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+Project Gutenberg's Scientific American Supplement No. 819, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Scientific American Supplement No. 819
+       Volume XXXII, Number 819. Issue Date September 12, 1891
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: February 9, 2005 [EBook #14990]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Juliet Sutherland and the PG Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT NO. 819
+
+
+
+
+NEW YORK, SEPTEMBER 12, 1891.
+
+Scientific American Supplement. Vol. XXXII, No. 819.
+
+Scientific American established 1845
+
+Scientific American Supplement, $5 a year.
+
+Scientific American and Supplement, $7 a year.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+TABLE OF CONTENTS.
+
+
+I.    ASTRONOMY.--The Story of the Universe.--By Dr. WILLIAM
+      HUGGINS.--A valuable account of modern views of the formation
+      of the universe, and of modern methods of studying the problem.--1
+      illustration.
+
+II.   ELECTRICITY.--The Production of Hydrogen and Oxygen through
+      the Electrolysis of Water.--A valuable paper on the electrolysis
+      of water on a large scale, with apparatus employed therefor.--4
+      illustrations.
+
+III.  MECHANICAL ENGINEERING.--An English Steam Fire Engine.--A
+      light fire engine built for East Indian service.--1 illustration.
+
+IV.   MEDICINE AND HYGIENE.--A Case of Drowning, with Resuscitation.--By
+      F.A. BURRALL, M.D.--A full account of a remarkable
+      case of resuscitation from drowning, with full details
+      of treatment.
+
+V.    METALLURGY.--How Gas Cylinders are Made.--The manufacture
+      of cylinders for highly compressed gases, a comparatively
+      new and growing industry.--6 illustrations.
+
+      Refining Silver Bullion.--The Gutzkow process in refining silver
+      bullion with sulphuric acid.--1 illustration.
+
+      The Treatment of Refractory Ores.--A new process for the extraction
+      of metal from refractory ore.--1 illustration.
+
+      Weldless Steel Chains.--An exhaustive examination of this curious
+      process, and very full illustrations.--43 illustrations.
+
+VI.   METEOROLOGY.--Climatic Changes in the Southern Hemisphere.
+      --By C.A.M. TABER.--Causes of the climatic changes the
+      southern hemisphere has undergone.
+
+VII.  MILITARY TACTICS.--The System of Military Dove Cotes in
+      Europe.--Continuation of this paper, treating of the pigeon service
+      in France, Germany, and Italy.
+
+VIII. NAVAL ENGINEERING.--The Isle of Man Twin Screw
+      Steamer Tynwald.--A high speed steamer, with a steady sea-going
+      speed of between 18 and 19 knots.--2 illustrations.
+
+IX.   TECHNOLOGY.--Ammonia.--The manufacture of ammoniacal
+      gas for technical uses.--Full details of its production.
+
+      Musical Instruments.--Their construction and capabilities.--By
+      A.J. HIPKINS.--Second installment of this highly interesting
+      series of lectures treating of different kinds of instruments.
+
+      Note on Refrigerating Apparatus.
+
+      Sheet Glass from Molten Metal.--The method of making sheets
+      of glass from the molten material and manufacture of metal plates
+      by the same method.
+
+X.    VETERINARY SCIENCE.--Historical Development of the
+      Horseshoe.--By District Veterinarian ZIPPELIUS.--Very curious
+      investigation of the development of the horseshoe.--22 illustrations.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE PRODUCTION OF HYDROGEN AND OXYGEN THROUGH THE ELECTROLYSIS OF
+WATER.
+
+
+All attempts to prepare gaseous fluids industrially were premature as
+long as there were no means of carrying them under a sufficiently
+diminished volume. For a few years past, the trade has been delivering
+steel cylinders that permit of storing, without the least danger, a
+gas under a pressure of from 120 to 200 atmospheres. The problem of
+delivery without pipe laying having been sufficiently solved, that of
+the industrial production of gases could be confronted in its turn.
+Liquefied sulphurous acid, chloride of methyl, and carbonic acid have
+been successively delivered, to commerce. The carbonic acid is now
+being used right along in laboratories for the production of an
+intense coldness, through its expansion. Oxygen and nitrogen, prepared
+by chemical processes, soon followed, and now the industrial
+electrolysis of water is about to permit of the delivery, in the same
+manner, of very pure oxygen and hydrogen at a price within one's
+reach.
+
+Before describing the processes employed in this preparation, we must
+answer a question that many of our readers might be led to ask us, and
+that is, what can these gases be used for? We shall try to explain. A
+prime and important application of pure hydrogen is that of inflating
+balloons. Illuminating gas, which is usually employed for want of
+something better, is sensibly denser than hydrogen and possesses less
+ascensional force, whence the necessity of lightening the balloon or
+of increasing its volume. Such inconveniences become serious with
+dirigible balloons, whose surface, on the contrary, it is necessary to
+diminish as much as possible. When the increasing interest taken in
+aerostation at Paris was observed, an assured annual output of some
+hundreds of cubic meters of eras for the sole use of balloons was
+foreseen, the adoption of pure hydrogen being only a question of the
+net cost.
+
+Pure or slightly carbureted hydrogen is capable of being substituted
+to advantage for coal gas for heating or lighting. Such an application
+is doubtless somewhat premature, but we shall see that it has already
+got out of the domain of Utopia. Finally the oxyhydrogen blowpipe,
+which is indispensable for the treatment of very refractory metals,
+consumes large quantities of hydrogen and oxygen.
+
+For a few years past, oxygen has been employed in therapeutics; it is
+found in commerce either in a gaseous state or in solution in water
+(in siphons); it notably relieves persons afflicted with asthma or
+depression; and the use of it is recommended in the treatment of
+albumenuria. Does it cure, or at least does it contribute to cure,
+anæmia, that terrible affection of large cities, and the prime source
+of so many other troubles? Here the opinions of physicians and
+physiologists are divided, and we limit ourselves to a mention of the
+question without discussing it.
+
+Only fifteen years ago it would have been folly to desire to obtain
+remunerative results through the electrolysis of water. Such research
+was subordinated to the industrial production of electric energy.
+
+We shall not endeavor to establish the priority of the experiments and
+discoveries. The question was in the air, and was taken up almost
+simultaneously by three able experimenters--a Russian physicist, Prof.
+Latchinof, of St. Petersburg, Dr. D'Arsonval, the learned professor of
+the College of France, and Commandant Renard, director of the military
+establishment of aerostation at Chalais. Mr. D'Arsonval collected
+oxygen for experiments in physiology, while Commandant Renard
+naturally directed his attention to the production of pure hydrogen.
+The solutions of the question are, in fact, alike in principle, and
+yet they have been developed in a very different manner, and we
+believe that Commandant Renard's process is the completest from an
+industrial standpoint. We shall give an account of it from a
+communication made by this eminent military engineer, some time ago,
+to the French Society of Physics.
+
+_Transformations of the Voltameter._--In a laboratory, it is of no
+consequence whether a liter of hydrogen costs a centime or a franc. So
+long as it is a question of a few liters, one may, at his ease, waste
+his energy and employ costly substances.
+
+The internal resistance of a voltameter and the cost of platinum
+electrodes of a few grammes should not arrest the physicist in an
+experiment; but, in a production on a large scale, it is necessary to
+decrease the resistance of the liquid column to as great a degree as
+possible--that is to say, to increase its section and diminish its
+thickness. The first condition leads to a suppression of the platinum,
+and the second necessitates the use of new principles in the
+construction of the voltameter. A laboratory voltameter consists
+either of a U-shaped tube or of a trough in which the electrodes are
+covered by bell glasses (Fig. 1, A and B). In either case, the
+electric current must follow a tortuous and narrow path, in order to
+pass from one electrode to the other, while, if the electrodes be left
+entirely free in the bath, the gases, rising in a spreading form, will
+mix at a certain height. It is necessary to separate them by a
+partition (Fig. 1, C). If this is isolating and impermeable, there
+will be no interest in raising the electrodes sensibly above its lower
+edge. Now, the nearer together the electrodes are, the more it is
+necessary to lower the partition. The extension of the electrodes and
+the bringing of them together is the knotty part of the question. This
+will be shown by a very simple calculation.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--A, B, COMMONEST FORMS OF LABORATORY
+VOLTAMETERS. C, DIAGRAM SHOWING ASCENT OF BUBBLES IN A VOLTAMETER.]
+
+The visible electrolysis of water begins at an E.M.F. of about 1.7 V.
+Below this there is no disengagement of bubbles. If the E.M.F. be
+increased at the terminals of the voltameter, the current (and
+consequently the production of gas) will become proportional to the
+excess of the value over 1.7 V; but, at the same time, the current
+will heat the circuit--that is to say, will produce a superfluous
+work, and there will be waste. At 1.7 V the rendering is at its
+maximum, but the useful effect is _nil_. In order to make an
+advantageous use of the instruments, it is necessary to admit a
+certain loss of energy, so much the less, moreover, in proportion as
+the voltameters cost less; and as the saving is to be effected in the
+current, rather than in the apparatus, we may admit the use of three
+volts as a good proportion--that is to say, a loss of about half the
+disposable energy. Under such conditions, a voltameter having an
+internal resistance of 1 ohm produces 0.65 liter of hydrogen per hour,
+while it will disengage 6.500 liters if its resistance be but 0.0001
+of an ohm. It is true that, in this case, the current would be in the
+neighborhood of 15,000 amperes. Laboratory voltameters frequently have
+a resistance of a hundred ohms; it would require a million in
+derivation to produce the same effect. The specific resistance of the
+solutions that can be employed in the production of gases by
+electrolysis is, in round numbers, twenty thousand times greater than
+that of mercury. In order to obtain a resistance of 0.0001 of an ohm,
+it is necessary to sensibly satisfy the equation
+
+            20,000 l/s = 1/10,000
+
+_l_ expressing the thickness of the voltameter expressed in meters,
+and _s_ being the section in square millimeters. For example: For l =
+1/10, s = 20,000,000, say 20 square meters. It will be seen from this
+example what should be the proportions of apparatus designed for a
+production on a large scale.
+
+The new principles that permit of the construction of such voltameters
+are as follows: (1) the substitution of an alkaline for the acid
+solution, thus affording a possibility of employing iron electrodes;
+(2) the introduction of a porous partition between the electrodes, for
+the purpose of separating the gases.
+
+_Electrolytic Liquid._--Commandant Renard's experiments were made with
+15 per cent, solution of caustic soda and water containing 27 per
+cent. of acid. These are the proportions that give the maximum of
+conductivity. Experiments made with a voltameter having platinum
+electrodes separated by an interval of 3 or 4 centimeters showed that
+for a determinate E.M.F. the alkaline solution allows of the passage
+of a slighter intenser current than the acidulated water, that is to
+say, it is less resistant and more advantageous from the standpoint of
+the consumption of energy.
+
+_Porous Partition._--Let us suppose that the two parts of the trough
+are separated by a partition containing small channels at right angles
+with its direction. It is these channels alone that must conduct the
+electricity. Their conductivity (inverse of resistance) is
+proportional to their total section, and inversely proportional to
+their common length, whatever be their individual section. It is,
+therefore, advantageous to employ partitions that contain as many
+openings as possible.
+
+The separating effect of these partitions for the gas is wholly due to
+capillary phenomena. We know, in fact, that water tends to expel gas
+from a narrow tube with a pressure inversely proportional to the
+tube's radius. In order to traverse the tube, the gaseous mass will
+have to exert a counter-pressure greater than this capillary pressure.
+As long as the pressure of one part and another of the wet wall
+differs to a degree less than the capillary pressure of the largest
+channel, the gases disengaged in the two parts of the trough will
+remain entirely separate. In order that the mixing may not take place
+through the partition above the level of the liquid (dry partition),
+the latter will have to be impenetrable in every part that emerges.
+The study of the partitions should be directed to their separating
+effect on the gases, and to their electric resistance. In order to
+study the first of these properties, the porous partition, fixed by a
+hermetical joint to a glass tube, is immersed in the water (Fig. 2).
+An increasing pressure is exerted from the interior until the passage
+of bubbles is observed. The pressure read at this moment on the
+manometer indicates (transformed above the electrolytic solution) the
+changes of level that the bath may undergo. The different porcelains
+and earths behave, from this point of view, in a very unequal manner.
+For example, an earthen vessel from the Pillivayt establishment
+supports some decimeters of water, while the porcelain of Boulanger,
+at Choisy-le-Roi, allows of the passage of the gas only at pressures
+greater than one atmosphere, which is much more than is necessary.
+Wire gauze, canvas, and asbestos cloth resist a few centimeters of
+water. It might be feared, however, that the gases, violently
+projected against these partitions, would not pass, owing to the
+velocity acquired. Upon this point experiment is very reassuring.
+After filling with water a canvas bag fixed to the extremity of a
+rubber tube, it is possible to produce in the interior a tumultuous
+disengagement of gas without any bubbles passing through.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--ARRANGEMENT FOR THE STUDY OF CAPILLARY
+REACTION IN POROUS VESSELS.]
+
+From an electrical point of view, partitions are of very unequal
+quality. Various partitions having been placed between electrodes
+spaced three centimeters apart, currents were obtained which indicated
+that, with the best of porcelains, the rendering of the apparatus is
+diminished by one-half. Asbestos cloth introduces but an insignificant
+resistance.
+
+To this inconvenience of porous vessels is added their fragility,
+their high price, and the impossibility of obtaining them of the
+dimensions that large apparatus would call for. The selection of
+asbestos cloth is therefore clearly indicated; but, as it does not
+entirely separate the gases, except at a pressure that does not exceed
+a few centimeters of water, it was always necessary to bring back the
+variation of the level to these narrow limits by a special
+arrangement. We cannot, in fact, expect that the entire piping shall
+be always in such conditions that no difference in pressure can occur.
+The levels are brought back to equality within the effective limits by
+interposing between the voltameter and the piping an apparatus called
+a compensator, which consists of two vessels that communicate in the
+interior part through a large tube. The gases enter each vessel
+through a pipe that debouches beneath the level of the water. If a
+momentary stoppage occurs in one of the conduits, the water changes
+level in the compensator, but the pressure remains constant at the
+orifice of the tubes. The compensator is, as may be seen, nothing more
+than a double Mariotte flask. When it is desired to obtain pure gases,
+there is introduced into the compensator a solution of tartaric acid,
+which retains the traces of alkalies carried along by the current of
+gas. The alkaline solution, moreover, destroys the ozone at the moment
+of its formation.
+
+It will be seen that laboratory studies have furnished all the
+elements of a problem which is now capable of entering the domain of
+practice. The cheapness of the raw materials permits of constructing
+apparatus whose dimensions will no longer be limited except by reasons
+of another nature. The electrodes may be placed in proximity at will,
+owing to the use of the porous partition. It may be seen, then, that
+the apparatus will have a considerable useful effect without its being
+necessary to waste the electric energy beyond measure.
+
+_Industrial Apparatus._--We have shown how the very concise researches
+of Commandant Renard have fixed the best conditions for the
+construction of an industrial voltameter. It remains for us to
+describe this voltameter itself, and to show the rendering of it.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--PLANT FOR THE INDUSTRIAL ELECTROLYSIS OF
+WATER.]
+
+The industrial voltameter consists of a large iron cylinder. A battery
+of such voltameters is shown to the left of Fig. 3, and one of the
+apparatus, isolated, is represented in Fig. 4. The interior electrode
+is placed in an asbestos cloth bag, which is closed below and tied at
+its upper part. It is provided with apertures which permit of the
+ascent of the gases in the interior of the cylinder. The apparatus is
+hermetically sealed at the top, the two electrodes being naturally
+insulated with rubber. Above the level of the liquid the interior
+electrode is continuous and forms a channel for the gas. The hydrogen
+and oxygen, escaping through the upper orifices, flow to the
+compensator. The apparatus is provided with an emptying cock or a cock
+for filling with distilled water, coming from a reservoir situated
+above the apparatus.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.--DETAILS OF AN INDUSTRIAL VOLTAMETER.]
+
+The constants of the voltameter established by Commandant Renard are
+as follows:
+
+      Height of external electrode       3.405 m.
+         "      internal      "          3.290 "
+      Diameter of external    "          0.300 "
+         "        internal    "          0.174 "
+
+The iron plate employed is 2 millimeters in thickness. The electric
+resistance is about 0.0075 ohm. The apparatus gives 365 amperes under
+2.7 volts, and consequently nearly 1 kilowatt. Its production in
+hydrogen is 158 liters per hour.
+
+It is clear that, in an industrial exploitation, a dynamo working
+under 3 volts is never employed. In order to properly utilize the
+power of the dynamo, several voltameters will be put in series--a
+dozen, for example, if the generating machine is in proximity to the
+apparatus, or a larger number if the voltameters are actuated by a
+dynamo situated at a distance, say in the vicinity of a waterfall.
+Fig. 3 will give an idea of a plant for the electrolysis of water.
+
+It remains for us to say a few words as to the net cost of the
+hydrogen and oxygen gases produced by the process that we have just
+described. We may estimate the value of a voltameter at a hundred
+francs. If the apparatus operates without appreciable wear, the
+amortizement should be calculated at a very low figure, say 10 per
+cent., which is large. In continuous operation it would produce more
+than 1,500 cubic meters of gas a year, say a little less than one
+centime per cubic meter. The caustic soda is constantly recuperated
+and is never destroyed. The sole product that disappears is the
+distilled water. Now one cubic meter of water produces more than 2,000
+cubic meters of gas. The expense in water, then, does not amount to a
+centime per cubic meter. The great factor of the expense resides in
+the electric energy. The cost of surveillance will be minimum and the
+general expenses _ad libitum_.
+
+Let us take the case in which the energy has to be borrowed from a
+steam engine. Supposing very small losses in the dynamo and piping, we
+may count upon a production of one cubic meter of hydrogen and 500
+cubic decimeters of oxygen for 10 horse-power taken upon the main
+shaft, say an expenditure of 10 kilogrammes of coal or of about 25
+centimes--a little more in Paris, and less in coal districts. If,
+consequently, we fix the price of the cubic meter of gas at 50
+centimes, we shall preserve a sufficient margin. In localities where a
+natural motive power is at our disposal, this estimate will have to be
+greatly reduced. We may, therefore, expect to see hydrogen and oxygen
+take an important place in ordinary usages. From the standpoint alone
+of preservation of fuel, that is to say, of potential energy upon the
+earth, this new conquest of electricity is very pleasing. Waterfalls
+furnish utilizable energy in every locality, and, in the future, will
+perhaps console our great-grandchildren for the unsparing waste that
+we are making of coal.--_La Nature._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+[Continued from SUPPLEMENT, No. 818, page 13066.]
+
+
+
+
+MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS: THEIR CONSTRUCTION AND CAPABILITIES.
+
+By A.J. HIPKINS, F.S.A.
+
+LECTURE II.
+
+
+I will now invite your attention to the wind instruments, which, in
+Handel's time, were chiefly used to double in unison the parts of
+stringed instruments. Their modern independent use dates from Haydn;
+it was extended and perfected by Mozart, Beethoven, and Weber; and the
+extraordinary changes and improvements which have been effected during
+the present century have given wind instruments an importance that is
+hardly exceeded by that of the stringed, in the formation of the
+modern orchestra. The military band, as it now exists, is a creation
+of the present century.
+
+The so-called wood wind instruments are the flute, oboe, bassoon, and
+clarinet. It is as well to say at once that their particular qualities
+of tone do not absolutely depend upon the materials of which they are
+made. The form is the most important factor in determining the
+distinction of tone quality, so long as the sides of the tube are
+equally elastic, as has been submitted to proof by instruments made of
+various materials, including paper. I consider this has been
+sufficiently demonstrated by the independent experiments of Mr.
+Blaikley, of London, and Mr. Victor Mahillon, of Brussels. But we must
+still allow Mr. Richard Shepherd Rockstro's plea, clearly set forth in
+a recently published treatise on the flute, that the nature and the
+substance of the tube, by reciprocity of vibration, exercise some
+influence, although not so great as might have been expected, on the
+quality of the tone. But I consider this influence is already
+acknowledged in my reference to equality of elasticity in the sides of
+the tube.
+
+The flute is an instrument of _embouchure_--that is to say, one in
+which a stream of air is driven from the player's lips against an edge
+of the blow hole to produce the sound. The oboe and bassoon have
+double reeds, and the clarinet a single reed, made of a species of
+cane, as intermediate agents of sound production. There are other
+flutes than that of _embouchure_--those with flageolet or whistle
+heads, which, having become obsolete, shall be reserved for later
+notice. There are no real tenor or bass flutes now, those in use being
+restricted to the upper part of the scale. The present flute dates
+from 1832, when Theobald Boehm, a Bavarian flute player, produced the
+instrument which is known by his name. He entirely remodeled the
+flute, being impelled to do so by suggestions from the performance of
+the English flautist, Charles Nicholson, who had increased the
+diameter of the lateral holes, and by some improvements that had been
+attempted in the flute by a Captain Gordon, of Charles the Tenth's
+Swiss Guard. Boehm has been sufficiently vindicated from having
+unfairly appropriated Gordon's ideas. The Boehm flute, since 1846, is
+a cylindrical tube for about three-fourths of its length from the
+lower end, after which it is continued in a curved conical
+prolongation to the cork stopper. The finger holes are disposed in a
+geometrical division, and the mechanism and position of the keys are
+entirely different from what had been before. The full compass of the
+Boehm flute is chromatic, from middle C to C, two octaves above the
+treble clef C, a range of three octaves, which is common to all
+concert flutes, and is not peculiar to the Boehm model. Of course this
+compass is partly produced by altering the pressure of blowing.
+Columns of air inclosed in pipes vibrate like strings in sections,
+but, unlike strings, the vibrations progress in the direction of
+length, not across the direction of length. In the flute, all notes
+below D, in the treble clef, are produced by the normal pressure of
+wind; by an increasing pressure of overblowing the harmonics, D in the
+treble clef, and A and B above it, are successively attained. The
+fingerholes and keys, by shortening the tube, fill up the required
+intervals of the scale. There are higher harmonics still, but
+flautists generally prefer to do without them when they can get the
+note required by a lower harmonic. In Boehm's flute, his ingenious
+mechanism allows the production of the eleven chromatic semitones
+intermediate between the fundamental note of the flute and its first
+harmonic, by holes so disposed that, in opening them successively,
+they shorten the column of air in exact proportion. It is, therefore,
+ideally, an equal temperament instrument and not a D major one, as the
+conical flute was considered to be. Perhaps the most important thing
+Boehm did for the flute was to enunciate the principle that, to insure
+purity of tone and correct intonation, the holes must be put in their
+correct theoretical positions; and at least the hole below the one
+giving he sound must be open, to insure perfect venting. Boehm's
+flute, however, has not remained as he left it. Improvements, applied
+by Clinton, Pratten, and Carte, have introduced certain modifications
+in the fingering, while retaining the best features of Boehm's system.
+But it seems to me that the reedy quality obtained from the adoption
+of the cylindrical bore which now prevails does away with the sweet
+and characteristic tone quality of the old conical German flute, and
+gives us in its place one that is not sufficiently distinct from that
+of the clarinet.
+
+The flute is the most facile of all orchestral wind instruments; and
+the device of double tonguing, the quick repetition of notes by taking
+a staccato T-stop in blowing, is well known. The flute generally goes
+with the violins in the orchestra, or sustains long notes with the
+other wood wind instruments, or is used in those conversational
+passages with other instruments that lend such a charm to orchestral
+music. The lower notes are not powerful. Mr. Henry Carte has, however,
+designed an alto flute in A, descending to violin G, with excellent
+results. There is a flute which transposes a minor third higher than
+the ordinary flute; but it is not much used in the orchestra, although
+used in the army, as is also a flute one semitone higher than the
+concert flute. The piccolo, or octave flute, is more employed in the
+orchestra, and may double the melody in the highest octave, or
+accentuate brilliant points of effect in the score. It is very shrill
+and exciting in the overblown notes, and without great care may give a
+vulgar character to the music, and for this reason Sir Arthur Sullivan
+has replaced it in the score of "Ivanhoe" by a high G flute. The
+piccolo is exactly an octave higher than the flute, excepting the two
+lowest notes of which it is deficient. The old cylindrical
+ear-piercing fife is an obsolete instrument, being superseded by a
+small army flute, still, however, called a fife, used with the side
+drum in the drum and fife band.
+
+The transverse or German flute, introduced into the orchestra by
+Lulli, came into general use in the time of Handel; before that the
+recorders, or flute douces, the flute à bec with beak or whistle head,
+were preferred. These instruments were used in a family, usually of
+eight members, viz., as many sizes from treble to bass; or in three,
+treble, alto or tenor, and bass. A fine original set of those now rare
+instruments, eight in number, was shown in 1890 in the music gallery
+of the Royal Military Exhibition, at Chelsea; a loan collection
+admirably arranged by Captain C.B. Day. They were obtained from Hesse
+Darmstadt, and had their outer case to preserve them exactly like the
+recorder case represented in the painting by Holbein of the
+ambassadors, or rather, the scholars, recently acquired for the
+National Gallery. The flageolet was the latest form of the treble,
+beak, or whistle head flute. The whistle head is furnished with a
+cavity containing air, which, shaped by a narrow groove, strikes
+against the sharp edge and excites vibration in the conical pipe, on
+the same principle that an organ pipe is made to sound, or of the
+action of the player's mouth and lips upon the blowhole of the flute.
+As it will interest the audience to hear the tone of Shakespeare's
+recorder, Mr. Henry Carte will play an air upon one.
+
+The oboe takes the next place in the wood wind band. The principle of
+sound excitement, that of the double reed, originating in the
+flattening of the end of an oat or wheat straw, is of great antiquity,
+but it could only be applied by insertion in tubes of very narrow
+diameter, so that the column of air should not be wider than the
+tongue straw or reed acting upon it. The little reed bound round and
+contracted below the vibrating ends in this primitive form permitted
+the adjustment of the lower open end in the tube, it might be another
+longer reed or pipe which inclosed the air column; and thus a conical
+pipe that gradually narrows to the diameter of the tongue reed must
+have been early discovered, and was the original type of the pastoral
+and beautiful oboe of the modern orchestra. Like the flute, the oboe
+has only the soprano register, extending from B flat or natural below
+middle C to F above the treble clef, two octaves and a fifth, which a
+little exceeds the flute downward. The foundation of the scale is D
+major, the same as the flute was before Boehm altered it. Triebert, a
+skillful Parisian maker, tried to adapt Boehm's reform of the flute to
+the oboe, but so far as the geometrical division of the scale was
+concerned, he failed, because it altered the characteristic tone
+quality of the instrument, so desirable for the balance of orchestral
+coloration. But the fingering has been modified with considerable
+success, although it is true by a much greater complication of means
+than the more simple contrivances that preceded it, which are still
+preferred by the players. The oboe reed has been much altered since
+the earlier years of this century. It was formerly more like the reed
+of the shawm, an instrument from which the oboe has been derived; and
+that of the present bassoon. It is now made narrower, with much
+advantage in the refinement of the tone. As in the flute, the notes up
+to C sharp in the treble clef are produced by the normal blowing, and
+simply shortening the tube by opening the sound holes. Beyond that
+note, increased pressure, or overblowing, assisted by a harmonic
+"speaker" key, produces the first harmonic, that of the octave, and so
+on. The lowest notes are rough and the highest shrill; from A to D
+above the treble clef, the tone quality of the oboe is of a tender
+charm in melody. Although not loud, its tone is penetrating and
+prominent. Its staccato has an agreeable effect. The place of the oboe
+in the wood wind band between the flute and the clarinet, with the
+bassoon for a bass, is beyond the possibility of improvement by any
+change.
+
+Like the flute, there was a complete family of oboes in the sixteenth
+and early in the seventeenth century; the little schalmey, the discant
+schalmey, from which the present oboe is derived; the alto, tenor,
+pommer, and bass pommers, and the double quint or contrabass pommer.
+
+In all these old finger hole instruments the scale begins with the
+first hole, a note in the bagpipe with which the drones agree, and not
+the entire tube. From the bass and double quint pommers came
+ultimately the bassoon and contra-bassoon, and from the alto pommer,
+an obsolete instrument for which Bach wrote, called the oboe di
+caccia, or hunting oboe, an appellation unexplained, unless it had
+originally a horn-like tone, and was, as it has been suggested to me
+by Mr. Blaikley, used by those who could not make a real hunting horn
+sound. It was bent to a knee shape to facilitate performance. It was
+not exactly the cor Anglais or English horn, a modern instrument of
+the same pitch which is bent like it, and of similar compass, a fifth
+below the usual oboe. The tenoroon, with which the oboe di caccia has
+been compared, was a high bassoon really on octave and a fifth below.
+It has been sometimes overlooked that there are two octaves in pitch
+between the oboe and bassoon, which has led to some confusion in
+recognizing these instruments. There was an intermediate instrument a
+third lower than the oboe, used by Bach, called the oboe d'amore,
+which was probably used with the cornemuse or bagpipe, and another, a
+third higher than the oboe, called musette (not the small bagpipe of
+that name). The cor Anglais is in present use. It is a melancholy,
+even mournful instrument, its sole use in the orchestra being very
+suitable for situations on the stage, the effect of which it helps by
+depressing the mind to sadness. Those who have heard Wagner's "Tristan
+und Isolde" will remember, when the faithful Kurwenal sweeps the
+horizon, and sees no help coming on the sea for the dying Tristan, how
+pathetically the reed pipe of a careless peasant near, played in the
+orchestra on a cor Anglais, colors the painful situation.
+
+The bassoon is the legitimate bass to the oboe and to the wood wind in
+general. It was evolved in the sixteenth century from the pommers and
+bombards: the tenors and basses of the shawm or oboe family. With the
+older instruments, the reeds were not taken hold of immediately by the
+lips, but were held in a kind of cup, called _pirouette_, which only
+allowed a very small part of the reed to project. In the oboe and
+bassoon the player has the full control of the reed with the lips,
+which is of great importance, both in expression and intonation. The
+bassoon economizes length, by being turned back upon itself, and, from
+its appearance, obtains in Italy and Germany the satirical appellation
+of "fagotto" or "fagott." It is made of wood, and has not, owing to
+many difficulties as yet unsurmounted, undergone those changes of
+construction that have partly transformed other wood wind instruments.
+From this reason--and perhaps the necessity of a bassoon player
+becoming intimately familiar with his instrument--bassoons by some of
+the older makers--notably, Savory--are still sought after, in
+preference to more modern ones. The instrument, although with
+extraordinary advantages in tone, character, and adaptability, that
+render it valuable to the composer, is yet complicated and capricious
+for the performer; but its very imperfections remove it from the
+mechanical tendencies of the age, often damaging to art; and, as the
+player has to rely very much upon his ear for correct intonation, he
+gets, in reality, near to the manipulation of the stringed
+instruments. The bassoons play readily with the violoncellos, their
+united tone being often advantageous for effect. When not so used, it
+falls back into its natural relationship with the wood wind division
+of the orchestra. The compass of the bassoon is from B flat, an octave
+below that in the bass clef, to B flat in the treble clef, a range of
+three octaves, produced by normal pressure, as far as the bass clef F.
+The F below the bass clef is the true lowest note, the other seven
+semitones descending to the B flat being obtained by holes and keys in
+the long joint and bell. These extra notes are not overblown. The
+fundamental notes are extended as in the oboes and flutes by
+overflowing to another octave, and afterward to the twelfth. In modern
+instruments yet higher notes, by the contrivance of small harmonic
+holes and cross fingerings, can be secured. Long notes, scales,
+arpeggios, are all practicable on this serviceable instrument, and in
+full harmony with clarinets, or oboes and horns, it forms part of a
+rich and beautiful combination. There is a very telling quality in the
+upper notes of the bassoon of which composers have made use.
+Structurally, a bassoon consists of several pieces, the wing, butt,
+long joints, and bell, and when fitted together, they form a hollow
+cone of about eight feet long, the air column tapering in diameter
+from three-sixteenths of an inch at the reed to one and three-quarter
+inches at the bell end.
+
+The bending back at the butt joint is pierced in one piece of wood,
+and the prolongation of the double tube is usually stopped by a
+flattened oval cork, but in some modern bassoons this is replaced by a
+properly curved tube. The height is thus reduced to a little over four
+feet, and the holes, assisted by the artifice of piercing them
+obliquely, are brought within reach of the fingers. The crook, in the
+end of which the reed is inserted, is about twelve inches long, and is
+adjusted to the shorter branch.
+
+The contra-bassoon is an octave lower than the bassoon, which implies
+that it should go down to the double B flat, two octaves below that in
+the bass clef, but it is customary to do without the lowest as well as
+the highest notes of this instrument. It is rarely used, but should
+not be dispensed with. Messrs. Mahillon, of Brussels, produce a reed
+contra-bass of metal, intended to replace the contra-bassoon of wood,
+but probably more with the view of completing the military band than
+for orchestral use. It is a conical brass tube of large proportions,
+with seventeen lateral holes of wide diameter and in geometrical
+relation, so that for each sound one key only is required. The compass
+of this contra-bass lies between D in the double bass octave and the
+lower F of the treble clef.
+
+The sarrusophones of French invention are a complete family, made in
+brass and with conical tubes pierced according to geometric relation,
+so that the sarrusophone is more equal than the oboe it copies and is
+intended, at least for military music, to replace. Being on a larger
+scale, the sarrusophones are louder than the corresponding instruments
+of the oboe family. There are six sarrusophones, from the sopranino in
+E flat to the contra-bass in B flat; and to replace the contra-bassoon
+in the orchestra there is a lower contrabass sarrusophone made in C,
+the compass of which is from the double bass octave B flat to the
+higher G in the bass clef.
+
+Before leaving the double reed wind instruments, a few words should be
+said of a family of instruments in the sixteenth century as important
+as the schalmeys, pommers, and bombards, but long since extinct. This
+was the cromorne, a wooden instrument with cylindrical column of air;
+the name is considered to remain in the cremona stop of the organ. The
+lower end is turned up like a shepherd's crook reversed, from whence
+the French name "tournebout." Cromorne is the German "krummhorn;"
+there is no English equivalent known.
+
+The tone, as in all the reed instruments of the period, was strong and
+often bleating. The double reed was inclosed in a _pirouette_, or cup,
+and the keys of the tenor or bass, just the same as with similar
+flutes and bombards, were hidden by a barrel-shaped cover, pierced
+with small openings, apparently intended to modify the too searching
+tone as well as to protect the touch pieces which moved the keys. The
+compass was limited to fundamental notes, and from the cylindrical
+tube and reed was an octave lower in pitch than the length would show.
+In all these instruments provision was made in the holes and keys for
+transposition of the hands according to the player's habit of placing
+the right or left hand above the other. The unused hole was stopped
+with wax. There is a fine and complete set of four cromornes in the
+museum of the Conservatoire at Brussels.
+
+We must also place among double-reed instruments the various bagpipes,
+cornemuses, and musettes, which are shawm or oboe instruments with
+reservoirs of air, and furnished with drones inclosing single reeds. I
+shall have more to say about the drone in the third lecture. In
+restricting our attention to the Highland bagpipe, with which we are
+more or less familiar, it is surprising to find the peculiar scale of
+the chaunter, or finger pipe, in an old Arabic scale, still prevailing
+in Syria and Egypt. Dr. A.J. Ellis' lecture on "The Musical Scales of
+Various Nations," read before the Society of Arts, and printed in the
+_Journal_ of the Society, March 27, 1885, No. 1688, vol. xxxiii., and
+in an appendix, October 30, 1885, in the same volume, should be
+consulted by any one who wishes to know more about this curious
+similarity.
+
+We have now arrived at the clarinet. Although embodying a very ancient
+principle--the "squeaker" reed which our little children still make,
+and continued in the Egyptian arghool--the clarinet is the most recent
+member of the wood wind band. The reed initiating the tone by the
+player's breath is a broad, single, striking or beating reed, so
+called because the vibrating tongue touches the edges of the body of
+the cutting or framing. A cylindrical pipe, as that of the clarinet,
+drops, approximately, an octave in pitch when the column of air it
+contains is set up in vibration by such a reed, because the reed
+virtually closes the pipe at the end where it is inserted, and like a
+stopped organ pipe sets up a node of maximum condensation or
+rarefaction at that end. This peculiarity interferes with the
+resonance of the even-numbered partials of the harmonic scale, and
+permits only the odd-numbered partials, 1, 3, 5, and so on, to sound.
+The first harmonic, as we find in the clarinet, is therefore the third
+partial, or twelfth of the fundamental note, and not the octave, as in
+the oboe and flute.
+
+In the oboe the shifting of the nodes in a conical tube open at its
+base, and narrowing to its apex, permits the resonance of the complete
+series of the harmonic scale, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and upward. The flute has
+likewise the complete series, because through the blowhole it is a
+pipe open at both ends. But while stating the law which governs the
+pitch and harmonic scale of the clarinet, affirmed equally by
+observation and demonstration, we are left at present with only the
+former when regarding two very slender, almost cylindrical reed pipes,
+discovered in 1889 by Mr. Flinders Petrie while excavating at Fayoum
+the tomb of an Egyptian lady named Maket. Mr. Petrie dates these pipes
+about 1100 B.C., and they were the principal subject of Mr.
+Southgate's recent lectures upon the Egyptian scale.
+
+Now Mr. J. Finn, who made these ancient pipes sound at these lectures
+with an arghool reed of straw, was able upon the pipe which had, by
+finger holes, a tetrachord, to repeat that tetrachord a fifth higher
+by increased pressure of blowing, and thus form an octave scale,
+comprising eight notes. "Against the laws of nature," says a friend of
+mine, for the pipe having dropped more than an octave through the
+reed, was at its fundamental pitch, and should have overblown a
+twelfth.
+
+But Mr. Finn allows me to say with reference to those reeds, perhaps
+the oldest sounding musical instruments known to exist, that his
+experiments with straw reeds seem to indicate low, medium, and high
+octave registers. The first and last difficult to obtain with reeds as
+made by us. He seeks the fundamental tones of the Maket pipes in the
+first or low register, an octave below the normal pitch. By this the
+fifths revert to twelfths. I offer no opinion, but will leave this
+curious phenomenon to the consideration of my friends, Mr. Blaikley,
+Mr. Victor Mahillon, and Mr. Hermann Smith, acousticians intimate with
+wind instruments.
+
+The clarinet was invented about A.D. 1700, by Christopher Denner, of
+Nuremberg. By his invention, an older and smaller instrument, the
+chalumeau, of eleven notes, without producible harmonics, was, by an
+artifice of raising a key to give access to the air column at a
+certain point, endowed with a harmonic series of eleven notes a
+twelfth higher. The chalumeau being a cylindrical pipe, the upper
+partials could only be in an odd series, and when Denner made them
+speak, they were consequently not an octave, but a twelfth above the
+fundamental notes. Thus, an instrument which ranged, with the help of
+eight finger holes and two keys, from F in the bass clef to B flat in
+the treble had an addition given to it at once of a second register
+from C in the treble clef to E flat above it. The scale of the
+original instrument is still called chalumeau by the clarinet player;
+about the middle of the last century it was extended down to E. The
+second register of notes, which by this lengthening of pipe started
+from B natural, received the name of clarinet, or clarionet, from the
+clarino or clarion, the high solo trumpet of the time it was expected
+that this bright harmonic series would replace.
+
+This name of clarinet, or clarionet, became accepted for the entire
+instrument, including the chalumeau register. It is the communication
+between the external air and the upper part of the air column in the
+instrument which, initiating a ventral segment or loop of vibration,
+forces the air column to divide for the next possible partial, the
+twelfth, that Denner has the merit of having made practicable. At the
+same time the manipulation of it presents a difficulty in learning the
+instrument. It is in the nature of things that there should be a
+difference of tone quality between the lower and upper registers thus
+obtained; and that the highest fundamental notes, G sharp, A and B
+flat, should be colorless compared with the first notes of the
+overblown series. This is a difficulty the player has to contend with,
+as well as the complexity of fingering, due to there being no less
+than eighteen sound holes. Much has been done to graft Boehm's system
+of fingering upon the clarinet, but the thirteen key system, invented
+early in this century by Iwan Muller, is still most employed. The
+increased complication of mechanism is against a change, and there is
+even a stronger reason, which I cannot do better than translate, in
+the appropriate words of M. Lavoix fils, the author of a well-known
+and admirable work upon instrumentation:
+
+    "Many things have still to be done, but inventors must not lose
+    the point in view, that no tone quality is more necessary to the
+    composer than that of the clarinet in its full extent; that it
+    is very necessary especially to avoid melting together the two
+    registers of chalumeau and clarinet, so distinct from each
+    other. If absolute justness for these instruments is to be
+    acquired at the price of those inestimable qualities, it would
+    be better a hundred times to leave it to virtuosi, thanks to
+    their ability, to palliate the defects of their instrument,
+    rather than sacrifice one of the most beautiful and intensely
+    colored voices of our orchestra."
+
+There are several clarinets of various pitches, and formerly more than
+are used now, owing to the difficulty of playing except in handy keys.
+In the modern orchestra the A and B flat clarinets are the most used;
+in the military band, B flat and E flat. The C clarinet is not much
+used now. All differ in tone and quality; the A one is softer than the
+B flat; the C is shrill. The B flat is the virtuoso instrument. In
+military bands the clarinet takes the place which would be that of the
+violin in the orchestra, but the tone of it is always characteristically
+different. Although introduced in the time of Handel and Bach those
+composers made no use of it. With Mozart it first became a leading
+orchestral instrument.
+
+The Basset horn, which has become the sensuously beautiful alto
+clarinet in E flat, is related to the clarinet in the same way that
+the cor Anglais is to the oboe. Basset is equivalent to Baryton (there
+is a Basset flute figured in Prætorius), and this instrument appears
+to have been invented by one Horn, living at Passau, in Bavaria, about
+1770. His name given to the instrument has been mistranslated into
+Italian as Corno di Bassetto. There is a bass clarinet employed with
+effect by Meyerbeer in the "Huguenots," but the characteristic
+clarinet tone is less noticeable; it is, however, largely used in
+military bands. The Basset horn had the deep compass of the bass
+clarinet which separates it from the present alto clarinet, although
+it was more like the alto in caliber. The alto clarinet is also used
+in military bands; and probably what the Basset horn would have been
+written for is divided between the present bass and alto clarinets.
+
+Preceding the invention of the sarrusophone, by which a perfected oboe
+was contrived in a brass instrument, a modified brass instrument, the
+saxophone, bearing a similar relation to the clarinet, was invented in
+1846 by Sax, whose name will occur again and again in connection with
+important inventions in military band instruments. The saxophone is
+played like the clarinet with the intervention of a beating reed, but
+is not cylindrical; it has a conical tube like the oboe. The different
+shape of the column of air changes the first available harmonic
+obtained by overblowing to the octave instead of the twelfth; and also
+in consequence of the greater strength of the even harmonics,
+distinctly changing the tone quality. The sarrusophone may fairly be
+regarded as an oboe or bassoon; but the saxophone is not so closely
+related to the clarinet. There are four sizes of saxophone now made
+between high soprano and bass. Starting from the fourth fundamental
+note, each key can be employed in the next higher octave, by the help
+of other two keys, which, being opened successively, set up a
+vibrating loop. The saxophones, although difficult to play, fill an
+important place in the military music of France and Belgium, and have
+been employed with advantage in the French orchestra. The fingering of
+all saxophones is that attributed to Boehm.
+
+The cup shaped mouthpiece must now take the place of the reed in our
+attention. Here the lips fit against a hollow cup shaped reservoir,
+and, acting as vibrating membranes, may be compared with the vocal
+chords of the larynx. They have been described as acting as true
+reeds. Each instrument in which such a mouthpiece is employed requires
+a slightly different form of it. The French horn is the most important
+brass instrument in modern music. It consists of a body of conical
+shape about seven feet long, without the crooks, ending in a large
+bell, which spreads out to a diameter of fifteen inches. The crooks
+are fitted between the body and the mouthpiece; they are a series of
+smaller interchangeable tubings, which extend in length as they
+descend in pitch, and set the instrument in different keys. The
+mouthpiece is a funnel shaped tube of metal, by preference silver;
+and, in the horn, is exceptionally not cup shaped, but the reverse: it
+tapers, as a cone, from three-quarters of an inch diameter to about a
+minimum of three-sixteenths of an inch, and is a quarter of an inch
+where the smaller end of the mouthpiece is inserted in the upper
+opening of the crook. The first horn has a mouthpiece of rather less
+diameter than the second. The peculiar mouthpiece and narrow tubing
+have very much to do with the soft voice-like tone quality of the
+horn. For convenience of holding, the tubing is bent in a spiral form.
+There is a tuning slide attached to the body, and, of late years,
+valves have been added to the horn, similar to those applied to the
+cornet and other wind instruments. They have, to a considerable
+extent, superseded hand stopping, by which expedient the intonation
+could be altered a semitone or whole tone, by depression of the
+natural notes of the instrument. In brass, or other instruments, the
+natural harmonics depend on the pressure of blowing; and the brass
+differs entirely from the wood wind, in this respect, that it is rare,
+or with poor effect, the lowest or fundamental note can be made to
+sound. Stopping the horn is done by extending the open hand some way
+up the bore; there is half stopping and whole stopping, according to
+the interval, the half tone or whole tone required. As may be
+imagined, the stopped notes are weak and dull compared with the open.
+On the other hand, the tubing introduced for valves not being quite
+conformable in curve with the instrument, and hampered with
+indispensable joins, unless in the best form of modern valve, affects
+the smoothness of tone. No doubt there has been of late years a great
+improvement in the manufacture of valves. Many horns are still made
+with crooks covering an octave from B flat to B flat, 8 feet 6 inches
+to 17 feet; but most players now use only the F crook, and trust to
+the valves, rather than to change the crooks, so that we lose the
+fullness of sound of those below F. The natural horn was originally in
+D, but was not always restricted to that key; there have been horns
+for F, G, high A, and B flat. This may, however, be said for the valve
+horn, that it does not limit or restrict composers in writing for the
+open or natural notes, which are always more beautiful in effect.
+
+Valves were invented and first introduced in Prussia about A.D. 1815.
+At first there were two, but there are now generally three. In this
+country and France they are worked by pistons, which, when pressed
+down, give access for the air into channels or supplementary tubings
+on one side of the main bore, thus lengthening it by a tone for the
+first valve, a semitone for the second, and a tone and a semitone for
+the third. When released by the finger, the piston returns by the
+action of a spring. In large bass and contralto instruments, a fourth
+piston is added, which lowers the pitch two tones and a semitone. By
+combining the use of three valves, lower notes are obtained--thus, for
+a major third, the second is depressed with the third; for a fourth,
+the first and third; and for the tritone, the first, second, and
+third. But the intonation becomes imperfect when valves are used
+together, because the lengths of additional tubing being calculated
+for the single depressions, when added to each other, they are too
+short for the deeper notes required. By an ingenious invention of
+compensating pistons, Mr. Blaikley, of Messrs. Boosey's, has
+practically rectified this error without extra moving parts or altered
+fingering. In the valve section, each altered note becomes a
+fundamental for another harmonic scale. In Germany a rotary valve, a
+kind of stop cock, is preferred to the piston. It is said to give
+greater freedom of execution, the closeness of the shake being its
+best point, but is more expensive and liable to derangement. The
+invention of M. Adolphe Sax, of a single ascending piston in place of
+a group of descending ones, by which the tube is shortened instead of
+lengthened, met, for a time, with influential support. It is suitable
+for both conical and cylindrical instruments, and has six valves,
+which are always used independently. However, practical difficulties
+have interfered with its success. With any valve system, however, a
+difficulty with the French horn is its great variation in length by
+crooks, inimical to the principle of the valve system, which relies
+upon an adjustment by aliquot parts. It will, however, be seen that
+the invention of valves has, by transforming and extending wind
+instruments, so as to become chromatic, given many advantages to the
+composer. Yet it must, at the same time, be conceded, in spite of the
+increasing favor shown for valve instruments, that the tone must issue
+more freely, and with more purity and beauty, from a simple tube than
+from tubes with joinings and other complications, that interfere with
+the regularity and smoothness of vibration, and, by mechanical
+facilities, tend to promote a dull uniformity of tone quality.
+
+Owing to the changes of pitch by crooks, it is not easy to define the
+compass of the French horn. Between C in the bass clef and G above the
+treble will represent its serviceable notes. It is better that the
+first horn should not descend below middle C, or the second rise above
+the higher E of the treble clef. Four are generally used in modern
+scores. The place of the horn is with the wood wind band. From Handel,
+every composer has written for it, and what is known as the small
+orchestra of string and wood wind bands combined is completed by this
+beautiful instrument.
+
+The most prominent instruments that add to the splendor of the full
+orchestra are trumpets and trombones. They are really members of one
+family, as the name trombone--big trumpet--implies, and blend well
+together. The trumpet is an instrument of court and state functions,
+and, as the soprano instrument, comes first. It is what is known as an
+eight foot instrument in pitch, and gives the different harmonics from
+the third to the twelfth, and even to the sixteenth. It is made of
+brass, mixed metal, or silver, and is about five feet seven inches in
+real length, when intended for the key of F without a slide; but is
+twice turned back upon itself, the first and third lengths lying
+contiguous, and the second about two inches from them. The diameter is
+three-eighths of an inch along the cylindrical length; it then widens
+out for about fifteen inches, to form the bell.
+
+When fitted with a slide for transposition--an invention for the
+trumpet in the last century--this double tubing, about five inches in
+length on each side, is connected with the second length. It is worked
+from the center with the second and third fingers of the right band,
+and, when pulled back, returns to its original position by a spring.
+There are five crooks. The mouthpiece is hemispherical and convex, and
+the exact shape of it is of great importance. It has a rim with
+slightly rounded surface. The diameter of the mouthpiece varies
+according to the player and the pitch required. With the first crook,
+or rather shank, and mouthpiece, the length of the trumpet is
+increased to six feet, and the instrument is then in the key of F. The
+second shank transposes it to E, the third to E flat, and the fourth
+to D. The fifth, and largest--two feet one and a half inches
+long--extends the instrument to eight feet, and lowers the key to C.
+The slide is used for transposition by a semitone or a whole tone,
+thus making new fundamentals, and correcting certain notes of the
+natural harmonic scale, as the seventh, eleventh, and thirteenth,
+which do not agree with our musical scale. Mr. W. Wyatt has recently
+taken out a patent for a double-slide trumpet, which possesses a
+complete chromatic scale. In the required length of slide the ear has
+always to assist. It is clear that the very short shifts of a double
+slide demand great nicety of manipulation. It is, of course, different
+with the valve trumpet. The natural trumpets are not limited to one or
+two keys, but those in F, E, E flat, D, B flat, and even A have been
+employed; but, usually, the valve trumpets are in F, and the higher B
+flat, with a growing inclination, but an unfortunate one, to be
+restricted to the latter, it being easier for cornet players. The tone
+of the high B flat trumpet cannot, however, compare with the F one,
+and with it the lowest notes are lost. Of course, when there are two
+or three trumpets, the high B flat one finds a place. However, the
+valve system applied to the trumpet is not regarded with satisfaction,
+as it makes the tone dull. For grand heroic effect, valve trumpets
+cannot replace the natural trumpets with slides, which are now only to
+be heard in this country.
+
+The simple or field trumpet appears to exist now in one representative
+only, the E flat cavalry trumpet. Bach wrote for trumpets up to the
+twentieth harmonic--but for this the trumpet had to be divided into a
+principal, which ended at the tenth harmonic--and the clarino in two
+divisions, the first of which went from the eighth harmonic up to as
+high as the player could reach, and the second clarino, from the sixth
+to the twelfth. The use of the clarinet by composers about the middle
+of the last century seems to have abolished these very high trumpets.
+So completely had they gone, by the time of Mozart, that he had to
+change Handel's trumpet parts, to accommodate them to performers of
+his own time, and transfer the high notes to the oboes and clarinets.
+
+Having alluded to the cornet à piston, it may be introduced here,
+particularly as from being between a trumpet and a bugle, and of four
+foot tone, it is often made to do duty for the more noble trumpet. But
+the distinctive feature of this, as of nearly all brass instruments
+since the invention of valves, tends to a compromise instrument, which
+owes its origin to the bugle. The cornet à piston is now not very
+different from the valve bugle in B flat on the one hand and from the
+small valve trumpet in the same key on the other. It is a hybrid
+between this high pitch trumpet and the bugle, but compared with the
+latter it has a much smaller bell. By the use of valves and pistons,
+with which it was the first to be endowed, the cornet can easily
+execute passages of consecutive notes that in the natural trumpet can
+only be got an octave higher. It is a facile instrument, and double
+tonguing, which is also possible with the horn and trumpet, is one of
+its popular means for display. It has a harmonic compass from middle C
+to C above the treble clef, and can go higher, but with difficulty. A
+few lower notes, however, are easily taken with the valves.
+
+We now come to the trombones, grand, sonorous tubes, which, existing
+in three or four sizes since the sixteenth century, are among the most
+potent additions on occasion to the full orchestra. Their treble can
+be regarded as the English slide trumpet, but it is not exactly so.
+There appears to have been as late as Bach a soprano trombone, and it
+is figured by Virdung, A.D. 1511, as no larger than the field trumpet.
+The trumpet is not on so large a caliber, and in the seventeenth
+century had its own family of two clarinos and three tubas. The old
+English name of the trombone is sackbut. The old wooden cornet, or
+German zinke, an obsolete, cupped mouthpiece instrument, the real bass
+of which, according to family, is the now obsolete serpent, was used
+in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries as the treble instrument in
+combination with alto, tenor, and bass trombones. The leading features
+of the trumpet are also found, as already inferred, in the trombone;
+there is the cupped mouthpiece, the cylindrical tubing, and, finally,
+a gradual increase in diameter to the bell. The slide used for the
+trumpet appears for four centuries, and probably longer, in the well
+known construction of the trombone. In this instrument it consists of
+two cylindrical tubes parallel with each other, upon which two other
+tubes communicating by a pipe at their lower ends curved in a half
+circle glide without loss of air. The mouthpiece is fitted to an upper
+end, and a bell to a lower end of the slide. When the slide is closed,
+the instrument is at its highest pitch, and as the column of air is
+lengthened by drawing the slide out, the pitch is lowered. By this
+contrivance a complete chromatic scale can be obtained, and as the
+determination of the notes it produces is by ear, we have in it the
+only wind instrument that can compare in accuracy with stringed
+instruments. The player holds a cross bar between the two lengths of
+the instrument, which enables him to lengthen or shorten the slide at
+pleasure, and in the bass trombone, as the stretch would be too great
+for the length of a man's arm, a jointed handle is attached to the
+cross bar. The player has seven positions, each a semitone apart for
+elongation, and each note has its own system of harmonics, but in
+practice he only occasionally goes beyond the fifth. The present
+trombones are the alto in E flat descending to A in the seventh
+position; the tenor in B flat descending to E; the bass in F
+descending to B, and a higher bass in G descending to C sharp. Wagner,
+who has made several important innovations in writing for bass brass
+instruments, requires an octave bass trombone in B flat; an octave
+lower than the tenor one, in the "Nibelungen." The fundamental tones
+of the trombone are called "pedal" notes. They are difficult to get
+and less valuable than harmonics because, in all wind instruments,
+notes produced by overblowing are richer than the fundamental notes in
+tone quality. Valve trombones do not, however, find favor, the defects
+of intonation being more prominent than in shorter instruments. But
+playing with wide bore tubas and their kindred is not advantageous to
+this noble instrument.
+
+The serpent has been already mentioned as the bass of the obsolete
+zinken or wooden cornets, straight or curved, with cupped mouthpiece.
+It gained its serpentine form from the facility given thereby to the
+player to cover the six holes with his fingers. In course of time keys
+were added to it, and when changed into a bassoon shape its name
+changed to the Russian bass horn or basson Russe. A Parisian
+instrument maker, Halary, in 1817, made this a complete instrument,
+after the manner of the keyed bugle of Halliday, and producing it in
+brass called it the ophicleide, from two Greek words meaning serpent
+and keys--keyed serpent--although it was more like a keyed bass bugle.
+The wooden serpent has gone out of use in military bands within
+recollection, the ophicleide from orchestras only recently. It has
+been superseded by the development of the valved tubas. The euphonium
+and bombardon, the basses of the important family of saxhorns, now
+completely cover the ground of bass wind instrument music. The keyed
+bugle, invented by Joseph Halliday, bandmaster of the Cavan militia,
+in 1810, may be regarded as the prototype of all these instruments,
+excepting that the keys have been entirely replaced by the valve
+system, an almost contemporary invention by Stölzel and Blumel, in
+Prussia, in 1815. The valve instruments began to prevail as early as
+1850. The sound tube of all bugles, saxhorns, and tubas is conical,
+with a much wider curve than the horn. The quality of tone produced is
+a general kind of tone, not possessing the individuality of any of the
+older instruments. All these valve instruments may be comprehended
+under the French name of saxhorn. There is a division between them of
+the higher instruments or bugles, which do not sound the fundamental
+note, and of the lower, or tubas, which sound it readily. Properly
+military band instruments, the second or bass division, has been taken
+over to the orchestra; and Wagner has made great use of it in his
+great scores. The soprano cornets, bugles, or flugelhorns and saxhorns
+are in E flat; the corresponding alto instruments in B flat, which is
+also the pitch of the ordinary cornet. The tenor, baryton, and bass
+instruments follow in similar relation; the bass horns are, as I have
+said, called tubas; and that with four valves, the euphonium. The
+bombardon, or E flat tuba, has much richer lower notes.
+
+For military purposes, this and the contrabass--the helicon--are
+circular. Finally, the contrabass tubas in B flat, and in C, for
+Wagner, have immense depth and potentiality of tone; all these
+instruments are capable of pianissimo.
+
+There are many varieties now of these brass instruments, nearer
+particulars of which may be found in Gevaert, and other eminent
+musicians' works on instrumentation. One fact I will not pass by,
+which is that, from the use of brass instruments (which rise in pitch
+so rapidly under increase of temperature, as Mr. Blaikley has shown,
+almost to the coefficient of the sharpening under heat in organ pipes)
+has come about that rise in pitch which, from 1816 to 1846--until
+repressed by the authority of the late Sir Michael Costa, and, more
+recently, by the action of the Royal Military College at Kneller
+Hall--is an extraordinary feature in musical history. All previous
+variations in pitch--and they have comprised as much as a fourth in
+the extremes--having been due either to transposition, owing to the
+requirements of the human voice, or to national or provincial
+measurements. The manufacture of brass instruments is a distinct
+craft, although some of the processes are similar to those used by
+silversmiths, coppersmiths, and braziers.
+
+I have only time to add a few words about the percussion instruments
+which the military band permits to connect with the wind. Drums are,
+with the exception of kettle drums, indeterminate instruments, hardly,
+in themselves, to be regarded as musical, and yet important factors of
+musical and especially rhythmic effect. The kettle drum is a caldron,
+usually of brass or copper, covered with a vellum head bound at the
+edge round an iron ring, which fits the circle formed by the upper
+part of the metal body. Screws working on this ring tune the vellum
+head, or vibrating membrane as we may call it, by tightening or
+slackening it, so as to obtain any note of the scale within its
+compass. The tonic and dominant are generally required, but other
+notes are, in some compositions, used; even octaves have been
+employed. The use Beethoven made of kettle drums may be regarded among
+the particular manifestations of his genius. Two kettle drums may be
+considered among the regular constituents of the orchestra, but this
+number has been extended; in one remarkable instance, that of Berlioz
+in his Requiem, to eight pairs. According to Mr. Victor de Pontigny,
+whose article I am much indebted to (in Sir George Grove's dictionary)
+upon the drum, the relative diameters, theoretically, for a pair of
+kettle drums are in the proportion of 30 to 26, bass and tenor;
+practically the diameter of the drums at the French opera is 29 and
+25¼ inches, and of the Crystal Palace band, 28 and 24¼ inches. In
+cavalry regiments the drums are slung so as to hang on each side of
+the drummers horse's neck. The best drum sticks are of whalebone, each
+terminating in a small wooden button covered with sponge. For the bass
+drum and side drum I must be content to refer to Mr. Victor de
+Pontigny's article, and also for the tambourine, but the Provencal
+tambourines I have met with have long, narrow sound bodies, and are
+strung with a few very coarse strings which the player sounds with a
+hammer. This instrument is the rhythmic bass and support to the simple
+galoubet, a cylindrical pipe with two holes in front and one behind,
+sounded by the same performer. The English pipe and tabor is a similar
+combination, also with one player, of such a pipe and a small
+drum-head tambourine. Lastly, to conclude percussion instruments,
+cymbals are round metal plates, consisting of an alloy of copper and
+tin--say 80 parts to 20--with sunk hollow centers, from which the
+Greek name. They are not exactly clashed together to elicit their
+sound, but rubbed across each other in a sliding fashion. Like the
+triangle, a steel rod, bent into the form indicated by the name, but
+open at one corner so as to make it an elastic rod, free at both ends;
+the object is to add to the orchestral matter luminous crashes, as it
+were, and dazzling points of light, when extreme brilliancy is
+required.
+
+In conclusion, I must be allowed to express my obligations to Dr. W.H.
+Stone and Mr. Victor Mahillon, to Mr. Ebenezer Prout, Mr. Richard
+Shepherd Rockstro, Mr. Lavoix fils, and Dr. H. Riemann, whose writings
+concerning wind instruments have materially helped me; to Messrs.
+Boosey & Co., and to Messrs. Rudall, Carte & Co., for the loan of the
+instruments used in the illustrations; and also to Mr. D.J. Blaikley
+and Mr. Henry Carte, for valuable personal aid on the present
+occasion. Their kindness in reading through my manuscript--Mr.
+Blaikley throughout--and in offering friendly and generous criticisms;
+also their presence and assistance by trial of the various
+instruments, I cannot adequately thank them for, or sufficiently
+extol.
+
+(In the course of this lecture, Mr. Henry Carte played upon a concert
+flute, also a B flat and a G flute, an eight-keyed flute, and a
+recorder. Mr. D.J. Blaikley continued the illustrations upon the oboe,
+bassoon, clarinet, French horn, slide trumpet, valve tenor horn,
+cornet à piston, B flat tenor slide trombone, B flat euphonium, B flat
+contrabass tuba, and B flat contrabass double slide trombone.)
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+HOW GAS CYLINDERS ARE MADE.
+
+
+The supply of compressed gas in metal cylinders has now assumed the
+proportions of an important industry, more especially since it was
+found possible, by the Brin process, to obtain oxygen direct from the
+atmosphere. The industry is not exactly a new one, for carbon dioxide
+and nitrous oxide (the latter for the use of dentists) have been
+supplied in a compressed state for many years. Now, with the creation
+of the modern amateur photographer, who can make lantern slides, and
+the more general adoption of the optical lantern for the purposes of
+demonstration and amusement, there has arisen a demand for the
+limelight such as was never experienced before, and as the limelight
+is dependent upon the two gases, hydrogen and oxygen, for its support,
+these gases are now supplied in large quantities commercially. At
+first the gas cylinders were made of wrought iron; they were cumbrous
+and heavy, and the pressure of the inclosed gas was so low that a
+receptacle to hold only ten feet was a most unwieldy concern. But
+times have changed, and a cylinder of about the same size, but half
+the weight, is now made to hold four times the quantity of gas at the
+enormous initial pressure of 1,800 pounds on every square inch. This
+means the pressure which an ordinary locomotive boiler has to
+withstand multiplied by twelve. The change is due to improved methods
+of manufacture and to the employment of mild steel of special quality
+in lieu of the wrought iron previously employed. The cylinders are now
+made without joint or seam, and the process of manufacture is most
+interesting. A short time ago we had an opportunity of watching the
+various necessary operations involved in making these cylinders at the
+Birmingham works of Messrs. Taunton, Delamard & Co., by whose courtesy
+we were enabled to make notes of the process.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.]
+
+Beginning with the raw material, we were shown a disk of metal like
+that shown in Fig. 1, and measuring thirty inches in diameter and
+three-quarters of an inch in thickness. From such a "blank" a cylinder
+destined to hold 100 feet of compressed gas can be constructed, and
+the first operation is to heat the "blank" in a furnace, and afterward
+to stamp it into the cup-like form shown in Fig. 2. To all intents and
+purposes this represents the end of a finished cylinder, but it is far
+too bulky to form the end of one of the size indicated; indeed, it in
+reality contains enough metal to make the entire vessel. By a series
+of operations it is now heated and drawn out longer and longer, while
+its thickness diminishes and its diameter grows less. These operations
+are carried out by means of a number of hydraulic rams, which
+regularly decrease in size. Fig. 3 roughly represents one of these
+rams with the plunger ready to descend and force its way into the
+partially formed red hot gas cylinder, C, and further into the well,
+W. The plunger may be compared to a finger and the cylinder to a
+glove, while the well may represent a hole into which both are thrust
+in order to reduce the thickness of the glove. With huge tongs the
+cylinder, fresh from the furnace, is placed in position, but just
+before the plunger presses into the red hot cup, one of the workmen
+empties into the latter a little water, so as to partially cool the
+bottom and prevent its being thrust out by the powerful plunger. Oil
+is also used plentifully, so that as the plunger works slowly down the
+red hot mass, it is surrounded by smoky flames. It presently forces
+the cylinder into the well, and when the end of the stroke is reached,
+a stop piece is inserted through an opening in the upper part of the
+well, so as to arrest the edge of the cylinder while the reverse
+action of drawing out the plunger is proceeded with. Directly the
+finger is drawn out of the glove--in other words, immediately the
+plunger is raised out of the cylinder--the latter drops down below
+with a heavy thud, still in a red hot condition.
+
+[Illustration: FIG 3.]
+
+This operation of hot drawing is repeated again and again in rams of
+diminishing size until the cylinder assumes the diameter and length
+required. This hot drawing leaves the surface of the metal marked with
+longitudinal lines, not unlike the glacier scratches on a rock, albeit
+they are straighter and more regular. But the next operation not only
+obliterates these markings, and gives the metal a smooth surface like
+that of polished silver, but it also confers upon the material a
+homogeneity which it did not before possess, and without which it
+would never bear the pressure which it is destined to withstand when
+finished. This operation consists in a final application of the
+hydraulic ram while the metal remains perfectly cold, instead of red
+hot, as in the previous cases.
+
+As the result of these various hydraulic operations, we have a
+perfectly formed cylinder closed at one end, and we now follow it into
+another department of the works, when its open end is once more
+brought in a furnace to a red heat. The object of this is to make the
+metal soft while the shoulder and neck of the vessel are formed. To
+accomplish this, the heated open end of the cylinder is laid
+horizontally upon a kind of semicircular cradle, and is held there by
+tongs handled by two men. Another workman places over the open end a
+die of the form shown in Fig. 4, and while the cylinder is slowly
+turned round in its cradle, two sledge hammers are brought down with
+frequent blows upon the die, closing in the end of the cylinder, but
+leaving a central hole as shown in Fig. 5. Further operations reduce
+the opening still more until it is closed altogether, and a projection
+is formed as shown at Fig. 6. This projection is now bored through,
+and the cylinder is ready for testing.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.]
+
+The cylinder is submitted to a water test, the liquid being forced in
+until the gauge shows a pressure of two tons to the square inch.
+Cylinders have been known to give way under this ordeal, but without
+any dangerous consequences. The metal simply rips up, making a report
+at the moment of fracture as loud as a gun. The wonderful strength of
+the metal employed may be gauged by the circumstance that the walls of
+the cylinder designed to hold 100 feet of gas are only five-sixteenths
+of an inch in thickness.
+
+During the manufacture of the cylinder, as we have already indicated,
+much oil is used, and, so far as steel can be saturated with that
+fluid--in the popular sense--the metal is in that state. It is
+essential that this oil should be completely got rid of, and this is
+carefully done before the cylinder is charged with gas. Previous to
+such charging, the vessel has to be fitted with its valve. Of these
+valves there are three kinds, known respectively as the Brin, the
+Birmingham, and the Manchester. Each has its admirers, but we cannot
+here discuss their individual merits.
+
+The charging of the cylinder is brought about by a powerful pump
+having three cylinders so arranged that the compressed contents of the
+first cylinder are still further compressed in the second, and still
+more highly in the third. The filling of a 100 ft. cylinder occupies
+about half an hour.--_Photographic News_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE HORSESHOE.
+
+BY DISTRICT VETERINARIAN ZIPPELIUS, OF WURTZBURG.
+
+_Translated by S.E. Weber, V.S.[1]_
+
+   [Footnote 1: From _Theirarztliche Mittheilungen_, organ des
+   Vereins badischer Theirarzte, Karlsruhe, No. IV., April,
+   1891.--_Veterinary Archives._]
+
+
+      Kind, gentle steed, nobly standing,
+      Four shoes will I put on your feet,
+      Firm and good, that you'll be fleet,
+      That is Donar's hammer saying.
+
+      To the woods and homeward go,
+      Always on the straight road thro',
+      Far from what is bad, still fleeing,
+      That is Donar's hammer saying.
+
+      Should wounds and pain become distressing,
+      Blood to blood shall flow,
+      Bone to bone shall grow,
+      That is Donar's hammer saying.
+
+      Carry the rider, true little steed,
+      Onward to all good luck bringing;
+      Carry him thence and back with speed,
+      That is Donar's hammer saying.
+
+                  --_Old Meresburger Song_.
+
+The horse appeared comparatively late in the group of domestic
+animals. In searching the monuments of the ancients, which have
+furnished the foundation for our present culture, that is, of the
+littoral inhabitants of the Mediterranean, and of the people of
+Mesopotamia, we find in Egypt the first traces of the horse. But even
+here it appears late, on the monuments of the first ruling patricians
+of human origin.[2] Especially during the period of Memphis (I-X
+Dynasty), then under the rules of Thebes (XI-XVI Dynasty), there is no
+trace of the horse.
+
+   [Footnote 2: Until the time Menes, with whom historical times
+   begin, ruled in Egypt among visionary heroes or mythological
+   gods.]
+
+It is first in the transition period, from the late rule of Thebes
+(XVII-XX Dynasty) to the so-called period of Sut (XXI-XXX Dynasty)
+that there appears, in the wall pictures of the Pharaohs' tombs,
+representations of the horse. The oldest, now known, picture of the
+horse is found on the walls of the tombs of Seti I. (1458-1507 B.C.)
+under whose reign the Israelite wandered from Egypt. The horses of the
+mortuary pictures are very well drawn, and have an unmistakable
+oriental type. There has therefore undoubtedly existed in Egypt high
+culture, for over 4,000 years, without representation of the horse,
+which was the next animal domesticated after the cat.
+
+From this time on we find the horse frequently represented both by the
+vainglorious despots of Mesopotamia and on the so-called Etruscan
+vases, which appeared after the influence of Greek art, when, on
+almost every urn, horses in lively action and in various forms of
+bodily development, almost always of an oriental type, are to be
+recognized. But neither here, nor in Homer, nor in the many later
+representations of the horse on the Roman triumphal arches, etc., are
+to be found horses whose hoofs have any trace of protection. Records,
+which describe to us the misfortunes of armies, whose horses had run
+their feet sore, we find on the contrary at a very early time, as in
+Diodorus, regarding the cavalry of Alexander the Great, in Xenophon,
+regarding the retreat of the ten thousand, in Polybius, regarding the
+cavalry of Hannibal in Etruria, etc. It is also known that the cavalry
+of the linguist King of Pontus, Mithridates the Great, at times and
+specially at the siege of Cyzicus were delayed, in order to let the
+hoofs of the horses grow.
+
+On the contrary it seems strange that of the Huns alone, whose
+horsemen swept over whole continents from the Asiatic highlands like a
+thunderstorm, such trouble had not become known either through the
+numerous authors of the eastern and western Roman empire or from
+Gallia.
+
+Horseshoeing, very likely, was invented by different nations at about
+the same period during the migration of the nations, and the various
+kinds of new inventions were brought together in Germany only, after
+each had acquired a national stamp according to climate and
+usefulness.
+
+In this way come from the south the thin, plate-like horseshoes, with
+staved rim, covering the whole hoof; from the Mongolian tribes of
+middle Asia the "Stolleneisen" (calk shoe); while to our northern
+ancestors, and indeed the Normans, must be ascribed with great
+probability the invention of the "Griffeneisen" (gripe shoe),
+especially for the protection of the toes.
+
+All varieties of the horseshoe of southern Europe are easily
+distinguished from the Roman so-called "Kureisen" (cure shoe), of
+which several have been unearthed at various excavations and are
+preserved at the Romo-Germanic Museum in Mentz (Mainz), Germany. The
+shoes, Figs. 1 and 2, each represent thin iron plates, covering the
+whole hoof, which in some cases have an opening in the middle, of
+several centimeters in diameter.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 1.]
+
+These plates, apparently set forth to suit oriental and occidental
+body conformation, are either directly provided with loops or have
+around the outer margin a brim several centimeters high, in which
+rings are fastened. Through the loops or rings small ropes were drawn,
+and in this way the shoe was fastened to the crown of the hoof and to
+the pastern. Sufficient securing of the toe was wanting in all these
+shoes, and, on account of this, the movement of the animal with the
+same must have been very clumsy, and we can see from this that the
+ropes must have made the crown of the hoof and pastern sore in a short
+time. One of these shoes[3] evidently was the object of improvement,
+to prevent the animal from slipping as well as from friction, and we
+therefore find on it three iron cubes 1½ centimeters high, which were
+fastened corresponding to our toes and calks of to-day, and offer a
+very early ready proof, from our climatic and mountainous conditions,
+which later occur, principally in southern Germany, that this style of
+horseshoeing was not caused by error, but by a well founded local and
+national interest or want.
+
+   [Footnote 3: Not illustrated.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.]
+
+Aside from the so-called "Kureisen" (cure shoe) for diseased hoofs, we
+find very little from the Romans on horseshoeing or hoof protection,
+and therefore we must observe special precautions with all their
+literature on the subject. It is because of this that I excuse Prof.
+Sittl's communication in the preface of Winckelmann's "Geschichte der
+Kunst in Alterthum" (History of Ancient Art), which contains a notice
+that Fabretti, in some raised work in Plazzo Matti, of a
+representation of a hunt by the Emperor Gallienus (Bartoli Admirand
+Ant. Tab. 24), showed that at that time horseshoes fastened by nails,
+the same as to-day, were used (Fabretti de Column. Traj. C. 7 pag.
+225; Conf. Montlanc. Antiq. Explic. T. 4, pag. 79). This statement
+proves itself erroneous, because he was not aware that the foot of the
+horse was repaired by an inexperienced sculptor.
+
+How then did out of this Roman cure shoe develop the horseshoeing of
+southern Europe?
+
+It was to be expected, with the Roman horseshoe, that the mode of
+fastening became unsatisfactory and necessitated a remedy or change.
+An attempt of this kind has been preserved in the so-called
+"Asiatischen Koppeneisensole" (Asiatic cap-iron-sole) (Fig. 3), which
+the Hon. Mr. Lydtin at Karlsruhe had made according to a model of the
+Circassian Horse Tribe Shaloks, and also according to the reverse of
+Lycian coins (called Triguetra).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.]
+
+This horseshoe plate, likely originating in the twelfth century,
+covers the whole surface of the sole, like the Roman shoes, with the
+exception of the wall region, which contains a rim 1 centimeter high,
+and above this rises at one side toward the heel three beak-like
+projections, about 4 centimeters high and 1 centimeter wide at the
+base, being pointed above and turned down, which were fastened in the
+wall of the hoof, in the form of a hook.
+
+This mode of fastening evidently was also insufficient, and so the
+fastening of the shoe by nails was adopted. These iron plates used for
+shoes were too thin to allow nails with sunken heads to be used, so
+only nails with blades and cubical shaped heads were applicable. These
+nail heads, 6 to 8 in number, which left the toe and the back part of
+the heel free, served at the same time to secure the horse from
+slipping, which the smooth plates, covering the whole hoof surface,
+without doubt facilitated.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.]
+
+Shoes of this kind, after the old Roman style, with a very strong rim
+bent upward, likely proved very comfortable for the purpose of
+protection, in the Sierras of the Pyrenean peninsula, where they seem
+to have been in use for a long time; for in the twelfth century we
+find in Spain the whole form of the Roman shoe, only fastened by nails
+(Figs. 4 and 5). At first the shoe seems to have been cut off at the
+heel end, but as apparently after being on for some time, bruises were
+noticed, the shoe was made longer at the heel, and this part was
+turned up so as to prevent them from becoming loose too soon, as both
+the Spanish horseshoes of this period show, and the acquisition was
+even later transferred to England (Fig. 7).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.]
+
+The shoe containing a groove (Fig. 6), which we shall see later, made
+its appearance in Germany in the fifteenth century. From this time,
+according to our present knowledge, ceases the period of the Roman
+horseshoe. Its influence, however, lasted a great deal longer, and has
+even remained until our present day.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.]
+
+Its successor became partly the Arabo-Turkomanic and partly the
+Southwest European horseshoe.
+
+For the descendants of the Numidian light cavalry, the Roman and old
+Spanish horseshoe was evidently too heavy for their sandy, roadless
+deserts, so they made it thinner and omitted the bent-up rim, because
+it prevented the quick movement of the horse. For the protection of
+the nail heads the outer margin of the shoe was staved, so as to form
+a small rim on the outer surface of the shoe, thus preventing the nail
+heads from being worn and the shoe lost too soon.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9.]
+
+A horseshoe of that kind is shown by Fig. 8, which was used in North
+Africa in the twelfth century, and became the model for all forms of
+horseshoes of the Mahometan tribes. Even now quite similar shoes (Fig.
+9) are made south and east from the Caspian Sea, at the Amu-Darja, in
+Samarkand, etc., which were probably introduced under Tamerlane, the
+conqueror of nearly the whole of Asia Minor in the fourteenth century.
+
+The so-called "Sarmatische" (Sarmatian) horseshoe (Figs. 10 and 11),
+of South Russia, shows in its form, at the same time, traces of the
+last named shoe, however, greatly influenced by the Mongolian shoe,
+the "Goldenen Horde," which at the turn of the sixteenth to the
+seventeenth century played havoc at the Volga and the Aral. The
+unusual width of the toe, and especially the lightness of the iron,
+reminds us of the Turkomanic horseshoe, whereas, on the contrary, the
+large bean-shaped holes, as well as the calks, were furnished through
+Mongolian influence.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 10.]
+
+The Sarmatian tribes were principally horsemen, and it is not
+surprising, therefore, that the coat of arms of the former kingdom of
+Poland in the second and third quadrate shows a silver rider in armor
+on a silver running horse shod with golden shoes, and that at present
+about 1,000 families in 25 lineages of the Polish Counts Jastrzembiec
+Bolesezy, the so-called "Polnische Hufeisen Adel" (Polish Horseshoe
+Nobility), at the same time also carried the horseshoe on their coats
+of arms. The silver horseshoe in a blue field appears here as a symbol
+of the "Herbestpfardes" (autumnal horse), to which, after the
+christianization of Poland, was added the golden cross. The noblemen
+participating in the murder of the holy Stanislaus in 1084 had to
+carry the horseshoe reversed on their escutcheon.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 11.]
+
+From the African and Turkomanic horseshoe, through the turning up of
+the toes and heels, originated later the Turkish, Grecian and
+Montenegrin horseshoe of the present as shown by Fig. 12.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 12.]
+
+By the Moorish invasion in Spain, the Spanish-Gothic horseshoeing was
+also modified, through which the shoe became smooth, staved at the
+margin, very broad in the toe, and turned up at toe and heel, and at a
+later period the old open Spanish national horseshoe (Fig. 13) was
+developed. As we thus see, we can in no way deny the Arabian-Turkish
+origin of this shoe.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 13.]
+
+As France had received her whole culture from the south, and as the
+crusades especially brought the Roman nation in close contact with
+them for centuries, so it cannot appear strange that the old French
+horseshoe, a form of which has been preserved by Bourgelat and is
+represented by Fig. 14, still remained in the smooth, turned up in
+front and behind, like the shoe of the southern climates, with Asiatic
+traces, which hold on the ground, the same as all southern shoeing, by
+the nail heads.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 14.]
+
+The transit of the German empire, in order to keep up the historical
+course, once more brings us back to the middle of the fifth century.
+At this time Attila, the "Godegisel" (gods' scourge), left his wooden
+capitol in the lowlands near the river Theis, to go to the Roman
+empire and to the German and Gallican provinces, there to spread
+indescribable misery to the horrors of judgment day.
+
+The following is a prayer in those days of horror:
+
+      "Kleiner Huf, kleines Ross,
+      Krummer Sabel, spitz Geschoss--
+      Blitzesschnell und sattlefest:
+      Schrim uns Herr von Hunnenpest."
+
+We are at present reminded of those times of fright, when during the
+clearing and tilling of the soil, a small roughly made horseshoe is
+found in Southern Germany, about as far as the water boundary of the
+Thuringian forest, and occasionally on, but principally around
+Augsburg, and in France as far as the Loire.
+
+These shoes, covering the margin or wall of the foot, show slight
+traces of having been beveled on the lower surface, and contain two
+bent calks very superficially placed. Occasionally they are sharpened
+and turned in two directions. The characteristic wide bean-shaped nail
+holes are conical on the inside, and are frequently placed so near the
+outer margin of the shoe that from the pressure the hoofs were likely
+to split open. The nail heads were shaped like a sleigh runner, and
+almost entirely sunk into the shoe. It evidently was not bent up at
+the toe, like the old form of these kinds of shoes.
+
+These shoes, according to our conception of to-day, were so carelessly
+finished that in the scientific circles of historical researches they
+were, until very recently, looked upon as saddle mountings or
+something similar, and not as horseshoes.
+
+This shoe was for some time, while it was plentifully found in France,
+regarded as of Celtic make; but this is certainly not the case, as it
+is of Hunish and Hungarian "nationalitat" (nationality). An exactly
+scientific proof, it is true, according to our present knowledge,
+cannot be furnished; however, it will stand well enough until the
+error is proved.
+
+This peculiar kind of horseshoe has been found in South Germany and
+Northeast France, as far as the region of Orleans, where, as it has
+been proved, the Huns appeared. This, therefore, speaks for their
+descendants: 1st, the far extended and yet sharply limited places of
+finding the shoe; 2d, the small size corresponds to the historically
+proved smallness of the Hunish horse; 3d, the hasty and careless make,
+which does not indicate that it was made by settled workmen; 4th, the
+horseshoe (Fig. 15) bespeaks the Hunish workmanship of the present
+Chinese shoe, which, in making of the nail holes, shows to-day related
+touches of the productions of the Mongolian ancestors.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 15.]
+
+Aside from the peculiar shaped nail holes, the characteristic of the
+Hunish shoe consists in the changes of the calks for summer and winter
+shoeing, as well as in the sinking of the nail heads. The Huns,
+therefore, aside from the indistinctly marked attempts of the Romans
+in this direction, which are the only ones known to me, must be
+regarded as the inventors not only of the calks, but partly, next to
+the Normans, also of the sharpened winter shoeing, and of the not
+unimportant invention of sinking the nail heads observed in Fig. 15.
+
+The Hunish shoeing was therefore an important invention for the
+Germans. After centuries later, wherever horseshoeing was practiced,
+it was done solely according to Hunish methods; whereby the shoe was
+very possibly made heavier, was more carefully finished and in course
+of time showed an attempt to bend the toe (Fig. 16a).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 16.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 16A.]
+
+In the Bomberg Dom we find an equestrian statue, not unknown in the
+history of art, which was formerly held to be that of Emperor Conrad
+III. At present however the opinion prevails generally that it
+represents "Stephen I., den Heiligen" (Stephen I., the Saint).
+
+Stephen I., the first king of Hungary, formerly was a heathen, and was
+named "Najk." He reigned from 997 to 1038. His important events were
+the many victorious wars led against rebellious chieftains of his
+country, and he was canonized in 1087. His equestrian monument in
+Bomberg Dom was, in consequence, hardly made before the year 1087.
+Notwithstanding that the Huns had been defeated 500 years before on
+the plains of Catalania, the horse of the above mentioned monument
+carries, as I have convinced myself personally, Hunish horseshoes,
+modified, however, by blade-shaped calks just then coming into use.
+This is proof that, at least in Hungary, the Hunish method of shoeing
+was preserved an extraordinary long time. By this it has not become
+improbable that at least the many shoes of this kind which were found
+on the Lechfield come, not directly from the Huns, but from their
+successors, the Hungarians, whose invasions took place in the first
+half of the tenth century.
+
+About the same time of the Hungarian invasions, the Normans began to
+disturb the southwestern part of Europe with their Viking expeditions.
+Their sea kings seem to have been equestrians at very early times, and
+to have had their horses shod, although perhaps only in winter; at
+least the excavation of the Viking ship in 1881 disclosed the remains
+of a horse which was shod. The shoeing consisted only of a toe
+protection--"Brodder" (Bruder, Brother)--provided with a small sharp
+calk, and fastened by two nails.
+
+When later, in the year 1130, the Norwegian king Sigard Yorsalafar,
+during his journey to Jerusalem, entered Constantinople, his horse is
+said to have carried only the small toe-protecting shoes.
+
+The art of horseshoeing, immediately after the migration of the
+nations, came near our improvement of the same to-day; especially near
+the reputed discoveries met with, which consist simply of iron
+protection for the margin of the hoof, fastened by nails. The heads
+were sunk into the shoe so as to increase its firmness. Special
+consideration was given to local and climatic conditions through the
+introduction of toes and heels.
+
+The mechanism of the hoof also found remarkable consideration,
+inasmuch as they apparently avoided driving nails too close to the
+heel end of the shoe. Notwithstanding this early improvement in the
+art of horseshoeing, the Huns (as stated before) took a prominent
+part. It appears to have taken a long time after the migration of the
+nations for shoeing to become general, as is shown by various
+descriptions of tournaments, pictures of horses, etc.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 18.]
+
+We will mention in the first place the "Percival des Wolfram von
+Eschenbach," as well as "Christ von Troies," where there is a great
+deal said about horses, horse grooms, and tournaments, but nowhere in
+those works is any mention made of horseshoeing. Likewise is found the
+horse on the coat of arms of Wolfram von Eschenbach, in the Manessi
+collection in Paris, which was begun in Switzerland in the fourteenth
+century; but, although we find this horse most beautifully finished,
+it was not shod.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 19.]
+
+During the time of the crusades, 1096-1291, however, there appeared
+suddenly in Germany a plate-like horseshoe of southern character
+(Figs. 18 and 19), which was occasionally bent upward at the heel end,
+and was very heavy. The toe was very broad sometimes, and was also
+bent upward. In this form we have seen the shoes of the Balkan and
+Pyrean peninsula. The shoe was remarkably narrow at the heel, and was
+supplied with calks, which accounts for the highness of the back part
+of the shoe. Frequently we find one calk set diagonally, but the other
+drawn out wedge shaped, and sharp; so that there existed a great
+similarity between this iron shank and that used by Count Einsiedel
+for winter shoeing. Sometimes both shanks were sharpened in this way,
+or were provided with blade-shaped calks well set forward. The form of
+nail holes used was very characteristic of that of the Huns, but they
+were decidedly smaller and square, as were seen in the African shoe of
+the twelfth century. The nail heads were slightly sunk, which was
+according to southern customs.
+
+That this shoe really belongs to the period of the crusades is proved
+by the numerous horse pictures which have been preserved from that
+time; of which we will mention the manuscript of Heinrich von Veldecka
+("Eneidt")[4] in the year 1180, which belongs to the most valuable
+parts of German history of art.
+
+   [Footnote 4: "Wanderungen des Aeneas" (Travels of Aeneas).]
+
+This south European Hunish horseshoe had remained the standard form
+during the middle ages and until the thirty years war, at least in
+South Germany. The shoe was continually improved, and reached its
+highest point of perfection about the time of the "Bauern-krieg"
+(Revolution of the Peasants), at a time when, under the leadership of
+the Renaissance, the whole art of mechanics, and especially that of
+blacksmithing, had taken an extraordinarily great stride (Figs. 20 and
+21).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 20.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 21.]
+
+The shoe (Figs. 22 and 23) is found in Franconia, in all places where,
+in the sixteenth century, battles had been fought with the rebellious
+peasants. We may, therefore, be justified in fixing its origin mainly
+from that period, for which also speaks its high perfection of form.
+We find here still the bent-up heel and toe (the latter broad and
+thin) of the south European form.
+
+The staved rim of the Spanish Arabic Turkomanic shoe is observed to be
+undergoing a change to that of a groove. The broad surface of the shoe
+evidently led to the beveling of the same, so as to lessen sole
+pressure. The size of the nail holes remains still like that of the
+Huns; but the unsunk southern nail heads yet serve to improve the hold
+on the ground. The calks were next placed forward, perhaps from an
+uncultivated sense of beauty, or from the high bending up of the hind
+part of the shoe, which would necessitate a high and heavy unsightly
+calk.
+
+From this time on horseshoeing in south Germany fell back very
+quickly, and loses all scientific holds of support after the thirty
+years war. In the mean time toe protection in the form of a calk had
+spread from the colder north over southern Germany; whereas this north
+German invention did not find favor in England in consequence of her
+mild oceanic climate.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 22]
+
+Also, the calks in England, as well as in the southern countries, on
+the same ground, therefore, with good reason, could at no time be
+adopted. This did, however, not interfere with the use of the calk in
+the colder south Germany, where after a use of nearly 1,500 years it
+has maintained its local and climatic adaptation. Notwithstanding the
+occasional aping by foreigners, it has remained victorious in its
+original form, and has been chosen in many countries.
+
+The historical development of the horseshoe in general, from about the
+time of Emperor Maximilian until the seven years war, furnishes a true
+picture of the confused condition of things at that period of time,
+which, to make intelligible, would require a separate and complete
+treatise. Interesting as it is to the scientist to follow up this
+development and mode of present German horseshoeing, which, aside from
+the national toe and calk, is the English form and has become
+influential, and with full right, for a periodical of this kind
+further, more comprehensive, statement would under all circumstances
+take up too much room; therefore I must drop the pen, although
+reluctantly.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 23.]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+SHEET GLASS FROM MOLTEN METAL.
+
+
+The present practice in making metal sheets is to cast ingots or slabs
+and then reduce these by repeated rollings and reheating. Attempts
+have been previously made to produce sheets directly from molten metal
+by pouring the metal: (1) between two revolving rollers; or (2)
+between a revolving wheel and the surface of an inclosing fixed
+semicircular segment. By these means none but very thin plates could
+be satisfactorily produced. In this invention by C.M. Pielsticker,
+London, the machinery consists of a large receiving roller of 5 ft.
+diameter more or less, and of a length equal to that of the plate to
+be produced. With this are combined small forming rollers arranged in
+succession part way round the periphery of the large roller, and
+revolving at the same rate as the large roller. The rollers can be
+cooled by a current of water circulating through them. The molten
+metal flows on to the surface of the large roller and is prevented
+from escaping sideways by flanges with which the large roller is
+provided. These flanges embrace the small rollers and are of a depth
+greater than that of the thickest plate which it is proposed to roll.
+The distance between the large roller and the small rollers can be
+adjusted according to the desired thickness of the plate. When dealing
+with metals of high melting point, such as steel, the first small
+roller is made of refractory material and is heated from inside by the
+flame of a blow pipe. The rollers are coated with plumbago or other
+material to prevent adhesion to the molten metal. In the case of
+metals of high melting point the machine is fed direct from a furnace
+divided into two compartments by a wall or bridge in which is a
+stopper which can be operated so as to regulate the flow of metal.
+When applied to forming sheets of glass, the rollers should be warmed
+by a blow pipe flame as above described, and the sheet of glass
+stretched and annealed as it leaves the last roller.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+WELDLESS STEEL CHAINS.
+
+
+At the Royal Naval Exhibition, London, Messrs. William Reid & Co. are
+exhibiting their weldless steel chains, which we now illustrate.
+
+Of the many advantages claimed for steel chains, it may be prominently
+noted that a very important saving of weight is effected on account of
+their possessing such a high breaking strain, compared with the
+ordinary welded iron chains. To illustrate this, it may be stated that
+a given length of the weldless steel chain is 35 to 40 per cent. less
+in weight than an equivalent length of iron chain, will stand the same
+breaking strain as the latter, and indeed, where steel of special
+quality is used in making the weldless chains, this difference can be
+increased as much as 70 to 80 per cent. Whereas superior iron chains
+break at a strain at 17 tons per square inch, these weldless steel
+chains will stand a strain of 28 to 30 tons, with 20 to 26 per cent.
+elongation.
+
+[Illustration: Figures 1. Through 9., 1_a_, 1_b_ and 3_a_
+               MANUFACTURE OF WELDLESS CHAINS.]
+
+Again, there is greater security in their use from the fact that there
+are no welds, and they give warning of the limit of strain to which
+they can bear being approached, by elongation, which can be carried to
+a considerable extent before the chain breaks. Moreover, over, in
+chains made by this process, the links are all exactly alike. Though
+the life of a weldless steel chain is said to be twice that of an
+ordinary one, the price per length is little more than that of best
+iron chains.
+
+They are made in lengths of from 40 to 50 feet, being compressed from
+a solid rolled steel bar, the section of which is shaped like a
+four-pointed star. In the first place holes are pierced at intervals
+down the length of the bar, thus determining the length of the several
+links. Then the bar is notched between the holes so as to give the
+external form of the links. The next step is "flattening out," which
+presses the links into shape on their inner side, but leaves the
+openings still closed by a plate of metal. They are then stamped out
+so as to round them up, and the metal inside them is punched out, and
+the edges "cleaned," or trimmed off. The links are now parted from one
+another and stamped again, to insure equal thickness in all parts of
+the chain. The only processes now to be gone through are dressing and
+finishing. According to the die used, the shape of the links can be
+varied to suit any required pattern. The lengths of chain thus made
+are joined by spiral rings made of soft steel, the convolutions being
+afterward hammered together till they become solid. A ring of this
+description, ¾ inch diameter, underwent a strain of 46,200 lb., that
+is, 23 tons to the square inch, its elongation being 21 per cent.
+
+These chains have passed satisfactorily the tests of the Bureau
+Veritas, and both that association and Lloyd's have accepted their use
+on the same conditions and under the same tests as ordinary chains.
+
+So much for the general idea of punching steel chains. We will now
+describe a recent invention by which superior steel chains are
+produced, the author of which is Mr. Hippolyte Rongier, of Birmingham,
+Eng. He says:
+
+My invention has for its object the manufacture of weldless stayed
+chains, whereof each link, together with its cross strut or stay, is
+made of one piece of metal without any weld or joint; and the
+invention consists in producing a chain of stayed links from a bar of
+cruciform section by the consecutive series of punching, twisting and
+stamping operations hereinafter described, the punching operations
+being entirely performed on the metal when in the cold state.
+
+Figs. 1 to 10 show the progressive stages in the manufacture of the
+chain, and the remaining figures show the series of tools that are
+employed.
+
+The general method of operation of making stayed chains according to
+my invention is so far similar to the methods heretofore proposed for
+making unstayed chains from the bar of cruciform section that the
+links are formed alternately out of the one and the other pair of
+diametrically opposite webs of the rod, the links, when severed and
+completed, being already enchained together at the time of their
+formation. The successive operations differ, however, in many
+important practical respects from those heretofore proposed, as will
+appear from the following detailed description of the successive steps
+in the process illustrated by Figs. 1 to 10.
+
+I will distinguish the one pair of diametrically opposite webs of the
+bar and the notches and mortises punched therein and the links formed
+therefrom from the other pair by an index figure 1 affixed to the
+reference letters appertaining thereto.
+
+_a a_ are one pair of diametrically opposite webs, and _a' a'_ the
+other pair of webs of the bar.
+
+[Illustration: Figures 2_a-_b, 6_a_, 4_a-b_, 7 _a-b_ and 10 _a-b_
+               MANUFACTURE OF WELDLESS CHAINS]
+
+The first operation illustrated in Fig. 1 is to punch out of the edge
+of one of the webs, _a_, a series of shallow notches, _b_, at equal
+intervals apart, corresponding to the pitch of the links to be formed
+out of that pair of webs and situated where the spaces will ultimately
+be formed between the ends of that series of links. The notches are
+made with beveled ends, and are no deeper than is absolutely necessary
+(for the purpose of a guide stop in the subsequent operations, as
+hereinafter described), so as to avoid, as far as possible, weakening
+the bar transversely. This operation is repeated upon one of the pairs
+of webs _a'_; but whereas in the first operation of notching the web
+the "pitch" of the notches is determined by the feed mechanism, in
+this second operation of notching the notches, _b_, cut in the web,
+_a_, serve as guides to influence and compensate for any inaccuracy of
+the feed mechanism, so that the second set of notches, _b'_, shall be
+intermediate of and rigorously equidistant from the first set of
+notches, _b_. This compensation is effected by the notches, _b_,
+fitting on to a beveled stop on the bed of the punching tool by which
+the notches, _b'_, are cut, the beveled ends of the notches, _b_,
+causing the bar under the pressure of the punch to adjust itself in
+the longitudinal direction (if necessary) sufficiently to rectify any
+inaccuracy of feed. These notches, _b b'_, similarly serve as guides
+to insure uniformity of spacing in the subsequent operations of
+punching out the links.
+
+The second operation (illustrated in Fig. 2) is to punch out of the
+pair of opposite webs, _a a_, pairs of oblong mortises--two pairs, _c
+c_, and one pair, _d d_. These three pairs of mortises (which might be
+punched at separate operations, but are preferably punched at one
+stroke of the press) are situated as close as possible up to the faces
+of the other pairs of webs, _a' a'_, the pairs of mortises, _c c_,
+being so spaced as to correspond in position to the eyes of the links
+to be formed, to which they correspond approximately in form, while
+the pair, _d_, correspond in position to the notches, _b_, and
+therefore to the intervals by which the links formed out of the same
+pair of webs, _a a_, will be separated when completed. This operation
+is continued along the whole length of the pair of webs, _a_. It will
+be observed that a considerable thickness of metal is left at _a*_
+between the notches, _b_, and the mortises, _d_. This is of primary
+importance and is one of the essential features of my method of
+manufacture, inasmuch as by first punching out the mortises, _d_, the
+subsequent removal of the metal from between the outer ends of the
+links is greatly facilitated, while by leaving the solid metal, _a*_,
+the transverse strength of the webs, _a a_, is not materially
+diminished, so that when the operation of punching the mortises, _c_
+and _d_, in the other pair of webs, _a'_, is performed the bar will
+not be bent and crippled, as would inevitably be the case were the
+whole of the metal opposite the notches, _b_, which is ultimately to
+be removed, to be punched out at so early a stage of the manufacture.
+The operation of punching the pairs of mortises, _c'_ and _d_, having
+been repeated along the other pair of webs, _a'_, it will be observed
+that like the notches, _b_, the mortises, _c d_, in the one pair of
+webs alternate with those, _c' d'_, in the other pair of webs.
+
+The third operation (illustrated in Fig. 3) is to elongate the
+mortises, _c d_, and bring the mortises, _c c'_, more nearly to the
+final form. This is performed by punches similar to but larger (in the
+direction of the length of the rod) than those used in the second
+operation.
+
+The third operation, which is repeated upon both pairs of webs, _a a
+a' a'_, may be considered as a second stage of the second operation,
+it being preferable to punch out the mortises in two stages in order
+to remove sufficient metal without unduly straining the bar.
+
+The fourth operation (illustrated in Fig. 4) consists in roughly
+shaping the ends of the links externally by punching out the portions,
+_a*_, of the webs, _a_, between the links lying in the same plane or
+formed out of the same pair of webs. This operation is repeated on the
+other pair of webs, _a'_. Up to this point a continuous core of metal
+has been left at the intersection of the two pairs of webs.
+
+The fifth operation (illustrated in Fig. 5) consists in punching out
+the portions, _e_, of the core at each side of the cross stay of the
+link, so as to separate the cross stay from the outer ends of the
+adjacent links. This operation is performed by removing a portion only
+of the metal of the core which intervenes between the cross stay and
+the outer ends of the adjacent links enchained with the link under
+operation--that is to say, portions, _e*_, of the core are temporarily
+left attached to the outer ends of the links in order to avoid
+crippling or bending the bar, which might occur were the whole of this
+metal, which is ultimately to be removed, to be punched out at once,
+these portions, _e*_, being supported by the bed die in the operation
+of punching out the spaces, _e_, as hereinafter described. This
+operation having been repeated upon both pairs of webs, it will be
+observed that the rod-like form of the chain is now only maintained by
+the portion of the core at the points, _f_, where the inner side of
+the eye or bow of one link is united with that of the next one. The
+severing of these intervening portions of the core and the breaking up
+of the rod into the constituent links of the chain constitute the
+sixth operation.
+
+The sixth operation (illustrated in Fig. 6) is performed by torsion,
+and for this purpose one end of the rod is held fixed while the other
+is twisted once or twice in opposite directions, until by fatigue of
+the metal at the points, _f_, the whole of the links are severed
+almost at the same instant, and a chain of roughly formed stayed links
+is produced.
+
+The seventh operation (illustrated in Fig. 7) is to remove the
+superfluous projecting pieces of metal both from the inside and
+outside of the ends of the links. For this purpose the two ends of
+each link are operated on at the same time by two pairs of punches
+corresponding to the outline of the ends of the link.
+
+The eighth operation (illustrated in Fig. 8) is to bring the ends of
+the links to their finished rounded form. This is performed by
+stamping both ends of each link at the same time between pairs of
+shaping dies or swages.
+
+The ninth operation (illustrated in Fig. 9) is to bring the middle
+portion of each link--that is to say, the side members and the cross
+stay--to the finished rounded form, which is also performed by means
+of a pair of dies or swages.
+
+The tenth and last operation (illustrated in Fig. 10) is to contract
+the link slightly in the lateral direction in order to correct any
+imperfections at the sides left by the two previous operations and
+bring the link to a more perfect and stronger form, as shown. This
+operation has the important result of strengthening the link
+considerably by contracting or rendering more pointed the arched form
+of the bow or end of the link, and also by thickening the metal at
+that part where the wear is greatest, this thickening of the metal at
+the ends of the link occurring in the direction of the line of strain
+(as indicated by _x_ in Fig. 10) and being brought about by the
+compression or "upsetting" of the metal at the end of the link. It may
+be preferable to perform this operation immediately after the seventh
+operation, and I reserve the right to do so.
+
+In the case of large cables only the metal is preferably heated for
+the eighth, ninth, and tenth operations.
+
+I will now refer to the figures which illustrate the series of tools
+whereby the above mentioned operations are performed.
+
+Fig. 1_a_ shows a plan (the punch being in section) and Fig. 1_b_ an
+elevation of the bed die of the tool by which the notches _b_ of the
+first operation are performed. The feed mechanism is not shown, but
+might be of any ordinary intermittent kind. _g_ is a groove in the
+bed, in which lies the lower vertical web of the rod, of cruciform
+section, the two horizontal webs lying upon the bed with the edge of
+the web to be notched lying just over the die, in which works the
+punch, B, of which B' is the cutting edge. The punch is operated in
+the usual way, its lower end, which does not rise out of the die,
+acting as a guide. B* is the beveled stop in the groove, _g_, which by
+fitting in the notches, _b_ or _b'_, corrects inaccuracies of the
+feed.
+
+Fig. 2_a_ is a sectional plan and Fig. 2_b_ an elevation of the tool
+by which the second operation is performed, the same tool being also
+used for performing the third operation. (Illustrated in Fig. 3_a_.)
+_h h_ are a pair of bed-dies having a space _h'_ between them to
+receive the lower web of the bar, and having notches, C C and D D, in
+their inner ends, forming counterparts of the punches by which the
+pairs of mortises, _c d_, Fig. 2, are punched in the pair of webs
+lying upon the bed-dies, _h_. These bed-dies are fitted to slide a
+little in opposite directions upon a suitable bed plate and are caused
+by the inclined cams, _i'_, on the guides, _i_, of the press head
+(which pass through corresponding apertures in the bed-dies, _h_) to
+approach each other at the moment the punches come down on the work,
+so as to grip the lower web of the rod and support the pair of webs
+being operated on close up to the sides of the lower web lying in the
+space _h'_, while when the punches rise the bed-dies move apart, so
+that the web is quite free in said space _h'_ and the rod may be
+easily fed forward for a fresh stroke of the press. B* is the beveled
+stop in the space, _k'_, as in the tool first described. The bed-dies
+_h_ have a second set of notches C' D' at their outer ends, similar to
+but longer than those C D, so that by reversing the bed-dies they will
+form counterparts for a second set of punches corresponding thereto
+for performing the third operation--_i.e._, enlarging the mortises, _c
+d_, as represented in Figs. 3 and 3_a_; or, instead of adapting the
+dies, _h_, to perform the two operations, separate tools may be used
+for the second and third operations.
+
+Fig. 4_a_ is an elevation and Fig. 4_b_ a sectional plan of the tool
+for performing the fourth operation--namely, removing the portion
+_a*_, Figs. 3, 3_a_, 4_a_, and 4_b_. This is done by a pair of
+punches, A*, corresponding in shape to the ends of the link in the
+rough and to the aperture shown in the bed-die, _k_, Fig. 4_b_, which
+has a groove, _k'_, to admit the lower web of and to guide the rod.
+The beveled stop, B*, used in operating on the pair of webs, a,
+corresponds to the notches, _b'_; but in operating on the webs, _a'_,
+the stop must be replaced by one corresponding to the aperture left by
+the removal of the portion, _a*_.
+
+Fig. 5_a_ is an elevation, Fig. 5_b_ a plan, and Fig. 5_c_ a
+longitudinal vertical section of the tool for performing the fifth
+operation, the work being shown in section in the latter figure. It
+consists of a bed-die, _l_, with groove, _m_, to receive the lower
+web, but terminating at a distance from the die apertures, so as to
+leave supports, _n_, for the parts, _e*_, of the rod to resist the
+downward pressure of the punches, E, which remove the portions, _e_,
+from each side of the cross stay, as shown in Figs. 5_b_ and 5_c_. The
+correct position of the work in regard to the punches is insured by
+these supporting parts, _n_, which terminate the grooves, _m_.
+
+Fig. 6_a_ is an elevation of the winch for performing the sixth
+operation.
+
+Fig. 7_a_ is an elevation and Fig. 7_b_ a plan of the tool for
+performing the seventh operation. P P are the punches for trimming the
+outside and Q Q those for trimming the inside of the ends of the
+links. The links adjacent to the one to be operated on are brought
+together into the position shown in dotted lines, the bed-die having
+an aperture in it to admit of this, so that both ends of the link to
+be trimmed may be operated on together.
+
+The tool for performing the eighth operation consists of a pair of
+swages, the bottom one only being shown in Fig. 8_a_. The swages
+correspond to the intended rounded sectional form of the ends of the
+link, which is placed in position between the swages in a similar
+manner to that described for Fig. 7_b_, so that both ends are rounded
+or finished off at once.
+
+Fig. 9_a_ is a plan of the bottom swage of the tool for performing the
+ninth operation, the upper swage corresponding thereto at least in so
+far as the middle part of the link to be operated on is concerned.
+
+The tool for performing the tenth operation is represented in
+elevation and plan in Figs. 10_a_ and 10_b_. It consists of a pair of
+bed-dies, R, fitted to slide together and operated by the cams, s, on
+the guide rods, S, the operation being similar to that of the tool
+shown in Figs. 2_a_ and 2_b_, except that there are no punches, and
+that the link which lies in the cavity of the dies is merely
+compressed in the lateral direction by the inward motion of the
+bed-dies.
+
+My invention further comprises a modification of the above described
+process, which has for its object to enable the weldless stayed links
+to be made as short and particularly as narrow as may be necessary in
+order to adapt the chain to run over the sheaves of pulley blocks and
+to suit other purposes for which short-link welded chain has
+heretofore only been available.
+
+[Illustration: Figures 5_a-c_, 8_a_, 9_a_, 10-12
+               MANUFACTURE OF WELDLESS CHAINS.]
+
+In the manufacture of chains by the aforesaid process of punching
+there is a practical minimum limit for the dimensions of the punches
+which cannot be reduced without compromising their efficiency, and
+consequently the width (and therefore the length) of the link must
+necessarily bear a certain proportion to the thickness of the web of
+metal out of which it is formed, since the breadth of the link depends
+on the length of the cross stay, which is determined by the breadth of
+the mortises forming the eyes of the link. The present modification
+enables these dimensions to be reduced without reducing the
+dimensions, and consequently the efficiency, of the punches which form
+the eyes of the link. The modification applies to what I have
+designated the fifth operation of the above described process; and it
+consists in punching out the middle of the cross stay (so as to leave
+only two short stumps jutting inward from the side members of the
+link), this operation serving to interrupt the continuity of the core,
+which was the object of the fifth operation. For this purpose I
+substitute for the pair of punches illustrated in Figs. 5_a_ and 5_c_
+a single punch, which removes that part of the "core" of the cruciform
+bar which is situated at the middle of the strut. This tool is
+represented in Fig. 11, and the effect of its operation is shown in
+Fig. 12. The subsequent operations, herein designated the sixth,
+seventh, eighth, and ninth operations, are performed as hereinbefore
+described; but the tenth operation has the effect of closing together
+the two stumps, _g g_, until they abut together at the middle of the
+link and together constitute a cross strut or stay, which prevents any
+further lateral collapse of the link. In the operation of closing up
+the gap between the stumps, _g g_, the link is brought to the narrow
+form shown in Fig. 12, the eyes of the links being only just wide
+enough to receive the end of the adjacent link enchained therewith
+without gripping it. This operation is performed by a tool similar to
+that shown in Figs. 10_a_ and 10_b_, above referred to.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+AN ENGLISH STEAM FIRE ENGINE.
+
+
+The steam fire engine of which we give an engraving is one specially
+built for the Indian government by Messrs. Shand, Mason & Co., London.
+It has the distinction of being the first steam fire engine supplied
+for the province of Upper Burma, having been purchased primarily for
+the royal palace, and to serve for the protection of the cantonment of
+Mandalay. The engine is placed vertically in front of the boiler, and
+consists of a double acting pump with valves which can be taken out
+for renewal or examination in two or three minutes. The capacity is
+200 gallons per minute, and the height of jet 140 ft. As shown in the
+engraving, the fore part of the machine forms a hose reel and tool
+box, and can be instantly separated from the engine to allow of the
+independent use of the latter at a fire.
+
+[Illustration: IMPROVED STEAM FIRE ENGINE.]
+
+The engine is constructed with wrought iron side frames, fore carriage
+and wheels, and steel axles, springs, etc. The tool box, coachman's
+seat, and other parts are of teak. It is provided with Messrs. Shand,
+Mason & Co.'s quick steaming boiler, in which 100 lb. pressure can be
+raised from cold water in from five to seven minutes, an extra large
+fire box for burning wood, with fire door at the back, feed pump, and
+injector, fresh water tank, coal bunker, and other fittings and
+arrangements for carrying the suction pipe. A pole and sway bars are
+fitted for two ponies, and wood cross bars to pass over the backs of
+the animals at the tops of the collars. Two men are carried on the
+machine, a coachman on the box seat and a stoker on the footboard at
+the rear of the engine. The whole forms a very light and readily
+transportable fire engine.--_The Engineer_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE SYSTEM OF MILITARY DOVE COTES IN EUROPE.[1]
+
+   [Footnote 1: Continued from _Scientific American_ of July 11, p. 23.]
+
+
+_France_.--The history of the aerial postal service and of the carrier
+pigeons of the siege of Paris has been thoroughly written, and is so
+well known that it is useless to recapitulate it in this place. It
+will suffice to say that sixty-four balloons crossed the Prussian
+lines during the war of 1870-1871, carrying with them 360 pigeons, 302
+of which were afterward sent back to Paris, during a terrible winter,
+without previous training, and from localities often situated at a
+distance of over 120 miles. Despite the shooting at them by the enemy,
+98 returned to their cotes, 75 of them carrying microscopic
+dispatches. They thus introduced into the capital 150,000 official
+dispatches and a million private ones reduced by photo-micrographic
+processes. The whole, printed in ordinary characters, would have
+formed a library of 500 volumes. One of these carriers, which reached
+Paris on the 21st of January, 1871, a few days previous to the
+armistice, carried alone nearly 40,000 dispatches.
+
+The pigeon that brought the news of the victory of Coulmiers started
+from La Loupe at ten o'clock in the morning on the tenth of November,
+and reached Paris a few minutes before noon. The account of the
+Villejuif affair was brought from Paris to Tourcoing (Nord) by a white
+pigeon belonging to Mr. Descampes. This pigeon is now preserved in a
+stuffed state in the museum of the city. The carrier pigeon service
+was not prolonged beyond the 1st of February, and our winged brothers
+of arms were sold at a low price at auction by the government, which,
+once more, showed itself ungrateful to its servants as soon as it no
+longer had need of their services. After the commune, Mr. La Perre de
+Roo submitted to the president of the republic a project for the
+organization of military dove cotes for connecting the French
+strongholds with each other. Mr. Thiers treated the project as
+chimerical, so the execution of it was delayed up to the time at which
+we saw it applied in foreign countries.
+
+In 1877, the government accepted a gift of 420 pigeons from Mr. De
+Roo, and had the Administration of Post Offices construct in the
+Garden of Acclimatization a model pigeon house, which was finished in
+1878, and was capable of accommodating 200 pairs.
+
+At present, the majority of our fortresses contain dove cotes, which
+are perfectly organized and under the direction of the engineer corps
+of the army.
+
+The map in Fig. 1 gives the approximate system such as it results from
+documents consulted in foreign military reviews.
+
+According to Lieutenant Grigot, an officer of the Belgian army, who
+has written a very good book entitled _Science Colombophile_, a
+rational organization of the French system requires a central station
+at Paris and three secondary centers at Langres, Lyons and Tours, the
+latter being established in view of a new invasion.
+
+As the distance of Paris from the frontier of the north is but 143
+miles at the most, the city would have no need of any intermediate
+station in order to communicate with the various places of the said
+frontier. Langres would serve as a relay between Paris and the
+frontier of the northeast. For the places of the southeast it would
+require at least two relays, Lyons and Langres, or Dijon.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--THEORETIC MAP OF THE FRENCH SYSTEM OF MILITARY
+DOVE COTES.]
+
+As Paris has ten directions to serve, it should therefore possess ten
+different dove cotes, of 720 birds each, and this would give a total
+of 7,200 pigeons. According to the same principle, Langres, which has
+five directions to provide for, should have 3,600 pigeons.
+
+Continuing this calculation, we find that it would require 25,000
+pigeons for the dove cotes as a whole appropriated to the frontiers of
+the north, northeast, east, and southeast, without taking into account
+our frontiers of the ocean and the Pyrenees.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--BASKET FOR CARRYING PIGEONS.]
+
+A law of the 3d of July, 1877, supplemented by a decree of the 15th of
+November, organized the application of carrier pigeons in France.
+
+One of the last enumerations shows that there exist in Paris 11,000
+pigeons, 5,000 of which are trained, and, in the suburbs, 7,000, of
+which 3,000 are trained. At Roubaix, a city of 100,000 inhabitants,
+there are 15,000 pigeons. Watrelos, a small neighboring city of 10,000
+inhabitants, has no less than 3,000 carrier pigeons belonging to three
+societies, the oldest of which, that of Saint-Esprit, was founded in
+1869.
+
+In entire France, there are about 100,000 trained pigeons, and
+forty-seven departments having pigeon-fancying societies.
+
+_Germany._--After the war of 1870, Prussia, which had observed the
+services rendered by pigeons during the siege of Paris, was the first
+power to organize military dove cotes.
+
+In the autumn of 1871, the Minister of War commissioned Mr. Leutzen, a
+very competent amateur of Cologne, to study the most favorable
+processes for the recruitment, rearing, and training of carrier
+pigeons, as well as for the organization of a system of stations upon
+the western frontier.
+
+In 1872, Mr. Bismarck having received a number of magnificent Belgian
+pigeons as a present, a rearing station was established at the
+Zoological Garden of Berlin, under the direction of Dr. Bodinas.
+
+In 1874 military dove cotes were installed at Cologne, Metz,
+Strassburg, and Berlin. Since that time there have been organized, or
+at least projected, about fifteen new stations upon the frontier of
+France, upon the maritime coasts of the north, or upon the Russian
+frontier.
+
+Berlin remains the principal rearing station, with two pigeon houses
+of 500 pigeons each; but it is at Cologne that is centralized the
+general administration of military dove cotes under Mr. Leutzen's
+direction. The other stations are directly dependent upon the
+commandant of the place, under the control of the inspector of
+military telegraphy. The Wilhelmshaven dove cote, by way of exception,
+depends upon the Admiralty. In each dove cote there is a subofficer of
+the engineer corps and an experienced civil pigeon fancier, on a
+monthly salary of ninety marks, assisted by two orderlies. In time of
+war, this _personnel_ has to be doubled and commanded by an officer.
+
+The amount appropriated to the military dove cotes, which in 1875 was
+about 13,000 francs, rose in 1888 to more than 60,000 francs.
+
+As a rule, each dove cote should be provided with 1,000 pigeons, but
+this number does not appear to have been yet reached except at Thorn,
+Metz, and Strassburg.
+
+Germany has not confined herself to the organization of military dove
+cotes, but, like other nations, has endeavored to aid and direct
+pigeon fancying, so as to be able, when necessary, to find ready
+prepared resources in the civil dove cotes. The generals make it their
+duty to be present, as far as possible, at the races of private
+societies, and the Emperor awards gold medals for flights of more than
+120 miles.
+
+On the 13th of January, 1881, nineteen of these societies, at the head
+of which must be placed the Columbia, of Cologne, combined into a
+federation. At the end of the year the association already included
+sixty-six societies. On the 1st of December, 1888, it included
+seventy-eight, with 52,240 carrier pigeons ready for mobilization.
+
+The first two articles of the statutes of the Federation are as
+follows:
+
+"I. The object of the Federation is to unite in one organization all
+societies of pigeon fanciers in order to improve the service of
+carrier pigeons, which, in case of war, the country must put to
+profit.
+
+"II. The Federation therefore proposes: (a) To aid the activity of
+pigeon-fancying societies and to direct the voyages of the societies
+according to a determined plan; (b) to form itinerent societies and on
+this occasion to organize expositions and auction sales of pigeons;
+(c) to maintain relations with the Prussian Minister of War; (d) to
+obtain diminutions and favors for transportation; (e) to make efforts
+for the extermination of vultures; (f) to obtain a legal protection
+for pigeons; and (g) to publish a special periodical for the
+instruction of fanciers."
+
+_Italy._--The first military dove cote in Italy was installed in 1876
+at Ancona by the twelfth regiment of artillery. In 1879, a second
+station was established at Bologna. At present there are in the
+kingdom, besides the central post at Rome, some fifteen dove cotes,
+the principal ones of which are established at Naples, Gaeta,
+Alexandria, Bologna, Ancona and Placenza. There are at least two on
+the French frontier at Fenestrella and Exilles, and two others in
+Sardinia, at Cagliari and Maddalena. The complete system includes
+twenty-three; moreover, there are two in operation at Massoua and
+Assab.
+
+The cost of each cote amounts to about 1,000 francs. The pigeons are
+registered and taken care of by a pigeon breeder (a subofficer)
+assisted by a soldier. The head of the service is Commandant of
+Engineers Malagoli, one of the most distinguished of pigeon fanciers.
+
+We represent in Fig. 2 one of the baskets used in France for carrying
+the birds to where they are to be set free.--_La Nature._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE ISLE OF MAN TWIN SCREW STEAMER TYNWALD.
+
+
+We place on record the details of the first high speed twin screw
+steamer built for the service. Of this vessel, named the Tynwald, we
+give a profile and an engraving of stern, showing the method of
+supporting the brackets for propeller shafting.
+
+[Illustration: Twin screws--rear view]
+
+The Tynwald is 265 feet long, 34 feet 6 inches beam, and 14 feet 6
+inches depth moulded, the gross tonnage being 946 tons. The desire of
+the owners to put the vessel alternately on two distinct services
+required special arrangement of the saloons. Running between Liverpool
+and the island there was no necessity for sleeping accommodation, as
+the passage is made in about three hours; and the ship had to be
+suited to carry immense crowds. But as the owners wished on special
+occasions to run the vessel from Glasgow to Manxland it was necessary
+to so arrange the saloons as to admit of sleeping accommodation being
+provided on these occasions. On the Liverpool run the vessel will
+carry from 800 to 900 passengers. A spacious promenade is an
+indispensable desideratum, and the upper or shelter deck has been made
+flush from stem to stern, the only obstructions in addition to the
+engine and boiler casings, and the deck and cargo working machinery,
+being a small deck house aft with special state rooms, ticket and post
+offices, and the companion way to the saloons below. On the main deck
+forward is a sheltered promenade for second class passengers, while on
+the lower deck below are dining saloons, the sofas of which may be
+improvised for sleeping accommodation. At the extreme after end of the
+main deck is the first class saloon, with the ladies' room forward on
+the starboard side, and, there being no alley way forward, the ladies'
+lavatories are provided on the starboard side of the engine casing. On
+the port side are the gentlemen's lavatories, and smoking saloon and
+bar. The dining saloon is aft on the lower deck, with ladies' room
+forward. In the two saloons and ladies' rooms sofa berths can be
+arranged to accommodate 252 passengers. The crew and petty officers
+are accommodated in the forward part of the ship. As the profile
+shows, the vessel is divided by transverse bulkheads into seven
+watertight compartments, and there are double bottoms. She has six
+large boats and several rafts.
+
+[Illustration: THE LIVERPOOL AND ISLE OF MAN TWIN SCREW STEAMER
+TYNWALD.]
+
+The twin screws are revolved by separate triple expansion engines,
+steam being supplied by two double-ended boilers. Each boiler is
+placed fore and aft, and each has a separate uptake and funnel. There
+are three stokeholds, and to ventilate them and supply sufficient air
+for the furnaces there is in each a 6 foot fan driven by an
+independent engine running at 250 revolutions. These have been
+supplied by Messrs. W.H. Allen & Co., London. The boilers are of steel
+and adapted for a working pressure of 160 lb. to the square inch. They
+are 16 feet in diameter and 18 feet long, and there are eight furnaces
+in each boiler, sixteen in all, the diameter of each furnace being 3
+feet 4½ inches.
+
+The cylinders of the main engines are 22 in., 36 in., and 57 in. in
+diameter respectively, with a piston stroke of 3 ft. The high-pressure
+cylinders are each fitted with a piston valve, and the intermediate
+and low-pressure cylinders with double-ported slide valves, all of
+which are worked by the usual double eccentric and link motion valve
+gear, by which the cut-off can be varied as required. All the shafting
+is forged of Siemens-Martin mild steel of the best quality, each of
+the three separate cranks being built up. The condensers are placed at
+the outsides of the engine room, and the air, feed, and bilge pumps
+are between the engines and the condensers and worked by levers from
+the low-pressure engine crosshead. There are two centrifugal pumps,
+each worked by a separate engine for circulating water through the
+condenser, and these are so arranged that they can be connected to the
+bilges in the event of an accident to the ship. In the engine room
+there is fitted an auxiliary feed donkey of the duplex type and made
+by the Fairfield Company.
+
+This pump has all the usual connections, so that it can be used for
+feeding the boilers from the hot well, for filling the fresh water
+tanks, for pumping from the bilges, or from the sea as a fire engine.
+The engines are arranged in the ship with the starting platform
+between them; and the handles for working the throttle valves,
+starting valves, reversing gear (Brown's combined steam and
+hydraulic), and drain cocks are brought together at one end of the
+platform, so that the engineer in charge can readily control both
+engines. The two sets of engines are bound together by two beams
+bolted to the framing of each engine. This feature was introduced into
+the design for steadiness.
+
+The method of supporting the propeller shaft brackets is interesting,
+and we reproduce a photograph that indicates the arrangement adopted.
+Instead of the A frame forming part of the same forging as the stern
+frame, the Fairfield Company have built up the supporting arms of
+steel plates riveted together, as is clearly shown. There is an
+advantage in cost and with less risk in undiscovered flaws in
+material.
+
+An interesting change has been made in the steam pipes. Cases of
+copper steam pipes bursting when subjected to high pressure have not
+been infrequent, and Mr. A. Laing, the engineering director on the
+Fairfield Board, with characteristic desire to advance engineering
+practice, has been devoting much attention to this question lately. He
+has made very exhaustive tests with lap welded iron steam pipes of all
+diameters, but principally of 10 in. diameter and 3/8 in. thickness of
+material, made by Messrs. A. & J. Stuart & Clydesdale, Limited, and
+the results have been such as to induce him to introduce these into
+vessels recently built by the company. It may be stated that the pipes
+only burst at a hydraulic pressure of 3,000 lb. to the square inches.
+
+The Tynwald was tried on the Clyde about a month ago, and on two runs
+on the mile, the one with and the other against the tide, the mean
+speed was 19.38 knots--the maximum was 19½ knots--and the indicated
+horse power developed was 5,200, the steam pressure being 160 lb., and
+the vacuum 28 lb. Since that time the vessel has made several runs
+from Liverpool and from Glasgow to the Isle of Man, and has maintained
+a steady seagoing speed of between 18 and 19 knots.--_Engineering._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE TREATMENT OF REFRACTORY ORES.
+
+
+Mr. Jas. J. Shedlock, with the assistance of Mr. T. Denny, of
+Australia, has constructed on behalf of the Metallurgical Syndicate,
+of 105 Gresham House, London, an apparatus on a commercial scale,
+which, it is said, effects at the smallest expense, and with the best
+economical results, the entire separation of metals from their ores.
+In treating ores by this process, the stone is crushed in the usual
+way, either by rolls or stamps, the crushed ore being conveyed into an
+apparatus, where each atom is subjected to the action of gases under
+pressure, whereby the whole of the sulphur and other materials which
+render the ore refractory are separated. The ore is then conveyed into
+a vessel containing an absorbing fluid metal, so constructed that
+every particle of the ore is brought into contact with the metal. For
+the production of reducing gases, steam and air are passed through
+highly heated materials, having an affinity for oxygen, and the gases
+so produced are utilized for raising the ore to a high temperature. By
+this means the sulphur and other metalloids and base metals are
+volatilized and eliminated, and the gold in the ore is then in such a
+condition as to alloy itself or become amalgamated with the fluid
+metal with which it is brought into close contact. The tailings
+passing off, worthless, are conveyed to the dump.
+
+The apparatus in the background is that in which the steam is
+generated, and which, in combination with the due proportion of
+atmospheric air, is first superheated in passing through the hearth or
+bed on which the fire is supported. The superheated steam and air
+under pressure are then forced through the fire, which is
+automatically maintained at a considerable depth, by which means the
+products of combustion are mainly hydrogen and carbonic oxide. These
+gases are then conveyed by means of the main and branch pipes to the
+cylindrical apparatus in the foreground, into which the ore to be
+acted upon is driven under pressure by means of the gases, which,
+being ignited, raise the ore to a high temperature. The ore is
+maintained in a state of violent agitation. Each particle being kept
+separate from its fellows is consequently very rapidly acted upon by
+the gases. The ore freed from its refractory constituents is then fed
+into a vessel containing the fluid metal, in which each particle of
+ore is separated from the others, and being acted upon by the fluid
+metal is absorbed into it, the tailings or refuse passing off freed
+from any gold which may have been in the ore.
+
+[Illustration: APPARATUS FOR THE TREATMENT OF REFRACTORY ORES.]
+
+Quantities of refractory ores treated by this process are said to have
+demonstrated that the whole of the gold in the ore is extracted. The
+successful outcome of these trials is stated to have resulted in the
+Anglo-French Exploration Co. acquiring the right to work the process
+on the various gold fields of South Africa. It is anticipated that the
+process will thus be immediately brought to a test by means of
+apparatus erected on the gold fields under circumstances and
+conditions of absolute practical work. As is well known, gold-bearing
+ores in South Africa which are below the water line are, by reason of
+the presence of sulphur, extremely difficult to deal with, and are
+consequently of small commercial value. The gold in these ores, it is
+maintained, will, by the new process, be extracted and saved, and make
+all the difference between successful and unsuccessful mining in that
+country.
+
+It will have been seen that the peculiar and essential features of the
+invention consist in subjecting every particle of the ore under
+treatment to the process in all its stages instead of in bulk, thereby
+insuring that no portion shall escape being acted upon by the gases
+and the absorbing metal. This is done automatically and in a very
+rapid manner. It is stated that this method of treatment is applicable
+to all ores, the most refractory being readily reducible by its means.
+The advantages claimed for this process are: simplicity of the
+apparatus, it being practically automatic; that every particle of the
+ore is separately acted upon in a rapid and efficient manner; that the
+apparatus is adaptable to existing milling plants; and that there is
+an absence of elaborate and expensive plant and of the refinements of
+electrical or chemical science. These advantages imply that the work
+can be done so economically as to commend the new process to the
+favorable consideration of all who are interested in mines or mining
+property.--_Iron._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+REFINING SILVER BULLION.
+
+
+A number of years ago the author devised a method for refining silver
+bullion by sulphuric acid, in which iron was substituted for copper as
+precipitant of silver, the principal feature being the separation of
+pure crystals of silver sulphate. A full description of this process
+may be found in Percy's Metallurgy, "Silver and Gold," page 479. The
+process has been extensively worked in San Francisco and in Germany in
+refining bullion to the amount of more than a hundred million dollars'
+worth of silver. Its more general application has been hampered,
+however, by the circumstance that the patent had been secured by one
+firm which limited itself to its utilization in its California works.
+The patent having expired, the author lately introduced a modification
+of the process by which the apparatus and manipulations are greatly
+cheapened and simplified. In the following account is given a short
+description of the process in its present shape.
+
+_Preparing the Silver Sulphate._--The bullion, containing,
+essentially, silver, copper and gold, is dissolved by boiling with
+sulphuric acid in cast iron pots. The difference between the new
+process and the usual practice consists in the use of a much larger
+quantity of acid. Thus, in refining ordinary silver "dore," four parts
+of acid are used to one part of bullion. Of this acid one part is
+chemically and mechanically consumed in the dissolving process, and
+the remaining three parts are fully recovered and at once ready for
+reutilization, as will be described hereafter. In the usual
+process--understanding thereby, here and in the following, the process
+practiced at the United States mints, for instance--two parts of acid
+are employed for one of bullion; all of this is lost, partly through
+the dissolving and partly in being afterward mixed with water,
+previous to the precipitation of the silver by copper. Economy in acid
+being therefore imperative, the silver solution finally becomes much
+concentrated, and it requires high heat and careful management to
+finish the solution of the bullion. Bars containing more than about 10
+per cent. of copper cannot be dissolved at all, owing to the
+separation of copper sulphate insoluble in the small amount of free
+acid finally remaining. The advantage gained by dissolving bullion
+with abundance of free acid in the improved process is so evident that
+it merely requires to be pointed out. For bullion containing 20 per
+cent. of copper the author employs six parts of acid to one of
+bullion; for baser metal still more acid, and so on, never losing more
+than the stochiometrical percentage of acid and recovering the
+remainder. In this description he, however, confines himself to the
+treatment of ordinary silver ore with less than 10 per cent. of
+copper.
+
+In the diagram A A represent two refining pots, 4 ft. in diameter and
+3 ft. in depth, each capable of dissolving at one operation as much as
+400 pounds of bullion. The acid is stored in the cast iron reservoir,
+B, which is placed on a level sufficiently high to charge into A by
+gravitation, and is composed of fresh concentrated acid mixed with the
+somewhat dilute acid regained from a previous operation. After the
+bullion is fully dissolved all the acid still available is run from B
+into A A. The temperature and strength are thereby reduced, the fuming
+ceases, any still undissolved copper sulphate dissolves, and the gold
+settles. In assuming that the settling of the gold takes place in A
+itself, the author follows the practice of the United States mints. In
+private refineries, where refining is carried on continuously, the
+settling may take place in an intermediate vessel, and A A be at once
+recharged. Owing to the large amount of free acid present, the
+temperature must fall considerably before the separation of silver
+sulphate commences, and sufficient time may be allowed for settling if
+the intermediate vessel be judiciously arranged.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+_Separating the Silver Sulphate._--The clarified solution is siphoned
+off the gold from A A into C, which is an open cast iron pan, say 8
+ft. by 4 ft. and 1 ft. deep. It is supported by means of a flange in
+another larger pan--not shown in the diagram--into which water may be
+admitted for cooling. Steam is blown into the acid solution, still
+very hot, as soon as C is filled. The steam is introduced about 1 in.
+below the surface of the liquid, blowing perpendicularly downward from
+a nozzle made of lead pipe through an aperture 1/8 in. in diameter.
+Under these circumstances the absorption of the steam is nearly
+perfect, and takes place without any splashing. The temperature rises
+with the increasing dilution, and may be regulated by the less
+experienced by manipulating the cooling tank. An actual boiling is not
+desired, because it protracts unnecessarily the operation by the less
+perfect condensation of the steam. No separation of silver sulphate
+occurs during this operation (and, consequently, there is no clotting
+of the steam nozzle), the large amount of free acid, combined with the
+increase of temperature, compensating for the diminution of the
+solubility of the sulphate by the dilution. The most important point
+in this procedure is to know when to stop the admission of steam. To
+determine this, the operator takes a drop or two of the solution upon
+a cold iron plate by means of a glass rod and observes whether after
+cooling the sample congeals partly or wholly into a white mass of
+silver bisulphate, or whether the silver separates as a monosulphate
+in detached yellow crystals, leaving a mother liquor behind. As soon
+as the latter point has been reached, steam is shut off and the
+solution is allowed to crystallize, cold water being admitted into the
+outer pan. The operator may now be certain that the liquid will no
+longer congeal into a soft mass of silver bisulphate, which on contact
+with water will disintegrate into powder, obstinately retaining a
+large amount of free acid; but the silver will separate as a
+monosulphate in hard and large yellow crystals retaining no acid and
+preserving their physical characteristics when thrown into water.
+After cooling to, say, 80° F., the silver sulphate will have coated
+the pan C about 1 in. thick. There will also be found a deposit of
+copper sulphate when the mother acid, after having been used over and
+over again, has been sufficiently saturated therewith. Lead sulphate
+separates in a cloud, which, however, will hardly settle at this
+stage.
+
+The whole operation just described, which constitutes the most
+essential feature of the author's improvement upon his old process
+described in Dr. Percy's work, is a short one, as the acid requires by
+no means great dilution. The steam has merely to furnish enough water
+to dilute the free acid present to, say, 62° B. Areometrical
+determination is, of course, not possible, on account of the dissolved
+sulphates.
+
+_Reducing the Silver Sulphate to Fine Silver._--The mother acid is
+pumped from C to the reservoir, B, for this purpose an iron pipe
+connecting the top of B with a recess in the bottom of C. The tank, B,
+is cast as a closed vessel, with a manhole in the top, which is
+ordinarily kept closed by an iron plate resting on a rubber packing.
+The air is exhausted from B by a steam injector, and the acid rises
+from C and enters B without coming in contact with any valves. The
+volume of fresh commercial acid necessary for another dissolving
+operation, say 800 pounds, more or less, for refining 800 pounds of
+bullion in A A, is lifted from some other receptacle into B in the
+same manner. The mixture of the two acids in B now represents the
+volume of acid to be employed for dissolving and settling the next
+charge of 800 pounds of bullion in A A. In this reservoir, B, the
+cloud of lead sulphate mentioned above finds an opportunity for
+settling.
+
+The crystals of silver sulphate are detached from C by an iron shovel
+and thrown into D. D is a lead lined tank about 4 ft. by 4 ft. and 3
+ft. deep. It is divided into two compartments by means of a
+horizontal, perforated false bottom made of wood. From the lower
+compartment a lead pipe discharges into the lead lined reservoir, E.
+Warm distilled water is allowed to percolate the crystals until the
+usual ammonia test indicates that the copper sulphate has been
+sufficiently dissolved. Then the outflow is closed, sheets of iron are
+thrown on and into the crystals, the apparatus is filled with hot
+distilled water, and steam is moderately admitted into the lower
+compartment. Ferrous sulphate is formed, and in connection with the
+iron rapidly reduces the silver sulphate to the metallic state, the
+reduced silver retaining the heavy compact character of the crystals.
+When the reaction is completed, as indicated by the chlorine test, the
+liquid is discharged into E, the iron sheets are removed and the
+silver is sweetened either in the same vessel, D, or in a special
+filtering vessel which rests on wheels and may be run directly to the
+hydraulic press.
+
+The vat, E, is the great reservoir where all liquids holding silver
+sulphate in solution are collected; for instance, that from sweetening
+the gold and from washing the tools. Sheets of iron here precipitate
+all silver and copper, and the resulting solution of ferrous sulphate
+is, with the usual precautions, discharged into the sewer.
+Occasionally when copper and silver have accumulated in E in
+sufficient amount the mass is thrown into D, silver sulphate crystals
+are added and sheet copper is thrown in, instead of sheet iron. There
+results a hot, neutral, concentrated solution of copper sulphate,
+which may be run at once into a crystallizing vat for the separation
+of commercial crystals of copper sulphate. It will be readily
+understood, of course, that if there should be any advantage in
+manufacturing that commercial article, besides the amount prepared as
+described, which represents merely the copper contained in the
+bullion, copper sheets may be regularly employed for reducing the
+silver sulphate in D. The author trusts that the practical refiner
+will recognize that the manufacture of commercial copper sulphate is
+thus effected in a more rational and economical manner than by the
+present method of evaporating from 25° B. to 35° B., and of saturating
+by oxidized copper, generally in a very incomplete manner, the large
+amount of free acid left from the refining by the usual process.
+However, the sale of copper sulphate is but rarely so profitable that
+a refinery should not gladly dispense with that troublesome and bulky
+manufacture, especially the government establishments, which, besides,
+waste much valuable space with the crystallizing vats.
+
+The great saving in sulphuric acid, amounting to about 50 per cent. of
+the present consumption, has already been pointed out. Another
+advantage the author merely mentions, namely, the easier condensation
+of the sulphurous fumes in refineries situated in cities, because the
+larger amount of acid available for dissolving greatly facilitates
+working and makes the usual frequent admission of air into the
+refining pot for the purpose of stirring and testing unnecessary.
+
+The more air is excluded from the refining fumes the easier they can
+be condensed.
+
+Work may be carried on continuously, the vessels C and D being empty
+by the time a new solution is finished in A A. Thus, the plant shown
+in the diagram, covering 26 ft. by 16 ft., allows the refining of
+40,000 ounces of fine silver in 24 hours; that is, four charges in A A
+of 800 pounds each.--_F. Gutzkow, Eng. and Mining J._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+A CASE OF DROWNING, WITH RESUSCITATION.
+
+By F.A. BURRALL, M.D., New York.
+
+
+As is usual at this season, casualties from drowning are of frequent
+occurrence. No class of emergencies is of a more startling character,
+and I think that a history of the case which I now present offers some
+peculiar features, and will not be without interest to physicians.
+
+The accident which forms the subject of this paper occurred August 29,
+1890, at South Harpswell, Casco Bay, Me., where I was passing my
+vacation.
+
+At about 9.30 A.M., M. B----, an American, aged eighteen, the son of a
+fisherman, a young man of steady habits and a good constitution, with
+excellent muscular development, and who had never before required the
+aid of a physician, was seen by the residents of the village to fall
+forward from a skiff into the water and go down with uplifted hands. I
+could not learn that he rose at all after the first submersion. Two
+men were standing near a bluff which overlooked the bay, and after an
+instant's delay in deciding that an accident had occurred, they ran
+over an uneven and undulating pasture for a distance of two hundred
+and fifty paces to the shore. One of them, after a quick decision not
+to swim out to where the young man had fallen in and dive for him,
+removed trousers and boots and waded out five yards to a boat, which
+he drew into the shore and entered with his companion, taking him to a
+yacht which lay two hundred and forty yards from the shore, in the
+padlocked cabin of which was a boat hook. The padlock was unfastened,
+the boat hook taken, and they proceeded by the boat directly to where
+the young man lay. He was seen through the clear water, lying at a
+depth of nine feet at the bottom of the bay, on his back, with
+upturned face and arms extended from the sides of the body. He was
+quickly seized by the boat hook, drawn head upward to the surface, and
+with the inferior portion of the body hanging over the stern of the
+boat, and the superior supported in the arms of his rescuer, was rowed
+rapidly to the shore, where he was rolled a few times, and then placed
+prone upon a tub for further rolling. I was told that much water came
+from his mouth. Meantime I had been sent for to where I was sitting,
+one hundred and fifty-one yards from the scene, and I arrived to find
+him apparently lifeless on the tub, and to be addressed with the
+remark, "Well, doctor, I suppose we are doing all that can be done."
+
+I have given these details, as from a study of them I was aided in
+deciding the time of submersion, as well as the intervals which
+transpired before the intelligent use of remedies. It is also
+remarkable that, notwithstanding all which has been written about
+ready remedies for drowning, no one present knew anything about them,
+although living in a seafaring community.
+
+I immediately directed that the patient should at once be placed upon
+the ground, which was sloping, and arranged his rubber boots under the
+back of the head and nape of the neck, so that the head should be
+slightly elevated and the neck extended, while the head was turned
+somewhat upon the side, that fluids might drain from the mouth. The
+day was clear and moderately warm. Respiration had ceased, but no time
+was lost in commencing artificial respiration. The patient had on a
+shirt and pantaloons, which were immediately unbuttoned and made
+loose, and placing myself at his head, I used the Silvester method,
+because I was more accustomed to it than any other. It seems to me
+more easy of application than any other, and I have often found it of
+service in the asphyxia of the newly born.
+
+The patient's surface was cold, there was extensive cyanosis, and his
+expression was so changed that he was not recognized by his fellow
+townsmen, but supposed to be a stranger. The eyelids were closed, the
+pupils contracted, and the inferior maxilla firmly set against the
+superior. One of the men who had brought him ashore had endeavored to
+find the heart's impulse by placing his hand upon the chest, but was
+unable to detect any motion.
+
+I continued the artificial respiration from 9.45 until 10, when I
+directed one of his rescuers to make pressure upon the ribs, as I
+brought the arms down upon the chest. This assistance made expiration
+more complete. When nature resumed the respiratory act I am unable to
+say, but the artificial breathing was continued in all its details for
+three-quarters of an hour, and then expiration was aided by pressure
+on the chest for half an hour longer. Friction upward was also applied
+to the lower extremities, and the surface became warm about half an
+hour after the beginning of treatment.
+
+About twenty minutes after ten, two hypodermic syringefuls of brandy
+were administered, but I did not repeat this, since I think alcohol is
+likely to increase rather than diminish asphyxia, if given in any
+considerable quantity. A thermometer, with the mercury shaken down
+below the scale, at this time did not rise. At 11.8 the pulse was 82;
+respiration, 27; temperature, 97.
+
+After a natural respiration had commenced, the wet clothing was
+removed, and the patient was placed in blankets. Ammonia was
+occasionally applied to the nostrils, since, although respiration had
+returned, there was no sign of consciousness; the natural respiration
+was at first attended by the expulsion of frothy fluid from the lips,
+which gradually diminished, and auscultation revealed the presence of
+a few pulmonary rales, which also passed away. There were efforts at
+vomiting, and pallor succeeded cyanosis; there were also clonic
+contractions of the flexors of the forearm. The pupils dilated
+slightly at about one hour after beginning treatment. Unconsciousness
+was still profound, and loud shouting into the ear elicited no
+response. Mustard sinapisms were applied to the præcordium, and the
+Faradic current to the spine.
+
+Coffee was also administered by a ready method which, as a systematic
+procedure, was, I believe, novel when I introduced it to the
+profession in the _Medical Record,_ in 1876. I take the liberty of
+referring to this, since I think it is now sometimes overlooked. It
+was described as follows:
+
+    "A simple examination which any one can make of his own buccal
+    cavity will show that posterior to the last molar teeth, when
+    the jaws are closed, is an opening bounded by the molars, the
+    body of the superior, and the ramus of the inferior maxilla. If
+    on either side the cheek is held well out from the jaw, a
+    pocket, or gutter, is formed, into which fluids may be poured,
+    and they will pass into the mouth through the opening behind the
+    molars, as well as through the interstices between the teeth.
+    When in the mouth they tend to create a disposition to swallow,
+    and by this method a considerable quantity of liquid may be
+    administered."
+
+After I had worked with the patient in the open air, for four and
+three-quarter hours, he was carried to a cottage near by and placed,
+still unconscious, in bed. There had been an alvine evacuation during
+the time in which he lay in the blankets.
+
+Consciousness began to return in the early part of the following
+morning, and with its advent it was discovered that the memory of
+everything which had occurred from half an hour previous to the
+accident, up to the return of consciousness, had been completely
+obliterated. With this exception the convalescence was steady and
+uncomplicated, and of about a week's duration. From a letter which I
+recently received from my patient, I learned that the lapse of memory
+still remains.
+
+My experience with this case has taught me that, unless the data have
+been taken very accurately, we cannot depend upon any statements as to
+the time of submersion in cases of drowning. My first supposition was
+that my patient had been from thirteen to fifteen minutes under water,
+but a careful investigation reduced the supposed time by one-half.
+This makes the time of submersion about six minutes, and that which
+elapsed before the intelligent use of remedies about three minutes
+longer.
+
+For a long time the opinion of Sir Benjamin Brodie concerning the
+presence of water in the lungs of the drowned was accepted, who says
+"that the admission of water into the lungs is prevented by a spasm of
+the muscles of the glottis cannot, however, be doubted, since we are
+unable to account for it in any other manner."
+
+Later experiments made by a committee of the Royal Medico-Chirurgical
+Society, of London, demonstrated, on the contrary, that "in drowned
+animals not only were all the air passages choked with frothy fluid,
+more or less bloody, but that both lungs were highly gorged with
+blood, so that they were heavy, dark colored, and pitted on pressure,
+and on being cut exuded an abundance of blood-tinged fluid with many
+air bubbles in it." Dr. R.L. Bowles[1] also holds that the lungs of
+the drowned contain water, and supports his views by a list of cases.
+In his words, "These examples show very conclusively that in cases of
+drowning in man, water does exist in the lungs, that the water only
+very gradually and after a long time is effectually expelled, and that
+it is absolutely impossible that any relief should be afforded in that
+way by the Silvester method." Dr. Bowles believes that the method of
+Dr. Marshall Hall is superior to any other in this class of cases. He
+thinks that on account of the immediate adoption and continued use of
+the prono-lateral position, this method is more to be trusted than any
+other for keeping the pharynx clear of obstruction. "It also empties
+the stomach and gradually clears the lungs of the watery and frothy
+fluids, and will surely and gently introduce sufficient air at each
+inspiration to take the place of the fluid which has been expelled."
+In the light of even my limited experience I cannot but feel that Dr.
+Bowles' opinion concerning the Silvester method would admit of some
+modification. This is often the case with very positive statements
+concerning medical matters. In my own case the Silvester method
+answered well, but I was much impressed with Dr. Bowles' claims for
+the Marshall Hall method, and should bear them in mind were I called
+upon to attend another case of drowning.
+
+   [Footnote 1: Resuscitation of the Apparently Drowned, by R.L.
+   Bowles, M.D., F.R.C.P., Medico-Chirurgical Transactions, vol.
+   lxxii., 1889.]
+
+I think it must be admitted that pulling the tongue forward as a means
+of opening the glottis, which has become a standard treatment in
+asphyxia, is unscientific, and not warranted by the results of
+experiments made to determine its value.[2]
+
+   [Footnote 2: Dragging on the tongue's tip would not affect its
+   base or the epiglottis sufficiently to make it a praiseworthy
+   procedure. Medico-Chirurgical Transactions, vol. lxxii. See also
+   _Medical Record_, April 4, 1891. Pulling out the tongue is a
+   mistake, since irritation of nerves of deglutition stops the
+   diaphragm.--_Medical Times and Gazetteer._]
+
+Dr. Bowles also believes that "the safety of the patient is most
+perfectly secured by keeping him on one side during the whole
+treatment, one lung being thus kept quite free." With the account of
+my case I have brought forward such views of other writers as it
+seemed to me would be of practical service and throw light on a
+subject which is of great importance, since the yearly record of
+mortality from drowning is by no means inconsiderable. I think,
+however, that a knowledge of what ought to be done in cases of
+drowning should be much more generally diffused than is the case at
+present. It should be one of the items of school instruction, since no
+one can tell when such knowledge may be of immense importance in
+saving life, and the time lost in securing medical aid would involve a
+fatal result.
+
+It is also very desirable that all doubt should be removed, by the
+decision of competent medical authorities, as to which "ready" method
+or methods are the best, since there are several in the field. With
+this should be decided what is the best means for securing patency of
+the air passages, and, in short, a very careful revision of the
+treatment now recommended for drowning, in order that there may be no
+doubt as to the course which should be adopted in such a serious
+emergency.--_Medical Record._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE STORY OF THE UNIVERSE.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: Presidential address before the British Association,
+Cardiff, 1891.]
+
+By Dr. WILLIAM HUGGINS.
+
+
+The opening meeting of the British Association was held in Park Hall,
+Cardiff, August 18, where a large and brilliant audience assembled,
+including, in his richly trimmed official robes, the Marquis of Bute,
+who this year holds office as mayor of Cardiff. At the commencement of
+the proceedings Sir Frederick Abel took the chair, but this was only
+_pro forma_, and in order that he might, after a few complimentary
+sentences, resign it to the president-elect, Professor Huggins, the
+eminent astronomer, who at once, amid applause, assumed the presidency
+and proceeded to deliver the opening address.
+
+Dr. Huggins said that the very remarkable discoveries in our knowledge
+of the heavens which had taken place during the past thirty years--a
+period of amazing and ever-increasing activity in all branches of
+science--had not passed unnoticed in the addresses of successive
+presidents; still, it seemed to him fitting that he should speak of
+those newer methods of astronomical research which had led to those
+discoveries, and which had become possible by the introduction into
+the observatory, since 1860, of the spectroscope and the modern
+photographic plate. Spectroscopic astronomy had become a distinct and
+acknowledged branch of the science, possessing a large literature of
+its own, and observatories specially devoted to it. The more recent
+discovery of the gelatine dry plate had given a further great impetus
+to this modern side of astronomy, and had opened a pathway into the
+unknown of which even an enthusiast thirty years ago would scarcely
+have dared to dream.
+
+
+HERSCHEL'S THEORY.
+
+It was now some thirty years since the spectroscope gave us for the
+first time certain knowledge of the nature of the heavenly bodies, and
+revealed the fundamental fact that terrestrial matter is not peculiar
+to the solar system, but is common to all the stars which are visible
+to us. Professor Rowland had since shown us that if the whole earth
+were heated to the temperature of the sun, its spectrum would resemble
+very closely the solar spectrum. In the nebulæ, the elder Herschel saw
+portions of the fiery mist or "shining fluid," out of which the
+heavens and the earth had been slowly fashioned. For a time this view
+of the nebulæ gave place to that which regarded them as external
+galaxies--cosmical "sand heaps," too remote to be resolved into
+separate stars, though, indeed, in 1858, Mr. Herbert Spencer showed
+that the observations of nebulæ up to that time were really in favor
+of an evolutional progress. In 1864 he (the speaker) brought the
+spectroscope to bear upon them; the bright lines which flashed upon
+the eye showed the source of the light to be glowing gas, and so
+restored these bodies to what is probably their true place, as an
+early stage of sidereal life. At that early time our knowledge of
+stellar spectra was small. For this reason partly, and probably also
+under the undue influence of theological opinions then widely
+prevalent, he unwisely wrote in his original paper in 1864, that "in
+these objects we no longer have to do with a special modification of
+our own type of sun, but find ourselves in presence of objects
+possessing a distinct and peculiar plan of structure." Two years
+later, however, in a lecture before this association, he took a truer
+position. "Our views of the universe," he said, "are undergoing
+important changes; let us wait for more facts with minds unfettered by
+any dogmatic theory, and, therefore, free to receive the teaching,
+whatever it may be, of new observations."
+
+
+THE NEBULAR HYPOTHESIS.
+
+Let them turn aside for a moment from the nebulæ in the sky to the
+conclusions to which philosophers had been irresistibly led by a
+consideration of the features of the solar system. We had before us in
+the sun and planets obviously not a haphazard aggregation of bodies,
+but a system resting upon a multitude of relations pointing to a
+common physical cause. From these considerations Kant and Laplace
+formulated the nebular hypothesis, resting it on gravitation alone,
+for at that time the science of the conservation of energy was
+practically unknown. These philosophers showed how, on the supposition
+that the space now occupied by the solar system was once filled by a
+vaporous mass, the formation of the sun and planets could be
+reasonably accounted for. By a totally different method of reasoning,
+modern science traced the solar system backward step by step to a
+similar state of things at the beginning. According to Helmholtz, the
+sun's heat was maintained by the contraction of his mass, at the rate
+of about 220 feet a year. Whether at the present time the sun was
+getting hotter or colder we did not certainly know. We could reason
+back to the time when the sun was sufficiently expanded to fill the
+whole space occupied by the solar system, and was reduced to a great
+glowing nebula. Though man's life, the life of the race perhaps, was
+too short to give us direct evidence of any distinct stages of so
+august a process, still the probability was great that the nebular
+hypothesis, especially in the more precise form given to it by Roche,
+did represent broadly, notwithstanding some difficulties, the
+succession of events through which the sun and planets had passed.
+
+[Illustration: DR. WILLIAM HUGGINS, D.C.L., LL.D., PRESIDENT OF THE
+BRITISH ASSOCIATION.
+
+Dr. Huggins is one of the most eminent astronomers of the present day,
+and his spectroscopic researches on the celestial bodies have had the
+most important results. He is a D.C.L. of Oxford, LL.D. of Cambridge,
+and Ph.D of Leyden. Dr. Huggins was born in 1824 and educated at the
+City of London School. He continued his studies, giving much of his
+time to experiments in natural philosophy and physical science. In
+1855 Dr. Huggins erected a private observatory at his residence on
+Tulse Hill, where he has carried out valuable prismatic researches
+with the spectroscope.--_Daily Graphic._]
+
+
+OTHER SPECULATIONS.
+
+The nebular hypothesis of Laplace required a rotating mass of fluid
+which at successive epochs became unstable from excess of motion, and
+left behind rings, or more probably, perhaps, lumps, of matter from
+the equatorial regions. To some thinkers was suggested a different
+view of things, according to which it was not necessary to suppose
+that one part of the system gravitationally supported another. The
+whole might consist of a congeries of discrete bodies, even if these
+bodies were the ultimate molecules of matter. The planets might have
+been formed by the gradual accretion of such discrete bodies. On the
+view that the material of the condensing solar system consisted of
+separate particles or masses, we had no longer the fluid pressure
+which was an essential part of Laplace's theory. Faye, in his theory
+of evolution from meteorites, had to throw over his fundamental idea
+of the nebular hypothesis, and formulated instead a different
+succession of events of which the outer planets were formed last, a
+theory which had difficulties of its own. Professor George Darwin had
+recently shown, from an investigation of the mechanical conditions of
+a swarm of meteorites, that on certain assumptions a meteoric swarm
+might behave as a coarse gas, and in this way bring back the fluid
+pressure exercised by one part of the system on the other, which was
+required by Laplace's theory. One chief assumption consisted in
+supposing that such inelastic bodies as meteoric stones might attain
+the effective elasticity of a high order which was necessary to the
+theory through the sudden volatilization of a part of their mass at an
+encounter, by which what was virtually a violent explosive was
+introduced between the two colliding stones. Professor Darwin was
+careful to point out that it must necessarily be obscure as to how a
+small mass of solid matter could take up a very large amount of energy
+in a small fraction of a second.
+
+
+HELMHOLTZ'S DISCOVERY.
+
+The old view of the original matter of the nebulæ, that it consisted
+of a "fiery mist,"
+
+            "a tumultuous cloud,
+      Instinct with fire and niter,"
+
+fell at once with the rise of the science of thermodynamics. In 1854,
+Helmholtz showed that the supposition of an original fiery condition
+of the nebulous stuff was unnecessary, since in the mutual gravitation
+of widely separated matter we had a store of potential energy
+sufficient to generate the high temperature of the sun and stars. We
+could scarcely go wrong in attributing the light of the nebulæ to the
+conversion of the gravitational energy of shrinkage into molecular
+motion. The inquisitiveness of the human mind did not allow us to
+remain content with the interpretation of the present state of the
+cosmical masses, but suggested the question--
+
+                     What see'st thou else
+      In the dark backward and abysm of time?
+
+What was the original state of things? How had it come about that by
+the side of ageing worlds we had nebulæ in a relatively younger stage?
+Had any of them received their birth from dark suns, which had
+collided into new life, and so belonged to a second or later
+generation of the heavenly bodies?
+
+
+LOOKING BACKWARD.
+
+During the short historic period there was no record of such an event;
+still it would seem to be only through the collision of dark suns, of
+which the number must be increasing, that a temporary rejuvenescence
+of the heavens was possible, and by such ebbings and flowings of
+stellar life that the inevitable end to which evolution in its
+apparently uncompensated progress was carrying us could, even for a
+little, be delayed. We could not refuse to admit as possible such an
+origin for nebulæ. In considering, however, the formation of the
+existing nebulæ we must bear in mind that, in the part of the heavens
+within our ken, the stars still in the early and middle stages of
+evolution exceeded greatly in number those which appeared to be in an
+advanced condition of condensation. Indeed, we found some stars which
+might be regarded as not far advanced beyond the nebular condition. It
+might be that the cosmical bodies which were still nebulous owed their
+later development to some conditions of the part of space where they
+occurred, such as conceivably a greater original homogeneity, in
+consequence of which condensation began less early. In other parts of
+space condensation might have been still further delayed, or even have
+not yet begun. If light matter were suggested by the spectrum of these
+nebulæ, it might be asked further, as a pure speculation, whether in
+them we were witnessing possibly a later condensation of the light
+matter which had been left behind, at least in a relatively greater
+proportion, after the first growth of worlds into which the heavier
+matter condensed, though not without some entanglement of the lighter
+substances. The wide extent and great diffuseness of this bright-line
+nebulosity over a large part of the constellation of Orion might be
+regarded, perhaps, as pointing in this direction. The diffuse nebulous
+matter streaming round the Pleiades might possibly be another
+instance, though the character of its spectrum had not yet been
+ascertained.
+
+
+THE MOTIONS OF THE STARS.
+
+Besides its more direct use in the chemical analysis of the heavenly
+bodies, the spectroscope had given to us a great and unexpected power
+of advance along the lines of the older astronomy. In the future a
+higher value might, indeed, be placed upon this indirect use of the
+spectroscope than upon its chemical revelations. By no direct
+astronomical methods could motions of approach or of recession of the
+stars be even detected, much less could they be measured. A body
+coming directly toward us or going directly from us appeared to stand
+still. In the case of the stars we could receive no assistance from
+change of size or of brightness. The stars showed no true disks in our
+instruments, and the nearest of them was so far off that if it were
+approaching us at the rate of a hundred miles in a second of time, a
+whole century of such rapid approach would not do more than increase
+its brightness by the one-fortieth part. Still it was formerly only
+too clear that, so long as we were unable to ascertain directly those
+components of the stars' motions which lay in the line of sight, the
+speed and direction of the solar motion in space, and many of the
+great problems of the constitution of the heavens must have remained
+more or less imperfectly known. Now the spectroscope had placed in our
+hands this power, which, though so essential, had previously appeared
+almost in the nature of things to lie forever beyond our grasp; it
+enabled us to measure directly, and, under favorable circumstances, to
+within a mile per second, or even less, the speed of approach or of
+recession of a heavenly body. This method of observation had the great
+advantage for the astronomer of being independent of the distance of
+the moving body, and was, therefore, as applicable and as certain in
+the case of a body on the extreme confines of the visible universe, so
+long as it was bright enough, as in the case of a neighboring planet.
+
+
+ALGOL AND SPICA.
+
+By observations with the Potsdam spectograph, Professor Vogel found
+that the bright star of Algol pulsated backward and forward in the
+visual direction in a period corresponding to the known variation of
+its light. The explanation which had been suggested for the star's
+variability, that it was partially eclipsed at regular intervals of
+68.8 hours by a dark companion large enough to cut off nearly
+five-sixths of its light, was, therefore, the true one. The dark
+companion, no longer able to hide itself by its obscureness, was
+brought out into the light of direct observation by means of its
+gravitational effects. Seventeen hours before minimum Algol was
+receding at the rate of about 24½ miles a second, while seventeen
+hours after minimum it was found to be approaching with a speed of
+about 28½ miles. From these data, together with those of the variation
+of its light, Vogel found, on the assumption that both stars have the
+same density, that the companion, nearly as large as the sun, but with
+about one-fourth his mass, revolved with a velocity of about
+fifty-five miles a second. The bright star of about twice the size and
+mass moved about the common center of gravity with the speed of about
+26 miles a second. The system of the two stars, which were about 3¼
+millions of miles apart, considered as a whole, was approaching us
+with a velocity of 2.4 miles a second. The great difference in
+luminosity of the two stars, not less than fifty times, suggested
+rather that they were in different stages of condensation, and
+dissimilar in density. It was obvious that if the orbit of a star with
+an obscure companion was inclined to the line of sight, the companion
+would pass above or below the bright star and produce no variation of
+its light. Such systems might be numerous in the heavens. In Vogel's
+photographs, Spica, which was not variable, by a small shifting of its
+lines revealed a backward and forward periodical pulsation due to
+orbital motion. As the pair whirled round their common center of
+gravity, the bright star was sometimes advancing, at others receding.
+They revolved in about four days, each star moving with a velocity of
+about 56 miles a second in an orbit probably nearly circular, and
+possessed a combined mass of rather more than two and one-half times
+that of the sun. Taking the most probable value for the star's
+parallax, the greatest angular separation of the stars would be far
+too small to be detected with the most powerful telescopes.
+
+
+THE VALUE OF PHOTOGRAPHY.
+
+Referring to the new and great power which modern photography had put
+into the hands of the astronomer, the president said that the modern
+silver bromide gelatine plate, except for its grained texture, met his
+needs at all points. It possessed extreme sensitiveness, it was always
+ready for use, it could be placed in any position, it could be exposed
+for hours, lastly it did not need immediate development, and for this
+reason could be exposed again to the same object on succeeding nights,
+so as to make up by several installments, as the weather might permit,
+the total time of exposure which was deemed necessary. Without the
+assistance of photography, however greatly the resources of genius
+might overcome the optical and mechanical difficulties of constructing
+large telescopes, the astronomer would have to depend in the last
+resource upon his eye. Now, we could not by the force of continued
+looking bring into view an object too feebly luminous to be seen at
+the first and keenest moment of vision. But the feeblest light which
+fell upon the plate was not lost, but taken in and stored up
+continuously. Each hour the plate gathered up 3,600 times the light
+energy which it received during the first second. It was by this power
+of accumulation that the photographic plate might be said to increase,
+almost without limit, though not in separating power, the optical
+means at the disposal of the astronomer for the discovery or the
+observation of faint objects.
+
+
+TWO EXAMPLES.
+
+Two principal directions might be pointed out in which photography was
+of great service to the astronomer. It enabled him within the
+comparatively short time of a single exposure to secure permanently
+with great exactness the relative positions of hundreds or even of
+thousands of stars, or the minute features of nebulæ or other objects,
+or the phenomena of a passing eclipse, a task which by means of the
+eye and hand could only be accomplished, if done at all, after a very
+great expenditure of time and labor. Photography put it in the power
+of the astronomer to accomplish in the short span of his own life, and
+so enter into their fruition, great works which otherwise must have
+been passed on by him as a heritage of labor to succeeding
+generations. The second great service which photography rendered was
+not simply an aid to the powers the astronomer already possessed. On
+the contrary, the plate, by recording light waves which were both too
+small and too large to excite vision in the eye, brought him into a
+new region of knowledge, such as the infra-red and the ultra-violet
+parts of the spectrum, which must have remained forever unknown but
+for artificial help.
+
+
+A PHOTOGRAPHIC CHART.
+
+The present year would be memorable in astronomical history for the
+practical beginning of the photographic chart and catalogue of the
+heavens which took their origin in an international conference which
+met in Paris in 1887. The decisions of the conference in their final
+form provided for the construction of a great chart with exposures
+corresponding to forty minutes' exposure at Paris, which it was
+expected would reach down to stars of about the fourteenth magnitude.
+As each plate was to be limited to four square degrees, and as each
+star, to avoid possible errors, was to appear on two plates, over
+22,000 photographs would be required. A second set of plates for a
+catalogue was to be taken, with a shorter exposure, which would give
+stars to the eleventh magnitude only. The plans were to be pushed on
+as actively a possible, though as far as might be practicable plates
+for the chart were to be taken concurrently. Photographing the plates
+for the catalogue was but the first step in this work, and only
+supplied the data for the elaborate measurements which would have to
+be made, which were, however, less laborious than would be required
+for a similar catalogue without the aid of photography.
+
+
+A DELICATE OPERATION.
+
+The determination of the distances of the fixed stars from the small
+apparent shift of their positions when viewed from widely separated
+positions of the earth in its orbit was one of the most refined
+operations of the observatory. The great precision with which this
+minute angular quantity, a fraction of a second only, had to be
+measured, was so delicate an operation with the ordinary micrometer,
+though, indeed, it was with this instrument that the classical
+observations of Sir Robert Ball were made, that a special instrument,
+in which the measures were made by moving the two halves of a divided
+object glass, known as a heliometer, had been pressed into this
+service, and quite recently, in the skillful hands of Dr. Gill and Dr.
+Elkin, had largely increased our knowledge in this direction. It was
+obvious that photography might be here of great service, if we could
+rely upon measurements of photographs of the same stars taken at
+suitable intervals of time. Professor Pritchard, to whom was due the
+honor of having opened this new path, aided by his assistants, had
+proved by elaborate investigations that measures for parallax might be
+safely made upon photographic plates, with, of course, the advantages
+of leisure and repetition; and he had already by this method
+determined the parallax for twenty-one stars with an accuracy not
+inferior to that of values previously obtained by purely astronomical
+methods.
+
+
+PHOTOGRAPHIC REVELATIONS.
+
+The remarkable successes of astronomical photography, which depended
+upon the plate's power of accumulation of a very feeble light acting
+continuously through an exposure of several hours, were worthy to be
+regarded as a new revelation. The first chapter opened when, in 1880,
+Dr. Henry Draper obtained a picture of the nebula of Orion; but a more
+important advance was made in 1883, when Dr. Common, by his
+photographs, brought to our knowledge details and extensions of this
+nebula hitherto unknown. A further disclosure took place in 1885, when
+the Brothers Henry showed for the first time in great detail the
+spiral nebulosity issuing from the bright star Maia of the Pleiades,
+and shortly afterward nebulous streams about the other stars of this
+group. In 1886 Mr. Roberts, by means of a photograph to which three
+hours' exposure had been given, showed the whole background of this
+group to be nebulous.
+
+In the following year Mr. Roberts more than doubled for us the great
+extension of the nebular region which surrounds the trapezium in the
+constellation of Orion. By his photographs of the great nebula in
+Andromeda, he had shown the true significance of the dark canals which
+had been seen by the eye. They were in reality spaces between
+successive rings of bright matter, which appeared nearly straight,
+owing to the inclination in which they lay relatively to us. These
+bright rings surrounded an undefined central luminous mass. Recent
+photographs by Mr. Russell showed that the great rift in the Milky Way
+in Argus, which to the eye was void of stars, was in reality uniformly
+covered with them.
+
+
+THE STORY OF THE HEAVENS.
+
+The heavens were richly but very irregularly inwrought with stars. The
+brighter stars clustered into well known groups upon a background
+formed of an enlacement of streams and convoluted windings and
+intertwined spirals of fainter stars, which became richer and more
+intricate in the irregularly rifted zone of the Milky Way. We, who
+formed part of the emblazonry, could only see the design distorted and
+confused; here crowded, there scattered, at another place superposed.
+The groupings due to our position were mixed up with those which were
+real. Could we suppose that each luminous point had no relation to the
+others near it than the accidental neighborship of grains of sand upon
+the shore, or of particles of the wind-blown dust of the desert?
+Surely every star from Sirius and Vega down to each grain of the light
+dust of the Milky Way had its present place in the heavenly pattern
+from the slow evolving of its past. We saw a system of systems, for
+the broad features of clusters and streams and spiral windings marking
+the general design were reproduced in every part. The whole was in
+motion, each point shifting its position by miles every second, though
+from the august magnitude of their distances from us and from each
+other, it was only by the accumulated movements of years or of
+generations that some small changes of relative position revealed
+themselves.
+
+
+THE WORK OF THE FUTURE.
+
+The deciphering of this wonderfully intricate constitution of the
+heavens would be undoubtedly one of the chief astronomical works of
+the coming century. The primary task of the sun's motion in space,
+together with the motions of the brighter stars, had been already put
+well within our reach by the spectroscopic method of the measurement
+of star motions in the line of sight. Astronomy, the oldest of the
+sciences, had more than renewed her youth. At no time in the past had
+she been so bright with unbounded aspirations and hopes. Never were
+her temples so numerous, nor the crowd of her votaries so great.
+
+The British Astronomical Association formed within the year numbered
+already about 600 members. Happy was the lot of those who were still
+on the eastern side of life's meridian! Already, alas! the original
+founders of the newer methods were falling out--Kirchhoff, Angstrom,
+D'Arrest, Secchi, Draper, Becquerel; but their places were more than
+filled; the pace of the race was gaining, but the goal was not and
+never would be in sight. Since the time of Newton our knowledge of the
+phenomena of nature had wonderfully increased, but man asked perhaps
+more earnestly now than in his days, what was the ultimate reality
+behind the reality of the perceptions? Were they only the pebbles of
+the beach with which we had been playing? Did not the ocean of
+ultimate reality and truth lie beyond?
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CLIMATIC CHANGES IN THE SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE.
+
+By C.A.M. TABER.
+
+
+Having had occasion to cruise a considerable time over the Southern
+Ocean, I have had my attention directed to its prevailing winds and
+currents, and the way in which they affect its temperature, and also
+to the ice-worn appearance of its isolated lands.
+
+It is now generally conceded that the lands situated in the high
+latitudes of the southern hemisphere have in the remote past been
+covered with ice sheets, similar to the lands which lie within the
+antarctic circle. The shores of Southern Chile, from latitude 40° to
+Cape Horn, show convincing evidence of having been overrun by heavy
+glaciers, which scoured out the numerous deep channels that separate
+the Patagonian coast from its islands. The Falkland Islands and South
+Georgia abound with deep friths; New Zealand and Kerguelen Land also
+exhibit the same evidence of having been ice-laden regions; and it is
+said that the southern lands of Africa and Australia show that ice
+accumulated at one time to a considerable extent on their shores. At
+this date we find the southern ice sheets mostly confined to regions
+within the antarctic circle; still the lands of Chile, South Georgia,
+and New Zealand possess glaciers reaching the low lands, which are
+probably growing in bulk; for it appears that the antarctic cold is
+slowly on the increase, and the reasons for its increase are the same
+as the causes which brought about the frigid period which overran with
+ice all lands situated in the high southern latitudes.
+
+Why there should be a slow increase of cold on this portion of the
+globe is because of the independent circulation of the waters of the
+Southern Ocean. The strong westerly winds of the southern latitudes
+are constantly blowing the surface waters of the sea from west to east
+around the globe. This causes an effectual barrier, which the warm
+tropical currents cannot penetrate to any great extent. For instance,
+the tropical waters of the high ocean levels, which lie abreast Brazil
+in the Atlantic and the east coast of Africa in the Indian Ocean, are
+not attracted far into the southern sea, because the surface waters of
+the latter sea are blown by the westerly winds from west to east
+around the globe. Consequently the tropical waters moving southward
+are turned away by the prevailing winds and currents from entering the
+Southern Ocean. Thus the ice is accumulating on its lands, and the
+temperature of its waters slowly falling through their contact with
+the increasing ice; and such conditions will continue until the lands
+of the high southern latitudes are again covered with glaciers, and a
+southern ice period perfected. But while this gathering of ice is
+being brought about, the antarctic continent, now nearly covered with
+an ice sheet, will, through the extension of glaciers out into its
+shallow waters, cover a larger area than now; for where the waters are
+shoal the growing glaciers, resting on a firm bottom, will advance
+into the sea, and this advancement will continue wherever the shallow
+waters extend. Especially will this be the case where the snowfall is
+great.
+
+Under such conditions, it appears that the only extensive body of
+shallow water extending from the ice-clad southern continent is the
+shoal channel which separates the South Shetlands from Cape Horn,
+which is a region of great snowfall. Therefore, should the antarctic
+ice gain sufficient thickness to rest on the bottom of this shallow
+sea, it would move into the Cape Horn channel, and eventually close
+it. The ice growth would not be entirely from the southern continent,
+but also from lands in the region of Cape Horn. Thus the antarctic
+continent and South America would be connected by an isthmus of ice,
+and consequently the independent circulation of the Southern Ocean
+arrested. Hence it will be seen that the westerly winds, instead of
+blowing the surface waters of the Southern Ocean constantly around the
+globe, as they are known to do to-day, would instead blow the surface
+waters away from the easterly side of the ice-formed isthmus, which
+would cause a low sea level along its Atlantic side, and this low sea
+level would attract the tropical waters from their high level against
+Brazil well into the southern seas, and so wash the antarctic
+continent to the eastward of the South Shetlands.
+
+The tropical waters thus attracted southward would be cooler than the
+tropical waters of to-day, owing to the great extension of cold in the
+southern latitudes. Still they would begin the slow process of raising
+the temperature of the Southern Ocean, and would in time melt the ice
+in all southern lands. Not only the Brazil currents would penetrate
+the southern seas, as we have shown, but also the waters from the high
+level of the tropical Indian Ocean which now pass down the Mozambique
+Channel would reach a much higher latitude than now.
+
+The ice-made isthmus uniting South America to the antarctic continent
+would on account of its location be the last body of ice to melt from
+the southern hemisphere, it being situated to windward of the tropical
+currents and also in a region where the fall of snow is great; yet it
+would eventually melt away, and the independent circulation of the
+Southern Ocean again be established. But it would require a long time
+for ice sheets to again form on southern lands, because of the lack of
+icebergs to cool the southern waters. Still, their temperature would
+gradually lower with the exclusion of the tropical waters, and
+consequently ice would slowly gather on the antarctic lands.
+
+The above theory thus briefly presented to account for the climatic
+changes of the high southern latitudes is in full accord with the
+simple workings of nature as carried on to-day; and it is probable
+that the formation of continents and oceans, as well as the earth's
+motions in its path around the sun, have met with little change since
+the cold era iced the lands of the high latitudes.
+
+At an early age, previous to the appearance of frigid periods, the
+ocean waters of the high latitudes probably did not possess an
+independent circulation sufficient to lower the temperature so that
+glaciers could form. This may have been owing to the shallow sea
+bottom south of Cape Horn having been above the surface of the water,
+the channel having since been formed by a comparatively small change
+in the ocean's level. For, while considering this subject, it is well
+to keep in mind that whenever the western continent extended to the
+antarctic circle it prevented the independent circulation of the
+Southern Ocean waters, consequently during such times ice periods
+could not have occurred in the southern hemisphere.
+
+It will be noticed that according to the views given above, the
+several theories which have been published to account for great
+climatic changes neglect to set forth the only efficacious methods
+through which nature works for conveying and withdrawing tropical heat
+sufficient to cause temperate and frigid periods in the high
+latitudes. While lack of space forbids an explanation of the causes
+which would perfect an ice period in the northern hemisphere, I will
+say that it could be mainly brought about through the independent
+circulation of the arctic waters, which now largely prevent the
+tropical waters of the North Atlantic from entering the arctic seas,
+thus causing the accumulation of ice sheets on Greenland. But before a
+northern ice period can be perfected, it seems that it will need to
+co-operate with a cold period in the southern hemisphere; and in order
+to have the ice of a northern frigid period melt away, it would
+require the assistance of a mild climate in the high southern
+latitudes.--_Science_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+AMMONIA.
+
+
+In the majority of refrigerating and ice machines ammonia gas is the
+substance used for producing the refrigeration, although there are
+other machines in which other material is employed, one of these being
+anhydrous sulphurous acid, which is also a gas. Ammonia of itself is a
+colorless gas, but little more than one half as heavy as air. In its
+composition ammonia consists of two gases, nitrogen and hydrogen, in
+the proportion by weight of one part nitrogen and three parts
+hydrogen. The gas hydrogen is one of the constituents of water and is
+highly inflammable in the presence of air or oxygen, while the other
+component of ammonia, nitrogen, forms the bulk or about four-fifths of
+the atmosphere. Nitrogen by itself is an inert gas, colorless and
+uninflammable. Ammonia, although composed of more than three-fourths
+its weight of hydrogen, is not inflammable in air, on account of its
+combination with the nitrogen. This combination, it will be
+understood, is not a simple mixture, but the two gases are chemically
+combined, forming a new substance which has characteristics and
+properties entirely different from either of the gases entering into
+its composition when taken alone or when simply mixed together without
+chemical combustion. Ammonia cannot be produced by the direct
+combination of these elements, but it has been found that it is
+sometimes made or produced in a very extraordinary manner, which goes
+to show that there is yet considerable to be learned in regard to the
+chemistry of ammonia. Animal or vegetable substances when putrefying
+or suffering destructive distillation almost invariably give rise to
+an abundant production of this substance.
+
+The common method for the manufacture of ammonia is to produce it from
+the salt known as sal-ammoniac. Sal-ammoniac as a crystal is obtained
+in various ways, principally from the ammoniacal liquor of gas works,
+also from the condensed products of the distillation of bones and
+other animal refuse in the preparation of animal charcoal, and which
+is of a highly alkaline nature. This liquid is then treated with a
+slight excess of muriatic acid to neutralize the free alkali, and at
+the same time the carbonates and sulphides are decomposed with the
+evolution of carbonic acid and sulphureted hydrogen. All animal
+matter, the meat, bones, etc., contain considerable carbon, while the
+nitrogen from which the ammonia is produced forms a smaller portion of
+the substance. The object is then to get rid of the carbon and
+sulphur, leaving the nitrogen to combine, through chemical affinity,
+with a portion of the hydrogen of the water, the oxygen which is set
+free going to form the carbonic acid by combining with the carbon. The
+liquor after being neutralized is evaporated to dryness, leaving a
+crystallized salt containing a portion of tarry matter.
+
+The salt is then purified by sublimation, that is, it is heated in a
+closed iron vessel until it is transformed into a gas which separates
+and leaves, in a carbonized state, all foreign substance. After this
+gas is cooled, it condenses and again forms crystals which are in a
+much purer condition. If necessary to further purify it, it is again
+sublimed. The iron vessels in which the sublimation takes place are
+lined with clay and covered with lead. The clay lining and lead
+covering are necessary, for if the gas evolved during the process of
+sublimation came in contact with the iron surface, the gas would be
+contaminated and the iron corroded. Sublimed sal-ammoniac has a
+fibrous texture and is tough and difficult to powder. It has a sharp,
+salty taste and is soluble in two and a half parts of cold and in a
+much smaller quantity of hot water. During the process of sublimation
+the ammonia is not decomposed. But there are several ways in which the
+gas may be decomposed, and a certain portion of it is decomposed in
+the ordinary use of it in refrigerating machines. If electric sparks
+are passed through the gas, it suffers decomposition, the nitrogen and
+hydrogen then being in the condition of a simple mixture. When
+decomposed in this manner, the volume of the gas is doubled and the
+proportion is found to be three measures of hydrogen to one of
+nitrogen, while the weight of the two constituents is in the
+proportion of three parts hydrogen to fourteen of nitrogen.
+
+The ammonia gas may also be decomposed by passing through a red hot
+tube, and the presence of heated iron causes a slight degree of
+decomposition. This sal-ammoniac is powdered and mixed with moist
+slaked lime and then gently heated in a flask, when a large quantity
+of gaseous ammonia is disengaged. The gas must be collected over
+mercury or by displacement. The gas thus produced has a strong,
+pungent odor, as can easily be determined by any one working around
+the ammonia ice or refrigerating machines, for as our friend, Otto
+Luhr, says, "It is the worst stuff I ever smelled in my life." The gas
+is highly alkaline and combines readily with acids, completely
+neutralizing them, and the aqua ammonia is one of the best substances
+to put on a place burned by sulphuric acid, as has been learned by
+those working with that substance, for although aqua ammonia of full
+strength is highly corrosive and of itself will blister the flesh, yet
+when used to neutralize the effect of a burn from sulphuric acid its
+great affinity for the acid prevents it from injuring the skin under
+such conditions.
+
+The distilled gas, such as has just been described, is the anhydrous
+ammonia used in the compressor system of refrigeration, while it is
+the aqua ammonia that is used in the absorption system of
+refrigeration. Aqua ammonia or liquor ammonia is formed by dissolving
+the ammonia gas in water. One volume of water will dissolve seven
+hundred times its bulk of this gas, and is then known as aqua ammonia,
+in contradistinction to anhydrous ammonia, the latter designating term
+meaning without water, while the term aqua is the Latin word for
+water.
+
+Anhydrous ammonia, the gas, may be reduced to the liquid form at
+ordinary temperatures when submitted to a pressure of about 95 pounds.
+During the process of liquefaction the ammonia gives up a large amount
+of heat, which if absorbed or radiated while the ammonia is in the
+liquid condition, the gas when allowed to expand will absorb from its
+surroundings an amount of heat equal to that radiated, producing a
+very great lowering of temperature. It is this principle that is
+utilized in refrigeration and ice making. In the absorption system,
+where aqua ammonia is used, the liquor is contained in a retort to
+which heat is applied by means of a steam coil, and a great part of
+the gas which was held in solution by the water is expelled, and
+carries with it a small amount of water or vapor. This passes into a
+separator in the top of a condenser, from which the water returns
+again to the retort, the ammonia gas, under considerable pressure,
+passing into the coolers. These are large receptacles in which the gas
+is permitted to expand. By such expansion heat is absorbed and the
+temperature of the surroundings is lowered. From the coolers the gas
+returns to the absorber, from which it is pumped, in liquid form, into
+the retort, to be again heated, the gas expelled and the process
+repeated. As the gas passes through the different processes, being
+heated under pressure, cooled, expanded again, more or less
+decomposition takes place, presumably from a combination of a small
+portion of the nitrogen with vegetable, animal, or mineral matter that
+finds its way into the system. Such decomposition, with the loss of
+nitrogen, leaves a small portion of free hydrogen, which is the gas
+that can be drawn from the top of the absorber, ignited and burned.
+The presence of hydrogen gas in the absorber is not necessarily
+detrimental to the effectiveness of the system, but as hydrogen does
+not possess the qualities of absorbing heat in the same way and to the
+same extent as ammonia, the presence of hydrogen makes the operation
+of the apparatus somewhat less efficient.--_Stationary Engineer._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+The refrigerating apparatus illustrated and described in the
+SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT of June 25, No. 812, is substantially
+that patented by Messrs. Erny, Subers & Hoos, of Philadelphia. The
+illustration was copied from their patents of November and February
+last.
+
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+<title>The Project Gutenberg eBook of Scientific American
+Supplement, September 12, 1891</title>
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+<pre>
+
+Project Gutenberg's Scientific American Supplement No. 819, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Scientific American Supplement No. 819
+       Volume XXXII, Number 819. Issue Date September 12, 1891
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: February 9, 2005 [EBook #14990]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
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+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN ***
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+</pre>
+
+<p class="ctr" style="margin-left: -15%; margin-right:-15%;"><a href="./images/title.png"><img src="./images/title_th.png" alt=""></a></p>
+<h1>SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT NO. 819</h1>
+<h2>NEW YORK, SEPTEMBER 12, 1891.</h2>
+<h4>Scientific American Supplement. Vol. XXXII, No. 819.</h4>
+<h4>Scientific American established 1845</h4>
+<h4>Scientific American Supplement, $5 a year.</h4>
+<h4>Scientific American and Supplement, $7 a year.</h4>
+<hr />
+
+<div class="ctr">
+<table summary="Contents" border="0" cellspacing="5">
+<tr>
+<th colspan="2">TABLE OF CONTENTS.</th>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">I.</td>
+<td><a href="#art01">
+ASTRONOMY.&mdash;The Story of the Universe.&mdash;By Dr. WILLIAM
+ HUGGINS.&mdash;A valuable account of modern views of the formation
+ of the universe, and of modern methods of studying the problem.&mdash;1
+ illustration.
+</a></td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">II.</td>
+<td><a href="#art02">
+ELECTRICITY.&mdash;The Production of Hydrogen and Oxygen
+ through the Electrolysis of Water.&mdash;A valuable paper on the electrolysis
+ of water on a large scale, with apparatus employed therefor.&mdash;4
+ illustrations.
+</a></td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">III.</td>
+<td> <a href="#art03">
+MECHANICAL ENGINEERING.&mdash;An English Steam Fire Engine.&mdash;A
+ light fire engine built for East Indian service.&mdash;1 illustration.
+</a></td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">IV.</td>
+<td><a href="#art04">
+MEDICINE AND HYGIENE.&mdash;A Case of Drowning, with Resuscitation.&mdash;By
+ F.A. BURRALL, M.D.&mdash;A full account of a remarkable
+ case of resuscitation from drowning, with full details
+ of treatment.
+</a></td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">V.</td>
+<td><a href="#art05">
+METALLURGY.&mdash;How Gas Cylinders are Made.&mdash;The manufacture
+ of cylinders for highly compressed gases, a comparatively
+ new and growing industry.&mdash;6 illustrations.
+</a></td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><a href="#art06">
+ Refining Silver Bullion.&mdash;The Gutzkow process in refining silver
+ bullion with sulphuric acid.&mdash;1 illustration.
+</a></td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><a href="#art07">
+ The Treatment of Refractory Ores.&mdash;A new process for the extraction
+ of metal from refractory ore.&mdash;1 illustration.
+</a></td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><a href="#art08">
+ Weldless Steel Chains.&mdash;An exhaustive examination of this curious
+ process, and very full illustrations.&mdash;43 illustrations.
+</a></td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">VI.</td>
+<td><a href="#art09">
+ METEOROLOGY.&mdash;Climatic Changes in the Southern Hemisphere.&mdash;By C.A.M. TABER.&mdash;Causes
+of the climatic changes the southern hemisphere has undergone.
+</a></td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">VII.</td>
+<td><a href="#art10">
+MILITARY TACTICS.&mdash;The System of Military Dove Cotes in
+ Europe.&mdash;Continuation of this paper, treating of the pigeon service
+ in France, Germany, and Italy.
+</a></td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">VIII.</td>
+<td><a href="#art11">
+NAVAL ENGINEERING.&mdash;The Isle of Man Twin Screw
+ Steamer Tynwald.&mdash;A high speed steamer, with a steady sea-going
+ speed of between 18 and 19 knots.&mdash;2 illustrations.
+</a></td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">IX.</td>
+<td><a href="#art12">
+TECHNOLOGY.&mdash;Ammonia.&mdash;The manufacture of ammoniacal
+ gas for technical uses.&mdash;Full details of its production.
+</a></td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><a href="#art13">
+ Musical Instruments.&mdash;Their construction and capabilities.&mdash;By
+ A.J. HIPKINS.&mdash;Second installment of this highly interesting
+ series of lectures treating of different kinds of instruments.
+</a></td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><a href="#art14">
+ Note on Refrigerating Apparatus.
+</a></td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><a href="#art15">
+ Sheet Glass from Molten Metal.&mdash;The method of making sheets
+ of glass from the molten material and manufacture of metal plates
+ by the same method.
+</a></td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">X.</td>
+<td><a href="#art16">
+VETERINARY SCIENCE.&mdash;Historical Development of the
+ Horseshoe.&mdash;By District Veterinarian ZIPPELIUS.&mdash;Very curious
+ investigation of the development of the horseshoe.&mdash;22 illustrations.
+</a></td></tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2><a name="art02"></a>THE PRODUCTION OF HYDROGEN AND OXYGEN THROUGH THE ELECTROLYSIS OF
+WATER.</h2>
+
+<p>All attempts to prepare gaseous fluids industrially were premature as
+long as there were no means of carrying them under a sufficiently
+diminished volume. For a few years past, the trade has been delivering
+steel cylinders that permit of storing, without the least danger, a
+gas under a pressure of from 120 to 200 atmospheres. The problem of
+delivery without pipe laying having been sufficiently solved, that of
+the industrial production of gases could be confronted in its turn.
+Liquefied sulphurous acid, chloride of methyl, and carbonic acid have
+been successively delivered, to commerce. The carbonic acid is now
+being used right along in laboratories for the production of an
+intense coldness, through its expansion. Oxygen and nitrogen, prepared
+by chemical processes, soon followed, and now the industrial
+electrolysis of water is about to permit of the delivery, in the same
+manner, of very pure oxygen and hydrogen at a price within one's
+reach.</p>
+
+<p>Before describing the processes employed in this preparation, we must
+answer a question that many of our readers might be led to ask us, and
+that is, what can these gases be used for? We shall try to explain. A
+prime and important application of pure hydrogen is that of inflating
+balloons. Illuminating gas, which is usually employed for want of
+something better, is sensibly denser than hydrogen and possesses less
+ascensional force, whence the necessity of lightening the balloon or
+of increasing its volume. Such inconveniences become serious with
+dirigible balloons, whose surface, on the contrary, it is necessary to
+diminish as much as possible. When the increasing interest taken in
+aerostation at Paris was observed, an assured annual output of some
+hundreds of cubic meters of eras for the sole use of balloons was
+foreseen, the adoption of pure hydrogen being only a question of the
+net cost.</p>
+
+<p>Pure or slightly carbureted hydrogen is capable of being substituted
+to advantage for coal gas for heating or lighting. Such an application
+is doubtless somewhat premature, but we shall see that it has already
+got out of the domain of Utopia. Finally the oxyhydrogen blowpipe,
+which is indispensable for the treatment of very refractory metals,
+consumes large quantities of hydrogen and oxygen.</p>
+
+<p>For a few years past, oxygen has been employed in therapeutics; it is
+found in commerce either in a gaseous state or in solution in water
+(in siphons); it notably relieves persons afflicted with asthma or
+depression; and the use of it is recommended in the treatment of
+albumenuria. Does it cure, or at least does it contribute to cure,
+anæmia, that terrible affection of large cities, and the prime source
+of so many other troubles? Here the opinions of physicians and
+physiologists are divided, and we limit ourselves to a mention of the
+question without discussing it.</p>
+
+<p>Only fifteen years ago it would have been folly to desire to obtain
+remunerative results through the electrolysis of water. Such research
+was subordinated to the industrial production of electric energy.</p>
+
+<p>We shall not endeavor to establish the priority of the experiments and
+discoveries. The question was in the air, and was taken up almost
+simultaneously by three able experimenters&mdash;a Russian physicist, Prof.
+Latchinof, of St. Petersburg, Dr. D'Arsonval, the learned professor of
+the College of France, and Commandant Renard, director of the military
+establishment of aerostation at Chalais. Mr. D'Arsonval collected
+oxygen for experiments in physiology, while Commandant Renard
+naturally directed his attention to the production of pure hydrogen.
+The solutions of the question are, in fact, alike in principle, and
+yet they have been developed in a very different manner, and we
+believe that Commandant Renard's process is the completest from an
+industrial standpoint. We shall give an account of it from a
+communication made by this eminent military engineer, some time ago,
+to the French Society of Physics.</p>
+
+<p><i>Transformations of the Voltameter.</i>&mdash;In a laboratory, it is of no
+consequence whether a liter of hydrogen costs a centime or a franc. So
+long as it is a question of a few liters, one may, at his ease, waste
+his energy and employ costly substances.</p>
+
+<p>The internal resistance of a voltameter and the cost of platinum
+electrodes of a few grammes should not arrest the physicist in an
+experiment; but, in a production on a large scale, it is necessary to
+decrease the resistance of the liquid column to as great a degree as
+possible&mdash;that is to say, to increase its section and diminish its
+thickness. The first condition leads to a suppression of the platinum,
+and the second necessitates the use of new principles in the
+construction of the voltameter. A laboratory voltameter consists
+either of a U-shaped tube or of a trough in which the electrodes are
+covered by bell glasses (Fig. 1, A and B). In either case, the
+electric current must follow a tortuous and narrow path, in order to
+pass from one electrode to the other, while, if the electrodes be left
+entirely free in the bath, the gases, rising in a spreading form, will
+mix at a certain height. It is necessary to separate them by a
+partition (Fig. 1, C). If this is isolating and impermeable, there
+will be no interest in raising the electrodes sensibly above its lower
+edge. Now, the nearer together the electrodes are, the more it is
+necessary to lower the partition. The extension of the electrodes and
+the bringing of them together is the knotty part of the
+question. This will be shown by a very simple calculation.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/01-fig1.png"><img src="./images/01-fig1_th.png" alt="FIG 1" /></a><br />
+FIG. 1.&mdash;A, B, COMMONEST FORMS OF LABORATORY
+VOLTAMETERS. C, DIAGRAM SHOWING ASCENT OF BUBBLES IN A VOLTAMETER.</p>
+
+<p>The visible electrolysis of water begins at an E.M.F. of about 1.7 V.
+Below this there is no disengagement of bubbles. If the E.M.F. be
+increased at the terminals of the voltameter, the current (and
+consequently the production of gas) will become proportional to the
+excess of the value over 1.7 V; but, at the same time, the current
+will heat the circuit&mdash;that is to say, will produce a superfluous
+work, and there will be waste. At 1.7 V the rendering is at its
+maximum, but the useful effect is <i>nil</i>. In order to make an
+advantageous use of the instruments, it is necessary to admit a
+certain loss of energy, so much the less, moreover, in proportion as
+the voltameters cost less; and as the saving is to be effected in the
+current, rather than in the apparatus, we may admit the use of three
+volts as a good proportion&mdash;that is to say, a loss of about half the
+disposable energy. Under such conditions, a voltameter having an
+internal resistance of 1 ohm produces 0.65 liter of hydrogen per hour,
+while it will disengage 6.500 liters if its resistance be but 0.0001
+of an ohm. It is true that, in this case, the current would be in the
+neighborhood of 15,000 amperes. Laboratory voltameters frequently
+have a resistance of a hundred ohms; it would require a million in
+derivation to produce the same effect. The specific resistance of the
+solutions that can be employed in the production of gases by
+electrolysis is, in round numbers, twenty thousand times greater than
+that of mercury. In order to obtain a resistance of 0.0001 of an ohm,
+it is necessary to sensibly satisfy the equation</p>
+
+<p class="ctr">
+            20,000 <i>l</i>/<i>s</i> = 1/10,000
+</p>
+
+<p><i>l</i> expressing the thickness of the voltameter expressed in meters,
+and <i>s</i> being the section in square millimeters. For example: For l =
+1/10, s = 20,000,000, say 20 square meters. It will be seen from this
+example what should be the proportions of apparatus designed for a
+production on a large scale.</p>
+
+<p>The new principles that permit of the construction of such voltameters
+are as follows: (1) the substitution of an alkaline for the acid
+solution, thus affording a possibility of employing iron electrodes;
+(2) the introduction of a porous partition between the electrodes, for
+the purpose of separating the gases.</p>
+
+<p><i>Electrolytic Liquid.</i>&mdash;Commandant Renard's experiments were made with
+15 per cent, solution of caustic soda and water containing 27 per
+cent. of acid. These are the proportions that give the maximum of
+conductivity. Experiments made with a voltameter having platinum
+electrodes separated by an interval of 3 or 4 centimeters showed that
+for a determinate E.M.F. the alkaline solution allows of the passage
+of a slighter intenser current than the acidulated water, that is to
+say, it is less resistant and more advantageous from the standpoint of
+the consumption of energy.</p>
+
+<p><i>Porous Partition.</i>&mdash;Let us suppose that the two parts of the trough
+are separated by a partition containing small channels at right angles
+with its direction. It is these channels alone that must conduct the
+electricity. Their conductivity (inverse of resistance) is
+proportional to their total section, and inversely proportional to
+their common length, whatever be their individual section. It is,
+therefore, advantageous to employ partitions that contain as many
+openings as possible.</p>
+
+<p>The separating effect of these partitions for the gas is wholly due to
+capillary phenomena. We know, in fact, that water tends to expel gas
+from a narrow tube with a pressure inversely proportional to the
+tube's radius. In order to traverse the tube, the gaseous mass will
+have to exert a counter-pressure greater than this capillary pressure.
+As long as the pressure of one part and another of the wet wall
+differs to a degree less than the capillary pressure of the largest
+channel, the gases disengaged in the two parts of the trough will
+remain entirely separate. In order that the mixing may not take place
+through the partition above the level of the liquid (dry partition),
+the latter will have to be impenetrable in every part that emerges.
+The study of the partitions should be directed to their separating
+effect on the gases, and to their electric resistance. In order to
+study the first of these properties, the porous partition, fixed by a
+hermetical joint to a glass tube, is immersed in the water (Fig. 2).
+An increasing pressure is exerted from the interior until the passage
+of bubbles is observed. The pressure read at this moment on the
+manometer indicates (transformed above the electrolytic solution) the
+changes of level that the bath may undergo. The different porcelains
+and earths behave, from this point of view, in a very unequal manner.
+For example, an earthen vessel from the Pillivayt establishment
+supports some decimeters of water, while the porcelain of Boulanger,
+at Choisy-le-Roi, allows of the passage of the gas only at pressures
+greater than one atmosphere, which is much more than is necessary.
+Wire gauze, canvas, and asbestos cloth resist a few centimeters of
+water. It might be feared, however, that the gases, violently
+projected against these partitions, would not pass, owing to the
+velocity acquired. Upon this point experiment is very reassuring.
+After filling with water a canvas bag fixed to the extremity of a
+rubber tube, it is possible to produce in the interior a tumultuous
+disengagement of gas without any bubbles passing through.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><img src="./images/01-fig2.png" alt="FIG. 1" /><br />
+FIG. 2.&mdash;ARRANGEMENT FOR THE STUDY OF CAPILLARY REACTION IN POROUS VESSELS.</p>
+
+<p>From an electrical point of view, partitions are of very unequal
+quality. Various partitions having been placed between electrodes
+spaced three centimeters apart, currents were obtained which indicated
+that, with the best of porcelains, the rendering of the apparatus is
+diminished by one-half. Asbestos cloth introduces but an insignificant
+resistance.</p>
+
+<p>To this inconvenience of porous vessels is added their fragility,
+their high price, and the impossibility of obtaining them of the
+dimensions that large apparatus would call for. The selection of
+asbestos cloth is therefore clearly indicated; but, as it does not
+entirely separate the gases, except at a pressure that does not exceed
+a few centimeters of water, it was always necessary to bring back the
+variation of the level to these narrow limits by a special
+arrangement. We cannot, in fact, expect that the entire piping shall
+be always in such conditions that no difference in pressure can occur.
+The levels are brought back to equality within the effective limits by
+interposing between the voltameter and the piping an apparatus called
+a compensator, which consists of two vessels that communicate in the
+interior part through a large tube. The gases enter each vessel
+through a pipe that debouches beneath the level of the water. If a
+momentary stoppage occurs in one of the conduits, the water changes
+level in the compensator, but the pressure remains constant at the
+orifice of the tubes. The compensator is, as may be seen, nothing more
+than a double Mariotte flask. When it is desired to obtain pure gases,
+there is introduced into the compensator a solution of tartaric acid,
+which retains the traces of alkalies carried along by the current of
+gas. The alkaline solution, moreover, destroys the ozone at the moment
+of its formation.</p>
+
+<p>It will be seen that laboratory studies have furnished all the
+elements of a problem which is now capable of entering the domain of
+practice. The cheapness of the raw materials permits of constructing
+apparatus whose dimensions will no longer be limited except by reasons
+of another nature. The electrodes may be placed in proximity at will,
+owing to the use of the porous partition. It may be seen, then, that
+the apparatus will have a considerable useful effect without its
+being necessary to waste the electric energy beyond measure.</p>
+
+<p><i>Industrial Apparatus.</i>&mdash;We have shown how the very concise researches
+of Commandant Renard have fixed the best conditions for the
+construction of an industrial voltameter. It remains for us to
+describe this voltameter itself, and to show the rendering of it.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/01-fig3.png"><img src="./images/01-fig3_th.png" alt="FIG. 3." /></a><br />
+FIG. 3.&mdash;PLANT FOR THE INDUSTRIAL ELECTROLYSIS OF WATER.</p>
+
+<p>The industrial voltameter consists of a large iron cylinder. A battery
+of such voltameters is shown to the left of Fig. 3, and one of the
+apparatus, isolated, is represented in Fig. 4. The interior electrode
+is placed in an asbestos cloth bag, which is closed below and tied at
+its upper part. It is provided with apertures which permit of the
+ascent of the gases in the interior of the cylinder. The apparatus is
+hermetically sealed at the top, the two electrodes being naturally
+insulated with rubber. Above the level of the liquid the interior
+electrode is continuous and forms a channel for the gas. The hydrogen
+and oxygen, escaping through the upper orifices, flow to the
+compensator. The apparatus is provided with an emptying cock or a cock
+for filling with distilled water, coming from a reservoir situated
+above the apparatus.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><img src="./images/01-fig4_th.png" alt="FIG. 4.--DETAILS OF AN INDUSTRIAL VOLTAMETER." />
+<br />FIG. 4.&mdash;DETAILS OF AN INDUSTRIAL VOLTAMETER.</p>
+
+<p>The constants of the voltameter established by Commandant Renard are
+as follows:</p>
+
+<div class="ctr">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<colgroup span="4"><col span="3" align="center"><col align="right"></colgroup>
+<tr><td>Height of </td><td>external</td><td> electrode</td><td>3.405 m.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&quot;</td><td>internal</td><td>&quot;</td><td>3.290 m. </td></tr>
+<tr><td>Diameter of</td><td>external</td><td>&quot;</td><td>0.300 m.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&quot;</td><td>internal</td><td>&quot;</td><td>0.174 m.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>The iron plate employed is 2 millimeters in thickness. The electric
+resistance is about 0.0075 ohm. The apparatus gives 365 amperes under
+2.7 volts, and consequently nearly 1 kilowatt. Its production in
+hydrogen is 158 liters per hour.</p>
+
+<p>It is clear that, in an industrial exploitation, a dynamo working
+under 3 volts is never employed. In order to properly utilize the
+power of the dynamo, several voltameters will be put in series&mdash;a
+dozen, for example, if the generating machine is in proximity to the
+apparatus, or a larger number if the voltameters are actuated by a
+dynamo situated at a distance, say in the vicinity of a waterfall.
+Fig. 3 will give an idea of a plant for the electrolysis of water.</p>
+
+<p>It remains for us to say a few words as to the net cost of the
+hydrogen and oxygen gases produced by the process that we have just
+described. We may estimate the value of a voltameter at a hundred
+francs. If the apparatus operates without appreciable wear, the
+amortizement should be calculated at a very low figure, say 10 per
+cent., which is large. In continuous operation it would produce more
+than 1,500 cubic meters of gas a year, say a little less than one
+centime per cubic meter. The caustic soda is constantly recuperated
+and is never destroyed. The sole product that disappears is the
+distilled water. Now one cubic meter of water produces more than 2,000
+cubic meters of gas. The expense in water, then, does not amount to a
+centime per cubic meter. The great factor of the expense resides in
+the electric energy. The cost of surveillance will be minimum and the
+general expenses <i>ad libitum</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Let us take the case in which the energy has to be borrowed from a
+steam engine. Supposing very small losses in the dynamo and piping, we
+may count upon a production of one cubic meter of hydrogen and 500
+cubic decimeters of oxygen for 10 horse-power taken upon the main
+shaft, say an expenditure of 10 kilogrammes of coal or of about 25
+centimes&mdash;a little more in Paris, and less in coal districts. If,
+consequently, we fix the price of the cubic meter of gas at 50
+centimes, we shall preserve a sufficient margin. In localities where a
+natural motive power is at our disposal, this estimate will have to be
+greatly reduced. We may, therefore, expect to see hydrogen and oxygen
+take an important place in ordinary usages. From the standpoint alone
+of preservation of fuel, that is to say, of potential energy upon the
+earth, this new conquest of electricity is very pleasing. Waterfalls
+furnish utilizable energy in every locality, and, in the future, will
+perhaps console our great-grandchildren for the unsparing waste that
+we are making of coal.&mdash;<i>La Nature.</i></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p class="ctr">[Continued from SUPPLEMENT, No. 818, page 13066.]</p>
+
+<h2><a name="art13"></a>MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS: THEIR CONSTRUCTION AND CAPABILITIES.</h2>
+
+<h3>By A.J. HIPKINS, F.S.A.</h3>
+
+<h3>LECTURE II.</h3>
+
+<p>I will now invite your attention to the wind instruments, which, in
+Handel's time, were chiefly used to double in unison the parts of
+stringed instruments. Their modern independent use dates from Haydn;
+it was extended and perfected by Mozart, Beethoven, and Weber; and the
+extraordinary changes and improvements which have been effected during
+the present century have given wind instruments an importance that is
+hardly exceeded by that of the stringed, in the formation of the
+modern orchestra. The military band, as it now exists, is a creation
+of the present century.</p>
+
+<p>The so-called wood wind instruments are the flute, oboe, bassoon, and
+clarinet. It is as well to say at once that their particular qualities
+of tone do not absolutely depend upon the materials of which they are
+made. The form is the most important factor in determining the
+distinction of tone quality, so long as the sides of the tube are
+equally elastic, as has been submitted to proof by instruments made of
+various materials, including paper. I consider this has been
+sufficiently demonstrated by the independent experiments of Mr.
+Blaikley, of London, and Mr. Victor Mahillon, of Brussels. But we must
+still allow Mr. Richard Shepherd Rockstro's plea, clearly set forth in
+a recently published treatise on the flute, that the nature and the
+substance of the tube, by reciprocity of vibration, exercise some
+influence, although not so great as might have been expected, on the
+quality of the tone. But I consider this influence is already
+acknowledged in my reference to equality of elasticity in the sides of
+the tube.</p>
+
+<p>The flute is an instrument of <i>embouchure</i>&mdash;that is to say, one in
+which a stream of air is driven from the player's lips against an edge
+of the blow hole to produce the sound. The oboe and bassoon have
+double reeds, and the clarinet a single reed, made of a species of
+cane, as intermediate agents of sound production. There are other
+flutes than that of <i>embouchure</i>&mdash;those with flageolet or whistle
+heads, which, having become obsolete, shall be reserved for later
+notice. There are no real tenor or bass flutes now, those in use being
+restricted to the upper part of the scale. The present flute dates
+from 1832, when Theobald Boehm, a Bavarian flute player, produced the
+instrument which is known by his name. He entirely remodeled the
+flute, being impelled to do so by suggestions from the performance of
+the English flautist, Charles Nicholson, who had increased the
+diameter of the lateral holes, and by some improvements that had been
+attempted in the flute by a Captain Gordon, of Charles the Tenth's
+Swiss Guard. Boehm has been sufficiently vindicated from having
+unfairly appropriated Gordon's ideas. The Boehm flute, since 1846, is
+a cylindrical tube for about three-fourths of its length from the
+lower end, after which it is continued in a curved conical
+prolongation to the cork stopper. The finger holes are disposed in a
+geometrical division, and the mechanism and position of the keys are
+entirely different from what had been before. The full compass of the
+Boehm flute is chromatic, from middle C to C, two octaves above the
+treble clef C, a range of three octaves, which is common to all
+concert flutes, and is not peculiar to the Boehm model. Of course this
+compass is partly produced by altering the pressure of blowing.
+Columns of air inclosed in pipes vibrate like strings in sections,
+but, unlike strings, the vibrations progress in the direction of
+length, not across the direction of length. In the flute, all notes
+below D, in the treble clef, are produced by the normal pressure of
+wind; by an increasing pressure of overblowing the harmonics, D in the
+treble clef, and A and B above it, are successively attained. The
+fingerholes and keys, by shortening the tube, fill up the required
+intervals of the scale. There are higher harmonics still, but
+flautists generally prefer to do without them when they can get the
+note required by a lower harmonic. In Boehm's flute, his ingenious
+mechanism allows the production of the eleven chromatic semitones
+intermediate between the fundamental note of the flute and its first
+harmonic, by holes so disposed that, in opening them successively,
+they shorten the column of air in exact proportion. It is, therefore,
+ideally, an equal temperament instrument and not a D major one, as the
+conical flute was considered to be. Perhaps the most important thing
+Boehm did for the flute was to enunciate the principle that, to insure
+purity of tone and correct intonation, the holes must be put in their
+correct theoretical positions; and at least the hole below the one
+giving he sound must be open, to insure perfect venting. Boehm's
+flute, however, has not remained as he left it. Improvements, applied
+by Clinton, Pratten, and Carte, have introduced certain modifications
+in the fingering, while retaining the best features of Boehm's system.
+But it seems to me that the reedy quality obtained from the adoption
+of the cylindrical bore which now prevails does away with the sweet
+and characteristic tone quality of the old conical German flute, and
+gives us in its place one that is not sufficiently distinct from that
+of the clarinet.</p>
+
+<p>The flute is the most facile of all orchestral wind instruments; and
+the device of double tonguing, the quick repetition of notes by taking
+a staccato T-stop in blowing, is well known. The flute generally goes
+with the violins in the orchestra, or sustains long notes with the
+other wood wind instruments, or is used in those conversational
+passages with other instruments that lend such a charm to orchestral
+music. The lower notes are not powerful. Mr. Henry Carte has, however,
+designed an alto flute in A, descending to violin G, with excellent
+results. There is a flute which transposes a minor third higher than
+the ordinary flute; but it is not much used in the orchestra, although
+used in the army, as is also a flute one semitone higher than the
+concert flute. The piccolo, or octave flute, is more employed in the
+orchestra, and may double the melody in the highest octave, or
+accentuate brilliant points of effect in the score. It is very shrill
+and exciting in the overblown notes, and without great care may give a
+vulgar character to the music, and for this reason Sir Arthur Sullivan
+has replaced it in the score of "Ivanhoe" by a high G flute. The
+piccolo is exactly an octave higher than the flute, excepting the two
+lowest notes of which it is deficient. The old cylindrical
+ear-piercing fife is an obsolete instrument, being superseded by a
+small army flute, still, however, called a fife, used with the side
+drum in the drum and fife band.</p>
+
+<p>The transverse or German flute, introduced into the orchestra by
+Lulli, came into general use in the time of Handel; before that the
+recorders, or flute douces, the flute à bec with beak or whistle head,
+were preferred. These instruments were used in a family, usually of
+eight members, viz., as many sizes from treble to bass; or in three,
+treble, alto or tenor, and bass. A fine original set of those now rare
+instruments, eight in number, was shown in 1890 in the music gallery
+of the Royal Military Exhibition, at Chelsea; a loan collection
+admirably arranged by Captain C.B. Day. They were obtained from Hesse
+Darmstadt, and had their outer case to preserve them exactly like the
+recorder case represented in the painting by Holbein of the
+ambassadors, or rather, the scholars, recently acquired for the
+National Gallery. The flageolet was the latest form of the treble,
+beak, or whistle head flute. The whistle head is furnished with a
+cavity containing air, which, shaped by a narrow groove, strikes
+against the sharp edge and excites vibration in the conical pipe, on
+the same principle that an organ pipe is made to sound, or of the
+action of the player's mouth and lips upon the blowhole of the flute.
+As it will interest the audience to hear the tone of Shakespeare's
+recorder, Mr. Henry Carte will play an air upon one.</p>
+
+<p>The oboe takes the next place in the wood wind band. The principle of
+sound excitement, that of the double reed, originating in the
+flattening of the end of an oat or wheat straw, is of great antiquity,
+but it could only be applied by insertion in tubes of very narrow
+diameter, so that the column of air should not be wider than the
+tongue straw or reed acting upon it. The little reed bound round and
+contracted below the vibrating ends in this primitive form permitted
+the adjustment of the lower open end in the tube, it might be another
+longer reed or pipe which inclosed the air column; and thus a conical
+pipe that gradually narrows to the diameter of the tongue reed must
+have been early discovered, and was the original type of the pastoral
+and beautiful oboe of the modern orchestra. Like the flute, the oboe
+has only the soprano register, extending from B flat or natural below
+middle C to F above the treble clef, two octaves and a fifth, which a
+little exceeds the flute downward. The foundation of the scale is D
+major, the same as the flute was before Boehm altered it. Triebert, a
+skillful Parisian maker, tried to adapt Boehm's reform of the flute to
+the oboe, but so far as the geometrical division of the scale was
+concerned, he failed, because it altered the characteristic tone
+quality of the instrument, so desirable for the balance of orchestral
+coloration. But the fingering has been modified with considerable
+success, although it is true by a much greater complication of means
+than the more simple contrivances that preceded it, which are still
+preferred by the players. The oboe reed has been much altered since
+the earlier years of this century. It was formerly more like the reed
+of the shawm, an instrument from which the oboe has been derived; and
+that of the present bassoon. It is now made narrower, with much
+advantage in the refinement of the tone. As in the flute, the notes up
+to C sharp in the treble clef are produced by the normal blowing, and
+simply shortening the tube by opening the sound holes. Beyond that
+note, increased pressure, or overblowing, assisted by a harmonic
+"speaker" key, produces the first harmonic, that of the octave, and so
+on. The lowest notes are rough and the highest shrill; from A to D
+above the treble clef, the tone quality of the oboe is of a tender
+charm in melody. Although not loud, its tone is penetrating and
+prominent. Its staccato has an agreeable effect. The place of the oboe
+in the wood wind band between the flute and the clarinet, with the
+bassoon for a bass, is beyond the possibility of improvement by any
+change.</p>
+
+<p>Like the flute, there was a complete family of oboes in the sixteenth
+and early in the seventeenth century; the little schalmey, the discant
+schalmey, from which the present oboe is derived; the alto, tenor,
+pommer, and bass pommers, and the double quint or contrabass pommer.</p>
+
+<p>In all these old finger hole instruments the scale begins with the
+first hole, a note in the bagpipe with which the drones agree, and not
+the entire tube. From the bass and double quint pommers came
+ultimately the bassoon and contra-bassoon, and from the alto pommer,
+an obsolete instrument for which Bach wrote, called the oboe di
+caccia, or hunting oboe, an appellation unexplained, unless it had
+originally a horn-like tone, and was, as it has been suggested to me
+by Mr. Blaikley, used by those who could not make a real hunting horn
+sound. It was bent to a knee shape to facilitate performance. It was
+not exactly the cor Anglais or English horn, a modern instrument of
+the same pitch which is bent like it, and of similar compass, a fifth
+below the usual oboe. The tenoroon, with which the oboe di caccia has
+been compared, was a high bassoon really on octave and a fifth below.
+It has been sometimes overlooked that there are two octaves in pitch
+between the oboe and bassoon, which has led to some confusion in
+recognizing these instruments. There was an intermediate instrument a
+third lower than the oboe, used by Bach, called the oboe d'amore,
+which was probably used with the cornemuse or bagpipe, and another, a
+third higher than the oboe, called musette (not the small bagpipe of
+that name). The cor Anglais is in present use. It is a melancholy,
+even mournful instrument, its sole use in the orchestra being very
+suitable for situations on the stage, the effect of which it helps by
+depressing the mind to sadness. Those who have heard Wagner's "Tristan
+und Isolde" will remember, when the faithful Kurwenal sweeps the
+horizon, and sees no help coming on the sea for the dying Tristan, how
+pathetically the reed pipe of a careless peasant near, played in the
+orchestra on a cor Anglais, colors the painful situation.</p>
+
+<p>The bassoon is the legitimate bass to the oboe and to the wood wind in
+general. It was evolved in the sixteenth century from the pommers and
+bombards: the tenors and basses of the shawm or oboe family. With the
+older instruments, the reeds were not taken hold of immediately by the
+lips, but were held in a kind of cup, called <i>pirouette</i>, which only
+allowed a very small part of the reed to project. In the oboe and
+bassoon the player has the full control of the reed with the lips,
+which is of great importance, both in expression and intonation. The
+bassoon economizes length, by being turned back upon itself, and, from
+its appearance, obtains in Italy and Germany the satirical appellation
+of "fagotto" or "fagott." It is made of wood, and has not, owing to
+many difficulties as yet unsurmounted, undergone those changes of
+construction that have partly transformed other wood wind instruments.
+From this reason&mdash;and perhaps the necessity of a bassoon player
+becoming intimately familiar with his instrument&mdash;bassoons by some of
+the older makers&mdash;notably, Savory&mdash;are still sought after, in
+preference to more modern ones. The instrument, although with
+extraordinary advantages in tone, character, and adaptability, that
+render it valuable to the composer, is yet complicated and capricious
+for the performer; but its very imperfections remove it from the
+mechanical tendencies of the age, often damaging to art; and, as the
+player has to rely very much upon his ear for correct intonation, he
+gets, in reality, near to the manipulation of the stringed
+instruments. The bassoons play readily with the violoncellos, their
+united tone being often advantageous for effect. When not so used, it
+falls back into its natural relationship with the wood wind division
+of the orchestra. The compass of the bassoon is from B flat, an octave
+below that in the bass clef, to B flat in the treble clef, a range of
+three octaves, produced by normal pressure, as far as the bass clef F.
+The F below the bass clef is the true lowest note, the other seven
+semitones descending to the B flat being obtained by holes and keys in
+the long joint and bell. These extra notes are not overblown. The
+fundamental notes are extended as in the oboes and flutes by
+overflowing to another octave, and afterward to the twelfth. In modern
+instruments yet higher notes, by the contrivance of small harmonic
+holes and cross fingerings, can be secured. Long notes, scales,
+arpeggios, are all practicable on this serviceable instrument, and in
+full harmony with clarinets, or oboes and horns, it forms part of a
+rich and beautiful combination. There is a very telling quality in the
+upper notes of the bassoon of which composers have made use.
+Structurally, a bassoon consists of several pieces, the wing, butt,
+long joints, and bell, and when fitted together, they form a hollow
+cone of about eight feet long, the air column tapering in diameter
+from three-sixteenths of an inch at the reed to one and three-quarter
+inches at the bell end.</p>
+
+<p>The bending back at the butt joint is pierced in one piece of wood,
+and the prolongation of the double tube is usually stopped by a
+flattened oval cork, but in some modern bassoons this is replaced by a
+properly curved tube. The height is thus reduced to a little over four
+feet, and the holes, assisted by the artifice of piercing them
+obliquely, are brought within reach of the fingers. The crook, in the
+end of which the reed is inserted, is about twelve inches long, and is
+adjusted to the shorter branch.</p>
+
+<p>The contra-bassoon is an octave lower than the bassoon, which implies
+that it should go down to the double B flat, two octaves below that in
+the bass clef, but it is customary to do without the lowest as well as
+the highest notes of this instrument. It is rarely used, but should
+not be dispensed with. Messrs. Mahillon, of Brussels, produce a reed
+contra-bass of metal, intended to replace the contra-bassoon of wood,
+but probably more with the view of completing the military band than
+for orchestral use. It is a conical brass tube of large proportions,
+with seventeen lateral holes of wide diameter and in geometrical
+relation, so that for each sound one key only is required. The compass
+of this contra-bass lies between D in the double bass octave and the
+lower F of the treble clef.</p>
+
+<p>The sarrusophones of French invention are a complete family, made in
+brass and with conical tubes pierced according to geometric relation,
+so that the sarrusophone is more equal than the oboe it copies and is
+intended, at least for military music, to replace. Being on a larger
+scale, the sarrusophones are louder than the corresponding instruments
+of the oboe family. There are six sarrusophones, from the sopranino in
+E flat to the contra-bass in B flat; and to replace the contra-bassoon
+in the orchestra there is a lower contrabass sarrusophone made in C,
+the compass of which is from the double bass octave B flat to the
+higher G in the bass clef.</p>
+
+<p>Before leaving the double reed wind instruments, a few words should be
+said of a family of instruments in the sixteenth century as important
+as the schalmeys, pommers, and bombards, but long since extinct. This
+was the cromorne, a wooden instrument with cylindrical column of air;
+the name is considered to remain in the cremona stop of the organ. The
+lower end is turned up like a shepherd's crook reversed, from whence
+the French name "tournebout." Cromorne is the German "krummhorn;"
+there is no English equivalent known.</p>
+
+<p>The tone, as in all the reed instruments of the period, was strong and
+often bleating. The double reed was inclosed in a <i>pirouette</i>, or cup,
+and the keys of the tenor or bass, just the same as with similar
+flutes and bombards, were hidden by a barrel-shaped cover, pierced
+with small openings, apparently intended to modify the too searching
+tone as well as to protect the touch pieces which moved the keys. The
+compass was limited to fundamental notes, and from the cylindrical
+tube and reed was an octave lower in pitch than the length would show.
+In all these instruments provision was made in the holes and keys for
+transposition of the hands according to the player's habit of placing
+the right or left hand above the other. The unused hole was stopped
+with wax. There is a fine and complete set of four cromornes in the
+museum of the Conservatoire at Brussels.</p>
+
+<p>We must also place among double-reed instruments the various bagpipes,
+cornemuses, and musettes, which are shawm or oboe instruments with
+reservoirs of air, and furnished with drones inclosing single reeds. I
+shall have more to say about the drone in the third lecture. In
+restricting our attention to the Highland bagpipe, with which we are
+more or less familiar, it is surprising to find the peculiar scale of
+the chaunter, or finger pipe, in an old Arabic scale, still prevailing
+in Syria and Egypt. Dr. A.J. Ellis' lecture on "The Musical Scales of
+Various Nations," read before the Society of Arts, and printed in the
+<i>Journal</i> of the Society, March 27, 1885, No. 1688, vol. xxxiii., and
+in an appendix, October 30, 1885, in the same volume, should be
+consulted by any one who wishes to know more about this curious
+similarity.</p>
+
+<p>We have now arrived at the clarinet. Although embodying a very ancient
+principle&mdash;the "squeaker" reed which our little children still make,
+and continued in the Egyptian arghool&mdash;the clarinet is the most recent
+member of the wood wind band. The reed initiating the tone by the
+player's breath is a broad, single, striking or beating reed, so
+called because the vibrating tongue touches the edges of the body of
+the cutting or framing. A cylindrical pipe, as that of the clarinet,
+drops, approximately, an octave in pitch when the column of air it
+contains is set up in vibration by such a reed, because the reed
+virtually closes the pipe at the end where it is inserted, and like a
+stopped organ pipe sets up a node of maximum condensation or
+rarefaction at that end. This peculiarity interferes with the
+resonance of the even-numbered partials of the harmonic scale, and
+permits only the odd-numbered partials, 1, 3, 5, and so on, to sound.
+The first harmonic, as we find in the clarinet, is therefore the third
+partial, or twelfth of the fundamental note, and not the octave, as in
+the oboe and flute.</p>
+
+<p>In the oboe the shifting of the nodes in a conical tube open at its
+base, and narrowing to its apex, permits the resonance of the complete
+series of the harmonic scale, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and upward. The flute has
+likewise the complete series, because through the blowhole it is a
+pipe open at both ends. But while stating the law which governs the
+pitch and harmonic scale of the clarinet, affirmed equally by
+observation and demonstration, we are left at present with only the
+former when regarding two very slender, almost cylindrical reed pipes,
+discovered in 1889 by Mr. Flinders Petrie while excavating at Fayoum
+the tomb of an Egyptian lady named Maket. Mr. Petrie dates these pipes
+about 1100 B.C., and they were the principal subject of Mr.
+Southgate's recent lectures upon the Egyptian scale.</p>
+
+<p>Now Mr. J. Finn, who made these ancient pipes sound at these lectures
+with an arghool reed of straw, was able upon the pipe which had, by
+finger holes, a tetrachord, to repeat that tetrachord a fifth higher
+by increased pressure of blowing, and thus form an octave scale,
+comprising eight notes. "Against the laws of nature," says a friend of
+mine, for the pipe having dropped more than an octave through the
+reed, was at its fundamental pitch, and should have overblown a
+twelfth.</p>
+
+<p>But Mr. Finn allows me to say with reference to those reeds, perhaps
+the oldest sounding musical instruments known to exist, that his
+experiments with straw reeds seem to indicate low, medium, and high
+octave registers. The first and last difficult to obtain with reeds as
+made by us. He seeks the fundamental tones of the Maket pipes in the
+first or low register, an octave below the normal pitch. By this the
+fifths revert to twelfths. I offer no opinion, but will leave this
+curious phenomenon to the consideration of my friends, Mr. Blaikley,
+Mr. Victor Mahillon, and Mr. Hermann Smith, acousticians intimate with
+wind instruments.</p>
+
+<p>The clarinet was invented about A.D. 1700, by Christopher Denner, of
+Nuremberg. By his invention, an older and smaller instrument, the
+chalumeau, of eleven notes, without producible harmonics, was, by an
+artifice of raising a key to give access to the air column at a
+certain point, endowed with a harmonic series of eleven notes a
+twelfth higher. The chalumeau being a cylindrical pipe, the upper
+partials could only be in an odd series, and when Denner made them
+speak, they were consequently not an octave, but a twelfth above the
+fundamental notes. Thus, an instrument which ranged, with the help of
+eight finger holes and two keys, from F in the bass clef to B flat in
+the treble had an addition given to it at once of a second register
+from C in the treble clef to E flat above it. The scale of the
+original instrument is still called chalumeau by the clarinet player;
+about the middle of the last century it was extended down to E. The
+second register of notes, which by this lengthening of pipe started
+from B natural, received the name of clarinet, or clarionet, from the
+clarino or clarion, the high solo trumpet of the time it was expected
+that this bright harmonic series would replace.</p>
+
+<p>This name of clarinet, or clarionet, became accepted for the entire
+instrument, including the chalumeau register. It is the communication
+between the external air and the upper part of the air column in the
+instrument which, initiating a ventral segment or loop of vibration,
+forces the air column to divide for the next possible partial, the
+twelfth, that Denner has the merit of having made practicable. At the
+same time the manipulation of it presents a difficulty in learning the
+instrument. It is in the nature of things that there should be a
+difference of tone quality between the lower and upper registers thus
+obtained; and that the highest fundamental notes, G sharp, A and B
+flat, should be colorless compared with the first notes of the
+overblown series. This is a difficulty the player has to contend with,
+as well as the complexity of fingering, due to there being no less
+than eighteen sound holes. Much has been done to graft Boehm's system
+of fingering upon the clarinet, but the thirteen key system, invented
+early in this century by Iwan Muller, is still most employed. The
+increased complication of mechanism is against a change, and there is
+even a stronger reason, which I cannot do better than translate, in
+the appropriate words of M. Lavoix fils, the author of a well-known
+and admirable work upon instrumentation:</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+    "Many things have still to be done, but inventors must not lose
+    the point in view, that no tone quality is more necessary to the
+    composer than that of the clarinet in its full extent; that it
+    is very necessary especially to avoid melting together the two
+    registers of chalumeau and clarinet, so distinct from each
+    other. If absolute justness for these instruments is to be
+    acquired at the price of those inestimable qualities, it would
+    be better a hundred times to leave it to virtuosi, thanks to
+    their ability, to palliate the defects of their instrument,
+    rather than sacrifice one of the most beautiful and intensely
+    colored voices of our orchestra."
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>There are several clarinets of various pitches, and formerly more than
+are used now, owing to the difficulty of playing except in handy keys.
+In the modern orchestra the A and B flat clarinets are the most used;
+in the military band, B flat and E flat. The C clarinet is not much
+used now. All differ in tone and quality; the A one is softer than the
+B flat; the C is shrill. The B flat is the virtuoso instrument. In
+military bands the clarinet takes the place which would be that of the
+violin in the orchestra, but the tone of it is always
+characteristically different. Although introduced in the time of
+Handel and Bach those composers made no use of it. With Mozart it
+first became a leading orchestral instrument.</p>
+
+<p>The Basset horn, which has become the sensuously beautiful alto
+clarinet in E flat, is related to the clarinet in the same way that
+the cor Anglais is to the oboe. Basset is equivalent to Baryton (there
+is a Basset flute figured in Prætorius), and this instrument appears
+to have been invented by one Horn, living at Passau, in Bavaria, about
+1770. His name given to the instrument has been mistranslated into
+Italian as Corno di Bassetto. There is a bass clarinet employed with
+effect by Meyerbeer in the "Huguenots," but the characteristic
+clarinet tone is less noticeable; it is, however, largely used in
+military bands. The Basset horn had the deep compass of the bass
+clarinet which separates it from the present alto clarinet, although
+it was more like the alto in caliber. The alto clarinet is also used
+in military bands; and probably what the Basset horn would have been
+written for is divided between the present bass and alto clarinets.</p>
+
+<p>Preceding the invention of the sarrusophone, by which a perfected oboe
+was contrived in a brass instrument, a modified brass instrument, the
+saxophone, bearing a similar relation to the clarinet, was invented in
+1846 by Sax, whose name will occur again and again in connection with
+important inventions in military band instruments. The saxophone is
+played like the clarinet with the intervention of a beating reed, but
+is not cylindrical; it has a conical tube like the oboe. The different
+shape of the column of air changes the first available harmonic
+obtained by overblowing to the octave instead of the twelfth; and also
+in consequence of the greater strength of the even harmonics,
+distinctly changing the tone quality. The sarrusophone may fairly be
+regarded as an oboe or bassoon; but the saxophone is not so closely
+related to the clarinet. There are four sizes of saxophone now made
+between high soprano and bass. Starting from the fourth fundamental
+note, each key can be employed in the next higher octave, by the help
+of other two keys, which, being opened successively, set up a
+vibrating loop. The saxophones, although difficult to play, fill an
+important place in the military music of France and Belgium, and have
+been employed with advantage in the French orchestra. The fingering of
+all saxophones is that attributed to Boehm.</p>
+
+<p>The cup shaped mouthpiece must now take the place of the reed in our
+attention. Here the lips fit against a hollow cup shaped reservoir,
+and, acting as vibrating membranes, may be compared with the vocal
+chords of the larynx. They have been described as acting as true
+reeds. Each instrument in which such a mouthpiece is employed requires
+a slightly different form of it. The French horn is the most important
+brass instrument in modern music. It consists of a body of conical
+shape about seven feet long, without the crooks, ending in a large
+bell, which spreads out to a diameter of fifteen inches. The crooks
+are fitted between the body and the mouthpiece; they are a series of
+smaller interchangeable tubings, which extend in length as they
+descend in pitch, and set the instrument in different keys. The
+mouthpiece is a funnel shaped tube of metal, by preference silver;
+and, in the horn, is exceptionally not cup shaped, but the reverse: it
+tapers, as a cone, from three-quarters of an inch diameter to about a
+minimum of three-sixteenths of an inch, and is a quarter of an inch
+where the smaller end of the mouthpiece is inserted in the upper
+opening of the crook. The first horn has a mouthpiece of rather less
+diameter than the second. The peculiar mouthpiece and narrow tubing
+have very much to do with the soft voice-like tone quality of the
+horn. For convenience of holding, the tubing is bent in a spiral form.
+There is a tuning slide attached to the body, and, of late years,
+valves have been added to the horn, similar to those applied to the
+cornet and other wind instruments. They have, to a considerable
+extent, superseded hand stopping, by which expedient the intonation
+could be altered a semitone or whole tone, by depression of the
+natural notes of the instrument. In brass, or other instruments, the
+natural harmonics depend on the pressure of blowing; and the brass
+differs entirely from the wood wind, in this respect, that it is rare,
+or with poor effect, the lowest or fundamental note can be made to
+sound. Stopping the horn is done by extending the open hand some way
+up the bore; there is half stopping and whole stopping, according to
+the interval, the half tone or whole tone required. As may be
+imagined, the stopped notes are weak and dull compared with the open.
+On the other hand, the tubing introduced for valves not being quite
+conformable in curve with the instrument, and hampered with
+indispensable joins, unless in the best form of modern valve, affects
+the smoothness of tone. No doubt there has been of late years a great
+improvement in the manufacture of valves. Many horns are still made
+with crooks covering an octave from B flat to B flat, 8 feet 6 inches
+to 17 feet; but most players now use only the F crook, and trust to
+the valves, rather than to change the crooks, so that we lose the
+fullness of sound of those below F. The natural horn was originally in
+D, but was not always restricted to that key; there have been horns
+for F, G, high A, and B flat. This may, however, be said for the valve
+horn, that it does not limit or restrict composers in writing for the
+open or natural notes, which are always more beautiful in effect.</p>
+
+<p>Valves were invented and first introduced in Prussia about A.D. 1815.
+At first there were two, but there are now generally three. In this
+country and France they are worked by pistons, which, when pressed
+down, give access for the air into channels or supplementary tubings
+on one side of the main bore, thus lengthening it by a tone for the
+first valve, a semitone for the second, and a tone and a semitone for
+the third. When released by the finger, the piston returns by the
+action of a spring. In large bass and contralto instruments, a fourth
+piston is added, which lowers the pitch two tones and a semitone. By
+combining the use of three valves, lower notes are obtained&mdash;thus, for
+a major third, the second is depressed with the third; for a fourth,
+the first and third; and for the tritone, the first, second, and
+third. But the intonation becomes imperfect when valves are used
+together, because the lengths of additional tubing being calculated
+for the single depressions, when added to each other, they are too
+short for the deeper notes required. By an ingenious invention of
+compensating pistons, Mr. Blaikley, of Messrs. Boosey's, has
+practically rectified this error without extra moving parts or altered
+fingering. In the valve section, each altered note becomes a
+fundamental for another harmonic scale. In Germany a rotary valve, a
+kind of stop cock, is preferred to the piston. It is said to give
+greater freedom of execution, the closeness of the shake being its
+best point, but is more expensive and liable to derangement. The
+invention of M. Adolphe Sax, of a single ascending piston in place of
+a group of descending ones, by which the tube is shortened instead of
+lengthened, met, for a time, with influential support. It is suitable
+for both conical and cylindrical instruments, and has six valves,
+which are always used independently. However, practical difficulties
+have interfered with its success. With any valve system, however, a
+difficulty with the French horn is its great variation in length by
+crooks, inimical to the principle of the valve system, which relies
+upon an adjustment by aliquot parts. It will, however, be seen that
+the invention of valves has, by transforming and extending wind
+instruments, so as to become chromatic, given many advantages to the
+composer. Yet it must, at the same time, be conceded, in spite of the
+increasing favor shown for valve instruments, that the tone must issue
+more freely, and with more purity and beauty, from a simple tube than
+from tubes with joinings and other complications, that interfere with
+the regularity and smoothness of vibration, and, by mechanical
+facilities, tend to promote a dull uniformity of tone quality.</p>
+
+<p>Owing to the changes of pitch by crooks, it is not easy to define the
+compass of the French horn. Between C in the bass clef and G above the
+treble will represent its serviceable notes. It is better that the
+first horn should not descend below middle C, or the second rise above
+the higher E of the treble clef. Four are generally used in modern
+scores. The place of the horn is with the wood wind band. From Handel,
+every composer has written for it, and what is known as the small
+orchestra of string and wood wind bands combined is completed by this
+beautiful instrument.</p>
+
+<p>The most prominent instruments that add to the splendor of the full
+orchestra are trumpets and trombones. They are really members of one
+family, as the name trombone&mdash;big trumpet&mdash;implies, and blend well
+together. The trumpet is an instrument of court and state functions,
+and, as the soprano instrument, comes first. It is what is known as an
+eight foot instrument in pitch, and gives the different harmonics from
+the third to the twelfth, and even to the sixteenth. It is made of
+brass, mixed metal, or silver, and is about five feet seven inches in
+real length, when intended for the key of F without a slide; but is
+twice turned back upon itself, the first and third lengths lying
+contiguous, and the second about two inches from them. The diameter is
+three-eighths of an inch along the cylindrical length; it then widens
+out for about fifteen inches, to form the bell.</p>
+
+<p>When fitted with a slide for transposition&mdash;an invention for the
+trumpet in the last century&mdash;this double tubing, about five inches in
+length on each side, is connected with the second length. It is worked
+from the center with the second and third fingers of the right band,
+and, when pulled back, returns to its original position by a spring.
+There are five crooks. The mouthpiece is hemispherical and convex, and
+the exact shape of it is of great importance. It has a rim with
+slightly rounded surface. The diameter of the mouthpiece varies
+according to the player and the pitch required. With the first crook,
+or rather shank, and mouthpiece, the length of the trumpet is
+increased to six feet, and the instrument is then in the key of F. The
+second shank transposes it to E, the third to E flat, and the fourth
+to D. The fifth, and largest&mdash;two feet one and a half inches
+long&mdash;extends the instrument to eight feet, and lowers the key to C.
+The slide is used for transposition by a semitone or a whole tone,
+thus making new fundamentals, and correcting certain notes of the
+natural harmonic scale, as the seventh, eleventh, and thirteenth,
+which do not agree with our musical scale. Mr. W. Wyatt has recently
+taken out a patent for a double-slide trumpet, which possesses a
+complete chromatic scale. In the required length of slide the ear has
+always to assist. It is clear that the very short shifts of a double
+slide demand great nicety of manipulation. It is, of course, different
+with the valve trumpet. The natural trumpets are not limited to one or
+two keys, but those in F, E, E flat, D, B flat, and even A have been
+employed; but, usually, the valve trumpets are in F, and the higher B
+flat, with a growing inclination, but an unfortunate one, to be
+restricted to the latter, it being easier for cornet players. The tone
+of the high B flat trumpet cannot, however, compare with the F one,
+and with it the lowest notes are lost. Of course, when there are two
+or three trumpets, the high B flat one finds a place. However, the
+valve system applied to the trumpet is not regarded with satisfaction,
+as it makes the tone dull. For grand heroic effect, valve trumpets
+cannot replace the natural trumpets with slides, which are now only to
+be heard in this country.</p>
+
+<p>The simple or field trumpet appears to exist now in one representative
+only, the E flat cavalry trumpet. Bach wrote for trumpets up to the
+twentieth harmonic&mdash;but for this the trumpet had to be divided into a
+principal, which ended at the tenth harmonic&mdash;and the clarino in two
+divisions, the first of which went from the eighth harmonic up to as
+high as the player could reach, and the second clarino, from the sixth
+to the twelfth. The use of the clarinet by composers about the middle
+of the last century seems to have abolished these very high trumpets.
+So completely had they gone, by the time of Mozart, that he had to
+change Handel's trumpet parts, to accommodate them to performers of
+his own time, and transfer the high notes to the oboes and clarinets.</p>
+
+<p>Having alluded to the cornet à piston, it may be introduced here,
+particularly as from being between a trumpet and a bugle, and of four
+foot tone, it is often made to do duty for the more noble trumpet. But
+the distinctive feature of this, as of nearly all brass instruments
+since the invention of valves, tends to a compromise instrument, which
+owes its origin to the bugle. The cornet à piston is now not very
+different from the valve bugle in B flat on the one hand and from the
+small valve trumpet in the same key on the other. It is a hybrid
+between this high pitch trumpet and the bugle, but compared with the
+latter it has a much smaller bell. By the use of valves and pistons,
+with which it was the first to be endowed, the cornet can easily
+execute passages of consecutive notes that in the natural trumpet can
+only be got an octave higher. It is a facile instrument, and double
+tonguing, which is also possible with the horn and trumpet, is one of
+its popular means for display. It has a harmonic compass from middle C
+to C above the treble clef, and can go higher, but with difficulty. A
+few lower notes, however, are easily taken with the valves.</p>
+
+<p>We now come to the trombones, grand, sonorous tubes, which, existing
+in three or four sizes since the sixteenth century, are among the most
+potent additions on occasion to the full orchestra. Their treble can
+be regarded as the English slide trumpet, but it is not exactly so.
+There appears to have been as late as Bach a soprano trombone, and it
+is figured by Virdung, A.D. 1511, as no larger than the field trumpet.
+The trumpet is not on so large a caliber, and in the seventeenth
+century had its own family of two clarinos and three tubas. The old
+English name of the trombone is sackbut. The old wooden cornet, or
+German zinke, an obsolete, cupped mouthpiece instrument, the real bass
+of which, according to family, is the now obsolete serpent, was used
+in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries as the treble instrument in
+combination with alto, tenor, and bass trombones. The leading features
+of the trumpet are also found, as already inferred, in the trombone;
+there is the cupped mouthpiece, the cylindrical tubing, and, finally,
+a gradual increase in diameter to the bell. The slide used for the
+trumpet appears for four centuries, and probably longer, in the well
+known construction of the trombone. In this instrument it consists of
+two cylindrical tubes parallel with each other, upon which two other
+tubes communicating by a pipe at their lower ends curved in a half
+circle glide without loss of air. The mouthpiece is fitted to an upper
+end, and a bell to a lower end of the slide. When the slide is closed,
+the instrument is at its highest pitch, and as the column of air is
+lengthened by drawing the slide out, the pitch is lowered. By this
+contrivance a complete chromatic scale can be obtained, and as the
+determination of the notes it produces is by ear, we have in it the
+only wind instrument that can compare in accuracy with stringed
+instruments. The player holds a cross bar between the two lengths of
+the instrument, which enables him to lengthen or shorten the slide at
+pleasure, and in the bass trombone, as the stretch would be too great
+for the length of a man's arm, a jointed handle is attached to the
+cross bar. The player has seven positions, each a semitone apart for
+elongation, and each note has its own system of harmonics, but in
+practice he only occasionally goes beyond the fifth. The present
+trombones are the alto in E flat descending to A in the seventh
+position; the tenor in B flat descending to E; the bass in F
+descending to B, and a higher bass in G descending to C sharp. Wagner,
+who has made several important innovations in writing for bass brass
+instruments, requires an octave bass trombone in B flat; an octave
+lower than the tenor one, in the "Nibelungen." The fundamental tones
+of the trombone are called "pedal" notes. They are difficult to get
+and less valuable than harmonics because, in all wind instruments,
+notes produced by overblowing are richer than the fundamental notes in
+tone quality. Valve trombones do not, however, find favor, the defects
+of intonation being more prominent than in shorter instruments. But
+playing with wide bore tubas and their kindred is not advantageous to
+this noble instrument.</p>
+
+<p>The serpent has been already mentioned as the bass of the obsolete
+zinken or wooden cornets, straight or curved, with cupped mouthpiece.
+It gained its serpentine form from the facility given thereby to the
+player to cover the six holes with his fingers. In course of time keys
+were added to it, and when changed into a bassoon shape its name
+changed to the Russian bass horn or basson Russe. A Parisian
+instrument maker, Halary, in 1817, made this a complete instrument,
+after the manner of the keyed bugle of Halliday, and producing it in
+brass called it the ophicleide, from two Greek words meaning serpent
+and keys&mdash;keyed serpent&mdash;although it was more like a keyed bass bugle.
+The wooden serpent has gone out of use in military bands within
+recollection, the ophicleide from orchestras only recently. It has
+been superseded by the development of the valved tubas. The euphonium
+and bombardon, the basses of the important family of saxhorns, now
+completely cover the ground of bass wind instrument music. The keyed
+bugle, invented by Joseph Halliday, bandmaster of the Cavan militia,
+in 1810, may be regarded as the prototype of all these instruments,
+excepting that the keys have been entirely replaced by the valve
+system, an almost contemporary invention by Stölzel and Blumel, in
+Prussia, in 1815. The valve instruments began to prevail as early as
+1850. The sound tube of all bugles, saxhorns, and tubas is conical,
+with a much wider curve than the horn. The quality of tone produced is
+a general kind of tone, not possessing the individuality of any of the
+older instruments. All these valve instruments may be comprehended
+under the French name of saxhorn. There is a division between them of
+the higher instruments or bugles, which do not sound the fundamental
+note, and of the lower, or tubas, which sound it readily. Properly
+military band instruments, the second or bass division, has been taken
+over to the orchestra; and Wagner has made great use of it in his
+great scores. The soprano cornets, bugles, or flugelhorns and saxhorns
+are in E flat; the corresponding alto instruments in B flat, which is
+also the pitch of the ordinary cornet. The tenor, baryton, and bass
+instruments follow in similar relation; the bass horns are, as I have
+said, called tubas; and that with four valves, the euphonium. The
+bombardon, or E flat tuba, has much richer lower notes.</p>
+
+<p>For military purposes, this and the contrabass&mdash;the helicon&mdash;are
+circular. Finally, the contrabass tubas in B flat, and in C, for
+Wagner, have immense depth and potentiality of tone; all these
+instruments are capable of pianissimo.</p>
+
+<p>There are many varieties now of these brass instruments, nearer
+particulars of which may be found in Gevaert, and other eminent
+musicians' works on instrumentation. One fact I will not pass by,
+which is that, from the use of brass instruments (which rise in pitch
+so rapidly under increase of temperature, as Mr. Blaikley has shown,
+almost to the coefficient of the sharpening under heat in organ pipes)
+has come about that rise in pitch which, from 1816 to 1846&mdash;until
+repressed by the authority of the late Sir Michael Costa, and, more
+recently, by the action of the Royal Military College at Kneller
+Hall&mdash;is an extraordinary feature in musical history. All previous
+variations in pitch&mdash;and they have comprised as much as a fourth in
+the extremes&mdash;having been due either to transposition, owing to the
+requirements of the human voice, or to national or provincial
+measurements. The manufacture of brass instruments is a distinct
+craft, although some of the processes are similar to those used by
+silversmiths, coppersmiths, and braziers.</p>
+
+<p>I have only time to add a few words about the percussion instruments
+which the military band permits to connect with the wind. Drums are,
+with the exception of kettle drums, indeterminate instruments, hardly,
+in themselves, to be regarded as musical, and yet important factors of
+musical and especially rhythmic effect. The kettle drum is a caldron,
+usually of brass or copper, covered with a vellum head bound at the
+edge round an iron ring, which fits the circle formed by the upper
+part of the metal body. Screws working on this ring tune the vellum
+head, or vibrating membrane as we may call it, by tightening or
+slackening it, so as to obtain any note of the scale within its
+compass. The tonic and dominant are generally required, but other
+notes are, in some compositions, used; even octaves have been
+employed. The use Beethoven made of kettle drums may be regarded among
+the particular manifestations of his genius. Two kettle drums may be
+considered among the regular constituents of the orchestra, but this
+number has been extended; in one remarkable instance, that of Berlioz
+in his Requiem, to eight pairs. According to Mr. Victor de Pontigny,
+whose article I am much indebted to (in Sir George Grove's dictionary)
+upon the drum, the relative diameters, theoretically, for a pair of
+kettle drums are in the proportion of 30 to 26, bass and tenor;
+practically the diameter of the drums at the French opera is 29 and
+25¼ inches, and of the Crystal Palace band, 28 and 24¼ inches. In
+cavalry regiments the drums are slung so as to hang on each side of
+the drummers horse's neck. The best drum sticks are of whalebone, each
+terminating in a small wooden button covered with sponge. For the
+bass drum and side drum I must be content to refer to Mr. Victor de
+Pontigny's article, and also for the tambourine, but the Provencal
+tambourines I have met with have long, narrow sound bodies, and are
+strung with a few very coarse strings which the player sounds with a
+hammer. This instrument is the rhythmic bass and support to the simple
+galoubet, a cylindrical pipe with two holes in front and one behind,
+sounded by the same performer. The English pipe and tabor is a similar
+combination, also with one player, of such a pipe and a small
+drum-head tambourine. Lastly, to conclude percussion instruments,
+cymbals are round metal plates, consisting of an alloy of copper and
+tin&mdash;say 80 parts to 20&mdash;with sunk hollow centers, from which the
+Greek name. They are not exactly clashed together to elicit their
+sound, but rubbed across each other in a sliding fashion. Like the
+triangle, a steel rod, bent into the form indicated by the name, but
+open at one corner so as to make it an elastic rod, free at both ends;
+the object is to add to the orchestral matter luminous crashes, as it
+were, and dazzling points of light, when extreme brilliancy is
+required.</p>
+
+<p>In conclusion, I must be allowed to express my obligations to Dr. W.H.
+Stone and Mr. Victor Mahillon, to Mr. Ebenezer Prout, Mr. Richard
+Shepherd Rockstro, Mr. Lavoix fils, and Dr. H. Riemann, whose writings
+concerning wind instruments have materially helped me; to Messrs.
+Boosey &amp; Co., and to Messrs. Rudall, Carte &amp; Co., for the loan of the
+instruments used in the illustrations; and also to Mr. D.J. Blaikley
+and Mr. Henry Carte, for valuable personal aid on the present
+occasion. Their kindness in reading through my manuscript&mdash;Mr.
+Blaikley throughout&mdash;and in offering friendly and generous criticisms;
+also their presence and assistance by trial of the various
+instruments, I cannot adequately thank them for, or sufficiently
+extol.</p>
+
+<p>(In the course of this lecture, Mr. Henry Carte played upon a concert
+flute, also a B flat and a G flute, an eight-keyed flute, and a
+recorder. Mr. D.J. Blaikley continued the illustrations upon the oboe,
+bassoon, clarinet, French horn, slide trumpet, valve tenor horn,
+cornet à piston, B flat tenor slide trombone, B flat euphonium, B flat
+contrabass tuba, and B flat contrabass double slide trombone.)</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2><a name="art05"></a>HOW GAS CYLINDERS ARE MADE.</h2>
+
+<p>The supply of compressed gas in metal cylinders has now assumed the
+proportions of an important industry, more especially since it was
+found possible, by the Brin process, to obtain oxygen direct from the
+atmosphere. The industry is not exactly a new one, for carbon dioxide
+and nitrous oxide (the latter for the use of dentists) have been
+supplied in a compressed state for many years. Now, with the creation
+of the modern amateur photographer, who can make lantern slides, and
+the more general adoption of the optical lantern for the purposes of
+demonstration and amusement, there has arisen a demand for the
+limelight such as was never experienced before, and as the limelight
+is dependent upon the two gases, hydrogen and oxygen, for its support,
+these gases are now supplied in large quantities commercially. At
+first the gas cylinders were made of wrought iron; they were cumbrous
+and heavy, and the pressure of the inclosed gas was so low that a
+receptacle to hold only ten feet was a most unwieldy concern. But
+times have changed, and a cylinder of about the same size, but half
+the weight, is now made to hold four times the quantity of gas at the
+enormous initial pressure of 1,800 pounds on every square inch. This
+means the pressure which an ordinary locomotive boiler has to
+withstand multiplied by twelve. The change is due to improved methods
+of manufacture and to the employment of mild steel of special quality
+in lieu of the wrought iron previously employed. The cylinders are now
+made without joint or seam, and the process of manufacture is most
+interesting. A short time ago we had an opportunity of watching the
+various necessary operations involved in making these cylinders at the
+Birmingham works of Messrs. Taunton, Delamard &amp; Co., by whose courtesy
+we were enabled to make notes of the process.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><img src="./images/05-fig1.png" alt="FIG. 1." /><br />FIG. 1.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><img src="./images/05-fig2.png" alt="FIG. 2." /><br />FIG. 2.</p>
+
+<p>Beginning with the raw material, we were shown a disk of metal like
+that shown in Fig. 1, and measuring thirty inches in diameter and
+three-quarters of an inch in thickness. From such a "blank" a cylinder
+destined to hold 100 feet of compressed gas can be constructed, and
+the first operation is to heat the "blank" in a furnace, and afterward
+to stamp it into the cup-like form shown in Fig. 2. To all intents and
+purposes this represents the end of a finished cylinder, but it is far
+too bulky to form the end of one of the size indicated; indeed, it in
+reality contains enough metal to make the entire vessel. By a series
+of operations it is now heated and drawn out longer and longer, while
+its thickness diminishes and its diameter grows less. These operations
+are carried out by means of a number of hydraulic rams, which
+regularly decrease in size. Fig. 3 roughly represents one of these
+rams with the plunger ready to descend and force its way into the
+partially formed red hot gas cylinder, C, and further into the well,
+W. The plunger may be compared to a finger and the cylinder to a
+glove, while the well may represent a hole into which both are thrust
+in order to reduce the thickness of the glove. With huge tongs the
+cylinder, fresh from the furnace, is placed in position, but just
+before the plunger presses into the red hot cup, one of the workmen
+empties into the latter a little water, so as to partially cool the
+bottom and prevent its being thrust out by the powerful plunger. Oil
+is also used plentifully, so that as the plunger works slowly down the
+red hot mass, it is surrounded by smoky flames. It presently forces
+the cylinder into the well, and when the end of the stroke is reached,
+a stop piece is inserted through an opening in the upper part of the
+well, so as to arrest the edge of the cylinder while the reverse
+action of drawing out the plunger is proceeded with. Directly the
+finger is drawn out of the glove&mdash;in other words, immediately the
+plunger is raised out of the cylinder&mdash;the latter drops down below
+with a heavy thud, still in a red hot condition.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><img src="./images/05-fig3.png" alt="FIG 3." /><br />FIG 3.</p>
+
+<p>This operation of hot drawing is repeated again and again in rams of
+diminishing size until the cylinder assumes the diameter and length
+required. This hot drawing leaves the surface of the metal marked with
+longitudinal lines, not unlike the glacier scratches on a rock, albeit
+they are straighter and more regular. But the next operation not only
+obliterates these markings, and gives the metal a smooth surface like
+that of polished silver, but it also confers upon the material a
+homogeneity which it did not before possess, and without which it
+would never bear the pressure which it is destined to withstand when
+finished. This operation consists in a final application of the
+hydraulic ram while the metal remains perfectly cold, instead of red
+hot, as in the previous cases.</p>
+
+<p>As the result of these various hydraulic operations, we have a
+perfectly formed cylinder closed at one end, and we now follow it into
+another department of the works, when its open end is once more
+brought in a furnace to a red heat. The object of this is to make the
+metal soft while the shoulder and neck of the vessel are formed. To
+accomplish this, the heated open end of the cylinder is laid
+horizontally upon a kind of semicircular cradle, and is held there by
+tongs handled by two men. Another workman places over the open end a
+die of the form shown in Fig. 4, and while the cylinder is slowly
+turned round in its cradle, two sledge hammers are brought down with
+frequent blows upon the die, closing in the end of the cylinder, but
+leaving a central hole as shown in Fig. 5. Further operations reduce
+the opening still more until it is closed altogether, and a projection
+is formed as shown at Fig. 6. This projection is now bored through,
+and the cylinder is ready for testing.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><img src="./images/05-fig4.png" alt="FIG. 4." /><br />FIG. 4.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><img src="./images/05-fig5.png" alt="FIG. 5." /><br />FIG. 5.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><img src="./images/05-fig6.png" alt="FIG. 6." /><br />FIG. 6.</p>
+
+<p>The cylinder is submitted to a water test, the liquid being forced in
+until the gauge shows a pressure of two tons to the square inch.
+Cylinders have been known to give way under this ordeal, but without
+any dangerous consequences. The metal simply rips up, making a report
+at the moment of fracture as loud as a gun. The wonderful strength of
+the metal employed may be gauged by the circumstance that the walls of
+the cylinder designed to hold 100 feet of gas are only five-sixteenths
+of an inch in thickness.</p>
+
+<p>During the manufacture of the cylinder, as we have already indicated,
+much oil is used, and, so far as steel can be saturated with that
+fluid&mdash;in the popular sense&mdash;the metal is in that state. It is
+essential that this oil should be completely got rid of, and this is
+carefully done before the cylinder is charged with gas. Previous to
+such charging, the vessel has to be fitted with its valve. Of these
+valves there are three kinds, known respectively as the Brin, the
+Birmingham, and the Manchester. Each has its admirers, but we cannot
+here discuss their individual merits.</p>
+
+<p>The charging of the cylinder is brought about by a powerful pump
+having three cylinders so arranged that the compressed contents of the
+first cylinder are still further compressed in the second, and still
+more highly in the third. The filling of a 100 ft. cylinder occupies
+about half an hour.&mdash;<i>Photographic News</i>.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2><a name="art16"></a>HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE HORSESHOE.</h2>
+
+<h3>By District Veterinarian ZIPPELIUS, of Wurtzburg.</h3>
+
+<p class="ctr"><i>Translated by S.E. Weber, V.S.<a name="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1"><sup>1</sup></a></i></p>
+
+<p class="ind">
+Kind, gentle steed, nobly standing,<br />
+Four shoes will I put on your feet,<br />
+Firm and good, that you'll be fleet,<br />
+That is Donar's hammer saying.</p>
+
+<p class="ind">To the woods and homeward go,<br />
+Always on the straight road thro',<br />
+Far from what is bad, still fleeing,<br />
+That is Donar's hammer saying.</p>
+
+<p class="ind">Should wounds and pain become distressing,<br />
+Blood to blood shall flow,<br />
+Bone to bone shall grow,<br />
+That is Donar's hammer saying.</p>
+
+<p class="ind">Carry the rider, true little steed,<br />
+Onward to all good luck bringing;<br />
+Carry him thence and back with speed,<br />
+That is Donar's hammer saying.</p>
+
+<p style="margin-left: 50%">&mdash;<i>Old Meresburger Song</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The horse appeared comparatively late in the group of domestic
+animals. In searching the monuments of the ancients, which have
+furnished the foundation for our present culture, that is, of the
+littoral inhabitants of the Mediterranean, and of the people of
+Mesopotamia, we find in Egypt the first traces of the horse. But even
+here it appears late, on the monuments of the first ruling patricians
+of human origin.<a name="FNanchor_2_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_1"><sup>2</sup></a> Especially during the period of Memphis (I-X
+Dynasty), then under the rules of Thebes (XI-XVI Dynasty), there is no
+trace of the horse.</p>
+
+
+<p>It is first in the transition period, from the late rule of Thebes
+(XVII-XX Dynasty) to the so-called period of Sut (XXI-XXX Dynasty)
+that there appears, in the wall pictures of the Pharaohs' tombs,
+representations of the horse. The oldest, now known, picture of the
+horse is found on the walls of the tombs of Seti I. (1458-1507 B.C.)
+under whose reign the Israelite wandered from Egypt. The horses of the
+mortuary pictures are very well drawn, and have an unmistakable
+oriental type. There has therefore undoubtedly existed in Egypt high
+culture, for over 4,000 years, without representation of the horse,
+which was the next animal domesticated after the cat.</p>
+
+<p>From this time on we find the horse frequently represented both by the
+vainglorious despots of Mesopotamia and on the so-called Etruscan
+vases, which appeared after the influence of Greek art, when, on
+almost every urn, horses in lively action and in various forms of
+bodily development, almost always of an oriental type, are to be
+recognized. But neither here, nor in Homer, nor in the many later
+representations of the horse on the Roman triumphal arches, etc., are
+to be found horses whose hoofs have any trace of protection. Records,
+which describe to us the misfortunes of armies, whose horses had run
+their feet sore, we find on the contrary at a very early time, as in
+Diodorus, regarding the cavalry of Alexander the Great, in Xenophon,
+regarding the retreat of the ten thousand, in Polybius, regarding the
+cavalry of Hannibal in Etruria, etc. It is also known that the cavalry
+of the linguist King of Pontus, Mithridates the Great, at times and
+specially at the siege of Cyzicus were delayed, in order to let the
+hoofs of the horses grow.</p>
+
+<p>On the contrary it seems strange that of the Huns alone, whose
+horsemen swept over whole continents from the Asiatic highlands like a
+thunderstorm, such trouble had not become known either through the
+numerous authors of the eastern and western Roman empire or from
+Gallia.</p>
+
+<p>Horseshoeing, very likely, was invented by different nations at about
+the same period during the migration of the nations, and the various
+kinds of new inventions were brought together in Germany only, after
+each had acquired a national stamp according to climate and
+usefulness.</p>
+
+<p>In this way come from the south the thin, plate-like horseshoes, with
+staved rim, covering the whole hoof; from the Mongolian tribes of
+middle Asia the "Stolleneisen" (calk shoe); while to our northern
+ancestors, and indeed the Normans, must be ascribed with great
+probability the invention of the "Griffeneisen" (gripe shoe),
+especially for the protection of the toes.</p>
+
+<p>All varieties of the horseshoe of southern Europe are easily
+distinguished from the Roman so-called "Kureisen" (cure shoe), of
+which several have been unearthed at various excavations and are
+preserved at the Romo-Germanic Museum in Mentz (Mainz), Germany. The
+shoes, Figs. 1 and 2, each represent thin iron plates, covering the
+whole hoof, which in some cases have an opening in the middle, of
+several centimeters in diameter.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><img src="./images/05-hfig1.png" alt="Fig. 1." /><br />Fig. 1.</p>
+
+<p>These plates, apparently set forth to suit oriental and occidental
+body conformation, are either directly provided with loops or have
+around the outer margin a brim several centimeters high, in which
+rings are fastened. Through the loops or rings small ropes were drawn,
+and in this way the shoe was fastened to the crown of the hoof and to
+the pastern. Sufficient securing of the toe was wanting in all these
+shoes, and, on account of this, the movement of the animal with the
+same must have been very clumsy, and we can see from this that the
+ropes must have made the crown of the hoof and pastern sore in a
+short time. One of these shoes<a name="FNanchor_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3"><sup>3</sup></a> evidently was the object of
+improvement, to prevent the animal from slipping as well as from
+friction, and we therefore find on it three iron cubes 1½ centimeters
+high, which were fastened corresponding to our toes and calks of
+to-day, and offer a very early ready proof, from our climatic and
+mountainous conditions, which later occur, principally in southern
+Germany, that this style of horseshoeing was not caused by error, but
+by a well founded local and national interest or want.</p>
+
+
+<p class="ctr"><img src="./images/06-fig2.png" alt="FIG. 2." /><br />FIG. 2.</p>
+
+<p>Aside from the so-called "Kureisen" (cure shoe) for diseased hoofs, we
+find very little from the Romans on horseshoeing or hoof protection,
+and therefore we must observe special precautions with all their
+literature on the subject. It is because of this that I excuse Prof.
+Sittl's communication in the preface of Winckelmann's "Geschichte der
+Kunst in Alterthum" (History of Ancient Art), which contains a notice
+that Fabretti, in some raised work in Plazzo Matti, of a
+representation of a hunt by the Emperor Gallienus (Bartoli Admirand
+Ant. Tab. 24), showed that at that time horseshoes fastened by nails,
+the same as to-day, were used (Fabretti de Column. Traj. C. 7 pag.
+225; Conf. Montlanc. Antiq. Explic. T. 4, pag. 79). This statement
+proves itself erroneous, because he was not aware that the foot of the
+horse was repaired by an inexperienced sculptor.</p>
+
+<p>How then did out of this Roman cure shoe develop the horseshoeing of
+southern Europe?</p>
+
+<p>It was to be expected, with the Roman horseshoe, that the mode of
+fastening became unsatisfactory and necessitated a remedy or change.
+An attempt of this kind has been preserved in the so-called
+"Asiatischen Koppeneisensole" (Asiatic cap-iron-sole) (Fig. 3), which
+the Hon. Mr. Lydtin at Karlsruhe had made according to a model of the
+Circassian Horse Tribe Shaloks, and also according to the reverse of
+Lycian coins (called Triguetra).</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><img src="./images/06-fig3.png" alt="FIG. 3." /><br />FIG. 3.</p>
+
+<p>This horseshoe plate, likely originating in the twelfth century,
+covers the whole surface of the sole, like the Roman shoes, with the
+exception of the wall region, which contains a rim 1 centimeter high,
+and above this rises at one side toward the heel three beak-like
+projections, about 4 centimeters high and 1 centimeter wide at the
+base, being pointed above and turned down, which were fastened in the
+wall of the hoof, in the form of a hook.</p>
+
+<p>This mode of fastening evidently was also insufficient, and so the
+fastening of the shoe by nails was adopted. These iron plates used for
+shoes were too thin to allow nails with sunken heads to be used, so
+only nails with blades and cubical shaped heads were applicable. These
+nail heads, 6 to 8 in number, which left the toe and the back part of
+the heel free, served at the same time to secure the horse from
+slipping, which the smooth plates, covering the whole hoof surface,
+without doubt facilitated.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><img src="./images/06-fig4.png" alt="FIG. 4." /><br />FIG. 4.</p>
+
+<p>Shoes of this kind, after the old Roman style, with a very strong rim
+bent upward, likely proved very comfortable for the purpose of
+protection, in the Sierras of the Pyrenean peninsula, where they seem
+to have been in use for a long time; for in the twelfth century we
+find in Spain the whole form of the Roman shoe, only fastened by nails
+(Figs. 4 and 5). At first the shoe seems to have been cut off at the
+heel end, but as apparently after being on for some time, bruises were
+noticed, the shoe was made longer at the heel, and this part was
+turned up so as to prevent them from becoming loose too soon, as both
+the Spanish horseshoes of this period show, and the acquisition was
+even later transferred to England (Fig. 7).</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><img src="./images/06-fig5.png" alt="FIG. 5." /><br />FIG. 5.</p>
+
+<p>The shoe containing a groove (Fig. 6), which we shall see later, made
+its appearance in Germany in the fifteenth century. From this time,
+according to our present knowledge, ceases the period of the Roman
+horseshoe. Its influence, however, lasted a great deal longer, and has
+even remained until our present day.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><img src="./images/06-fig6.png" alt="FIG. 6." /><br />FIG. 6.</p>
+
+<p>Its successor became partly the Arabo-Turkomanic and partly the
+Southwest European horseshoe.</p>
+
+<p>For the descendants of the Numidian light cavalry, the Roman and old
+Spanish horseshoe was evidently too heavy for their sandy, roadless
+deserts, so they made it thinner and omitted the bent-up rim, because
+it prevented the quick movement of the horse. For the protection of
+the nail heads the outer margin of the shoe was staved, so as to form
+a small rim on the outer surface of the shoe, thus preventing the nail
+heads from being worn and the shoe lost too soon.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><img src="./images/06-fig7.png" alt="FIG. 7." /><br />FIG. 7.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><img src="./images/06-fig8.png" alt="FIG. 8." /><br />FIG. 8.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><img src="./images/06-fig9.png" alt="FIG. 9." /><br />FIG. 9.</p>
+
+<p>A horseshoe of that kind is shown by Fig. 8, which was used in North
+Africa in the twelfth century, and became the model for all forms of
+horseshoes of the Mahometan tribes. Even now quite similar shoes
+(Fig. 9) are made south and east from the Caspian Sea, at the
+Amu-Darja, in Samarkand, etc., which were probably introduced under
+Tamerlane, the conqueror of nearly the whole of Asia Minor in the
+fourteenth century.</p>
+
+<p>The so-called "Sarmatische" (Sarmatian) horseshoe (Figs. 10 and 11),
+of South Russia, shows in its form, at the same time, traces of the
+last named shoe, however, greatly influenced by the Mongolian shoe,
+the "Goldenen Horde," which at the turn of the sixteenth to the
+seventeenth century played havoc at the Volga and the Aral. The
+unusual width of the toe, and especially the lightness of the iron,
+reminds us of the Turkomanic horseshoe, whereas, on the contrary, the
+large bean-shaped holes, as well as the calks, were furnished through
+Mongolian influence.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><img src="./images/06-fig10.png" alt="FIG. 10." /><br />FIG. 10.</p>
+
+<p>The Sarmatian tribes were principally horsemen, and it is not
+surprising, therefore, that the coat of arms of the former kingdom of
+Poland in the second and third quadrate shows a silver rider in armor
+on a silver running horse shod with golden shoes, and that at present
+about 1,000 families in 25 lineages of the Polish Counts Jastrzembiec
+Bolesezy, the so-called "Polnische Hufeisen Adel" (Polish Horseshoe
+Nobility), at the same time also carried the horseshoe on their coats
+of arms. The silver horseshoe in a blue field appears here as a symbol
+of the "Herbestpfardes" (autumnal horse), to which, after the
+christianization of Poland, was added the golden cross. The noblemen
+participating in the murder of the holy Stanislaus in 1084 had to
+carry the horseshoe reversed on their escutcheon.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><img src="./images/06-fig11.png" alt="FIG. 11." /><br />FIG. 11.</p>
+
+<p>From the African and Turkomanic horseshoe, through the turning up of
+the toes and heels, originated later the Turkish, Grecian and
+Montenegrin horseshoe of the present as shown by Fig. 12.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><img src="./images/06-fig12.png" alt="FIG. 12." /><br />FIG. 12.</p>
+
+<p>By the Moorish invasion in Spain, the Spanish-Gothic horseshoeing was
+also modified, through which the shoe became smooth, staved at the
+margin, very broad in the toe, and turned up at toe and heel, and at a
+later period the old open Spanish national horseshoe (Fig. 13) was
+developed. As we thus see, we can in no way deny the Arabian-Turkish
+origin of this shoe.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><img src="./images/06-fig13.png" alt="FIG. 13." /><br />FIG. 13.</p>
+
+<p>As France had received her whole culture from the south, and as the
+crusades especially brought the Roman nation in close contact with
+them for centuries, so it cannot appear strange that the old French
+horseshoe, a form of which has been preserved by Bourgelat and is
+represented by Fig. 14, still remained in the smooth, turned up in
+front and behind, like the shoe of the southern climates, with Asiatic
+traces, which hold on the ground, the same as all southern shoeing, by
+the nail heads.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><img src="./images/07-fig14.png" alt="FIG. 14." /><br />FIG. 14.</p>
+
+<p>The transit of the German empire, in order to keep up the historical
+course, once more brings us back to the middle of the fifth century.
+At this time Attila, the "Godegisel" (gods' scourge), left his wooden
+capitol in the lowlands near the river Theis, to go to the Roman
+empire and to the German and Gallican provinces, there to spread
+indescribable misery to the horrors of judgment day.</p>
+
+<p>The following is a prayer in those days of horror:</p>
+
+<p class="ind">
+"Kleiner Huf, kleines Ross,<br />
+Krummer Sabel, spitz Geschoss&mdash;<br />
+Blitzesschnell und sattlefest:<br />
+Schrim uns Herr von Hunnenpest."</p>
+
+<p>We are at present reminded of those times of fright, when during the
+clearing and tilling of the soil, a small roughly made horseshoe is
+found in Southern Germany, about as far as the water boundary of the
+Thuringian forest, and occasionally on, but principally around
+Augsburg, and in France as far as the Loire.</p>
+
+<p>These shoes, covering the margin or wall of the foot, show slight
+traces of having been beveled on the lower surface, and contain two
+bent calks very superficially placed. Occasionally they are sharpened
+and turned in two directions. The characteristic wide bean-shaped nail
+holes are conical on the inside, and are frequently placed so near the
+outer margin of the shoe that from the pressure the hoofs were likely
+to split open. The nail heads were shaped like a sleigh runner, and
+almost entirely sunk into the shoe. It evidently was not bent up at
+the toe, like the old form of these kinds of shoes.</p>
+
+<p>These shoes, according to our conception of to-day, were so carelessly
+finished that in the scientific circles of historical researches they
+were, until very recently, looked upon as saddle mountings or
+something similar, and not as horseshoes.</p>
+
+<p>This shoe was for some time, while it was plentifully found in France,
+regarded as of Celtic make; but this is certainly not the case, as it
+is of Hunish and Hungarian "nationalitat" (nationality). An exactly
+scientific proof, it is true, according to our present knowledge,
+cannot be furnished; however, it will stand well enough until the
+error is proved.</p>
+
+<p>This peculiar kind of horseshoe has been found in South Germany and
+Northeast France, as far as the region of Orleans, where, as it has
+been proved, the Huns appeared. This, therefore, speaks for their
+descendants: 1st, the far extended and yet sharply limited places of
+finding the shoe; 2d, the small size corresponds to the historically
+proved smallness of the Hunish horse; 3d, the hasty and careless make,
+which does not indicate that it was made by settled workmen; 4th, the
+horseshoe (Fig. 15) bespeaks the Hunish workmanship of the present
+Chinese shoe, which, in making of the nail holes, shows to-day related
+touches of the productions of the Mongolian ancestors.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><img src="./images/07-fig15.png" alt="FIG. 15." /><br />FIG. 15.</p>
+
+<p>Aside from the peculiar shaped nail holes, the characteristic of the
+Hunish shoe consists in the changes of the calks for summer and winter
+shoeing, as well as in the sinking of the nail heads. The Huns,
+therefore, aside from the indistinctly marked attempts of the Romans
+in this direction, which are the only ones known to me, must be
+regarded as the inventors not only of the calks, but partly, next to
+the Normans, also of the sharpened winter shoeing, and of the not
+unimportant invention of sinking the nail heads observed in Fig. 15.</p>
+
+<p>The Hunish shoeing was therefore an important invention for the
+Germans. After centuries later, wherever horseshoeing was practiced,
+it was done solely according to Hunish methods; whereby the shoe was
+very possibly made heavier, was more carefully finished and in course
+of time showed an attempt to bend the toe (Fig. 16a).</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><img src="./images/07-fig16.png" alt="FIG. 16." /><br />FIG. 16.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><img src="./images/07-fig16a.png" alt="FIG. 16A." /><br />FIG. 16A.</p>
+
+<p>In the Bomberg Dom we find an equestrian statue, not unknown in the
+history of art, which was formerly held to be that of Emperor Conrad
+III. At present however the opinion prevails generally that it
+represents "Stephen I., den Heiligen" (Stephen I., the Saint).</p>
+
+<p>Stephen I., the first king of Hungary, formerly was a heathen, and was
+named "Najk." He reigned from 997 to 1038. His important events were
+the many victorious wars led against rebellious chieftains of his
+country, and he was canonized in 1087. His equestrian monument in
+Bomberg Dom was, in consequence, hardly made before the year 1087.
+Notwithstanding that the Huns had been defeated 500 years before on
+the plains of Catalania, the horse of the above mentioned monument
+carries, as I have convinced myself personally, Hunish horseshoes,
+modified, however, by blade-shaped calks just then coming into use.
+This is proof that, at least in Hungary, the Hunish method of shoeing
+was preserved an extraordinary long time. By this it has not become
+improbable that at least the many shoes of this kind which were found
+on the Lechfield come, not directly from the Huns, but from their
+successors, the Hungarians, whose invasions took place in the first
+half of the tenth century.</p>
+
+<p>About the same time of the Hungarian invasions, the Normans began to
+disturb the southwestern part of Europe with their Viking expeditions.
+Their sea kings seem to have been equestrians at very early times, and
+to have had their horses shod, although perhaps only in winter; at
+least the excavation of the Viking ship in 1881 disclosed the remains
+of a horse which was shod. The shoeing consisted only of a toe
+protection&mdash;"Brodder" (Bruder, Brother)&mdash;provided with a small sharp
+calk, and fastened by two nails.</p>
+
+<p>When later, in the year 1130, the Norwegian king Sigard Yorsalafar,
+during his journey to Jerusalem, entered Constantinople, his horse is
+said to have carried only the small toe-protecting shoes.</p>
+
+<p>The art of horseshoeing, immediately after the migration of the
+nations, came near our improvement of the same to-day; especially near
+the reputed discoveries met with, which consist simply of iron
+protection for the margin of the hoof, fastened by nails. The heads
+were sunk into the shoe so as to increase its firmness. Special
+consideration was given to local and climatic conditions through the
+introduction of toes and heels.</p>
+
+<p>The mechanism of the hoof also found remarkable consideration,
+inasmuch as they apparently avoided driving nails too close to the
+heel end of the shoe. Notwithstanding this early improvement in the
+art of horseshoeing, the Huns (as stated before) took a prominent
+part. It appears to have taken a long time after the migration of the
+nations for shoeing to become general, as is shown by various
+descriptions of tournaments, pictures of horses, etc.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><img src="./images/07-fig18.png" alt="FIG. 18." /><br />FIG. 18.</p>
+
+<p>We will mention in the first place the "Percival des Wolfram von
+Eschenbach," as well as "Christ von Troies," where there is a great
+deal said about horses, horse grooms, and tournaments, but nowhere in
+those works is any mention made of horseshoeing. Likewise is found the
+horse on the coat of arms of Wolfram von Eschenbach, in the Manessi
+collection in Paris, which was begun in Switzerland in the fourteenth
+century; but, although we find this horse most beautifully finished,
+it was not shod.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><img src="./images/07-fig19.png" alt="FIG. 19." /><br />FIG. 19.</p>
+
+<p>During the time of the crusades, 1096-1291, however, there appeared
+suddenly in Germany a plate-like horseshoe of southern character
+(Figs. 18 and 19), which was occasionally bent upward at the heel end,
+and was very heavy. The toe was very broad sometimes, and was also
+bent upward. In this form we have seen the shoes of the Balkan and
+Pyrean peninsula. The shoe was remarkably narrow at the heel, and was
+supplied with calks, which accounts for the highness of the back part
+of the shoe. Frequently we find one calk set diagonally, but the other
+drawn out wedge shaped, and sharp; so that there existed a great
+similarity between this iron shank and that used by Count Einsiedel
+for winter shoeing. Sometimes both shanks were sharpened in this way,
+or were provided with blade-shaped calks well set forward. The form of
+nail holes used was very characteristic of that of the Huns, but they
+were decidedly smaller and square, as were seen in the African shoe of
+the twelfth century. The nail heads were slightly sunk, which was
+according to southern customs.</p>
+
+<p>That this shoe really belongs to the period of the crusades is proved
+by the numerous horse pictures which have been preserved from that
+time; of which we will mention the manuscript of Heinrich von Veldecka
+("Eneidt")<a name="FNanchor_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4"><sup>4</sup></a> in the year 1180, which belongs to the most valuable
+parts of German history of art.</p>
+
+<p>This south European Hunish horseshoe had remained the standard form
+during the middle ages and until the thirty years war, at least in
+South Germany. The shoe was continually improved, and reached its
+highest point of perfection about the time of the "Bauern-krieg"
+(Revolution of the Peasants), at a time when, under the leadership of
+the Renaissance, the whole art of mechanics, and especially that of
+blacksmithing, had taken an extraordinarily great stride (Figs. 20 and
+21).</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><img src="./images/07-fig20.png" alt="FIG. 20." /><br />FIG. 20.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><img src="./images/07-fig21.png" alt="FIG. 21." /><br />FIG. 21.</p>
+
+<p>The shoe (Figs. 22 and 23) is found in Franconia, in all places where,
+in the sixteenth century, battles had been fought with the rebellious
+peasants. We may, therefore, be justified in fixing its origin mainly
+from that period, for which also speaks its high perfection of form.
+We find here still the bent-up heel and toe (the latter broad and
+thin) of the south European form.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><img src="./images/08-fig22.png" alt="FIG. 22" /><br />FIG. 22</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><img src="./images/08-fig23.png" alt="FIG. 23." /><br />FIG. 23.</p>
+
+<p>The staved rim of the Spanish Arabic Turkomanic shoe is observed to be
+undergoing a change to that of a groove. The broad surface of the shoe
+evidently led to the beveling of the same, so as to lessen sole
+pressure. The size of the nail holes remains still like that of the
+Huns; but the unsunk southern nail heads yet serve to improve the hold
+on the ground. The calks were next placed forward, perhaps from an
+uncultivated sense of beauty, or from the high bending up of the hind
+part of the shoe, which would necessitate a high and heavy unsightly
+calk.</p>
+
+<p>From this time on horseshoeing in south Germany fell back very
+quickly, and loses all scientific holds of support after the thirty
+years war. In the mean time toe protection in the form of a calk had
+spread from the colder north over southern Germany; whereas this north
+German invention did not find favor in England in consequence of her
+mild oceanic climate.</p>
+
+<p>Also, the calks in England, as well as in the southern countries, on
+the same ground, therefore, with good reason, could at no time be
+adopted. This did, however, not interfere with the use of the calk in
+the colder south Germany, where after a use of nearly 1,500 years it
+has maintained its local and climatic adaptation. Notwithstanding the
+occasional aping by foreigners, it has remained victorious in its
+original form, and has been chosen in many countries.</p>
+
+<p>The historical development of the horseshoe in general, from about the
+time of Emperor Maximilian until the seven years war, furnishes a true
+picture of the confused condition of things at that period of time,
+which, to make intelligible, would require a separate and complete
+treatise. Interesting as it is to the scientist to follow up this
+development and mode of present German horseshoeing, which, aside from
+the national toe and calk, is the English form and has become
+influential, and with full right, for a periodical of this kind
+further, more comprehensive, statement would under all circumstances
+take up too much room; therefore I must drop the pen, although
+reluctantly.</p>
+
+<a name="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1">[1]</a><div class="note"><p>From <i>Theirarztliche Mittheilungen</i>, organ des Vereins
+badischer Theirarzte, Karlsruhe, No. IV., April, 1891.&mdash;<i>Veterinary
+Archives</i>.</p></div>
+<a name="Footnote_2_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_1">[2]</a><div class="note"><p>Until the time Menes, with whom historical times begin,
+ruled in Egypt among visionary heroes or mythological gods.</p></div>
+<a name="Footnote_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3">[3]</a><div class="note"><p>Not illustrated.</p></div>
+<a name="Footnote_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4">[4]</a><div class="note"><p>"Wanderungen des Aeneas" (Travels of Aeneas).</p></div>
+
+<hr />
+<h2><a name="art15"></a>SHEET GLASS FROM MOLTEN METAL.</h2>
+
+<p>The present practice in making metal sheets is to cast ingots or slabs
+and then reduce these by repeated rollings and reheating. Attempts
+have been previously made to produce sheets directly from molten metal
+by pouring the metal: (1) between two revolving rollers; or (2)
+between a revolving wheel and the surface of an inclosing fixed
+semicircular segment. By these means none but very thin plates could
+be satisfactorily produced. In this invention by C.M. Pielsticker,
+London, the machinery consists of a large receiving roller of 5 ft.
+diameter more or less, and of a length equal to that of the plate to
+be produced. With this are combined small forming rollers arranged in
+succession part way round the periphery of the large roller, and
+revolving at the same rate as the large roller. The rollers can be
+cooled by a current of water circulating through them. The molten
+metal flows on to the surface of the large roller and is prevented
+from escaping sideways by flanges with which the large roller is
+provided. These flanges embrace the small rollers and are of a depth
+greater than that of the thickest plate which it is proposed to roll.
+The distance between the large roller and the small rollers can be
+adjusted according to the desired thickness of the plate. When dealing
+with metals of high melting point, such as steel, the first small
+roller is made of refractory material and is heated from inside by the
+flame of a blow pipe. The rollers are coated with plumbago or other
+material to prevent adhesion to the molten metal. In the case of
+metals of high melting point the machine is fed direct from a furnace
+divided into two compartments by a wall or bridge in which is a
+stopper which can be operated so as to regulate the flow of metal.
+When applied to forming sheets of glass, the rollers should be warmed
+by a blow pipe flame as above described, and the sheet of glass
+stretched and annealed as it leaves the last roller.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2><a name="art08"></a>WELDLESS STEEL CHAINS.</h2>
+
+<p>At the Royal Naval Exhibition, London, Messrs. William Reid &amp; Co. are
+exhibiting their weldless steel chains, which we now illustrate.</p>
+
+<p>Of the many advantages claimed for steel chains, it may be prominently
+noted that a very important saving of weight is effected on account of
+their possessing such a high breaking strain, compared with the
+ordinary welded iron chains. To illustrate this, it may be stated that
+a given length of the weldless steel chain is 35 to 40 per cent. less
+in weight than an equivalent length of iron chain, will stand the same
+breaking strain as the latter, and indeed, where steel of special
+quality is used in making the weldless chains, this difference can be
+increased as much as 70 to 80 per cent. Whereas superior iron chains
+break at a strain at 17 tons per square inch, these weldless steel
+chains will stand a strain of 28 to 30 tons, with 20 to 26 per cent.
+elongation.</p>
+
+<p>Again, there is greater security in their use from the fact that there
+are no welds, and they give warning of the limit of strain to which
+they can bear being approached, by elongation, which can be carried to
+a considerable extent before the chain breaks. Moreover, over, in
+chains made by this process, the links are all exactly alike. Though
+the life of a weldless steel chain is said to be twice that of an
+ordinary one, the price per length is little more than that of best
+iron chains.</p>
+
+<p>They are made in lengths of from 40 to 50 feet, being compressed from
+a solid rolled steel bar, the section of which is shaped like a
+four-pointed star. In the first place holes are pierced at intervals
+down the length of the bar, thus determining the length of the several
+links. Then the bar is notched between the holes so as to give the
+external form of the links. The next step is "flattening out," which
+presses the links into shape on their inner side, but leaves the
+openings still closed by a plate of metal. They are then stamped out
+so as to round them up, and the metal inside them is punched out, and
+the edges "cleaned," or trimmed off. The links are now parted from one
+another and stamped again, to insure equal thickness in all parts of
+the chain. The only processes now to be gone through are dressing and
+finishing. According to the die used, the shape of the links can be
+varied to suit any required pattern. The lengths of chain thus made
+are joined by spiral rings made of soft steel, the convolutions being
+afterward hammered together till they become solid. A ring of this
+description, ¾ inch diameter, underwent a strain of 46,200 lb., that
+is, 23 tons to the square inch, its elongation being 21 per cent.</p>
+
+<p>These chains have passed satisfactorily the tests of the Bureau
+Veritas, and both that association and Lloyd's have accepted their use
+on the same conditions and under the same tests as ordinary chains.</p>
+
+<p>So much for the general idea of punching steel chains. We will now
+describe a recent invention by which superior steel chains are
+produced, the author of which is Mr. Hippolyte Rongier, of Birmingham,
+Eng. He says:</p>
+
+<p>My invention has for its object the manufacture of weldless stayed
+chains, whereof each link, together with its cross strut or stay, is
+made of one piece of metal without any weld or joint; and the
+invention consists in producing a chain of stayed links from a bar of
+cruciform section by the consecutive series of punching, twisting and
+stamping operations hereinafter described, the punching operations
+being entirely performed on the metal when in the cold state.</p>
+
+<p>Figs. 1 to 10 show the progressive stages in the manufacture of the
+chain, and the remaining figures show the series of tools that are
+employed.</p>
+
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/08-blanks.png"><img src="./images/08-blanks_th.png" alt="blanks"></a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/08-1-10.png"><img src="./images/08-1-10_th.png" alt="Figs 1-10"></a><br />
+MANUFACTURE OF WELDLESS CHAINS.</p>
+
+<p>The general method of operation of making stayed chains according to
+my invention is so far similar to the methods heretofore proposed for
+making unstayed chains from the bar of cruciform section that the
+links are formed alternately out of the one and the other pair of
+diametrically opposite webs of the rod, the links, when severed and
+completed, being already enchained together at the time of their
+formation. The successive operations differ, however, in many
+important practical respects from those heretofore proposed, as will
+appear from the following detailed description of the successive steps
+in the process illustrated by Figs. 1 to 10.</p>
+
+<p>I will distinguish the one pair of diametrically opposite webs of the
+bar and the notches and mortises punched therein and the links formed
+therefrom from the other pair by an index figure 1 affixed to the
+reference letters appertaining thereto.</p>
+
+<p><i>a a</i> are one pair of diametrically opposite webs, and <i>a' a'</i> the
+other pair of webs of the bar.</p>
+
+<p>The first operation illustrated in Fig. 1 is to punch out of the edge
+of one of the webs, <i>a</i>, a series of shallow notches, <i>b</i>, at equal
+intervals apart, corresponding to the pitch of the links to be formed
+out of that pair of webs and situated where the spaces will ultimately
+be formed between the ends of that series of links. The notches are
+made with beveled ends, and are no deeper than is absolutely necessary
+(for the purpose of a guide stop in the subsequent operations, as
+hereinafter described), so as to avoid, as far as possible, weakening
+the bar transversely. This operation is repeated upon one of the pairs
+of webs <i>a'</i>; but whereas in the first operation of notching the web
+the "pitch" of the notches is determined by the feed mechanism, in
+this second operation of notching the notches, <i>b</i>, cut in the web,
+<i>a</i>, serve as guides to influence and compensate for any inaccuracy of
+the feed mechanism, so that the second set of notches, <i>b'</i>, shall be
+intermediate of and rigorously equidistant from the first set of
+notches, <i>b</i>. This compensation is effected by the notches, <i>b</i>,
+fitting on to a beveled stop on the bed of the punching tool by which
+the notches, <i>b'</i>, are cut, the beveled ends of the notches, <i>b</i>,
+causing the bar under the pressure of the punch to adjust itself in
+the longitudinal direction (if necessary) sufficiently to rectify any
+inaccuracy of feed. These notches, <i>b b'</i>, similarly serve as guides
+to insure uniformity of spacing in the subsequent operations of
+punching out the links.</p>
+
+<p>The second operation (illustrated in Fig. 2) is to punch out of the
+pair of opposite webs, <i>a a</i>, pairs of oblong mortises&mdash;two pairs, <i>c
+c</i>, and one pair, <i>d d</i>. These three pairs of mortises (which might be
+punched at separate operations, but are preferably punched at one
+stroke of the press) are situated as close as possible up to the faces
+of the other pairs of webs, <i>a' a'</i>, the pairs of mortises, <i>c c</i>,
+being so spaced as to correspond in position to the eyes of the links
+to be formed, to which they correspond approximately in form, while
+the pair, <i>d</i>, correspond in position to the notches, <i>b</i>, and
+therefore to the intervals by which the links formed out of the same
+pair of webs, <i>a a</i>, will be separated when completed. This operation
+is continued along the whole length of the pair of webs, <i>a</i>. It will
+be observed that a considerable thickness of metal is left at <i>a*</i>
+between the notches, <i>b</i>, and the mortises, <i>d</i>. This is of primary
+importance and is one of the essential features of my method of
+manufacture, inasmuch as by first punching out the mortises, <i>d</i>, the
+subsequent removal of the metal from between the outer ends of the
+links is greatly facilitated, while by leaving the solid metal, <i>a*</i>,
+the transverse strength of the webs, <i>a a</i>, is not materially
+diminished, so that when the operation of punching the mortises, <i>c</i>
+and <i>d</i>, in the other pair of webs, <i>a'</i>, is performed the bar will
+not be bent and crippled, as would inevitably be the case were the
+whole of the metal opposite the notches, <i>b</i>, which is ultimately to
+be removed, to be punched out at so early a stage of the manufacture.
+The operation of punching the pairs of mortises, <i>c'</i> and <i>d</i>, having
+been repeated along the other pair of webs, <i>a'</i>, it will be observed
+that like the notches, <i>b</i>, the mortises, <i>c d</i>, in the one pair of
+webs alternate with those, <i>c' d'</i>, in the other pair of webs.</p>
+
+<p>The third operation (illustrated in Fig. 3) is to elongate the
+mortises, <i>c d</i>, and bring the mortises, <i>c c'</i>, more nearly to the
+final form. This is performed by punches similar to but larger (in the
+direction of the length of the rod) than those used in the second
+operation.</p>
+
+<p>The third operation, which is repeated upon both pairs of webs, <i>a a
+a' a'</i>, may be considered as a second stage of the second operation,
+it being preferable to punch out the mortises in two stages in order
+to remove sufficient metal without unduly straining the bar.</p>
+
+<p>The fourth operation (illustrated in Fig. 4) consists in roughly
+shaping the ends of the links externally by punching out the portions,
+<i>a*</i>, of the webs, <i>a</i>, between the links lying in the same plane or
+formed out of the same pair of webs. This operation is repeated on the
+other pair of webs, <i>a'</i>. Up to this point a continuous core of metal
+has been left at the intersection of the two pairs of webs.</p>
+
+<p>The fifth operation (illustrated in Fig. 5) consists in punching out
+the portions, <i>e</i>, of the core at each side of the cross stay of the
+link, so as to separate the cross stay from the outer ends of the
+adjacent links. This operation is performed by removing a portion only
+of the metal of the core which intervenes between the cross stay and
+the outer ends of the adjacent links enchained with the link under
+operation&mdash;that is to say, portions, <i>e*</i>, of the core are temporarily
+left attached to the outer ends of the links in order to avoid
+crippling or bending the bar, which might occur were the whole of this
+metal, which is ultimately to be removed, to be punched out at once,
+these portions, <i>e*</i>, being supported by the bed die in the operation
+of punching out the spaces, <i>e</i>, as hereinafter described. This
+operation having been repeated upon both pairs of webs, it will be
+observed that the rod-like form of the chain is now only maintained by
+the portion of the core at the points, <i>f</i>, where the inner side of
+the eye or bow of one link is united with that of the next one. The
+severing of these intervening portions of the core and the breaking up
+of the rod into the constituent links of the chain constitute the
+sixth operation.</p>
+
+<p>The sixth operation (illustrated in Fig. 6) is performed by torsion,
+and for this purpose one end of the rod is held fixed while the other
+is twisted once or twice in opposite directions, until by fatigue of
+the metal at the points, <i>f</i>, the whole of the links are severed
+almost at the same instant, and a chain of roughly formed stayed links
+is produced.</p>
+
+<p>The seventh operation (illustrated in Fig. 7) is to remove the
+superfluous projecting pieces of metal both from the inside and
+outside of the ends of the links. For this purpose the two ends of
+each link are operated on at the same time by two pairs of punches
+corresponding to the outline of the ends of the link.</p>
+
+<p>The eighth operation (illustrated in Fig. 8) is to bring the ends of
+the links to their finished rounded form. This is performed by
+stamping both ends of each link at the same time between pairs of
+shaping dies or swages.</p>
+
+<p>The ninth operation (illustrated in Fig. 9) is to bring the middle
+portion of each link&mdash;that is to say, the side members and the cross
+stay&mdash;to the finished rounded form, which is also performed by means
+of a pair of dies or swages.</p>
+
+<p>The tenth and last operation (illustrated in Fig. 10) is to contract
+the link slightly in the lateral direction in order to correct any
+imperfections at the sides left by the two previous operations and
+bring the link to a more perfect and stronger form, as shown. This
+operation has the important result of strengthening the link
+considerably by contracting or rendering more pointed the arched form
+of the bow or end of the link, and also by thickening the metal at
+that part where the wear is greatest, this thickening of the metal at
+the ends of the link occurring in the direction of the line of strain
+(as indicated by <i>x</i> in Fig. 10) and being brought about by the
+compression or "upsetting" of the metal at the end of the link. It may
+be preferable to perform this operation immediately after the seventh
+operation, and I reserve the right to do so.</p>
+
+<p>In the case of large cables only the metal is preferably heated for
+the eighth, ninth, and tenth operations.</p>
+
+<p>I will now refer to the figures which illustrate the series of tools
+whereby the above mentioned operations are performed.</p>
+
+<p>Fig. 1<i>a</i> shows a plan (the punch being in section) and Fig. 1<i>b</i> an
+elevation of the bed die of the tool by which the notches <i>b</i> of the
+first operation are performed. The feed mechanism is not shown, but
+might be of any ordinary intermittent kind. <i>g</i> is a groove in the
+bed, in which lies the lower vertical web of the rod, of cruciform
+section, the two horizontal webs lying upon the bed with the edge of
+the web to be notched lying just over the die, in which works the
+punch, B, of which B' is the cutting edge. The punch is operated in
+the usual way, its lower end, which does not rise out of the die,
+acting as a guide. B* is the beveled stop in the groove, <i>g</i>, which by
+fitting in the notches, <i>b</i> or <i>b'</i>, corrects inaccuracies of the
+feed.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><img src="./images/08-fig1a.png" alt="Fig 1a"><br />
+FIG. 1a.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><img src="./images/08-fig1b.png" alt="Fig 1b"><br />
+FIG. 1b.</p>
+
+<p>Fig. 2<i>a</i> is a sectional plan and Fig. 2<i>b</i> an elevation of the tool
+by which the second operation is performed, the same tool being also
+used for performing the third operation. (Illustrated in Fig. 3<i>a</i>.)
+<i>h h</i> are a pair of bed-dies having a space <i>h'</i> between them to
+receive the lower web of the bar, and having notches, C C and D D, in
+their inner ends, forming counterparts of the punches by which the
+pairs of mortises, <i>c d</i>, Fig. 2, are punched in the pair of webs
+lying upon the bed-dies, <i>h</i>. These bed-dies are fitted to slide a
+little in opposite directions upon a suitable bed plate and are caused
+by the inclined cams, <i>i'</i>, on the guides, <i>i</i>, of the press head
+(which pass through corresponding apertures in the bed-dies, <i>h</i>) to
+approach each other at the moment the punches come down on the work,
+so as to grip the lower web of the rod and support the pair of webs
+being operated on close up to the sides of the lower web lying in the
+space <i>h'</i>, while when the punches rise the bed-dies move apart, so
+that the web is quite free in said space <i>h'</i> and the rod may be
+easily fed forward for a fresh stroke of the press. B* is the beveled
+stop in the space, <i>k'</i>, as in the tool first described. The bed-dies
+<i>h</i> have a second set of notches C' D' at their outer ends, similar to
+but longer than those C D, so that by reversing the bed-dies they will
+form counterparts for a second set of punches corresponding thereto
+for performing the third operation&mdash;<i>i.e.</i>, enlarging the mortises, <i>c
+d</i>, as represented in Figs. 3 and 3<i>a</i>; or, instead of adapting the
+dies, <i>h</i>, to perform the two operations, separate tools may be used
+for the second and third operations.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><img src="./images/09-fig2a.png" alt="" /><br />
+FIG. 2a.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><img src="./images/09-fig2b.png" alt="" /><br />
+FIG. 2b.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><img src="./images/08-fig3a.png" alt="" /><br />
+FIG. 3a.</p>
+
+<p>Fig. 4<i>a</i> is an elevation and Fig. 4<i>b</i> a sectional plan of the tool
+for performing the fourth operation&mdash;namely, removing the portion
+<i>a*</i>, Figs. 3, 3<i>a</i>, 4<i>a</i>, and 4<i>b</i>. This is done by a pair of
+punches, A*, corresponding in shape to the ends of the link in the
+rough and to the aperture shown in the bed-die, <i>k</i>, Fig. 4<i>b</i>, which
+has a groove, <i>k'</i>, to admit the lower web of and to guide the rod.
+The beveled stop, B*, used in operating on the pair of webs, a,
+corresponds to the notches, <i>b'</i>; but in operating on the webs, <i>a'</i>,
+the stop must be replaced by one corresponding to the aperture left by
+the removal of the portion, <i>a*</i>.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/09-fig4ab.png"><img src="./images/09-fig4ab_th.png" alt="" /></a></p>
+
+<p>Fig. 5<i>a</i> is an elevation, Fig. 5<i>b</i> a plan, and Fig. 5<i>c</i> a
+longitudinal vertical section of the tool for performing the fifth
+operation, the work being shown in section in the latter figure. It
+consists of a bed-die, <i>l</i>, with groove, <i>m</i>, to receive the lower
+web, but terminating at a distance from the die apertures, so as to
+leave supports, <i>n</i>, for the parts, <i>e*</i>, of the rod to resist the
+downward pressure of the punches, E, which remove the portions, <i>e</i>,
+from each side of the cross stay, as shown in Figs. 5<i>b</i> and 5<i>c</i>. The
+correct position of the work in regard to the punches is insured by
+these supporting parts, <i>n</i>, which terminate the grooves, <i>m</i>.</p>
+
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/10-fig5ab.png"><img src="./images/10-fig5ab_th.png" alt="" /></a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><img src="./images/10-fig5c.png" alt="" /><br />
+FIG. 5c.</p>
+
+
+<p>Fig. 6<i>a</i> is an elevation of the winch for performing the sixth
+operation.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><img src="./images/09-fig6a.png" alt="" /><br />
+FIG. 6a.</p>
+
+<p>Fig. 7<i>a</i> is an elevation and Fig. 7<i>b</i> a plan of the tool for
+performing the seventh operation. P P are the punches for trimming the
+outside and Q Q those for trimming the inside of the ends of the
+links. The links adjacent to the one to be operated on are brought
+together into the position shown in dotted lines, the bed-die having
+an aperture in it to admit of this, so that both ends of the link to
+be trimmed may be operated on together.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><img src="./images/09-fig7ab.png" alt="" /></p>
+
+<p>The tool for performing the eighth operation consists of a pair of
+swages, the bottom one only being shown in Fig. 8<i>a</i>. The swages
+correspond to the intended rounded sectional form of the ends of the
+link, which is placed in position between the swages in a similar
+manner to that described for Fig. 7<i>b</i>, so that both ends are rounded
+or finished off at once.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><img src="./images/10-fig8a.png" alt="" /><br />
+FIG. 8a.</p>
+
+<p>Fig. 9<i>a</i> is a plan of the bottom swage of the tool for performing the
+ninth operation, the upper swage corresponding thereto at least in so
+far as the middle part of the link to be operated on is concerned.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><img src="./images/10-fig9a.png" alt="" /><br />
+FIG. 9a.</p>
+
+<p>The tool for performing the tenth operation is represented in
+elevation and plan in Figs. 10<i>a</i> and 10<i>b</i>. It consists of a pair of
+bed-dies, R, fitted to slide together and operated by the cams, s, on
+the guide rods, S, the operation being similar to that of the tool
+shown in Figs. 2<i>a</i> and 2<i>b</i>, except that there are no punches, and
+that the link which lies in the cavity of the dies is merely
+compressed in the lateral direction by the inward motion of the
+bed-dies.</p>
+
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/09-fig10ab.png"><img src="./images/09-fig10ab_th.png" alt="" /></a></p>
+
+<p>My invention further comprises a modification of the above described
+process, which has for its object to enable the weldless stayed links
+to be made as short and particularly as narrow as may be necessary in
+order to adapt the chain to run over the sheaves of pulley blocks and
+to suit other purposes for which short-link welded chain has
+heretofore only been available.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><img src="./images/10-figs10-12.png" alt="" /><br />
+FIGS. 10 through 12.</p>
+
+<p>In the manufacture of chains by the aforesaid process of punching
+there is a practical minimum limit for the dimensions of the punches
+which cannot be reduced without compromising their efficiency, and
+consequently the width (and therefore the length) of the link must
+necessarily bear a certain proportion to the thickness of the web of
+metal out of which it is formed, since the breadth of the link depends
+on the length of the cross stay, which is determined by the breadth of
+the mortises forming the eyes of the link. The present modification
+enables these dimensions to be reduced without reducing the
+dimensions, and consequently the efficiency, of the punches which form
+the eyes of the link. The modification applies to what I have
+designated the fifth operation of the above described process; and it
+consists in punching out the middle of the cross stay (so as to leave
+only two short stumps jutting inward from the side members of the
+link), this operation serving to interrupt the continuity of the core,
+which was the object of the fifth operation. For this purpose I
+substitute for the pair of punches illustrated in Figs. 5<i>a</i> and 5<i>c</i>
+a single punch, which removes that part of the "core" of the cruciform
+bar which is situated at the middle of the strut. This tool is
+represented in Fig. 11, and the effect of its operation is shown in
+Fig. 12. The subsequent operations, herein designated the sixth,
+seventh, eighth, and ninth operations, are performed as hereinbefore
+described; but the tenth operation has the effect of closing together
+the two stumps, <i>g g</i>, until they abut together at the middle of the
+link and together constitute a cross strut or stay, which prevents any
+further lateral collapse of the link. In the operation of closing up
+the gap between the stumps, <i>g g</i>, the link is brought to the narrow
+form shown in Fig. 12, the eyes of the links being only just wide
+enough to receive the end of the adjacent link enchained therewith
+without gripping it. This operation is performed by a tool similar to
+that shown in Figs. 10<i>a</i> and 10<i>b</i>, above referred to.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2><a name="art03"></a>AN ENGLISH STEAM FIRE ENGINE.</h2>
+
+<p>The steam fire engine of which we give an engraving is one specially
+built for the Indian government by Messrs. Shand, Mason &amp; Co., London.
+It has the distinction of being the first steam fire engine supplied
+for the province of Upper Burma, having been purchased primarily for
+the royal palace, and to serve for the protection of the cantonment of
+Mandalay. The engine is placed vertically in front of the boiler, and
+consists of a double acting pump with valves which can be taken out
+for renewal or examination in two or three minutes. The capacity is
+200 gallons per minute, and the height of jet 140 ft. As shown in the
+engraving, the fore part of the machine forms a hose reel and tool
+box, and can be instantly separated from the engine to allow of the
+independent use of the latter at a fire.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/10-fire.png"><img src="./images/10-fire_th.png" alt="IMPROVED STEAM FIRE ENGINE." /></a>
+<br />IMPROVED STEAM FIRE ENGINE.</p>
+
+<p>The engine is constructed with wrought iron side frames, fore carriage
+and wheels, and steel axles, springs, etc. The tool box, coachman's
+seat, and other parts are of teak. It is provided with Messrs. Shand,
+Mason &amp; Co.'s quick steaming boiler, in which 100 lb. pressure can be
+raised from cold water in from five to seven minutes, an extra large
+fire box for burning wood, with fire door at the back, feed pump, and
+injector, fresh water tank, coal bunker, and other fittings and
+arrangements for carrying the suction pipe. A pole and sway bars are
+fitted for two ponies, and wood cross bars to pass over the backs of
+the animals at the tops of the collars. Two men are carried on the
+machine, a coachman on the box seat and a stoker on the footboard at
+the rear of the engine. The whole forms a very light and readily
+transportable fire engine.&mdash;<i>The Engineer</i>.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2><a name="art10"></a>THE SYSTEM OF MILITARY DOVE COTES IN EUROPE.<a name="FNanchor_1_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_2"><sup>1</sup></a></h2>
+
+<p><i>France</i>.&mdash;The history of the aerial postal service and of the carrier
+pigeons of the siege of Paris has been thoroughly written, and is so
+well known that it is useless to recapitulate it in this place. It
+will suffice to say that sixty-four balloons crossed the Prussian
+lines during the war of 1870-1871, carrying with them 360 pigeons, 302
+of which were afterward sent back to Paris, during a terrible winter,
+without previous training, and from localities often situated at a
+distance of over 120 miles. Despite the shooting at them by the enemy,
+98 returned to their cotes, 75 of them carrying microscopic
+dispatches. They thus introduced into the capital 150,000 official
+dispatches and a million private ones reduced by photo-micrographic
+processes. The whole, printed in ordinary characters, would have
+formed a library of 500 volumes. One of these carriers, which reached
+Paris on the 21st of January, 1871, a few days previous to the
+armistice, carried alone nearly 40,000 dispatches.</p>
+
+<p>The pigeon that brought the news of the victory of Coulmiers started
+from La Loupe at ten o'clock in the morning on the tenth of November,
+and reached Paris a few minutes before noon. The account of the
+Villejuif affair was brought from Paris to Tourcoing (Nord) by a white
+pigeon belonging to Mr. Descampes. This pigeon is now preserved in a
+stuffed state in the museum of the city. The carrier pigeon service
+was not prolonged beyond the 1st of February, and our winged brothers
+of arms were sold at a low price at auction by the government, which,
+once more, showed itself ungrateful to its servants as soon as it no
+longer had need of their services. After the commune, Mr. La Perre de
+Roo submitted to the president of the republic a project for the
+organization of military dove cotes for connecting the French
+strongholds with each other. Mr. Thiers treated the project as
+chimerical, so the execution of it was delayed up to the time at which
+we saw it applied in foreign countries.</p>
+
+<p>In 1877, the government accepted a gift of 420 pigeons from Mr. De
+Roo, and had the Administration of Post Offices construct in the
+Garden of Acclimatization a model pigeon house, which was finished in
+1878, and was capable of accommodating 200 pairs.</p>
+
+<p>At present, the majority of our fortresses contain dove cotes, which
+are perfectly organized and under the direction of the engineer corps
+of the army.</p>
+
+<p>The map in Fig. 1 gives the approximate system such as it results
+from documents consulted in foreign military reviews.</p>
+
+<p>According to Lieutenant Grigot, an officer of the Belgian army, who
+has written a very good book entitled <i>Science Colombophile</i>, a
+rational organization of the French system requires a central station
+at Paris and three secondary centers at Langres, Lyons and Tours, the
+latter being established in view of a new invasion.</p>
+
+<p>As the distance of Paris from the frontier of the north is but 143
+miles at the most, the city would have no need of any intermediate
+station in order to communicate with the various places of the said
+frontier. Langres would serve as a relay between Paris and the
+frontier of the northeast. For the places of the southeast it would
+require at least two relays, Lyons and Langres, or Dijon.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/11-map.png"><img src="./images/11-map_th.png" alt="FIG. 1." /></a><br />
+FIG. 1.&mdash;THEORETIC MAP OF THE FRENCH SYSTEM OF MILITARY DOVE COTES.</p>
+
+<p>As Paris has ten directions to serve, it should therefore possess ten
+different dove cotes, of 720 birds each, and this would give a total
+of 7,200 pigeons. According to the same principle, Langres, which has
+five directions to provide for, should have 3,600 pigeons.</p>
+
+<p>Continuing this calculation, we find that it would require 25,000
+pigeons for the dove cotes as a whole appropriated to the frontiers of
+the north, northeast, east, and southeast, without taking into account
+our frontiers of the ocean and the Pyrenees.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><img src="./images/11-basket.png" alt="FIG. 2.--BASKET FOR CARRYING PIGEONS." /><br />FIG. 2.&mdash;BASKET FOR CARRYING PIGEONS.</p>
+
+<p>A law of the 3d of July, 1877, supplemented by a decree of the 15th of
+November, organized the application of carrier pigeons in France.</p>
+
+<p>One of the last enumerations shows that there exist in Paris 11,000
+pigeons, 5,000 of which are trained, and, in the suburbs, 7,000, of
+which 3,000 are trained. At Roubaix, a city of 100,000 inhabitants,
+there are 15,000 pigeons. Watrelos, a small neighboring city of 10,000
+inhabitants, has no less than 3,000 carrier pigeons belonging to three
+societies, the oldest of which, that of Saint-Esprit, was founded in
+1869.</p>
+
+<p>In entire France, there are about 100,000 trained pigeons, and
+forty-seven departments having pigeon-fancying societies.</p>
+
+<p><i>Germany</i>.&mdash;After the war of 1870, Prussia, which had observed the
+services rendered by pigeons during the siege of Paris, was the first
+power to organize military dove cotes.</p>
+
+<p>In the autumn of 1871, the Minister of War commissioned Mr. Leutzen, a
+very competent amateur of Cologne, to study the most favorable
+processes for the recruitment, rearing, and training of carrier
+pigeons, as well as for the organization of a system of stations upon
+the western frontier.</p>
+
+<p>In 1872, Mr. Bismarck having received a number of magnificent Belgian
+pigeons as a present, a rearing station was established at the
+Zoological Garden of Berlin, under the direction of Dr. Bodinas.</p>
+
+<p>In 1874 military dove cotes were installed at Cologne, Metz,
+Strassburg, and Berlin. Since that time there have been organized, or
+at least projected, about fifteen new stations upon the frontier of
+France, upon the maritime coasts of the north, or upon the Russian
+frontier.</p>
+
+<p>Berlin remains the principal rearing station, with two pigeon houses
+of 500 pigeons each; but it is at Cologne that is centralized the
+general administration of military dove cotes under Mr. Leutzen's
+direction. The other stations are directly dependent upon the
+commandant of the place, under the control of the inspector of
+military telegraphy. The Wilhelmshaven dove cote, by way of exception,
+depends upon the Admiralty. In each dove cote there is a subofficer of
+the engineer corps and an experienced civil pigeon fancier, on a
+monthly salary of ninety marks, assisted by two orderlies. In time of
+war, this <i>personnel</i> has to be doubled and commanded by an officer.</p>
+
+<p>The amount appropriated to the military dove cotes, which in 1875 was
+about 13,000 francs, rose in 1888 to more than 60,000 francs.</p>
+
+<p>As a rule, each dove cote should be provided with 1,000 pigeons, but
+this number does not appear to have been yet reached except at Thorn,
+Metz, and Strassburg.</p>
+
+<p>Germany has not confined herself to the organization of military dove
+cotes, but, like other nations, has endeavored to aid and direct
+pigeon fancying, so as to be able, when necessary, to find ready
+prepared resources in the civil dove cotes. The generals make it their
+duty to be present, as far as possible, at the races of private
+societies, and the Emperor awards gold medals for flights of more than
+120 miles.</p>
+
+<p>On the 13th of January, 1881, nineteen of these societies, at the head
+of which must be placed the Columbia, of Cologne, combined into a
+federation. At the end of the year the association already included
+sixty-six societies. On the 1st of December, 1888, it included
+seventy-eight, with 52,240 carrier pigeons ready for mobilization.</p>
+
+<p>The first two articles of the statutes of the Federation are as
+follows:</p>
+
+<p>"I. The object of the Federation is to unite in one organization all
+societies of pigeon fanciers in order to improve the service of
+carrier pigeons, which, in case of war, the country must put to
+profit.</p>
+
+<p>"II. The Federation therefore proposes: (<i>a</i>) To aid the activity of
+pigeon-fancying societies and to direct the voyages of the societies
+according to a determined plan; (<i>b</i>) to form itinerent societies and
+on this occasion to organize expositions and auction sales of pigeons;
+(<i>c</i>) to maintain relations with the Prussian Minister of War; (<i>d</i>)
+to obtain diminutions and favors for transportation; (<i>e</i>) to make
+efforts for the extermination of vultures; (<i>f</i>) to obtain a legal
+protection for pigeons; and (<i>g</i>) to publish a special periodical for
+the instruction of fanciers."</p>
+
+<p><i>Italy.</i>&mdash;The first military dove cote in Italy was installed in 1876
+at Ancona by the twelfth regiment of artillery. In 1879, a second
+station was established at Bologna. At present there are in the
+kingdom, besides the central post at Rome, some fifteen dove cotes,
+the principal ones of which are established at Naples, Gaeta,
+Alexandria, Bologna, Ancona and Placenza. There are at least two on
+the French frontier at Fenestrella and Exilles, and two others in
+Sardinia, at Cagliari and Maddalena. The complete system includes
+twenty-three; moreover, there are two in operation at Massoua and
+Assab.</p>
+
+<p>The cost of each cote amounts to about 1,000 francs. The pigeons are
+registered and taken care of by a pigeon breeder (a subofficer)
+assisted by a soldier. The head of the service is Commandant of
+Engineers Malagoli, one of the most distinguished of pigeon fanciers.</p>
+
+<p>We represent in Fig. 2 one of the baskets used in France for carrying
+the birds to where they are to be set free.&mdash;<i>La Nature.</i></p>
+
+
+<a name="Footnote_1_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_2">[1]</a><div class="note">Continued from <i>Scientific American</i> of July 11, p. 23.</div>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2><a name="art11"></a>THE ISLE OF MAN TWIN SCREW STEAMER TYNWALD.</h2>
+
+<p>We place on record the details of the first high speed twin screw
+steamer built for the service. Of this vessel, named the Tynwald, we
+give a profile and an engraving of stern, showing the method of
+supporting the brackets for propeller shafting.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><img src="./images/11-screws.png" alt="Twin screws-rear view" /></p>
+
+<p>The Tynwald is 265 feet long, 34 feet 6 inches beam, and 14 feet 6
+inches depth moulded, the gross tonnage being 946 tons. The desire of
+the owners to put the vessel alternately on two distinct services
+required special arrangement of the saloons. Running between Liverpool
+and the island there was no necessity for sleeping accommodation, as
+the passage is made in about three hours; and the ship had to be
+suited to carry immense crowds. But as the owners wished on special
+occasions to run the vessel from Glasgow to Manxland it was necessary
+to so arrange the saloons as to admit of sleeping accommodation being
+provided on these occasions. On the Liverpool run the vessel will
+carry from 800 to 900 passengers. A spacious promenade is an
+indispensable desideratum, and the upper or shelter deck has been made
+flush from stem to stern, the only obstructions in addition to the
+engine and boiler casings, and the deck and cargo working machinery,
+being a small deck house aft with special state rooms, ticket and post
+offices, and the companion way to the saloons below. On the main deck
+forward is a sheltered promenade for second class passengers, while on
+the lower deck below are dining saloons, the sofas of which may be
+improvised for sleeping accommodation. At the extreme after end of the
+main deck is the first class saloon, with the ladies' room forward on
+the starboard side, and, there being no alley way forward, the ladies'
+lavatories are provided on the starboard side of the engine casing. On
+the port side are the gentlemen's lavatories, and smoking saloon and
+bar. The dining saloon is aft on the lower deck, with ladies' room
+forward. In the two saloons and ladies' rooms sofa berths can be
+arranged to accommodate 252 passengers. The crew and petty officers
+are accommodated in the forward part of the ship. As the profile
+shows, the vessel is divided by transverse bulkheads into seven
+watertight compartments, and there are double bottoms. She has six
+large boats and several rafts.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/11-tynwald.png"><img src="./images/11-tynwald_th.png" alt="TWIN SCREW STEAMER" /></a>
+<br />THE LIVERPOOL AND ISLE OF MAN TWIN SCREW STEAMER TYNWALD.</p>
+
+<p>The twin screws are revolved by separate triple expansion engines,
+steam being supplied by two double-ended boilers. Each boiler is
+placed fore and aft, and each has a separate uptake and funnel. There
+are three stokeholds, and to ventilate them and supply sufficient air
+for the furnaces there is in each a 6 foot fan driven by an
+independent engine running at 250 revolutions. These have been
+supplied by Messrs. W.H. Allen &amp; Co., London. The boilers are of steel
+and adapted for a working pressure of 160 lb. to the square inch. They
+are 16 feet in diameter and 18 feet long, and there are eight furnaces
+in each boiler, sixteen in all, the diameter of each furnace being 3
+feet 4½ inches.</p>
+
+<p>The cylinders of the main engines are 22 in., 36 in., and 57 in. in
+diameter respectively, with a piston stroke of 3 ft. The high-pressure
+cylinders are each fitted with a piston valve, and the intermediate
+and low-pressure cylinders with double-ported slide valves, all of
+which are worked by the usual double eccentric and link motion valve
+gear, by which the cut-off can be varied as required. All the shafting
+is forged of Siemens-Martin mild steel of the best quality, each of
+the three separate cranks being built up. The condensers are placed at
+the outsides of the engine room, and the air, feed, and bilge pumps
+are between the engines and the condensers and worked by levers from
+the low-pressure engine crosshead. There are two centrifugal pumps,
+each worked by a separate engine for circulating water through the
+condenser, and these are so arranged that they can be connected to the
+bilges in the event of an accident to the ship. In the engine room
+there is fitted an auxiliary feed donkey of the duplex type and made
+by the Fairfield Company.</p>
+
+<p>This pump has all the usual connections, so that it can be used for
+feeding the boilers from the hot well, for filling the fresh water
+tanks, for pumping from the bilges, or from the sea as a fire engine.
+The engines are arranged in the ship with the starting platform
+between them; and the handles for working the throttle valves,
+starting valves, reversing gear (Brown's combined steam and
+hydraulic), and drain cocks are brought together at one end of the
+platform, so that the engineer in charge can readily control both
+engines. The two sets of engines are bound together by two beams
+bolted to the framing of each engine. This feature was introduced into
+the design for steadiness.</p>
+
+<p>The method of supporting the propeller shaft brackets is interesting,
+and we reproduce a photograph that indicates the arrangement adopted.
+Instead of the A frame forming part of the same forging as the stern
+frame, the Fairfield Company have built up the supporting arms of
+steel plates riveted together, as is clearly shown. There is an
+advantage in cost and with less risk in undiscovered flaws in
+material.</p>
+
+<p>An interesting change has been made in the steam pipes. Cases of
+copper steam pipes bursting when subjected to high pressure have not
+been infrequent, and Mr. A. Laing, the engineering director on the
+Fairfield Board, with characteristic desire to advance engineering
+practice, has been devoting much attention to this question lately. He
+has made very exhaustive tests with lap welded iron steam pipes of all
+diameters, but principally of 10 in. diameter and 3/8 in. thickness of
+material, made by Messrs. A. &amp; J. Stuart &amp; Clydesdale, Limited, and
+the results have been such as to induce him to introduce these into
+vessels recently built by the company. It may be stated that the pipes
+only burst at a hydraulic pressure of 3,000 lb. to the square inches.</p>
+
+<p>The Tynwald was tried on the Clyde about a month ago, and on two runs
+on the mile, the one with and the other against the tide, the mean
+speed was 19.38 knots&mdash;the maximum was 19½ knots&mdash;and the indicated
+horse power developed was 5,200, the steam pressure being 160 lb., and
+the vacuum 28 lb. Since that time the vessel has made several runs
+from Liverpool and from Glasgow to the Isle of Man, and has maintained
+a steady seagoing speed of between 18 and 19 knots.&mdash;<i>Engineering.</i></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2><a name="art07"></a>THE TREATMENT OF REFRACTORY ORES.</h2>
+
+<p>Mr. Jas. J. Shedlock, with the assistance of Mr. T. Denny, of
+Australia, has constructed on behalf of the Metallurgical Syndicate,
+of 105 Gresham House, London, an apparatus on a commercial scale,
+which, it is said, effects at the smallest expense, and with the best
+economical results, the entire separation of metals from their ores.
+In treating ores by this process, the stone is crushed in the usual
+way, either by rolls or stamps, the crushed ore being conveyed into an
+apparatus, where each atom is subjected to the action of gases under
+pressure, whereby the whole of the sulphur and other materials which
+render the ore refractory are separated. The ore is then conveyed into
+a vessel containing an absorbing fluid metal, so constructed that
+every particle of the ore is brought into contact with the metal. For
+the production of reducing gases, steam and air are passed through
+highly heated materials, having an affinity for oxygen, and the gases
+so produced are utilized for raising the ore to a high temperature. By
+this means the sulphur and other metalloids and base metals are
+volatilized and eliminated, and the gold in the ore is then in such a
+condition as to alloy itself or become amalgamated with the fluid
+metal with which it is brought into close contact. The tailings
+passing off, worthless, are conveyed to the dump.</p>
+
+<p>The apparatus in the background is that in which the steam is
+generated, and which, in combination with the due proportion of
+atmospheric air, is first superheated in passing through the hearth or
+bed on which the fire is supported. The superheated steam and air
+under pressure are then forced through the fire, which is
+automatically maintained at a considerable depth, by which means the
+products of combustion are mainly hydrogen and carbonic oxide. These
+gases are then conveyed by means of the main and branch pipes to the
+cylindrical apparatus in the foreground, into which the ore to be
+acted upon is driven under pressure by means of the gases, which,
+being ignited, raise the ore to a high temperature. The ore is
+maintained in a state of violent agitation. Each particle being kept
+separate from its fellows is consequently very rapidly acted upon by
+the gases. The ore freed from its refractory constituents is then fed
+into a vessel containing the fluid metal, in which each particle of
+ore is separated from the others, and being acted upon by the fluid
+metal is absorbed into it, the tailings or refuse passing off freed
+from any gold which may have been in the ore.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><img src="./images/12-1_th.png" alt="APPARATUS FOR THE TREATMENT OF REFRACTORY ORES." /><br />APPARATUS FOR THE TREATMENT OF REFRACTORY ORES.</p>
+
+<p>Quantities of refractory ores treated by this process are said to have
+demonstrated that the whole of the gold in the ore is extracted. The
+successful outcome of these trials is stated to have resulted in the
+Anglo-French Exploration Co. acquiring the right to work the process
+on the various gold fields of South Africa. It is anticipated that the
+process will thus be immediately brought to a test by means of
+apparatus erected on the gold fields under circumstances and
+conditions of absolute practical work. As is well known, gold-bearing
+ores in South Africa which are below the water line are, by reason of
+the presence of sulphur, extremely difficult to deal with, and are
+consequently of small commercial value. The gold in these ores, it is
+maintained, will, by the new process, be extracted and saved, and make
+all the difference between successful and unsuccessful mining in that
+country.</p>
+
+<p>It will have been seen that the peculiar and essential features of the
+invention consist in subjecting every particle of the ore under
+treatment to the process in all its stages instead of in bulk, thereby
+insuring that no portion shall escape being acted upon by the gases
+and the absorbing metal. This is done automatically and in a very
+rapid manner. It is stated that this method of treatment is applicable
+to all ores, the most refractory being readily reducible by its means.
+The advantages claimed for this process are: simplicity of the
+apparatus, it being practically automatic; that every particle of the
+ore is separately acted upon in a rapid and efficient manner; that the
+apparatus is adaptable to existing milling plants; and that there is
+an absence of elaborate and expensive plant and of the refinements of
+electrical or chemical science. These advantages imply that the work
+can be done so economically as to commend the new process to the
+favorable consideration of all who are interested in mines or mining
+property.&mdash;<i>Iron.</i></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2><a name="art06"></a>REFINING SILVER BULLION.</h2>
+
+<p>A number of years ago the author devised a method for refining silver
+bullion by sulphuric acid, in which iron was substituted for copper as
+precipitant of silver, the principal feature being the separation of
+pure crystals of silver sulphate. A full description of this process
+may be found in Percy's Metallurgy, "Silver and Gold," page 479. The
+process has been extensively worked in San Francisco and in Germany in
+refining bullion to the amount of more than a hundred million dollars'
+worth of silver. Its more general application has been hampered,
+however, by the circumstance that the patent had been secured by one
+firm which limited itself to its utilization in its California works.
+The patent having expired, the author lately introduced a modification
+of the process by which the apparatus and manipulations are greatly
+cheapened and simplified. In the following account is given a short
+description of the process in its present shape.</p>
+
+<p><i>Preparing the Silver Sulphate.</i>&mdash;The bullion, containing,
+essentially, silver, copper and gold, is dissolved by boiling with
+sulphuric acid in cast iron pots. The difference between the new
+process and the usual practice consists in the use of a much larger
+quantity of acid. Thus, in refining ordinary silver "dore," four parts
+of acid are used to one part of bullion. Of this acid one part is
+chemically and mechanically consumed in the dissolving process, and
+the remaining three parts are fully recovered and at once ready for
+reutilization, as will be described hereafter. In the usual
+process&mdash;understanding thereby, here and in the following, the process
+practiced at the United States mints, for instance&mdash;two parts of acid
+are employed for one of bullion; all of this is lost, partly through
+the dissolving and partly in being afterward mixed with water,
+previous to the precipitation of the silver by copper. Economy in acid
+being therefore imperative, the silver solution finally becomes much
+concentrated, and it requires high heat and careful management to
+finish the solution of the bullion. Bars containing more than about 10
+per cent. of copper cannot be dissolved at all, owing to the
+separation of copper sulphate insoluble in the small amount of free
+acid finally remaining. The advantage gained by dissolving bullion
+with abundance of free acid in the improved process is so evident that
+it merely requires to be pointed out. For bullion containing 20 per
+cent. of copper the author employs six parts of acid to one of
+bullion; for baser metal still more acid, and so on, never losing more
+than the stochiometrical percentage of acid and recovering the
+remainder. In this description he, however, confines himself to the
+treatment of ordinary silver ore with less than 10 per cent. of
+copper.</p>
+
+<p>In the diagram A A represent two refining pots, 4 ft. in diameter and
+3 ft. in depth, each capable of dissolving at one operation as much as
+400 pounds of bullion. The acid is stored in the cast iron reservoir,
+B, which is placed on a level sufficiently high to charge into A by
+gravitation, and is composed of fresh concentrated acid mixed with the
+somewhat dilute acid regained from a previous operation. After the
+bullion is fully dissolved all the acid still available is run from B
+into A A. The temperature and strength are thereby reduced, the fuming
+ceases, any still undissolved copper sulphate dissolves, and the gold
+settles. In assuming that the settling of the gold takes place in A
+itself, the author follows the practice of the United States mints. In
+private refineries, where refining is carried on continuously, the
+settling may take place in an intermediate vessel, and A A be at once
+recharged. Owing to the large amount of free acid present, the
+temperature must fall considerably before the separation of silver
+sulphate commences, and sufficient time may be allowed for settling if
+the intermediate vessel be judiciously arranged.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><img src="./images/13-1.png" alt="" /></p>
+
+<p><i>Separating the Silver Sulphate.</i>&mdash;The clarified solution is siphoned
+off the gold from A A into C, which is an open cast iron pan, say 8
+ft. by 4 ft. and 1 ft. deep. It is supported by means of a flange in
+another larger pan&mdash;not shown in the diagram&mdash;into which water may be
+admitted for cooling. Steam is blown into the acid solution, still
+very hot, as soon as C is filled. The steam is introduced about 1 in.
+below the surface of the liquid, blowing perpendicularly downward from
+a nozzle made of lead pipe through an aperture 1/8 in. in diameter.
+Under these circumstances the absorption of the steam is nearly
+perfect, and takes place without any splashing. The temperature rises
+with the increasing dilution, and may be regulated by the less
+experienced by manipulating the cooling tank. An actual boiling is not
+desired, because it protracts unnecessarily the operation by the less
+perfect condensation of the steam. No separation of silver sulphate
+occurs during this operation (and, consequently, there is no clotting
+of the steam nozzle), the large amount of free acid, combined with the
+increase of temperature, compensating for the diminution of the
+solubility of the sulphate by the dilution. The most important point
+in this procedure is to know when to stop the admission of steam. To
+determine this, the operator takes a drop or two of the solution upon
+a cold iron plate by means of a glass rod and observes whether after
+cooling the sample congeals partly or wholly into a white mass of
+silver bisulphate, or whether the silver separates as a monosulphate
+in detached yellow crystals, leaving a mother liquor behind. As soon
+as the latter point has been reached, steam is shut off and the
+solution is allowed to crystallize, cold water being admitted into the
+outer pan. The operator may now be certain that the liquid will no
+longer congeal into a soft mass of silver bisulphate, which on contact
+with water will disintegrate into powder, obstinately retaining a
+large amount of free acid; but the silver will separate as a
+monosulphate in hard and large yellow crystals retaining no acid and
+preserving their physical characteristics when thrown into water.
+After cooling to, say, 80° F., the silver sulphate will have coated
+the pan C about 1 in. thick. There will also be found a deposit of
+copper sulphate when the mother acid, after having been used over and
+over again, has been sufficiently saturated therewith. Lead sulphate
+separates in a cloud, which, however, will hardly settle at this
+stage.</p>
+
+<p>The whole operation just described, which constitutes the most
+essential feature of the author's improvement upon his old process
+described in Dr. Percy's work, is a short one, as the acid requires by
+no means great dilution. The steam has merely to furnish enough water
+to dilute the free acid present to, say, 62° B. Areometrical
+determination is, of course, not possible, on account of the dissolved
+sulphates.</p>
+
+<p><i>Reducing the Silver Sulphate to Fine Silver.</i>&mdash;The mother acid is
+pumped from C to the reservoir, B, for this purpose an iron pipe
+connecting the top of B with a recess in the bottom of C. The tank, B,
+is cast as a closed vessel, with a manhole in the top, which is
+ordinarily kept closed by an iron plate resting on a rubber packing.
+The air is exhausted from B by a steam injector, and the acid rises
+from C and enters B without coming in contact with any valves. The
+volume of fresh commercial acid necessary for another dissolving
+operation, say 800 pounds, more or less, for refining 800 pounds of
+bullion in A A, is lifted from some other receptacle into B in the
+same manner. The mixture of the two acids in B now represents the
+volume of acid to be employed for dissolving and settling the next
+charge of 800 pounds of bullion in A A. In this reservoir, B, the
+cloud of lead sulphate mentioned above finds an opportunity for
+settling.</p>
+
+<p>The crystals of silver sulphate are detached from C by an iron shovel
+and thrown into D. D is a lead lined tank about 4 ft. by 4 ft. and 3
+ft. deep. It is divided into two compartments by means of a
+horizontal, perforated false bottom made of wood. From the lower
+compartment a lead pipe discharges into the lead lined reservoir, E.
+Warm distilled water is allowed to percolate the crystals until the
+usual ammonia test indicates that the copper sulphate has been
+sufficiently dissolved. Then the outflow is closed, sheets of iron are
+thrown on and into the crystals, the apparatus is filled with hot
+distilled water, and steam is moderately admitted into the lower
+compartment. Ferrous sulphate is formed, and in connection with the
+iron rapidly reduces the silver sulphate to the metallic state, the
+reduced silver retaining the heavy compact character of the crystals.
+When the reaction is completed, as indicated by the chlorine test, the
+liquid is discharged into E, the iron sheets are removed and the
+silver is sweetened either in the same vessel, D, or in a special
+filtering vessel which rests on wheels and may be run directly to the
+hydraulic press.</p>
+
+<p>The vat, E, is the great reservoir where all liquids holding silver
+sulphate in solution are collected; for instance, that from sweetening
+the gold and from washing the tools. Sheets of iron here precipitate
+all silver and copper, and the resulting solution of ferrous sulphate
+is, with the usual precautions, discharged into the sewer.
+Occasionally when copper and silver have accumulated in E in
+sufficient amount the mass is thrown into D, silver sulphate crystals
+are added and sheet copper is thrown in, instead of sheet iron. There
+results a hot, neutral, concentrated solution of copper sulphate,
+which may be run at once into a crystallizing vat for the separation
+of commercial crystals of copper sulphate. It will be readily
+understood, of course, that if there should be any advantage in
+manufacturing that commercial article, besides the amount prepared as
+described, which represents merely the copper contained in the
+bullion, copper sheets may be regularly employed for reducing the
+silver sulphate in D. The author trusts that the practical refiner
+will recognize that the manufacture of commercial copper sulphate is
+thus effected in a more rational and economical manner than by the
+present method of evaporating from 25° B. to 35° B., and of saturating
+by oxidized copper, generally in a very incomplete manner, the large
+amount of free acid left from the refining by the usual process.
+However, the sale of copper sulphate is but rarely so profitable that
+a refinery should not gladly dispense with that troublesome and bulky
+manufacture, especially the government establishments, which, besides,
+waste much valuable space with the crystallizing vats.</p>
+
+<p>The great saving in sulphuric acid, amounting to about 50 per cent. of
+the present consumption, has already been pointed out. Another
+advantage the author merely mentions, namely, the easier condensation
+of the sulphurous fumes in refineries situated in cities, because the
+larger amount of acid available for dissolving greatly facilitates
+working and makes the usual frequent admission of air into the
+refining pot for the purpose of stirring and testing unnecessary.</p>
+
+<p>The more air is excluded from the refining fumes the easier they can
+be condensed.</p>
+
+<p>Work may be carried on continuously, the vessels C and D being empty
+by the time a new solution is finished in A A. Thus, the plant shown
+in the diagram, covering 26 ft. by 16 ft., allows the refining of
+40,000 ounces of fine silver in 24 hours; that is, four charges in A A
+of 800 pounds each.&mdash;<i>F. Gutzkow, Eng. and Mining J.</i></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2><a name="art04"></a>A CASE OF DROWNING, WITH RESUSCITATION.</h2>
+
+<h3>By F.A. BURRALL, M.D., New York.</h3>
+
+<p>As is usual at this season, casualties from drowning are of frequent
+occurrence. No class of emergencies is of a more startling character,
+and I think that a history of the case which I now present offers some
+peculiar features, and will not be without interest to physicians.</p>
+
+<p>The accident which forms the subject of this paper occurred August 29,
+1890, at South Harpswell, Casco Bay, Me., where I was passing my
+vacation.</p>
+
+<p>At about 9.30 A.M., M. B&mdash;&mdash;, an American, aged eighteen, the son of a
+fisherman, a young man of steady habits and a good constitution, with
+excellent muscular development, and who had never before required the
+aid of a physician, was seen by the residents of the village to fall
+forward from a skiff into the water and go down with uplifted hands. I
+could not learn that he rose at all after the first submersion. Two
+men were standing near a bluff which overlooked the bay, and after an
+instant's delay in deciding that an accident had occurred, they ran
+over an uneven and undulating pasture for a distance of two hundred
+and fifty paces to the shore. One of them, after a quick decision not
+to swim out to where the young man had fallen in and dive for him,
+removed trousers and boots and waded out five yards to a boat, which
+he drew into the shore and entered with his companion, taking him to a
+yacht which lay two hundred and forty yards from the shore, in the
+padlocked cabin of which was a boat hook. The padlock was unfastened,
+the boat hook taken, and they proceeded by the boat directly to where
+the young man lay. He was seen through the clear water, lying at a
+depth of nine feet at the bottom of the bay, on his back, with
+upturned face and arms extended from the sides of the body. He was
+quickly seized by the boat hook, drawn head upward to the surface, and
+with the inferior portion of the body hanging over the stern of the
+boat, and the superior supported in the arms of his rescuer, was rowed
+rapidly to the shore, where he was rolled a few times, and then placed
+prone upon a tub for further rolling. I was told that much water came
+from his mouth. Meantime I had been sent for to where I was sitting,
+one hundred and fifty-one yards from the scene, and I arrived to find
+him apparently lifeless on the tub, and to be addressed with the
+remark, "Well, doctor, I suppose we are doing all that can be done."</p>
+
+<p>I have given these details, as from a study of them I was aided in
+deciding the time of submersion, as well as the intervals which
+transpired before the intelligent use of remedies. It is also
+remarkable that, notwithstanding all which has been written about
+ready remedies for drowning, no one present knew anything about them,
+although living in a seafaring community.</p>
+
+<p>I immediately directed that the patient should at once be placed upon
+the ground, which was sloping, and arranged his rubber boots under the
+back of the head and nape of the neck, so that the head should be
+slightly elevated and the neck extended, while the head was turned
+somewhat upon the side, that fluids might drain from the mouth. The
+day was clear and moderately warm. Respiration had ceased, but no time
+was lost in commencing artificial respiration. The patient had on a
+shirt and pantaloons, which were immediately unbuttoned and made
+loose, and placing myself at his head, I used the Silvester method,
+because I was more accustomed to it than any other. It seems to me
+more easy of application than any other, and I have often found it of
+service in the asphyxia of the newly born.</p>
+
+<p>The patient's surface was cold, there was extensive cyanosis, and his
+expression was so changed that he was not recognized by his fellow
+townsmen, but supposed to be a stranger. The eyelids were closed, the
+pupils contracted, and the inferior maxilla firmly set against the
+superior. One of the men who had brought him ashore had endeavored to
+find the heart's impulse by placing his hand upon the chest, but was
+unable to detect any motion.</p>
+
+<p>I continued the artificial respiration from 9.45 until 10, when I
+directed one of his rescuers to make pressure upon the ribs, as I
+brought the arms down upon the chest. This assistance made expiration
+more complete. When nature resumed the respiratory act I am unable to
+say, but the artificial breathing was continued in all its details for
+three-quarters of an hour, and then expiration was aided by pressure
+on the chest for half an hour longer. Friction upward was also applied
+to the lower extremities, and the surface became warm about half an
+hour after the beginning of treatment.</p>
+
+<p>About twenty minutes after ten, two hypodermic syringefuls of brandy
+were administered, but I did not repeat this, since I think alcohol is
+likely to increase rather than diminish asphyxia, if given in any
+considerable quantity. A thermometer, with the mercury shaken down
+below the scale, at this time did not rise. At 11.8 the pulse was 82;
+respiration, 27; temperature, 97.</p>
+
+<p>After a natural respiration had commenced, the wet clothing was
+removed, and the patient was placed in blankets. Ammonia was
+occasionally applied to the nostrils, since, although respiration had
+returned, there was no sign of consciousness; the natural respiration
+was at first attended by the expulsion of frothy fluid from the lips,
+which gradually diminished, and auscultation revealed the presence of
+a few pulmonary rales, which also passed away. There were efforts at
+vomiting, and pallor succeeded cyanosis; there were also clonic
+contractions of the flexors of the forearm. The pupils dilated
+slightly at about one hour after beginning treatment. Unconsciousness
+was still profound, and loud shouting into the ear elicited no
+response. Mustard sinapisms were applied to the præcordium, and the
+Faradic current to the spine.</p>
+
+<p>Coffee was also administered by a ready method which, as a systematic
+procedure, was, I believe, novel when I introduced it to the
+profession in the <i>Medical Record,</i> in 1876. I take the liberty of
+referring to this, since I think it is now sometimes overlooked. It
+was described as follows:</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+    "A simple examination which any one can make of his own buccal
+    cavity will show that posterior to the last molar teeth, when
+    the jaws are closed, is an opening bounded by the molars, the
+    body of the superior, and the ramus of the inferior maxilla. If
+    on either side the cheek is held well out from the jaw, a
+    pocket, or gutter, is formed, into which fluids may be poured,
+    and they will pass into the mouth through the opening behind the
+    molars, as well as through the interstices between the teeth.
+    When in the mouth they tend to create a disposition to swallow,
+    and by this method a considerable quantity of liquid may be
+    administered."
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>After I had worked with the patient in the open air, for four and
+three-quarter hours, he was carried to a cottage near by and placed,
+still unconscious, in bed. There had been an alvine evacuation during
+the time in which he lay in the blankets.</p>
+
+<p>Consciousness began to return in the early part of the following
+morning, and with its advent it was discovered that the memory of
+everything which had occurred from half an hour previous to the
+accident, up to the return of consciousness, had been completely
+obliterated. With this exception the convalescence was steady and
+uncomplicated, and of about a week's duration. From a letter which I
+recently received from my patient, I learned that the lapse of memory
+still remains.</p>
+
+<p>My experience with this case has taught me that, unless the data have
+been taken very accurately, we cannot depend upon any statements as to
+the time of submersion in cases of drowning. My first supposition was
+that my patient had been from thirteen to fifteen minutes under water,
+but a careful investigation reduced the supposed time by one-half.
+This makes the time of submersion about six minutes, and that which
+elapsed before the intelligent use of remedies about three minutes
+longer.</p>
+
+<p>For a long time the opinion of Sir Benjamin Brodie concerning the
+presence of water in the lungs of the drowned was accepted, who says
+"that the admission of water into the lungs is prevented by a spasm of
+the muscles of the glottis cannot, however, be doubted, since we are
+unable to account for it in any other manner."</p>
+
+<p>Later experiments made by a committee of the Royal Medico-Chirurgical
+Society, of London, demonstrated, on the contrary, that "in drowned
+animals not only were all the air passages choked with frothy fluid,
+more or less bloody, but that both lungs were highly gorged with
+blood, so that they were heavy, dark colored, and pitted on pressure,
+and on being cut exuded an abundance of blood-tinged fluid with many
+air bubbles in it." Dr. R.L. Bowles<a name="FNanchor_1_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_3"><sup>1</sup></a> also holds that the lungs of
+the drowned contain water, and supports his views by a list of cases.
+In his words, "These examples show very conclusively that in cases of
+drowning in man, water does exist in the lungs, that the water only
+very gradually and after a long time is effectually expelled, and that
+it is absolutely impossible that any relief should be afforded in that
+way by the Silvester method." Dr. Bowles believes that the method of
+Dr. Marshall Hall is superior to any other in this class of cases. He
+thinks that on account of the immediate adoption and continued use of
+the prono-lateral position, this method is more to be trusted than any
+other for keeping the pharynx clear of obstruction. "It also empties
+the stomach and gradually clears the lungs of the watery and frothy
+fluids, and will surely and gently introduce sufficient air at each
+inspiration to take the place of the fluid which has been expelled."
+In the light of even my limited experience I cannot but feel that Dr.
+Bowles' opinion concerning the Silvester method would admit of some
+modification. This is often the case with very positive statements
+concerning medical matters. In my own case the Silvester method
+answered well, but I was much impressed with Dr. Bowles' claims for
+the Marshall Hall method, and should bear them in mind were I called
+upon to attend another case of drowning.</p>
+
+<p>I think it must be admitted that pulling the tongue forward as a means
+of opening the glottis, which has become a standard treatment in
+asphyxia, is unscientific, and not warranted by the results of
+experiments made to determine its value.<a name="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2"><sup>2</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>Dr. Bowles also believes that "the safety of the patient is most
+perfectly secured by keeping him on one side during the whole
+treatment, one lung being thus kept quite free." With the account of
+my case I have brought forward such views of other writers as it
+seemed to me would be of practical service and throw light on a
+subject which is of great importance, since the yearly record of
+mortality from drowning is by no means inconsiderable. I think,
+however, that a knowledge of what ought to be done in cases of
+drowning should be much more generally diffused than is the case at
+present. It should be one of the items of school instruction, since no
+one can tell when such knowledge may be of immense importance in
+saving life, and the time lost in securing medical aid would involve a
+fatal result.</p>
+
+<p>It is also very desirable that all doubt should be removed, by the
+decision of competent medical authorities, as to which "ready" method
+or methods are the best, since there are several in the field. With
+this should be decided what is the best means for securing patency of
+the air passages, and, in short, a very careful revision of the
+treatment now recommended for drowning, in order that there may be no
+doubt as to the course which should be adopted in such a serious
+emergency.&mdash;<i>Medical Record.</i></p>
+
+<a name="Footnote_1_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_3">[1]</a><div class="note"><p>Resuscitation of the Apparently Drowned, by R.L. Bowles,
+M.D., F.R.C.P., Medico-Chirurgical Transactions, vol. lxxii., 1889.</p></div>
+
+<a name="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2">[2]</a><div class="note"><p>Dragging on the tongue's tip would not affect its base or
+the epiglottis sufficiently to make it a praiseworthy procedure.
+Medico-Chirurgical Transactions, vol. lxxii. See also <i>Medical
+Record</i>, April 4, 1891. Pulling out the tongue is a mistake, since
+irritation of nerves of deglutition stops the diaphragm.&mdash;<i>Medical
+Times and Gazetteer.</i></p></div>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2><a name="art01"></a>THE STORY OF THE UNIVERSE.<a name="FNanchor_1_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_4"><sup>1</sup></a></h2>
+
+<h3>By Dr. WILLIAM HUGGINS.</h3>
+
+<p>The opening meeting of the British Association was held in Park Hall,
+Cardiff, August 18, where a large and brilliant audience assembled,
+including, in his richly trimmed official robes, the Marquis of Bute,
+who this year holds office as mayor of Cardiff. At the commencement of
+the proceedings Sir Frederick Abel took the chair, but this was only
+<i>pro forma</i>, and in order that he might, after a few complimentary
+sentences, resign it to the president-elect, Professor Huggins, the
+eminent astronomer, who at once, amid applause, assumed the presidency
+and proceeded to deliver the opening address.</p>
+
+<p>Dr. Huggins said that the very remarkable discoveries in our knowledge
+of the heavens which had taken place during the past thirty years&mdash;a
+period of amazing and ever-increasing activity in all branches of
+science&mdash;had not passed unnoticed in the addresses of successive
+presidents; still, it seemed to him fitting that he should speak of
+those newer methods of astronomical research which had led to those
+discoveries, and which had become possible by the introduction into
+the observatory, since 1860, of the spectroscope and the modern
+photographic plate. Spectroscopic astronomy had become a distinct and
+acknowledged branch of the science, possessing a large literature of
+its own, and observatories specially devoted to it. The more recent
+discovery of the gelatine dry plate had given a further great impetus
+to this modern side of astronomy, and had opened a pathway into the
+unknown of which even an enthusiast thirty years ago would scarcely
+have dared to dream.</p>
+
+
+<h3>HERSCHEL'S THEORY.</h3>
+
+<p>It was now some thirty years since the spectroscope gave us for the
+first time certain knowledge of the nature of the heavenly bodies, and
+revealed the fundamental fact that terrestrial matter is not peculiar
+to the solar system, but is common to all the stars which are visible
+to us. Professor Rowland had since shown us that if the whole earth
+were heated to the temperature of the sun, its spectrum would resemble
+very closely the solar spectrum. In the nebulæ, the elder Herschel saw
+portions of the fiery mist or "shining fluid," out of which the
+heavens and the earth had been slowly fashioned. For a time this view
+of the nebulæ gave place to that which regarded them as external
+galaxies&mdash;cosmical "sand heaps," too remote to be resolved into
+separate stars, though, indeed, in 1858, Mr. Herbert Spencer showed
+that the observations of nebulæ up to that time were really in favor
+of an evolutional progress. In 1864 he (the speaker) brought the
+spectroscope to bear upon them; the bright lines which flashed upon
+the eye showed the source of the light to be glowing gas, and so
+restored these bodies to what is probably their true place, as an
+early stage of sidereal life. At that early time our knowledge of
+stellar spectra was small. For this reason partly, and probably also
+under the undue influence of theological opinions then widely
+prevalent, he unwisely wrote in his original paper in 1864, that "in
+these objects we no longer have to do with a special modification of
+our own type of sun, but find ourselves in presence of objects
+possessing a distinct and peculiar plan of structure." Two years
+later, however, in a lecture before this association, he took a truer
+position. "Our views of the universe," he said, "are undergoing
+important changes; let us wait for more facts with minds unfettered by
+any dogmatic theory, and, therefore, free to receive the teaching,
+whatever it may be, of new observations."</p>
+
+
+<h3>THE NEBULAR HYPOTHESIS.</h3>
+
+<p>Let them turn aside for a moment from the nebulæ in the sky to the
+conclusions to which philosophers had been irresistibly led by a
+consideration of the features of the solar system. We had before us in
+the sun and planets obviously not a haphazard aggregation of bodies,
+but a system resting upon a multitude of relations pointing to a
+common physical cause. From these considerations Kant and Laplace
+formulated the nebular hypothesis, resting it on gravitation alone,
+for at that time the science of the conservation of energy was
+practically unknown. These philosophers showed how, on the supposition
+that the space now occupied by the solar system was once filled by a
+vaporous mass, the formation of the sun and planets could be
+reasonably accounted for. By a totally different method of reasoning,
+modern science traced the solar system backward step by step to a
+similar state of things at the beginning. According to Helmholtz, the
+sun's heat was maintained by the contraction of his mass, at the rate
+of about 220 feet a year. Whether at the present time the sun was
+getting hotter or colder we did not certainly know. We could reason
+back to the time when the sun was sufficiently expanded to fill the
+whole space occupied by the solar system, and was reduced to a great
+glowing nebula. Though man's life, the life of the race perhaps, was
+too short to give us direct evidence of any distinct stages of so
+august a process, still the probability was great that the nebular
+hypothesis, especially in the more precise form given to it by Roche,
+did represent broadly, notwithstanding some difficulties, the
+succession of events through which the sun and planets had passed.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><img src="./images/14-1.png" alt="Portrait" /><br />
+DR. WILLIAM HUGGINS, D.C.L., LL.D., PRESIDENT OF THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION.</p>
+
+<p class="ind">Dr. Huggins is one of the most eminent astronomers of the present day,
+and his spectroscopic researches on the celestial bodies have had the
+most important results. He is a D.C.L. of Oxford, LL.D. of Cambridge,
+and Ph.D of Leyden. Dr. Huggins was born in 1824 and educated at the
+City of London School. He continued his studies, giving much of his
+time to experiments in natural philosophy and physical science. In
+1855 Dr. Huggins erected a private observatory at his residence on
+Tulse Hill, where he has carried out valuable prismatic researches
+with the spectroscope.&mdash;<i>Daily Graphic.</i></p>
+
+
+<h3>OTHER SPECULATIONS.</h3>
+
+<p>The nebular hypothesis of Laplace required a rotating mass of fluid
+which at successive epochs became unstable from excess of motion, and
+left behind rings, or more probably, perhaps, lumps, of matter from
+the equatorial regions. To some thinkers was suggested a different
+view of things, according to which it was not necessary to suppose
+that one part of the system gravitationally supported another. The
+whole might consist of a congeries of discrete bodies, even if these
+bodies were the ultimate molecules of matter. The planets might have
+been formed by the gradual accretion of such discrete bodies. On the
+view that the material of the condensing solar system consisted of
+separate particles or masses, we had no longer the fluid pressure
+which was an essential part of Laplace's theory. Faye, in his theory
+of evolution from meteorites, had to throw over his fundamental idea
+of the nebular hypothesis, and formulated instead a different
+succession of events of which the outer planets were formed last, a
+theory which had difficulties of its own. Professor George Darwin had
+recently shown, from an investigation of the mechanical conditions of
+a swarm of meteorites, that on certain assumptions a meteoric swarm
+might behave as a coarse gas, and in this way bring back the fluid
+pressure exercised by one part of the system on the other, which was
+required by Laplace's theory. One chief assumption consisted in
+supposing that such inelastic bodies as meteoric stones might attain
+the effective elasticity of a high order which was necessary to the
+theory through the sudden volatilization of a part of their mass at an
+encounter, by which what was virtually a violent explosive was
+introduced between the two colliding stones. Professor Darwin was
+careful to point out that it must necessarily be obscure as to how a
+small mass of solid matter could take up a very large amount of energy
+in a small fraction of a second.</p>
+
+
+<h3>HELMHOLTZ'S DISCOVERY.</h3>
+
+<p>The old view of the original matter of the nebulæ, that it consisted
+of a "fiery mist,"</p>
+
+<p class="ind">
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"a tumultuous cloud,<br />
+Instinct with fire and niter,"</p>
+
+
+<p>fell at once with the rise of the science of thermodynamics. In 1854,
+Helmholtz showed that the supposition of an original fiery condition
+of the nebulous stuff was unnecessary, since in the mutual gravitation
+of widely separated matter we had a store of potential energy
+sufficient to generate the high temperature of the sun and stars. We
+could scarcely go wrong in attributing the light of the nebulæ to the
+conversion of the gravitational energy of shrinkage into molecular
+motion. The inquisitiveness of the human mind did not allow us to
+remain content with the interpretation of the present state of the
+cosmical masses, but suggested the question&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="ind">
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;What see'st thou else<br />
+In the dark backward and abysm of time?</p>
+
+
+<p>What was the original state of things? How had it come about that by
+the side of ageing worlds we had nebulæ in a relatively younger stage?
+Had any of them received their birth from dark suns, which had
+collided into new life, and so belonged to a second or later
+generation of the heavenly bodies?</p>
+
+
+<h3>LOOKING BACKWARD.</h3>
+
+<p>During the short historic period there was no record of such an event;
+still it would seem to be only through the collision of dark suns, of
+which the number must be increasing, that a temporary rejuvenescence
+of the heavens was possible, and by such ebbings and flowings of
+stellar life that the inevitable end to which evolution in its
+apparently uncompensated progress was carrying us could, even for a
+little, be delayed. We could not refuse to admit as possible such an
+origin for nebulæ. In considering, however, the formation of the
+existing nebulæ we must bear in mind that, in the part of the heavens
+within our ken, the stars still in the early and middle stages of
+evolution exceeded greatly in number those which appeared to be in an
+advanced condition of condensation. Indeed, we found some stars which
+might be regarded as not far advanced beyond the nebular condition. It
+might be that the cosmical bodies which were still nebulous owed their
+later development to some conditions of the part of space where they
+occurred, such as conceivably a greater original homogeneity, in
+consequence of which condensation began less early. In other parts of
+space condensation might have been still further delayed, or even have
+not yet begun. If light matter were suggested by the spectrum of these
+nebulæ, it might be asked further, as a pure speculation, whether in
+them we were witnessing possibly a later condensation of the light
+matter which had been left behind, at least in a relatively greater
+proportion, after the first growth of worlds into which the heavier
+matter condensed, though not without some entanglement of the lighter
+substances. The wide extent and great diffuseness of this bright-line
+nebulosity over a large part of the constellation of Orion might be
+regarded, perhaps, as pointing in this direction. The diffuse nebulous
+matter streaming round the Pleiades might possibly be another
+instance, though the character of its spectrum had not yet been
+ascertained.</p>
+
+
+<h3>THE MOTIONS OF THE STARS.</h3>
+
+<p>Besides its more direct use in the chemical analysis of the heavenly
+bodies, the spectroscope had given to us a great and unexpected power
+of advance along the lines of the older astronomy. In the future a
+higher value might, indeed, be placed upon this indirect use of the
+spectroscope than upon its chemical revelations. By no direct
+astronomical methods could motions of approach or of recession of the
+stars be even detected, much less could they be measured. A body
+coming directly toward us or going directly from us appeared to stand
+still. In the case of the stars we could receive no assistance from
+change of size or of brightness. The stars showed no true disks in our
+instruments, and the nearest of them was so far off that if it were
+approaching us at the rate of a hundred miles in a second of time, a
+whole century of such rapid approach would not do more than increase
+its brightness by the one-fortieth part. Still it was formerly only
+too clear that, so long as we were unable to ascertain directly those
+components of the stars' motions which lay in the line of sight, the
+speed and direction of the solar motion in space, and many of the
+great problems of the constitution of the heavens must have remained
+more or less imperfectly known. Now the spectroscope had placed in our
+hands this power, which, though so essential, had previously appeared
+almost in the nature of things to lie forever beyond our grasp; it
+enabled us to measure directly, and, under favorable circumstances, to
+within a mile per second, or even less, the speed of approach or of
+recession of a heavenly body. This method of observation had the great
+advantage for the astronomer of being independent of the distance of
+the moving body, and was, therefore, as applicable and as certain in
+the case of a body on the extreme confines of the visible universe, so
+long as it was bright enough, as in the case of a neighboring planet.</p>
+
+
+<h3>ALGOL AND SPICA.</h3>
+
+<p>By observations with the Potsdam spectograph, Professor Vogel found
+that the bright star of Algol pulsated backward and forward in the
+visual direction in a period corresponding to the known variation of
+its light. The explanation which had been suggested for the star's
+variability, that it was partially eclipsed at regular intervals of
+68.8 hours by a dark companion large enough to cut off nearly
+five-sixths of its light, was, therefore, the true one. The dark
+companion, no longer able to hide itself by its obscureness, was
+brought out into the light of direct observation by means of its
+gravitational effects. Seventeen hours before minimum Algol was
+receding at the rate of about 24½ miles a second, while seventeen
+hours after minimum it was found to be approaching with a speed of
+about 28½ miles. From these data, together with those of the variation
+of its light, Vogel found, on the assumption that both stars have the
+same density, that the companion, nearly as large as the sun, but with
+about one-fourth his mass, revolved with a velocity of about
+fifty-five miles a second. The bright star of about twice the size and
+mass moved about the common center of gravity with the speed of about
+26 miles a second. The system of the two stars, which were about 3¼
+millions of miles apart, considered as a whole, was approaching us
+with a velocity of 2.4 miles a second. The great difference in
+luminosity of the two stars, not less than fifty times, suggested
+rather that they were in different stages of condensation, and
+dissimilar in density. It was obvious that if the orbit of a star with
+an obscure companion was inclined to the line of sight, the companion
+would pass above or below the bright star and produce no variation of
+its light. Such systems might be numerous in the heavens. In Vogel's
+photographs, Spica, which was not variable, by a small shifting of its
+lines revealed a backward and forward periodical pulsation due to
+orbital motion. As the pair whirled round their common center of
+gravity, the bright star was sometimes advancing, at others receding.
+They revolved in about four days, each star moving with a velocity of
+about 56 miles a second in an orbit probably nearly circular, and
+possessed a combined mass of rather more than two and one-half times
+that of the sun. Taking the most probable value for the star's
+parallax, the greatest angular separation of the stars would be far
+too small to be detected with the most powerful telescopes.</p>
+
+
+<h3>THE VALUE OF PHOTOGRAPHY.</h3>
+
+<p>Referring to the new and great power which modern photography had put
+into the hands of the astronomer, the president said that the modern
+silver bromide gelatine plate, except for its grained texture, met his
+needs at all points. It possessed extreme sensitiveness, it was always
+ready for use, it could be placed in any position, it could be exposed
+for hours, lastly it did not need immediate development, and for this
+reason could be exposed again to the same object on succeeding nights,
+so as to make up by several installments, as the weather might permit,
+the total time of exposure which was deemed necessary. Without the
+assistance of photography, however greatly the resources of genius
+might overcome the optical and mechanical difficulties of constructing
+large telescopes, the astronomer would have to depend in the last
+resource upon his eye. Now, we could not by the force of continued
+looking bring into view an object too feebly luminous to be seen at
+the first and keenest moment of vision. But the feeblest light which
+fell upon the plate was not lost, but taken in and stored up
+continuously. Each hour the plate gathered up 3,600 times the light
+energy which it received during the first second. It was by this power
+of accumulation that the photographic plate might be said to increase,
+almost without limit, though not in separating power, the optical
+means at the disposal of the astronomer for the discovery or the
+observation of faint objects.</p>
+
+
+<h3>TWO EXAMPLES.</h3>
+
+<p>Two principal directions might be pointed out in which photography was
+of great service to the astronomer. It enabled him within the
+comparatively short time of a single exposure to secure permanently
+with great exactness the relative positions of hundreds or even of
+thousands of stars, or the minute features of nebulæ or other objects,
+or the phenomena of a passing eclipse, a task which by means of the
+eye and hand could only be accomplished, if done at all, after a very
+great expenditure of time and labor. Photography put it in the power
+of the astronomer to accomplish in the short span of his own life, and
+so enter into their fruition, great works which otherwise must have
+been passed on by him as a heritage of labor to succeeding
+generations. The second great service which photography rendered was
+not simply an aid to the powers the astronomer already possessed. On
+the contrary, the plate, by recording light waves which were both too
+small and too large to excite vision in the eye, brought him into a
+new region of knowledge, such as the infra-red and the ultra-violet
+parts of the spectrum, which must have remained forever unknown but
+for artificial help.</p>
+
+
+<h3>A PHOTOGRAPHIC CHART.</h3>
+
+<p>The present year would be memorable in astronomical history for the
+practical beginning of the photographic chart and catalogue of the
+heavens which took their origin in an international conference which
+met in Paris in 1887. The decisions of the conference in their final
+form provided for the construction of a great chart with exposures
+corresponding to forty minutes' exposure at Paris, which it was
+expected would reach down to stars of about the fourteenth magnitude.
+As each plate was to be limited to four square degrees, and as each
+star, to avoid possible errors, was to appear on two plates, over
+22,000 photographs would be required. A second set of plates for a
+catalogue was to be taken, with a shorter exposure, which would give
+stars to the eleventh magnitude only. The plans were to be pushed on
+as actively a possible, though as far as might be practicable plates
+for the chart were to be taken concurrently. Photographing the plates
+for the catalogue was but the first step in this work, and only
+supplied the data for the elaborate measurements which would have to
+be made, which were, however, less laborious than would be required
+for a similar catalogue without the aid of photography.</p>
+
+
+<h3>A DELICATE OPERATION.</h3>
+
+<p>The determination of the distances of the fixed stars from the small
+apparent shift of their positions when viewed from widely separated
+positions of the earth in its orbit was one of the most refined
+operations of the observatory. The great precision with which this
+minute angular quantity, a fraction of a second only, had to be
+measured, was so delicate an operation with the ordinary micrometer,
+though, indeed, it was with this instrument that the classical
+observations of Sir Robert Ball were made, that a special instrument,
+in which the measures were made by moving the two halves of a divided
+object glass, known as a heliometer, had been pressed into this
+service, and quite recently, in the skillful hands of Dr. Gill and Dr.
+Elkin, had largely increased our knowledge in this direction. It was
+obvious that photography might be here of great service, if we could
+rely upon measurements of photographs of the same stars taken at
+suitable intervals of time. Professor Pritchard, to whom was due the
+honor of having opened this new path, aided by his assistants, had
+proved by elaborate investigations that measures for parallax might be
+safely made upon photographic plates, with, of course, the advantages
+of leisure and repetition; and he had already by this method
+determined the parallax for twenty-one stars with an accuracy not
+inferior to that of values previously obtained by purely astronomical
+methods.</p>
+
+
+<h3>PHOTOGRAPHIC REVELATIONS.</h3>
+
+<p>The remarkable successes of astronomical photography, which depended
+upon the plate's power of accumulation of a very feeble light acting
+continuously through an exposure of several hours, were worthy to be
+regarded as a new revelation. The first chapter opened when, in 1880,
+Dr. Henry Draper obtained a picture of the nebula of Orion; but a more
+important advance was made in 1883, when Dr. Common, by his
+photographs, brought to our knowledge details and extensions of this
+nebula hitherto unknown. A further disclosure took place in 1885, when
+the Brothers Henry showed for the first time in great detail the
+spiral nebulosity issuing from the bright star Maia of the Pleiades,
+and shortly afterward nebulous streams about the other stars of this
+group. In 1886 Mr. Roberts, by means of a photograph to which three
+hours' exposure had been given, showed the whole background of this
+group to be nebulous.</p>
+
+<p>In the following year Mr. Roberts more than doubled for us the great
+extension of the nebular region which surrounds the trapezium in the
+constellation of Orion. By his photographs of the great nebula in
+Andromeda, he had shown the true significance of the dark canals which
+had been seen by the eye. They were in reality spaces between
+successive rings of bright matter, which appeared nearly straight,
+owing to the inclination in which they lay relatively to us. These
+bright rings surrounded an undefined central luminous mass. Recent
+photographs by Mr. Russell showed that the great rift in the Milky Way
+in Argus, which to the eye was void of stars, was in reality uniformly
+covered with them.</p>
+
+
+<h3>THE STORY OF THE HEAVENS.</h3>
+
+<p>The heavens were richly but very irregularly inwrought with stars. The
+brighter stars clustered into well known groups upon a background
+formed of an enlacement of streams and convoluted windings and
+intertwined spirals of fainter stars, which became richer and more
+intricate in the irregularly rifted zone of the Milky Way. We, who
+formed part of the emblazonry, could only see the design distorted and
+confused; here crowded, there scattered, at another place superposed.
+The groupings due to our position were mixed up with those which were
+real. Could we suppose that each luminous point had no relation to the
+others near it than the accidental neighborship of grains of sand upon
+the shore, or of particles of the wind-blown dust of the desert?
+Surely every star from Sirius and Vega down to each grain of the light
+dust of the Milky Way had its present place in the heavenly pattern
+from the slow evolving of its past. We saw a system of systems, for
+the broad features of clusters and streams and spiral windings marking
+the general design were reproduced in every part. The whole was in
+motion, each point shifting its position by miles every second, though
+from the august magnitude of their distances from us and from each
+other, it was only by the accumulated movements of years or of
+generations that some small changes of relative position revealed
+themselves.</p>
+
+
+<h3>THE WORK OF THE FUTURE.</h3>
+
+<p>The deciphering of this wonderfully intricate constitution of the
+heavens would be undoubtedly one of the chief astronomical works of
+the coming century. The primary task of the sun's motion in space,
+together with the motions of the brighter stars, had been already put
+well within our reach by the spectroscopic method of the measurement
+of star motions in the line of sight. Astronomy, the oldest of the
+sciences, had more than renewed her youth. At no time in the past had
+she been so bright with unbounded aspirations and hopes. Never were
+her temples so numerous, nor the crowd of her votaries so great.</p>
+
+<p>The British Astronomical Association formed within the year numbered
+already about 600 members. Happy was the lot of those who were still
+on the eastern side of life's meridian! Already, alas! the original
+founders of the newer methods were falling out&mdash;Kirchhoff, Angstrom,
+D'Arrest, Secchi, Draper, Becquerel; but their places were more than
+filled; the pace of the race was gaining, but the goal was not and
+never would be in sight. Since the time of Newton our knowledge of the
+phenomena of nature had wonderfully increased, but man asked perhaps
+more earnestly now than in his days, what was the ultimate reality
+behind the reality of the perceptions? Were they only the pebbles of
+the beach with which we had been playing? Did not the ocean of
+ultimate reality and truth lie beyond?</p>
+
+
+<a name="Footnote_1_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_4">[1]</a><div class="note">
+<p>Presidential address before the British Association,
+Cardiff, 1891.</p></div>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2><a name="art09"></a>CLIMATIC CHANGES IN THE SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE.</h2>
+
+<h3>By C.A.M. TABER.</h3>
+
+<p>Having had occasion to cruise a considerable time over the Southern
+Ocean, I have had my attention directed to its prevailing winds and
+currents, and the way in which they affect its temperature, and also
+to the ice-worn appearance of its isolated lands.</p>
+
+<p>It is now generally conceded that the lands situated in the high
+latitudes of the southern hemisphere have in the remote past been
+covered with ice sheets, similar to the lands which lie within the
+antarctic circle. The shores of Southern Chile, from latitude 40° to
+Cape Horn, show convincing evidence of having been overrun by heavy
+glaciers, which scoured out the numerous deep channels that separate
+the Patagonian coast from its islands. The Falkland Islands and South
+Georgia abound with deep friths; New Zealand and Kerguelen Land also
+exhibit the same evidence of having been ice-laden regions; and it is
+said that the southern lands of Africa and Australia show that ice
+accumulated at one time to a considerable extent on their shores. At
+this date we find the southern ice sheets mostly confined to regions
+within the antarctic circle; still the lands of Chile, South Georgia,
+and New Zealand possess glaciers reaching the low lands, which are
+probably growing in bulk; for it appears that the antarctic cold is
+slowly on the increase, and the reasons for its increase are the same
+as the causes which brought about the frigid period which overran with
+ice all lands situated in the high southern latitudes.</p>
+
+<p>Why there should be a slow increase of cold on this portion of the
+globe is because of the independent circulation of the waters of the
+Southern Ocean. The strong westerly winds of the southern latitudes
+are constantly blowing the surface waters of the sea from west to east
+around the globe. This causes an effectual barrier, which the warm
+tropical currents cannot penetrate to any great extent. For instance,
+the tropical waters of the high ocean levels, which lie abreast Brazil
+in the Atlantic and the east coast of Africa in the Indian Ocean, are
+not attracted far into the southern sea, because the surface waters of
+the latter sea are blown by the westerly winds from west to east
+around the globe. Consequently the tropical waters moving southward
+are turned away by the prevailing winds and currents from entering the
+Southern Ocean. Thus the ice is accumulating on its lands, and the
+temperature of its waters slowly falling through their contact with
+the increasing ice; and such conditions will continue until the lands
+of the high southern latitudes are again covered with glaciers, and a
+southern ice period perfected. But while this gathering of ice is
+being brought about, the antarctic continent, now nearly covered with
+an ice sheet, will, through the extension of glaciers out into its
+shallow waters, cover a larger area than now; for where the waters are
+shoal the growing glaciers, resting on a firm bottom, will advance
+into the sea, and this advancement will continue wherever the shallow
+waters extend. Especially will this be the case where the snowfall is
+great.</p>
+
+<p>Under such conditions, it appears that the only extensive body of
+shallow water extending from the ice-clad southern continent is the
+shoal channel which separates the South Shetlands from Cape Horn,
+which is a region of great snowfall. Therefore, should the antarctic
+ice gain sufficient thickness to rest on the bottom of this shallow
+sea, it would move into the Cape Horn channel, and eventually close
+it. The ice growth would not be entirely from the southern continent,
+but also from lands in the region of Cape Horn. Thus the antarctic
+continent and South America would be connected by an isthmus of ice,
+and consequently the independent circulation of the Southern Ocean
+arrested. Hence it will be seen that the westerly winds, instead of
+blowing the surface waters of the Southern Ocean constantly around the
+globe, as they are known to do to-day, would instead blow the surface
+waters away from the easterly side of the ice-formed isthmus, which
+would cause a low sea level along its Atlantic side, and this low sea
+level would attract the tropical waters from their high level against
+Brazil well into the southern seas, and so wash the antarctic
+continent to the eastward of the South Shetlands.</p>
+
+<p>The tropical waters thus attracted southward would be cooler than the
+tropical waters of to-day, owing to the great extension of cold in the
+southern latitudes. Still they would begin the slow process of raising
+the temperature of the Southern Ocean, and would in time melt the ice
+in all southern lands. Not only the Brazil currents would penetrate
+the southern seas, as we have shown, but also the waters from the high
+level of the tropical Indian Ocean which now pass down the Mozambique
+Channel would reach a much higher latitude than now.</p>
+
+<p>The ice-made isthmus uniting South America to the antarctic continent
+would on account of its location be the last body of ice to melt from
+the southern hemisphere, it being situated to windward of the tropical
+currents and also in a region where the fall of snow is great; yet it
+would eventually melt away, and the independent circulation of the
+Southern Ocean again be established. But it would require a long time
+for ice sheets to again form on southern lands, because of the lack of
+icebergs to cool the southern waters. Still, their temperature would
+gradually lower with the exclusion of the tropical waters, and
+consequently ice would slowly gather on the antarctic lands.</p>
+
+<p>The above theory thus briefly presented to account for the climatic
+changes of the high southern latitudes is in full accord with the
+simple workings of nature as carried on to-day; and it is probable
+that the formation of continents and oceans, as well as the earth's
+motions in its path around the sun, have met with little change since
+the cold era iced the lands of the high latitudes.</p>
+
+<p>At an early age, previous to the appearance of frigid periods, the
+ocean waters of the high latitudes probably did not possess an
+independent circulation sufficient to lower the temperature so that
+glaciers could form. This may have been owing to the shallow sea
+bottom south of Cape Horn having been above the surface of the water,
+the channel having since been formed by a comparatively small change
+in the ocean's level. For, while considering this subject, it is well
+to keep in mind that whenever the western continent extended to the
+antarctic circle it prevented the independent circulation of the
+Southern Ocean waters, consequently during such times ice periods
+could not have occurred in the southern hemisphere.</p>
+
+<p>It will be noticed that according to the views given above, the
+several theories which have been published to account for great
+climatic changes neglect to set forth the only efficacious methods
+through which nature works for conveying and withdrawing tropical heat
+sufficient to cause temperate and frigid periods in the high
+latitudes. While lack of space forbids an explanation of the causes
+which would perfect an ice period in the northern hemisphere, I will
+say that it could be mainly brought about through the independent
+circulation of the arctic waters, which now largely prevent the
+tropical waters of the North Atlantic from entering the arctic seas,
+thus causing the accumulation of ice sheets on Greenland. But before a
+northern ice period can be perfected, it seems that it will need to
+co-operate with a cold period in the southern hemisphere; and in order
+to have the ice of a northern frigid period melt away, it would
+require the assistance of a mild climate in the high southern
+latitudes.&mdash;<i>Science</i>.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2><a name="art12"></a>AMMONIA.</h2>
+
+<p>In the majority of refrigerating and ice machines ammonia gas is the
+substance used for producing the refrigeration, although there are
+other machines in which other material is employed, one of these being
+anhydrous sulphurous acid, which is also a gas. Ammonia of itself is a
+colorless gas, but little more than one half as heavy as air. In its
+composition ammonia consists of two gases, nitrogen and hydrogen, in
+the proportion by weight of one part nitrogen and three parts
+hydrogen. The gas hydrogen is one of the constituents of water and is
+highly inflammable in the presence of air or oxygen, while the other
+component of ammonia, nitrogen, forms the bulk or about four-fifths of
+the atmosphere. Nitrogen by itself is an inert gas, colorless and
+uninflammable. Ammonia, although composed of more than three-fourths
+its weight of hydrogen, is not inflammable in air, on account of its
+combination with the nitrogen. This combination, it will be
+understood, is not a simple mixture, but the two gases are chemically
+combined, forming a new substance which has characteristics and
+properties entirely different from either of the gases entering into
+its composition when taken alone or when simply mixed together without
+chemical combustion. Ammonia cannot be produced by the direct
+combination of these elements, but it has been found that it is
+sometimes made or produced in a very extraordinary manner, which goes
+to show that there is yet considerable to be learned in regard to the
+chemistry of ammonia. Animal or vegetable substances when putrefying
+or suffering destructive distillation almost invariably give rise to
+an abundant production of this substance.</p>
+
+<p>The common method for the manufacture of ammonia is to produce it from
+the salt known as sal-ammoniac. Sal-ammoniac as a crystal is obtained
+in various ways, principally from the ammoniacal liquor of gas works,
+also from the condensed products of the distillation of bones and
+other animal refuse in the preparation of animal charcoal, and which
+is of a highly alkaline nature. This liquid is then treated with a
+slight excess of muriatic acid to neutralize the free alkali, and at
+the same time the carbonates and sulphides are decomposed with the
+evolution of carbonic acid and sulphureted hydrogen. All animal
+matter, the meat, bones, etc., contain considerable carbon, while the
+nitrogen from which the ammonia is produced forms a smaller portion of
+the substance. The object is then to get rid of the carbon and
+sulphur, leaving the nitrogen to combine, through chemical affinity,
+with a portion of the hydrogen of the water, the oxygen which is set
+free going to form the carbonic acid by combining with the carbon. The
+liquor after being neutralized is evaporated to dryness, leaving a
+crystallized salt containing a portion of tarry matter.</p>
+
+<p>The salt is then purified by sublimation, that is, it is heated in a
+closed iron vessel until it is transformed into a gas which separates
+and leaves, in a carbonized state, all foreign substance. After this
+gas is cooled, it condenses and again forms crystals which are in a
+much purer condition. If necessary to further purify it, it is again
+sublimed. The iron vessels in which the sublimation takes place are
+lined with clay and covered with lead. The clay lining and lead
+covering are necessary, for if the gas evolved during the process of
+sublimation came in contact with the iron surface, the gas would be
+contaminated and the iron corroded. Sublimed sal-ammoniac has a
+fibrous texture and is tough and difficult to powder. It has a sharp,
+salty taste and is soluble in two and a half parts of cold and in a
+much smaller quantity of hot water. During the process of sublimation
+the ammonia is not decomposed. But there are several ways in which the
+gas may be decomposed, and a certain portion of it is decomposed in
+the ordinary use of it in refrigerating machines. If electric sparks
+are passed through the gas, it suffers decomposition, the nitrogen and
+hydrogen then being in the condition of a simple mixture. When
+decomposed in this manner, the volume of the gas is doubled and the
+proportion is found to be three measures of hydrogen to one of
+nitrogen, while the weight of the two constituents is in the
+proportion of three parts hydrogen to fourteen of nitrogen.</p>
+
+<p>The ammonia gas may also be decomposed by passing through a red hot
+tube, and the presence of heated iron causes a slight degree of
+decomposition. This sal-ammoniac is powdered and mixed with moist
+slaked lime and then gently heated in a flask, when a large quantity
+of gaseous ammonia is disengaged. The gas must be collected over
+mercury or by displacement. The gas thus produced has a strong,
+pungent odor, as can easily be determined by any one working around
+the ammonia ice or refrigerating machines, for as our friend, Otto
+Luhr, says, "It is the worst stuff I ever smelled in my life." The gas
+is highly alkaline and combines readily with acids, completely
+neutralizing them, and the aqua ammonia is one of the best substances
+to put on a place burned by sulphuric acid, as has been learned by
+those working with that substance, for although aqua ammonia of full
+strength is highly corrosive and of itself will blister the flesh, yet
+when used to neutralize the effect of a burn from sulphuric acid its
+great affinity for the acid prevents it from injuring the skin under
+such conditions.</p>
+
+<p>The distilled gas, such as has just been described, is the anhydrous
+ammonia used in the compressor system of refrigeration, while it is
+the aqua ammonia that is used in the absorption system of
+refrigeration. Aqua ammonia or liquor ammonia is formed by dissolving
+the ammonia gas in water. One volume of water will dissolve seven
+hundred times its bulk of this gas, and is then known as aqua ammonia,
+in contradistinction to anhydrous ammonia, the latter designating term
+meaning without water, while the term aqua is the Latin word for
+water.</p>
+
+<p>Anhydrous ammonia, the gas, may be reduced to the liquid form at
+ordinary temperatures when submitted to a pressure of about 95 pounds.
+During the process of liquefaction the ammonia gives up a large amount
+of heat, which if absorbed or radiated while the ammonia is in the
+liquid condition, the gas when allowed to expand will absorb from its
+surroundings an amount of heat equal to that radiated, producing a
+very great lowering of temperature. It is this principle that is
+utilized in refrigeration and ice making. In the absorption system,
+where aqua ammonia is used, the liquor is contained in a retort to
+which heat is applied by means of a steam coil, and a great part of
+the gas which was held in solution by the water is expelled, and
+carries with it a small amount of water or vapor. This passes into a
+separator in the top of a condenser, from which the water returns
+again to the retort, the ammonia gas, under considerable pressure,
+passing into the coolers. These are large receptacles in which the gas
+is permitted to expand. By such expansion heat is absorbed and the
+temperature of the surroundings is lowered. From the coolers the gas
+returns to the absorber, from which it is pumped, in liquid form, into
+the retort, to be again heated, the gas expelled and the process
+repeated. As the gas passes through the different processes, being
+heated under pressure, cooled, expanded again, more or less
+decomposition takes place, presumably from a combination of a small
+portion of the nitrogen with vegetable, animal, or mineral matter that
+finds its way into the system. Such decomposition, with the loss of
+nitrogen, leaves a small portion of free hydrogen, which is the gas
+that can be drawn from the top of the absorber, ignited and burned.
+The presence of hydrogen gas in the absorber is not necessarily
+detrimental to the effectiveness of the system, but as hydrogen does
+not possess the qualities of absorbing heat in the same way and to the
+same extent as ammonia, the presence of hydrogen makes the operation
+of the apparatus somewhat less efficient.&mdash;<i>Stationary Engineer.</i></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+
+<p><a name="art14"></a>The refrigerating apparatus illustrated and described in the
+SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT of June 25, No. 812, is substantially
+that patented by Messrs. Erny, Subers &amp; Hoos, of Philadelphia. The
+illustration was copied from their patents of November and February
+last.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+
+<h3>A New Catalogue of Valuable Papers</h3>
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+<p>Contained in SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT during the past ten years,
+sent <i>free of charge</i> to any address. MUNN &amp; CO., 361 Broadway, New
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+
+<h2>Architects and Builders Edition.</h2>
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+<p>Architects, Builders, and Owners will find this work valuable in
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+<p>Many other subjects, including Sewerage, Piping, Lighting, Warming,
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+<b>MUNN&amp; CO., Publishers</b>,<br />
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+
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+I, 1876, can be had. Price, 10 cents each.</p>
+
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+
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+<p class="ctr"><b>MUNN &amp; CO., 361 Broadway, New York.</b></p>
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+<hr />
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+<p>MESSRS. MUNN &amp; CO., in connection with the publication of the
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+
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+<pre>
+
+
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+
+
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+</body>
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+
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@@ -0,0 +1,4419 @@
+Project Gutenberg's Scientific American Supplement No. 819, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Scientific American Supplement No. 819
+       Volume XXXII, Number 819. Issue Date September 12, 1891
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: February 9, 2005 [EBook #14990]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Juliet Sutherland and the PG Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT NO. 819
+
+
+
+
+NEW YORK, SEPTEMBER 12, 1891.
+
+Scientific American Supplement. Vol. XXXII, No. 819.
+
+Scientific American established 1845
+
+Scientific American Supplement, $5 a year.
+
+Scientific American and Supplement, $7 a year.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+TABLE OF CONTENTS.
+
+
+I.    ASTRONOMY.--The Story of the Universe.--By Dr. WILLIAM
+      HUGGINS.--A valuable account of modern views of the formation
+      of the universe, and of modern methods of studying the problem.--1
+      illustration.
+
+II.   ELECTRICITY.--The Production of Hydrogen and Oxygen through
+      the Electrolysis of Water.--A valuable paper on the electrolysis
+      of water on a large scale, with apparatus employed therefor.--4
+      illustrations.
+
+III.  MECHANICAL ENGINEERING.--An English Steam Fire Engine.--A
+      light fire engine built for East Indian service.--1 illustration.
+
+IV.   MEDICINE AND HYGIENE.--A Case of Drowning, with Resuscitation.--By
+      F.A. BURRALL, M.D.--A full account of a remarkable
+      case of resuscitation from drowning, with full details
+      of treatment.
+
+V.    METALLURGY.--How Gas Cylinders are Made.--The manufacture
+      of cylinders for highly compressed gases, a comparatively
+      new and growing industry.--6 illustrations.
+
+      Refining Silver Bullion.--The Gutzkow process in refining silver
+      bullion with sulphuric acid.--1 illustration.
+
+      The Treatment of Refractory Ores.--A new process for the extraction
+      of metal from refractory ore.--1 illustration.
+
+      Weldless Steel Chains.--An exhaustive examination of this curious
+      process, and very full illustrations.--43 illustrations.
+
+VI.   METEOROLOGY.--Climatic Changes in the Southern Hemisphere.
+      --By C.A.M. TABER.--Causes of the climatic changes the
+      southern hemisphere has undergone.
+
+VII.  MILITARY TACTICS.--The System of Military Dove Cotes in
+      Europe.--Continuation of this paper, treating of the pigeon service
+      in France, Germany, and Italy.
+
+VIII. NAVAL ENGINEERING.--The Isle of Man Twin Screw
+      Steamer Tynwald.--A high speed steamer, with a steady sea-going
+      speed of between 18 and 19 knots.--2 illustrations.
+
+IX.   TECHNOLOGY.--Ammonia.--The manufacture of ammoniacal
+      gas for technical uses.--Full details of its production.
+
+      Musical Instruments.--Their construction and capabilities.--By
+      A.J. HIPKINS.--Second installment of this highly interesting
+      series of lectures treating of different kinds of instruments.
+
+      Note on Refrigerating Apparatus.
+
+      Sheet Glass from Molten Metal.--The method of making sheets
+      of glass from the molten material and manufacture of metal plates
+      by the same method.
+
+X.    VETERINARY SCIENCE.--Historical Development of the
+      Horseshoe.--By District Veterinarian ZIPPELIUS.--Very curious
+      investigation of the development of the horseshoe.--22 illustrations.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE PRODUCTION OF HYDROGEN AND OXYGEN THROUGH THE ELECTROLYSIS OF
+WATER.
+
+
+All attempts to prepare gaseous fluids industrially were premature as
+long as there were no means of carrying them under a sufficiently
+diminished volume. For a few years past, the trade has been delivering
+steel cylinders that permit of storing, without the least danger, a
+gas under a pressure of from 120 to 200 atmospheres. The problem of
+delivery without pipe laying having been sufficiently solved, that of
+the industrial production of gases could be confronted in its turn.
+Liquefied sulphurous acid, chloride of methyl, and carbonic acid have
+been successively delivered, to commerce. The carbonic acid is now
+being used right along in laboratories for the production of an
+intense coldness, through its expansion. Oxygen and nitrogen, prepared
+by chemical processes, soon followed, and now the industrial
+electrolysis of water is about to permit of the delivery, in the same
+manner, of very pure oxygen and hydrogen at a price within one's
+reach.
+
+Before describing the processes employed in this preparation, we must
+answer a question that many of our readers might be led to ask us, and
+that is, what can these gases be used for? We shall try to explain. A
+prime and important application of pure hydrogen is that of inflating
+balloons. Illuminating gas, which is usually employed for want of
+something better, is sensibly denser than hydrogen and possesses less
+ascensional force, whence the necessity of lightening the balloon or
+of increasing its volume. Such inconveniences become serious with
+dirigible balloons, whose surface, on the contrary, it is necessary to
+diminish as much as possible. When the increasing interest taken in
+aerostation at Paris was observed, an assured annual output of some
+hundreds of cubic meters of eras for the sole use of balloons was
+foreseen, the adoption of pure hydrogen being only a question of the
+net cost.
+
+Pure or slightly carbureted hydrogen is capable of being substituted
+to advantage for coal gas for heating or lighting. Such an application
+is doubtless somewhat premature, but we shall see that it has already
+got out of the domain of Utopia. Finally the oxyhydrogen blowpipe,
+which is indispensable for the treatment of very refractory metals,
+consumes large quantities of hydrogen and oxygen.
+
+For a few years past, oxygen has been employed in therapeutics; it is
+found in commerce either in a gaseous state or in solution in water
+(in siphons); it notably relieves persons afflicted with asthma or
+depression; and the use of it is recommended in the treatment of
+albumenuria. Does it cure, or at least does it contribute to cure,
+anaemia, that terrible affection of large cities, and the prime source
+of so many other troubles? Here the opinions of physicians and
+physiologists are divided, and we limit ourselves to a mention of the
+question without discussing it.
+
+Only fifteen years ago it would have been folly to desire to obtain
+remunerative results through the electrolysis of water. Such research
+was subordinated to the industrial production of electric energy.
+
+We shall not endeavor to establish the priority of the experiments and
+discoveries. The question was in the air, and was taken up almost
+simultaneously by three able experimenters--a Russian physicist, Prof.
+Latchinof, of St. Petersburg, Dr. D'Arsonval, the learned professor of
+the College of France, and Commandant Renard, director of the military
+establishment of aerostation at Chalais. Mr. D'Arsonval collected
+oxygen for experiments in physiology, while Commandant Renard
+naturally directed his attention to the production of pure hydrogen.
+The solutions of the question are, in fact, alike in principle, and
+yet they have been developed in a very different manner, and we
+believe that Commandant Renard's process is the completest from an
+industrial standpoint. We shall give an account of it from a
+communication made by this eminent military engineer, some time ago,
+to the French Society of Physics.
+
+_Transformations of the Voltameter._--In a laboratory, it is of no
+consequence whether a liter of hydrogen costs a centime or a franc. So
+long as it is a question of a few liters, one may, at his ease, waste
+his energy and employ costly substances.
+
+The internal resistance of a voltameter and the cost of platinum
+electrodes of a few grammes should not arrest the physicist in an
+experiment; but, in a production on a large scale, it is necessary to
+decrease the resistance of the liquid column to as great a degree as
+possible--that is to say, to increase its section and diminish its
+thickness. The first condition leads to a suppression of the platinum,
+and the second necessitates the use of new principles in the
+construction of the voltameter. A laboratory voltameter consists
+either of a U-shaped tube or of a trough in which the electrodes are
+covered by bell glasses (Fig. 1, A and B). In either case, the
+electric current must follow a tortuous and narrow path, in order to
+pass from one electrode to the other, while, if the electrodes be left
+entirely free in the bath, the gases, rising in a spreading form, will
+mix at a certain height. It is necessary to separate them by a
+partition (Fig. 1, C). If this is isolating and impermeable, there
+will be no interest in raising the electrodes sensibly above its lower
+edge. Now, the nearer together the electrodes are, the more it is
+necessary to lower the partition. The extension of the electrodes and
+the bringing of them together is the knotty part of the question. This
+will be shown by a very simple calculation.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--A, B, COMMONEST FORMS OF LABORATORY
+VOLTAMETERS. C, DIAGRAM SHOWING ASCENT OF BUBBLES IN A VOLTAMETER.]
+
+The visible electrolysis of water begins at an E.M.F. of about 1.7 V.
+Below this there is no disengagement of bubbles. If the E.M.F. be
+increased at the terminals of the voltameter, the current (and
+consequently the production of gas) will become proportional to the
+excess of the value over 1.7 V; but, at the same time, the current
+will heat the circuit--that is to say, will produce a superfluous
+work, and there will be waste. At 1.7 V the rendering is at its
+maximum, but the useful effect is _nil_. In order to make an
+advantageous use of the instruments, it is necessary to admit a
+certain loss of energy, so much the less, moreover, in proportion as
+the voltameters cost less; and as the saving is to be effected in the
+current, rather than in the apparatus, we may admit the use of three
+volts as a good proportion--that is to say, a loss of about half the
+disposable energy. Under such conditions, a voltameter having an
+internal resistance of 1 ohm produces 0.65 liter of hydrogen per hour,
+while it will disengage 6.500 liters if its resistance be but 0.0001
+of an ohm. It is true that, in this case, the current would be in the
+neighborhood of 15,000 amperes. Laboratory voltameters frequently have
+a resistance of a hundred ohms; it would require a million in
+derivation to produce the same effect. The specific resistance of the
+solutions that can be employed in the production of gases by
+electrolysis is, in round numbers, twenty thousand times greater than
+that of mercury. In order to obtain a resistance of 0.0001 of an ohm,
+it is necessary to sensibly satisfy the equation
+
+            20,000 l/s = 1/10,000
+
+_l_ expressing the thickness of the voltameter expressed in meters,
+and _s_ being the section in square millimeters. For example: For l =
+1/10, s = 20,000,000, say 20 square meters. It will be seen from this
+example what should be the proportions of apparatus designed for a
+production on a large scale.
+
+The new principles that permit of the construction of such voltameters
+are as follows: (1) the substitution of an alkaline for the acid
+solution, thus affording a possibility of employing iron electrodes;
+(2) the introduction of a porous partition between the electrodes, for
+the purpose of separating the gases.
+
+_Electrolytic Liquid._--Commandant Renard's experiments were made with
+15 per cent, solution of caustic soda and water containing 27 per
+cent. of acid. These are the proportions that give the maximum of
+conductivity. Experiments made with a voltameter having platinum
+electrodes separated by an interval of 3 or 4 centimeters showed that
+for a determinate E.M.F. the alkaline solution allows of the passage
+of a slighter intenser current than the acidulated water, that is to
+say, it is less resistant and more advantageous from the standpoint of
+the consumption of energy.
+
+_Porous Partition._--Let us suppose that the two parts of the trough
+are separated by a partition containing small channels at right angles
+with its direction. It is these channels alone that must conduct the
+electricity. Their conductivity (inverse of resistance) is
+proportional to their total section, and inversely proportional to
+their common length, whatever be their individual section. It is,
+therefore, advantageous to employ partitions that contain as many
+openings as possible.
+
+The separating effect of these partitions for the gas is wholly due to
+capillary phenomena. We know, in fact, that water tends to expel gas
+from a narrow tube with a pressure inversely proportional to the
+tube's radius. In order to traverse the tube, the gaseous mass will
+have to exert a counter-pressure greater than this capillary pressure.
+As long as the pressure of one part and another of the wet wall
+differs to a degree less than the capillary pressure of the largest
+channel, the gases disengaged in the two parts of the trough will
+remain entirely separate. In order that the mixing may not take place
+through the partition above the level of the liquid (dry partition),
+the latter will have to be impenetrable in every part that emerges.
+The study of the partitions should be directed to their separating
+effect on the gases, and to their electric resistance. In order to
+study the first of these properties, the porous partition, fixed by a
+hermetical joint to a glass tube, is immersed in the water (Fig. 2).
+An increasing pressure is exerted from the interior until the passage
+of bubbles is observed. The pressure read at this moment on the
+manometer indicates (transformed above the electrolytic solution) the
+changes of level that the bath may undergo. The different porcelains
+and earths behave, from this point of view, in a very unequal manner.
+For example, an earthen vessel from the Pillivayt establishment
+supports some decimeters of water, while the porcelain of Boulanger,
+at Choisy-le-Roi, allows of the passage of the gas only at pressures
+greater than one atmosphere, which is much more than is necessary.
+Wire gauze, canvas, and asbestos cloth resist a few centimeters of
+water. It might be feared, however, that the gases, violently
+projected against these partitions, would not pass, owing to the
+velocity acquired. Upon this point experiment is very reassuring.
+After filling with water a canvas bag fixed to the extremity of a
+rubber tube, it is possible to produce in the interior a tumultuous
+disengagement of gas without any bubbles passing through.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--ARRANGEMENT FOR THE STUDY OF CAPILLARY
+REACTION IN POROUS VESSELS.]
+
+From an electrical point of view, partitions are of very unequal
+quality. Various partitions having been placed between electrodes
+spaced three centimeters apart, currents were obtained which indicated
+that, with the best of porcelains, the rendering of the apparatus is
+diminished by one-half. Asbestos cloth introduces but an insignificant
+resistance.
+
+To this inconvenience of porous vessels is added their fragility,
+their high price, and the impossibility of obtaining them of the
+dimensions that large apparatus would call for. The selection of
+asbestos cloth is therefore clearly indicated; but, as it does not
+entirely separate the gases, except at a pressure that does not exceed
+a few centimeters of water, it was always necessary to bring back the
+variation of the level to these narrow limits by a special
+arrangement. We cannot, in fact, expect that the entire piping shall
+be always in such conditions that no difference in pressure can occur.
+The levels are brought back to equality within the effective limits by
+interposing between the voltameter and the piping an apparatus called
+a compensator, which consists of two vessels that communicate in the
+interior part through a large tube. The gases enter each vessel
+through a pipe that debouches beneath the level of the water. If a
+momentary stoppage occurs in one of the conduits, the water changes
+level in the compensator, but the pressure remains constant at the
+orifice of the tubes. The compensator is, as may be seen, nothing more
+than a double Mariotte flask. When it is desired to obtain pure gases,
+there is introduced into the compensator a solution of tartaric acid,
+which retains the traces of alkalies carried along by the current of
+gas. The alkaline solution, moreover, destroys the ozone at the moment
+of its formation.
+
+It will be seen that laboratory studies have furnished all the
+elements of a problem which is now capable of entering the domain of
+practice. The cheapness of the raw materials permits of constructing
+apparatus whose dimensions will no longer be limited except by reasons
+of another nature. The electrodes may be placed in proximity at will,
+owing to the use of the porous partition. It may be seen, then, that
+the apparatus will have a considerable useful effect without its being
+necessary to waste the electric energy beyond measure.
+
+_Industrial Apparatus._--We have shown how the very concise researches
+of Commandant Renard have fixed the best conditions for the
+construction of an industrial voltameter. It remains for us to
+describe this voltameter itself, and to show the rendering of it.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--PLANT FOR THE INDUSTRIAL ELECTROLYSIS OF
+WATER.]
+
+The industrial voltameter consists of a large iron cylinder. A battery
+of such voltameters is shown to the left of Fig. 3, and one of the
+apparatus, isolated, is represented in Fig. 4. The interior electrode
+is placed in an asbestos cloth bag, which is closed below and tied at
+its upper part. It is provided with apertures which permit of the
+ascent of the gases in the interior of the cylinder. The apparatus is
+hermetically sealed at the top, the two electrodes being naturally
+insulated with rubber. Above the level of the liquid the interior
+electrode is continuous and forms a channel for the gas. The hydrogen
+and oxygen, escaping through the upper orifices, flow to the
+compensator. The apparatus is provided with an emptying cock or a cock
+for filling with distilled water, coming from a reservoir situated
+above the apparatus.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.--DETAILS OF AN INDUSTRIAL VOLTAMETER.]
+
+The constants of the voltameter established by Commandant Renard are
+as follows:
+
+      Height of external electrode       3.405 m.
+         "      internal      "          3.290 "
+      Diameter of external    "          0.300 "
+         "        internal    "          0.174 "
+
+The iron plate employed is 2 millimeters in thickness. The electric
+resistance is about 0.0075 ohm. The apparatus gives 365 amperes under
+2.7 volts, and consequently nearly 1 kilowatt. Its production in
+hydrogen is 158 liters per hour.
+
+It is clear that, in an industrial exploitation, a dynamo working
+under 3 volts is never employed. In order to properly utilize the
+power of the dynamo, several voltameters will be put in series--a
+dozen, for example, if the generating machine is in proximity to the
+apparatus, or a larger number if the voltameters are actuated by a
+dynamo situated at a distance, say in the vicinity of a waterfall.
+Fig. 3 will give an idea of a plant for the electrolysis of water.
+
+It remains for us to say a few words as to the net cost of the
+hydrogen and oxygen gases produced by the process that we have just
+described. We may estimate the value of a voltameter at a hundred
+francs. If the apparatus operates without appreciable wear, the
+amortizement should be calculated at a very low figure, say 10 per
+cent., which is large. In continuous operation it would produce more
+than 1,500 cubic meters of gas a year, say a little less than one
+centime per cubic meter. The caustic soda is constantly recuperated
+and is never destroyed. The sole product that disappears is the
+distilled water. Now one cubic meter of water produces more than 2,000
+cubic meters of gas. The expense in water, then, does not amount to a
+centime per cubic meter. The great factor of the expense resides in
+the electric energy. The cost of surveillance will be minimum and the
+general expenses _ad libitum_.
+
+Let us take the case in which the energy has to be borrowed from a
+steam engine. Supposing very small losses in the dynamo and piping, we
+may count upon a production of one cubic meter of hydrogen and 500
+cubic decimeters of oxygen for 10 horse-power taken upon the main
+shaft, say an expenditure of 10 kilogrammes of coal or of about 25
+centimes--a little more in Paris, and less in coal districts. If,
+consequently, we fix the price of the cubic meter of gas at 50
+centimes, we shall preserve a sufficient margin. In localities where a
+natural motive power is at our disposal, this estimate will have to be
+greatly reduced. We may, therefore, expect to see hydrogen and oxygen
+take an important place in ordinary usages. From the standpoint alone
+of preservation of fuel, that is to say, of potential energy upon the
+earth, this new conquest of electricity is very pleasing. Waterfalls
+furnish utilizable energy in every locality, and, in the future, will
+perhaps console our great-grandchildren for the unsparing waste that
+we are making of coal.--_La Nature._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+[Continued from SUPPLEMENT, No. 818, page 13066.]
+
+
+
+
+MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS: THEIR CONSTRUCTION AND CAPABILITIES.
+
+By A.J. HIPKINS, F.S.A.
+
+LECTURE II.
+
+
+I will now invite your attention to the wind instruments, which, in
+Handel's time, were chiefly used to double in unison the parts of
+stringed instruments. Their modern independent use dates from Haydn;
+it was extended and perfected by Mozart, Beethoven, and Weber; and the
+extraordinary changes and improvements which have been effected during
+the present century have given wind instruments an importance that is
+hardly exceeded by that of the stringed, in the formation of the
+modern orchestra. The military band, as it now exists, is a creation
+of the present century.
+
+The so-called wood wind instruments are the flute, oboe, bassoon, and
+clarinet. It is as well to say at once that their particular qualities
+of tone do not absolutely depend upon the materials of which they are
+made. The form is the most important factor in determining the
+distinction of tone quality, so long as the sides of the tube are
+equally elastic, as has been submitted to proof by instruments made of
+various materials, including paper. I consider this has been
+sufficiently demonstrated by the independent experiments of Mr.
+Blaikley, of London, and Mr. Victor Mahillon, of Brussels. But we must
+still allow Mr. Richard Shepherd Rockstro's plea, clearly set forth in
+a recently published treatise on the flute, that the nature and the
+substance of the tube, by reciprocity of vibration, exercise some
+influence, although not so great as might have been expected, on the
+quality of the tone. But I consider this influence is already
+acknowledged in my reference to equality of elasticity in the sides of
+the tube.
+
+The flute is an instrument of _embouchure_--that is to say, one in
+which a stream of air is driven from the player's lips against an edge
+of the blow hole to produce the sound. The oboe and bassoon have
+double reeds, and the clarinet a single reed, made of a species of
+cane, as intermediate agents of sound production. There are other
+flutes than that of _embouchure_--those with flageolet or whistle
+heads, which, having become obsolete, shall be reserved for later
+notice. There are no real tenor or bass flutes now, those in use being
+restricted to the upper part of the scale. The present flute dates
+from 1832, when Theobald Boehm, a Bavarian flute player, produced the
+instrument which is known by his name. He entirely remodeled the
+flute, being impelled to do so by suggestions from the performance of
+the English flautist, Charles Nicholson, who had increased the
+diameter of the lateral holes, and by some improvements that had been
+attempted in the flute by a Captain Gordon, of Charles the Tenth's
+Swiss Guard. Boehm has been sufficiently vindicated from having
+unfairly appropriated Gordon's ideas. The Boehm flute, since 1846, is
+a cylindrical tube for about three-fourths of its length from the
+lower end, after which it is continued in a curved conical
+prolongation to the cork stopper. The finger holes are disposed in a
+geometrical division, and the mechanism and position of the keys are
+entirely different from what had been before. The full compass of the
+Boehm flute is chromatic, from middle C to C, two octaves above the
+treble clef C, a range of three octaves, which is common to all
+concert flutes, and is not peculiar to the Boehm model. Of course this
+compass is partly produced by altering the pressure of blowing.
+Columns of air inclosed in pipes vibrate like strings in sections,
+but, unlike strings, the vibrations progress in the direction of
+length, not across the direction of length. In the flute, all notes
+below D, in the treble clef, are produced by the normal pressure of
+wind; by an increasing pressure of overblowing the harmonics, D in the
+treble clef, and A and B above it, are successively attained. The
+fingerholes and keys, by shortening the tube, fill up the required
+intervals of the scale. There are higher harmonics still, but
+flautists generally prefer to do without them when they can get the
+note required by a lower harmonic. In Boehm's flute, his ingenious
+mechanism allows the production of the eleven chromatic semitones
+intermediate between the fundamental note of the flute and its first
+harmonic, by holes so disposed that, in opening them successively,
+they shorten the column of air in exact proportion. It is, therefore,
+ideally, an equal temperament instrument and not a D major one, as the
+conical flute was considered to be. Perhaps the most important thing
+Boehm did for the flute was to enunciate the principle that, to insure
+purity of tone and correct intonation, the holes must be put in their
+correct theoretical positions; and at least the hole below the one
+giving he sound must be open, to insure perfect venting. Boehm's
+flute, however, has not remained as he left it. Improvements, applied
+by Clinton, Pratten, and Carte, have introduced certain modifications
+in the fingering, while retaining the best features of Boehm's system.
+But it seems to me that the reedy quality obtained from the adoption
+of the cylindrical bore which now prevails does away with the sweet
+and characteristic tone quality of the old conical German flute, and
+gives us in its place one that is not sufficiently distinct from that
+of the clarinet.
+
+The flute is the most facile of all orchestral wind instruments; and
+the device of double tonguing, the quick repetition of notes by taking
+a staccato T-stop in blowing, is well known. The flute generally goes
+with the violins in the orchestra, or sustains long notes with the
+other wood wind instruments, or is used in those conversational
+passages with other instruments that lend such a charm to orchestral
+music. The lower notes are not powerful. Mr. Henry Carte has, however,
+designed an alto flute in A, descending to violin G, with excellent
+results. There is a flute which transposes a minor third higher than
+the ordinary flute; but it is not much used in the orchestra, although
+used in the army, as is also a flute one semitone higher than the
+concert flute. The piccolo, or octave flute, is more employed in the
+orchestra, and may double the melody in the highest octave, or
+accentuate brilliant points of effect in the score. It is very shrill
+and exciting in the overblown notes, and without great care may give a
+vulgar character to the music, and for this reason Sir Arthur Sullivan
+has replaced it in the score of "Ivanhoe" by a high G flute. The
+piccolo is exactly an octave higher than the flute, excepting the two
+lowest notes of which it is deficient. The old cylindrical
+ear-piercing fife is an obsolete instrument, being superseded by a
+small army flute, still, however, called a fife, used with the side
+drum in the drum and fife band.
+
+The transverse or German flute, introduced into the orchestra by
+Lulli, came into general use in the time of Handel; before that the
+recorders, or flute douces, the flute a bec with beak or whistle head,
+were preferred. These instruments were used in a family, usually of
+eight members, viz., as many sizes from treble to bass; or in three,
+treble, alto or tenor, and bass. A fine original set of those now rare
+instruments, eight in number, was shown in 1890 in the music gallery
+of the Royal Military Exhibition, at Chelsea; a loan collection
+admirably arranged by Captain C.B. Day. They were obtained from Hesse
+Darmstadt, and had their outer case to preserve them exactly like the
+recorder case represented in the painting by Holbein of the
+ambassadors, or rather, the scholars, recently acquired for the
+National Gallery. The flageolet was the latest form of the treble,
+beak, or whistle head flute. The whistle head is furnished with a
+cavity containing air, which, shaped by a narrow groove, strikes
+against the sharp edge and excites vibration in the conical pipe, on
+the same principle that an organ pipe is made to sound, or of the
+action of the player's mouth and lips upon the blowhole of the flute.
+As it will interest the audience to hear the tone of Shakespeare's
+recorder, Mr. Henry Carte will play an air upon one.
+
+The oboe takes the next place in the wood wind band. The principle of
+sound excitement, that of the double reed, originating in the
+flattening of the end of an oat or wheat straw, is of great antiquity,
+but it could only be applied by insertion in tubes of very narrow
+diameter, so that the column of air should not be wider than the
+tongue straw or reed acting upon it. The little reed bound round and
+contracted below the vibrating ends in this primitive form permitted
+the adjustment of the lower open end in the tube, it might be another
+longer reed or pipe which inclosed the air column; and thus a conical
+pipe that gradually narrows to the diameter of the tongue reed must
+have been early discovered, and was the original type of the pastoral
+and beautiful oboe of the modern orchestra. Like the flute, the oboe
+has only the soprano register, extending from B flat or natural below
+middle C to F above the treble clef, two octaves and a fifth, which a
+little exceeds the flute downward. The foundation of the scale is D
+major, the same as the flute was before Boehm altered it. Triebert, a
+skillful Parisian maker, tried to adapt Boehm's reform of the flute to
+the oboe, but so far as the geometrical division of the scale was
+concerned, he failed, because it altered the characteristic tone
+quality of the instrument, so desirable for the balance of orchestral
+coloration. But the fingering has been modified with considerable
+success, although it is true by a much greater complication of means
+than the more simple contrivances that preceded it, which are still
+preferred by the players. The oboe reed has been much altered since
+the earlier years of this century. It was formerly more like the reed
+of the shawm, an instrument from which the oboe has been derived; and
+that of the present bassoon. It is now made narrower, with much
+advantage in the refinement of the tone. As in the flute, the notes up
+to C sharp in the treble clef are produced by the normal blowing, and
+simply shortening the tube by opening the sound holes. Beyond that
+note, increased pressure, or overblowing, assisted by a harmonic
+"speaker" key, produces the first harmonic, that of the octave, and so
+on. The lowest notes are rough and the highest shrill; from A to D
+above the treble clef, the tone quality of the oboe is of a tender
+charm in melody. Although not loud, its tone is penetrating and
+prominent. Its staccato has an agreeable effect. The place of the oboe
+in the wood wind band between the flute and the clarinet, with the
+bassoon for a bass, is beyond the possibility of improvement by any
+change.
+
+Like the flute, there was a complete family of oboes in the sixteenth
+and early in the seventeenth century; the little schalmey, the discant
+schalmey, from which the present oboe is derived; the alto, tenor,
+pommer, and bass pommers, and the double quint or contrabass pommer.
+
+In all these old finger hole instruments the scale begins with the
+first hole, a note in the bagpipe with which the drones agree, and not
+the entire tube. From the bass and double quint pommers came
+ultimately the bassoon and contra-bassoon, and from the alto pommer,
+an obsolete instrument for which Bach wrote, called the oboe di
+caccia, or hunting oboe, an appellation unexplained, unless it had
+originally a horn-like tone, and was, as it has been suggested to me
+by Mr. Blaikley, used by those who could not make a real hunting horn
+sound. It was bent to a knee shape to facilitate performance. It was
+not exactly the cor Anglais or English horn, a modern instrument of
+the same pitch which is bent like it, and of similar compass, a fifth
+below the usual oboe. The tenoroon, with which the oboe di caccia has
+been compared, was a high bassoon really on octave and a fifth below.
+It has been sometimes overlooked that there are two octaves in pitch
+between the oboe and bassoon, which has led to some confusion in
+recognizing these instruments. There was an intermediate instrument a
+third lower than the oboe, used by Bach, called the oboe d'amore,
+which was probably used with the cornemuse or bagpipe, and another, a
+third higher than the oboe, called musette (not the small bagpipe of
+that name). The cor Anglais is in present use. It is a melancholy,
+even mournful instrument, its sole use in the orchestra being very
+suitable for situations on the stage, the effect of which it helps by
+depressing the mind to sadness. Those who have heard Wagner's "Tristan
+und Isolde" will remember, when the faithful Kurwenal sweeps the
+horizon, and sees no help coming on the sea for the dying Tristan, how
+pathetically the reed pipe of a careless peasant near, played in the
+orchestra on a cor Anglais, colors the painful situation.
+
+The bassoon is the legitimate bass to the oboe and to the wood wind in
+general. It was evolved in the sixteenth century from the pommers and
+bombards: the tenors and basses of the shawm or oboe family. With the
+older instruments, the reeds were not taken hold of immediately by the
+lips, but were held in a kind of cup, called _pirouette_, which only
+allowed a very small part of the reed to project. In the oboe and
+bassoon the player has the full control of the reed with the lips,
+which is of great importance, both in expression and intonation. The
+bassoon economizes length, by being turned back upon itself, and, from
+its appearance, obtains in Italy and Germany the satirical appellation
+of "fagotto" or "fagott." It is made of wood, and has not, owing to
+many difficulties as yet unsurmounted, undergone those changes of
+construction that have partly transformed other wood wind instruments.
+From this reason--and perhaps the necessity of a bassoon player
+becoming intimately familiar with his instrument--bassoons by some of
+the older makers--notably, Savory--are still sought after, in
+preference to more modern ones. The instrument, although with
+extraordinary advantages in tone, character, and adaptability, that
+render it valuable to the composer, is yet complicated and capricious
+for the performer; but its very imperfections remove it from the
+mechanical tendencies of the age, often damaging to art; and, as the
+player has to rely very much upon his ear for correct intonation, he
+gets, in reality, near to the manipulation of the stringed
+instruments. The bassoons play readily with the violoncellos, their
+united tone being often advantageous for effect. When not so used, it
+falls back into its natural relationship with the wood wind division
+of the orchestra. The compass of the bassoon is from B flat, an octave
+below that in the bass clef, to B flat in the treble clef, a range of
+three octaves, produced by normal pressure, as far as the bass clef F.
+The F below the bass clef is the true lowest note, the other seven
+semitones descending to the B flat being obtained by holes and keys in
+the long joint and bell. These extra notes are not overblown. The
+fundamental notes are extended as in the oboes and flutes by
+overflowing to another octave, and afterward to the twelfth. In modern
+instruments yet higher notes, by the contrivance of small harmonic
+holes and cross fingerings, can be secured. Long notes, scales,
+arpeggios, are all practicable on this serviceable instrument, and in
+full harmony with clarinets, or oboes and horns, it forms part of a
+rich and beautiful combination. There is a very telling quality in the
+upper notes of the bassoon of which composers have made use.
+Structurally, a bassoon consists of several pieces, the wing, butt,
+long joints, and bell, and when fitted together, they form a hollow
+cone of about eight feet long, the air column tapering in diameter
+from three-sixteenths of an inch at the reed to one and three-quarter
+inches at the bell end.
+
+The bending back at the butt joint is pierced in one piece of wood,
+and the prolongation of the double tube is usually stopped by a
+flattened oval cork, but in some modern bassoons this is replaced by a
+properly curved tube. The height is thus reduced to a little over four
+feet, and the holes, assisted by the artifice of piercing them
+obliquely, are brought within reach of the fingers. The crook, in the
+end of which the reed is inserted, is about twelve inches long, and is
+adjusted to the shorter branch.
+
+The contra-bassoon is an octave lower than the bassoon, which implies
+that it should go down to the double B flat, two octaves below that in
+the bass clef, but it is customary to do without the lowest as well as
+the highest notes of this instrument. It is rarely used, but should
+not be dispensed with. Messrs. Mahillon, of Brussels, produce a reed
+contra-bass of metal, intended to replace the contra-bassoon of wood,
+but probably more with the view of completing the military band than
+for orchestral use. It is a conical brass tube of large proportions,
+with seventeen lateral holes of wide diameter and in geometrical
+relation, so that for each sound one key only is required. The compass
+of this contra-bass lies between D in the double bass octave and the
+lower F of the treble clef.
+
+The sarrusophones of French invention are a complete family, made in
+brass and with conical tubes pierced according to geometric relation,
+so that the sarrusophone is more equal than the oboe it copies and is
+intended, at least for military music, to replace. Being on a larger
+scale, the sarrusophones are louder than the corresponding instruments
+of the oboe family. There are six sarrusophones, from the sopranino in
+E flat to the contra-bass in B flat; and to replace the contra-bassoon
+in the orchestra there is a lower contrabass sarrusophone made in C,
+the compass of which is from the double bass octave B flat to the
+higher G in the bass clef.
+
+Before leaving the double reed wind instruments, a few words should be
+said of a family of instruments in the sixteenth century as important
+as the schalmeys, pommers, and bombards, but long since extinct. This
+was the cromorne, a wooden instrument with cylindrical column of air;
+the name is considered to remain in the cremona stop of the organ. The
+lower end is turned up like a shepherd's crook reversed, from whence
+the French name "tournebout." Cromorne is the German "krummhorn;"
+there is no English equivalent known.
+
+The tone, as in all the reed instruments of the period, was strong and
+often bleating. The double reed was inclosed in a _pirouette_, or cup,
+and the keys of the tenor or bass, just the same as with similar
+flutes and bombards, were hidden by a barrel-shaped cover, pierced
+with small openings, apparently intended to modify the too searching
+tone as well as to protect the touch pieces which moved the keys. The
+compass was limited to fundamental notes, and from the cylindrical
+tube and reed was an octave lower in pitch than the length would show.
+In all these instruments provision was made in the holes and keys for
+transposition of the hands according to the player's habit of placing
+the right or left hand above the other. The unused hole was stopped
+with wax. There is a fine and complete set of four cromornes in the
+museum of the Conservatoire at Brussels.
+
+We must also place among double-reed instruments the various bagpipes,
+cornemuses, and musettes, which are shawm or oboe instruments with
+reservoirs of air, and furnished with drones inclosing single reeds. I
+shall have more to say about the drone in the third lecture. In
+restricting our attention to the Highland bagpipe, with which we are
+more or less familiar, it is surprising to find the peculiar scale of
+the chaunter, or finger pipe, in an old Arabic scale, still prevailing
+in Syria and Egypt. Dr. A.J. Ellis' lecture on "The Musical Scales of
+Various Nations," read before the Society of Arts, and printed in the
+_Journal_ of the Society, March 27, 1885, No. 1688, vol. xxxiii., and
+in an appendix, October 30, 1885, in the same volume, should be
+consulted by any one who wishes to know more about this curious
+similarity.
+
+We have now arrived at the clarinet. Although embodying a very ancient
+principle--the "squeaker" reed which our little children still make,
+and continued in the Egyptian arghool--the clarinet is the most recent
+member of the wood wind band. The reed initiating the tone by the
+player's breath is a broad, single, striking or beating reed, so
+called because the vibrating tongue touches the edges of the body of
+the cutting or framing. A cylindrical pipe, as that of the clarinet,
+drops, approximately, an octave in pitch when the column of air it
+contains is set up in vibration by such a reed, because the reed
+virtually closes the pipe at the end where it is inserted, and like a
+stopped organ pipe sets up a node of maximum condensation or
+rarefaction at that end. This peculiarity interferes with the
+resonance of the even-numbered partials of the harmonic scale, and
+permits only the odd-numbered partials, 1, 3, 5, and so on, to sound.
+The first harmonic, as we find in the clarinet, is therefore the third
+partial, or twelfth of the fundamental note, and not the octave, as in
+the oboe and flute.
+
+In the oboe the shifting of the nodes in a conical tube open at its
+base, and narrowing to its apex, permits the resonance of the complete
+series of the harmonic scale, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and upward. The flute has
+likewise the complete series, because through the blowhole it is a
+pipe open at both ends. But while stating the law which governs the
+pitch and harmonic scale of the clarinet, affirmed equally by
+observation and demonstration, we are left at present with only the
+former when regarding two very slender, almost cylindrical reed pipes,
+discovered in 1889 by Mr. Flinders Petrie while excavating at Fayoum
+the tomb of an Egyptian lady named Maket. Mr. Petrie dates these pipes
+about 1100 B.C., and they were the principal subject of Mr.
+Southgate's recent lectures upon the Egyptian scale.
+
+Now Mr. J. Finn, who made these ancient pipes sound at these lectures
+with an arghool reed of straw, was able upon the pipe which had, by
+finger holes, a tetrachord, to repeat that tetrachord a fifth higher
+by increased pressure of blowing, and thus form an octave scale,
+comprising eight notes. "Against the laws of nature," says a friend of
+mine, for the pipe having dropped more than an octave through the
+reed, was at its fundamental pitch, and should have overblown a
+twelfth.
+
+But Mr. Finn allows me to say with reference to those reeds, perhaps
+the oldest sounding musical instruments known to exist, that his
+experiments with straw reeds seem to indicate low, medium, and high
+octave registers. The first and last difficult to obtain with reeds as
+made by us. He seeks the fundamental tones of the Maket pipes in the
+first or low register, an octave below the normal pitch. By this the
+fifths revert to twelfths. I offer no opinion, but will leave this
+curious phenomenon to the consideration of my friends, Mr. Blaikley,
+Mr. Victor Mahillon, and Mr. Hermann Smith, acousticians intimate with
+wind instruments.
+
+The clarinet was invented about A.D. 1700, by Christopher Denner, of
+Nuremberg. By his invention, an older and smaller instrument, the
+chalumeau, of eleven notes, without producible harmonics, was, by an
+artifice of raising a key to give access to the air column at a
+certain point, endowed with a harmonic series of eleven notes a
+twelfth higher. The chalumeau being a cylindrical pipe, the upper
+partials could only be in an odd series, and when Denner made them
+speak, they were consequently not an octave, but a twelfth above the
+fundamental notes. Thus, an instrument which ranged, with the help of
+eight finger holes and two keys, from F in the bass clef to B flat in
+the treble had an addition given to it at once of a second register
+from C in the treble clef to E flat above it. The scale of the
+original instrument is still called chalumeau by the clarinet player;
+about the middle of the last century it was extended down to E. The
+second register of notes, which by this lengthening of pipe started
+from B natural, received the name of clarinet, or clarionet, from the
+clarino or clarion, the high solo trumpet of the time it was expected
+that this bright harmonic series would replace.
+
+This name of clarinet, or clarionet, became accepted for the entire
+instrument, including the chalumeau register. It is the communication
+between the external air and the upper part of the air column in the
+instrument which, initiating a ventral segment or loop of vibration,
+forces the air column to divide for the next possible partial, the
+twelfth, that Denner has the merit of having made practicable. At the
+same time the manipulation of it presents a difficulty in learning the
+instrument. It is in the nature of things that there should be a
+difference of tone quality between the lower and upper registers thus
+obtained; and that the highest fundamental notes, G sharp, A and B
+flat, should be colorless compared with the first notes of the
+overblown series. This is a difficulty the player has to contend with,
+as well as the complexity of fingering, due to there being no less
+than eighteen sound holes. Much has been done to graft Boehm's system
+of fingering upon the clarinet, but the thirteen key system, invented
+early in this century by Iwan Muller, is still most employed. The
+increased complication of mechanism is against a change, and there is
+even a stronger reason, which I cannot do better than translate, in
+the appropriate words of M. Lavoix fils, the author of a well-known
+and admirable work upon instrumentation:
+
+    "Many things have still to be done, but inventors must not lose
+    the point in view, that no tone quality is more necessary to the
+    composer than that of the clarinet in its full extent; that it
+    is very necessary especially to avoid melting together the two
+    registers of chalumeau and clarinet, so distinct from each
+    other. If absolute justness for these instruments is to be
+    acquired at the price of those inestimable qualities, it would
+    be better a hundred times to leave it to virtuosi, thanks to
+    their ability, to palliate the defects of their instrument,
+    rather than sacrifice one of the most beautiful and intensely
+    colored voices of our orchestra."
+
+There are several clarinets of various pitches, and formerly more than
+are used now, owing to the difficulty of playing except in handy keys.
+In the modern orchestra the A and B flat clarinets are the most used;
+in the military band, B flat and E flat. The C clarinet is not much
+used now. All differ in tone and quality; the A one is softer than the
+B flat; the C is shrill. The B flat is the virtuoso instrument. In
+military bands the clarinet takes the place which would be that of the
+violin in the orchestra, but the tone of it is always characteristically
+different. Although introduced in the time of Handel and Bach those
+composers made no use of it. With Mozart it first became a leading
+orchestral instrument.
+
+The Basset horn, which has become the sensuously beautiful alto
+clarinet in E flat, is related to the clarinet in the same way that
+the cor Anglais is to the oboe. Basset is equivalent to Baryton (there
+is a Basset flute figured in Praetorius), and this instrument appears
+to have been invented by one Horn, living at Passau, in Bavaria, about
+1770. His name given to the instrument has been mistranslated into
+Italian as Corno di Bassetto. There is a bass clarinet employed with
+effect by Meyerbeer in the "Huguenots," but the characteristic
+clarinet tone is less noticeable; it is, however, largely used in
+military bands. The Basset horn had the deep compass of the bass
+clarinet which separates it from the present alto clarinet, although
+it was more like the alto in caliber. The alto clarinet is also used
+in military bands; and probably what the Basset horn would have been
+written for is divided between the present bass and alto clarinets.
+
+Preceding the invention of the sarrusophone, by which a perfected oboe
+was contrived in a brass instrument, a modified brass instrument, the
+saxophone, bearing a similar relation to the clarinet, was invented in
+1846 by Sax, whose name will occur again and again in connection with
+important inventions in military band instruments. The saxophone is
+played like the clarinet with the intervention of a beating reed, but
+is not cylindrical; it has a conical tube like the oboe. The different
+shape of the column of air changes the first available harmonic
+obtained by overblowing to the octave instead of the twelfth; and also
+in consequence of the greater strength of the even harmonics,
+distinctly changing the tone quality. The sarrusophone may fairly be
+regarded as an oboe or bassoon; but the saxophone is not so closely
+related to the clarinet. There are four sizes of saxophone now made
+between high soprano and bass. Starting from the fourth fundamental
+note, each key can be employed in the next higher octave, by the help
+of other two keys, which, being opened successively, set up a
+vibrating loop. The saxophones, although difficult to play, fill an
+important place in the military music of France and Belgium, and have
+been employed with advantage in the French orchestra. The fingering of
+all saxophones is that attributed to Boehm.
+
+The cup shaped mouthpiece must now take the place of the reed in our
+attention. Here the lips fit against a hollow cup shaped reservoir,
+and, acting as vibrating membranes, may be compared with the vocal
+chords of the larynx. They have been described as acting as true
+reeds. Each instrument in which such a mouthpiece is employed requires
+a slightly different form of it. The French horn is the most important
+brass instrument in modern music. It consists of a body of conical
+shape about seven feet long, without the crooks, ending in a large
+bell, which spreads out to a diameter of fifteen inches. The crooks
+are fitted between the body and the mouthpiece; they are a series of
+smaller interchangeable tubings, which extend in length as they
+descend in pitch, and set the instrument in different keys. The
+mouthpiece is a funnel shaped tube of metal, by preference silver;
+and, in the horn, is exceptionally not cup shaped, but the reverse: it
+tapers, as a cone, from three-quarters of an inch diameter to about a
+minimum of three-sixteenths of an inch, and is a quarter of an inch
+where the smaller end of the mouthpiece is inserted in the upper
+opening of the crook. The first horn has a mouthpiece of rather less
+diameter than the second. The peculiar mouthpiece and narrow tubing
+have very much to do with the soft voice-like tone quality of the
+horn. For convenience of holding, the tubing is bent in a spiral form.
+There is a tuning slide attached to the body, and, of late years,
+valves have been added to the horn, similar to those applied to the
+cornet and other wind instruments. They have, to a considerable
+extent, superseded hand stopping, by which expedient the intonation
+could be altered a semitone or whole tone, by depression of the
+natural notes of the instrument. In brass, or other instruments, the
+natural harmonics depend on the pressure of blowing; and the brass
+differs entirely from the wood wind, in this respect, that it is rare,
+or with poor effect, the lowest or fundamental note can be made to
+sound. Stopping the horn is done by extending the open hand some way
+up the bore; there is half stopping and whole stopping, according to
+the interval, the half tone or whole tone required. As may be
+imagined, the stopped notes are weak and dull compared with the open.
+On the other hand, the tubing introduced for valves not being quite
+conformable in curve with the instrument, and hampered with
+indispensable joins, unless in the best form of modern valve, affects
+the smoothness of tone. No doubt there has been of late years a great
+improvement in the manufacture of valves. Many horns are still made
+with crooks covering an octave from B flat to B flat, 8 feet 6 inches
+to 17 feet; but most players now use only the F crook, and trust to
+the valves, rather than to change the crooks, so that we lose the
+fullness of sound of those below F. The natural horn was originally in
+D, but was not always restricted to that key; there have been horns
+for F, G, high A, and B flat. This may, however, be said for the valve
+horn, that it does not limit or restrict composers in writing for the
+open or natural notes, which are always more beautiful in effect.
+
+Valves were invented and first introduced in Prussia about A.D. 1815.
+At first there were two, but there are now generally three. In this
+country and France they are worked by pistons, which, when pressed
+down, give access for the air into channels or supplementary tubings
+on one side of the main bore, thus lengthening it by a tone for the
+first valve, a semitone for the second, and a tone and a semitone for
+the third. When released by the finger, the piston returns by the
+action of a spring. In large bass and contralto instruments, a fourth
+piston is added, which lowers the pitch two tones and a semitone. By
+combining the use of three valves, lower notes are obtained--thus, for
+a major third, the second is depressed with the third; for a fourth,
+the first and third; and for the tritone, the first, second, and
+third. But the intonation becomes imperfect when valves are used
+together, because the lengths of additional tubing being calculated
+for the single depressions, when added to each other, they are too
+short for the deeper notes required. By an ingenious invention of
+compensating pistons, Mr. Blaikley, of Messrs. Boosey's, has
+practically rectified this error without extra moving parts or altered
+fingering. In the valve section, each altered note becomes a
+fundamental for another harmonic scale. In Germany a rotary valve, a
+kind of stop cock, is preferred to the piston. It is said to give
+greater freedom of execution, the closeness of the shake being its
+best point, but is more expensive and liable to derangement. The
+invention of M. Adolphe Sax, of a single ascending piston in place of
+a group of descending ones, by which the tube is shortened instead of
+lengthened, met, for a time, with influential support. It is suitable
+for both conical and cylindrical instruments, and has six valves,
+which are always used independently. However, practical difficulties
+have interfered with its success. With any valve system, however, a
+difficulty with the French horn is its great variation in length by
+crooks, inimical to the principle of the valve system, which relies
+upon an adjustment by aliquot parts. It will, however, be seen that
+the invention of valves has, by transforming and extending wind
+instruments, so as to become chromatic, given many advantages to the
+composer. Yet it must, at the same time, be conceded, in spite of the
+increasing favor shown for valve instruments, that the tone must issue
+more freely, and with more purity and beauty, from a simple tube than
+from tubes with joinings and other complications, that interfere with
+the regularity and smoothness of vibration, and, by mechanical
+facilities, tend to promote a dull uniformity of tone quality.
+
+Owing to the changes of pitch by crooks, it is not easy to define the
+compass of the French horn. Between C in the bass clef and G above the
+treble will represent its serviceable notes. It is better that the
+first horn should not descend below middle C, or the second rise above
+the higher E of the treble clef. Four are generally used in modern
+scores. The place of the horn is with the wood wind band. From Handel,
+every composer has written for it, and what is known as the small
+orchestra of string and wood wind bands combined is completed by this
+beautiful instrument.
+
+The most prominent instruments that add to the splendor of the full
+orchestra are trumpets and trombones. They are really members of one
+family, as the name trombone--big trumpet--implies, and blend well
+together. The trumpet is an instrument of court and state functions,
+and, as the soprano instrument, comes first. It is what is known as an
+eight foot instrument in pitch, and gives the different harmonics from
+the third to the twelfth, and even to the sixteenth. It is made of
+brass, mixed metal, or silver, and is about five feet seven inches in
+real length, when intended for the key of F without a slide; but is
+twice turned back upon itself, the first and third lengths lying
+contiguous, and the second about two inches from them. The diameter is
+three-eighths of an inch along the cylindrical length; it then widens
+out for about fifteen inches, to form the bell.
+
+When fitted with a slide for transposition--an invention for the
+trumpet in the last century--this double tubing, about five inches in
+length on each side, is connected with the second length. It is worked
+from the center with the second and third fingers of the right band,
+and, when pulled back, returns to its original position by a spring.
+There are five crooks. The mouthpiece is hemispherical and convex, and
+the exact shape of it is of great importance. It has a rim with
+slightly rounded surface. The diameter of the mouthpiece varies
+according to the player and the pitch required. With the first crook,
+or rather shank, and mouthpiece, the length of the trumpet is
+increased to six feet, and the instrument is then in the key of F. The
+second shank transposes it to E, the third to E flat, and the fourth
+to D. The fifth, and largest--two feet one and a half inches
+long--extends the instrument to eight feet, and lowers the key to C.
+The slide is used for transposition by a semitone or a whole tone,
+thus making new fundamentals, and correcting certain notes of the
+natural harmonic scale, as the seventh, eleventh, and thirteenth,
+which do not agree with our musical scale. Mr. W. Wyatt has recently
+taken out a patent for a double-slide trumpet, which possesses a
+complete chromatic scale. In the required length of slide the ear has
+always to assist. It is clear that the very short shifts of a double
+slide demand great nicety of manipulation. It is, of course, different
+with the valve trumpet. The natural trumpets are not limited to one or
+two keys, but those in F, E, E flat, D, B flat, and even A have been
+employed; but, usually, the valve trumpets are in F, and the higher B
+flat, with a growing inclination, but an unfortunate one, to be
+restricted to the latter, it being easier for cornet players. The tone
+of the high B flat trumpet cannot, however, compare with the F one,
+and with it the lowest notes are lost. Of course, when there are two
+or three trumpets, the high B flat one finds a place. However, the
+valve system applied to the trumpet is not regarded with satisfaction,
+as it makes the tone dull. For grand heroic effect, valve trumpets
+cannot replace the natural trumpets with slides, which are now only to
+be heard in this country.
+
+The simple or field trumpet appears to exist now in one representative
+only, the E flat cavalry trumpet. Bach wrote for trumpets up to the
+twentieth harmonic--but for this the trumpet had to be divided into a
+principal, which ended at the tenth harmonic--and the clarino in two
+divisions, the first of which went from the eighth harmonic up to as
+high as the player could reach, and the second clarino, from the sixth
+to the twelfth. The use of the clarinet by composers about the middle
+of the last century seems to have abolished these very high trumpets.
+So completely had they gone, by the time of Mozart, that he had to
+change Handel's trumpet parts, to accommodate them to performers of
+his own time, and transfer the high notes to the oboes and clarinets.
+
+Having alluded to the cornet a piston, it may be introduced here,
+particularly as from being between a trumpet and a bugle, and of four
+foot tone, it is often made to do duty for the more noble trumpet. But
+the distinctive feature of this, as of nearly all brass instruments
+since the invention of valves, tends to a compromise instrument, which
+owes its origin to the bugle. The cornet a piston is now not very
+different from the valve bugle in B flat on the one hand and from the
+small valve trumpet in the same key on the other. It is a hybrid
+between this high pitch trumpet and the bugle, but compared with the
+latter it has a much smaller bell. By the use of valves and pistons,
+with which it was the first to be endowed, the cornet can easily
+execute passages of consecutive notes that in the natural trumpet can
+only be got an octave higher. It is a facile instrument, and double
+tonguing, which is also possible with the horn and trumpet, is one of
+its popular means for display. It has a harmonic compass from middle C
+to C above the treble clef, and can go higher, but with difficulty. A
+few lower notes, however, are easily taken with the valves.
+
+We now come to the trombones, grand, sonorous tubes, which, existing
+in three or four sizes since the sixteenth century, are among the most
+potent additions on occasion to the full orchestra. Their treble can
+be regarded as the English slide trumpet, but it is not exactly so.
+There appears to have been as late as Bach a soprano trombone, and it
+is figured by Virdung, A.D. 1511, as no larger than the field trumpet.
+The trumpet is not on so large a caliber, and in the seventeenth
+century had its own family of two clarinos and three tubas. The old
+English name of the trombone is sackbut. The old wooden cornet, or
+German zinke, an obsolete, cupped mouthpiece instrument, the real bass
+of which, according to family, is the now obsolete serpent, was used
+in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries as the treble instrument in
+combination with alto, tenor, and bass trombones. The leading features
+of the trumpet are also found, as already inferred, in the trombone;
+there is the cupped mouthpiece, the cylindrical tubing, and, finally,
+a gradual increase in diameter to the bell. The slide used for the
+trumpet appears for four centuries, and probably longer, in the well
+known construction of the trombone. In this instrument it consists of
+two cylindrical tubes parallel with each other, upon which two other
+tubes communicating by a pipe at their lower ends curved in a half
+circle glide without loss of air. The mouthpiece is fitted to an upper
+end, and a bell to a lower end of the slide. When the slide is closed,
+the instrument is at its highest pitch, and as the column of air is
+lengthened by drawing the slide out, the pitch is lowered. By this
+contrivance a complete chromatic scale can be obtained, and as the
+determination of the notes it produces is by ear, we have in it the
+only wind instrument that can compare in accuracy with stringed
+instruments. The player holds a cross bar between the two lengths of
+the instrument, which enables him to lengthen or shorten the slide at
+pleasure, and in the bass trombone, as the stretch would be too great
+for the length of a man's arm, a jointed handle is attached to the
+cross bar. The player has seven positions, each a semitone apart for
+elongation, and each note has its own system of harmonics, but in
+practice he only occasionally goes beyond the fifth. The present
+trombones are the alto in E flat descending to A in the seventh
+position; the tenor in B flat descending to E; the bass in F
+descending to B, and a higher bass in G descending to C sharp. Wagner,
+who has made several important innovations in writing for bass brass
+instruments, requires an octave bass trombone in B flat; an octave
+lower than the tenor one, in the "Nibelungen." The fundamental tones
+of the trombone are called "pedal" notes. They are difficult to get
+and less valuable than harmonics because, in all wind instruments,
+notes produced by overblowing are richer than the fundamental notes in
+tone quality. Valve trombones do not, however, find favor, the defects
+of intonation being more prominent than in shorter instruments. But
+playing with wide bore tubas and their kindred is not advantageous to
+this noble instrument.
+
+The serpent has been already mentioned as the bass of the obsolete
+zinken or wooden cornets, straight or curved, with cupped mouthpiece.
+It gained its serpentine form from the facility given thereby to the
+player to cover the six holes with his fingers. In course of time keys
+were added to it, and when changed into a bassoon shape its name
+changed to the Russian bass horn or basson Russe. A Parisian
+instrument maker, Halary, in 1817, made this a complete instrument,
+after the manner of the keyed bugle of Halliday, and producing it in
+brass called it the ophicleide, from two Greek words meaning serpent
+and keys--keyed serpent--although it was more like a keyed bass bugle.
+The wooden serpent has gone out of use in military bands within
+recollection, the ophicleide from orchestras only recently. It has
+been superseded by the development of the valved tubas. The euphonium
+and bombardon, the basses of the important family of saxhorns, now
+completely cover the ground of bass wind instrument music. The keyed
+bugle, invented by Joseph Halliday, bandmaster of the Cavan militia,
+in 1810, may be regarded as the prototype of all these instruments,
+excepting that the keys have been entirely replaced by the valve
+system, an almost contemporary invention by Stoelzel and Blumel, in
+Prussia, in 1815. The valve instruments began to prevail as early as
+1850. The sound tube of all bugles, saxhorns, and tubas is conical,
+with a much wider curve than the horn. The quality of tone produced is
+a general kind of tone, not possessing the individuality of any of the
+older instruments. All these valve instruments may be comprehended
+under the French name of saxhorn. There is a division between them of
+the higher instruments or bugles, which do not sound the fundamental
+note, and of the lower, or tubas, which sound it readily. Properly
+military band instruments, the second or bass division, has been taken
+over to the orchestra; and Wagner has made great use of it in his
+great scores. The soprano cornets, bugles, or flugelhorns and saxhorns
+are in E flat; the corresponding alto instruments in B flat, which is
+also the pitch of the ordinary cornet. The tenor, baryton, and bass
+instruments follow in similar relation; the bass horns are, as I have
+said, called tubas; and that with four valves, the euphonium. The
+bombardon, or E flat tuba, has much richer lower notes.
+
+For military purposes, this and the contrabass--the helicon--are
+circular. Finally, the contrabass tubas in B flat, and in C, for
+Wagner, have immense depth and potentiality of tone; all these
+instruments are capable of pianissimo.
+
+There are many varieties now of these brass instruments, nearer
+particulars of which may be found in Gevaert, and other eminent
+musicians' works on instrumentation. One fact I will not pass by,
+which is that, from the use of brass instruments (which rise in pitch
+so rapidly under increase of temperature, as Mr. Blaikley has shown,
+almost to the coefficient of the sharpening under heat in organ pipes)
+has come about that rise in pitch which, from 1816 to 1846--until
+repressed by the authority of the late Sir Michael Costa, and, more
+recently, by the action of the Royal Military College at Kneller
+Hall--is an extraordinary feature in musical history. All previous
+variations in pitch--and they have comprised as much as a fourth in
+the extremes--having been due either to transposition, owing to the
+requirements of the human voice, or to national or provincial
+measurements. The manufacture of brass instruments is a distinct
+craft, although some of the processes are similar to those used by
+silversmiths, coppersmiths, and braziers.
+
+I have only time to add a few words about the percussion instruments
+which the military band permits to connect with the wind. Drums are,
+with the exception of kettle drums, indeterminate instruments, hardly,
+in themselves, to be regarded as musical, and yet important factors of
+musical and especially rhythmic effect. The kettle drum is a caldron,
+usually of brass or copper, covered with a vellum head bound at the
+edge round an iron ring, which fits the circle formed by the upper
+part of the metal body. Screws working on this ring tune the vellum
+head, or vibrating membrane as we may call it, by tightening or
+slackening it, so as to obtain any note of the scale within its
+compass. The tonic and dominant are generally required, but other
+notes are, in some compositions, used; even octaves have been
+employed. The use Beethoven made of kettle drums may be regarded among
+the particular manifestations of his genius. Two kettle drums may be
+considered among the regular constituents of the orchestra, but this
+number has been extended; in one remarkable instance, that of Berlioz
+in his Requiem, to eight pairs. According to Mr. Victor de Pontigny,
+whose article I am much indebted to (in Sir George Grove's dictionary)
+upon the drum, the relative diameters, theoretically, for a pair of
+kettle drums are in the proportion of 30 to 26, bass and tenor;
+practically the diameter of the drums at the French opera is 29 and
+251/4 inches, and of the Crystal Palace band, 28 and 241/4 inches. In
+cavalry regiments the drums are slung so as to hang on each side of
+the drummers horse's neck. The best drum sticks are of whalebone, each
+terminating in a small wooden button covered with sponge. For the bass
+drum and side drum I must be content to refer to Mr. Victor de
+Pontigny's article, and also for the tambourine, but the Provencal
+tambourines I have met with have long, narrow sound bodies, and are
+strung with a few very coarse strings which the player sounds with a
+hammer. This instrument is the rhythmic bass and support to the simple
+galoubet, a cylindrical pipe with two holes in front and one behind,
+sounded by the same performer. The English pipe and tabor is a similar
+combination, also with one player, of such a pipe and a small
+drum-head tambourine. Lastly, to conclude percussion instruments,
+cymbals are round metal plates, consisting of an alloy of copper and
+tin--say 80 parts to 20--with sunk hollow centers, from which the
+Greek name. They are not exactly clashed together to elicit their
+sound, but rubbed across each other in a sliding fashion. Like the
+triangle, a steel rod, bent into the form indicated by the name, but
+open at one corner so as to make it an elastic rod, free at both ends;
+the object is to add to the orchestral matter luminous crashes, as it
+were, and dazzling points of light, when extreme brilliancy is
+required.
+
+In conclusion, I must be allowed to express my obligations to Dr. W.H.
+Stone and Mr. Victor Mahillon, to Mr. Ebenezer Prout, Mr. Richard
+Shepherd Rockstro, Mr. Lavoix fils, and Dr. H. Riemann, whose writings
+concerning wind instruments have materially helped me; to Messrs.
+Boosey & Co., and to Messrs. Rudall, Carte & Co., for the loan of the
+instruments used in the illustrations; and also to Mr. D.J. Blaikley
+and Mr. Henry Carte, for valuable personal aid on the present
+occasion. Their kindness in reading through my manuscript--Mr.
+Blaikley throughout--and in offering friendly and generous criticisms;
+also their presence and assistance by trial of the various
+instruments, I cannot adequately thank them for, or sufficiently
+extol.
+
+(In the course of this lecture, Mr. Henry Carte played upon a concert
+flute, also a B flat and a G flute, an eight-keyed flute, and a
+recorder. Mr. D.J. Blaikley continued the illustrations upon the oboe,
+bassoon, clarinet, French horn, slide trumpet, valve tenor horn,
+cornet a piston, B flat tenor slide trombone, B flat euphonium, B flat
+contrabass tuba, and B flat contrabass double slide trombone.)
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+HOW GAS CYLINDERS ARE MADE.
+
+
+The supply of compressed gas in metal cylinders has now assumed the
+proportions of an important industry, more especially since it was
+found possible, by the Brin process, to obtain oxygen direct from the
+atmosphere. The industry is not exactly a new one, for carbon dioxide
+and nitrous oxide (the latter for the use of dentists) have been
+supplied in a compressed state for many years. Now, with the creation
+of the modern amateur photographer, who can make lantern slides, and
+the more general adoption of the optical lantern for the purposes of
+demonstration and amusement, there has arisen a demand for the
+limelight such as was never experienced before, and as the limelight
+is dependent upon the two gases, hydrogen and oxygen, for its support,
+these gases are now supplied in large quantities commercially. At
+first the gas cylinders were made of wrought iron; they were cumbrous
+and heavy, and the pressure of the inclosed gas was so low that a
+receptacle to hold only ten feet was a most unwieldy concern. But
+times have changed, and a cylinder of about the same size, but half
+the weight, is now made to hold four times the quantity of gas at the
+enormous initial pressure of 1,800 pounds on every square inch. This
+means the pressure which an ordinary locomotive boiler has to
+withstand multiplied by twelve. The change is due to improved methods
+of manufacture and to the employment of mild steel of special quality
+in lieu of the wrought iron previously employed. The cylinders are now
+made without joint or seam, and the process of manufacture is most
+interesting. A short time ago we had an opportunity of watching the
+various necessary operations involved in making these cylinders at the
+Birmingham works of Messrs. Taunton, Delamard & Co., by whose courtesy
+we were enabled to make notes of the process.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.]
+
+Beginning with the raw material, we were shown a disk of metal like
+that shown in Fig. 1, and measuring thirty inches in diameter and
+three-quarters of an inch in thickness. From such a "blank" a cylinder
+destined to hold 100 feet of compressed gas can be constructed, and
+the first operation is to heat the "blank" in a furnace, and afterward
+to stamp it into the cup-like form shown in Fig. 2. To all intents and
+purposes this represents the end of a finished cylinder, but it is far
+too bulky to form the end of one of the size indicated; indeed, it in
+reality contains enough metal to make the entire vessel. By a series
+of operations it is now heated and drawn out longer and longer, while
+its thickness diminishes and its diameter grows less. These operations
+are carried out by means of a number of hydraulic rams, which
+regularly decrease in size. Fig. 3 roughly represents one of these
+rams with the plunger ready to descend and force its way into the
+partially formed red hot gas cylinder, C, and further into the well,
+W. The plunger may be compared to a finger and the cylinder to a
+glove, while the well may represent a hole into which both are thrust
+in order to reduce the thickness of the glove. With huge tongs the
+cylinder, fresh from the furnace, is placed in position, but just
+before the plunger presses into the red hot cup, one of the workmen
+empties into the latter a little water, so as to partially cool the
+bottom and prevent its being thrust out by the powerful plunger. Oil
+is also used plentifully, so that as the plunger works slowly down the
+red hot mass, it is surrounded by smoky flames. It presently forces
+the cylinder into the well, and when the end of the stroke is reached,
+a stop piece is inserted through an opening in the upper part of the
+well, so as to arrest the edge of the cylinder while the reverse
+action of drawing out the plunger is proceeded with. Directly the
+finger is drawn out of the glove--in other words, immediately the
+plunger is raised out of the cylinder--the latter drops down below
+with a heavy thud, still in a red hot condition.
+
+[Illustration: FIG 3.]
+
+This operation of hot drawing is repeated again and again in rams of
+diminishing size until the cylinder assumes the diameter and length
+required. This hot drawing leaves the surface of the metal marked with
+longitudinal lines, not unlike the glacier scratches on a rock, albeit
+they are straighter and more regular. But the next operation not only
+obliterates these markings, and gives the metal a smooth surface like
+that of polished silver, but it also confers upon the material a
+homogeneity which it did not before possess, and without which it
+would never bear the pressure which it is destined to withstand when
+finished. This operation consists in a final application of the
+hydraulic ram while the metal remains perfectly cold, instead of red
+hot, as in the previous cases.
+
+As the result of these various hydraulic operations, we have a
+perfectly formed cylinder closed at one end, and we now follow it into
+another department of the works, when its open end is once more
+brought in a furnace to a red heat. The object of this is to make the
+metal soft while the shoulder and neck of the vessel are formed. To
+accomplish this, the heated open end of the cylinder is laid
+horizontally upon a kind of semicircular cradle, and is held there by
+tongs handled by two men. Another workman places over the open end a
+die of the form shown in Fig. 4, and while the cylinder is slowly
+turned round in its cradle, two sledge hammers are brought down with
+frequent blows upon the die, closing in the end of the cylinder, but
+leaving a central hole as shown in Fig. 5. Further operations reduce
+the opening still more until it is closed altogether, and a projection
+is formed as shown at Fig. 6. This projection is now bored through,
+and the cylinder is ready for testing.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.]
+
+The cylinder is submitted to a water test, the liquid being forced in
+until the gauge shows a pressure of two tons to the square inch.
+Cylinders have been known to give way under this ordeal, but without
+any dangerous consequences. The metal simply rips up, making a report
+at the moment of fracture as loud as a gun. The wonderful strength of
+the metal employed may be gauged by the circumstance that the walls of
+the cylinder designed to hold 100 feet of gas are only five-sixteenths
+of an inch in thickness.
+
+During the manufacture of the cylinder, as we have already indicated,
+much oil is used, and, so far as steel can be saturated with that
+fluid--in the popular sense--the metal is in that state. It is
+essential that this oil should be completely got rid of, and this is
+carefully done before the cylinder is charged with gas. Previous to
+such charging, the vessel has to be fitted with its valve. Of these
+valves there are three kinds, known respectively as the Brin, the
+Birmingham, and the Manchester. Each has its admirers, but we cannot
+here discuss their individual merits.
+
+The charging of the cylinder is brought about by a powerful pump
+having three cylinders so arranged that the compressed contents of the
+first cylinder are still further compressed in the second, and still
+more highly in the third. The filling of a 100 ft. cylinder occupies
+about half an hour.--_Photographic News_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE HORSESHOE.
+
+BY DISTRICT VETERINARIAN ZIPPELIUS, OF WURTZBURG.
+
+_Translated by S.E. Weber, V.S.[1]_
+
+   [Footnote 1: From _Theirarztliche Mittheilungen_, organ des
+   Vereins badischer Theirarzte, Karlsruhe, No. IV., April,
+   1891.--_Veterinary Archives._]
+
+
+      Kind, gentle steed, nobly standing,
+      Four shoes will I put on your feet,
+      Firm and good, that you'll be fleet,
+      That is Donar's hammer saying.
+
+      To the woods and homeward go,
+      Always on the straight road thro',
+      Far from what is bad, still fleeing,
+      That is Donar's hammer saying.
+
+      Should wounds and pain become distressing,
+      Blood to blood shall flow,
+      Bone to bone shall grow,
+      That is Donar's hammer saying.
+
+      Carry the rider, true little steed,
+      Onward to all good luck bringing;
+      Carry him thence and back with speed,
+      That is Donar's hammer saying.
+
+                  --_Old Meresburger Song_.
+
+The horse appeared comparatively late in the group of domestic
+animals. In searching the monuments of the ancients, which have
+furnished the foundation for our present culture, that is, of the
+littoral inhabitants of the Mediterranean, and of the people of
+Mesopotamia, we find in Egypt the first traces of the horse. But even
+here it appears late, on the monuments of the first ruling patricians
+of human origin.[2] Especially during the period of Memphis (I-X
+Dynasty), then under the rules of Thebes (XI-XVI Dynasty), there is no
+trace of the horse.
+
+   [Footnote 2: Until the time Menes, with whom historical times
+   begin, ruled in Egypt among visionary heroes or mythological
+   gods.]
+
+It is first in the transition period, from the late rule of Thebes
+(XVII-XX Dynasty) to the so-called period of Sut (XXI-XXX Dynasty)
+that there appears, in the wall pictures of the Pharaohs' tombs,
+representations of the horse. The oldest, now known, picture of the
+horse is found on the walls of the tombs of Seti I. (1458-1507 B.C.)
+under whose reign the Israelite wandered from Egypt. The horses of the
+mortuary pictures are very well drawn, and have an unmistakable
+oriental type. There has therefore undoubtedly existed in Egypt high
+culture, for over 4,000 years, without representation of the horse,
+which was the next animal domesticated after the cat.
+
+From this time on we find the horse frequently represented both by the
+vainglorious despots of Mesopotamia and on the so-called Etruscan
+vases, which appeared after the influence of Greek art, when, on
+almost every urn, horses in lively action and in various forms of
+bodily development, almost always of an oriental type, are to be
+recognized. But neither here, nor in Homer, nor in the many later
+representations of the horse on the Roman triumphal arches, etc., are
+to be found horses whose hoofs have any trace of protection. Records,
+which describe to us the misfortunes of armies, whose horses had run
+their feet sore, we find on the contrary at a very early time, as in
+Diodorus, regarding the cavalry of Alexander the Great, in Xenophon,
+regarding the retreat of the ten thousand, in Polybius, regarding the
+cavalry of Hannibal in Etruria, etc. It is also known that the cavalry
+of the linguist King of Pontus, Mithridates the Great, at times and
+specially at the siege of Cyzicus were delayed, in order to let the
+hoofs of the horses grow.
+
+On the contrary it seems strange that of the Huns alone, whose
+horsemen swept over whole continents from the Asiatic highlands like a
+thunderstorm, such trouble had not become known either through the
+numerous authors of the eastern and western Roman empire or from
+Gallia.
+
+Horseshoeing, very likely, was invented by different nations at about
+the same period during the migration of the nations, and the various
+kinds of new inventions were brought together in Germany only, after
+each had acquired a national stamp according to climate and
+usefulness.
+
+In this way come from the south the thin, plate-like horseshoes, with
+staved rim, covering the whole hoof; from the Mongolian tribes of
+middle Asia the "Stolleneisen" (calk shoe); while to our northern
+ancestors, and indeed the Normans, must be ascribed with great
+probability the invention of the "Griffeneisen" (gripe shoe),
+especially for the protection of the toes.
+
+All varieties of the horseshoe of southern Europe are easily
+distinguished from the Roman so-called "Kureisen" (cure shoe), of
+which several have been unearthed at various excavations and are
+preserved at the Romo-Germanic Museum in Mentz (Mainz), Germany. The
+shoes, Figs. 1 and 2, each represent thin iron plates, covering the
+whole hoof, which in some cases have an opening in the middle, of
+several centimeters in diameter.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 1.]
+
+These plates, apparently set forth to suit oriental and occidental
+body conformation, are either directly provided with loops or have
+around the outer margin a brim several centimeters high, in which
+rings are fastened. Through the loops or rings small ropes were drawn,
+and in this way the shoe was fastened to the crown of the hoof and to
+the pastern. Sufficient securing of the toe was wanting in all these
+shoes, and, on account of this, the movement of the animal with the
+same must have been very clumsy, and we can see from this that the
+ropes must have made the crown of the hoof and pastern sore in a short
+time. One of these shoes[3] evidently was the object of improvement,
+to prevent the animal from slipping as well as from friction, and we
+therefore find on it three iron cubes 11/2 centimeters high, which were
+fastened corresponding to our toes and calks of to-day, and offer a
+very early ready proof, from our climatic and mountainous conditions,
+which later occur, principally in southern Germany, that this style of
+horseshoeing was not caused by error, but by a well founded local and
+national interest or want.
+
+   [Footnote 3: Not illustrated.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.]
+
+Aside from the so-called "Kureisen" (cure shoe) for diseased hoofs, we
+find very little from the Romans on horseshoeing or hoof protection,
+and therefore we must observe special precautions with all their
+literature on the subject. It is because of this that I excuse Prof.
+Sittl's communication in the preface of Winckelmann's "Geschichte der
+Kunst in Alterthum" (History of Ancient Art), which contains a notice
+that Fabretti, in some raised work in Plazzo Matti, of a
+representation of a hunt by the Emperor Gallienus (Bartoli Admirand
+Ant. Tab. 24), showed that at that time horseshoes fastened by nails,
+the same as to-day, were used (Fabretti de Column. Traj. C. 7 pag.
+225; Conf. Montlanc. Antiq. Explic. T. 4, pag. 79). This statement
+proves itself erroneous, because he was not aware that the foot of the
+horse was repaired by an inexperienced sculptor.
+
+How then did out of this Roman cure shoe develop the horseshoeing of
+southern Europe?
+
+It was to be expected, with the Roman horseshoe, that the mode of
+fastening became unsatisfactory and necessitated a remedy or change.
+An attempt of this kind has been preserved in the so-called
+"Asiatischen Koppeneisensole" (Asiatic cap-iron-sole) (Fig. 3), which
+the Hon. Mr. Lydtin at Karlsruhe had made according to a model of the
+Circassian Horse Tribe Shaloks, and also according to the reverse of
+Lycian coins (called Triguetra).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.]
+
+This horseshoe plate, likely originating in the twelfth century,
+covers the whole surface of the sole, like the Roman shoes, with the
+exception of the wall region, which contains a rim 1 centimeter high,
+and above this rises at one side toward the heel three beak-like
+projections, about 4 centimeters high and 1 centimeter wide at the
+base, being pointed above and turned down, which were fastened in the
+wall of the hoof, in the form of a hook.
+
+This mode of fastening evidently was also insufficient, and so the
+fastening of the shoe by nails was adopted. These iron plates used for
+shoes were too thin to allow nails with sunken heads to be used, so
+only nails with blades and cubical shaped heads were applicable. These
+nail heads, 6 to 8 in number, which left the toe and the back part of
+the heel free, served at the same time to secure the horse from
+slipping, which the smooth plates, covering the whole hoof surface,
+without doubt facilitated.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.]
+
+Shoes of this kind, after the old Roman style, with a very strong rim
+bent upward, likely proved very comfortable for the purpose of
+protection, in the Sierras of the Pyrenean peninsula, where they seem
+to have been in use for a long time; for in the twelfth century we
+find in Spain the whole form of the Roman shoe, only fastened by nails
+(Figs. 4 and 5). At first the shoe seems to have been cut off at the
+heel end, but as apparently after being on for some time, bruises were
+noticed, the shoe was made longer at the heel, and this part was
+turned up so as to prevent them from becoming loose too soon, as both
+the Spanish horseshoes of this period show, and the acquisition was
+even later transferred to England (Fig. 7).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.]
+
+The shoe containing a groove (Fig. 6), which we shall see later, made
+its appearance in Germany in the fifteenth century. From this time,
+according to our present knowledge, ceases the period of the Roman
+horseshoe. Its influence, however, lasted a great deal longer, and has
+even remained until our present day.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.]
+
+Its successor became partly the Arabo-Turkomanic and partly the
+Southwest European horseshoe.
+
+For the descendants of the Numidian light cavalry, the Roman and old
+Spanish horseshoe was evidently too heavy for their sandy, roadless
+deserts, so they made it thinner and omitted the bent-up rim, because
+it prevented the quick movement of the horse. For the protection of
+the nail heads the outer margin of the shoe was staved, so as to form
+a small rim on the outer surface of the shoe, thus preventing the nail
+heads from being worn and the shoe lost too soon.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9.]
+
+A horseshoe of that kind is shown by Fig. 8, which was used in North
+Africa in the twelfth century, and became the model for all forms of
+horseshoes of the Mahometan tribes. Even now quite similar shoes (Fig.
+9) are made south and east from the Caspian Sea, at the Amu-Darja, in
+Samarkand, etc., which were probably introduced under Tamerlane, the
+conqueror of nearly the whole of Asia Minor in the fourteenth century.
+
+The so-called "Sarmatische" (Sarmatian) horseshoe (Figs. 10 and 11),
+of South Russia, shows in its form, at the same time, traces of the
+last named shoe, however, greatly influenced by the Mongolian shoe,
+the "Goldenen Horde," which at the turn of the sixteenth to the
+seventeenth century played havoc at the Volga and the Aral. The
+unusual width of the toe, and especially the lightness of the iron,
+reminds us of the Turkomanic horseshoe, whereas, on the contrary, the
+large bean-shaped holes, as well as the calks, were furnished through
+Mongolian influence.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 10.]
+
+The Sarmatian tribes were principally horsemen, and it is not
+surprising, therefore, that the coat of arms of the former kingdom of
+Poland in the second and third quadrate shows a silver rider in armor
+on a silver running horse shod with golden shoes, and that at present
+about 1,000 families in 25 lineages of the Polish Counts Jastrzembiec
+Bolesezy, the so-called "Polnische Hufeisen Adel" (Polish Horseshoe
+Nobility), at the same time also carried the horseshoe on their coats
+of arms. The silver horseshoe in a blue field appears here as a symbol
+of the "Herbestpfardes" (autumnal horse), to which, after the
+christianization of Poland, was added the golden cross. The noblemen
+participating in the murder of the holy Stanislaus in 1084 had to
+carry the horseshoe reversed on their escutcheon.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 11.]
+
+From the African and Turkomanic horseshoe, through the turning up of
+the toes and heels, originated later the Turkish, Grecian and
+Montenegrin horseshoe of the present as shown by Fig. 12.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 12.]
+
+By the Moorish invasion in Spain, the Spanish-Gothic horseshoeing was
+also modified, through which the shoe became smooth, staved at the
+margin, very broad in the toe, and turned up at toe and heel, and at a
+later period the old open Spanish national horseshoe (Fig. 13) was
+developed. As we thus see, we can in no way deny the Arabian-Turkish
+origin of this shoe.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 13.]
+
+As France had received her whole culture from the south, and as the
+crusades especially brought the Roman nation in close contact with
+them for centuries, so it cannot appear strange that the old French
+horseshoe, a form of which has been preserved by Bourgelat and is
+represented by Fig. 14, still remained in the smooth, turned up in
+front and behind, like the shoe of the southern climates, with Asiatic
+traces, which hold on the ground, the same as all southern shoeing, by
+the nail heads.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 14.]
+
+The transit of the German empire, in order to keep up the historical
+course, once more brings us back to the middle of the fifth century.
+At this time Attila, the "Godegisel" (gods' scourge), left his wooden
+capitol in the lowlands near the river Theis, to go to the Roman
+empire and to the German and Gallican provinces, there to spread
+indescribable misery to the horrors of judgment day.
+
+The following is a prayer in those days of horror:
+
+      "Kleiner Huf, kleines Ross,
+      Krummer Sabel, spitz Geschoss--
+      Blitzesschnell und sattlefest:
+      Schrim uns Herr von Hunnenpest."
+
+We are at present reminded of those times of fright, when during the
+clearing and tilling of the soil, a small roughly made horseshoe is
+found in Southern Germany, about as far as the water boundary of the
+Thuringian forest, and occasionally on, but principally around
+Augsburg, and in France as far as the Loire.
+
+These shoes, covering the margin or wall of the foot, show slight
+traces of having been beveled on the lower surface, and contain two
+bent calks very superficially placed. Occasionally they are sharpened
+and turned in two directions. The characteristic wide bean-shaped nail
+holes are conical on the inside, and are frequently placed so near the
+outer margin of the shoe that from the pressure the hoofs were likely
+to split open. The nail heads were shaped like a sleigh runner, and
+almost entirely sunk into the shoe. It evidently was not bent up at
+the toe, like the old form of these kinds of shoes.
+
+These shoes, according to our conception of to-day, were so carelessly
+finished that in the scientific circles of historical researches they
+were, until very recently, looked upon as saddle mountings or
+something similar, and not as horseshoes.
+
+This shoe was for some time, while it was plentifully found in France,
+regarded as of Celtic make; but this is certainly not the case, as it
+is of Hunish and Hungarian "nationalitat" (nationality). An exactly
+scientific proof, it is true, according to our present knowledge,
+cannot be furnished; however, it will stand well enough until the
+error is proved.
+
+This peculiar kind of horseshoe has been found in South Germany and
+Northeast France, as far as the region of Orleans, where, as it has
+been proved, the Huns appeared. This, therefore, speaks for their
+descendants: 1st, the far extended and yet sharply limited places of
+finding the shoe; 2d, the small size corresponds to the historically
+proved smallness of the Hunish horse; 3d, the hasty and careless make,
+which does not indicate that it was made by settled workmen; 4th, the
+horseshoe (Fig. 15) bespeaks the Hunish workmanship of the present
+Chinese shoe, which, in making of the nail holes, shows to-day related
+touches of the productions of the Mongolian ancestors.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 15.]
+
+Aside from the peculiar shaped nail holes, the characteristic of the
+Hunish shoe consists in the changes of the calks for summer and winter
+shoeing, as well as in the sinking of the nail heads. The Huns,
+therefore, aside from the indistinctly marked attempts of the Romans
+in this direction, which are the only ones known to me, must be
+regarded as the inventors not only of the calks, but partly, next to
+the Normans, also of the sharpened winter shoeing, and of the not
+unimportant invention of sinking the nail heads observed in Fig. 15.
+
+The Hunish shoeing was therefore an important invention for the
+Germans. After centuries later, wherever horseshoeing was practiced,
+it was done solely according to Hunish methods; whereby the shoe was
+very possibly made heavier, was more carefully finished and in course
+of time showed an attempt to bend the toe (Fig. 16a).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 16.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 16A.]
+
+In the Bomberg Dom we find an equestrian statue, not unknown in the
+history of art, which was formerly held to be that of Emperor Conrad
+III. At present however the opinion prevails generally that it
+represents "Stephen I., den Heiligen" (Stephen I., the Saint).
+
+Stephen I., the first king of Hungary, formerly was a heathen, and was
+named "Najk." He reigned from 997 to 1038. His important events were
+the many victorious wars led against rebellious chieftains of his
+country, and he was canonized in 1087. His equestrian monument in
+Bomberg Dom was, in consequence, hardly made before the year 1087.
+Notwithstanding that the Huns had been defeated 500 years before on
+the plains of Catalania, the horse of the above mentioned monument
+carries, as I have convinced myself personally, Hunish horseshoes,
+modified, however, by blade-shaped calks just then coming into use.
+This is proof that, at least in Hungary, the Hunish method of shoeing
+was preserved an extraordinary long time. By this it has not become
+improbable that at least the many shoes of this kind which were found
+on the Lechfield come, not directly from the Huns, but from their
+successors, the Hungarians, whose invasions took place in the first
+half of the tenth century.
+
+About the same time of the Hungarian invasions, the Normans began to
+disturb the southwestern part of Europe with their Viking expeditions.
+Their sea kings seem to have been equestrians at very early times, and
+to have had their horses shod, although perhaps only in winter; at
+least the excavation of the Viking ship in 1881 disclosed the remains
+of a horse which was shod. The shoeing consisted only of a toe
+protection--"Brodder" (Bruder, Brother)--provided with a small sharp
+calk, and fastened by two nails.
+
+When later, in the year 1130, the Norwegian king Sigard Yorsalafar,
+during his journey to Jerusalem, entered Constantinople, his horse is
+said to have carried only the small toe-protecting shoes.
+
+The art of horseshoeing, immediately after the migration of the
+nations, came near our improvement of the same to-day; especially near
+the reputed discoveries met with, which consist simply of iron
+protection for the margin of the hoof, fastened by nails. The heads
+were sunk into the shoe so as to increase its firmness. Special
+consideration was given to local and climatic conditions through the
+introduction of toes and heels.
+
+The mechanism of the hoof also found remarkable consideration,
+inasmuch as they apparently avoided driving nails too close to the
+heel end of the shoe. Notwithstanding this early improvement in the
+art of horseshoeing, the Huns (as stated before) took a prominent
+part. It appears to have taken a long time after the migration of the
+nations for shoeing to become general, as is shown by various
+descriptions of tournaments, pictures of horses, etc.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 18.]
+
+We will mention in the first place the "Percival des Wolfram von
+Eschenbach," as well as "Christ von Troies," where there is a great
+deal said about horses, horse grooms, and tournaments, but nowhere in
+those works is any mention made of horseshoeing. Likewise is found the
+horse on the coat of arms of Wolfram von Eschenbach, in the Manessi
+collection in Paris, which was begun in Switzerland in the fourteenth
+century; but, although we find this horse most beautifully finished,
+it was not shod.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 19.]
+
+During the time of the crusades, 1096-1291, however, there appeared
+suddenly in Germany a plate-like horseshoe of southern character
+(Figs. 18 and 19), which was occasionally bent upward at the heel end,
+and was very heavy. The toe was very broad sometimes, and was also
+bent upward. In this form we have seen the shoes of the Balkan and
+Pyrean peninsula. The shoe was remarkably narrow at the heel, and was
+supplied with calks, which accounts for the highness of the back part
+of the shoe. Frequently we find one calk set diagonally, but the other
+drawn out wedge shaped, and sharp; so that there existed a great
+similarity between this iron shank and that used by Count Einsiedel
+for winter shoeing. Sometimes both shanks were sharpened in this way,
+or were provided with blade-shaped calks well set forward. The form of
+nail holes used was very characteristic of that of the Huns, but they
+were decidedly smaller and square, as were seen in the African shoe of
+the twelfth century. The nail heads were slightly sunk, which was
+according to southern customs.
+
+That this shoe really belongs to the period of the crusades is proved
+by the numerous horse pictures which have been preserved from that
+time; of which we will mention the manuscript of Heinrich von Veldecka
+("Eneidt")[4] in the year 1180, which belongs to the most valuable
+parts of German history of art.
+
+   [Footnote 4: "Wanderungen des Aeneas" (Travels of Aeneas).]
+
+This south European Hunish horseshoe had remained the standard form
+during the middle ages and until the thirty years war, at least in
+South Germany. The shoe was continually improved, and reached its
+highest point of perfection about the time of the "Bauern-krieg"
+(Revolution of the Peasants), at a time when, under the leadership of
+the Renaissance, the whole art of mechanics, and especially that of
+blacksmithing, had taken an extraordinarily great stride (Figs. 20 and
+21).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 20.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 21.]
+
+The shoe (Figs. 22 and 23) is found in Franconia, in all places where,
+in the sixteenth century, battles had been fought with the rebellious
+peasants. We may, therefore, be justified in fixing its origin mainly
+from that period, for which also speaks its high perfection of form.
+We find here still the bent-up heel and toe (the latter broad and
+thin) of the south European form.
+
+The staved rim of the Spanish Arabic Turkomanic shoe is observed to be
+undergoing a change to that of a groove. The broad surface of the shoe
+evidently led to the beveling of the same, so as to lessen sole
+pressure. The size of the nail holes remains still like that of the
+Huns; but the unsunk southern nail heads yet serve to improve the hold
+on the ground. The calks were next placed forward, perhaps from an
+uncultivated sense of beauty, or from the high bending up of the hind
+part of the shoe, which would necessitate a high and heavy unsightly
+calk.
+
+From this time on horseshoeing in south Germany fell back very
+quickly, and loses all scientific holds of support after the thirty
+years war. In the mean time toe protection in the form of a calk had
+spread from the colder north over southern Germany; whereas this north
+German invention did not find favor in England in consequence of her
+mild oceanic climate.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 22]
+
+Also, the calks in England, as well as in the southern countries, on
+the same ground, therefore, with good reason, could at no time be
+adopted. This did, however, not interfere with the use of the calk in
+the colder south Germany, where after a use of nearly 1,500 years it
+has maintained its local and climatic adaptation. Notwithstanding the
+occasional aping by foreigners, it has remained victorious in its
+original form, and has been chosen in many countries.
+
+The historical development of the horseshoe in general, from about the
+time of Emperor Maximilian until the seven years war, furnishes a true
+picture of the confused condition of things at that period of time,
+which, to make intelligible, would require a separate and complete
+treatise. Interesting as it is to the scientist to follow up this
+development and mode of present German horseshoeing, which, aside from
+the national toe and calk, is the English form and has become
+influential, and with full right, for a periodical of this kind
+further, more comprehensive, statement would under all circumstances
+take up too much room; therefore I must drop the pen, although
+reluctantly.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 23.]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+SHEET GLASS FROM MOLTEN METAL.
+
+
+The present practice in making metal sheets is to cast ingots or slabs
+and then reduce these by repeated rollings and reheating. Attempts
+have been previously made to produce sheets directly from molten metal
+by pouring the metal: (1) between two revolving rollers; or (2)
+between a revolving wheel and the surface of an inclosing fixed
+semicircular segment. By these means none but very thin plates could
+be satisfactorily produced. In this invention by C.M. Pielsticker,
+London, the machinery consists of a large receiving roller of 5 ft.
+diameter more or less, and of a length equal to that of the plate to
+be produced. With this are combined small forming rollers arranged in
+succession part way round the periphery of the large roller, and
+revolving at the same rate as the large roller. The rollers can be
+cooled by a current of water circulating through them. The molten
+metal flows on to the surface of the large roller and is prevented
+from escaping sideways by flanges with which the large roller is
+provided. These flanges embrace the small rollers and are of a depth
+greater than that of the thickest plate which it is proposed to roll.
+The distance between the large roller and the small rollers can be
+adjusted according to the desired thickness of the plate. When dealing
+with metals of high melting point, such as steel, the first small
+roller is made of refractory material and is heated from inside by the
+flame of a blow pipe. The rollers are coated with plumbago or other
+material to prevent adhesion to the molten metal. In the case of
+metals of high melting point the machine is fed direct from a furnace
+divided into two compartments by a wall or bridge in which is a
+stopper which can be operated so as to regulate the flow of metal.
+When applied to forming sheets of glass, the rollers should be warmed
+by a blow pipe flame as above described, and the sheet of glass
+stretched and annealed as it leaves the last roller.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+WELDLESS STEEL CHAINS.
+
+
+At the Royal Naval Exhibition, London, Messrs. William Reid & Co. are
+exhibiting their weldless steel chains, which we now illustrate.
+
+Of the many advantages claimed for steel chains, it may be prominently
+noted that a very important saving of weight is effected on account of
+their possessing such a high breaking strain, compared with the
+ordinary welded iron chains. To illustrate this, it may be stated that
+a given length of the weldless steel chain is 35 to 40 per cent. less
+in weight than an equivalent length of iron chain, will stand the same
+breaking strain as the latter, and indeed, where steel of special
+quality is used in making the weldless chains, this difference can be
+increased as much as 70 to 80 per cent. Whereas superior iron chains
+break at a strain at 17 tons per square inch, these weldless steel
+chains will stand a strain of 28 to 30 tons, with 20 to 26 per cent.
+elongation.
+
+[Illustration: Figures 1. Through 9., 1_a_, 1_b_ and 3_a_
+               MANUFACTURE OF WELDLESS CHAINS.]
+
+Again, there is greater security in their use from the fact that there
+are no welds, and they give warning of the limit of strain to which
+they can bear being approached, by elongation, which can be carried to
+a considerable extent before the chain breaks. Moreover, over, in
+chains made by this process, the links are all exactly alike. Though
+the life of a weldless steel chain is said to be twice that of an
+ordinary one, the price per length is little more than that of best
+iron chains.
+
+They are made in lengths of from 40 to 50 feet, being compressed from
+a solid rolled steel bar, the section of which is shaped like a
+four-pointed star. In the first place holes are pierced at intervals
+down the length of the bar, thus determining the length of the several
+links. Then the bar is notched between the holes so as to give the
+external form of the links. The next step is "flattening out," which
+presses the links into shape on their inner side, but leaves the
+openings still closed by a plate of metal. They are then stamped out
+so as to round them up, and the metal inside them is punched out, and
+the edges "cleaned," or trimmed off. The links are now parted from one
+another and stamped again, to insure equal thickness in all parts of
+the chain. The only processes now to be gone through are dressing and
+finishing. According to the die used, the shape of the links can be
+varied to suit any required pattern. The lengths of chain thus made
+are joined by spiral rings made of soft steel, the convolutions being
+afterward hammered together till they become solid. A ring of this
+description, 3/4 inch diameter, underwent a strain of 46,200 lb., that
+is, 23 tons to the square inch, its elongation being 21 per cent.
+
+These chains have passed satisfactorily the tests of the Bureau
+Veritas, and both that association and Lloyd's have accepted their use
+on the same conditions and under the same tests as ordinary chains.
+
+So much for the general idea of punching steel chains. We will now
+describe a recent invention by which superior steel chains are
+produced, the author of which is Mr. Hippolyte Rongier, of Birmingham,
+Eng. He says:
+
+My invention has for its object the manufacture of weldless stayed
+chains, whereof each link, together with its cross strut or stay, is
+made of one piece of metal without any weld or joint; and the
+invention consists in producing a chain of stayed links from a bar of
+cruciform section by the consecutive series of punching, twisting and
+stamping operations hereinafter described, the punching operations
+being entirely performed on the metal when in the cold state.
+
+Figs. 1 to 10 show the progressive stages in the manufacture of the
+chain, and the remaining figures show the series of tools that are
+employed.
+
+The general method of operation of making stayed chains according to
+my invention is so far similar to the methods heretofore proposed for
+making unstayed chains from the bar of cruciform section that the
+links are formed alternately out of the one and the other pair of
+diametrically opposite webs of the rod, the links, when severed and
+completed, being already enchained together at the time of their
+formation. The successive operations differ, however, in many
+important practical respects from those heretofore proposed, as will
+appear from the following detailed description of the successive steps
+in the process illustrated by Figs. 1 to 10.
+
+I will distinguish the one pair of diametrically opposite webs of the
+bar and the notches and mortises punched therein and the links formed
+therefrom from the other pair by an index figure 1 affixed to the
+reference letters appertaining thereto.
+
+_a a_ are one pair of diametrically opposite webs, and _a' a'_ the
+other pair of webs of the bar.
+
+[Illustration: Figures 2_a-_b, 6_a_, 4_a-b_, 7 _a-b_ and 10 _a-b_
+               MANUFACTURE OF WELDLESS CHAINS]
+
+The first operation illustrated in Fig. 1 is to punch out of the edge
+of one of the webs, _a_, a series of shallow notches, _b_, at equal
+intervals apart, corresponding to the pitch of the links to be formed
+out of that pair of webs and situated where the spaces will ultimately
+be formed between the ends of that series of links. The notches are
+made with beveled ends, and are no deeper than is absolutely necessary
+(for the purpose of a guide stop in the subsequent operations, as
+hereinafter described), so as to avoid, as far as possible, weakening
+the bar transversely. This operation is repeated upon one of the pairs
+of webs _a'_; but whereas in the first operation of notching the web
+the "pitch" of the notches is determined by the feed mechanism, in
+this second operation of notching the notches, _b_, cut in the web,
+_a_, serve as guides to influence and compensate for any inaccuracy of
+the feed mechanism, so that the second set of notches, _b'_, shall be
+intermediate of and rigorously equidistant from the first set of
+notches, _b_. This compensation is effected by the notches, _b_,
+fitting on to a beveled stop on the bed of the punching tool by which
+the notches, _b'_, are cut, the beveled ends of the notches, _b_,
+causing the bar under the pressure of the punch to adjust itself in
+the longitudinal direction (if necessary) sufficiently to rectify any
+inaccuracy of feed. These notches, _b b'_, similarly serve as guides
+to insure uniformity of spacing in the subsequent operations of
+punching out the links.
+
+The second operation (illustrated in Fig. 2) is to punch out of the
+pair of opposite webs, _a a_, pairs of oblong mortises--two pairs, _c
+c_, and one pair, _d d_. These three pairs of mortises (which might be
+punched at separate operations, but are preferably punched at one
+stroke of the press) are situated as close as possible up to the faces
+of the other pairs of webs, _a' a'_, the pairs of mortises, _c c_,
+being so spaced as to correspond in position to the eyes of the links
+to be formed, to which they correspond approximately in form, while
+the pair, _d_, correspond in position to the notches, _b_, and
+therefore to the intervals by which the links formed out of the same
+pair of webs, _a a_, will be separated when completed. This operation
+is continued along the whole length of the pair of webs, _a_. It will
+be observed that a considerable thickness of metal is left at _a*_
+between the notches, _b_, and the mortises, _d_. This is of primary
+importance and is one of the essential features of my method of
+manufacture, inasmuch as by first punching out the mortises, _d_, the
+subsequent removal of the metal from between the outer ends of the
+links is greatly facilitated, while by leaving the solid metal, _a*_,
+the transverse strength of the webs, _a a_, is not materially
+diminished, so that when the operation of punching the mortises, _c_
+and _d_, in the other pair of webs, _a'_, is performed the bar will
+not be bent and crippled, as would inevitably be the case were the
+whole of the metal opposite the notches, _b_, which is ultimately to
+be removed, to be punched out at so early a stage of the manufacture.
+The operation of punching the pairs of mortises, _c'_ and _d_, having
+been repeated along the other pair of webs, _a'_, it will be observed
+that like the notches, _b_, the mortises, _c d_, in the one pair of
+webs alternate with those, _c' d'_, in the other pair of webs.
+
+The third operation (illustrated in Fig. 3) is to elongate the
+mortises, _c d_, and bring the mortises, _c c'_, more nearly to the
+final form. This is performed by punches similar to but larger (in the
+direction of the length of the rod) than those used in the second
+operation.
+
+The third operation, which is repeated upon both pairs of webs, _a a
+a' a'_, may be considered as a second stage of the second operation,
+it being preferable to punch out the mortises in two stages in order
+to remove sufficient metal without unduly straining the bar.
+
+The fourth operation (illustrated in Fig. 4) consists in roughly
+shaping the ends of the links externally by punching out the portions,
+_a*_, of the webs, _a_, between the links lying in the same plane or
+formed out of the same pair of webs. This operation is repeated on the
+other pair of webs, _a'_. Up to this point a continuous core of metal
+has been left at the intersection of the two pairs of webs.
+
+The fifth operation (illustrated in Fig. 5) consists in punching out
+the portions, _e_, of the core at each side of the cross stay of the
+link, so as to separate the cross stay from the outer ends of the
+adjacent links. This operation is performed by removing a portion only
+of the metal of the core which intervenes between the cross stay and
+the outer ends of the adjacent links enchained with the link under
+operation--that is to say, portions, _e*_, of the core are temporarily
+left attached to the outer ends of the links in order to avoid
+crippling or bending the bar, which might occur were the whole of this
+metal, which is ultimately to be removed, to be punched out at once,
+these portions, _e*_, being supported by the bed die in the operation
+of punching out the spaces, _e_, as hereinafter described. This
+operation having been repeated upon both pairs of webs, it will be
+observed that the rod-like form of the chain is now only maintained by
+the portion of the core at the points, _f_, where the inner side of
+the eye or bow of one link is united with that of the next one. The
+severing of these intervening portions of the core and the breaking up
+of the rod into the constituent links of the chain constitute the
+sixth operation.
+
+The sixth operation (illustrated in Fig. 6) is performed by torsion,
+and for this purpose one end of the rod is held fixed while the other
+is twisted once or twice in opposite directions, until by fatigue of
+the metal at the points, _f_, the whole of the links are severed
+almost at the same instant, and a chain of roughly formed stayed links
+is produced.
+
+The seventh operation (illustrated in Fig. 7) is to remove the
+superfluous projecting pieces of metal both from the inside and
+outside of the ends of the links. For this purpose the two ends of
+each link are operated on at the same time by two pairs of punches
+corresponding to the outline of the ends of the link.
+
+The eighth operation (illustrated in Fig. 8) is to bring the ends of
+the links to their finished rounded form. This is performed by
+stamping both ends of each link at the same time between pairs of
+shaping dies or swages.
+
+The ninth operation (illustrated in Fig. 9) is to bring the middle
+portion of each link--that is to say, the side members and the cross
+stay--to the finished rounded form, which is also performed by means
+of a pair of dies or swages.
+
+The tenth and last operation (illustrated in Fig. 10) is to contract
+the link slightly in the lateral direction in order to correct any
+imperfections at the sides left by the two previous operations and
+bring the link to a more perfect and stronger form, as shown. This
+operation has the important result of strengthening the link
+considerably by contracting or rendering more pointed the arched form
+of the bow or end of the link, and also by thickening the metal at
+that part where the wear is greatest, this thickening of the metal at
+the ends of the link occurring in the direction of the line of strain
+(as indicated by _x_ in Fig. 10) and being brought about by the
+compression or "upsetting" of the metal at the end of the link. It may
+be preferable to perform this operation immediately after the seventh
+operation, and I reserve the right to do so.
+
+In the case of large cables only the metal is preferably heated for
+the eighth, ninth, and tenth operations.
+
+I will now refer to the figures which illustrate the series of tools
+whereby the above mentioned operations are performed.
+
+Fig. 1_a_ shows a plan (the punch being in section) and Fig. 1_b_ an
+elevation of the bed die of the tool by which the notches _b_ of the
+first operation are performed. The feed mechanism is not shown, but
+might be of any ordinary intermittent kind. _g_ is a groove in the
+bed, in which lies the lower vertical web of the rod, of cruciform
+section, the two horizontal webs lying upon the bed with the edge of
+the web to be notched lying just over the die, in which works the
+punch, B, of which B' is the cutting edge. The punch is operated in
+the usual way, its lower end, which does not rise out of the die,
+acting as a guide. B* is the beveled stop in the groove, _g_, which by
+fitting in the notches, _b_ or _b'_, corrects inaccuracies of the
+feed.
+
+Fig. 2_a_ is a sectional plan and Fig. 2_b_ an elevation of the tool
+by which the second operation is performed, the same tool being also
+used for performing the third operation. (Illustrated in Fig. 3_a_.)
+_h h_ are a pair of bed-dies having a space _h'_ between them to
+receive the lower web of the bar, and having notches, C C and D D, in
+their inner ends, forming counterparts of the punches by which the
+pairs of mortises, _c d_, Fig. 2, are punched in the pair of webs
+lying upon the bed-dies, _h_. These bed-dies are fitted to slide a
+little in opposite directions upon a suitable bed plate and are caused
+by the inclined cams, _i'_, on the guides, _i_, of the press head
+(which pass through corresponding apertures in the bed-dies, _h_) to
+approach each other at the moment the punches come down on the work,
+so as to grip the lower web of the rod and support the pair of webs
+being operated on close up to the sides of the lower web lying in the
+space _h'_, while when the punches rise the bed-dies move apart, so
+that the web is quite free in said space _h'_ and the rod may be
+easily fed forward for a fresh stroke of the press. B* is the beveled
+stop in the space, _k'_, as in the tool first described. The bed-dies
+_h_ have a second set of notches C' D' at their outer ends, similar to
+but longer than those C D, so that by reversing the bed-dies they will
+form counterparts for a second set of punches corresponding thereto
+for performing the third operation--_i.e._, enlarging the mortises, _c
+d_, as represented in Figs. 3 and 3_a_; or, instead of adapting the
+dies, _h_, to perform the two operations, separate tools may be used
+for the second and third operations.
+
+Fig. 4_a_ is an elevation and Fig. 4_b_ a sectional plan of the tool
+for performing the fourth operation--namely, removing the portion
+_a*_, Figs. 3, 3_a_, 4_a_, and 4_b_. This is done by a pair of
+punches, A*, corresponding in shape to the ends of the link in the
+rough and to the aperture shown in the bed-die, _k_, Fig. 4_b_, which
+has a groove, _k'_, to admit the lower web of and to guide the rod.
+The beveled stop, B*, used in operating on the pair of webs, a,
+corresponds to the notches, _b'_; but in operating on the webs, _a'_,
+the stop must be replaced by one corresponding to the aperture left by
+the removal of the portion, _a*_.
+
+Fig. 5_a_ is an elevation, Fig. 5_b_ a plan, and Fig. 5_c_ a
+longitudinal vertical section of the tool for performing the fifth
+operation, the work being shown in section in the latter figure. It
+consists of a bed-die, _l_, with groove, _m_, to receive the lower
+web, but terminating at a distance from the die apertures, so as to
+leave supports, _n_, for the parts, _e*_, of the rod to resist the
+downward pressure of the punches, E, which remove the portions, _e_,
+from each side of the cross stay, as shown in Figs. 5_b_ and 5_c_. The
+correct position of the work in regard to the punches is insured by
+these supporting parts, _n_, which terminate the grooves, _m_.
+
+Fig. 6_a_ is an elevation of the winch for performing the sixth
+operation.
+
+Fig. 7_a_ is an elevation and Fig. 7_b_ a plan of the tool for
+performing the seventh operation. P P are the punches for trimming the
+outside and Q Q those for trimming the inside of the ends of the
+links. The links adjacent to the one to be operated on are brought
+together into the position shown in dotted lines, the bed-die having
+an aperture in it to admit of this, so that both ends of the link to
+be trimmed may be operated on together.
+
+The tool for performing the eighth operation consists of a pair of
+swages, the bottom one only being shown in Fig. 8_a_. The swages
+correspond to the intended rounded sectional form of the ends of the
+link, which is placed in position between the swages in a similar
+manner to that described for Fig. 7_b_, so that both ends are rounded
+or finished off at once.
+
+Fig. 9_a_ is a plan of the bottom swage of the tool for performing the
+ninth operation, the upper swage corresponding thereto at least in so
+far as the middle part of the link to be operated on is concerned.
+
+The tool for performing the tenth operation is represented in
+elevation and plan in Figs. 10_a_ and 10_b_. It consists of a pair of
+bed-dies, R, fitted to slide together and operated by the cams, s, on
+the guide rods, S, the operation being similar to that of the tool
+shown in Figs. 2_a_ and 2_b_, except that there are no punches, and
+that the link which lies in the cavity of the dies is merely
+compressed in the lateral direction by the inward motion of the
+bed-dies.
+
+My invention further comprises a modification of the above described
+process, which has for its object to enable the weldless stayed links
+to be made as short and particularly as narrow as may be necessary in
+order to adapt the chain to run over the sheaves of pulley blocks and
+to suit other purposes for which short-link welded chain has
+heretofore only been available.
+
+[Illustration: Figures 5_a-c_, 8_a_, 9_a_, 10-12
+               MANUFACTURE OF WELDLESS CHAINS.]
+
+In the manufacture of chains by the aforesaid process of punching
+there is a practical minimum limit for the dimensions of the punches
+which cannot be reduced without compromising their efficiency, and
+consequently the width (and therefore the length) of the link must
+necessarily bear a certain proportion to the thickness of the web of
+metal out of which it is formed, since the breadth of the link depends
+on the length of the cross stay, which is determined by the breadth of
+the mortises forming the eyes of the link. The present modification
+enables these dimensions to be reduced without reducing the
+dimensions, and consequently the efficiency, of the punches which form
+the eyes of the link. The modification applies to what I have
+designated the fifth operation of the above described process; and it
+consists in punching out the middle of the cross stay (so as to leave
+only two short stumps jutting inward from the side members of the
+link), this operation serving to interrupt the continuity of the core,
+which was the object of the fifth operation. For this purpose I
+substitute for the pair of punches illustrated in Figs. 5_a_ and 5_c_
+a single punch, which removes that part of the "core" of the cruciform
+bar which is situated at the middle of the strut. This tool is
+represented in Fig. 11, and the effect of its operation is shown in
+Fig. 12. The subsequent operations, herein designated the sixth,
+seventh, eighth, and ninth operations, are performed as hereinbefore
+described; but the tenth operation has the effect of closing together
+the two stumps, _g g_, until they abut together at the middle of the
+link and together constitute a cross strut or stay, which prevents any
+further lateral collapse of the link. In the operation of closing up
+the gap between the stumps, _g g_, the link is brought to the narrow
+form shown in Fig. 12, the eyes of the links being only just wide
+enough to receive the end of the adjacent link enchained therewith
+without gripping it. This operation is performed by a tool similar to
+that shown in Figs. 10_a_ and 10_b_, above referred to.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+AN ENGLISH STEAM FIRE ENGINE.
+
+
+The steam fire engine of which we give an engraving is one specially
+built for the Indian government by Messrs. Shand, Mason & Co., London.
+It has the distinction of being the first steam fire engine supplied
+for the province of Upper Burma, having been purchased primarily for
+the royal palace, and to serve for the protection of the cantonment of
+Mandalay. The engine is placed vertically in front of the boiler, and
+consists of a double acting pump with valves which can be taken out
+for renewal or examination in two or three minutes. The capacity is
+200 gallons per minute, and the height of jet 140 ft. As shown in the
+engraving, the fore part of the machine forms a hose reel and tool
+box, and can be instantly separated from the engine to allow of the
+independent use of the latter at a fire.
+
+[Illustration: IMPROVED STEAM FIRE ENGINE.]
+
+The engine is constructed with wrought iron side frames, fore carriage
+and wheels, and steel axles, springs, etc. The tool box, coachman's
+seat, and other parts are of teak. It is provided with Messrs. Shand,
+Mason & Co.'s quick steaming boiler, in which 100 lb. pressure can be
+raised from cold water in from five to seven minutes, an extra large
+fire box for burning wood, with fire door at the back, feed pump, and
+injector, fresh water tank, coal bunker, and other fittings and
+arrangements for carrying the suction pipe. A pole and sway bars are
+fitted for two ponies, and wood cross bars to pass over the backs of
+the animals at the tops of the collars. Two men are carried on the
+machine, a coachman on the box seat and a stoker on the footboard at
+the rear of the engine. The whole forms a very light and readily
+transportable fire engine.--_The Engineer_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE SYSTEM OF MILITARY DOVE COTES IN EUROPE.[1]
+
+   [Footnote 1: Continued from _Scientific American_ of July 11, p. 23.]
+
+
+_France_.--The history of the aerial postal service and of the carrier
+pigeons of the siege of Paris has been thoroughly written, and is so
+well known that it is useless to recapitulate it in this place. It
+will suffice to say that sixty-four balloons crossed the Prussian
+lines during the war of 1870-1871, carrying with them 360 pigeons, 302
+of which were afterward sent back to Paris, during a terrible winter,
+without previous training, and from localities often situated at a
+distance of over 120 miles. Despite the shooting at them by the enemy,
+98 returned to their cotes, 75 of them carrying microscopic
+dispatches. They thus introduced into the capital 150,000 official
+dispatches and a million private ones reduced by photo-micrographic
+processes. The whole, printed in ordinary characters, would have
+formed a library of 500 volumes. One of these carriers, which reached
+Paris on the 21st of January, 1871, a few days previous to the
+armistice, carried alone nearly 40,000 dispatches.
+
+The pigeon that brought the news of the victory of Coulmiers started
+from La Loupe at ten o'clock in the morning on the tenth of November,
+and reached Paris a few minutes before noon. The account of the
+Villejuif affair was brought from Paris to Tourcoing (Nord) by a white
+pigeon belonging to Mr. Descampes. This pigeon is now preserved in a
+stuffed state in the museum of the city. The carrier pigeon service
+was not prolonged beyond the 1st of February, and our winged brothers
+of arms were sold at a low price at auction by the government, which,
+once more, showed itself ungrateful to its servants as soon as it no
+longer had need of their services. After the commune, Mr. La Perre de
+Roo submitted to the president of the republic a project for the
+organization of military dove cotes for connecting the French
+strongholds with each other. Mr. Thiers treated the project as
+chimerical, so the execution of it was delayed up to the time at which
+we saw it applied in foreign countries.
+
+In 1877, the government accepted a gift of 420 pigeons from Mr. De
+Roo, and had the Administration of Post Offices construct in the
+Garden of Acclimatization a model pigeon house, which was finished in
+1878, and was capable of accommodating 200 pairs.
+
+At present, the majority of our fortresses contain dove cotes, which
+are perfectly organized and under the direction of the engineer corps
+of the army.
+
+The map in Fig. 1 gives the approximate system such as it results from
+documents consulted in foreign military reviews.
+
+According to Lieutenant Grigot, an officer of the Belgian army, who
+has written a very good book entitled _Science Colombophile_, a
+rational organization of the French system requires a central station
+at Paris and three secondary centers at Langres, Lyons and Tours, the
+latter being established in view of a new invasion.
+
+As the distance of Paris from the frontier of the north is but 143
+miles at the most, the city would have no need of any intermediate
+station in order to communicate with the various places of the said
+frontier. Langres would serve as a relay between Paris and the
+frontier of the northeast. For the places of the southeast it would
+require at least two relays, Lyons and Langres, or Dijon.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--THEORETIC MAP OF THE FRENCH SYSTEM OF MILITARY
+DOVE COTES.]
+
+As Paris has ten directions to serve, it should therefore possess ten
+different dove cotes, of 720 birds each, and this would give a total
+of 7,200 pigeons. According to the same principle, Langres, which has
+five directions to provide for, should have 3,600 pigeons.
+
+Continuing this calculation, we find that it would require 25,000
+pigeons for the dove cotes as a whole appropriated to the frontiers of
+the north, northeast, east, and southeast, without taking into account
+our frontiers of the ocean and the Pyrenees.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--BASKET FOR CARRYING PIGEONS.]
+
+A law of the 3d of July, 1877, supplemented by a decree of the 15th of
+November, organized the application of carrier pigeons in France.
+
+One of the last enumerations shows that there exist in Paris 11,000
+pigeons, 5,000 of which are trained, and, in the suburbs, 7,000, of
+which 3,000 are trained. At Roubaix, a city of 100,000 inhabitants,
+there are 15,000 pigeons. Watrelos, a small neighboring city of 10,000
+inhabitants, has no less than 3,000 carrier pigeons belonging to three
+societies, the oldest of which, that of Saint-Esprit, was founded in
+1869.
+
+In entire France, there are about 100,000 trained pigeons, and
+forty-seven departments having pigeon-fancying societies.
+
+_Germany._--After the war of 1870, Prussia, which had observed the
+services rendered by pigeons during the siege of Paris, was the first
+power to organize military dove cotes.
+
+In the autumn of 1871, the Minister of War commissioned Mr. Leutzen, a
+very competent amateur of Cologne, to study the most favorable
+processes for the recruitment, rearing, and training of carrier
+pigeons, as well as for the organization of a system of stations upon
+the western frontier.
+
+In 1872, Mr. Bismarck having received a number of magnificent Belgian
+pigeons as a present, a rearing station was established at the
+Zoological Garden of Berlin, under the direction of Dr. Bodinas.
+
+In 1874 military dove cotes were installed at Cologne, Metz,
+Strassburg, and Berlin. Since that time there have been organized, or
+at least projected, about fifteen new stations upon the frontier of
+France, upon the maritime coasts of the north, or upon the Russian
+frontier.
+
+Berlin remains the principal rearing station, with two pigeon houses
+of 500 pigeons each; but it is at Cologne that is centralized the
+general administration of military dove cotes under Mr. Leutzen's
+direction. The other stations are directly dependent upon the
+commandant of the place, under the control of the inspector of
+military telegraphy. The Wilhelmshaven dove cote, by way of exception,
+depends upon the Admiralty. In each dove cote there is a subofficer of
+the engineer corps and an experienced civil pigeon fancier, on a
+monthly salary of ninety marks, assisted by two orderlies. In time of
+war, this _personnel_ has to be doubled and commanded by an officer.
+
+The amount appropriated to the military dove cotes, which in 1875 was
+about 13,000 francs, rose in 1888 to more than 60,000 francs.
+
+As a rule, each dove cote should be provided with 1,000 pigeons, but
+this number does not appear to have been yet reached except at Thorn,
+Metz, and Strassburg.
+
+Germany has not confined herself to the organization of military dove
+cotes, but, like other nations, has endeavored to aid and direct
+pigeon fancying, so as to be able, when necessary, to find ready
+prepared resources in the civil dove cotes. The generals make it their
+duty to be present, as far as possible, at the races of private
+societies, and the Emperor awards gold medals for flights of more than
+120 miles.
+
+On the 13th of January, 1881, nineteen of these societies, at the head
+of which must be placed the Columbia, of Cologne, combined into a
+federation. At the end of the year the association already included
+sixty-six societies. On the 1st of December, 1888, it included
+seventy-eight, with 52,240 carrier pigeons ready for mobilization.
+
+The first two articles of the statutes of the Federation are as
+follows:
+
+"I. The object of the Federation is to unite in one organization all
+societies of pigeon fanciers in order to improve the service of
+carrier pigeons, which, in case of war, the country must put to
+profit.
+
+"II. The Federation therefore proposes: (a) To aid the activity of
+pigeon-fancying societies and to direct the voyages of the societies
+according to a determined plan; (b) to form itinerent societies and on
+this occasion to organize expositions and auction sales of pigeons;
+(c) to maintain relations with the Prussian Minister of War; (d) to
+obtain diminutions and favors for transportation; (e) to make efforts
+for the extermination of vultures; (f) to obtain a legal protection
+for pigeons; and (g) to publish a special periodical for the
+instruction of fanciers."
+
+_Italy._--The first military dove cote in Italy was installed in 1876
+at Ancona by the twelfth regiment of artillery. In 1879, a second
+station was established at Bologna. At present there are in the
+kingdom, besides the central post at Rome, some fifteen dove cotes,
+the principal ones of which are established at Naples, Gaeta,
+Alexandria, Bologna, Ancona and Placenza. There are at least two on
+the French frontier at Fenestrella and Exilles, and two others in
+Sardinia, at Cagliari and Maddalena. The complete system includes
+twenty-three; moreover, there are two in operation at Massoua and
+Assab.
+
+The cost of each cote amounts to about 1,000 francs. The pigeons are
+registered and taken care of by a pigeon breeder (a subofficer)
+assisted by a soldier. The head of the service is Commandant of
+Engineers Malagoli, one of the most distinguished of pigeon fanciers.
+
+We represent in Fig. 2 one of the baskets used in France for carrying
+the birds to where they are to be set free.--_La Nature._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE ISLE OF MAN TWIN SCREW STEAMER TYNWALD.
+
+
+We place on record the details of the first high speed twin screw
+steamer built for the service. Of this vessel, named the Tynwald, we
+give a profile and an engraving of stern, showing the method of
+supporting the brackets for propeller shafting.
+
+[Illustration: Twin screws--rear view]
+
+The Tynwald is 265 feet long, 34 feet 6 inches beam, and 14 feet 6
+inches depth moulded, the gross tonnage being 946 tons. The desire of
+the owners to put the vessel alternately on two distinct services
+required special arrangement of the saloons. Running between Liverpool
+and the island there was no necessity for sleeping accommodation, as
+the passage is made in about three hours; and the ship had to be
+suited to carry immense crowds. But as the owners wished on special
+occasions to run the vessel from Glasgow to Manxland it was necessary
+to so arrange the saloons as to admit of sleeping accommodation being
+provided on these occasions. On the Liverpool run the vessel will
+carry from 800 to 900 passengers. A spacious promenade is an
+indispensable desideratum, and the upper or shelter deck has been made
+flush from stem to stern, the only obstructions in addition to the
+engine and boiler casings, and the deck and cargo working machinery,
+being a small deck house aft with special state rooms, ticket and post
+offices, and the companion way to the saloons below. On the main deck
+forward is a sheltered promenade for second class passengers, while on
+the lower deck below are dining saloons, the sofas of which may be
+improvised for sleeping accommodation. At the extreme after end of the
+main deck is the first class saloon, with the ladies' room forward on
+the starboard side, and, there being no alley way forward, the ladies'
+lavatories are provided on the starboard side of the engine casing. On
+the port side are the gentlemen's lavatories, and smoking saloon and
+bar. The dining saloon is aft on the lower deck, with ladies' room
+forward. In the two saloons and ladies' rooms sofa berths can be
+arranged to accommodate 252 passengers. The crew and petty officers
+are accommodated in the forward part of the ship. As the profile
+shows, the vessel is divided by transverse bulkheads into seven
+watertight compartments, and there are double bottoms. She has six
+large boats and several rafts.
+
+[Illustration: THE LIVERPOOL AND ISLE OF MAN TWIN SCREW STEAMER
+TYNWALD.]
+
+The twin screws are revolved by separate triple expansion engines,
+steam being supplied by two double-ended boilers. Each boiler is
+placed fore and aft, and each has a separate uptake and funnel. There
+are three stokeholds, and to ventilate them and supply sufficient air
+for the furnaces there is in each a 6 foot fan driven by an
+independent engine running at 250 revolutions. These have been
+supplied by Messrs. W.H. Allen & Co., London. The boilers are of steel
+and adapted for a working pressure of 160 lb. to the square inch. They
+are 16 feet in diameter and 18 feet long, and there are eight furnaces
+in each boiler, sixteen in all, the diameter of each furnace being 3
+feet 41/2 inches.
+
+The cylinders of the main engines are 22 in., 36 in., and 57 in. in
+diameter respectively, with a piston stroke of 3 ft. The high-pressure
+cylinders are each fitted with a piston valve, and the intermediate
+and low-pressure cylinders with double-ported slide valves, all of
+which are worked by the usual double eccentric and link motion valve
+gear, by which the cut-off can be varied as required. All the shafting
+is forged of Siemens-Martin mild steel of the best quality, each of
+the three separate cranks being built up. The condensers are placed at
+the outsides of the engine room, and the air, feed, and bilge pumps
+are between the engines and the condensers and worked by levers from
+the low-pressure engine crosshead. There are two centrifugal pumps,
+each worked by a separate engine for circulating water through the
+condenser, and these are so arranged that they can be connected to the
+bilges in the event of an accident to the ship. In the engine room
+there is fitted an auxiliary feed donkey of the duplex type and made
+by the Fairfield Company.
+
+This pump has all the usual connections, so that it can be used for
+feeding the boilers from the hot well, for filling the fresh water
+tanks, for pumping from the bilges, or from the sea as a fire engine.
+The engines are arranged in the ship with the starting platform
+between them; and the handles for working the throttle valves,
+starting valves, reversing gear (Brown's combined steam and
+hydraulic), and drain cocks are brought together at one end of the
+platform, so that the engineer in charge can readily control both
+engines. The two sets of engines are bound together by two beams
+bolted to the framing of each engine. This feature was introduced into
+the design for steadiness.
+
+The method of supporting the propeller shaft brackets is interesting,
+and we reproduce a photograph that indicates the arrangement adopted.
+Instead of the A frame forming part of the same forging as the stern
+frame, the Fairfield Company have built up the supporting arms of
+steel plates riveted together, as is clearly shown. There is an
+advantage in cost and with less risk in undiscovered flaws in
+material.
+
+An interesting change has been made in the steam pipes. Cases of
+copper steam pipes bursting when subjected to high pressure have not
+been infrequent, and Mr. A. Laing, the engineering director on the
+Fairfield Board, with characteristic desire to advance engineering
+practice, has been devoting much attention to this question lately. He
+has made very exhaustive tests with lap welded iron steam pipes of all
+diameters, but principally of 10 in. diameter and 3/8 in. thickness of
+material, made by Messrs. A. & J. Stuart & Clydesdale, Limited, and
+the results have been such as to induce him to introduce these into
+vessels recently built by the company. It may be stated that the pipes
+only burst at a hydraulic pressure of 3,000 lb. to the square inches.
+
+The Tynwald was tried on the Clyde about a month ago, and on two runs
+on the mile, the one with and the other against the tide, the mean
+speed was 19.38 knots--the maximum was 191/2 knots--and the indicated
+horse power developed was 5,200, the steam pressure being 160 lb., and
+the vacuum 28 lb. Since that time the vessel has made several runs
+from Liverpool and from Glasgow to the Isle of Man, and has maintained
+a steady seagoing speed of between 18 and 19 knots.--_Engineering._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE TREATMENT OF REFRACTORY ORES.
+
+
+Mr. Jas. J. Shedlock, with the assistance of Mr. T. Denny, of
+Australia, has constructed on behalf of the Metallurgical Syndicate,
+of 105 Gresham House, London, an apparatus on a commercial scale,
+which, it is said, effects at the smallest expense, and with the best
+economical results, the entire separation of metals from their ores.
+In treating ores by this process, the stone is crushed in the usual
+way, either by rolls or stamps, the crushed ore being conveyed into an
+apparatus, where each atom is subjected to the action of gases under
+pressure, whereby the whole of the sulphur and other materials which
+render the ore refractory are separated. The ore is then conveyed into
+a vessel containing an absorbing fluid metal, so constructed that
+every particle of the ore is brought into contact with the metal. For
+the production of reducing gases, steam and air are passed through
+highly heated materials, having an affinity for oxygen, and the gases
+so produced are utilized for raising the ore to a high temperature. By
+this means the sulphur and other metalloids and base metals are
+volatilized and eliminated, and the gold in the ore is then in such a
+condition as to alloy itself or become amalgamated with the fluid
+metal with which it is brought into close contact. The tailings
+passing off, worthless, are conveyed to the dump.
+
+The apparatus in the background is that in which the steam is
+generated, and which, in combination with the due proportion of
+atmospheric air, is first superheated in passing through the hearth or
+bed on which the fire is supported. The superheated steam and air
+under pressure are then forced through the fire, which is
+automatically maintained at a considerable depth, by which means the
+products of combustion are mainly hydrogen and carbonic oxide. These
+gases are then conveyed by means of the main and branch pipes to the
+cylindrical apparatus in the foreground, into which the ore to be
+acted upon is driven under pressure by means of the gases, which,
+being ignited, raise the ore to a high temperature. The ore is
+maintained in a state of violent agitation. Each particle being kept
+separate from its fellows is consequently very rapidly acted upon by
+the gases. The ore freed from its refractory constituents is then fed
+into a vessel containing the fluid metal, in which each particle of
+ore is separated from the others, and being acted upon by the fluid
+metal is absorbed into it, the tailings or refuse passing off freed
+from any gold which may have been in the ore.
+
+[Illustration: APPARATUS FOR THE TREATMENT OF REFRACTORY ORES.]
+
+Quantities of refractory ores treated by this process are said to have
+demonstrated that the whole of the gold in the ore is extracted. The
+successful outcome of these trials is stated to have resulted in the
+Anglo-French Exploration Co. acquiring the right to work the process
+on the various gold fields of South Africa. It is anticipated that the
+process will thus be immediately brought to a test by means of
+apparatus erected on the gold fields under circumstances and
+conditions of absolute practical work. As is well known, gold-bearing
+ores in South Africa which are below the water line are, by reason of
+the presence of sulphur, extremely difficult to deal with, and are
+consequently of small commercial value. The gold in these ores, it is
+maintained, will, by the new process, be extracted and saved, and make
+all the difference between successful and unsuccessful mining in that
+country.
+
+It will have been seen that the peculiar and essential features of the
+invention consist in subjecting every particle of the ore under
+treatment to the process in all its stages instead of in bulk, thereby
+insuring that no portion shall escape being acted upon by the gases
+and the absorbing metal. This is done automatically and in a very
+rapid manner. It is stated that this method of treatment is applicable
+to all ores, the most refractory being readily reducible by its means.
+The advantages claimed for this process are: simplicity of the
+apparatus, it being practically automatic; that every particle of the
+ore is separately acted upon in a rapid and efficient manner; that the
+apparatus is adaptable to existing milling plants; and that there is
+an absence of elaborate and expensive plant and of the refinements of
+electrical or chemical science. These advantages imply that the work
+can be done so economically as to commend the new process to the
+favorable consideration of all who are interested in mines or mining
+property.--_Iron._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+REFINING SILVER BULLION.
+
+
+A number of years ago the author devised a method for refining silver
+bullion by sulphuric acid, in which iron was substituted for copper as
+precipitant of silver, the principal feature being the separation of
+pure crystals of silver sulphate. A full description of this process
+may be found in Percy's Metallurgy, "Silver and Gold," page 479. The
+process has been extensively worked in San Francisco and in Germany in
+refining bullion to the amount of more than a hundred million dollars'
+worth of silver. Its more general application has been hampered,
+however, by the circumstance that the patent had been secured by one
+firm which limited itself to its utilization in its California works.
+The patent having expired, the author lately introduced a modification
+of the process by which the apparatus and manipulations are greatly
+cheapened and simplified. In the following account is given a short
+description of the process in its present shape.
+
+_Preparing the Silver Sulphate._--The bullion, containing,
+essentially, silver, copper and gold, is dissolved by boiling with
+sulphuric acid in cast iron pots. The difference between the new
+process and the usual practice consists in the use of a much larger
+quantity of acid. Thus, in refining ordinary silver "dore," four parts
+of acid are used to one part of bullion. Of this acid one part is
+chemically and mechanically consumed in the dissolving process, and
+the remaining three parts are fully recovered and at once ready for
+reutilization, as will be described hereafter. In the usual
+process--understanding thereby, here and in the following, the process
+practiced at the United States mints, for instance--two parts of acid
+are employed for one of bullion; all of this is lost, partly through
+the dissolving and partly in being afterward mixed with water,
+previous to the precipitation of the silver by copper. Economy in acid
+being therefore imperative, the silver solution finally becomes much
+concentrated, and it requires high heat and careful management to
+finish the solution of the bullion. Bars containing more than about 10
+per cent. of copper cannot be dissolved at all, owing to the
+separation of copper sulphate insoluble in the small amount of free
+acid finally remaining. The advantage gained by dissolving bullion
+with abundance of free acid in the improved process is so evident that
+it merely requires to be pointed out. For bullion containing 20 per
+cent. of copper the author employs six parts of acid to one of
+bullion; for baser metal still more acid, and so on, never losing more
+than the stochiometrical percentage of acid and recovering the
+remainder. In this description he, however, confines himself to the
+treatment of ordinary silver ore with less than 10 per cent. of
+copper.
+
+In the diagram A A represent two refining pots, 4 ft. in diameter and
+3 ft. in depth, each capable of dissolving at one operation as much as
+400 pounds of bullion. The acid is stored in the cast iron reservoir,
+B, which is placed on a level sufficiently high to charge into A by
+gravitation, and is composed of fresh concentrated acid mixed with the
+somewhat dilute acid regained from a previous operation. After the
+bullion is fully dissolved all the acid still available is run from B
+into A A. The temperature and strength are thereby reduced, the fuming
+ceases, any still undissolved copper sulphate dissolves, and the gold
+settles. In assuming that the settling of the gold takes place in A
+itself, the author follows the practice of the United States mints. In
+private refineries, where refining is carried on continuously, the
+settling may take place in an intermediate vessel, and A A be at once
+recharged. Owing to the large amount of free acid present, the
+temperature must fall considerably before the separation of silver
+sulphate commences, and sufficient time may be allowed for settling if
+the intermediate vessel be judiciously arranged.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+_Separating the Silver Sulphate._--The clarified solution is siphoned
+off the gold from A A into C, which is an open cast iron pan, say 8
+ft. by 4 ft. and 1 ft. deep. It is supported by means of a flange in
+another larger pan--not shown in the diagram--into which water may be
+admitted for cooling. Steam is blown into the acid solution, still
+very hot, as soon as C is filled. The steam is introduced about 1 in.
+below the surface of the liquid, blowing perpendicularly downward from
+a nozzle made of lead pipe through an aperture 1/8 in. in diameter.
+Under these circumstances the absorption of the steam is nearly
+perfect, and takes place without any splashing. The temperature rises
+with the increasing dilution, and may be regulated by the less
+experienced by manipulating the cooling tank. An actual boiling is not
+desired, because it protracts unnecessarily the operation by the less
+perfect condensation of the steam. No separation of silver sulphate
+occurs during this operation (and, consequently, there is no clotting
+of the steam nozzle), the large amount of free acid, combined with the
+increase of temperature, compensating for the diminution of the
+solubility of the sulphate by the dilution. The most important point
+in this procedure is to know when to stop the admission of steam. To
+determine this, the operator takes a drop or two of the solution upon
+a cold iron plate by means of a glass rod and observes whether after
+cooling the sample congeals partly or wholly into a white mass of
+silver bisulphate, or whether the silver separates as a monosulphate
+in detached yellow crystals, leaving a mother liquor behind. As soon
+as the latter point has been reached, steam is shut off and the
+solution is allowed to crystallize, cold water being admitted into the
+outer pan. The operator may now be certain that the liquid will no
+longer congeal into a soft mass of silver bisulphate, which on contact
+with water will disintegrate into powder, obstinately retaining a
+large amount of free acid; but the silver will separate as a
+monosulphate in hard and large yellow crystals retaining no acid and
+preserving their physical characteristics when thrown into water.
+After cooling to, say, 80 deg. F., the silver sulphate will have coated
+the pan C about 1 in. thick. There will also be found a deposit of
+copper sulphate when the mother acid, after having been used over and
+over again, has been sufficiently saturated therewith. Lead sulphate
+separates in a cloud, which, however, will hardly settle at this
+stage.
+
+The whole operation just described, which constitutes the most
+essential feature of the author's improvement upon his old process
+described in Dr. Percy's work, is a short one, as the acid requires by
+no means great dilution. The steam has merely to furnish enough water
+to dilute the free acid present to, say, 62 deg. B. Areometrical
+determination is, of course, not possible, on account of the dissolved
+sulphates.
+
+_Reducing the Silver Sulphate to Fine Silver._--The mother acid is
+pumped from C to the reservoir, B, for this purpose an iron pipe
+connecting the top of B with a recess in the bottom of C. The tank, B,
+is cast as a closed vessel, with a manhole in the top, which is
+ordinarily kept closed by an iron plate resting on a rubber packing.
+The air is exhausted from B by a steam injector, and the acid rises
+from C and enters B without coming in contact with any valves. The
+volume of fresh commercial acid necessary for another dissolving
+operation, say 800 pounds, more or less, for refining 800 pounds of
+bullion in A A, is lifted from some other receptacle into B in the
+same manner. The mixture of the two acids in B now represents the
+volume of acid to be employed for dissolving and settling the next
+charge of 800 pounds of bullion in A A. In this reservoir, B, the
+cloud of lead sulphate mentioned above finds an opportunity for
+settling.
+
+The crystals of silver sulphate are detached from C by an iron shovel
+and thrown into D. D is a lead lined tank about 4 ft. by 4 ft. and 3
+ft. deep. It is divided into two compartments by means of a
+horizontal, perforated false bottom made of wood. From the lower
+compartment a lead pipe discharges into the lead lined reservoir, E.
+Warm distilled water is allowed to percolate the crystals until the
+usual ammonia test indicates that the copper sulphate has been
+sufficiently dissolved. Then the outflow is closed, sheets of iron are
+thrown on and into the crystals, the apparatus is filled with hot
+distilled water, and steam is moderately admitted into the lower
+compartment. Ferrous sulphate is formed, and in connection with the
+iron rapidly reduces the silver sulphate to the metallic state, the
+reduced silver retaining the heavy compact character of the crystals.
+When the reaction is completed, as indicated by the chlorine test, the
+liquid is discharged into E, the iron sheets are removed and the
+silver is sweetened either in the same vessel, D, or in a special
+filtering vessel which rests on wheels and may be run directly to the
+hydraulic press.
+
+The vat, E, is the great reservoir where all liquids holding silver
+sulphate in solution are collected; for instance, that from sweetening
+the gold and from washing the tools. Sheets of iron here precipitate
+all silver and copper, and the resulting solution of ferrous sulphate
+is, with the usual precautions, discharged into the sewer.
+Occasionally when copper and silver have accumulated in E in
+sufficient amount the mass is thrown into D, silver sulphate crystals
+are added and sheet copper is thrown in, instead of sheet iron. There
+results a hot, neutral, concentrated solution of copper sulphate,
+which may be run at once into a crystallizing vat for the separation
+of commercial crystals of copper sulphate. It will be readily
+understood, of course, that if there should be any advantage in
+manufacturing that commercial article, besides the amount prepared as
+described, which represents merely the copper contained in the
+bullion, copper sheets may be regularly employed for reducing the
+silver sulphate in D. The author trusts that the practical refiner
+will recognize that the manufacture of commercial copper sulphate is
+thus effected in a more rational and economical manner than by the
+present method of evaporating from 25 deg. B. to 35 deg. B., and of saturating
+by oxidized copper, generally in a very incomplete manner, the large
+amount of free acid left from the refining by the usual process.
+However, the sale of copper sulphate is but rarely so profitable that
+a refinery should not gladly dispense with that troublesome and bulky
+manufacture, especially the government establishments, which, besides,
+waste much valuable space with the crystallizing vats.
+
+The great saving in sulphuric acid, amounting to about 50 per cent. of
+the present consumption, has already been pointed out. Another
+advantage the author merely mentions, namely, the easier condensation
+of the sulphurous fumes in refineries situated in cities, because the
+larger amount of acid available for dissolving greatly facilitates
+working and makes the usual frequent admission of air into the
+refining pot for the purpose of stirring and testing unnecessary.
+
+The more air is excluded from the refining fumes the easier they can
+be condensed.
+
+Work may be carried on continuously, the vessels C and D being empty
+by the time a new solution is finished in A A. Thus, the plant shown
+in the diagram, covering 26 ft. by 16 ft., allows the refining of
+40,000 ounces of fine silver in 24 hours; that is, four charges in A A
+of 800 pounds each.--_F. Gutzkow, Eng. and Mining J._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+A CASE OF DROWNING, WITH RESUSCITATION.
+
+By F.A. BURRALL, M.D., New York.
+
+
+As is usual at this season, casualties from drowning are of frequent
+occurrence. No class of emergencies is of a more startling character,
+and I think that a history of the case which I now present offers some
+peculiar features, and will not be without interest to physicians.
+
+The accident which forms the subject of this paper occurred August 29,
+1890, at South Harpswell, Casco Bay, Me., where I was passing my
+vacation.
+
+At about 9.30 A.M., M. B----, an American, aged eighteen, the son of a
+fisherman, a young man of steady habits and a good constitution, with
+excellent muscular development, and who had never before required the
+aid of a physician, was seen by the residents of the village to fall
+forward from a skiff into the water and go down with uplifted hands. I
+could not learn that he rose at all after the first submersion. Two
+men were standing near a bluff which overlooked the bay, and after an
+instant's delay in deciding that an accident had occurred, they ran
+over an uneven and undulating pasture for a distance of two hundred
+and fifty paces to the shore. One of them, after a quick decision not
+to swim out to where the young man had fallen in and dive for him,
+removed trousers and boots and waded out five yards to a boat, which
+he drew into the shore and entered with his companion, taking him to a
+yacht which lay two hundred and forty yards from the shore, in the
+padlocked cabin of which was a boat hook. The padlock was unfastened,
+the boat hook taken, and they proceeded by the boat directly to where
+the young man lay. He was seen through the clear water, lying at a
+depth of nine feet at the bottom of the bay, on his back, with
+upturned face and arms extended from the sides of the body. He was
+quickly seized by the boat hook, drawn head upward to the surface, and
+with the inferior portion of the body hanging over the stern of the
+boat, and the superior supported in the arms of his rescuer, was rowed
+rapidly to the shore, where he was rolled a few times, and then placed
+prone upon a tub for further rolling. I was told that much water came
+from his mouth. Meantime I had been sent for to where I was sitting,
+one hundred and fifty-one yards from the scene, and I arrived to find
+him apparently lifeless on the tub, and to be addressed with the
+remark, "Well, doctor, I suppose we are doing all that can be done."
+
+I have given these details, as from a study of them I was aided in
+deciding the time of submersion, as well as the intervals which
+transpired before the intelligent use of remedies. It is also
+remarkable that, notwithstanding all which has been written about
+ready remedies for drowning, no one present knew anything about them,
+although living in a seafaring community.
+
+I immediately directed that the patient should at once be placed upon
+the ground, which was sloping, and arranged his rubber boots under the
+back of the head and nape of the neck, so that the head should be
+slightly elevated and the neck extended, while the head was turned
+somewhat upon the side, that fluids might drain from the mouth. The
+day was clear and moderately warm. Respiration had ceased, but no time
+was lost in commencing artificial respiration. The patient had on a
+shirt and pantaloons, which were immediately unbuttoned and made
+loose, and placing myself at his head, I used the Silvester method,
+because I was more accustomed to it than any other. It seems to me
+more easy of application than any other, and I have often found it of
+service in the asphyxia of the newly born.
+
+The patient's surface was cold, there was extensive cyanosis, and his
+expression was so changed that he was not recognized by his fellow
+townsmen, but supposed to be a stranger. The eyelids were closed, the
+pupils contracted, and the inferior maxilla firmly set against the
+superior. One of the men who had brought him ashore had endeavored to
+find the heart's impulse by placing his hand upon the chest, but was
+unable to detect any motion.
+
+I continued the artificial respiration from 9.45 until 10, when I
+directed one of his rescuers to make pressure upon the ribs, as I
+brought the arms down upon the chest. This assistance made expiration
+more complete. When nature resumed the respiratory act I am unable to
+say, but the artificial breathing was continued in all its details for
+three-quarters of an hour, and then expiration was aided by pressure
+on the chest for half an hour longer. Friction upward was also applied
+to the lower extremities, and the surface became warm about half an
+hour after the beginning of treatment.
+
+About twenty minutes after ten, two hypodermic syringefuls of brandy
+were administered, but I did not repeat this, since I think alcohol is
+likely to increase rather than diminish asphyxia, if given in any
+considerable quantity. A thermometer, with the mercury shaken down
+below the scale, at this time did not rise. At 11.8 the pulse was 82;
+respiration, 27; temperature, 97.
+
+After a natural respiration had commenced, the wet clothing was
+removed, and the patient was placed in blankets. Ammonia was
+occasionally applied to the nostrils, since, although respiration had
+returned, there was no sign of consciousness; the natural respiration
+was at first attended by the expulsion of frothy fluid from the lips,
+which gradually diminished, and auscultation revealed the presence of
+a few pulmonary rales, which also passed away. There were efforts at
+vomiting, and pallor succeeded cyanosis; there were also clonic
+contractions of the flexors of the forearm. The pupils dilated
+slightly at about one hour after beginning treatment. Unconsciousness
+was still profound, and loud shouting into the ear elicited no
+response. Mustard sinapisms were applied to the praecordium, and the
+Faradic current to the spine.
+
+Coffee was also administered by a ready method which, as a systematic
+procedure, was, I believe, novel when I introduced it to the
+profession in the _Medical Record,_ in 1876. I take the liberty of
+referring to this, since I think it is now sometimes overlooked. It
+was described as follows:
+
+    "A simple examination which any one can make of his own buccal
+    cavity will show that posterior to the last molar teeth, when
+    the jaws are closed, is an opening bounded by the molars, the
+    body of the superior, and the ramus of the inferior maxilla. If
+    on either side the cheek is held well out from the jaw, a
+    pocket, or gutter, is formed, into which fluids may be poured,
+    and they will pass into the mouth through the opening behind the
+    molars, as well as through the interstices between the teeth.
+    When in the mouth they tend to create a disposition to swallow,
+    and by this method a considerable quantity of liquid may be
+    administered."
+
+After I had worked with the patient in the open air, for four and
+three-quarter hours, he was carried to a cottage near by and placed,
+still unconscious, in bed. There had been an alvine evacuation during
+the time in which he lay in the blankets.
+
+Consciousness began to return in the early part of the following
+morning, and with its advent it was discovered that the memory of
+everything which had occurred from half an hour previous to the
+accident, up to the return of consciousness, had been completely
+obliterated. With this exception the convalescence was steady and
+uncomplicated, and of about a week's duration. From a letter which I
+recently received from my patient, I learned that the lapse of memory
+still remains.
+
+My experience with this case has taught me that, unless the data have
+been taken very accurately, we cannot depend upon any statements as to
+the time of submersion in cases of drowning. My first supposition was
+that my patient had been from thirteen to fifteen minutes under water,
+but a careful investigation reduced the supposed time by one-half.
+This makes the time of submersion about six minutes, and that which
+elapsed before the intelligent use of remedies about three minutes
+longer.
+
+For a long time the opinion of Sir Benjamin Brodie concerning the
+presence of water in the lungs of the drowned was accepted, who says
+"that the admission of water into the lungs is prevented by a spasm of
+the muscles of the glottis cannot, however, be doubted, since we are
+unable to account for it in any other manner."
+
+Later experiments made by a committee of the Royal Medico-Chirurgical
+Society, of London, demonstrated, on the contrary, that "in drowned
+animals not only were all the air passages choked with frothy fluid,
+more or less bloody, but that both lungs were highly gorged with
+blood, so that they were heavy, dark colored, and pitted on pressure,
+and on being cut exuded an abundance of blood-tinged fluid with many
+air bubbles in it." Dr. R.L. Bowles[1] also holds that the lungs of
+the drowned contain water, and supports his views by a list of cases.
+In his words, "These examples show very conclusively that in cases of
+drowning in man, water does exist in the lungs, that the water only
+very gradually and after a long time is effectually expelled, and that
+it is absolutely impossible that any relief should be afforded in that
+way by the Silvester method." Dr. Bowles believes that the method of
+Dr. Marshall Hall is superior to any other in this class of cases. He
+thinks that on account of the immediate adoption and continued use of
+the prono-lateral position, this method is more to be trusted than any
+other for keeping the pharynx clear of obstruction. "It also empties
+the stomach and gradually clears the lungs of the watery and frothy
+fluids, and will surely and gently introduce sufficient air at each
+inspiration to take the place of the fluid which has been expelled."
+In the light of even my limited experience I cannot but feel that Dr.
+Bowles' opinion concerning the Silvester method would admit of some
+modification. This is often the case with very positive statements
+concerning medical matters. In my own case the Silvester method
+answered well, but I was much impressed with Dr. Bowles' claims for
+the Marshall Hall method, and should bear them in mind were I called
+upon to attend another case of drowning.
+
+   [Footnote 1: Resuscitation of the Apparently Drowned, by R.L.
+   Bowles, M.D., F.R.C.P., Medico-Chirurgical Transactions, vol.
+   lxxii., 1889.]
+
+I think it must be admitted that pulling the tongue forward as a means
+of opening the glottis, which has become a standard treatment in
+asphyxia, is unscientific, and not warranted by the results of
+experiments made to determine its value.[2]
+
+   [Footnote 2: Dragging on the tongue's tip would not affect its
+   base or the epiglottis sufficiently to make it a praiseworthy
+   procedure. Medico-Chirurgical Transactions, vol. lxxii. See also
+   _Medical Record_, April 4, 1891. Pulling out the tongue is a
+   mistake, since irritation of nerves of deglutition stops the
+   diaphragm.--_Medical Times and Gazetteer._]
+
+Dr. Bowles also believes that "the safety of the patient is most
+perfectly secured by keeping him on one side during the whole
+treatment, one lung being thus kept quite free." With the account of
+my case I have brought forward such views of other writers as it
+seemed to me would be of practical service and throw light on a
+subject which is of great importance, since the yearly record of
+mortality from drowning is by no means inconsiderable. I think,
+however, that a knowledge of what ought to be done in cases of
+drowning should be much more generally diffused than is the case at
+present. It should be one of the items of school instruction, since no
+one can tell when such knowledge may be of immense importance in
+saving life, and the time lost in securing medical aid would involve a
+fatal result.
+
+It is also very desirable that all doubt should be removed, by the
+decision of competent medical authorities, as to which "ready" method
+or methods are the best, since there are several in the field. With
+this should be decided what is the best means for securing patency of
+the air passages, and, in short, a very careful revision of the
+treatment now recommended for drowning, in order that there may be no
+doubt as to the course which should be adopted in such a serious
+emergency.--_Medical Record._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE STORY OF THE UNIVERSE.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: Presidential address before the British Association,
+Cardiff, 1891.]
+
+By Dr. WILLIAM HUGGINS.
+
+
+The opening meeting of the British Association was held in Park Hall,
+Cardiff, August 18, where a large and brilliant audience assembled,
+including, in his richly trimmed official robes, the Marquis of Bute,
+who this year holds office as mayor of Cardiff. At the commencement of
+the proceedings Sir Frederick Abel took the chair, but this was only
+_pro forma_, and in order that he might, after a few complimentary
+sentences, resign it to the president-elect, Professor Huggins, the
+eminent astronomer, who at once, amid applause, assumed the presidency
+and proceeded to deliver the opening address.
+
+Dr. Huggins said that the very remarkable discoveries in our knowledge
+of the heavens which had taken place during the past thirty years--a
+period of amazing and ever-increasing activity in all branches of
+science--had not passed unnoticed in the addresses of successive
+presidents; still, it seemed to him fitting that he should speak of
+those newer methods of astronomical research which had led to those
+discoveries, and which had become possible by the introduction into
+the observatory, since 1860, of the spectroscope and the modern
+photographic plate. Spectroscopic astronomy had become a distinct and
+acknowledged branch of the science, possessing a large literature of
+its own, and observatories specially devoted to it. The more recent
+discovery of the gelatine dry plate had given a further great impetus
+to this modern side of astronomy, and had opened a pathway into the
+unknown of which even an enthusiast thirty years ago would scarcely
+have dared to dream.
+
+
+HERSCHEL'S THEORY.
+
+It was now some thirty years since the spectroscope gave us for the
+first time certain knowledge of the nature of the heavenly bodies, and
+revealed the fundamental fact that terrestrial matter is not peculiar
+to the solar system, but is common to all the stars which are visible
+to us. Professor Rowland had since shown us that if the whole earth
+were heated to the temperature of the sun, its spectrum would resemble
+very closely the solar spectrum. In the nebulae, the elder Herschel saw
+portions of the fiery mist or "shining fluid," out of which the
+heavens and the earth had been slowly fashioned. For a time this view
+of the nebulae gave place to that which regarded them as external
+galaxies--cosmical "sand heaps," too remote to be resolved into
+separate stars, though, indeed, in 1858, Mr. Herbert Spencer showed
+that the observations of nebulae up to that time were really in favor
+of an evolutional progress. In 1864 he (the speaker) brought the
+spectroscope to bear upon them; the bright lines which flashed upon
+the eye showed the source of the light to be glowing gas, and so
+restored these bodies to what is probably their true place, as an
+early stage of sidereal life. At that early time our knowledge of
+stellar spectra was small. For this reason partly, and probably also
+under the undue influence of theological opinions then widely
+prevalent, he unwisely wrote in his original paper in 1864, that "in
+these objects we no longer have to do with a special modification of
+our own type of sun, but find ourselves in presence of objects
+possessing a distinct and peculiar plan of structure." Two years
+later, however, in a lecture before this association, he took a truer
+position. "Our views of the universe," he said, "are undergoing
+important changes; let us wait for more facts with minds unfettered by
+any dogmatic theory, and, therefore, free to receive the teaching,
+whatever it may be, of new observations."
+
+
+THE NEBULAR HYPOTHESIS.
+
+Let them turn aside for a moment from the nebulae in the sky to the
+conclusions to which philosophers had been irresistibly led by a
+consideration of the features of the solar system. We had before us in
+the sun and planets obviously not a haphazard aggregation of bodies,
+but a system resting upon a multitude of relations pointing to a
+common physical cause. From these considerations Kant and Laplace
+formulated the nebular hypothesis, resting it on gravitation alone,
+for at that time the science of the conservation of energy was
+practically unknown. These philosophers showed how, on the supposition
+that the space now occupied by the solar system was once filled by a
+vaporous mass, the formation of the sun and planets could be
+reasonably accounted for. By a totally different method of reasoning,
+modern science traced the solar system backward step by step to a
+similar state of things at the beginning. According to Helmholtz, the
+sun's heat was maintained by the contraction of his mass, at the rate
+of about 220 feet a year. Whether at the present time the sun was
+getting hotter or colder we did not certainly know. We could reason
+back to the time when the sun was sufficiently expanded to fill the
+whole space occupied by the solar system, and was reduced to a great
+glowing nebula. Though man's life, the life of the race perhaps, was
+too short to give us direct evidence of any distinct stages of so
+august a process, still the probability was great that the nebular
+hypothesis, especially in the more precise form given to it by Roche,
+did represent broadly, notwithstanding some difficulties, the
+succession of events through which the sun and planets had passed.
+
+[Illustration: DR. WILLIAM HUGGINS, D.C.L., LL.D., PRESIDENT OF THE
+BRITISH ASSOCIATION.
+
+Dr. Huggins is one of the most eminent astronomers of the present day,
+and his spectroscopic researches on the celestial bodies have had the
+most important results. He is a D.C.L. of Oxford, LL.D. of Cambridge,
+and Ph.D of Leyden. Dr. Huggins was born in 1824 and educated at the
+City of London School. He continued his studies, giving much of his
+time to experiments in natural philosophy and physical science. In
+1855 Dr. Huggins erected a private observatory at his residence on
+Tulse Hill, where he has carried out valuable prismatic researches
+with the spectroscope.--_Daily Graphic._]
+
+
+OTHER SPECULATIONS.
+
+The nebular hypothesis of Laplace required a rotating mass of fluid
+which at successive epochs became unstable from excess of motion, and
+left behind rings, or more probably, perhaps, lumps, of matter from
+the equatorial regions. To some thinkers was suggested a different
+view of things, according to which it was not necessary to suppose
+that one part of the system gravitationally supported another. The
+whole might consist of a congeries of discrete bodies, even if these
+bodies were the ultimate molecules of matter. The planets might have
+been formed by the gradual accretion of such discrete bodies. On the
+view that the material of the condensing solar system consisted of
+separate particles or masses, we had no longer the fluid pressure
+which was an essential part of Laplace's theory. Faye, in his theory
+of evolution from meteorites, had to throw over his fundamental idea
+of the nebular hypothesis, and formulated instead a different
+succession of events of which the outer planets were formed last, a
+theory which had difficulties of its own. Professor George Darwin had
+recently shown, from an investigation of the mechanical conditions of
+a swarm of meteorites, that on certain assumptions a meteoric swarm
+might behave as a coarse gas, and in this way bring back the fluid
+pressure exercised by one part of the system on the other, which was
+required by Laplace's theory. One chief assumption consisted in
+supposing that such inelastic bodies as meteoric stones might attain
+the effective elasticity of a high order which was necessary to the
+theory through the sudden volatilization of a part of their mass at an
+encounter, by which what was virtually a violent explosive was
+introduced between the two colliding stones. Professor Darwin was
+careful to point out that it must necessarily be obscure as to how a
+small mass of solid matter could take up a very large amount of energy
+in a small fraction of a second.
+
+
+HELMHOLTZ'S DISCOVERY.
+
+The old view of the original matter of the nebulae, that it consisted
+of a "fiery mist,"
+
+            "a tumultuous cloud,
+      Instinct with fire and niter,"
+
+fell at once with the rise of the science of thermodynamics. In 1854,
+Helmholtz showed that the supposition of an original fiery condition
+of the nebulous stuff was unnecessary, since in the mutual gravitation
+of widely separated matter we had a store of potential energy
+sufficient to generate the high temperature of the sun and stars. We
+could scarcely go wrong in attributing the light of the nebulae to the
+conversion of the gravitational energy of shrinkage into molecular
+motion. The inquisitiveness of the human mind did not allow us to
+remain content with the interpretation of the present state of the
+cosmical masses, but suggested the question--
+
+                     What see'st thou else
+      In the dark backward and abysm of time?
+
+What was the original state of things? How had it come about that by
+the side of ageing worlds we had nebulae in a relatively younger stage?
+Had any of them received their birth from dark suns, which had
+collided into new life, and so belonged to a second or later
+generation of the heavenly bodies?
+
+
+LOOKING BACKWARD.
+
+During the short historic period there was no record of such an event;
+still it would seem to be only through the collision of dark suns, of
+which the number must be increasing, that a temporary rejuvenescence
+of the heavens was possible, and by such ebbings and flowings of
+stellar life that the inevitable end to which evolution in its
+apparently uncompensated progress was carrying us could, even for a
+little, be delayed. We could not refuse to admit as possible such an
+origin for nebulae. In considering, however, the formation of the
+existing nebulae we must bear in mind that, in the part of the heavens
+within our ken, the stars still in the early and middle stages of
+evolution exceeded greatly in number those which appeared to be in an
+advanced condition of condensation. Indeed, we found some stars which
+might be regarded as not far advanced beyond the nebular condition. It
+might be that the cosmical bodies which were still nebulous owed their
+later development to some conditions of the part of space where they
+occurred, such as conceivably a greater original homogeneity, in
+consequence of which condensation began less early. In other parts of
+space condensation might have been still further delayed, or even have
+not yet begun. If light matter were suggested by the spectrum of these
+nebulae, it might be asked further, as a pure speculation, whether in
+them we were witnessing possibly a later condensation of the light
+matter which had been left behind, at least in a relatively greater
+proportion, after the first growth of worlds into which the heavier
+matter condensed, though not without some entanglement of the lighter
+substances. The wide extent and great diffuseness of this bright-line
+nebulosity over a large part of the constellation of Orion might be
+regarded, perhaps, as pointing in this direction. The diffuse nebulous
+matter streaming round the Pleiades might possibly be another
+instance, though the character of its spectrum had not yet been
+ascertained.
+
+
+THE MOTIONS OF THE STARS.
+
+Besides its more direct use in the chemical analysis of the heavenly
+bodies, the spectroscope had given to us a great and unexpected power
+of advance along the lines of the older astronomy. In the future a
+higher value might, indeed, be placed upon this indirect use of the
+spectroscope than upon its chemical revelations. By no direct
+astronomical methods could motions of approach or of recession of the
+stars be even detected, much less could they be measured. A body
+coming directly toward us or going directly from us appeared to stand
+still. In the case of the stars we could receive no assistance from
+change of size or of brightness. The stars showed no true disks in our
+instruments, and the nearest of them was so far off that if it were
+approaching us at the rate of a hundred miles in a second of time, a
+whole century of such rapid approach would not do more than increase
+its brightness by the one-fortieth part. Still it was formerly only
+too clear that, so long as we were unable to ascertain directly those
+components of the stars' motions which lay in the line of sight, the
+speed and direction of the solar motion in space, and many of the
+great problems of the constitution of the heavens must have remained
+more or less imperfectly known. Now the spectroscope had placed in our
+hands this power, which, though so essential, had previously appeared
+almost in the nature of things to lie forever beyond our grasp; it
+enabled us to measure directly, and, under favorable circumstances, to
+within a mile per second, or even less, the speed of approach or of
+recession of a heavenly body. This method of observation had the great
+advantage for the astronomer of being independent of the distance of
+the moving body, and was, therefore, as applicable and as certain in
+the case of a body on the extreme confines of the visible universe, so
+long as it was bright enough, as in the case of a neighboring planet.
+
+
+ALGOL AND SPICA.
+
+By observations with the Potsdam spectograph, Professor Vogel found
+that the bright star of Algol pulsated backward and forward in the
+visual direction in a period corresponding to the known variation of
+its light. The explanation which had been suggested for the star's
+variability, that it was partially eclipsed at regular intervals of
+68.8 hours by a dark companion large enough to cut off nearly
+five-sixths of its light, was, therefore, the true one. The dark
+companion, no longer able to hide itself by its obscureness, was
+brought out into the light of direct observation by means of its
+gravitational effects. Seventeen hours before minimum Algol was
+receding at the rate of about 241/2 miles a second, while seventeen
+hours after minimum it was found to be approaching with a speed of
+about 281/2 miles. From these data, together with those of the variation
+of its light, Vogel found, on the assumption that both stars have the
+same density, that the companion, nearly as large as the sun, but with
+about one-fourth his mass, revolved with a velocity of about
+fifty-five miles a second. The bright star of about twice the size and
+mass moved about the common center of gravity with the speed of about
+26 miles a second. The system of the two stars, which were about 31/4
+millions of miles apart, considered as a whole, was approaching us
+with a velocity of 2.4 miles a second. The great difference in
+luminosity of the two stars, not less than fifty times, suggested
+rather that they were in different stages of condensation, and
+dissimilar in density. It was obvious that if the orbit of a star with
+an obscure companion was inclined to the line of sight, the companion
+would pass above or below the bright star and produce no variation of
+its light. Such systems might be numerous in the heavens. In Vogel's
+photographs, Spica, which was not variable, by a small shifting of its
+lines revealed a backward and forward periodical pulsation due to
+orbital motion. As the pair whirled round their common center of
+gravity, the bright star was sometimes advancing, at others receding.
+They revolved in about four days, each star moving with a velocity of
+about 56 miles a second in an orbit probably nearly circular, and
+possessed a combined mass of rather more than two and one-half times
+that of the sun. Taking the most probable value for the star's
+parallax, the greatest angular separation of the stars would be far
+too small to be detected with the most powerful telescopes.
+
+
+THE VALUE OF PHOTOGRAPHY.
+
+Referring to the new and great power which modern photography had put
+into the hands of the astronomer, the president said that the modern
+silver bromide gelatine plate, except for its grained texture, met his
+needs at all points. It possessed extreme sensitiveness, it was always
+ready for use, it could be placed in any position, it could be exposed
+for hours, lastly it did not need immediate development, and for this
+reason could be exposed again to the same object on succeeding nights,
+so as to make up by several installments, as the weather might permit,
+the total time of exposure which was deemed necessary. Without the
+assistance of photography, however greatly the resources of genius
+might overcome the optical and mechanical difficulties of constructing
+large telescopes, the astronomer would have to depend in the last
+resource upon his eye. Now, we could not by the force of continued
+looking bring into view an object too feebly luminous to be seen at
+the first and keenest moment of vision. But the feeblest light which
+fell upon the plate was not lost, but taken in and stored up
+continuously. Each hour the plate gathered up 3,600 times the light
+energy which it received during the first second. It was by this power
+of accumulation that the photographic plate might be said to increase,
+almost without limit, though not in separating power, the optical
+means at the disposal of the astronomer for the discovery or the
+observation of faint objects.
+
+
+TWO EXAMPLES.
+
+Two principal directions might be pointed out in which photography was
+of great service to the astronomer. It enabled him within the
+comparatively short time of a single exposure to secure permanently
+with great exactness the relative positions of hundreds or even of
+thousands of stars, or the minute features of nebulae or other objects,
+or the phenomena of a passing eclipse, a task which by means of the
+eye and hand could only be accomplished, if done at all, after a very
+great expenditure of time and labor. Photography put it in the power
+of the astronomer to accomplish in the short span of his own life, and
+so enter into their fruition, great works which otherwise must have
+been passed on by him as a heritage of labor to succeeding
+generations. The second great service which photography rendered was
+not simply an aid to the powers the astronomer already possessed. On
+the contrary, the plate, by recording light waves which were both too
+small and too large to excite vision in the eye, brought him into a
+new region of knowledge, such as the infra-red and the ultra-violet
+parts of the spectrum, which must have remained forever unknown but
+for artificial help.
+
+
+A PHOTOGRAPHIC CHART.
+
+The present year would be memorable in astronomical history for the
+practical beginning of the photographic chart and catalogue of the
+heavens which took their origin in an international conference which
+met in Paris in 1887. The decisions of the conference in their final
+form provided for the construction of a great chart with exposures
+corresponding to forty minutes' exposure at Paris, which it was
+expected would reach down to stars of about the fourteenth magnitude.
+As each plate was to be limited to four square degrees, and as each
+star, to avoid possible errors, was to appear on two plates, over
+22,000 photographs would be required. A second set of plates for a
+catalogue was to be taken, with a shorter exposure, which would give
+stars to the eleventh magnitude only. The plans were to be pushed on
+as actively a possible, though as far as might be practicable plates
+for the chart were to be taken concurrently. Photographing the plates
+for the catalogue was but the first step in this work, and only
+supplied the data for the elaborate measurements which would have to
+be made, which were, however, less laborious than would be required
+for a similar catalogue without the aid of photography.
+
+
+A DELICATE OPERATION.
+
+The determination of the distances of the fixed stars from the small
+apparent shift of their positions when viewed from widely separated
+positions of the earth in its orbit was one of the most refined
+operations of the observatory. The great precision with which this
+minute angular quantity, a fraction of a second only, had to be
+measured, was so delicate an operation with the ordinary micrometer,
+though, indeed, it was with this instrument that the classical
+observations of Sir Robert Ball were made, that a special instrument,
+in which the measures were made by moving the two halves of a divided
+object glass, known as a heliometer, had been pressed into this
+service, and quite recently, in the skillful hands of Dr. Gill and Dr.
+Elkin, had largely increased our knowledge in this direction. It was
+obvious that photography might be here of great service, if we could
+rely upon measurements of photographs of the same stars taken at
+suitable intervals of time. Professor Pritchard, to whom was due the
+honor of having opened this new path, aided by his assistants, had
+proved by elaborate investigations that measures for parallax might be
+safely made upon photographic plates, with, of course, the advantages
+of leisure and repetition; and he had already by this method
+determined the parallax for twenty-one stars with an accuracy not
+inferior to that of values previously obtained by purely astronomical
+methods.
+
+
+PHOTOGRAPHIC REVELATIONS.
+
+The remarkable successes of astronomical photography, which depended
+upon the plate's power of accumulation of a very feeble light acting
+continuously through an exposure of several hours, were worthy to be
+regarded as a new revelation. The first chapter opened when, in 1880,
+Dr. Henry Draper obtained a picture of the nebula of Orion; but a more
+important advance was made in 1883, when Dr. Common, by his
+photographs, brought to our knowledge details and extensions of this
+nebula hitherto unknown. A further disclosure took place in 1885, when
+the Brothers Henry showed for the first time in great detail the
+spiral nebulosity issuing from the bright star Maia of the Pleiades,
+and shortly afterward nebulous streams about the other stars of this
+group. In 1886 Mr. Roberts, by means of a photograph to which three
+hours' exposure had been given, showed the whole background of this
+group to be nebulous.
+
+In the following year Mr. Roberts more than doubled for us the great
+extension of the nebular region which surrounds the trapezium in the
+constellation of Orion. By his photographs of the great nebula in
+Andromeda, he had shown the true significance of the dark canals which
+had been seen by the eye. They were in reality spaces between
+successive rings of bright matter, which appeared nearly straight,
+owing to the inclination in which they lay relatively to us. These
+bright rings surrounded an undefined central luminous mass. Recent
+photographs by Mr. Russell showed that the great rift in the Milky Way
+in Argus, which to the eye was void of stars, was in reality uniformly
+covered with them.
+
+
+THE STORY OF THE HEAVENS.
+
+The heavens were richly but very irregularly inwrought with stars. The
+brighter stars clustered into well known groups upon a background
+formed of an enlacement of streams and convoluted windings and
+intertwined spirals of fainter stars, which became richer and more
+intricate in the irregularly rifted zone of the Milky Way. We, who
+formed part of the emblazonry, could only see the design distorted and
+confused; here crowded, there scattered, at another place superposed.
+The groupings due to our position were mixed up with those which were
+real. Could we suppose that each luminous point had no relation to the
+others near it than the accidental neighborship of grains of sand upon
+the shore, or of particles of the wind-blown dust of the desert?
+Surely every star from Sirius and Vega down to each grain of the light
+dust of the Milky Way had its present place in the heavenly pattern
+from the slow evolving of its past. We saw a system of systems, for
+the broad features of clusters and streams and spiral windings marking
+the general design were reproduced in every part. The whole was in
+motion, each point shifting its position by miles every second, though
+from the august magnitude of their distances from us and from each
+other, it was only by the accumulated movements of years or of
+generations that some small changes of relative position revealed
+themselves.
+
+
+THE WORK OF THE FUTURE.
+
+The deciphering of this wonderfully intricate constitution of the
+heavens would be undoubtedly one of the chief astronomical works of
+the coming century. The primary task of the sun's motion in space,
+together with the motions of the brighter stars, had been already put
+well within our reach by the spectroscopic method of the measurement
+of star motions in the line of sight. Astronomy, the oldest of the
+sciences, had more than renewed her youth. At no time in the past had
+she been so bright with unbounded aspirations and hopes. Never were
+her temples so numerous, nor the crowd of her votaries so great.
+
+The British Astronomical Association formed within the year numbered
+already about 600 members. Happy was the lot of those who were still
+on the eastern side of life's meridian! Already, alas! the original
+founders of the newer methods were falling out--Kirchhoff, Angstrom,
+D'Arrest, Secchi, Draper, Becquerel; but their places were more than
+filled; the pace of the race was gaining, but the goal was not and
+never would be in sight. Since the time of Newton our knowledge of the
+phenomena of nature had wonderfully increased, but man asked perhaps
+more earnestly now than in his days, what was the ultimate reality
+behind the reality of the perceptions? Were they only the pebbles of
+the beach with which we had been playing? Did not the ocean of
+ultimate reality and truth lie beyond?
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CLIMATIC CHANGES IN THE SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE.
+
+By C.A.M. TABER.
+
+
+Having had occasion to cruise a considerable time over the Southern
+Ocean, I have had my attention directed to its prevailing winds and
+currents, and the way in which they affect its temperature, and also
+to the ice-worn appearance of its isolated lands.
+
+It is now generally conceded that the lands situated in the high
+latitudes of the southern hemisphere have in the remote past been
+covered with ice sheets, similar to the lands which lie within the
+antarctic circle. The shores of Southern Chile, from latitude 40 deg. to
+Cape Horn, show convincing evidence of having been overrun by heavy
+glaciers, which scoured out the numerous deep channels that separate
+the Patagonian coast from its islands. The Falkland Islands and South
+Georgia abound with deep friths; New Zealand and Kerguelen Land also
+exhibit the same evidence of having been ice-laden regions; and it is
+said that the southern lands of Africa and Australia show that ice
+accumulated at one time to a considerable extent on their shores. At
+this date we find the southern ice sheets mostly confined to regions
+within the antarctic circle; still the lands of Chile, South Georgia,
+and New Zealand possess glaciers reaching the low lands, which are
+probably growing in bulk; for it appears that the antarctic cold is
+slowly on the increase, and the reasons for its increase are the same
+as the causes which brought about the frigid period which overran with
+ice all lands situated in the high southern latitudes.
+
+Why there should be a slow increase of cold on this portion of the
+globe is because of the independent circulation of the waters of the
+Southern Ocean. The strong westerly winds of the southern latitudes
+are constantly blowing the surface waters of the sea from west to east
+around the globe. This causes an effectual barrier, which the warm
+tropical currents cannot penetrate to any great extent. For instance,
+the tropical waters of the high ocean levels, which lie abreast Brazil
+in the Atlantic and the east coast of Africa in the Indian Ocean, are
+not attracted far into the southern sea, because the surface waters of
+the latter sea are blown by the westerly winds from west to east
+around the globe. Consequently the tropical waters moving southward
+are turned away by the prevailing winds and currents from entering the
+Southern Ocean. Thus the ice is accumulating on its lands, and the
+temperature of its waters slowly falling through their contact with
+the increasing ice; and such conditions will continue until the lands
+of the high southern latitudes are again covered with glaciers, and a
+southern ice period perfected. But while this gathering of ice is
+being brought about, the antarctic continent, now nearly covered with
+an ice sheet, will, through the extension of glaciers out into its
+shallow waters, cover a larger area than now; for where the waters are
+shoal the growing glaciers, resting on a firm bottom, will advance
+into the sea, and this advancement will continue wherever the shallow
+waters extend. Especially will this be the case where the snowfall is
+great.
+
+Under such conditions, it appears that the only extensive body of
+shallow water extending from the ice-clad southern continent is the
+shoal channel which separates the South Shetlands from Cape Horn,
+which is a region of great snowfall. Therefore, should the antarctic
+ice gain sufficient thickness to rest on the bottom of this shallow
+sea, it would move into the Cape Horn channel, and eventually close
+it. The ice growth would not be entirely from the southern continent,
+but also from lands in the region of Cape Horn. Thus the antarctic
+continent and South America would be connected by an isthmus of ice,
+and consequently the independent circulation of the Southern Ocean
+arrested. Hence it will be seen that the westerly winds, instead of
+blowing the surface waters of the Southern Ocean constantly around the
+globe, as they are known to do to-day, would instead blow the surface
+waters away from the easterly side of the ice-formed isthmus, which
+would cause a low sea level along its Atlantic side, and this low sea
+level would attract the tropical waters from their high level against
+Brazil well into the southern seas, and so wash the antarctic
+continent to the eastward of the South Shetlands.
+
+The tropical waters thus attracted southward would be cooler than the
+tropical waters of to-day, owing to the great extension of cold in the
+southern latitudes. Still they would begin the slow process of raising
+the temperature of the Southern Ocean, and would in time melt the ice
+in all southern lands. Not only the Brazil currents would penetrate
+the southern seas, as we have shown, but also the waters from the high
+level of the tropical Indian Ocean which now pass down the Mozambique
+Channel would reach a much higher latitude than now.
+
+The ice-made isthmus uniting South America to the antarctic continent
+would on account of its location be the last body of ice to melt from
+the southern hemisphere, it being situated to windward of the tropical
+currents and also in a region where the fall of snow is great; yet it
+would eventually melt away, and the independent circulation of the
+Southern Ocean again be established. But it would require a long time
+for ice sheets to again form on southern lands, because of the lack of
+icebergs to cool the southern waters. Still, their temperature would
+gradually lower with the exclusion of the tropical waters, and
+consequently ice would slowly gather on the antarctic lands.
+
+The above theory thus briefly presented to account for the climatic
+changes of the high southern latitudes is in full accord with the
+simple workings of nature as carried on to-day; and it is probable
+that the formation of continents and oceans, as well as the earth's
+motions in its path around the sun, have met with little change since
+the cold era iced the lands of the high latitudes.
+
+At an early age, previous to the appearance of frigid periods, the
+ocean waters of the high latitudes probably did not possess an
+independent circulation sufficient to lower the temperature so that
+glaciers could form. This may have been owing to the shallow sea
+bottom south of Cape Horn having been above the surface of the water,
+the channel having since been formed by a comparatively small change
+in the ocean's level. For, while considering this subject, it is well
+to keep in mind that whenever the western continent extended to the
+antarctic circle it prevented the independent circulation of the
+Southern Ocean waters, consequently during such times ice periods
+could not have occurred in the southern hemisphere.
+
+It will be noticed that according to the views given above, the
+several theories which have been published to account for great
+climatic changes neglect to set forth the only efficacious methods
+through which nature works for conveying and withdrawing tropical heat
+sufficient to cause temperate and frigid periods in the high
+latitudes. While lack of space forbids an explanation of the causes
+which would perfect an ice period in the northern hemisphere, I will
+say that it could be mainly brought about through the independent
+circulation of the arctic waters, which now largely prevent the
+tropical waters of the North Atlantic from entering the arctic seas,
+thus causing the accumulation of ice sheets on Greenland. But before a
+northern ice period can be perfected, it seems that it will need to
+co-operate with a cold period in the southern hemisphere; and in order
+to have the ice of a northern frigid period melt away, it would
+require the assistance of a mild climate in the high southern
+latitudes.--_Science_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+AMMONIA.
+
+
+In the majority of refrigerating and ice machines ammonia gas is the
+substance used for producing the refrigeration, although there are
+other machines in which other material is employed, one of these being
+anhydrous sulphurous acid, which is also a gas. Ammonia of itself is a
+colorless gas, but little more than one half as heavy as air. In its
+composition ammonia consists of two gases, nitrogen and hydrogen, in
+the proportion by weight of one part nitrogen and three parts
+hydrogen. The gas hydrogen is one of the constituents of water and is
+highly inflammable in the presence of air or oxygen, while the other
+component of ammonia, nitrogen, forms the bulk or about four-fifths of
+the atmosphere. Nitrogen by itself is an inert gas, colorless and
+uninflammable. Ammonia, although composed of more than three-fourths
+its weight of hydrogen, is not inflammable in air, on account of its
+combination with the nitrogen. This combination, it will be
+understood, is not a simple mixture, but the two gases are chemically
+combined, forming a new substance which has characteristics and
+properties entirely different from either of the gases entering into
+its composition when taken alone or when simply mixed together without
+chemical combustion. Ammonia cannot be produced by the direct
+combination of these elements, but it has been found that it is
+sometimes made or produced in a very extraordinary manner, which goes
+to show that there is yet considerable to be learned in regard to the
+chemistry of ammonia. Animal or vegetable substances when putrefying
+or suffering destructive distillation almost invariably give rise to
+an abundant production of this substance.
+
+The common method for the manufacture of ammonia is to produce it from
+the salt known as sal-ammoniac. Sal-ammoniac as a crystal is obtained
+in various ways, principally from the ammoniacal liquor of gas works,
+also from the condensed products of the distillation of bones and
+other animal refuse in the preparation of animal charcoal, and which
+is of a highly alkaline nature. This liquid is then treated with a
+slight excess of muriatic acid to neutralize the free alkali, and at
+the same time the carbonates and sulphides are decomposed with the
+evolution of carbonic acid and sulphureted hydrogen. All animal
+matter, the meat, bones, etc., contain considerable carbon, while the
+nitrogen from which the ammonia is produced forms a smaller portion of
+the substance. The object is then to get rid of the carbon and
+sulphur, leaving the nitrogen to combine, through chemical affinity,
+with a portion of the hydrogen of the water, the oxygen which is set
+free going to form the carbonic acid by combining with the carbon. The
+liquor after being neutralized is evaporated to dryness, leaving a
+crystallized salt containing a portion of tarry matter.
+
+The salt is then purified by sublimation, that is, it is heated in a
+closed iron vessel until it is transformed into a gas which separates
+and leaves, in a carbonized state, all foreign substance. After this
+gas is cooled, it condenses and again forms crystals which are in a
+much purer condition. If necessary to further purify it, it is again
+sublimed. The iron vessels in which the sublimation takes place are
+lined with clay and covered with lead. The clay lining and lead
+covering are necessary, for if the gas evolved during the process of
+sublimation came in contact with the iron surface, the gas would be
+contaminated and the iron corroded. Sublimed sal-ammoniac has a
+fibrous texture and is tough and difficult to powder. It has a sharp,
+salty taste and is soluble in two and a half parts of cold and in a
+much smaller quantity of hot water. During the process of sublimation
+the ammonia is not decomposed. But there are several ways in which the
+gas may be decomposed, and a certain portion of it is decomposed in
+the ordinary use of it in refrigerating machines. If electric sparks
+are passed through the gas, it suffers decomposition, the nitrogen and
+hydrogen then being in the condition of a simple mixture. When
+decomposed in this manner, the volume of the gas is doubled and the
+proportion is found to be three measures of hydrogen to one of
+nitrogen, while the weight of the two constituents is in the
+proportion of three parts hydrogen to fourteen of nitrogen.
+
+The ammonia gas may also be decomposed by passing through a red hot
+tube, and the presence of heated iron causes a slight degree of
+decomposition. This sal-ammoniac is powdered and mixed with moist
+slaked lime and then gently heated in a flask, when a large quantity
+of gaseous ammonia is disengaged. The gas must be collected over
+mercury or by displacement. The gas thus produced has a strong,
+pungent odor, as can easily be determined by any one working around
+the ammonia ice or refrigerating machines, for as our friend, Otto
+Luhr, says, "It is the worst stuff I ever smelled in my life." The gas
+is highly alkaline and combines readily with acids, completely
+neutralizing them, and the aqua ammonia is one of the best substances
+to put on a place burned by sulphuric acid, as has been learned by
+those working with that substance, for although aqua ammonia of full
+strength is highly corrosive and of itself will blister the flesh, yet
+when used to neutralize the effect of a burn from sulphuric acid its
+great affinity for the acid prevents it from injuring the skin under
+such conditions.
+
+The distilled gas, such as has just been described, is the anhydrous
+ammonia used in the compressor system of refrigeration, while it is
+the aqua ammonia that is used in the absorption system of
+refrigeration. Aqua ammonia or liquor ammonia is formed by dissolving
+the ammonia gas in water. One volume of water will dissolve seven
+hundred times its bulk of this gas, and is then known as aqua ammonia,
+in contradistinction to anhydrous ammonia, the latter designating term
+meaning without water, while the term aqua is the Latin word for
+water.
+
+Anhydrous ammonia, the gas, may be reduced to the liquid form at
+ordinary temperatures when submitted to a pressure of about 95 pounds.
+During the process of liquefaction the ammonia gives up a large amount
+of heat, which if absorbed or radiated while the ammonia is in the
+liquid condition, the gas when allowed to expand will absorb from its
+surroundings an amount of heat equal to that radiated, producing a
+very great lowering of temperature. It is this principle that is
+utilized in refrigeration and ice making. In the absorption system,
+where aqua ammonia is used, the liquor is contained in a retort to
+which heat is applied by means of a steam coil, and a great part of
+the gas which was held in solution by the water is expelled, and
+carries with it a small amount of water or vapor. This passes into a
+separator in the top of a condenser, from which the water returns
+again to the retort, the ammonia gas, under considerable pressure,
+passing into the coolers. These are large receptacles in which the gas
+is permitted to expand. By such expansion heat is absorbed and the
+temperature of the surroundings is lowered. From the coolers the gas
+returns to the absorber, from which it is pumped, in liquid form, into
+the retort, to be again heated, the gas expelled and the process
+repeated. As the gas passes through the different processes, being
+heated under pressure, cooled, expanded again, more or less
+decomposition takes place, presumably from a combination of a small
+portion of the nitrogen with vegetable, animal, or mineral matter that
+finds its way into the system. Such decomposition, with the loss of
+nitrogen, leaves a small portion of free hydrogen, which is the gas
+that can be drawn from the top of the absorber, ignited and burned.
+The presence of hydrogen gas in the absorber is not necessarily
+detrimental to the effectiveness of the system, but as hydrogen does
+not possess the qualities of absorbing heat in the same way and to the
+same extent as ammonia, the presence of hydrogen makes the operation
+of the apparatus somewhat less efficient.--_Stationary Engineer._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+The refrigerating apparatus illustrated and described in the
+SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT of June 25, No. 812, is substantially
+that patented by Messrs. Erny, Subers & Hoos, of Philadelphia. The
+illustration was copied from their patents of November and February
+last.
+
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+paper, or $3.50 bound in stiff covers.
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