etc., but in the hands of a careful +observer a deviation greater than this with one of the three plates, +after a careful setting of the zero, shows that the instrument is not +accurately adjusted. + +The complete verification of the accurate adjustment of the +polariscope by means of three control plates, as given above, should +be employed whenever it is set up for the first time by the officer +using it, whenever it has sustained any serious shock or injury, and +whenever it has been transported from one place to another. It should +also be done at least once a week while the instrument is in active +use. + +After the complete verification has been performed as described, +further checking of the instrument is done by means of one control +plate alone, the one approximating 90 deg., and the setting of the zero +point is dispensed with, the indication of the scale for sugar +solutions being corrected by the amount of deviation shown in the +reading of the 90 deg. control plate from its established value as +ascertained from the table, at the temperature of the room. + +For example: A sugar solution polarizes 80.5; the control plate just +before had given a polarization of 91.4, the temperature of the room +during both observations being 25 deg. C. According to the table the value +of the control plate at 25 deg. C. is 91.7; the reading is, therefore, 0.3 +too low, and 0.3 is added to the reading of the sugar solution, making +the corrected result 80.8. The temperature of the room should be +ascertained from a standardized thermometer placed close to the +instrument and in such a position as to be subject to the same +conditions. + + +PREPARATION OF THE SUGAR SOLUTION FOR POLARIZATION. + +If the sample is not entirely uniform it must be thoroughly mixed +before weighing out, after all the lumps are broken up, best with a +mortar and pestle. Then 26.048 grammes are weighed out on the balance +in the tared German silver dish furnished for this purpose. Care must +be taken that the operations of mixing and weighing out are not unduly +prolonged, otherwise the sample may easily suffer considerable loss of +moisture, especially in a warm room. The portion of sugar weighed out +is washed by means of a jet from a wash bottle into a 100 c.c. flask, +the dish being well rinsed three or four times and the rinsings added +to the contents of the flask. The water used must be either distilled +water or clear water which has been found to have no optical activity. +After the dish has been thoroughly rinsed, enough water is added to +bring the contents of the flask to about 80 c.c. and it is gently +rotated until all the sugar has dissolved. The flask should be held by +the neck with the thumb and finger, and the bulb not handled during +this operation. Care must be taken that no particle of the sugar or +solution is lost. To determine if all the sugar is dissolved, the +flask is held above the level of the eye, in which position any +undissolved crystals can be easily seen at the bottom. The character +of the solution is now observed. If it be colorless or of a very light +straw color, and not opalescent, so that it will give a clear +transparent liquid on filtration through paper, the volume is made up +directly with water to the 100 c.c. mark on the flask. Most sugar +solutions, however, will require the addition of a clarifying or +decolorizing agent in order to render them sufficiently clear and +colorless to polarize. In such case, before making up to the mark, a +saturated solution of subacetate of lead is added. + +The quantity of this agent required will vary according to the quality +of the sugar; for sugar which has been grained in the strike pan and +washed in the centrifugals, from 3 to 15 drops will be required; for +sugar grained in the strike pan but not well washed in the +centrifugals, that is, sugar intended for refining purposes, from 15 +to 30 drops will be required; for sugar not grained in the strike pan, +that is, "wagon" or "string sugar," "second sugar," etc., from 1 to 3 +c.c. will be required. After adding the solution of subacetate of lead +the flask must be gently shaken, so as to mix it with the sugar +solution. If the proper amount has been added, the precipitate will +usually subside rapidly, but if not, the operator may judge of the +completeness of the precipitation by holding the flask above the level +of the eye and allowing an additional drop of subacetate of lead to +flow down the side of the flask into the solution; if this drop leaves +a clear track along the glass through the solution it indicates that +the precipitation is complete; if, on the other hand, all traces of +the drop are lost on entering the solution, it indicates that an +additional small quantity of the subacetate of lead is required. The +operator must learn by experience the point where the addition should +cease; a decided excess of subacetate of lead solution should never be +used. + +The use of subacetate of lead should, in all cases, be followed by the +addition of "alumina cream" (aluminic hydrate suspended in water)[2] +in about double the volume of the subacetate solution used, for the +purpose of completing the clarification, precipitating excess of lead, +and facilitating filtration. In many cases of high grade sugars, +especially beet sugars, the use of alumina alone will be sufficient +for clarification without the previous addition of subacetate of lead. + + [Footnote 2: Prepared as follows: Shake up powdered commercial + alum with water at ordinary temperature until a saturated + solution is obtained. Set aside a little of the solution, and to + the residue add ammonia, little by little, stirring between + additions, until the mixture is alkaline to litmus paper. Then + drop in additions of the portion left aside, until the mixture + is just acid to litmus paper. By this procedure a cream of + aluminum hydroxide is obtained suspended in a solution of + ammonium sulphate, the presence of which is not at all + detrimental for sugar work when added after subacetate of lead, + the ammonium sulphate precipitating whatever excess of lead may + be present.] + +The solution is now made up to the mark by the addition of distilled +water in the following manner. The flask, grasped by the neck between +the thumb and finger, is held before the operator in an upright +position, so that the mark is at the level of the eye, and distilled +water is added drop by drop from a siphon bottle or wash bottle, until +the lowest point of the curve or meniscus formed by the surface of the +liquid just touches the mark. If bubbles hinder the operation, they +may be broken up by adding a single drop of ether, or a spray from an +ether atomizer, before making up to the mark. The mouth of the flask +is now tightly closed with the thumb, and the contents of the flask +are thoroughly mixed by turning and shaking. The entire solution is +now poured upon the filter, using for this purpose a funnel large +enough to contain all the 100 c.c. at once, and a watch glass is +placed over the funnel during filtration to prevent a concentration of +the solution by evaporation. + +The funnel and vessel used to receive the filtrate must be perfectly +dry. The first portion of the filtrate, about 20 to 30 c.c., should be +rejected entirely, as its concentration may be affected by a previous +hygroscopic moisture content of the filter paper. It may also be +necessary to return subsequent portions to the filter until the liquid +passes through perfectly clear. + +If a satisfactory clarification has not been obtained, the entire +operation must be repeated, since only with solutions that are +entirely clear and bright can accurate polarimetric observations be +made. + +When a sufficient quantity of the clear liquid has passed through the +filter, the 200 mm. observation tube is filled with it. The 100 mm. +tube should never be used except in rare cases, when notwithstanding +all the means used to effect the proper decolorization of the +solution, it is still too dark to polarize in the 200 mm. tube. In +such cases the shorter tube may be used, and its reading multiplied by +two. The zero deviation must then be determined and applied to the +product. This will give the reading which would have been obtained if +a 200 mm. tube could have been used, and it only remains to apply the +correction determined by the use of the control plate as previously +described. + +Example: + + Solution reads in 100 mm. tube 47.0 + Multiplied by 2 2.0 + ---- + Product 94.0 + Zero reads plus 0.3 0.3 + ---- + Solution would read in 200 mm. tube 93.7 + + Reading of control plate 90.4 + Sugar value of control plate 90.5 + ---- + Instrument too low by 0.1 + Add 0.1 to 93.7 + ---- + Correct polarization of solution 93.8 + +Before filling the tube it must either be thoroughly dried by pushing +a plug of filter paper through it, or it must be rinsed several times +with the solution itself. The cover glasses must also be clean and +dry, and without serious defects or scratches. Unnecessary warming of +the tube by the hand during filling should be avoided; it is closed at +one end with the screw cap and cover glass, and grasped by the other +end with the thumb and finger. The solution is poured into it until +its curved surface projects slightly above the opening, the air +bubbles allowed time to rise, and the cover glass pushed horizontally +over the end of the tube in such a manner that the excess of liquid is +carried over the side, leaving the cover glass exactly closing the +tube with no air bubbles beneath it, and with no portion of the liquid +upon its upper surface. If this result is not attained, the operation +must be repeated, the cover glass being rubbed clean and dry, and the +solution again brought up over the end by adding a few more drops. The +cover glass being in position, the tube is closed by screwing on the +cap. The greatest care must be observed in screwing down the caps that +they do not press too tightly upon the cover glasses; by such pressure +the glasses themselves may become optically active, and cause +erroneous readings when placed in the instrument. It should therefore +be ascertained that the rubber washers are in position over the cover +glasses, and the caps should be screwed on lightly. It must also be +remembered that a cover glass, once compressed, may part with its +acquired optical activity very slowly, and some time must be allowed +to elapse before it is used again. + +The polariscopic reading may now be taken, an observation on the 90 deg. +control plate having been made immediately before as previously +described. Then without altering the position of the instrument +relative to the light, or changing the character of the latter in any +way, the tube filled with the sugar solution is substituted for the +control plate. The telescope is adjusted, if necessary, so as to give +a sharply defined field, which must appear round and clear. (This +condition must be fulfilled before the observation is performed, as it +is essential to accuracy.) The milled head is turned until the neutral +point is found, and the reading is taken exactly as previously +described, the operation repeated five or six times, the average taken +with the rejection of aberrant readings, the average figure corrected +for the deviation shown by the control observation from the sugar +value of the control plate at the temperature of observation as given +in the table, and the result taken as the polarization of the sugar. +When a series of successive polarizations is made under the same +conditions as regards temperature, position of the instrument with +relation to the high intensity, of the light, etc., the control +observation need not be made before each polarization, one such +observation being sufficient for the entire series. The control must +be repeated at least once an hour, however, and oftener when the +operator has reason to think that any of the factors indicated above +have been altered, for any such alteration of conditions may change +the zero point of the instrument. + +In the polarization of the quartz plates, as also in the polarization +of very white sugars, difficulty may be experienced in obtaining a +complete correspondence of both halves of the field. With a little +practice this may be overcome and the neutral point found, but when it +cannot, the ordinary telescope of the instrument may be replaced by +another, which is furnished with the polariscope and which carries a +yellow plate. This removes the difficulty and renders it possible, +even for one not well accustomed to the instrument, to set it at the +exact point of neutrality. + + +SUMMARIZED SOURCES OF ERROR. + +The following principal sources of error must be especially guarded +against: + +1. Drying out of sample during weighing. + +2. Excess of subacetate of lead solution in clarification. + +3. Incomplete mixing of solution after making up to mark. + +4. Imperfect clarification or filtration. + +5. Concentration of solution by evaporation during filtration. + +6. Undue compression of the cover glass. + +7. Alteration of the temperature of room, position of instrument, or +intensity of light while the observation or control observation is +being performed. + +8. Performances of polarization with a cloudy, dim, or not completely +round or sharply defined field. + +In closing this report the members of this commission hereby signify +their intention to promote uniformity and accuracy by adopting and +using the standards and general plan of procedure recommended in this +report in the polarimetric determinations over which, in their +respective branches of government work, they have control. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE GRAND FALLS OF LABRADOR. + + +Hamilton Inlet, or Ionektoke, as the Esquimaus call it, is the outlet +to the largest river on the Labrador Peninsula, and of great +importance to commerce, Rigolet, the headquarters of the Hudson Bay +Company in this region, being situated on its shores. This inlet is +the great waterway to Central Labrador, extending into the interior +for nearly 200 miles. + +This immense basin is undoubtedly of glacial origin, evidences of ice +erosion being plainly seen. It is divided into two general basins, +connected by the "narrows," a small strait, through which the water +rushes with frightful rapidity at each tide. Into the head of the +inlet flows the Hamilton, or Grand River, an exploration of which, +though attended with the greatest danger and privation, has enticed +many men to these barren shores. Perhaps the most successful +expedition thus far was that of Mr. Holme, an Englishman, who, in the +summer of 1888, went as far as Lake Waminikapon, where, by failure of +his provisions, he was obliged to turn back, leaving the main object +of the trip, the discovery of the Grand Falls, wholly unaccomplished. + +It has been left for Bowdoin College to accomplish the work left +undone by Mr. Holme, to do honor to herself and her country by not +only discovering, measuring, and photographing the falls, but making +known the general features of the inland plateau, the geological +structure of the continent, and the course of the river. + +On Sunday, July 26, a party of the Bowdoin expedition, consisting of +Messrs. Cary, Cole, Young, and Smith, equipped with two Rushton boats +and a complement of provisions and instruments, left the schooner at +the head of the inlet for a five weeks' trip into the interior, the +ultimate object being the discovery of the Grand Falls. The mouth of +the river, which is about one mile wide, is blockaded by immense sand +bars, which have been laid down gradually by the erosive power of the +river. These bars extend far out into Goose Bay, at the head of Lake +Melville, and it is impossible to approach the shores except in a +small boat. Twenty-five miles up the river are the first falls, a +descent of the water of twenty-five feet, forming a beautiful sight. +Here a cache of provisions was made, large enough to carry the party +back to the appointed meeting place at Northwest River. The carry +around the first falls is about one and a half miles in length, and +very difficult on account of the steep sides of the river. + +From the first falls to Gull Island Lake, forty miles above, the river +is alternately quick and dead water. Part of it is very heavy rapids, +over which it was necessary to track, and in some places to double the +crews. Each boat had a tow line of fifty feet, and in tracking the end +was taken ashore by one of the crew of two, while the boat was kept +off the bank by the other man with an oar. At the Horseshoe Rapids, +ten miles above Gull Island Lake, an accident happened which +threatened to put a stop to further progress of the expedition. While +tracking around a steep point in crossing these rapids the boat which +Messrs. Cary and Smith were tracking was overturned, dumping +barometer, shotgun, and ax into the river, together with nearly +one-half the total amount of provisions. In the swift water of the +rapids all these things were irrevocably lost, a very serious loss at +this stage in the expedition. On this day so great was the force of +the water that only one mile was made, and that only with the greatest +difficulty. + +Just above the mouth of the Nimpa River, which enters the Grand River +twenty-five miles above Gull Island Lake, a second cache of provisions +was made, holding enough to carry the party to their first cache at +the first falls. One of the boats was now found to be leaking badly, +and a stop was made to pitch the cracks and repair her, making +necessary the loss of a few hours. From Nimpa River to the Mouni +Rapids, at the entrance to Lake Waminikapon, the water was found to be +fairly smooth, and good progress was made. The change in the scenery, +too, is noticeable, becoming more magnificent and grand. The +mountains, which are bolder and more barren, approach much nearer to +each other on each side of the river, and at the base of these grim +sentinels the river flows silvery and silently. The Mouni Rapids, +through which the water passes from Lake Waminikapon, presented the +next obstacle to further progress, but the swift water here was soon +passed, and well repaid the traveler with the sight here presented +almost unexpectedly to his view. + +The lake was entered about 4 o'clock in the afternoon, and, as the +narrow entrance was passed, the sun poured its full rich light on +rocky mountains stretching as far away as the eye could reach, on each +side of the lake, and terminating in rocky cliffs from 600 to 800 feet +in perpendicular height, which formed the shores or confines of the +lake. Across Lake Waminikapon, which is, more properly speaking, not a +lake at all, but rather a widening of the river bed, the progress was +very good, the water having no motion to retard the boats, and forty +miles were made during the day. + +Here a misfortune, which had been threatening for several days, came +upon the party. Mr. Young's arm was so swollen, from the shoulder to +finger tips, that he could scarcely move it, the pain being excessive. +It had been brought on doubtless by cold and exposure. Seeing that he +could be of no further use to the party, it was decided to divide +forces, Mr. Smith returning with the sick man to Rigolet for medical +assistance. The separation took place August 8, when the party had +been on the river eleven days. The party were very sorry to return at +this point, since from the best information which they could get in +regard to the distance, the falls were but fifty miles above them. +Under the circumstances, however, there was no help for it. So Smith +and Young, bidding their friends good fortune, started on their return +trip. The mouth of the river was reached in three days, a little less +than one-third the time consumed in going up, and that, too, with only +one man to handle the boat. + +On the way down the river another party, composed of Messrs. Bryant +and Kenaston of Philadelphia, was met, who were on the same business +as the Bowdoin party, the discovery of the falls. Mr. Bryant handed to +Mr. Young a twenty-five pound can of flour, which, he said, he had +found in the whirlpool below the first falls. It had been in the boat +which was overturned in the Horseshoe Rapids, and had made the journey +to the first falls, a distance of over fifty miles, without denting or +injuring the can in any way. It was a great relief to the Bryant party +to learn the cause of the mishap, as they had feared a more serious +calamity. + +After the departure of the other two, Messrs. Cary and Cole +encountered much rapid water, so that their progress was necessarily +slow. On the third day, when they had proceeded sixty-five miles above +Lake Waminikapon, and had seen no indications of any falls, the +rapidity of the current forced them to leave the river and make any +further progress on foot. The boat was cached at this point, together +with all that was left of provisions and instruments except the +compass and food for six days. They left just enough provisions to +carry them to their last cache at Ninipi River, and hoped, by careful +use of the remainder, to find the object of their search. If they had +not enough provisions, then they must turn back, leaving reports of +falls as destitute of confirmation as ever. + +The land bordering the river at this point was heavily wooded, and in +places where the river shore could not be followed on account of the +cliffs, their progress was necessarily slow. Finding an elevation of +land at no great distance from them, they ascended it for a general +survey of the country. Far away in the distance could be seen the +current of the Grand River flowing sluggishly but majestically on its +course to the sea. Lakes on all sides were visible, most of them +probably of glacial origin. Descending from this mountain, which the +explorers christened Mount Bowdoin, a course was laid on the river +bank, where camp was made that night. Being now somewhat weak from +hard labor and insufficient food, their progress was slow through the +thick wood, but on the next night camp was made on the edge of the +plateau or table land of Labrador. + +After proceeding a short distance on the next day, Aug. 13, a loud +roar was heard in the distance, and a course was laid for the river at +the nearest point. The river at this point, about one mile above the +falls, was 500 yards wide, narrowing to fifty yards a short distance +below, where great clouds of spray floating in the air warned the +weary travelers that their object had been attained. Quickly they +proceeded to the scene, and a magnificent sight burst upon their view. + +Grand Falls, though not approaching the incredible height attributed +to it by legendary accounts of the Indians, is a grand fall of water. +Its total descent is accomplished in a series of falls aggregating +nearly 500 feet. The greatest perpendicular descent is not over 200 +feet. The half dozen falls between this grand descent and the bed of +the river on the plateau vary from ten to twenty-five feet, adding to +the majesty and grandeur of the scene. It was with great difficulty +that the bottom of the falls was reached and a photograph of the scene +taken. + +After leaving the plateau and plunging over the falls, the waters +enter an immense canon or gorge, nearly 40 miles long and 300 yards +wide, the perpendicular sides of which rise to a height of from 300 to +500 feet. The sides of this canon show it to be hollowed out of solid +Archaean rock. Through this canon the water rushes with terrific +rapidity, making passage by boat wholly impossible. Many erroneous +stories have been told in regard to the height of these falls, all of +them greatly exaggerating the descent of the water. The Indians of +this locality of the tribe of the Nascopee or the race of Crees have +long believed the falls to be haunted by an evil spirit, who punished +with death any one who might dare to look upon them. The height of +land or plateau which constitutes the interior of the Labrador +peninsula is from 2,000 to 2,500 feet above the sea level, fairly +heavily wooded with spruce, fir, hackmatack, and birch, and not at all +the desolate waste it has been pictured by many writers. The +barrenness of Labrador is confined to the coast, and one cannot enter +the interior in any direction without being struck by the latent +possibilities of the peninsula were it not for the abundance of flies +and mosquitoes. Their greed is insatiable, and at times the two men +were weakened from the loss of blood occasioned by these insects. + +The object of the expedition being attained, the return trip was +begun, and the sight of the cached boat and provisions eagerly watched +for. On Aug. 15 the camp was sighted, but to their horror they saw +smoke issuing from the spot. It at once flashed upon their minds what +had taken place, and when they arrived they found that their fears had +been all too truly realized. Charred remains of the boat, a burned +octant, and a few unexploded cartridges were all that remained of the +meager outfit upon which they depended to take them to the mouth of +the river, a distance of over 250 miles. The camp fire, not having +been completely extinguished, had burned the boat and destroyed all +their provisions. + +It was truly a hard outlook for them, but no time must be lost if +provisions were to be obtained. Hastily a raft was constructed, the +logs being bound together with spruce roots. In this way, by +alternately walking and rafting, the mouth of the river was reached +Aug. 29. On the way down the river five rafts had been made and +abandoned. The only weapon was a small pocket revolver, and with the +products of this weapon, mostly red squirrels and a few fish, they +lived until they reached the different caches. Many a meal was made of +one red squirrel divided between them, and upon such food they were +compelled to make the best time possible. On the way up the river the +shoes of one of the party had given wholly out, and he was obliged to +make a rude pair of slippers from the back of a leather pack. With +torn clothes and hungry bodies they presented a hard sight indeed when +they joined their friends at Rigolet on the 1st of September. The +party composed of Messrs. Bryant and Kenaston was passed by Cary and +Cole while on the way down, but was not seen. Probably this occurred +on Lake Waminikapon, the width of the lake preventing one party from +seeing the other. It seemed a waste of time and energy that two +expeditions in the same summer should be sent upon the same object, +but neither party knew of the intention of the other until it was too +late to turn back. + +Grand River has long been a highway for the dependents of the Hudson +Bay Company. The company formerly had a post on Lake Waminikapon, and +another, called Height of Land, on the plateau. Provisions were +carried to these posts, and furs brought from them by way of Grand +River, the parties proceeding as far as the lake, and then, leaving +Grand River some distance below the canon, no longer being able to +follow it on account of the swiftness of the water, they carried their +canoes across the land to a chain of lakes connecting with the post. +This station has been given up many years, and the river is used now +chiefly be Indians and hunters in the winter. + +It has long been known that Hamilton Inlet was of glacial origin, the +immense basin hollowed out by this erosive agent being 150 miles in +length. How much further this immense valley extended has never been +known. Mr. Cary says that the same basin which forms Hamilton Inlet +and enters Lake Melville, the two being connected by twelve miles of +narrows, extends up the Grand River Valley as far as Gull Island Lake, +the whole forming one grand glacial record. From Lake Melville to Gull +Island the bed was being gradually filled in by the deposits of the +river, but the contour of the basin is the same here as below. The bed +of the country here is Archaean rock, and many beautiful specimens of +labradorite dot the shores. In the distance the grim peaks of the +Mealy Mountains stand out in bold relief against the sky. + +The country about this interior basin is heavily wooded, and spars of +75 feet can be obtained in generous numbers. Were it not for the +native inhabitants, mosquitoes, and flies, the interior would present +conditions charming enough to tempt any lover of nature. It is the +abundance of these invincible foes which make interior life a burden +and almost an impossibility. To these inhabitants alone Grand Falls +has ceased to chant its melodious tune. Hereafter its melodious ripple +will be heard by Bowdoin College, which, in the name of its explorers, +Cary and Cole, claims the honor of its discovery.--_New York Times_. + + * * * * * + + + + +ANTS. + +By RUTH WARD KAHN. + + +Astronomy has made us all familiar with the conception of the world +over our heads. We no longer speculate with Epicurus and Anaxagoras +whether the sun may be as large as a quoit, or even as large as +Peloponnesus. We are satisfied that the greater and the lesser lights +are worlds, some of them greatly exceeding our own in magnitude. + +In a little poem of Dante Rossetti's, he describes a mood of violent +grief in which, sitting with his head bowed between his knees, he +unconsciously eyes the wood spurge growing at his feet, till from +those terrible moments he carries away the one trivial fact cut into +his brain for all time, that "the wood spurge has a cup of three." In +some such mood of troubled thought, flung perhaps full length on the +turf, have we not as unconsciously and intently watched a little ant, +trudging across our prostrate form, intent upon its glorious polity: a +creature to which we, with our great spiritual world of thought and +emotion and will, have no existence except as a sudden and +inconvenient upheaval of parti-colored earth to be scaled, of unknown +geological formation, but wholly worthless as having no bearing upon +the one great end of their life--the care of larvae. + +If we hold with Mr. Wallace that the chief difference between man and +the lower animals is that of kind and not of degree--that man is +possessed of an intelligent will that appoints its own ends, of a +conscience that imposes upon him a "categorical imperative," of +spiritual faculties that apprehend and worship the invisible--yet we +must admit that his lower animal nature, which forms, as it, were, the +platform of the spiritual, is built up of lower organisms. + +If we hold with Professor Allman that thought, will, and conscience, +though only manifesting themselves through the medium of cerebral +protoplasm, are not its properties any more than the invisible earth +elements which lie beyond the violet are the property of the medium +which, by altering their refrangibility, makes them its own--then the +study of the exact nature and properties of the transmitting medium is +equally necessary. Indeed, the whole position can only be finally +established of defining experimentally the necessary limitation of the +medium, and proving the inefficiency of the lower data to account with +the higher. + +It is these considerations of the wider issues that give such a +peculiar interest to the patient observations which have recently been +brought to bear upon the habits of the social insects, especially of +ants, which, living in communities, present so many of the conditions +of human life, and the development of the "tribal self" from these +conditions, to which Professor Clifford attributed the genesis of +moral sense. + +In order to pass in review these interesting observations and bring +out their significance, I must go over ground which is doubtless +familiar to most of my readers. + +The winged ants, which often excite surprise, are simply the virgin +queens and the males. They are entirely dependent upon the workers, +and are reared in the same nest. September is the month usually +selected as the marriage season, and in the early twilight of a warm +day the air will be dark with the winged lovers. After the wedding +trip the female tears off her wings--partly by pulling, but mostly by +contortions of her body--for her life under ground would render wings +not only unnecessary, but cumbersome; while the male is not exposed to +the danger of being eaten by his cannibal spouse, as among spiders, +nor to be set upon and assassinated by infuriated spinsters, as among +bees, but drags out a precarious existence for a few days, and then +either dies or is devoured by insectivorous insects. There is reason +to believe that some females are fertilized before leaving the nest. I +have observed flights of the common _Formica rufa_, in which the +females flew away solitary and to great distances before they +descended. In such cases it is certain that they were fertilized +before their flight. + +When a fertilized queen starts a colony it proceeds much in this way: +When a shaft has been sunk deep enough to insure safety, or a +sheltered position secured underneath the trunk of a tree or a stone, +the queen in due time deposits her first eggs, which are carefully +reared and nourished. The first brood consists wholly of workers, and +numbers between twenty-five and forty in some species, but is smaller +in others. The mother ant seeks food for herself and her young till +the initial brood are matured, when they take up the burden of life, +supply the rapidly increasing family with food, as well as the mother +ant, enlarge the quarters, share in the necessary duties, and, in +short, become the _real_ workers of the nest before they are scarcely +out of the shell. The mother ant is seldom allowed to peer beyond her +dark quarters, and then only in company with her body guard. She is +fed and cared for by the workers, and she in turn assists them in the +rearing of the young, and has even been known to give her strength for +the extension of the formicary grounds. Several queens often exist in +one nest, and I have seen workers drag newly fertilized queens into a +formicary to enlarge their resources. As needs be, the quantity of +eggs laid is very great, for the loss of life in the ranks of the +workers is very large; few survive the season of their hatching, +although queens have been known to live eight years. (Lubbock.) + +The ant life has four well marked periods: First, the egg; second, the +grub or larva; third, the chrysalis or pupa; fourth, the imago, or +perfect insect. The eggs are small, ovate, yellowish white objects, +which hatch in about fifteen to thirty days. The larvae are small +legless grubs, quite large at the apex of the abdomen and tapering +toward the head. Both eggs and pupa are incessantly watched and +tended, licked and fed, and carried to a place of safety in time of +danger. The larvae are ingeniously sorted as regards age and size, and +are never mixed. The larvae period generally extends through a month, +although often much longer, and in most species when the larvae pass +into pupae they spin a cocoon of white or straw color, looking much +like a shining pebble. Other larvae do not spin a cocoon, but spend the +pupal state naked. When they mature they are carefully assisted from +their shells by the workers, which also assist in unfolding and +smoothing out the legs. The whole life of the formicary centers upon +the young, which proves they have reached a degree of civilization +unknown even in some forms of higher life. + +It is curious that, notwithstanding the labor of so many excellent +observers, and though ants swarm in every field and wood, we should +find so much difficulty in the history of these insects, and that so +much obscurity should rest upon some of their habits. Forel and +Ebrard, after repeated observations, maintain that in no single +instance has an isolated female been known to bring her young to +maturity. This is in direct contradiction to Lubbock's theory, who +repeatedly tried introducing a new fertile queen into another nest of +_Lasius flavus_, and always with the result that the workers became +very excited and killed her, even though in one case the nest was +without a queen. Of the other kinds, he isolated two pairs of _Myrmica +ruginodis_, and, though the males died, the queens lived and brought +their offspring to perfection; and nearly a year after their +captivity, Sir John Lubbock watched the first young workers carrying +the larvae about, thereby proving the accuracy of Huber's statement, +with some species at least. In spite of this convincing testimony, +Lepeletier St. Fargeau is of the opinion that the nests originate with +a solitary queen, as was first given. + +The ants indigenous to Leadville, besides feeding on small flies, +insects, and caterpillars--the carcasses of which they may be seen +dragging to their nests--show the greatest avidity for sweet liquids. +They are capable of absorbing large quantities, which they disgorge +into the mouths of their companions. In winter time, when the ants are +nearly torpid and do not require much nourishment, two or three ants +told off as foragers are sufficient to provide for the whole nest. We +all know how ants keep their herds in the shape of aphides, or ant +cows, which supply them with the sweet liquid they exude. I have often +observed an ant gently stroking the back of an aphide with its antennae +to coax it to give down its sweet fluid, much in the same way as a +dairy maid would induce a cow to give down its milk by a gentle +manipulation of its udders. Some species, principally the masons and +miners, remove their aphides to plants in the immediate vicinity of +their nest, or even introduce them into the ant home. In the interior +of most nests is also found the small blind beetle (_Claviger_) +glistening, and of a uniform red, its mouth of so singular a +conformation that it is incapable of feeding itself. The ants +carefully feed these poor dependent creatures, and in turn lick the +sweet liquid which they secrete and exude. These little _Coleoptera_ +are only found in the nests of some species; when introduced into the +nests of others they excite great bewilderment, and, after having been +carefully turned over and examined, are killed in a short time as a +useless commodity. Another active species of _Coleoptera_, of the +family _Staphylini_, is also found in ant nests. I have discovered one +in the nest of _Formica rufa_ in the Jewish cemetery in Leadville. +Furnished with wings, it does not remain in the nest, but is forced to +return thither by the strange incapacity to feed itself. Like the +_Claviger_, it repays its kind nurses by the sweet liquid it exudes, +and which is retained by a tuft of hair on either side of the abdomen +beneath the wings, which the creature lifts in order that the ant may +get at its honeyed recompense. Such mutual services between creatures +in no way allied is a most curious fact in the animal world.--_Popular +Science News._ + + * * * * * + + + + +A GEM-BEARING GRANITE VEIN IN WESTERN CONNECTICUT. + +By L.P. GRATACAP. + + +In the county of Litchfield, Conn., in the midst of some of the most +attractive hill country of that region, a very striking mineral +fissure has been opened by Mr. S.L. Wilson, which, in both its +scientific and commercial aspects, is equally important and +interesting. It is a broad crevice, widened at the point of excavation +into something like a pocket and filled, between its inclosing walls +of gneiss, with a granitic mass whose elements have crystallized +separately, so that an almost complete mineralogical separation has +been effected of quartz, mica, and feldspar, while associated +aggregates, as beryl and garnet, have formed under conditions that +make them valuable gem fabrics. + +The vein has a strike south of west and north of east and a distinct +dip northwest, by which it is brought below the gneiss rock, which +forms an overhanging wall, on the northerly side of the granitic mass, +while on the southerly edge the same gneiss rock makes an almost +vertical foot wall, and exhibits a sharp surface of demarkation and +contact. The rock has been worked as an open cut through short lateral +"plunges," or tunnels have been used for purposes of exploration in +the upper part of its extent. Its greatest width appears to be +fifty-one feet, and the present exposure of its length three hundred. +It undergoes compression at its upper end, and its complete extinction +upon the surface of the country at that point seems probable. At its +lower end at the foot of the slope wherein the whole mass appears, it +reveals considerable development, and affords further opportunities +for examination, and, possibly, profitable investment. It has been +formed by a powerful thrust coincident with the crumpling of the +entire region, whereby deeply seated beds have become liquefied, and +the magma either forced outward through a longitudinal vent or brought +to the surface by a process of progressive fusion as the heated +complex rose through superincumbent strata dissipated by its entrance +and contributing their substance to its contents. The present exposure +of the vein has been produced by denudation, as the coarsely +crystalline and dismembered condition of the granite, with its large +individuals of garnet and beryl, and the dense, glassy texture of the +latter, indicate a process of slow cooling and complete separation, +and for this result the congealing magma must necessarily have been +sealed in by strata through which its heat was disseminated slowly. + +For upon the most cursory inspection of the vein, the eye is arrested +at once by the large masses of crystalline orthoclase, the heavy beds +of a gray, brecciated quartz and the zones and columns of large leaved +mica. It was to secure the latter that Mr. Wilson first exploited this +locality, and only latterly have the more precious contents of the +vein imparted to it a new and more significant character. The mica, +called by Mr. Atwood, the superintendent of the work, "book mica," +occurs in thick crystals, ranged heterogeneously together in stringers +and "chimneys," and brilliantly reflecting the sunlight from their +diversely commingled laminae. This mica yields stove sheets of about +two to three by four or five inches, and is of an excellent, +transparent quality. It seems to be a true muscovite, and is seldom +marred by magnetic markings or crystalline inclusions that would +interfere with its industrial use. Seams of decomposition occur, and a +yellowish scaly product, composed of hydrated mica flakes, fills them. +The mica does not everywhere present this coarsely crystalline +appearance, but in flexures and lines of union with the quartz and +orthoclase is degraded to a mica schist upon whose surfaces appear +uranates of lime and copper (autunite and torbernite), and in which +are inclosed garnet crystals of considerable size and beauty. The +enormous masses of clean feldspar made partially "graphic" by quartz +inclosures are a conspicuous feature of the mine. In one part of the +mine, wooden props support an overhanging ledge almost entirely +composed of feldspar, which underneath passes into the gray brecciated +quartz, which again grades into a white, more compact quartz rock. It +is in this gray brecciated quartz that the beryls are found. These +beautiful stones vary extremely in quality and color. Many of the +large crystals are opaque, extensively fractured, and irregular in +grain, but are found to inclose, especially at their centers, cores of +gem-making material. + +The colors of the beryls grade from an almost colorless mineral +(goshenite) though faintly green, with blue reflections, yellowish +green of a peculiar oily liquidity (davidsonite), to honey yellows +which form the so-called "golden beryls" of the trade, and which have +a considerable value. These stones have a hardness of 8, and when cut +display much brilliancy. Many assume the true aquamarine tints, and +others seem to be almost identical with the "Diamond of the Rhine," +which as early as the end of the fifteenth century was used as a +"fraudulent substitute for the true diamond" (King). Few, very few, +belong to the blue grades, and the best of these cannot compare with +those from Royalston, Mass. Those of amber and honey shades are +beautiful objects, and under artificial light have a fascination far +exceeding the olivine or chrysoberyl. These are not as frequent as the +paler varieties, but when found excite the admiration of visitor and +expert. It seems hardly probable that any true emeralds will be +uncovered and the yellow beryls may not increase in number. Their use +in the arts will be improved by combining them with other stones and +by preparing the larger specimens for single stone rings. + +Very effective combinations of the aquamarine and blue species with +the yellow may be recommended. Tourmaline appears in some quantity, +forming almost a schist at some points, but no specimens of any value +have been extracted, the color being uniformly black. The garnets are +large trapezohedral-faced crystals of an intense color, but penetrated +with rifts and flaws. Many, no doubt, will afford serviceable gem +material, but their resources have not yet been tested by the +lapidary. + +While granite considered as a building stone presents a complex of +quartz, mica, and feldspar so confusedly intercrystallized as to make +a homogeneous composite, in the present mass, like the larger and +similar developments in North Carolina, these elements have excluded +each other in their crystallization, and are found as three separate +groups only sparingly intermingled. The proportions of the constituent +minerals which form granite, according to Prof. Phillips, are twenty +parts of potash feldspar (orthoclase), five parts of quartz, and two +parts of potash mica (muscovite), and a survey of Mr. Wilson's quarry +exhibits these approximate relations with surprising force. + +There can be but little doubt that this vein is a capital example of +hydrothermal fusion, whereby in original gneissic strata, at a +moderate temperature and considerable depth, through the action of +contained water, with the physical accompaniment of plication, a +solution of the country rock has been accomplished. And the cooling +and recrystallization has gone on so slowly that the elements of +granite have preserved a physical isolation, while the associated +silicates formed in the midst of this magma have attained a supremely +close and compact texture, owing to the favorable conditions of slow +growth giving them gem consistencies. The further development of the +vein may reveal interesting facts, and especially the following +downward of the rock mass, which we suspect will contract into a +narrower vein. At present the order of crystallization and separation +of the mineralogical units seems to have been feldspar, mica, garnet, +beryl, quartz. + +In the artificial preparation of crystals it is invariably found that +perfect and symmetrical crystals, and crystals of large size, are +produced by slow, undisturbed cooling of solutions; the quiet +accretion permits complete molecular freedom and the crystal is built +up with precision. Nor is this all. In mixtures of chemical compounds +it is presumable that the separate factors will disengage themselves +from each other more and more completely, and form in purer masses as +the congelation is slowly carried on. A sort of concretionary affinity +comes into play, and the different chemical units congregate together. +At least such has been the case in the granitic magma of which Mr. +Wilson now possesses the solidified results. The feldspar, the quartz, +the mica, have approximately excluded each other, and appear side by +side in unmixed purity. And does it not seem probable that this +deliberate process of solidification has produced in the beryls, found +in the center of the vein at the points of slowest radiation, the +glassy gem texture which now makes them available for the purposes of +art and decoration? + + * * * * * + + + + +THE STUDY OF MANKIND. + + +Professor Max Muller, who presided over the Anthropological Section of +the British Association, said that if one tried to recall what +anthropology was in 1847, and then considered what it was now, its +progress seemed most marvelous. These last fifty years had been an age +of discovery in Africa, Central Asia, America, Polynesia, and +Australia, such as could hardly be matched in any previous century. +But what seemed to him even more important than the mere increase of +material was the new spirit in which anthropology had been studied +during the last generation. He did not depreciate the labors of +so-called dilettanti, who were after all lovers of knowledge, and in a +study such as that of anthropology, the labors of these volunteers, or +franc-tireurs, had often proved most valuable. But the study of man in +every part of the world had ceased to be a subject for curiosity only. +It had been raised to the dignity and also the responsibility of a +real science, and was now guided by principles as strict and rigorous +as any other science. Many theories which were very popular fifty +years ago were now completely exploded; nay, some of the very +principles by which the science was then guided had been discarded. +Among all serious students, whether physiologists or philologists, it +was by this time recognized that the divorce between ethnology and +philology, granted if only for incompatibility of temper, had been +productive of nothing but good. + + +CLASSIFICATION. + +Instead of attempting to classify mankind as a whole, students were +now engaged in classifying skulls, hair, teeth, and skin. Many solid +results had been secured by these special researches; but as yet, no +two classifications, based on these characteristics, had been made to +run parallel. The most natural classification was, no doubt, that +according to the color of the skin. This gave us a black, a brown, a +yellow, a red, and a white race, with several subdivisions. This +classification had often been despised as unscientific; but might +still turn out far more valuable than at present supposed. The next +classification was that by the color of the eyes, as black, brown, +hazel, gray, and blue. This subject had also attracted much attention +of late, and, within certain limits, the results have proved very +valuable. The most favorite classification, however, had always been +that according to the skulls. The skull, as the shell of the brain, +had by many students been supposed to betray something of the +spiritual essence of man; and who could doubt that the general +features of the skull, if taken in large averages, did correspond to +the general features of human character? We had only to look around to +see men with heads like a cannon ball and others with heads like a +hawk. This distinction had formed the foundation for a more scientific +classification into brachycephalic, dolichocephalic, and mesocephalic +skulls. If we examined any large collection of skulls we had not much +difficulty in arranging them under these three classes; but if, after +we had done this, we looked at the nationality of each skull, we found +the most hopeless confusion. Pruner Vey, as Peschel told us in his +"Volkerkunde," had observed brachycephalic and dolichocephalic skulls +in children born of the same mother; and if we consider how many women +had been carried away into captivity by Mongolians in their inroads +into China, India, and Germany, we could not feel surprised if we +found some long heads among the round heads of those Central Asiatic +hordes. + + +DIFFERENCES IN SKULLS. + +Only we must not adopt the easy expedient of certain anthropologists +who, when they found dolichocephalic and brachycephalic skulls in the +same tomb, at once jump to the conclusion that they must have belonged +to two different races. When, for instance, two dolichocephalic and +three brachycephalic skulls were discovered in the same tomb at +Alexanderpol, we were told at once that this proved nothing as to the +simultaneous occurrence of different skulls in the same family; nay, +that it proved the very contrary of what it might seem to prove. It +was clear, we were assured, that the two dolichocephalic skulls +belonged to Aryan chiefs and the three brachycephalic skulls to their +non-Aryan slaves, who were killed and buried with their masters, +according to a custom well known to Herodotus. This sounded very +learned, but was it really quite straightforward? Besides the general +division of skulls into dolichocephalic, brachycephalic, and +mesocephalic, other divisions had been undertaken, according to the +height of the skull, and again according to the maxillary and the +facial angles. This latter division gave us orthognatic, prognathic, +and mesognathic skulls. Lastly, according to the peculiar character of +the hair, we might distinguish two great divisions, the people with +woolly hair (Ulotriches) and people with smooth hair (Lissotriches). +The former were subdivided into Lophocomi, people with tufts of hair, +and Eriocomi, or people with fleecy hair. The latter were divided into +Euthycomi, straight haired, and Euplocomi, wavy haired. It had been +shown that these peculiarities of the hair depended on the peculiar +form of the hair tubes, which in cross sections were found to be +either round or elongated in different ways. All these classifications, +to which several more might be added, those according to the orbits of +the eyes, the outlines of the nose, and the width of the pelvis, were +by themselves extremely useful. But few of them only, if any, ran +strictly parallel. Now let them consider whether there could be any +organic connection between the shape of the skull, the facial angle, +the conformation of the hair, or the color of the skin on one side, +and what we called the great families of language on the other. + + +CONNECTION OF LANGUAGE AND PHYSICAL CONFORMATION. + +That we spoke at all might rightly be called a work of nature, _opera +naturale_, as Dante said long ago; but that we spoke thus or thus, +_cosi o cosi_, that, as the same Dante said, depended on our +pleasure--that was our work. To imagine, therefore, that as a matter +of necessity, or as a matter of fact, dolichocephalic skulls had +anything to do with Aryan, mesophalic with Semitic, or brachycephalic +with Turanian speech, was nothing but the wildest random thought. It +could convey no rational meaning whatever; we might as well say that +all painters were dolichocephalic, and all musicians brachycephalic, +or that all lophocomic tribes worked in gold, and all lisocomic tribes +in silver. If anything must be ascribed to prehistoric times, surely +the differentiation of the human skull, the human hair and the human +skin would have to be ascribed to that distant period. No one, he +believed, had ever maintained that a mesocephalic skull was split or +differentiated into a dolichocephalic and a brachycephalic variety in +the bright sunshine of history. Nevertheless, he had felt for years +that knowledge of languages must be considered in future as a _sine +qua non_ for every anthropologist. How few of the books in which we +trusted with regard to the characteristic peculiarities of savage +races had been written by men who had lived among them for ten or +twenty years, and who had learned their languages till they could +speak them as well as the natives themselves. It was no excuse to say +that any traveler who had eyes to see and ears to hear could form a +correct estimate of the doings and sayings of savage tribes. + + +TRAVELERS' IMPRESSIONS. + +It was not so, as anthropologists knew from sad experience. Suppose a +traveler came to a camp where he saw thousands of men and women +dancing round the image of a young bull. Suppose that the dancers were +all stark naked, that after a time they began to fight, and that at +the end of their orgies there were three thousand corpses lying about +weltering in their blood. Would not a casual traveler have described +such savages as worse than the negroes of Dahomey? Yet these savages +were really the Jews, the chosen people of God. The image was the +golden calf, the priest was Aaron, and the chief who ordered the +massacre was Moses. We might read the 32d chapter of Exodus in a very +different sense. A traveler who could have conversed with Aaron and +Moses might have understood the causes of the revolt and the necessity +of the massacre. But without this power of interrogation and mutual +explanation, no travelers, however graphic and amusing their stories +might be, could be trusted; no statements of theirs could be used by +the anthropologist for truly scientific purposes. If anthropology was +to maintain its high position as a real science, its alliance with +linguistic studies could not be too close. Its weakest points had +always been those where it trusted to the statements of authorities +ignorant of language and of the science of language. Its greatest +triumphs had been achieved by men such as Dr. Hahn, Bishops Callaway +and Colenso, Dr. W. Gill and last, not least, Mr. Man, who had +combined the minute accuracy of the scholar with the comprehensive +grasp of the anthropologist, and were thus enabled to use the key of +language to unlock the perplexities of savage customs, savage laws and +legends, and, particularly, of savage religions and mythologies. If +this alliance between anthropology and philology became real, then, +and then only, might we hope to see Bunsen's prophecy fulfilled, that +anthropology would become the highest branch of that science for which +the British Association was instituted. + + * * * * * + + +A NEW CATALOGUE OF VALUABLE PAPERS + +Contained in SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT during the past ten years, +sent _free of charge_ to any address. MUNN & CO., 361 Broadway, New +York. + + * * * * * + + +THE SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN + +ARCHITECTS AND BUILDERS EDITION. + +$2.50 a Year. 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