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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text diff --git a/15193-8.txt b/15193-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..94d42fc --- /dev/null +++ b/15193-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,5256 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Scientific American Supplement, No. 841, +February 13, 1892, by Various + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Scientific American Supplement, No. 841, February 13, 1892 + +Author: Various + +Release Date: February 27, 2005 [EBook #15193] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN *** + + + + +Produced by Juliet Sutherland and the PG Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at www.pgdp.net. + + + + + +[Illustration] + + + + +SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT NO. 841 + + + + +NEW YORK, FEBRUARY 13, 1892 + +Scientific American Supplement. Vol. XXXIII, No. 841. + +Scientific American established 1845 + +Scientific American Supplement, $5 a year. + +Scientific American and Supplement, $7 a year. + + * * * * * + + + + +TABLE OF CONTENTS. + + +I. ANTHROPOLOGY.--Investigation of a Mound near Jefferson + City, Mo.--By A.S. LOGAN.--Prehistoric remains from the banks + of the Missouri River +II. BIOLOGY.--New Observations on the Language of Animals.--By + M. DE LACAZE DUTHIERS.--A lengthy examination of some facts + in the language of animals, including birds and quadrupeds + +III. BOTANY.--Electricity in Agriculture.--By CLARENCE D. WARNER.--The + effect of currents of electricity upon the germination of seeds. + --Interesting experiments detailed, which can be easily repeated + + Electricity in Horticulture.--The effect of the electric light on + vegetation, availability it may possess for the gardener + + Pentapterygium Serpens.--A Himalayan flowering plant introduced + in England about ten years ago.--2 illustrations + + The Perforation of Flowers.--What insects do to promote the + propagation of plants by perforating the flowers in search of + honey.--16 illustrations + +IV. CHEMISTRY.--A New Laboratory Process for Preparing Hydrobromic + Acid.--By G.S. NEWTH.--Simple synthesis of hydrogen + and bromium + + Boron Salts.--Boron sulphides and selenides and silicon selenide + + Detection of Peanut Oil in Olive Oil.--A practical laboratory + test for the above adulteration + + Hydroxylamine.--Recent preparation of this compound and its + properties + + New Boron Compounds.--Compounds of boron, phosphorus, and + iodine recently prepared by M. MOISSAN + + Sapotin, a New Glucoside.--By GUSTAVE MICHAUD.--Preparation + of a new glucoside from almonds and other sources + +V. CIVIL ENGINEERING.--Completion of the Mersey Tunnel Railway.--The + penetration of the bed of the Mersey River by a tunnel + at the rate of 150 feet per week.--Details of the work + +VI. EDUCATIONAL SCIENCE.--Chinese Competitive Examinations. + --Interesting details of the famous examinations of China.--Fatal + consequences to overworked competitors + +VII. ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING.--High Speed Engine and Dynamo.--A + high speed compound engine, running at 500 revolutions + per minute, with direct-driven dynamo for electric lighting.--3 + illustrations + +VIII. MEDICINE.--The Treatment of Rattlesnake Bite by Permanganate + of Potassium, Based on Nine Successful Cases.--By + AMOS W. BARBER, M.D.--The use of this powerful disinfectant, + and the proper treatment and mode of applying it. + +IX. METEOROLOGY.--Modification of Our Climate.--By JOSEPH + WALLACE.--Climate epochs and the probabilities of the present + climatic era.--Changes within the records of man + + The Eruption of Krakatoa.--A graphic description of this catastrophe, + involving the lives of 35,000 people + +X. MILITARY ENGINEERING.--The Military Engineer and His + Work.--By Col. W.R. KING.--A Sibley College lecture, treating + of the special problems In fortifications, sieges, and the more + pacific work of surveys and explorations + +XI. MINERALOGY.--Natural Sulphide of Gold.--By T.W.T. + ATHERTON.--A probable new occurrence of gold + +XII. NATURAL HISTORY.--The Living Jerboa in the Zoological + Garden of Berlin.--A rare rodent from South Africa, one seldom + seen alive in captivity.--5 illustrations + +XIII. NAVAL ENGINEERING.--Twenty-four Knot Steamers.--The possibility of + fast ships for long voyages.--The prospects and difficulties + +XIV. RAILROAD ENGINEERING.--A Steam Street Railway Motor.--A + noiseless motor built of steel on trial in Chicago.--1 illustration + +XV. SANITARY ENGINEERING.--Some Means of Purifying + Water.--Different filtering processes and the subsidence treatment + of water + +XVI. TECHNOLOGY.--Action of Caustic Soda on Wood.--By M.H. + TAUSS.--Direct experiments on the action of lye on wood at various + pressures + + Burning Brick with Crude Oil Fuel.--The use of petroleum in + brick kilns.--Its advantages, cleanliness, and cheapness. + + Chlorine Gas and Soda by the Electrolytic Process.--The decomposition + of common salt solution into chlorine and caustic soda + on the commercial scale + + How Enameled Letters are Made.--The manufacture of separate + enameled letters as conducted in London.--5 illustrations + + How Mechanical Rubber Goods are Made.--Hose, corrugated + matting, packing, and jar rings.--Processes of their production + + * * * * * + + + + +THE LIVING JERBOA IN THE ZOOLOGICAL GARDEN OF BERLIN. + + +Like other strangely formed quadrupeds, the jerboas are counted among +the curiosities of the animal kingdom, and as such are described in +natural history; but, nevertheless, there has never been a good +exhibition of them, for the simple reason that live jerboas are seldom +seen in Europe, as they usually die during the journey hither or soon +after their arrival. After some hesitation I decided to purchase a +pair that I happened to find mentioned in the price list of Mr. C. +Reiche, of Alfeld, as one of the most interesting specimens obtained +during his expedition to South Africa the year before; but I, also, +found the sensitiveness and delicacy of the jerboa very trying, for +the short journey from Alfeld to this city caused the death of the +female and reduced her mate to such a condition that when it arrived +there seemed little hope that it could ever be utilized for scientific +research or artistic life studies. + +[Illustration: JERBOA IN THE ZOOLOGICAL GARDEN OF BERLIN.--DRAWN FROM +LIFE BY G. MUTZEL.] + +My anticipation and pleasure were changed to vexation and grief. The +most careful nursing--the stiff, weak little legs were dipped into and +rubbed with French brandy--and a warm pen with a dry sanded floor +directly over a heater, did their work. As the new-comer got on his +feet again my hope gained new life, and now our jerboa is my delight. +It is, indeed, a curious animal. One who saw it only in the day time +asleep would scarcely know what he had before him, for he would see +little more than a mass of soft, bright sandy hair. The coming of the +keeper with the dish of food and the unfastening of the door of the +cage bring life to the ball of hair in the corner; a part of it is +unrolled and the long, black-tipped tail with two lines of hair is +laid out on the ground, and then on each side of it a leg is run out +which is nearly as long as the tail and is provided with blunt, +smooth, hoof-life nails; and, finally, the head and body are +distinguishable and the animal stretches out comfortably on its back +in the sand. The fine-skinned, hairless ears still hang limp, the eyes +are half closed and the short fore legs are crossed under the chin. + +But now the animal gets on its legs by an elastic swing, and its ears +are raised and its eyes wide open, so that we can see that the latter +are large and dark, with long eyelashes. Then the jerboa raises +himself to his full height and playfully measures his cage by one +bound from corner to corner. Soon after, the fresh food receives due +attention, the animal either jumping toward it in rabbit fashion or +crawling slowly on all fours. When it has reached its goal it again +assumes the upright position, in which it is evidently most +comfortable, and begins to eat it in his own peculiar way; that is, +sitting on his hind legs he quickly seizes a piece of bread, turnip or +other food in his fore paws and conveys it to his mouth, apparently +indifferent to the nature of the food before him. He never takes +anything directly in his mouth; even the grass on a piece of turf that +I had given to him as an experiment was not eaten as it would have +been eaten by other animals, but was first plucked with the fore paws. +If we notice the position of the mouth, far back on the under side of +the head, we will understand that the jerboa could not take his food +in any other way. Besides this, nothing of special interest has been +observed in this nocturnal creature, but he, of course, lives more +regularly and quietly than if his mate had lived. + +One who knows anything about the structure of animals' bodies need not +be told that the jerboa is a rodent. One glance at the peculiar shape +of his head would assure him of that. The form of the rest of its +body, especially its long hind and short fore legs, give unmistakable +proof that it is related to the jumping rodents; it belongs, in a wide +sense, to the family of the jumping mouse, the scientific name +(Dipodidea, two-footed) of which is very significant, as the very +short fore legs are usually carried close under the chin and are +scarcely noticeable when the animal is in its normal position, and are +of little use when it moves about. The hind legs are very strong, and +when going at full speed the jerboa takes jumps that measure from +eight to ten yards, according to the unanimous testimony of various +witnesses. + +The jumping mouse of North America, which is somewhat larger than an +ordinary mouse, is, according to Brehm, also as swift as an arrow or a +low-flying bird. This exceptional velocity is not all that reminds us +of a bird, for there is also a strong resemblance in the formation of +certain parts of the bodies of the two creatures; but, after +consideration, this should not seem strange, because in animal +organisms similar means are employed to accomplish similar ends. It is +only natural that there should be peculiarities in the construction of +the limbs and skulls of the Dipodidea with their bird-like movements +and bird-like sharp-sightedness, that are usually found only among +birds. The consistency between the construction of their bodies and +their mode of life is a beautiful example of fitness; only by +extraordinary quickness of movement and sagacity could the little +defenseless plant-eaters maintain the struggle for existence in the +barren steppes and deserts. The formation of the bodies of the +different members of the family varies according to their needs. The +jerboa is the largest member of the family. Very little is known of +his life when free; it being known only that the jerboas are widely +spread over the whole of southern Africa, and are nocturnal burrowers +of the steppes. During the rainy season they remain in a sort of +winter sleep.--_Dr. L. Heck, in the Illustrirte Zeitung_. + + * * * * * + + + + +NEW OBSERVATIONS ON THE LANGUAGE OF ANIMALS. + +By M. DE LACAZE DUTHIERS, of the Institute of France. + + +I had occasion in a note published several years ago in the _Revue +Scientifique_ to mention a parroquet which I have since continued to +observe, the manifestations of whose intelligence are both interesting +and instructive. Many acts of birds are difficult of interpretation. +To speak only of their songs, the meanings of most of the innumerable +varieties of sounds which they produce, and of their diverse +warblings, escape us completely. It is not possible to find the +meaning of these things except by forming suppositions and hypotheses, +or by catching the connections between cries and acts. But instances +of the latter kind are extremely rare in comparison with the great +majority of the manifestations made by animals. + +Thus, to select examples which every one can observe, when a canary +bird is warbling in its cage and becomes deafening, or when a lark +rises straight up in the air and _incantat suum tirile tirile_--sings +its _tirile tirile_--as Linnæus picturesquely expresses it; when a +tomtit, leaping from branch to branch of a willow or among the reeds, +repeats its florid warblings; when a raven croaks; when a blackbird +whistles--what significance can we attach to their songs and their +cries? Certainty is impossible, and we can only form more or less +plausible hypotheses concerning the interpretation of them. + +The parrot furnishes us one more aid in this matter than other birds, +and this helps us, to a certain extent, in overcoming the difficulty +of interpretation. It has an articulate voice, and when we have taught +it a few words, the meaning which it gives them may be better divined +by us according to the tone and the rapidity or slowness of its +utterance. This permits us to discover the feelings that move it, for +we can better judge from an articulate sound than from one that is +merely musical. + +Much has been written on the language of animals. It is neither my +desire nor my intention to repeat here all that may have been said on +this subject. It would take too long and would be of no use. I have +often witnessed facts that may be of interest to those who are +occupied with the mental manifestations of animals. I will simply +relate them; and of such as are already known, I will merely mention +them anew, admitting in advance a priority for others which I do not +demand for myself. + +There can be no doubt that animals communicate their impressions by an +inarticulate voice. Common sense and the most superficial observations +are opposed to the negative of this proposition. But when a canary +bird warbles till it stuns us, or a nightingale sings in the shadows +on the fine nights of June, can we follow and discover the +significance of those modulations--now sharply cadenced, now slowly +drawn out, and ending with a trill long and accurate enough to +challenge the most skillful musician? + +All the poets of every country have constantly sung of the songs of +Philomela. But their fervent and enthusiastic verses cast little light +on the value of the nightingale's song. It is said that the male sings +for the entertainment of the sitting female, but there is no proof of +the assertion. The note warning of the approach of danger is easier to +recognize. The bird utters a short, hoarse cry, and repeats it with a +succession of _trrre, trrre_, which is impossible to mistake. When we +hear this cry we may be sure that an enemy is near. Music gives way to +a cry of distress and warning, and the female leaves her nest if the +sounds become piercing. What do we know of the gobbling of the turkey, +which the whistling and the cries of children excite? They are +doubtless responses to those challenges; but what do they mean? + +The crowing of the cock, recurring regularly at fixed hours, has some +signification, but we cannot comprehend it. If on a fine afternoon in +autumn the cock crows, and repeats his strain between two and four +o'clock, the countrymen in some places will say there will be a fog on +the morrow, and they are generally not mistaken. Hens do not mistake +his notes either; when a leader of the troop, coming upon a spot rich +in food, utters his peculiar chuckle, they run from all around to +share the find with him. It is evident that the cock has called them +and they have understood him. These facts indicate that there is some +definite sense in this inarticulate language; and examples of it, +taken from other groups, might be multiplied. + +The dog, intelligent animal as he is, manifests his affection on +meeting his master, with peculiar cries which vary with the intensity +of his joy. No one could confound these notes of pleasure with those +which he utters when he is angrily driving away a beggar, or when he +meets another dog of unpleasant appearance and puts himself in the +position of attack. + +An interesting study of the voice of the dog on guard may be made in +the country at night. If another dog barks in the distance, the house +dog answers in a peculiar manner. He gives a few growls, stops, seems +to listen, begins again, very often getting answers; and, after two or +three interruptions, he terminates his barking with abrupt yelps, loud +at the beginning and long drawn out, and gradually dying away. This +ending of his cries is habitually accompanied by his raising his head +and throwing it back. I have often, when within the house, on hearing +the watch dog bark in this way, opened the window to assure myself on +the subject, and distinguished, as I could not do with the windows +closed, the voice of another watch dog barking in the same way in the +distance--the barkings of the two dogs alternating, one answering the +other. There is in such cases an evident communication of impressions. +One of the dogs, having had his attention aroused by some unusual +noise, has transmitted his impression to the other, as sentinels +posted at intervals call out theft warnings one to another. I have +often repeated this observation during the long evenings of winter. + +Another example, little known in thickly populated countries, is drawn +from a curious scene which I witnessed during a winter passed in +Perigord Noir. We had remarked that for several nights the three watch +dogs, a young and an old male and a bitch, howled often toward +midnight, but in a peculiar way. One night in particular, during their +tedious concert, just as we had got to sleep, they mingled with their +cries howlings like those they would have uttered if they had been +beaten, with a shading hard to define, but which we perceived plainly; +and we remarked that, leaving their kennel in the avenue that led up +to the lodge, they had come to close quarters with one another at the +gate, with alternating howlings and plaintive cries. Inquiring in the +morning for the cause of these singular cries, the peasants told me +that a wolf had passed, and predicted that it would return. They said, +too, that a neighbor's hunting bitch had disappeared, and its bones +had been found in the fields near a wood. We were awakened again about +midnight by the cries of the dogs, and the scene was renewed. Informed +as we now were of the nature of what was going on, we ran to one of +the windows, whence we could see, in the clear light of the moon, all +that passed. The three dogs were cowering against the gate, the oldest +one howling by the side of the others, while the younger one and the +bitch were exposed at intervals to the attacks of another animal, +browner than they, and of about their size, without defending +themselves, but moaning as if they were undergoing a vigorous +correction. + +Frightened, doubtless, by the opening of the blinds of the first story +above him, the strange animal had gone away and was sitting in the +middle of the road. We could only see that he had straight ears. While +we were going down to get a gun the visitor came back to his charge on +the dogs, which had begun howling after he left them, and resumed the +cries significant of chastisement when they were attacked again. For +some reason, perhaps because he heard the click of the gun, the foe +drew back and sat down in a garden walk, concealed by a bunch of +shrubbery. The three dogs, notwithstanding our reiterated urging, were +no more disposed to pursue him than before. If the assailant had been +a dog they would have rushed upon him, but they stayed cowering at the +gate and howled distressfully. The bitch was most affected, and they +all seemed paralyzed by fear. It is said in the country that bitches +are especially liable to be attacked by wolves. It was so here. The +most certain feature in the matter was the terror of the animals. They +were capable of resisting the attack three times over. The young dog +was a savage one, and passers-by were afraid of the bitch; but that +night they were terrorized, and all incapable of defending themselves. +Their cries were therefore due to the same cause as in the preceding +night--the presence and attacks of the wolf. I could not have realized +their meaning if I had not been a witness of the scene--that is, I +could not have correlated the cries and the acts. + +A shot at the animal behind the bushes was followed by a hoarse cry. +He was hit, and ran; but, in spite of our urgings, the dogs stayed at +the gate and only stopped howling. Under any other conditions, upon +the signal of the shot they would all have started in pursuit of the +wounded animal. + +A wolf came to the farm during the last winter (1890-91) and attacked +the same bitch. He would have carried her off, for he had seized her +by the throat, if we could judge from the stifled cries she uttered; +but this time he found with her a new watch dog--a mountain bitch from +the Pyrenees--of a breed that attacks the wolf and the bear. The wolf +would have been caught if he had not run away. He did not return, for +he had been attacked, and learned what he had to deal with. + +The Pyrenean breed furnishes excellent watch dogs. I knew one of +remarkable traits. At evening he would go round the house, giving two +or three growls at each door. With his head raised he seemed to listen +to his fine voice, then he would start again and go to another door. +He seemed desirous to show those who were observing him that he was +attending to his post as guardian. He then went away in silence along +the walk, through a dark, rising hedgerow, leaping the slight hillock, +yelping toward the wood. He listened, yelped again, and went in. There +was never any failure in this performance, but every evening as night +was coming on he began his round, which no one had taught him. It was +all done in his function as a guard. It would be hard to determine +what his yelps meant, but there were in them an inflection, a +sonorousness, and a continuance quite different from those he uttered +when pursuing a passer-by or when going to meet a person coming toward +the house. Every one who has a watch dog is able to tell by the sound +of his barking when a person is coming up, and usually what sort of a +visitor it is. + +The peasants' dogs of the southwest of France dislike the country +millers, because of the long whips which they are always carrying and +snapping, and with which the dogs, running after them, are often +struck. From as far off as the snapping of the whip can be heard, the +dogs come to wait for the millers and pursue them; and it is easy to +recognize when the millers are passing, by the behavior of the dogs. +There is in this also a significance, at once aggressive and +defensive, in the cries which one can, by giving a little attention, +soon learn to distinguish. + +Another example of the reality of the various meanings of the cries of +the dog under different circumstances is afforded by the companies +that collect around a female in heat. + +I have a very intelligent and experienced brach hound, the same which +with the bitch had to face the attack of the wolf. He amuses me much +at my country lunches. Hunting dogs which have been much with their +masters at lunch do not like to have the drinking glass offered them. +This dog was much afraid of the glass, and I had only to present it to +him at lunch time to make him keep his distance. I used to keep my +door open at lunch, for the amusement of observing how I could make +him stop exactly at the threshold without stepping over it. If he had +passed over it I could always send him back by casting toward him a +few drops of water from the bottom of the glass after drinking. +Sitting, as was his habit, on the sill of the door, with the tip of +his muzzle never extending beyond the plane of the panels, he would +follow my motions with the closest attention, reminding me, if I +failed to give him a sign of attention, by a discreet, plaintive cry, +that he was there. But if I touched my glass, he would spring up at +once; if I filled it, he would put himself on guard, utter a kind of +sigh, sneeze, lick his lips, yawn, and, shaking his ears briskly, make +little stifled cries. Then he would grow impatient, and more and more +watchful and nervous. When I lifted my glass to my lips he would draw +back, working gradually nearer to the farther door, and at last +disappear and hide. One who was looking at him without seeing me could +tell by his wails and his attitude the level and position of my glass. +When the glass was horizontal, I could see only about half of his +head, with one eye regarding me fixedly, for that was usually the +critical moment--the one, also, when the wails and restraints were +most demonstrative of the anxious fear of my poor animal. + +When we dine in the kitchen, which is on the ground floor, the dogs +are usually all put out. There are four of them, three young and not +experienced, and this old, sagacious brach hound. He insists on coming +in, and, to gain his purpose, tries to have the door opened. Although +no person may be coming up the walk, he dashes down it barking, all +the others going along too and yelping with him; then he stops, +remains a little behind after having got the others out of the way, +and, turning his head from moment to moment, looks to see if the door +has been opened, for we generally go to it to see who has come. In +that case the feigned attack is successful, and the dog, who has +evidently meant to give the alarm so as to have the door opened, comes +in at once and claims a place at the table. He has accomplished his +end, for the door is usually shut without paying attention to his +having got in. I have frequently witnessed this stratagem, and when, +during my kitchen dinner, I suddenly hear the dogs yelping after the +brach hound has begun, I am pretty sure that nobody is in sight. + +I have forgotten where I found the next story of an old dog who was +also very sagacious. Hunting dogs, when they grow old, become +rheumatic, or are at least debilitated with pains. We know, too, that +they crave heat, and get as near the fire as possible--a craving which +increases as they grow older. One such dog, older than the others, and +slower in getting into the lodge on returning from the hunt, was often +crowded away from the fire by the other livelier dogs getting all the +best places before him. Finding himself thus turned out in the cold, +he would dash toward the door barking, when the others, supposing it +was an alarm, would rush away too, while the old rheumatic went to the +fire and selected a place to suit him. + +It is not necessary to dwell upon the intelligence shown by such acts. +But it is hardly contestable that the old animal, who knows how to +play such tricks upon his less experienced companions, deceives them +by his intonations, while he is well aware that no enemy is +approaching the house; but he does it scientifically, by the +inflections of his voice, as a man speaking to other men would do in +announcing the arrival of an imaginary enemy. + +Inarticulate cries are all pretty much the same to us; their +inflections, duration, pitch, abruptness, and prolongation alone can +inform us of their purpose. But experience and close attention have +shown us the connection of these variations with the acts that +accompany or precede them. Animals evidently understand these +inflections at once. We cannot better compare the language of animals +than with what takes place in a pleasant sport, a kind of pantomime of +the voice or language which many youth doubtless understand, and which +I venture to refer to here to aid in more easily conceiving of the +communication of thought among animals by sounds which seem to us all +alike. When I was engaged in hospitals, the evenings in the guard room +were sometimes enlivened by the presence of a companion who excelled +in humorous mimicry. He would represent a man in liquor who had +stopped at a fountain that flowed with a gentle sound, somewhat like +that of his own hiccough. A single oath, pronounced in different +tones, was sufficient to enable us to comprehend all the impressions, +all the states of mind through which this devotee of Bacchus passed. +The oath, at first pronounced slowly and with an accent expressing +relief, represented a feeling of satisfaction, with shadings of +prolonged exclamation which it would be hard for one to imagine +without suggestion. The continued flowing of the fountain made our +drunken man impatient, and he wanted it to stop. This state of mind +was translated by a new modulation of the same word. In a little while +the gurgling of the fountain produced astonishment. Was it possible +that he, with all the liquid he had imbibed, could vomit so much and +for so long a time? This mental condition was expressed by a new +modulation of the same oath. The first movement of surprise over, +resignation follows, and our man decides to wait patiently for the +end. A period of half lethargy was easily represented by the slowness +and weakness of the man's voice while living up to this decision; but +when he comes out of this sleepy condition and hears the fountain +again, he is possessed with fear; he cannot understand the flood he is +pouring out--he dares not move--he believes he is lost. Gradually the +fumes of the liquor pass away, and, his mistake being recognized, the +drunkard is taken with a laughing and a gayety which are indicated by +the same oath repeated in tones corresponding with the satisfaction he +is then enjoying. This making the series of impressions a man passes +through comprehensible by a single word, varied in pronunciation and +utterance, is very like the language of animals, which is always the +same, and the significance of which is given by variety of intonations +corresponding with sensational conditions. + +The mewing of the cat is always the same; but what a number of mental +conditions it expresses! I had a kitten whose gambols and liveliness +entertained me greatly. I understood well, when it came up to me +mewing, what the sound meant; sometimes the kitten wanted to come up +and sleep in my lap; at other times it was asking me to play with it. +When, at my meals, it jumped on my knees, turned round, looked at me, +and spoke in a coaxing and flattering way, it was asking for something +to eat. When its mother came up with a mouse in her jaws, her muffled +and low-toned mew informed the little one from a distance, and caused +it to spring and run up to the game that was brought to it. The cry is +always the same, but varied in the strength of the inflections and in +its protraction, so as to represent the various states of mind with +which my young animal is moved--just as it was with the drunken man in +the mimicry scene. These facts are probably well known to all +observers of animals. + +We have seen that this tonality of the watch dog's cries is competent +to indicate that a person is coming to the house. We find similar +cries of warning uttered by birds. When I was a professor in the +faculty of Lille, I frequently visited the well known aged Professor +of Physics, M. Delezenne. He had a working room at the end of a +garden, in which a laughing mew wandered. From the time that any one +came in till he went out, this bird made the vocal explosions to which +it owes its name; and the good professor was certain, without ever +being mistaken, that somebody was coming to his laboratory. He was +notified. My Jaco in Paris has a warble that answers the ringing of +the bell. If we have not heard the bell, we are notified by Jaco of +its ringing, and, going to the door, find some one there. I have been +told of a parrot belonging to the steward of a lyceum which had heard +the words "Come in," when any one rang the bell. He never failed to +cry, "Come in," when the bell moved, and the visitor was embarrassed +at seeing nobody after having been invited to open the door. + +Instances in which the cries of birds had an incontestable and precise +signification are numerous; let me refer to a few of the best known. +The cackle of a hen, after having laid an egg and left her nest, is +decidedly characteristic. Her clucking when she is impelled to sit on +her eggs, or when she is calling her chicks, is no less demonstrative. +There is not a farmer who does not recognize it and understand it. In +these things we see the relation between the tone of the prating or +cluck of the hen and her acts. But when a nightingale sings all night, +or a goldfinch whistles, or a raven croaks, we cannot so easily +interpret the significance of their inarticulate sounds. The finch +calls its mate by uttering a few notes followed by a long trill. +Matches of a barbarous character, based on this habit, I were held in +the north of France while I was living at Lille, between 1855 and +1860. I do not know whether they have been suppressed or not, but the +laws for the protection of animals ought to take cognizance of them. +The gamesters put out the eyes of the male finches, and made them, +thus blinded, compete as singers, for which purpose they brought their +cages into proximity. When the birds heard and recognized one +another's voices, they made their appeal to the female; the one that +renewed his amorous trills most frequently, protracted them longest +and to the last, gained the prize. The bird that was declared victor +received a medal amid the applause of a large and enthusiastic crowd; +and considerable wagers were staked upon the result. I have heard that +these poor blinded birds sometimes fell down exhausted with singing, +and kept on calling the absent female till they died, not being +willing to yield to a rival, who on his side was also keeping up his +equally useless appeals. + +These finch contests were suggested after the meaning of the song of +the birds was learned. But when these birds, which are more usually +isolated--whence they have been named _Fringilla coelebs_, or +celibates--hop around our houses and also utter their amorous trills +at another than the mating season, they are evidently not calling the +female. Should we not then seek to determine by the tone whether their +call, which is always the same, is amorous or not? + +In countries where flocks of turkeys are raised one can learn very +quickly from their gobblings when they have captured a hare. If they +meet him standing still or lying down, they form in a circle around +him, and, putting their heads down, repeat continually their peculiar +cries. The hare remains quiet, and it is sometimes possible to take +him up, terrorized as he is in the midst of the black circle of +gobbling beaks and heads. The language of the turkeys is at that time +incontestably significant. It is warlike, and similar to that of the +males when they are fighting. In the present instance they have joined +for war, and they make it on the frightened hare. + +My Jaco, like all parrots, which are excellent imitators, pronounces a +few words and repeats them over and over again. Such birds amuse us +because the words they know sometimes happen to be ludicrously +fitting. A bird of this kind had been struck by the note sounded by +the wind blowing into a room through a crack in the glass work +whenever a certain door was opened; and he had become so perfect in +his imitation that they sometimes, on hearing the noise, went to shut +the door when it was not open. + +Jaco formerly belonged to a very pious old lady who was accustomed to +say her litanies with another person. He had caught the words "Pray +for us," in the invocations to the several saints, and said them so +well as sometimes to deceive his learned mistress, and cause her to +think she was saying her litanies with two colleagues. When Jaco was +out of food, and any one passed by him, he would say, "My poor +Cocotte!" or "My poor rat!" in an arch, mawkish, protracted tone that +indicated very clearly what he wanted, and that his drinking cup was +empty. There was no doubt in the house as to his meaning; and whenever +one heard it he said: "He has nothing to eat." He was exceedingly fond +of fresh pits of apples and pears, and I was in the habit of +collecting them and keeping them to give him. So whenever, as I came +near him, I put my hand into my pocket he never failed to say: "Poor +Cocco!" in a supplicating tone which it was impossible to mistake. A +sugar plum is a choice morsel to him. He can tell what it is from a +distance when I hold it out in my fingers; and when I give it to him +he cannot restrain himself if it has been any considerable time since +he has had the delicacy. Usually, after having made the first motion +to get it, as if he were ravished and wanted to express his joy in +advance, he would draw back before taking it, and say, in a comical +tone, "Hold, my poor Cocotte!" His manner of thanking in advance is +likewise amusing. The expression of his eyes and the pose of his head +are all in accord with the tone of his exclamation. When he tastes the +plum he utters a series of _ahs_, and produces a kind of warble by +prolonging some of his notes and shortening up others. We find in +these examples, without doubt, that the articulate voice makes us +better able to judge the meaning of the impressions that are moving +the animal than inarticulate cries, or merely musical sounds. When +Jaco met a child for whom he had a great affection, he would promenade +on his perch, or turn the wheel, spreading out his tail and ruffling +the feathers of his head, while his eyes grew red with excitement if +the child was too slow in bestowing the accustomed caress. Then he +would stop, bend down his head, and, looking at his friend, say +pleasantly, "Jaco," in a tone and with a manner quite in contrast with +the pronunciation of the same word when he was hungry. + +It is not the word he speaks that is of interest; he might have been +taught another, and it would have been the same; but it is the tone. +In this case, too, the articulation gives an easier clew to the +meaning the bird seeks to express, having a meaning according to the +manner of pronouncing it, than any isolated, simply musical sound, +like the song of the nightingale, canary bird, and warbler. This +became evident to me, not from observing animals for a few moments +without seeing them again, but from studying them continuously. + +Jaco did not like solitude, and was talkative and fond of being +caressed, like all of his kind. One day, when there was no one in the +country house, all having gone out into the garden or the fields, I +heard him saying over what few words he knew, in different +inflections. I went quietly into the room where he was, without being +seen; but he heard my steps, although I walked in very cautiously, +hoping to surprise him. He ceased his chatter, listened, and, after a +silence, pronounced "Jaco" in a low tone, drawing out the end of the +word. He listened again, and repeated the word in the same tone; then, +after another silence, repeated it with a rise of the voice. I +continued observing him, and, as he heard no one, he raised his tone +gradually, repeating the same word, and ended at last with a genuine +cry of distress. The people ran in from without, supposing something +had happened to him. He then repeated his name in a lower tone, which +seemed to indicate his satisfaction at finding his isolation ended. I +went in myself, and his prattle unmistakably betrayed his gladness at +being no longer alone. + +Is there not in this an act of real intelligence? While alone, the +parrot entertained himself by talking; but when he heard a sound he +hoped at first to see some one come; and when no one answered him, he +raised his voice, as a person would do who calls, and, getting no +reply, cried out louder and louder till he was heard and answered. The +meaning of the differences of intonation is as evident in this case as +in that of the drunken man. A parrot raised in the South had learned +to swear in the local _patois_. Being fond of coffee, he was sometimes +given a spoonful, which he would come awkwardly up to the table to +drink with his master. One day the master, not thinking of his bird, +had already added cognac to his coffee, and gave the parrot the +accustomed spoonful. The parrot took a swallow of it, and, in his +surprise at the novel taste, raised his head and repeated the oath in +a tone that excited laughter in all who were present. The cause of his +surprise being discovered, he was soothed, and then took his usual +ration with evident signs of contentment. The mimicry of language in +this case clearly represented the shade of the new impression he felt. + +Jaco is very timid. In the evening, when he is put to roost in a close +and dark room, he is afraid of the shadow of his perch that is cast by +the light we carry in our hand; he eyes it, and utters a low cry, +which stops when the candle is blown out and he cannot see the shadow +any longer. He stands in dread of blows in the bottom of his cage, +because, having a wing broken, he cannot fly, and is afraid of +falling. Feeling his weakness, his language has a different tone from +the usual one. Large birds flying in the sky above him annoy him +greatly, and we can all tell by his voice when such a bird is near or +flying over. He inclines his head and chatters in a low tone as long +as the bird is in sight, paying no attention to anything else. Turkeys +and hens announce the approach of a bird of prey in a similar manner. + +We find in the facts which we have related, as well as in many others +which are cited respecting the ways and habits of parrots, proofs of a +remarkable intelligence. These creatures are distinguished by the +unlimited affection which they bestow upon some persons, as well as by +their excessive dislikes, which nothing can explain. Jaco conceived an +extraordinary dislike for a maid who, although she took good care of +him, was in the habit of washing the bottom of his cage under a +faucet. He afterward discarded another person, whom he had liked so +much that she could do what she pleased with him, even to passing her +hand over his back and taking him by the tail, holding him in her +hands, or putting him in her apron--caresses of a kind that parrots do +not usually permit. Nothing astonished him or offended him. He proved +very inconstant toward her, and now, while better disposed toward the +other girl, he is furious against this one. A third miss has come to +capture his affection; and when he has been left asleep, or resting in +his cage, he has always the same word, but different in the inflection +wheedling, angry, or nearly indifferent, as either of the three +persons comes near him. Jaco's pronunciation is scanned in many +meters. Only one young student has had the privilege of retaining his +affection unmarred. + +Jaco had been left in the country for a whole week in the winter. +Alone and isolated, he was taken care of by a person who was not +constantly with him. The young student, accompanied by a tutor, came +to pass a few days in the house. At the sight of the youth, Jaco, +surprised, called out, "Momon! Momon!" "It was affecting," they wrote +me, "to see so great signs of joy." I have also myself witnessed +similar signs of joy at the coming of the student. Jaco's speech at +such times is always in harmony with his feelings. In the pleasant +season Jaco's cage is put outdoors; and at meal times, knowing very +well what is going on within, he keeps up a steady course of suppliant +appeals for attention. His appeals cease at once if I go out with +fruit in my hand, and if I go toward him he utters a prattle of joy +that sounds like musical laughter. These manifestations indicate that +he is happy at seeing that he has been thought of. + +I close these anecdotes, as I began them, by repeating that animals +communicate their impressions, and the feelings that move them, by +various modulations of their inarticulate cries, which are +incomprehensible to us unless we have succeeded by attentive +observation in connecting them with the acts that follow or precede +them. We have also seen that the articulation of a few words learned +by parrots aids us greatly in learning the meaning of these different +inflections. + +The extension of these studies would furnish much of interest; but +further observations should be made upon the same animals for a +longtime continuously, relating especially to their peculiar instincts +as manifested by their various cries. We might then, by comparing and +relating acts and cries, reach the point of comprehending and perhaps +fixing the meaning in many cases where we are now in ignorance. Every +one has noticed a few facts, and has interpreted and related them, but +much is still wanting for the co-ordination of them in the point of +view of the signification of the language and communication of animals +among themselves. It has not been made in a general sense. +--_Translated for the Popular Science Monthly from the Revue +Scientifique_. + + * * * * * + + + + +MODIFICATION OF OUR CLIMATE. + +By JOSEPH WALLACE. + + +Every now and then some weather sage predicts extremely cold winters, +and another ventures to say that the sun is gradually losing heat and +in time Arctic cold will prevail over the globe. Whatever may have +been the changes during the vast cycles of time prior to the advent of +man, or whatever may be the changes in the time to come, one thing is +quite certain; that our climate has been much modified within the past +two or three thousand years. + +"There have been fifteen climatic changes since the beginning of the +glacial age, each change lasting 10,500 years, and each change +reversing the season in the two hemispheres, the pole which had +enjoyed continuous summer being doomed to undergo perpetual winter for +10,500 years, and then passing to its former state for an equal term. +The physical changes upon the earth's surface during the past 80,000 +years modified the changes of climate even in the Arctic regions, so +that the intense cold of the former epochs was much modified during +the latter epochs." Reckoning these climatic changes in their order, +we had entered the epoch of a more genial temperature about fifteen +hundred years ago; and if no disturbing change takes place during the +present epoch, we may reasonably expect a gradual modification of our +winters for nine thousand years to come. The changes to intense cold +from perpetual summer during the greater part of the glacial period +are supposed to have been caused by the high temperature of the north +pole as compared to that of the south pole, owing to the distribution +of land around the two, the south having almost none. Dr. Croll thinks +it was caused by the varying inclination of the earth's axis, which +produced the relative position of the two poles toward the sun to be +periodically reversed at distant periods. Dr. James Geikie agrees with +Croll on the reverse of seasons every 10,500 years during certain +periods of high ellipticity of the earth's orbit. + +But it may be asked, "How could the fauna and flora propagate +themselves under such conditions?" The flora itself at the quaternary +age was of extreme vigor. We know this from the little which is left +us, but more especially from the presence of a large number of +herbivorous animals--stags, horses, elephants, rhinoceros, etc.--which +animated the plains and valleys of Europe and America at the same +time. Evidently they could not have lived and propagated themselves +without abundant vegetation for nourishment and development. + +That which has deceived the adherents of the glacial theory, as +understood in its absolute sense, is, they have generally placed a too +high estimate on its extent and intensity. It needs but a little +effort of the reasoning powers to come to the conclusion that the +earth had cooled to the degree that all animal and vegetable life +could exist upon it, and that a portion of the earth's surface +permanently covered with snow and ice was absolutely indispensable to +the existence, perpetuity, and well-being of animal and vegetable +life. Again, they have attributed to the glaciers the rocks, gravels, +and other material which they have found spread here and there long +distances from the mountains. The transportation of the so-called +erratic rocks has appeared inexplicable in any other way, and the +piles of rock and gravel have been considered so many _moraines_, that +is, deposits of diverse material transported by the glaciers. They do +not regard the probability of other agents taking the place of +glaciers, and undervalue the moving power of water. Water in liquid +state has often produced analogous effects, and it has often been the +error of the glacialists to confound the one with the other. The +erratic rocks and the moraines are undoubtedly the ordinary +indications of the ancient gravels, but, taken isolatedly, they are +not sufficient proof. In order to convince they should be accompanied +with a third indication, which is the presence of striated rocks which +we find in the neighborhood of our actual glaciers. When all these +signs are together then there is hardly a possibility of error, but +one alone is not sufficient, because it can be the effect of another +cause. + +No doubt the temperature was really lower at the quaternary age and at +the epoch generally assigned to man's advent in European countries, +but the difference was not so great as some say. A lowering of four +degrees is sufficient to explain the ancient extension of the +glaciers. We can look on this figure as the maximum, for it is proved +to-day that humanity played the main _role_ in the glacial phenomena. +The beds of rivers and the alluvia are there to tell that all the +water was not in a solid state at that time, that the glaciers were +much more extended than in our days, and that the courses of the +rivers were infinitely more abundant. When this is understood we can +reasonably reduce the extension of the ancient glaciers, the lowering +of the temperature at the quaternary age, and account for the +uninterrupted life of the fauna and flora. However, we must not fall +into the opposite excess and assert, as some have done, that the +glacial period is comparatively recent, the traces of which are too +plain and fresh in some localities to assign to it an age prior to +man, and that the temperature has rather lowered itself since this +epoch. The ancient extension of the glaciers has been followed by a +corresponding growth and extension of animal life, thus proving that +the permanence of glaciers is a wise provision and absolutely +essential to man and the high orders of animals and vegetation. The +ancient extension does not prove alone that it was much colder than in +historic times, for the animals themselves are proof of this. At that +time the plains of Europe, and of France in particular, were animated +by herds of reindeer, gluttons, camels, and marmots, which one does +not find to-day except in the higher latitudes or more considerable +heights. The mammoth and rhinoceros are no exception to this, for +naturalists know they were organized to live in cold countries. + +Space will not permit us to pursue this point further, or speculate on +the probable climatic conditions of the ice age; but we can carry +ourselves back a few thousand years and describe the climate of Europe +and neighboring countries of Africa and Asia. Herodotus describes the +climate of Scythia in terms which would indicate in our day the +countries of Lapland and Greenland. He shows us the country completely +frozen during eight months of the year; the Black Sea frozen up so +that it bore the heaviest loads; the region of the Danube buried under +snow for eight months, and watered in summer by the abundant rains +which gave to the river its violent course. The historian adds that +the ass cannot live in Scythia on account of the extreme cold which +reigns there. The following century Aristotle makes the same remarks +concerning Gaul. His contemporary, Theophrastes, tells us that the +olive tree did not succeed in Greece more than five hundred furlongs +from the sea. We can assure ourselves that both the ass and the olive +thrive in these countries at the present day. + +Three centuries later, Cæsar speaks frequently and emphatically of the +rigor of winters and early setting in of cold in France, the abundance +of snow and rain, and the number of lakes and marshes which became +every moment serious obstacles to the army. He says he is careful not +to undertake any expedition except in summer. Cicero, Varro, +Possidonius, and Strabo insist equally on the rigor of the climate of +Gaul, which allows neither the culture of the vine nor the olive. +Diodorus of Sicily confirms this information: "The cold of the winters +in Gaul is such that almost all the rivers freeze up and form natural +bridges, over which numerous armies pass quite safely with teams and +baggages; in order to hinder the passengers to slip out upon the ice +and to render the marching more secure, they spread straw thereon." + +Virgil and Ovid insist on the severity of cold in the regions of the +Danube. The first describes the inhabitants of these miserable +countries withdrawing themselves into caves dressed with the skins of +wild beasts. Ovid, who had passed several years of his life in that +region, is more precise in his description. He says the wine has +changed itself here (Black Sea) into a solid frozen mass; one gives it +to drink by pieces. Fearing of being accused of poetic exaggeration he +appeals to the testimony of two ancient governors of Moesia, who could +establish the facts like himself. The author who would give such +accounts of the Black Sea in our days would risk his reputation for +veracity. + +Italy, too, experienced its part of the cold in early days. Virgil +tells us of the snows being, heaped up, rivers which carried ice +along, the sad winter which split the stone and bound up the course of +large streams, and all this in the warmest part of Italy, at the base +of the walls of Taranto. Heratius affirms that the Soracte, a +neighboring mountain of Rome, was whitened with thick snow, rivers +frozen, and the country covered with snow. To-day the snow stays very +little upon the Soracte and never in the country around Rome. During +the four or five centuries which followed, writers speak of the +severity of climate in Northern Italy, the lagoons on the Adriatic +being frozen over. Algiers was much colder then than now. The Danube, +Rhine, and other rivers in Europe, the Nile in Africa, the Amazon in +South America, the Mississippi and Missouri in North America, had +quite different volumes two thousand years ago than their present +actual ones, and they especially rolled much greater masses of water. + +There is everything to show a modification of climate in our own days. +If this goes on in the future as in the past, there will be a marked +difference in the temperature two or three hundred years from now. +Even a degree in a thousand years would effect a great change in the +course of time. The lowering of four degrees established the ancient +extension of glaciers, though it did not interrupt animal or vegetable +life. Fifty-four of the fifty-seven species of _Mollusca_ have +outlived the glacial age, and all our savage animals--even a certain +number which have disappeared--date equally from the quaternary, and +were contemporary with the great extension of the glaciers.--_Popular +Science News_. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE ERUPTION OF KRAKATOA. + + +Before the year 1883 physical geographers, in speaking of the most +disastrous volcanic eruption on record, referred first, in point of +time, to the celebrated eruption of Vesuvius, in A.D. 79, when the +cities of Herculaneum, Pompeii and several smaller towns on the slope +of the mountain were destroyed by lava or buried under a mass of +pumice stones and ashes; second to that of Hecla and Skaptar Jokull, +contiguous mountains in Iceland, in 1783, when two enormous lava +streams, one 15 miles wide and over 100 ft. deep and the other +scarcely inferior, flowed, the first, 50 miles and the other 40, till +they reached the sea, pouring a flood of white hot lava into the +ocean, destroying everything in their paths and killing in the waters +of the ocean the fish, the mainstay of the inhabitants, who were +reduced by the disaster, directly or indirectly, to less than +five-sixths of their former strength; and third to that of Galungung, +in 1822, which devastated such an immense area in Java; but all the +eruptions known besides were as mere child's play to the terrible one +of Krakatoa in 1883. + +If the reader will examine the map of the East Indies he will find +represented in the straits of Sunda, which lie between Sumatra and +Java, the little island of Krakatoa. In maps made before 1883 he will +hunt in vain for the name, for like Bull Run before 1861, it was then +unknown to fame, though navigators who passed through the straits knew +it as a beautiful tropical isle, with an extinct volcanic cone in the +center. In the beginning of 1883, however, the little well behaved +island showed symptoms of wrath that boded no good to the larger +islands in the vicinity. Noted for the fine fruits with which it +abounded, it was a famous picnic ground for towns and cities even 100 +miles away, and when the subterranean rumblings and mutterings of +wrath became conspicuous the people of the capital of Java, Batavia, +put a steamboat into requisition and visited the island in large +numbers. For a time the island was constantly in a slight tremor, and +the subterranean roar was like the continued but distant mutterings of +thunder, but the crisis was reached August 23, at 10 o'clock A.M. It +was a beautiful Sunday morning and the waters of the straits of Sunda +were like that sea of glass, as clear as crystal, of which John in his +apocalyptic vision speaks. The beauty that morning was enhanced by the +extraordinary transparency of the tropical air, for distant mountain +ranges seemed so near that it seemed possible to strike them with a +stone cast from the hand. Only the mysterious rumblings and mutterings +of the pent up forces beneath the island disturbed the breathless calm +and silence that lay on nature--the calm before the terrible +storm--the mightiest, the most awful on record! It burst forth! Sudden +night snatched away day from the eyes of the terrified beholders on +the mainland, but the vivid play of lightnings around the ascending +column of dust penetrated even the deep obscurity to a distance of 80 +miles. This awful darkness stretched within a circle whose diameter +was 400 miles, while more or less darkness reigned within a circle +with a diameter three times as great. Within this latter area dust +fell like snow from the sky, breaking off limbs of trees by its weight +miles distant, while in Batavia, 100 miles away from the scene of the +disaster, it fell to the depth of several inches. The explosions were +so loud as to be distinctly heard in Hindostan, 1,800 miles away, and +at Batavia the sound was like the constant roar of cannon in a field +of battle. Finally the whole island was blown to pieces, and now came +the most awful contest of nature--a battle of death between Neptune +and Vulcan; the sea poured down into the chasm millions of tons, only +to be at first converted into vapor by the millions of tons of +seething white hot lava beneath. Over the shores 30 miles away, waves +over 100 ft. high rolled with such a fury that everything, even to a +part of the bedrock, was swept away. Blocks of stone, of 50 tons +weight were carried two miles inland. On the Sumatra side of the +straits a large vessel was carried three miles inland. The wave, of +course growing less in intensity, traveled across the whole Indian +Ocean, 5,000 miles, to the Cape of Good Hope and around it into the +Atlantic. The waves in the atmosphere traveled around the globe three +times at the rate of 700 miles per hour. The dust from the volcano was +carried up into the atmosphere fully twenty miles and the finest of it +was distributed through the whole body of air. The reader doubtless +remembers the beautiful reddish or purple glow at sunrise and sunset +for fully six months after August, 1883--that glow was caused by +volcanic dust in the atmosphere interfering with the passage of the +sun's rays of the upper part of the solar spectrum, more manifest at +sun rising and setting than at other times during the day, because at +these periods the sun's rays have to travel obliquely through the +atmosphere, and consequently penetrating a very deep layer, were +deprived of all their colors except the red. + +The loss of life was appalling. The last sight on earth to 35,000 +people was that of the awful eruption. Engulfed in the ocean or +covered with heaps of ashes, a few hours after the eruption commenced +the awful work was done, and that vast multitude had vanished from off +the face of the earth. The fact that in the neighborhood of the +mountain there was a sparse population accounts for there not being +even a far greater loss of life. + +Notwithstanding the awfulness of volcanic and earthquake phenomena, +there is some silver lining to the dark clouds. They prove that the +earth is yet a _living_ planet. Centuries must pass away before it +will become like the moon--a dead planet--without water, air or life. +Our satellite is a prophecy indeed of what the earth must eventually +become when all its life forces, its internal energies, are dissipated +into space.--_Granville F. Foster, Min. Sci. Press_. + + * * * * * + + + + +PENTAPTERYGIUM SERPENS. + + +This is one of five species of Himalayan plants which, until recently, +were included in the genus vaccinium. The new name for them is ugly +enough to make one wish that they were vacciniums still. +Pentapterygium serpens is the most beautiful of the lot, and, so far +as I know, this and P. rugosum are the only species in cultivation in +England. The former was collected in the Himalayas about ten years ago +by Captain Elwes, who forwarded it to Kew, where it grows and flowers +freely under the same treatment as suits Cape heaths. Sir Joseph +Hooker says it is abundant on the Sikkim mountains at from 3,000 to +8,000 feet elevation, and that it usually grows on the stout limbs of +lofty trees. In this it resembles many of the rhododendrons of that +region, and it has been suggested that they are epiphytic from force +of circumstances, not from choice. On the ground they would have no +chance against the other vegetation, which would strangle or starve +them out. Remove them from this struggle for existence, and they at +once show their preference for rich soil and plenty of it. All the +pentapterygiums have the lower part of the stem often swelling out +into a prostrate trunk, as thick as a man's leg sometimes, and sending +out stout branching roots which cling tightly round the limbs of the +tree upon which it grows. These swollen stems are quite succulent, and +they serve as reservoirs of moisture and nourishment. In the wet +season they push out new shoots, from which grow rapidly wands three +or four feet long, clothed with box-like leaves, and afterward with +numerous pendulous flowers. These are elegant in shape and richly +colored. They are urn-shaped, with five ribs running the whole length +of the corolla, and their color is bright crimson with deeper colored +V-shaped veins, as shown in the illustration of the flowers of almost +natural size. They remain fresh upon the plant for several weeks. The +beautiful appearance of a well grown specimen when in flower may be +seen from the accompanying sketch of the specimen at Kew, which was at +its best in July, and remained in bloom until the middle of September. + + +[Illustration: PENTAPTERYGIUM SERPENS (FLOWERS NEARLY NATURAL SIZE)] + +P. rugosum is also grown as a greenhouse plant at Kew, where it has +been in cultivation about twenty years. It has larger leaves and a +more bushy habit than P. serpens, while the flowers are produced in +fascicles on the old wood. They are as large as those here figured, +but differ in color, being whitish, with brown-red V-shaped marks. +Both species may be propagated from cuttings. The plants thrive in +sandy peat, and they like plenty of moisture at all times.--_W. +Watson, in The Gardeners' Magazine_. + +[Illustration: PENTAPTERYGIUM SERPENS (FLOWERS DEEP CRIMSON)] + + * * * * * + + + + +THE PERFORATION OF FLOWERS. + + +The subject of the relations and adaptations which exist between +flowers and insects does not appear to excite as much popular +attention as many other branches of natural science which are no more +interesting. Sprengel, Darwin, and Hermann Muller have been the chief +authors in giving us our present knowledge and interest in the study; +Sir John Lubbock has helped to popularize it, and Prof. W. Trelease +and others have carried on the work in this country. + +The perforation as well as the fertilization of flowers has received +attention, but there is a wide field for further study for those who +have leisure to pursue it, as it requires much time and patience, as +well as closeness and accuracy of observation. + +The accompanying figures, from drawings by Mr. C.E. Faxon, show a few +characteristic perforations and mutilations, and also represent two of +the principal kinds of insects which make them. + +Any one interested in the subject will find an excellent brief review +of the work already done, a fair bibliography, and a list of +perforated flowers in Professor L.H. Pammel's paper on the +"Perforation of Flowers," in the _Transactions of the St. Louis +Academy of Science_, vol. v., pp. 246-277. + +The general beauty of flowers is usually not greatly marred by the +perforations except in a few cases, as when the spurs of columbines +and corollas of trumpet creepers are much torn, which frequently +happens. + +The great object of the perforations by insects is the obtaining of +the concealed nectar in an easy way. Very naturally, flowers which +depend on insect agency for fertilization rarely produce seed when +punctured if they are not also entered in the normal way. Perforating +is only practiced by a small number of species of insects, and many +but not all of the perforators do so because their tongues are too +short to reach the nectar by entering the flower. Some obtain nectar +from the same kind of flower both in the normal way and by +perforating. + +The chief perforators of flowers, in this part of the continent at +least, appear to be some kinds of humble bees (Bombus) and carpenter +bees (Xylocopa). These insects have developed an unerring instinct as +to the proper point to perforate the corollas from the outside, in +order to readily get at the nectar. The holes made by the humble bees +and by the carpenter bees are usually quite different and easily +distinguished. + +The humble bees have short, stout, blunt jaws, ill adapted for +cutting, and the perforations made by them are apparently always +irregular in shape, and have jagged edges. It has been stated that the +humble bees often bore through the tubes of their corollas with their +maxillæ, but in all cases observed by me the mandibles were first +brought into use in effecting an opening. The noise caused by the +tearing is often audible for a distance of several feet. + +The true jaws of the carpenter bees are not any more prominent or +better adapted for making clean-cut perforations than those of the +humble bees; but behind the jaws there is a pair of long, +sharp-pointed, knife-like, jointed organs (maxillæ) which seem to be +exclusively used on all ordinary occasions in making perforations. The +inner edges of these maxillæ are nearly straight, and when brought +together they form a sharp-pointed, wedge-shaped, plow-like instrument +which makes a clean, narrow, longitudinal slit when it is inserted in +the flower and shoved forward. The slits made by it are often not +readily seen, because the elasticity of the tissues of some flowers +causes them to partially close again. When not in use the instrument +can be folded back, so that it is not conspicuous. The ordinary +observer usually sees no difference between the humble bees and the +carpenter bees, but they may be readily distinguished by a little +close observation. + +[Illustration: THE PERFORATION OF FLOWERS. + +1. Xylocopa and heads of male and female. 2. Bombus and head. 3. +Dicentra spectabilis, showing punctures. 4. Ribes aureum. 5. Ligustrum +Ibota. 6. Æsculus glabra. 7. Lonicera involucrata. 8. Caragana +arborescens. 9. Andromeda Japonica. 10. Buddleia Japonica. 11. +Mertensia Virginica. 12. Rhododendron arborescens. 13. Corydalis +bulbosa.] + +No doubt, in some of the recorded cases of perforations, carpenter +bees have been mistaken for humble bees. The heads of all our Northern +humble bees are rather narrow, retreating from the antennæ toward the +sides, and with a more or less dense tuft of hair between the antennæ. +The abdomen, as well as the thorax, is always quite densely covered +with hair, which may be black or yellowish or in bands of either +color. With possibly one or two exceptions, the only species I have +seen doing the puncturing is Bombus affinis, Cresson. + +The carpenter bees (Xylocopa Virginica) of this region have the head +very broad and square in front, and with no noticeable hair between +the antennæ. The heads of the male and female differ strikingly. In +the male the eyes are lighter colored and are hardly half as far apart +as in the female, and the lower part of the face is yellowish white. +The female has eyes smaller, darker, and very far apart, and the whole +face is perfectly black. The abdomen is broad, of a shining blue-black +color, very sparsely covered with black hairs, except on the first +large segment nearest the thorax. On this segment they are more dense +and of the same tawny color as those on the thorax. But it is +particularly from the character of the head that the amateur observer +of the perforators may soon learn to distinguish between a Xylocopa +and a Bombus as they work among the flowers. It is also interesting to +know that the Xylocopas are not so inclined to sting as the humble +bees, and the males, of course, being without stinging organs, may be +handled with impunity. + +Among other insects, honey bees have been said to perforate flowers, +but authentic instances are rare of their doing much damage, or even +making holes. I have only recorded a single instance, and in this a +honey bee was seen to perforate the fragile spurs of Impatiens. When +searching for nectar they quite commonly use the perforations of other +insects. Wasps and other allied insects also perforate for nectar. My +only observations being a Vespa puncturing Cassandra calyculata, an +Andrena (?) perforating the spurs of Aguilegia, and Adynerus +foraminatus biting holes close to the base on the upper side of +rhododendron flowers. The holes made by some of the wasp-like insects +are often more or less circular and with clean-cut edges. The ravages +committed by larvæ, beetles and other insects in devouring flowers, or +parts of them, do not properly come under the head of perforations. + +The question as to the cause of the handsome corollas of the trumpet +creeper (Tecoma radicans) being so often split and torn has been +accounted for in various ways in published notes on the subject. +Humming birds and ants have been blamed, the humming birds being such +constant visitors of these flowers that it really seemed as though +they must be the authors of the mischief. I have often watched them +when they appeared as though they were pecking at the blossoms, but +careful examinations, both before and after their visits, always +failed to show any trace of injury. Finally, on July 26, 1890, I was +rewarded by seeing a number of Baltimore orioles vigorously pecking at +and tearing open a lot of fresh blossoms, and this observation was +afterward repeated. That the oriole should do this was not surprising, +considering its known habits in relation to some other flowers. J.G. +JACK. + +[Mr. Jack adds a list of sixteen plants whose flowers he has seen +punctured by the carpenter bee and seventeen others whose flowers were +punctured by the humble bee. He names more than thirty other flowers +which he has found perforated without having seen or identified the +authors of the mischief.--ED.]--_Garden and Forest_. + + * * * * * + + + + +ELECTRICITY IN HORTICULTURE. + + +The influence of electricity upon vegetation has been the subject of +numerous investigations. Some have been made to ascertain the effects +of the electric current through the soil; others to ascertain the +effect of the electric light upon growth through the air. Among the +latter are those of Prof. L.H. Bailey of the Cornell University +Agricultural Experiment Station. In Bulletin No. 30 of the +Horticultural Department is given an account of experiments with the +electric light upon the growth of certain vegetables, like endive, +spinach, and radish; and upon certain flowers like the heliotrope, +petunia, verbena primula, etc. The results are interesting and +somewhat variable. The forcing house where the experiments were +carried on was 20 × 60 ft., and was divided into two portions by a +partition. In one of these the plants received light from the sun by +day and were in darkness at night. In the other they received the +sunlight and in addition had the benefit of an arc light the whole or +a part of the night. The experiment lasted from January until April +during two years, six weeks of the time the first year with a naked +light and the balance of the time with the light protected by an +ordinary white globe. It is not the purpose here to enter into any +great details, but to give the general conclusions. + +The effect of the naked light running all night was to hasten +maturity, the nearer the plants being to the light the greater being +the acceleration. The lettuce, spinach, etc., "ran to seed" in the +"light" house long before similar plants in the dark. An examination +of the spinach leaves with the microscope showed the same amount of +starch in each, but in the electric light plants the grains were +larger, had more distinct markings and gave a deeper color with +iodine. + +With lettuce it was found that the nearer the plants were to the light +the worse the effect; and conversely those furthest away were the best +developed. Cress and endive gave the same results. In the case of the +latter, some of the plants were shaded from the light by an iron post, +and these grew better and were larger than those exposed to its direct +rays. The average weight of eight plants in full light was 49.6 +grains, as opposed to an average of six plants in the shade of 93.8 +grains. Radishes were strongly attracted to the light and moved toward +it during the night. During the day they straightened up, but moved +again toward the light at night. The plants nearest the lamp made a +poor growth and were nearly dead at the end of six weeks. Averaging +the weight of plant, of top and of tuber, it was found that those +grown in the dark were heavier in every instance than those grown in +the light; and the percentage of marketable tubers from the +light-grown plants was twenty-seven, as opposed to seventy-eight in +the dark. Chemical analyses showed the plants in the light to be more +mature than those in the dark, although they were much smaller. Dwarf +peas showed the same facts, those in full light being smaller than +those in the dark. The former bloomed a week earlier than the latter, +but the production of seed was less, being only about four-sevenths as +great. + +Further experiments were made by excluding the sun during the day and +exposing the plants to the diffused electric light only. In all cases, +with radishes, lettuce, peas, corn, and potatoes, the plants died in +about four weeks. Only a little starch and no chlorophyl was found in +the plants deprived of sunlight and only receiving the electric light. +Thus the experiments with a naked light showed conclusively that +"within range of an ordinary forcing house the naked arc light running +continuously through the night is injurious to some plants." In no +case did it prove profitable. + +Experiments with the light inclosed in a white globe and running all +night were different in their results. The effect was much less +marked. Lettuce was decidedly better in the light house; radishes were +thrifty but did not produce as much as in the dark house. A third +series of experiments with the naked light running a part of the night +only were also made. Radishes, peas, lettuce, and many flowers were +experimented upon. The lettuce was greatly benefited by the light. +"Three weeks after transplanting (Feb. 5)," we are told, "both +varieties in the lighthouse were fully 50 per cent. in advance of +those in the dark house in size, and the color and other characters of +the plants were fully as good. The plants had received at this time +70½ hours of electric light. Just a month later the first heads were +sold from the light house, but it was six weeks later when the first +heads were sold from the dark house. In other words, the electric +light plants were two weeks ahead of the others. This gain had been +purchased by 161¾ hours of electric light, worth at current prices of +street lighting about $7." + +This experiment was repeated with the same results. In the second +experiment the plants receiving eighty-four hours of electric light, +costing $3.50, were ready for market ten days before the plants in the +dark house. The influence of the light upon color of flowers was +variable. With tulips the colors of the lighted plants were deeper and +richer than the others, but they faded after four or five days. +Verbenas were injured in every case, being of shorter growth and +losing their flowers sooner than those in the dark house. "Scarlet, +dark red, blue and pink flowers within three feet of the light soon +turned to a grayish white." Chinese primulas seven feet from the light +were unaffected, but those four feet away were changed. Lilac colors +were bleached to pure white when the light struck them fairly. An +elaborate series of tables of the effect of the light is given in the +paper. The author believes it possible that the electric light may be +used some day to pecuniary advantage in floricultural establishments. + +These experiments naturally open up many questions. Those which will +be of most importance to the practical man will be such as relate to +the benefits to be derived from the use of the electric light. That +electricity has a great effect upon vegetation can no longer be +denied. What remains now is to ascertain how to use the force with the +most economy and to the best advantage. If by its use early vegetables +will be made earlier, bright flowers be made brighter, it will be a +question of only a short time before it will come into general use. To +the student of plant physiology there are also many questions of +interest, but into these it is not the intention to enter. Prof. +Bailey's general conclusions are, in part, as follows: "There are a +few points which are clear: the electric light promotes assimilation, +it often hastens growth and maturity, it is capable of producing +natural flavors and colors in fruits, it often intensifies colors of +flowers and sometimes increases the production of flowers. The +experiments show that periods of darkness are not necessary to the +growth and development of plants. There is every reason, therefore, to +suppose that the electric light can be profitably used in the growing +of plants. It is only necessary to overcome the difficulties, the +chief of which are the injurious influences upon plants near the +light, the too rapid hastening to maturity in some species, and in +short the whole series of practical adjustments of conditions to +individual circumstances. Thus far, to be sure, we have learned more +of the injurious effects than of the beneficial ones, but this only +means that we are acquiring definite facts concerning the whole +influence of electric light upon vegetation; and in some cases, +notably in our lettuce tests, the light has already been found to be a +useful adjunct to forcing establishments.... It is highly probable +that there are certain times in the life of the plant when the +electric light will prove to be particularly helpful. Many experiments +show that injury follows its use at that critical time when the +planetlet is losing its support from the seed and is beginning to +shift for itself, and other experiments show that good results follow +from its later use.... On the whole, I am inclined toward Siemens' +view that there is a future for electro-horticulture." + +JOSEPH P. JAMES. +Washington, Jan. 20, 1892. + + * * * * * + + + + +ELECTRICITY IN AGRICULTURE. By CLARENCE D. WARNER. + + +It is well known that currents of electricity exist in the atmosphere. +Clouds are charged and discharged. There is a constant change of +electricity from earth to air and from air to earth, the latter being +the great reservoir for all electricity. Hills, mountain peaks, trees, +high chimneys, spires, in fact all points elevated above the earth's +surface assist greatly in charging and discharging the atmosphere. +Again, if two iron rods are driven into the earth and connected by a +copper wire with an electrometer in the circuit, the instrument is +almost immediately affected, showing that currents of electricity are +running through the ground. Now, what is the function of these +atmospheric and ground electric currents? Many scientists are agreed +that certain forms of precipitation are due to electrical action; but +my observations have led me to believe conclusively that electricity +is a potent factor in the economy of nature, and has more to do with +the growth and development of plants than has hitherto been known. +Davy succeeded in the decomposition of the alkalies, potash and soda, +by means of electric currents. In our laboratories, water and ternary +compounds are rapidly decomposed by the battery, and we may reasonably +suppose that that which is effected in our laboratories by artificial +means takes place in the great laboratory of nature on a grander and +more extended scale. + +Plant food is carried throughout the plant by means of the flow of +sap; these currents circulate through all the rootlets and center, as +it were, in the stalk, carrying their tiny burdens of various elements +and depositing them in their proper places. That this phenomenon of +circulation is due to electricity cannot be doubted. Most plants grow +more rapidly during the night than in the day. May not the following +be a reason for this? + +We have already mentioned how electric currents pass from air to earth +and _vice versa_; at night the plant is generally covered with dew and +the plant itself becomes a good conductor, and, consequently, currents +of electricity pass to each through this medium, and during the +passage convert soil elements into plant food and stimulate the upward +currents to gather up the dissolved elements and carry them to their +proper places. + +From the time electricity became a science, much research has been +made to determine its effect, if any, upon plant growth. The earlier +investigations gave in many cases contradictory results. Whether this +was due to a lack of knowledge of the science on the part of the one +performing the experiments, or some defect in the technical +applications, we are not prepared to say; but this we do know, that +such men as Jolabert, Nollet, Mainbray and other eminent physicists +affirmed that electricity favored the germination of seeds and +accelerated the growth of plants; while, on the other hand, +Ingenhouse, Sylvestre and other savants denied the existence of this +electric influence. The heated controversies and animated discussions +attending the opposing theories stimulated more careful and thorough +investigations, which establish beyond a doubt that electricity has a +beneficial effect on vegetation. Sir Humphry Davy, Humboldt, Wollaston +and Becquerel occupied themselves with the theoretical side of the +question; but it was not till after 1845 that practical electroculture +was undertaken. Williamson suggested the use of gigantic electrostatic +machines, but the attempts were fruitless. The methods most generally +adopted in experiments consisted of two metallic plates--one of copper +and one of zinc--placed in the soil and connected by a wire. Sheppard +employed the method in England in 1846 and Forster used the same in +Scotland. In the year 1847 Hubeck in Germany surrounded a field with a +network of wires. Sheppard's experiments showed that electricity +increased the return from root crops, while grass perished near the +electrodes, and plants developed without the use of electricity were +inferior to those grown under its influence. Hubeck came to the +conclusion that seeds germinated more rapidly and buckwheat gave +larger returns; in all other cases the electric current produced no +result. Professor Fife in England and Otto von Ende in Germany carried +on experiments at the same time, but with negative results, and these +scientists advised the complete abandonment of applying electricity to +agriculture. After some years had elapsed Fichtner began a series of +experiments in the same direction. He employed a battery, the two +wires of which were placed in the soil parallel to each other. Between +the wires were planted peas, grass and barley, and in every case the +crop showed an increase of from thirteen to twenty-seven per cent. +when compared with ordinary methods of cultivation. + +Fischer, of Waldheim, believing atmospheric electricity to aid much in +the growth and development of plants, made the following tests: + +He placed metallic supports to the number of about sixty around each +hectare (2.47 acres) of loam; these supports were provided at their +summits with electrical accumulators in the form of crowns surmounted +with teeth. These collectors were united by metallic connection. The +result of this culture applied to cereals was to increase the crop by +half. + +The following experiment was also tried: Metallic plates sixty-five +centimeters by forty centimeters were placed in the soil. These plates +were alternately of zinc and copper and placed about thirty meters +apart, connected two and two, by a wire. The result was to increase +from twofold to fourfold the production of certain garden plants. Mr. +Fischer says that it is evidently proved that electricity aids in the +more complete breaking up of the soil constituents. Finally he says +that plants thus treated mature more quickly, are almost always +perfectly healthy, and are not affected with fungoid growth. + +Later, N. Specnew, inspired by the results arrived at by his +predecessors, was led to investigate the influence of electricity on +plants in every stage of their development; the results of his +experiments were most satisfactory and of practical interest. He began +by submitting different seeds to the action of an electric current, +and found that their development was rendered more rapid and complete. +He experimented with the seeds of haricot beans, sunflowers, winter +and spring rye. Two lots, of twelve groups of one hundred and twenty +seeds each, were plunged into water until they swelled, and while wet +the seeds were introduced into long glass cylinders, open at both +ends. Copper disks were pressed against the seeds, the disks were +connected with the poles of an induction coil, the current was kept on +for one or two minutes and immediately afterward the seeds were sown. +The temperature was kept from 45° to 50° Fahrenheit, and the +experiments repeated four times. The following table shows the +results: + + Peas. Beans. Barley. Sunflowers. + Days. Days. Days. Days. +Electrified seeds developed in 2.5 3 2 8.5 +Non-electrified seeds developed in 4 6 5 15 + +It was also observed that the plants coming from electrified seeds +were better developed, their leaves were much larger and their color +brighter than in those plants growing from non-electrified seeds. The +current did not affect the yield. + +At the Botanical Gardens at Kew, the following experiment was tried: + +Large plates of zinc and copper (0.445 meter and 0.712 meter) were +placed in the soil and connected by wires, so arranged that the +current passed through the ground; the arrangement was really a +battery of (zinc | earth | copper). This method was applied to pot +herbs and flowering plants and also to the growing of garden produce; +in the latter case the result was a large crop and the vegetables +grown were of enormous size. + +Extensive experiments in electroculture were also made at Pskov, +Russia. Plots of earth were sown to rye, corn, oats, barley, peas, +clover and flax; around these respective plots were placed insulating +rods, on the top of which were crown-shaped collectors--the latter +connected by means of wires. Atmospheric electricity was thus +collected above the seeds, and the latter matured in a highly +electrified atmosphere; the plots were submitted to identical +conditions and the experiments were carried on for five years. The +results showed a considerable increase in the yield of seed and straw, +the ripening was more rapid and the barley ripened nearly two weeks +earlier with electroculture. Potatoes grown by the latter method were +seldom diseased, only to 5 per cent., against 10 to 40 per cent. by +ordinary culture. + +Grandeau, at the School of Forestry at Nancy, found by experiment that +the electrical tension always existing between the upper air and soil +stimulated growth. He found plants protected from the influence were +less vigorous than those subject to it. + +Macagno, also believing that the passage of electricity from air +through the vine to earth would stimulate growth, selected a certain +number of vines, all of the same variety and all in the same condition +of health and development. Sixteen vines were submitted to experiment +and sixteen were left to natural influences. In the ends of the vines +under treatment, pointed platinum wires were inserted, to which were +attached copper wires, leading to the tops of tall poles near the +vines; at the base of these same vines other platinum wires were +inserted and connected by copper wires with the soil. At the close of +the experiment, which began April 15, and lasted till September 16, +the wood, leaves and fruit of both sets of vines were submitted to +careful analysis with the following results: + + Without conductor. With conductor. + + Moisture per cent. 78.21 79.84 + Sugar. 16.86 18.41 + Tartaric acid. 0.880 0.791 + Bitartrate of potash. 0.180 0.186 + +Thus we see that the percentage of moisture and sugar is greater and +the undesirable acid lower in those vines subject to electrical +influences than in those left to natural conditions. There are also +experiments which prove the beneficial effects of electricity on vines +attacked by phylloxera. + +The following experiments were made at this station: Several plots +were prepared in the greenhouse, all of which had the same kind of +soil and were subjected to like influences and conditions. Frames in +the form of a parallelogram, about three feet by two feet, were put +together; across the narrow way were run copper wires in series of +from four to nine strands, each series separated by a space about four +inches wide, and the strands by a space of one-half inch. These frames +were buried in the soil of the plot at a little depth, so that the +roots of the garden plants set would come in contact with the wires, +the supposition being that the currents of electricity passing along +the wires would decompose into its constituents the plant food in the +vicinity of the roots and more readily prepare it for the plants. Two +electric gardens were thus prepared and each furnished with two common +battery cells, so arranged as to allow continuous currents to pass +through each series of wires. Near each electric garden was a plot +prepared in the same manner, save the electrical apparatus. We will +call the two gardens A and B. + +The place chosen for the experiments was in a part of the greenhouse +which is given up largely to the raising of lettuce, and the gardens +were located where much trouble from mildew had been experienced. The +reason for this choice of location was to notice, if any, the effect +of electricity upon mildew, this disease being, as it is well known, a +source of much trouble to those who desire to grow early lettuce. The +soil was carefully prepared, the material taken from a pile of loam +commonly used in the plant house. + +Garden A was located where mildew had been the most detrimental; the +experiments began the first of January and closed the first of April. +For the garden, fifteen lettuce plants of the head variety were +selected, all of the same size and of the same degree of vitality, as +nearly as could be determined; the plants were set directly over the +wires, so that the roots were in contact with the latter; the plants +were well watered and cared for as in ordinary culture, and the fluid +in the battery cells was renewed from time to time, that the current +of electricity might not become too feeble. At the close of the +experiments the following results were noted: + +Five plants died from mildew, the others were well developed and the +heads large. The largest heads were over the greatest number of wires +and nearest the electrodes. It was further noticed that the healthiest +and largest plants, as soon as the current became feeble or ceased +altogether, began to be affected with mildew. On examining the roots +of the plants it was found that they had grown about the wires as if +there they found the greatest amount of nourishment; the roots were +healthy and in no way appeared to have been injured by the current, +but, rather, much benefited by the electrical influences. + +Beside garden A was prepared another plot of the same dimensions, +having the same kind of soil and treated in like manner as the first, +but the electrical apparatus and wires were wanting. At the close of +the experiments only three plants had partially developed, and two of +these were nearly destroyed by mildew--one only was free from the +disease. The results, therefore, show that the healthiest and largest +plants grew in the electric plot. + +In the second experiment, which we called B, twenty plants of the same +variety of lettuce and of equal size were taken. The treatment given +was the same as the plants in plot A received. Five plants only +remained unaffected with mildew; seven died from the disease when they +were half grown; the rest were quite well developed, but at the last +part of the experiment began to be affected. Several heads were large, +the largest being over the greatest number of wires and nearest the +electrodes. Examination of the roots disclosed the same phenomena as +in A. + +Near plot B were also set twenty other plants, subjected to like +conditions as the first, but without electricity; all but one died +from mildew before they were half grown, the solitary plant that +survived being only partly developed at the close of the experiment, +and even this was badly affected with the disease. + +Everything considered, the results were in favor of electricity. Those +plants subjected to the greatest electrical influence were hardier, +healthier, larger, had a better color, and were much less affected by +mildew than the others. Experiments were made with various grasses, +but no marked results were obtained. + +The question would naturally arise whether there may not be a limit +reached where electricity would completely overcome the attack of +mildew and stimulate the plant to a healthy and vigorous condition +throughout its entire growth. From the fact that the hardiest, +healthiest, and largest heads of lettuce grew over the greatest number +of currents and nearest the electrodes, it would seem that electricity +is one of the agents employed by nature to aid in supplying the plant +with nourishment and to stimulate its growth. To what extent plants +may be submitted to electrical influence, or what strength of current +is best suited to them and what currents prove detrimental to their +development, have not been determined as yet, but it is desirable to +continue this research until some definite information shall be gained +on these points. Probably different varieties of plants differ greatly +in their capacity for enduring the action of electric currents without +injury--experiment alone must determine this. + +It has been proved that the slow discharge of static electricity +facilitates the assimilation of nitrogen by plants. Faraday showed +that plants grown in metallic cages, around which circulated electric +currents, contained 50 per cent. less organic matter than plants grown +in the open air. It would seem from the researches of the latter +physicist that those plants requiring a large percentage of nitrogen +for their development would be remarkably benefited if grown under +electric influence.--_Massachusetts Agricultural College, Bulletin No +16._ + +[A very interesting article on the Influence of Electricity upon +Plants, illustrated, is given in SUPPLEMENT 806. It presents the +results of the studies of Prof. Lemstrom, of Helsingfors.] + + * * * * * + + + + +THE TREATMENT OF RATTLESNAKE BITE BY PERMANGANATE OF POTASSIUM, +BASED ON NINE SUCCESSFUL CASES. + +By AMOS W. BARBER, M.D.,[1] Cheyenne. + +[Footnote 1: Governor of Wyoming.] + + +Poisoned wounds, inflicted by the fangs of the rattlesnake, are +happily more rare each year, since, as the country is becoming more +populated, the crotalus is rapidly being exterminated. Yet, +considering the recklessness which characterizes the cow boy in his +treatment of this reptile, it is astonishing that this class of injury +is not more common. Thus it is the invariable custom among the +cattlemen to dismount and destroy these snakes whenever they are seen. +This is readily accomplished, since a slight blow will break the back. +This blow is, however, generally delivered by means of the quirt, a +whip not over two and a half feet long, and hence a weapon which +brings the one who wields it in unpleasant proximity to the fangs of +the reptile. A still more dangerous practice, and one which I have +frequently seen, is a method of playing with the rattlesnake for the +delectation of the cow boy at the expense of a "tenderfoot." It is +well known that unless a snake is coiled, or held by the tail or body, +or placed at length in a hole or crevice so narrow that by rendering +its length sinuous a certain amount of support is given, it cannot +strike. On this theory a mounted cow boy first puts a rattler to +flight, then pushes his pony in pursuit, stoops from the saddle, +seizes it by the tail, gives a quick upward jerk, and, swinging it so +rapidly around his head that it is impossible for it to strike, sets +off in pursuit of whoever has exhibited most terror at the sight of +the reptile. When within fair distance he hurls the snake at the +unfortunate victim, in the full assurance that even should it strike +him it cannot bury its fangs in his flesh, since it is impossible for +it to coil till it reaches the ground. This is a jest of which I have +frequently been the victim, nor have I yet learned to appreciate it +with unalloyed mirth. + +The belief that rattlesnakes always give warning before striking is +not well founded. If come upon suddenly, they often strike first, and +if disturbed when in a space so narrow that the coil cannot be formed, +they may give no warning of their presence beyond the penetration of +the fangs into the hand or foot of an intruder. One such case I saw. + +It seems to be well established that a snake will not voluntarily +crawl over a hair rope, and in certain parts of the country it is +common for campers-out to surround their beds with such a rope, since +the reptiles seek warmth, and are frequently found under or in the +blankets of those sleeping on the ground. + +After an exceptionally large experience with wounds inflicted by the +fangs of the rattlesnake, and an experience which, I am glad to say, +has been most successful in its outcome, I think it my duty to add, +from a practical standpoint, my testimony as to the efficacy of +permanganate of potassium in the treatment of this class of cases. +This drug was first introduced by Lacerda, of Brazil, and, if more +generally used, would, I believe, render comparatively innocuous a +class of injury which now usually terminates in death. + +I make this statement as to the fatality of crotalus poison advisedly. +I know the belief is very common that the poison of a rattlesnake is +readily combated by full doses of whisky. This is fallacious. I have +taken the pains to investigate a number of instances of cure resulting +from the employment of free stimulation. In each case the fangs did +not penetrate deeply into the tissues, but either scratched over the +surface or tore through, making a wound of entrance and exit, so that +the poison, or at least the major part of it, was not injected into +the tissues of the person struck. The effect is very much the same as +when an inexperienced practitioner picks up a fold of skin for the +purpose of making a hypodermic injection, and plunges his needle +entirely through, forcing the medicament wide of his patient. + +Nearly all, if not all, of the cases treated by stimulation alone +have, according to my experience, perished if they have received a +full dose of virus from a vigorous snake. One of these cases lived for +upward of a month. He then perished of what might be considered a +chronic pyæmia, the symptoms being those of blood poisoning, +accompanied by multiple abscesses. Another case, not occurring in my +own practice, died at the end of four days apparently of cardiac +failure. Active delirium persisted all through this case. Two other +cases treated by stimulants also died with symptoms of more or less +acute blood poisoning. + +The feeling is almost universal among the people of Wyoming that a +fair strike from a rattlesnake is certain death, and that the free use +of stimulants simply postpones the end. I do not for a moment deny +that a strong, lusty man may be struck fairly by a rattlesnake and if +the wound is at once opened and cauterized, and the heart judiciously +supported, he may yet recover; still the fact remains that the great +majority of these cases perish at a longer or shorter interval +following the infliction of the wound. Hence any treatment that will +save even the majority of such cases is a distinct gain, and one which +has saved every one of nine cases to which it has been applied needs +no further commendation. + +The first case of rattlesnake wound to which I was called occurred in +1885. A cow boy was bitten on the foot, the fang penetrating through +the boot. He was brought forty miles to Fort Fetterman, where I was +then stationed. I saw him about twenty-four hours after he was struck. +There was an enormous swelling, extending up to the knee. The whole +limb was bronzed in appearance. There was no special discoloration +about the wound; in fact, the swelling disguised this to such an +extent that it was impossible to determine exactly where the fangs had +entered. The pulse was scarcely perceptible at the wrist; the heart +was beating with excessive rapidity. The patient was suffering great +pain. His mind was clear, but he was oppressed with a dreadful +anxiety. Up to the time I saw him he had received absolutely no +treatment, excepting the application of a cactus poultice to the leg, +since there was no whisky at the ranch where he was wounded. I at once +made free incisions, five or six in number, from one to two inches in +depth, and about three inches in length. These cuts gave him very +little pain, nor was there much bleeding, though there was an enormous +amount of serous oozing. Into these wounds was poured a fifteen per +cent. solution of permanganate of potassium, and fully half an hour +was devoted to kneading this drug into the tissues. In addition I made +many hypodermic injections into all portions of the swollen tissue, +but particularly about the wound. Since there was no very distinct +line of demarkation between the swollen and healthy tissue, I did not, +as in other cases, endeavor to prevent the extension of the cellular +involvement by a complete circle of hypodermic injections. I employed, +in all, about forty grains of the permanganate. In addition to the +local treatment I pushed stimulation, employing carbonate of ammonium +and whisky. By means of diuretics and laxatives the kidneys and bowels +were encouraged to eliminate as much of the poison as possible. + +The patient went on to uninterrupted recovery. The wound healed with +very little sloughing. The patient returned to his work in about a +month. The cure of this case was regarded by the cow boys as most +exceptional, since, in their experience, similar cases, even though +very freely stimulated, had not recovered. + +Some time later I was called to see a girl, aged 14, who was struck by +a rattlesnake, fifty-six miles from Fort Fetterman. There was some +trouble about procuring relays, and I was compelled to ride the same +horse all the way out. This took a little short of five hours. This, +together with the time consumed in sending me word, caused an interval +of about twenty hours between the infliction of the injury and the +time I saw the patient. I found the fangs had entered on either side +of the distal joint of the middle metacarpal bone. The arm was +enormously swollen, almost to the axilla, and exhibited a bronzed +discoloration; this was especially marked about the wound and along +the course of the lymphatics. The swollen area was _boggy_ to the +touch, and exhibited a distinct line of demarkation between the +healthy and diseased tissues, excepting along the course of the +brachial vessels, where the indurated discolored area extended as a +broad band into the axilliary lymphatics, which were distinctly +swollen. The patient was delirious, was harrassed by terror, +complained bitterly of pain, and had an exceedingly feeble, rapid +heart action. There was marked dyspnoea, and all the signs of +impending dissolution. I at once made free multiple incisions into all +parts of the inflamed tissue, carrying two of my cuts through the +wounds made by the fangs of the snake. In the arm these incisions were +several inches long and from one to two inches deep. As in the former +case, the bleeding was slight, but there was a free exudation of +serum. Into these wounds a fifteen per cent. permanganate of potassium +solution was poured, and as much as possible was kneaded into the +tissues. In addition multiple hypodermic injections were made, these +being carried particularly into the bitten region, and circularly +around the arm just at the border of the line of demarkation, thus +endeavoring to limit by a complete circle of the antiseptic solution +the further extension of the inflammatory process. In the region of +the brachial vessels I hesitated to make my injections as thoroughly +as in the rest of the circumference of the arm, fearing lest the +permanganate of potassium might injure important vessels or nerves. + +This treatment caused very little pain, but immediately after the +constitutional symptoms became distinctly aggravated. I stimulated +freely, and at once made preparations to take the patient to the Fort +Fetterman hospital. She was transported over the fifty-six miles, I +riding the same horse back again, and arriving at Fort Fetterman the +same evening. + +The after treatment of this case was comparatively simple. She was +stimulated freely as long as cardiac weakness was manifested. As in +the former case, diuretics and laxatives were employed. The arm was +wrapped in cloth soaked in a weak permanganate solution, was placed in +a splint, and was loosely bandaged. There was some sloughing, but this +was treated on general surgical principles. The patient recovered the +entire use of her arm, and was turned out cured in about six weeks. + +The third case I saw about fourteen hours after he was struck. The +patient was a healthy blacksmith, about 30 years of age. The wound was +at about the middle of the forearm, the fangs entering toward the +ulnar side. When I saw the patient he exhibited comparatively trifling +symptoms. His heart action was rapid, and he was suffering from the +typical despondency and terror, but I could not note the profound +systemic depression characteristic of the great majority of cases. +Surrounding the wound and extending up the forearm for several inches +there was a boggy swelling, exhibiting a sharp line of demarkation. It +was bronzed in color, and was apparently spreading. I at once applied +the intermittent ligature just above the elbow, and injected the +permanganate of potassium solution freely all through the involved +tissues, particularly in the region of the bite and about the +periphery of the swelling, surrounding the latter by a complete ring +of injections. + +The general treatment of this patient was continued on the same +general line as described in the former cases, stimulants being +employed moderately. He recovered without any bad symptoms. There was +no sloughing; the swelling disappeared without any necrosis of tissue. +He is still pursuing his trade in Cheyenne, and suffers from +absolutely no disability. + +I saw but one case shortly after the wound was inflicted. This patient +was a healthy young man, who was struck about the middle of the dorsal +surface of the hand, the fangs entering on each side of a metacarpal +bone, and the poison lodging apparently in the palm of the hand. The +patient, when seen, exhibited the characteristic terror and +depression, weak, rapid heart action, and agonizing local pain. I made +two small incisions in the region of the wound upon the dorsum of the +hand, and injected permanganate of potassium freely. This patient +ultimately recovered, but only after sloughing and prolonged +suppuration. I believe that had I incised freely and at once from the +palmar surface, I would have been spared this unpleasant complication. + +I have had in all nine cases, and without a single death. The others +are in their general features and in the treatment employed quite +similar to those given. + +The symptoms resulting from snake bite poison are strikingly like +those dependent upon the violent septic poison seen in pre-antiseptic +times. There is often the same prodromal chill, the high elevation of +temperature, the profound effect on the circulation, and the rapid +cellular involvement. The tissue disturbance following snake poisoning +differs from ordinary cellulitis, however, in the following +particulars: The color is _bronze_, not red; the involved area is +_boggy_, not brawny; and the extension of the process is _exceedingly +rapid_. + +The treatment applicable to one condition seems to be equally +successful when applied to the other. In cellulitis, free incisions, +antiseptic lotions, and active stimulation are the three means upon +which the surgeon mainly depends, and in combating the local and +general symptoms excited by snake bite poisoning, the same treatment +has given me the successful results detailed above. Whether or not +permanganate of potassium is more active than other antiseptics in +snake bite poisoning I am not prepared to state, but the high +authority of S. Weir Mitchell, together with my own experience, does +not incline me to substitute any other drug at present. + +I would formulate the treatment for poison of the rattlesnake as +follows: + +1. Free incisions to the bottom of the wound and immediate +cauterization; or, if this is not practicable, sucking of the wound. + +2. The immediate application of an intermittent tourniquet, that is, +one which is relaxed for a moment at a time, so that the poison may +gain admission into the circulation in small doses. + +3. The free administration of alcohol or carbonate of ammonium. + +This might be termed the _urgency treatment_ of snake bite poisoning. +The _curative treatment_ requires-- + +4. Free incisions into all portions of the inflamed tissues, and the +thorough kneading into these incisions of a fifteen per cent. solution +of permanganate of potassium. + +5. Multiple injections of the same solution into all the inflamed +regions, but particularly into the region of the wound. + +6. The complete surrounding of all the involved tissues, by +permanganate of potassium injections placed from half an inch to an +inch apart, the needle being driven into the healthy tissue just +beyond the line of demarkation, and its point being carried to the +deepest part of the border of the indurated area. + +7. The permanganate of potassium solution should be used freely in +fifteen per cent. solution. I have used one and a half drachms of the +pure drug diluted, and would not hesitate to use four times that +quantity were it necessary, since it seems to exert no deleterious +effect, either locally or generally. + +8. The involved area should be dressed by means of lint saturated with +fifteen per cent. permanganate of potassium solution. Stimulants +should be given according to the indications--i.e., the condition of +the pulse. Laxatives, diuretics, and diaphoretics should be +administered to aid in the elimination of the poison. The diet should +be as nutritious as the stomach can digest.--_The Therapeutic +Gazette_. + + * * * * * + + + + +CHINESE COMPETITIVE EXAMINATIONS. + + +Wuchang, on the Yangtsze opposite Hankow, is the capital of the two +provinces Hupeh and Hunan. Here, every third year, the examination for +competitors from both provinces is held, and a correspondent of the +_North China Herald_, of Shanghai, describes the scene at the +examination at the beginning of September last. The streets, he says, +are thronged with long-robed, large-spectacled gentlemen, who inform +the world at large by every fold of drapery, every swagger of gait, +every curve of nail, that they are the aristocracy of the most ancient +empire of the world. Wuchang had from 12,000 to 15,000 bachelors of +arts within its walls, who came from the far borders of the province +for the examination for the provincial degree. About one-half per +cent. will be successful; thousands of them know they have not the +shadow of a chance, but literary etiquette binds them to appear. In +the wake of these Confucian scholars come a rout of traders, painters, +scroll sellers, teapot venders, candle merchants, spectacle mongers, +etc.; servants and friends swell the number, so that the examination +makes a difference of some 40,000 or 50,000 to the resident +population. In the great examination hall, which is composed of a +series of pens shut off from each other in little rows of 20 or 30, +and the view of which is suggestive of a huge cattle market, there is +accommodation for over 10,000 candidates. The observance of rules of +academic propriety is very strict. A candidate may be excluded, not +only for incompetence, but for writing his name in the wrong place, +for tearing or blotting his examination paper, etc. After the +examination of each batch a list of those allowed to compete for +honors is published, and the essay forms for each district are +prepared with proper names and particulars. The ancestors of the +candidate for three generations must be recorded, they must be free +from taint of _yamen_ service, prostitution, the barber's trade and +the theater, or the candidate would not have obtained his first +degree. With the forms 300 cash (about 1s.) are presented to each +candidate for food during the ordeal. The lists being thus prepared, +on the sixth day of the eighth moon (Tuesday, the 8th of September, in +1891), the city takes a holiday to witness the ceremony of "entering +the curtain," i.e., opening the examination hall. For days coolies +have been pumping water into great tanks, droves of pigs have been +driven into the inclosure, doctors, tailors, cooks, coffins, printers, +etc., have been massed within the hall for possible needs. The +imperial commissioners are escorted by the examination officials to +the place. A dozen district magistrates have been appointed to +superintend within the walls, and as many more outside, two prefects +have office inside, and the governor of the province has also to be +locked up during the eight days of examination. The whole company is +first entertained to breakfast at the _yamen_, and then the procession +forms; the ordinary umbrellas, lictors, gongs, feathers, and +ragamuffins are there in force; the examiners and the highest officers +are carried in open chairs draped in scarlet and covered with tiger +skins. The dead silence that falls on the crowd betokens the approach +of the governor, who brings up the rear. Then the bustle of the actual +examination begins. The hall is a miniature city. Practically martial +law is proclaimed. In the central tower is a sword, and misdemeanor +within the limits is punished with instant death. The mandarins take +up their quarters in their respective lodges, the whole army of +writers whose duty it is to copy out the essays of the candidates, to +prevent collusion, take their places. Altogether there must be over +20,000 people shut in. Cases have been known in which a hopeful +candidate was crushed to death in the crowd at the gate. Each +candidate is first identified, and he is assigned a certain number +which corresponds to a cell a few feet square, containing one board +for a seat and one for a desk. Meanwhile the printers in the building +are hard at work printing the essay texts. Each row of cells has two +attendants for cooking, etc., assigned to it, the candidates take +their seats, the rows are locked from the outside, the themes are +handed out, the contest has begun. The examination is divided into +three bouts of about 36 hours, two nights and a day, each, with +intervals of a day. The first is the production of three essays on the +four assigned books; the second of five essays on the five classics; +the third of five essays on miscellaneous subjects. The strain, as may +be imagined, is very great, and several victims die in the hall. The +literary ambition which leads old men of 60 and 70 to enter not +unfrequently destroys them. Should any fatal case occur, the coffin +may on no account be carried out through the gates; it must be lifted +over or sometimes through a breach in the wall. Death must not pollute +the great entrance. At the end of the third trial, the first batch of +those who have completed their essays is honored with the firing of +guns, the bows of the officials, and the ministry of a band of music. +Three weeks of anxious waiting will ensue before a huge crowd will +assemble to see the list published. Then the successful candidates are +the pride of their country side, and well do the survivors of such an +ordeal deserve their credit. The case of those who are in the last +selection and are left degreeless, for the stern reason that some must +be crowded out, is the hardest of all. + + * * * * * + + + + +HIGH SPEED ENGINE AND DYNAMO. + + +We illustrate a high speed engine and dynamo constructed by Easton & +Anderson, London. This plant was used at the Royal Agricultural +Society's show at Doncaster in testing the machinery in the dairy, and +constituted a distinct innovation, as well as an improvement, on the +appliances previously employed for the purpose. The separator, or +whatever might be the machine under trial, was driven by an electric +motor fed by a current from the dynamo we illustrate. A record was +made of the volts and amperes used, and from this the power expended +was deduced, the motor having been previously carefully calibrated by +means of a brake. So delicate was the test that the observers could +detect the presence of a warm bearing in the separator from the change +in the readings of the ammeter. + +[Illustration: IMPROVED HIGH SPEED ENGINE AND DYNAMO.] + +The engine is carefully balanced to enable it to run at the very high +speed of 500 revolutions per minute. The cranks are opposite each +other, and the moving parts connected with the two pistons are of the +same weight. The result is complete absence of vibration, and +exceedingly quiet running. Very liberal lubricating arrangements are +fitted to provide for long runs, while uniformity of speed is provided +for by a Pickering governor. The high pressure cylinder is 4 in. in +diameter, and the low pressure cylinder is 7 in. in diameter. The +stroke in each case is 4 in. + +[Illustration: Fig. 2.] + +The dynamo is designed to feed sixty lamps of 16 candle power each, +the current being 60 amperes at 50 volts. The armature is of the drum +type. The peculiar feature of it is that grooves are planed in the +laminated core from end to end, and in these grooves the conductors, +which are of ribbon section, are laid. Slips of insulating material +are laid between the coils and the dovetailed mouths of the grooves +are closed with bone or vulcanized fiber, or other dielectric. At each +end of the core there are fitted non-magnetic covers. At the +commutator end the cover is like a truncated cone, and incloses the +connections completely. One end of the cone is supported on the end +plate of the armature and the other end on a ring on the commutator. A +bell-shaped cover incloses the conductors at the other end of the +armature. The result is that the conductors are completely incased, +protected from all mechanical injury, and positively driven. They can +neither be displaced nor abraded. The conductors on the magnet coils +are likewise carefully protected from harm by metal coverings. These +dynamos are made in sixteen sizes, of which seven sizes are designed +to feed more than 100 lamps, the largest serving for 600 lamps. + +[Illustration: Fig. 3.] + +Messrs. Easton & Anderson are showing machinery of this type at the +Crystal Palace Electrical Exhibition now open in +London.--_Engineering_. + + * * * * * + + + + +CHLORINE GAS AND SODA BY THE ELECTROLYTIC PROCESS. + + +The decomposition of a solution of common salt, and its conversion +into chlorine gas and caustic soda solution by means of an electric +current, has long been a study with electro-chemists. Experimentally +it has often been effected, but so far as we are aware, the success of +this method of production has never until now been demonstrated on a +sound commercial basis. The solution of this important industrial +problem is due to Mr. James Greenwood, who has been engaged in the +development of electro-chemical processes for many years. The outcome +of this is that Mr. Greenwood has now perfected an electrolytic +process for the direct production of caustic soda and chlorine, as +well as other chemical products, the operation of which we recently +inspected at Phoenix Wharf, Battersea, London. One of the special +features in connection with Mr. Greenwood's new departure is the novel +and ingenious method by which the electrolyzed products are separated, +and their recombination rendered impossible. This object is attained +by the use of a specially constructed diaphragm which is composed of a +series of V-shaped glass troughs, fitted in a frame within each other +with a small space between them, which is lightly packed with asbestos +fiber. Another important feature of the apparatus is a compound anode +which consists of carbon plates, with a metal core to increase the +conductivity. The anode is treated in a special manner so as to render +it non-porous and impervious to attack by the nascent chlorine evolved +on its surface. No anode appears ever to have been invented that is at +all suitable for working on a large scale, and the successful +introduction of this compound anode, therefore, constitutes a marked +advance in the apparatus used in electrolytic methods of production. + +The apparatus by which the new process is being successfully +demonstrated on a working scale has been put up by the Caustic Soda +and Chlorine Syndicate, London, and has been in operation for several +months past. The installation consists of five large electrolytic +vessels, each of which is fitted up with five anodes and six cathodes +arranged alternately. The anodes and cathodes are separated by the +special diaphragms, and each vessel is thus divided into ten anode or +chlorine sections and ten cathode or caustic soda sections. The anodes +and cathodes in each vessel are connected up in parallel similar to an +ordinary storage battery, but the five electrolytic vessels are +connected up in series. The current is produced by an Elwell-Parker +dynamo, and the electromotive force required to overcome the +resistance of each vessel is about 4.4 volts, with a current density +of 10 amperes per square foot of electrode surface. The anode +sections, numbering fifty altogether, are connected by means of tubes, +the inlet being at the bottom and the outlet at the top of each +section. The whole of the cathode sections are connected in the same +manner. In commencing operations, the electrolytic vessels are charged +with a solution of common salt, through which a current of electricity +is then passed, thus decomposing or splitting up the salt into its +elements, chlorine and sodium. In the separation of the sodium, +however, a secondary action takes place, which converts it into +caustic soda. An automatic circulation of the solutions is maintained +by placing the charging tanks at a slight elevation, and the vessels +themselves on platforms arranged in steps. The solutions are pumped +back from the lowest vessel to their respective charging tanks, the +salt solution to be further decomposed and the caustic soda solution +to be further concentrated. The chlorine gas evolved in the fifty +anode sections is conveyed by means of main and branch tubes into +several absorbers, in which milk of lime, kept in a state of +agitation, takes up the chlorine, thus making it into bleaching or +chlorate liquor as may be required. If the chlorine is required to be +made into bleaching powder, then it is conveyed into leaden chambers +and treated with lime in the usual manner. The caustic soda formed in +the fifty cathode sections is more or less concentrated according to +the particular purpose for which it may be required. If, however, the +caustic soda is required in solid form, and practically free from +salt, then the caustic alkaline liquor is transferred from the +electrolytic vessels to evaporating pans, where it is concentrated to +the required strength by evaporation and at the same time the salt +remaining in the solution is eliminated by precipitation. + +Such is the method of manufacturing caustic soda and chlorine by this +process, which will doubtless have a most important bearing upon many +trades and manufactures, more particularly upon the paper, soap, and +bleaching industries. But the invention does not stop where we have +left it, for it is stated that the process can be applied to the +production of sodium amalgam and chlorine for extracting gold and +other metals from their ores. It can also be utilized in the +production of caustic and chlorate of potash and other chemicals, +which can be manufactured in a state of the greatest purity. A very +important consideration is that of cost, for upon this depends +commercial success. It is therefore satisfactory to learn that the +cost of production has been determined by the most careful electrical +and analytical tests, which demonstrate an economy of over 50 per +cent. as compared with present methods. Highly favorable reports on +the process have been made by Dr. G. Gore, F.R.S., the eminent +authority on electro-chemical processes, by Mr. W.H. Preece, F.R.S., +and by Messrs. Cross & Bevan, consulting chemists. Dr. Gore states +that the chemical and electrical principles upon which this process is +based are thoroughly sound, and that the process is of a +scientifically practical character. Should, however, the economy of +production even fall somewhat below the anticipations of those who +have examined into the process very carefully, it can hardly fail to +prove as successful commercially as it has scientifically. + + * * * * * + + + + +COMPLETION OF THE MERSEY TUNNEL RAILWAY. + + +On the 11th of January (says the _Liverpool Daily Post_) will be +opened for traffic the new station of the Mersey Tunnel Railway at the +bottom of Bold Street. With the completion of the station at Bold +Street the scheme may be said to have been brought successfully to a +conclusion. It was not until 1879, after the expenditure of +125,000_l._ upon trial borings, that the promoters ventured to appeal +to the public for support, and that a company, of which the Right Hon. +H. Cecil Raikes, M.P., was chairman, was formed for carrying the +project of the Mersey Railway into effect. The experience of the +engineers in the construction of the tunnel is not a little curious. +It was proved by the borings that the position in which the tunnel was +proposed to be bored was not only the most important from the point of +view of public convenience, and therefore of commercial advantage, but +was from the point of view of engineering difficulty decidedly the +most preferable. In this position the cuttings passed through the +sandstone rock, although on the Liverpool side the shafts were sunk +through a considerable depth through "made" ground, the whole of Mann +Island and the Goree being composed of earth and gravel tipped on the +old bank of the river. Indeed the miners passed through the cellars of +old houses and unearthed old water pipes; excavated through a depth of +tipped rubbish on which these houses had evidently been built; and +then came upon the former strand of the river, beneath which was the +blue silt usually found; then a stratum of bowlder clay; and finally +the red sandstone rock. Once begun, the works were pushed forward +night and day, Sundays excepted, until January, 1884, when the last +few feet of rock were cleared away by the boring machine, and the +mayors of Liverpool and Birkenhead met in fraternal greeting beneath +the river. The operations gave employment to 3,000 men working three +shifts of eight hours each, but were greatly accelerated by the use of +Colonel Beaumont's boring machine, on which disks of chilled iron are +set in a strong iron bar made to revolve by means of compressed air. +This machine scooped out a tunnel 7 feet in diameter; and by +successive improvements Colonel Beaumont attained a speed of 150 feet +per week, leaving the old method of blasting far behind. As the +machine moved forward the rock behind was broken out to the size of +the main tunnel and bricked in in short lengths. One remarkable +circumstance in connection with the work is that the boring from the +Birkenhead side and the boring from Liverpool were found, when they +were completed and joined, to be out of line by only 1 inch. + +This excellent result was attained by careful calculations and +experiments with perpendicular wires kept in position by weights, +which, to avoid oscillation, were suspended in buckets of water. From +shaft to shaft the tunnel is 1,770 yards in length and 26 feet in +diameter; but for a length of 400 feet at the James Street and +Hamilton Square stations the arch is enlarged to 50½ feet. The tunnel +is lined with from six to eight rings of solid brickwork embedded in +cement, the two inner rings being blue Staffordshire or Burnley +bricks. For the purpose of ventilation a smaller tunnel, 7 feet in +diameter, was bored parallel with the main tunnel, with which it is +connected in eight places by cross cuts, provided with suitable doors. +Both at Liverpool and at Birkenhead there are two guibal fans, one 40 +feet and the other 30 feet in diameter. The smaller, which throw each +180,000 cubic feet of air per minute, ventilate the continuations of +the tunnel under Liverpool and Birkenhead respectively, and the larger +tunnel under the river. The fans remove together 600,000 cubic feet of +air per minute, and by this combined operation the entire air in the +tunnel is changed once in every seven minutes. By the use of +regulating shutters the air passes in a continuous current and the +fans are noiseless. The telegraph and telephone wires pass through the +tunnel, thus avoiding the long detour by Runcorn. Probably, as a feat +of engineering, the construction of the new station at Bold Street is +not inferior to any part of the scheme advanced. Under very singular +and perplexing difficulties it could only be proceeded with in its +first stages from midnight until six o'clock the following morning, it +being of course essential that the traffic at the Central Station +should not be interfered with. During these hours, night after night, +trenches were cut at intervals of 10 feet across the roadway +connecting the arrival platforms at the station, and into these were +placed strong balks of timber, across which planks were laid as a +temporary roadway. Beneath these planks, which were taken up and put +down as required, the rock was excavated to a depth of 9 feet, and the +balks supported upon stout props. Then from the driftway or rough +boring beneath well holes were bored to the upper excavation, and +through them the strong upright iron pillars designed to support the +roof of the new tunnel station were passed, bedded and securely fixed +in position. No sooner were they _in situ_ than the most troublesome +part of the task was entered upon, for the balks had then to be +removed in order to allow to be placed in position the girders running +the length of the new station, and resting on the tops of the upright +pillars. From these longitudinal girders cross girders of great +strength were placed, and between these were built brick arches, +packed above with concrete. This formed the roof of the new station. +One portion of it passed under the rails in the station above, and had +to be constructed without stoppage of the traffic. The rails had +consequently to be supported on a temporary steel bridge of ingenious +design, constructed by Mr. C.A. Rowlendson, the resident engineer and +manager of the company, under whose personal supervision, as +representing Sir Douglas Fox, the work has been carried out. With this +device the men were enabled to go on in safety although locomotives +were passing immediately above their heads. After the completion of +the roof the station below was excavated by what is technically called +"plug and feather" work--that is to say, by drilling holes into which +powerful wedges are driven to split the rock. + + * * * * * + + + + +A STEAM STREET RAILWAY MOTOR. + + +[Illustration: North Chicago Street Railroad Engine] + +While in Paris, President Yerkes, of the North Chicago Street Railway +Company, purchased a noiseless steam motor, the results in +experimenting with which will be watched with great interest. The +accompanying engraving, for which we are indebted to the _Street +Railway Review_, gives a very accurate idea of the general external +appearance. The car is all steel throughout, except windows, doors and +ceiling. It is 12 ft. long, 8 ft. wide, and 9 ft. high, and weighs +about seven tons. The engines, which have 25 horse power and are of +the double cylinder pattern, are below the floor and connected +directly to the wheels. The wheels are four in number and 31 in. in +diameter. The internal appearance and general arrangement of +machinery, etc., is about that of the ordinary steam dummy. It will +run in either direction, and the exhaust steam is run through a series +of mufflers which suppress the sound, condense the steam and return +the water to the boiler, which occupies the center of the car. The +motor was built in Ghent, Belgium, and cost about $5,000, custom house +duties amounting to about $2,000 more.--_The Railway Review_. + + * * * * * + + + + +TWENTY-FOUR KNOT STEAMERS. + + +Probably the most important form of steam machinery is the marine +engine, not only because of the conditions under which it works, but +because of the great power it is called upon to exert. Naturally its +most interesting application is to Atlantic steaming. The success of +the four great liners, Teutonic, Majestic, City of Paris and City of +New York, has stimulated demand, and the Cunard Company has resolved +to add to its fleet, and place two ships on the Atlantic which will +outstrip the racers we have named. + +The visitor to the late Naval Exhibition interested in shipping will +have remarked at each of the several exhibits of the great firms a +model of a projected steamer, intended to reduce the present record of +the six days' voyage across the Atlantic--the _ne plus ultra_ at this +time of steam navigation. To secure this present result a continuous +steaming for the six days at 20 knot speed is requisite, not to +mention an extra day or two at each end of the voyage. The City of +Paris and the City of New York, Furst Bismarck, Teutonic and Majestic +are capable of this, with the Umbria and Etruria close behind at 18 to +19 knots. Only ten years ago the average passage, reckoned in the same +way as from land to land--or Queenstown to Sandy Hook--was seven days +with a speed of 17 knots, the performance of such vessels as the +Arizona and Alaska. Twenty years ago the length of the voyage was +estimated as seven and a half to eight days at a speed of 16 knots, +the performance of such vessels as the Germanic and Britannic of the +White Star fleet of 5,000 tons and 5,000 horse power. Thirty years ago +the paddle steamer was not yet driven off the ocean, and we find the +Scotia crossing in between eight and nine days, at a speed of 13 or 14 +knots. In 1858 ten and a half to twelve and a half days was allowed +for the passage between Liverpool and New York. So as we recede we +finally arrive at the pioneer vessels, the Sirius and Great Western, +crossing in fourteen to eighteen days at a speed of 6 to 8 knots. For +these historical details an interesting paper may be consulted, "De +Toenemende Grootte der Zee-Stoombooten," 1888, by Professor A. Huet, +of the Delft Polytechnic School. + +Each of the last two or three decades has thus succeeded, always, +however, with increasing difficulty, in knocking off a day from the +duration of the voyage. But although the present six-day 20 knot boats +are of extreme size and power, and date only from the last two or +three years, still the world of travelers declares itself unsatisfied. +Already we hear that another day must be struck off, and that five-day +steamers have become a necessity of modern requirements, keeping up a +continuous ocean speed of 23½ knots to 24 knots. Shipbuilders and +engineers are ashamed to mention the word _impossible_; and designers +are already at work, as we saw in the Naval Exhibition, but only so +far in the model stage; as the absence of any of the well known +distinguishing blazons of the foremost lines was sufficient to show +that no order had been placed for the construction of a real vessel. +It will take a very short time to examine the task of the naval +architect required to secure these onerous and magnificent conditions, +five days' continuous ocean steaming at a speed of 24 knots. + +The most practical, theory-despising among them must for the nonce +become a theorist, and argue from the known to the unknown; and, +first, the practical man will turn--secretly perhaps, but wisely--to +the invaluable experiments and laws laid down so clearly by the late +Mr. Froude. Although primarily designed to assist the Admiralty in +arguing from the resistance of a model to that of the full size +vessel, the practical man need not thereby despise Froude's laws, as +he is able to choose his mode: to any scale he likes, and he can take +his experiments ready made by practice on a large scale, as Newton +took the phenomena of astronomy for the illustration of the mechanical +laws. Suppose then he takes the City of Paris as his model, 560 ft. by +63 ft., in round numbers 10,000 tons displacement, and 20,000 horse +power, for a speed of 20 knots, with a coal capacity of 2,000 tons, +sufficient, with contingencies, for a voyage of six to eight days. Or +we may take a later 20 knot vessel, the Furst Bismarck, 500 ft. by +50ft., 8,000 tons, and 16,000 horse power, speed 20 knots, and coal +capacity 2,700 tons, to allow for the entire length of voyage to +Germany. + +In Froude's method of comparison the laws of mechanical similitude are +preserved if we make the displacements of the model and of its copy in +the ratio of the sixth power of the speeds designed, or the length as +the square of the speed. Our new 24 knot vessel, taking the City of +Paris as a model, would therefore have 10,000 (24 ÷ 20)^{6} = 29,860, +say 30,000 tons displacement, and would be 800 ft. × 90 ft. in +dimensions. The horse power would have to be as the _seventh_ power of +the speed, and our vessel would therefore have 20,000 (24 ÷ 20)^{7}, +or say 72,000 horse power. Further applications of Froude's laws of +similitude will show that the steam pressure and piston speed would +have to be raised 20 per cent., while the revolutions were discounted +20 per cent., supposing the engines and propellers to be increased in +size to scale. To provide the requisite enormous boiler power, all +geometrical scale would disappear; but it would carry us too far at +present to follow up this interesting comparison. + +Our naval architect is not likely at present to proceed further with +this monstrous design, exceeding even the Great Eastern in size, if +only because no dock is in existence capable of receiving such a ship. +He has however learned something of value, namely, that this vessel, +if the proper similitude is carried out, is capable of keeping up a +speed of 24 knots for five days with ample coal supply, provided the +boilers are not found to occupy all the available space. For it is an +immediate consequence of Froude's laws that in similar vessels run at +corresponding speeds over the same voyage, the coal capacity is +proportionately the same, or that a ton of coal will carry the same +number of tons of displacement over the same distance. Thus our +enlarged City of Paris would require to carry about 4,000 tons of +coal, burning 800 tons a day. + +With the Britannic and Germanic as models of 5,000 tons and 5,000 +horse power at 16 knot speed, the 24 knot vessel would require to be +of 57,000 tons and 85,000 horse power, to carry sufficient coal for +the voyage of 3,000 miles. These enormous vessels being out of the +question, the designer must reduce the size. But now the City of Paris +will no longer serve as a model, he must look elsewhere for a vessel +of high speed, and smaller scale, and naturally he picks out a torpedo +boat at the other end of the scale. A speed of 24 knots--and it is +claimed even of 25, 26, and 27 knots--has been attained on the mile by +a torpedo boat. But such a performance is useless for our mode of +comparison, as sufficient fuel at this high speed for ten or twelve +hours only at most can be carried--a voyage of, say, 500 miles; while +our steamer is required to carry coal for 3,000 miles. The Russian +torpedo boat Wiborg, for instance, is designed to carry coal for 1,200 +miles at 10 knot speed; but at 20 knots this fuel would last only +twenty-seven hours, carrying the vessel 540 miles. It will now be +found that with this limited coal capacity the speed of the ordinary +torpedo boat must be reduced considerably below 10 knots for it to be +able to cross the Atlantic, 3,000 miles under steam. So that, even at +a possible speed of 10 knots for the voyage, the full sized 24 knot +five-day vessel, of which the best torpedo boat is the model, must +have (2.4)^{6}, say 200 times the tonnage, and (2.4)^{7}, or 460 times +the horse power. The enlarged Wiborg would thus not differ much from +the enlarged City of Paris. A better model to select would be one of +the recent dispatch boats, commerce destroyers, or torpedo catchers, +recently designed by Mr. W.H. White, for our navy--the Intrepid or +Endymion, for instance. The Intrepid is 300 ft. by 44 ft., 3,600 tons, +and 9,000 horse power for 20 knot speed, with 800 hours' coal capacity +for 8,000 miles at 10 knot speed; which will reduce to 3,000 miles at +16 knots, and 2,000 miles at 20 knots. + +The Endymion is 360 ft. by 60 ft., with coal capacity for 2,800 miles +at 18 knot speed, or for about 144 hours or six days. The enlarged +Endymion for the same voyage of 2,800 miles in five days, or at 21½ +knot speed, would be 44 per cent larger and broader, that is 520 ft. +by 86 ft., and of threefold tonnage, and three and a half times, or +about 30,000 horse power--about the dimensions of the Furst Bismarck, +but much more powerfully engined. This agrees fairly with the estimate +in the SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN of 19th Sept, 1891., where it is stated +that twenty-two boilers, at a working pressure of 180 lb. on the +square inch, would be required, allowing 1½ lb. of coal per horse +power hour. + +The Intrepid, enlarged to a 24 knot boat, for the same length of +voyage of 3,000 miles, would be 650 ft. by 100 ft., 40,000 tons, and +about 45,000 horse power. So now we are nearing the Messrs. Thomson +design in the Naval Exhibition of the five-day steamer, 23½ knot +speed, 630 ft. by 73 ft., and 30,000 to 40,000 horse power. + +No one doubts the ability of our shipbuilding yards to turn out these +monsters; and on the measured mile, and for a good long distance, we +shall certainly see the contract speeds attained and some excelled. +But the whole difficulty turns on the question of the coal capacity, +and whether it is sufficient to last for even five days or for 3,000 +miles. Every effort then must be made to shorten the length of the +voyage from port to port; and we may yet see Galway and Halifax, only +2,200 miles apart, once more mentioned as the starting points of the +voyage as of old, in the earliest days of steam navigation. In those +days the question of fuel supply was a difficulty, even at the then +slow speeds, in consequence of the wasteful character of the engines, +burning from 7 lb. of coal and upward per horse power hour. Dr. +Lardner's calculations, based upon the average performance of those +days, justified him in saying that steam navigation could not pay--as +was really the case until the introduction of the compound engine. + +It is recorded in Admiral Preble's "Origin and Development of Steam +Navigation," Philadelphia, 1883, page 160, that the Sirius, 700 tons +and 320 horse power, on her return voyage had to burn up all that old +be spared on board, and took seventeen days to reach Falmouth. An +interesting old book to consult now is Atherton's "Tables of Steamship +Capacity," 1854, based as they are upon the performance of the marine +engine of the day. Atherton calculates that a 10,000 ton vessel could +at 20 knots carry only 204 tons of cargo 1,676 miles, while a 5,000 +ton vessel at 18 knots on a voyage of 3,000 miles could carry no cargo +at all. Also that the cost per ton of cargo at 16 knots would be +twenty times the cost at eight knots, implying a coal consumption +reaching to 12 lb. per horse power hour. It is quite possible that +some invention is still latent which will enable us to go considerably +below the present average consumption of 2 lb. to 1½ lb. per horse +power hour; but at present our rate of progress appears asymptotic to +a definite limit. + +To conclude, the whole difficulty is one of fuel supply, and it is +useless to employ a fast torpedo boat as our model, except at the +speed at which the torpedo boat can carry her own fuel to cross the +Atlantic. If the voyage must be reduced in time, let it be reduced +from six days to four, by running between Galway and Halifax, a +problem not too extravagant in its demands for modern engineering +capabilities. A statement has recently gained a certain amount of +circulation to the effect that the Inman Company was about to use +petroleum as fuel, in order to obtain more steam. We have the best +possible authority for saying there is not the least syllable of truth +in this rumor. It has also been stated that since solid piston valves +have been fitted to the Teutonic in lieu of the original spring ring +valves, she has steamed faster. This rumor is only partially true. Her +record, outward passage, of 5 days 16 hours 31 minutes, was made on +her previous voyage. She has, however, since made her three fastest +trips homeward.--_The Engineer_. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE MILITARY ENGINEER AND HIS WORK.[1] + +By Col. W.R. KING. + +[Footnote 1: A lecture delivered before the students of Sibley +College, Cornell University, December 4, 1891.--_The Crank_.] + + +It is not an easy matter to present a dry subject in such an +attractive form as to excite a thrilling interest in it, and military +science is no exception to this rule. An ingenious military instructor +at one of our universities has succeeded in pointing out certain +analogies between grand tactics and the festive game of football, +which appears to have greatly improved the football, if we may judge +from the recent victories of the blue over the red and the black and +orange, but it is not so clear that the effect of the union has been +very beneficial to military science; and even if such had been the +case, I fear there are no similar analogies that would be useful in +enlivening the subject of military engineering. + +From the earliest times of which we have record man has been disposed +to strive with his fellow man, either to maintain his own rights or to +possess himself of some rights or material advantage enjoyed by +others. When one or only a few men encroach on the rights of others in +an organized community, they may be restrained by the legal machinery +of the state, such as courts, police, and prisons, but when a whole +community or state rises against another, the civil law becomes +powerless and a state of war ensues. It is not proposed here to +discuss the ethics of this question, nor the desirability of providing +a suitable court of nations for settling all international +difficulties without war. The great advantage of such a system of +avoiding war is admitted by all intelligent people. We notice here a +singular inconsistency in the principles upon which this strife is +carried on, viz.: If it be a single combat, either a friendly contest +or a deadly one, the parties are expected to contest on equal terms as +nearly as may be arranged; but if large numbers are engaged, or in +other words, when the contest becomes war, the rule is reversed and +each party is expected to take every possible advantage of his +adversary, even to the extent of stratagem or deception. In fact, it +has passed into a proverb that "all things are fair in love and war." + +Now one of the first things resorted to, in order to gain an advantage +over the enemy, was to bring in material appliances, such as walls, +ditches, catapults, scaling ladders, battering rams, and subsequently +the more modern appliances, such as guns, forts, and torpedoes, all of +which are known as engines of war, and the men who built and operated +these engines were very naturally called engineers. It is this kind of +an artificer that Shakespeare refers to when he playfully suggests +that "'tis the sport to have the engineer hoist with his own petard." + +The early military engineer has left ample records and monuments of +his genius. The walls of ancient cities, castles that still crown many +hills in both hemispheres, the great Chinese wall, the historical +bridge of Julius Cæsar, which with charming simplicity he tells us was +built because it did not comport with his dignity to cross the stream +in boats, the bridge of boats across the Hellespont, by Xerxes, are +all examples of early military engineering. The Bible tells us "King +Uzziah built towers at the gates of Jerusalem, and at the turning of +the wall, and fortified them." We may note in passing that the +buttresses, battlements, and bartizans with which our modern +architects ornament or disfigure churches, peaceful dwellings, and +public buildings, are copied from the early works of the military +engineer. + +Coming down to the military engineers of our own country, we find that +one of the first acts of the Continental Congress, after appointing +Washington as commander-in-chief, was to authorize him to employ a +number of engineers. It was not, however, until 1777 that a number of +engineer officers from the French army arrived in this country, and +were appointed in the Continental army. General DuPortail was made +Chief Engineer, and Colonel Kosciusko, the great Polish patriot, was +among his assistants. Other officers of the Continental army were +employed on engineering duty; and under their supervision such works +as the forts and the great chain barrier at West Point were built, and +the siege operations around Boston and Yorktown were carried on. + +After the close of the war, in 1794, a Corps of "Artillerists and +Engineers" was organized. This corps was stationed at West Point, and +became the nucleus of the United States Military Academy. In 1802, by +operation of the law reorganizing the army, this corps was divided, as +the names would indicate, into an Artillery Corps and Corps of +Engineers. The Corps of Engineers consisted of one major, two +captains, four lieutenants, and ten cadets. The Artillery Corps was +again divided into the Ordnance Corps and several regiments of +artillery, now five in number, while the duties of the Corps of +Engineers were divided between the Engineer Corps and a Corps of +Topographical Engineers, organized at a later date; but on the +breaking out of the late rebellion it was deemed best to unite the two +corps, and they have so remained until the present time. The Corps of +Engineers now consists of 118 officers of various grades, from second +lieutenant to brigadier general, of which last grade there is only one +officer, the chief of the corps, and it requires something more than +an average official lifetime for the aforesaid lieutenant to attain +that rank. Hardly one in ten of them ever reach it. Daniel Webster's +remark to the young lawyer, that "there is always room at the top," +will not apply to the Corps of Engineers. The officers are all +graduates of the Military Academy, which institution continued as a +part of the Corps of Engineers until 1866. The vacancies in the corps +are filled by the assignment to it of from two to six graduates each +year, and there is attached to the corps a battalion of four companies +of enlisted men, formerly called Sappers and Miners, but now known as +the Battalion of Engineers. + +We now come naturally to the duties of our military engineer, and here +I may remark that these duties are so varied and so numerous that a +detailed recital of them would suggest Goldsmith's "Deserted Village:" + + ... "And still the wonder grew + That one small head could carry all he _ought to know_" + +[Never lose sight of fact for the sake of rhyme.] + +In general terms, his duties consist of: + + 1. Military surveys and explorations. + + 2. Boundary surveys. + + 3. Geodetic and hydrographic survey of the great lakes. + + 4. Building fortifications--both permanent works and temporary + or field works. + + 5. Constructing military roads. + + 6. Pontoniering or building military bridges, both with the + regular bridge trains and with improved materials. + + 7. The planning and directing of siege operations, either + offensive or defensive; sapping, mining, etc. + + 8. Providing, testing and planting torpedoes for harbor + defense when operating from shore stations. + + 9. Staff duty with general officers. + + 10. Improving rivers and harbors. + + 11. The building and repairing of lighthouses. + + 12. Various special duties as commissioner of District of + Columbia, superintendent military academy, commandant engineer + school, instructors at both of these schools, attaches to + several foreign legations, for the collection of military + information, etc. + +It would, of course, exceed the proper limits of a single lecture to +go into the details of these many duties, but we may take only a +passing glance at most of them, and give more special attention to a +few that may involve some points of interest. Perhaps the most +interesting branch of the subject would be that of permanent +fortifications, or what amounts to almost the same thing in this +country, sea coast defenses. And here our trouble begins, for, while +civil engineers have constant experience to guide them, their roads, +bridges, and other structures being in constant use, the military +engineer has only now and then, at long intervals, a war or a siege of +sufficient extent to furnish data upon which he can safely plan or +build his structures. Imagine a civil engineer designing a bridge, +road, or a dam to meet some possible future demand, without having +seen such a structure used for twenty years or more, and you can form +some estimate of the delightful uncertainties that surround the +military engineer when called upon to design a modern fort. The +proving ground shows him that radical improvements are necessary, but +actual service conditions are almost entirely wanting, and such as we +have contradict many of the proving ground theories. Thus we have the +records of shot going through 25 inches of iron or 25 feet of concrete +on the proving ground; but such actual service tests as the +bombardment of Fort Sumter, Fort Fisher, and the forts at Alexandria +contradict this entirely, and indicate that, except for the moral +effect, our old forts, with modern guns in them and some additional +strengthening at their weaker points, would answer all purposes so far +as bombardment from fleets is concerned. This is not saying that the +forts are good enough in their present condition, but simply that they +can readily be made far superior in strength, both offensive and +defensive, to any fleet that could possibly be provided at anything +like the same expense, or in fact at any expense that would be +justified by the condition of our treasury, either past, present, or +probable future. It might be added that a still more serious +difficulty in the way of the military engineer, so far as practice and +its consequent experiences are concerned, is that for many years past, +until quite recently, there have been no funds either for experiments +or actual work on fortifications, so that very little has been done on +them during the last twenty years. + +Without going into the question of the necessity for sea coast +defenses, we may assume that an enemy is likely to come into one of +our harbors and that it is desirable to keep him out. What provisions +must be made to accomplish this, i.e., to secure the safety of the +harbors and the millions of dollars' worth of destructible property +concentrated at the great trade centers that are usually located upon +those harbors? We must first take a look at the enemy and see what he +is like before we can decide what will be needed to repel his attack. +For this purpose we need not draw on the imagination, but we may +simply examine some of the more recent armadas sent to bombard +seaports. For example, the fleet sent by Great Britain to bombard the +Egyptian city of Alexandria, in 1882. This fleet consisted of eight +heavy ironclad ships of from 5,000 to 11,000 tons displacement and +five or six smaller vessels; and the armament of this squadron +numbered more than one hundred guns of all calibers, from the sixteen +inch rifle down to the seven inch rifle, besides several smaller guns. +But this fleet represented only a small fraction of England's naval +power. During some recent evolutions she turned out thirty-six heavy +ironclads and forty smaller vessels and torpedo boats. The crews of +these vessels numbered nearly 19,000 officers and men, or about three +times the entire number in our navy. Such a fleet, or, more likely, a +much larger one, might appear at the entrance say of New York harbor +within ten days after a declaration of war, and demand whatever the +nation to which it belonged might choose, with the alternative of +bombardment. + +The problem of protecting our people and property from such attacks is +not a new one, and, in fact, most of the conditions of this problem +remain the same as they were fifty years ago, the differences being in +degree rather than in kind. The most natural thought would be to meet +such a fleet by another fleet, but the folly of such a course will +become apparent from a moment's consideration. The difficulties would +be: + +1st. Our fleet must be decidedly stronger than that of the enemy, or +we simply fight a duel with an equal chance of success or failure. + +2d. In such a duel the enemy would risk nothing but the loss of his +fleet, and even a portion of that would be likely to escape, but we +would not only risk a similar loss, but we would also lose the city or +subject it to the payment of a heavy contribution to the enemy. + +3d. Unless we have a fleet for every harbor, it would be impossible to +depend upon this kind of defense, as the enemy would select whichever +harbor he found least prepared to receive him. It would be of vital +importance that we defend every harbor of importance, as a neglect to +do so would be like locking some of our doors and leaving the others +open to the burglars. + +4th. It might be thought that we could send our fleet to intercept the +enemy or blockade him in his own ports, but this has been found +impracticable. Large fleets can readily escape from blockaded harbors, +or elude each other on the high seas, and any such scheme implies that +we are much stronger on the ocean than the enemy, which is very far +from the case. To build a navy that would overmatch that of Great +Britain alone would not only cost untold millions, but it would +require many years for its accomplishment; and even if this were done, +there would be nothing unusual in an alliance of two or more powerful +nations, which would leave us again in the minority. _Fleets, then, +cannot be relied on for permanent defense_. + +Again, it may be said that we have millions of the bravest soldiers in +the world who could be assembled and placed under arms at a few days' +notice. This kind of defense would also prove a delusion, for a +hundred acres of soldiers armed with rifles and field artillery would +be powerless to drive away even the smallest ironclad or stop a single +projectile from one. In fact, neither of these plans, nor both +together, would be much more effective than the windmills and +proclamations which Irving humorously describes as the means adopted +by the early Dutch governors of New York to defend that city against +the Swedes and Yankees. + +Having considered some of the means of defense that will _not_ answer +the purpose, we may inquire what means _will be_ effective. And here +it should be noted that our defenses should be so effective as not +only to be reasonably safe, but to be so recognized by all nations, +and thus discourage, if not actually prevent, an attack upon our +coast. + +In the first place, we must have heavy guns in such numbers and of +such sizes as to overmatch those of any fleet likely to attack us. +These guns must be securely mounted, so as to be worked with facility +and accuracy, and they must be protected from the enemy's projectiles +at least as securely as his guns are from ours. Merely placing +ourselves on equal terms with the enemy, as in case of a duel or an +ancient knight's tournament, will not answer, first, because such a +state of things would invite rather than discourage attack, and +secondly, because the enemy would have vastly more to gain by success +and vastly less to lose by failure than we would. This can be +accomplished much easier than is generally supposed, either by earthen +parapets of sufficient thickness or by iron turrets or casements. It +is evident that the weight of metal used in these structures may be +vastly greater than could be carried on shipboard. Great weight of +metal is no objection on land, but, aside from its cost, is a positive +advantage. This is evident when we consider the enormous quantity of +energy stored in the larger projectiles moving at high velocities. For +example, we often hear of the sixteen inch rifle whose projectile +weighs about one ton, and this enormous mass projected at a velocity +of 2,000 feet per second would have a kinetic energy of 60,000 foot +tons, or it would strike a blow equal to that of ten locomotives of 50 +tons each running at 60 miles an hour and striking a solid wall. Any +structure designed to resist such ponderous blows must, therefore, +have enormous weight, or it will be overturned or driven bodily from +its foundations. If the armor itself is not thick enough to give the +required weight as well as resistance to penetration, the additional +stability must be supplied by re-enforcing it with heavy masses of +metal or masonry. It is evident, therefore, that _quality_ of metal is +less important than _quantity_, and that so long as it is sufficiently +tough to resist fracture, a soft, cheap metal, like wrought iron or +low steel, is better adapted for permanent works than any of the fancy +kinds of armor that have been tested for naval purposes. As an +illustration of this, we may compare compound or steel-faced armor +with wrought iron as follows: The best of the former offers only about +one-third greater resistance to penetration than the latter, or 12 +inches of compound armor may equal 16 inches of wrought iron, but the +cost per ton is nearly double; so that by using wrought iron we may +have double the thickness, or 24 inches, which would give more than +double the resistance to penetration, in addition to giving double the +stability against overturning or being driven bodily out of place. But +our guns may be reasonably well protected by earthen parapets without +any expensive armor by so mounting them that when fired they will +recoil downward or to one side, so as to come below the parapet for +loading. This method of mounting is called the disappearing principle, +and has been suggested by many engineers, some of whose designs date +back more than one hundred years. We may also mount our guns in deep +pits, where they will be covered from the enemy's guns, and fire them +at high elevation, so that the shell will fall from a great height and +penetrate the decks of the enemy's ships. This is known as mortar +firing, but the modern ordnance used for this purpose is more of a +howitzer than a mortar, being simply short rifled pieces arranged for +breech loading. All our batteries should, of course, be as far from +the city or other object to be protected as possible, to prevent the +enemy from firing over and beyond the batteries into the city. + +But, with all these precautions, the enemy might put on all steam and +run by us either at night or in a dense fog, and we must have some +means of holding him under the fire of our guns until his ships can be +disabled or driven away. This object is sought to be accomplished by +the use of torpedoes anchored in the channels and under the fire of +our guns, so that they cannot be removed by the enemy. These torpedoes +are generally exploded by electricity from batteries located in +casements on shore, these casements being connected with the torpedoes +by submarine cables. It is easy to see how the torpedo may be so +arranged that when struck by a ship the electric current will be +closed, and, if the battery on shore is connected at the same instant, +an explosion will take place; on the other hand, if the battery on +shore is disconnected a friendly ship may pass in safety over the +torpedoes. Many ingenious contrivances have also been devised by which +the torpedo may be made to signal back to the shore station either +that it has been struck or that it is in good order for service, in +case the enemy should undertake to run over it. One simple plan for +this is to have a small telephone in the torpedo with some loose +buckshot on the diaphragm, which is placed in a horizontal position, +and will be slightly tilted as the torpedo is moved about by the +waves. By connecting the shore end of the cable with a telephone +receiver, the rolling of the shot may be distinctly heard if the +torpedo is floating properly, but if sunk at its moorings, or if the +cable is broken, no sound will be heard. + +The use of torpedoes involves the use of both electricity and high +explosives, and a careful study based upon actual experiments has been +carried on for many years, by the engineers and naval officers in all +civilized countries. Some of these experiments have supplied +interesting and useful data, for the use of the agents in question, +for various industrial purposes. + +Another form of torpedo is that known as the locomotive torpedo, of +which there are several kinds; some are propelled by liquid carbonic +acid, which is carried in a strong tank and acts through a compact +engine in driving the propeller. One of these is steered by +electricity from the shore, and is known as the Lay-Haight torpedo, +and can run twenty-five miles per hour. The Whitehead torpedo is also +propelled by liquid carbonic acid, but is not steered from shore. Its +depth is regulated by an automatic device actuated by the pressure of +the water. The Howell torpedo is driven by a heavy fly wheel which is +set in rapid rotation just before the torpedo is launched. It has but +a short range and is intended for launching from ships. Another +torpedo is propelled and steered from shore by rapidly pulling out of +it two fine steel wires which, in unwinding, drive the twin screw +propellers. This is the Brennan torpedo. The Sims-Edison torpedo is +both propelled and steered by electricity from the shore, transmitted +to a motor and steering relay in the torpedo by an insulated cable. +This cable has two cores and is paid out by the torpedo as it travels +through the water just as a spider pays out its web. The cable is +about half an inch in diameter and two miles long, and the torpedo can +be driven at about eighteen miles per hour with a current of thirty +amperes and 1,800 volts pressure. + +Still another auxiliary weapon of defense is the dynamite gun, or +rather, a pneumatic gun, that throws long projectiles carrying from +250 to 450 pounds of dynamite, to a distance of about two miles. The +shells are arranged to explode soon after striking the water, by an +ingenious battery that ignites the fuse as soon as the salt water +enters it. The gun, which is known as the Zalinski gun, is some sixty +feet long and fifteen inches in caliber, the compressed air being +suddenly admitted to it from the reservoirs at any desired pressure by +a special form of valve that regulates the range. These guns are to be +mounted in deep pits and fired at somewhat higher elevations than +ordinary guns, but it has great accuracy within reasonable limits of +range. + + +FIELD FORTIFICATIONS. + +In field fortification an enormous quantity of work was done during +our last war. Washington, Richmond, Nashville, Petersburg, Norfolk, +New Berne, Plymouth, Vicksburg, and many other cities were elaborately +fortified by field works which involved the handling of vast +quantities of earth, and, where the opposing lines were near together, +ditches, abbatis, ground torpedoes, and wire entanglements were freely +used. In some cases the same ground was fortified in succession by +both armies, so that the total amount of work expended, in this way, +would have built several hundred miles of railway. Around Richmond and +Petersburg alone the development of field works was far greater than +Wellington's celebrated lines at Torres Vedras. In all future wars, +when large armies are opposed to each other, it is probable that field +works will play even a more important part than in the past. The great +advantage of such works, since the introduction of the deadly breech +loading rifles and machine guns, was shown at Plevna, where the +Russians were almost annihilated in attempting to capture the Turkish +intrenchments. + + +SIEGES. + +It is not proposed to go into historical or other details of this +branch of the subject, but to give in a condensed form some account of +siege operations. According to the text books, the first thing to be +done, if possible, in case of a regular siege, is to "invest" the +fortress. This is done by surrounding it as quickly as possible with a +continuous line of troops, who speedily intrench themselves and mount +guns bearing outward on all lines of approach to the fortress, to +prevent the enemy from sending in supplies or re-enforcements. As this +line must be at considerable distance from the fort, it is usually +quite long, and so is its name, for it is called the line of +"Circumvallation." Inside of this line is then established a similar +line facing toward the fort, to prevent sorties by the garrison. This +line is called the line of "Countervallation," and should be as close +to the fort as the range of its guns and the nature of the ground will +permit. From this line the troops rush forward at night and open the +trenches, beginning with what is called the first parallel, which +should be so laid out as to envelop those parts of the fort which are +to be made the special objects of attack. From this first parallel a +number of zigzag trenches are started toward the fort and at proper +intervals other parallels, batteries, and magazines are built; this +method of approach being continued until the besieged fort is reached, +or until such batteries can be brought to bear upon it as to breech +the walls and allow the attacking troops to make an assault. + +During these operations of course many precautions must be observed, +both by the attacking and defending force, to annoy each other and to +prevent surprise, and the work is mostly carried on under cover of the +earth thrown from the trenches. These operations were supposed to +occupy, under normal conditions, about forty-one days, or rather +nights, as most of the work is done after dark, at the end of which +time the fort should be reduced to such a condition that its +commander, having exhausted all means of defense, would be justified +in considering terms of surrender. + +The _Theoretical Journal_ of the siege prescribes just what is to be +done each day by both attack and defense up to the final catastrophe, +and this somewhat discouraging outlook for the defenders was forcibly +illustrated by the late Captain Derby, better known by the reading +public as "John Phoenix," who, when a cadet, was called upon by +Professor Mahan to explain how he would defend a fort, mounting a +certain number of guns and garrisoned by a certain number of men, if +besieged by an army of another assumed strength in men and guns, +replied: + +"I would immediately evacuate the fort and then besiege it and capture +it again in forty-one days." + +Of course the fallacy of this reasoning was in the fact that the +besieging army is generally supposed to be four or five times as large +as the garrison of the fort; the primary object of forts being to +enable a small force to hold a position, at least for a time, against +a much larger force of the enemy. + +Sieges have changed with the development of engines of war, from the +rude and muscular efforts of personal prowess like that described in +Ivanhoe, where the Black Knight cuts his way through the barriers with +his battle axe, to such sieges as those at Vicksburg, Petersburg, and +Plevna, where the individual counted for very little, and the results +depended upon the combined efforts of large numbers of men and +systematic siege operations. It should also be noticed that modern +sieges are not necessarily hampered by the rules laid down in text +books, but vary from them according to circumstances. + +For example, many sieges have been carried to successful issues +without completely investing or surrounding the fortress. This was the +case at Petersburg, where General Lee was entirely free to move out, +or receive supplies and re-enforcements up to the very last stages of +the siege. In other cases, as at Fort Pulaski, Sumter, and Macon, the +breeching batteries were established at very much greater distances +than ever before attempted, and the preliminary siege operations were +very much abbreviated and some of them omitted altogether. This is not +an argument against having well defined rules and principles, but it +shows that the engineer must be prepared to cut loose from old rules +and customs whenever the changed state of circumstances requires +different treatment. + + +MILITARY BRIDGES. + +In the movement of armies, especially on long marches in the enemy's +country, one of the greatest difficulties to be overcome is the +crossing of streams, and this is usually done by means of portable +bridges. These may be built of light trestles with adjustable legs to +suit the different depths, or of wooden or canvas boats supporting a +light roadway wide enough for a single line of ordinary wagons or +artillery carriages. The materials for these bridges, which are known +as Ponton Bridges, are loaded upon wagons and accompany the army on +its marches, and when required for use the bridge is rapidly put +together, piece by piece, in accordance with fixed rules, which +constitute, in fact, a regular drill. The wooden boats are quite heavy +and are used for heavy traffic, but for light work, as, for example, +to accompany the rapid movements of the cavalry, boats made of heavy +canvas, stretched upon light wooden frames, that are put together on +the spot, are used. + +During Gen. Sherman's memorable Georgia campaign and march to the sea, +over three miles of Ponton bridges were built in crossing the numerous +streams met with, and nearly two miles of trestle bridges. In Gen. +Grant's Wilderness campaign the engineers built not less than +thirty-eight bridges between the Rappahannock and the James Rivers, +these bridges aggregating over 6,600 feet in length. Under favorable +circumstances such bridges can be built at the rate of 200 to 300 feet +per hour, and they can be taken up at a still more rapid rate. When +there is no bridge train at hand the engineer is obliged to use such +improvised materials as he can get; buildings are torn down to get +plank and trees are cut to make the frame. Sometimes single stringers +will answer, but if a greater length of bridge is required it may be +supported on piles or trestles, or in deep water on rafts of logs or +casks. But the heavy traffic of armies, operating at some distance +from their bases, must be transported by rail, and the building of +railway bridges or rebuilding those destroyed by the enemy is an +important duty of the engineer. On the Potomac Creek, in Virginia, a +trestle bridge 80 feet high and 400 feet long was built in nine +working days, from timber out of the neighborhood. Another bridge +across the Etowah River, in Georgia, was built in Gen. Sherman's +campaign, and a similar bridge was also built over the Chattahoochee. + + +SURVEYS AND EXPLORATIONS. + +For more than half a century before the building of the great Pacific +railways, engineer officers were engaged in making surveys and +explorations in the great unknown country west of the Mississippi +River, and the final map of that country was literally covered with a +network of trails made by them. Several of these officers lost their +lives in such expeditions, while others lived to become more famous as +commanders during the great rebellion. Generals Kearney, J.E. +Johnston, Pope, Warren, Fremont and Parke, and Colonels Long, Bache, +Emory, Whipple, Woodruff and Simpson, Captains Warner, Stansbury, +Gunnison and many other officers, generally in their younger days, +contributed their quota to the geographical knowledge of the country, +and made possible the wonderful network of railways guarded by +military posts that has followed their footsteps. Their reports fill +twelve large quarto volumes. + + +BOUNDARY AND LAKE SURVEYS. + +The astronomical location of the boundaries of the several States and +Territories, as well as of the United States, is a duty frequently +required of the engineer officer, and such a survey between this +country and Mexico is now in progress. The entire line of the 49th +parallel of latitude from the Lake of the Woods to the Pacific Ocean, +which forms our northern boundary, was located a few years ago by a +joint commission of English and United States engineers, and monuments +were established at short intervals over its entire length. + +A careful geodetic and hydrographic survey of the Great Northern +Lakes, including every harbor upon them and the rivers connecting +them, was carried on for many years and was finally completed some ten +years ago. Maps and charts of these surveys are published from time to +time for use of pilots navigating these waters. + +Not only are the duties of the military engineer similar in many +respects to those of the civil engineer, but there are many instances +in which the duties of one branch of the profession have been +performed by members of the other branch, quite as efficiently as +though they had been performed by engineers specially educated for the +purpose. During the late civil war there were many illustrations of +this, all showing that an ingenious engineer can readily adapt himself +to circumstances entirely different from those to which he has been +accustomed. A very good example of this occurred in the Red River +expedition of General Banks and Admiral Porter. In that memorable but +disastrous campaign an army accompanied by a fleet of transports and +light draught gunboats, sometimes called "tin clads" because some +parts of them were covered with boiler plate to stop the bullets of +the enemy, ascended the Red River in Louisiana; but the advance having +been checked and a retreat commenced, it was found that the river had +fallen to such a low state that the fleet was caught above the rapids +near Alexandria, and it would in all probability have been a complete +loss had it not been for the timely application of engineering skill +by Lieut. Col. Joseph Bailey, a civil engineer from Wisconsin, who +built a temporary dam across the river below the rapids and floated +out the entire fleet. This dam was over 750 feet long and in +connection with some auxiliary dams raised the water level some 6½ +feet. It was built under many difficulties, but by the skill and +ability of the engineer and the co-operation of the troops it was +completed in ten days. Another case was at the siege of Petersburg, +Va., where Lieut. Col. Pleasants, a Pennsylvania coal miner, ran a +gallery from our lines, under the rebel battery, some 500 feet +distant, and blew it entirely out of existence. The mine contained +four tons of powder and produced a crater 200 feet by 50 feet and 25 +feet deep, and was completed in one month. The sequel to this was to +be an attack on the enemy's line through the gap made by the +explosion, and such an attack properly followed up would doubtless +have had a marked effect in shortening the duration of the war, but +this attack was so badly managed that it utterly failed and caused a +severe loss to our own army. The mine itself, however, was a great +success and produced a decided moral effect on both sides which lasted +until the end of the war. + +It may be out of place to digress a moment to illustrate the moral +effect of such a convulsion. Several weeks after this great mine +explosion, the 18th Army Corps, to which I then belonged, was holding +a line of works recently captured from the rebels, about six miles +from Richmond, when one night the colonel commanding Fort Harrison, a +large field work forming a part of this line, came down to +headquarters and reported that some old Pennsylvania coal miners in +his command had heard mining going on under the fort. As the nearest +part of the enemy's line was some 400 yards from the fort, I was quite +certain that they could not have run a gallery that distance in the +time that had elapsed since we occupied the work, but there was of +course the possibility that the mine had been partly built beforehand +so as to be ready in just such a case as had arisen, viz., the capture +of the fort by our troops. I therefore went with the colonel up to the +fort to listen for the mining operations, and got the men who claimed +to have heard the subterranean noises, down in the bottom of the ditch +of the fort, which was ten feet deep, and at the angles formed a +fairly good listening gallery, but nothing unusual could be heard. I +therefore made arrangements to sink a line of pits in the bottom of +the ditch, something like ordinary wells; the bottoms of these pits to +be finally connected by a horizontal gallery which would envelop the +fort and enable us to hear the enemy and blow him up, before he could +get under the fort. Although the commanding officer of that fort was +as brave an officer as the war developed, he would not keep his men in +the fort after dark, but withdrew them quietly to the flanks of the +work, where they not only would be safe from an explosion, but would +be ready to fall upon the enemy in case he should blow up the fort and +rush in to capture the line, as our troops had attempted to do at +Petersburg. No explosion took place, however, and after our +countermining work was completed, the garrison became reassured and +remained in the fort at night as well as in day time. A few months +later, when the enemy was driven from his lines, I went through his +works to see whether any mining had been attempted, and found that a +gallery leading toward Fort Harrison had been carried quite a +distance, but was still incomplete, and it is barely possible that the +old miners were right, after all, in thinking that they could hear the +sound of the pick, although the distance was almost too great to make +this theory very probable. + +Still another illustration of the way in which civil engineers can +make themselves extremely useful in military operations was the +wonderful system of military railways, or railways operated for +military purposes, that formed complete lines of transportation for +the armies and their enormous quantities of supplies and munitions, +more especially those in the West and Southwest. Construction trains +were organized in the most complete style, and when a piece of track +or a number of bridges were destroyed by the enemy, they would be +rebuilt so rapidly that our trains would hardly seem to be delayed by +it. The trains carried spare rails, ties, and bridges of various +lengths ready to put up, and they also carried the necessary rolling +stock and tools for destroying the roads and bridges of the enemy. So +expert had this construction corps become that the enemy was ready to +believe almost any statement in regard to it. General Sherman tells of +an instance where it was proposed to blow up a tunnel, to check his +"March to the Sea," when one of the men objected, saying it was of no +use, for Sherman had a duplicate tunnel in his train. + +Although this is not a sermon, it may not be out of place to point out +a few qualifications common to all engineers, for they all deal more +or less with the same materials and forces and employ similar methods +of investigation and construction. Wood, iron, steel, copper and stone +and their compounds are the materials of the civil, mining, mechanical +and electrical, as well as of the military engineers. They all deal +with the forces of gravitation, cohesion, inertia and chemical +affinity. They all require skill, intelligence, industry, confidence, +accuracy, thoroughness, ingenuity and, beyond all, sound judgment. +Wanting in any one of these qualifications, an engineer is more or +less disqualified for important work. It is said that a distinguished +engineer was always afraid to cross his own bridges, although built in +the most thorough and approved manner. He was deficient in confidence. +Another engineer distinguished for his mathematical attainments built +a bridge which promptly collapsed at the first opportunity. On +overhauling his computations he ejaculated somewhat forcibly, "That +confounded minus sign! It should have been plus." He was deficient in +sound judgment, or what is sometimes called "horse sense." + +Another and more common defect in young engineers is a want of +thoroughness. It is generally best to go to the bottom of a question +at first and keep at it until it is thoroughly and fully completed. +Confucius says, "If thou hast aught to do, first consider, second act, +third let the soul resume her tranquillity." Those who begin a great +many things and never fully complete them lose a great deal of +valuable time, but do very little valuable work. The way to avoid this +difficulty is to be cautious about beginning things, but when once +started don't leave it until you are satisfied to leave it for good. +There is an Arabian saying, "Never undertake _all_ you can do, for he +who undertakes _all_ he can do will frequently undertake _more_ than +he can do." + +Another common error is extravagance. On the plea that "the best is +always the cheapest," and to be sure of a large factor of safety, or +as the late Mr. Holley called it a "factor of ignorance," without much +trouble to themselves, some engineers use more or better materials +than the work requires, and thus greatly increase the cost without any +corresponding advantage. Almost any engineer can do almost anything in +the way of engineering if not limited by the cost, but the man who +knows just what materials to use and how to use them so that they will +answer the purpose as to strength and durability can save his own +salary to his employer many times over by simply omitting unnecessary +expense. + + * * * * * + + + + +HOW MECHANICAL RUBBER GOODS ARE MADE. + + +While the manufacture of rubber goods is in no sense a secret +industry, the majority of buyers and users of such goods have never +stepped inside of a rubber mill, and many have very crude ideas as to +how the goods are made up. In ordinary garden hose, for instance, the +process is as follows: The inner tubing is made of a strip of rubber +fifty feet in length, which is laid on a long zinc-covered table and +its edges drawn together over a hose pole. The cover, which is of what +is called "friction," that is cloth with rubber forced through its +meshes, comes to the hose maker in strips, cut on the bias, which are +wound around the outside of the tube and adhere tightly to it. The +hose pole is then put in something like a fifty foot lathe, and while +the pole revolves slowly, it is tightly wrapped with strips of cloth, +in order that it may not get out of shape while undergoing the process +of vulcanizing. When a number of these hose poles have been covered in +this way they are laid in a pan set on trucks and are then run into a +long boiler, shut in, and live steam is turned on. When the goods are +cured steam is blown off, the vulcanizer opened and the cloths are +removed. The hose is then slipped off the pole by forcing air from a +compressor between the rubber and the hose pole. This, of course, is +what is known as hose that has a seam in it. + +For seamless hose the tube is made in a tubing machine and slipped +upon the hose pole by reversing the process that is used in removing +hose by air compression. In other words, a knot is tied in one end of +the fifty foot tube and the other end is placed against the hose pole +and being carefully inflated with air it is slipped on without the +least trouble. For various kinds of hose the processes vary, and there +are machines for winding with wire and intricate processes for the +heavy grades of suction hose, etc. For steam hose, brewers', and acid +hose, special resisting compounds are used, that as a rule are the +secrets of the various manufacturers. Cotton hose is woven through +machines expressly designed for that purpose, and afterward has a +half-cured rubber tube drawn through it. One end is then securely +stopped up and the other end forced on a cone through which steam is +introduced to the inside of the hose, forcing the rubber against the +cotton cover, finishing the cure and fixing it firmly in its place. + + +CORRUGATED MATTING. + +After the mixing of the compound and the calendering, that is the +spreading it in sheets, the great roll of rubber and cloth that is to +be made into corrugated matting is sent to the pressman. Here it is +hung in a rack and fifteen or twenty feet of it drawn between the +plates of the huge hydraulic steam press. The bottom plate of this +press is grooved its whole length, so that when the upper platen is +let down the plain sheet of rubber is forced into the grooves and the +corrugations are formed. While in that position steam is let into the +upper and lower platens and the matting is cured. After it has been in +there the proper time, cold water is let into the press, it is cooled +off, and the upper platen being raised, it is ready to come out. A +simple device for loosening the matting from the grooves into which it +has been forced is a long steel rod, with a handle on one hand like an +auger handle, which, being introduced under the edge and twisted, +allows the air to enter with it and releases it from the mould. + + +PACKING. + +Sheet packing is often times made in a press, like corrugated matting. +The varieties, however, known as gum core have to go through a +different process. Usually a core is squirted through a tube machine +and the outside covering of jute or cotton, or whatever the fabric may +be, is put on by a braider or is wrapped about it somewhat after the +manner of the old fashioned cloth-wrapped tubing. The fabric is either +treated with some heat-resisting mixture or something that is a +lubricant, plumbago and oil being the compound. Other packings are +made from the ends of belts cut out in a circular form and treated +with a lubricant. There are scores of styles that make special claims +for excellences that are made in a variety of ways, but as a rule the +general system as outlined above is followed. + + +JAR RINGS. + +The old fashioned way of making jar rings was first to take a large +mandrel and wrap it around with a sheet of compounded rubber until the +thickness of the ring was secured. It was then held in place by a +further wrapping of cloth, vulcanized, put in a lathe and cut up into +rings by hand. That manner of procedure, however, was too slow, and it +is to-day done almost wholly by machinery. For example, the rubber is +squirted out of a mammoth tubing machine in the shape of a huge tube, +then slipped on a mandrel and vulcanized. It is then put in an +automatic lathe and revolving swiftly is brought against a sharp +knife blade which cuts ring after ring until the whole is consumed, +without any handling or watching.--_India Rubber World_. + + * * * * * + + + + +HOW ENAMELED LETTERS ARE MADE. + + +The following is a description of a brief visit by a representative of +the _Journal of Decorative Art_ to the new factory of the Patent +Letter and Enamel Company, Ltd., situate in the East End of London. + +The company have recently secured a large freehold plot in the center +of the East End of London, and have built for themselves a most +commodious and spacious factory, some hundreds of feet in length, all +on one floor, and commanded from one end by the manager's office, from +whence can be seen at a glance the entire premises. + +The works are divided into two large compartments, and are lighted +from the roof, ample provision being made for ventilation, and +attention being given to those sanitary conditions which are, or +should be, imperative on all well managed establishments. + +We first explore the stockroom. Here are stored the numerous dies, of +all sizes and shapes, which the company possess, varying in size from +half an inch to twelve or sixteen inches. Here, too, is kept the large +store of thin sheet copper out of which the letters are stamped. Our +readers are familiar with the form or principle upon which these +letters are made. It is simply a convex surface, the reverse side +being concave, and being fixed on to the glass or other material with +a white lead preparation. When these letters were first made, the +practice was to cut or stamp them out in flat copper, and then to +round or mould them by a second operation. Recent improvements in the +machinery, however, have dispensed with this dual process, and the +stamping and moulding is done in the one swift, sharp operation. + +The process of making an enameled letter has four stages--stamping, +enameling, firing, and filing. There are other and subsequent +processes for elaborating, but those named are of the essence of the +transaction. + + +STAMPING. + +The stamping is done by means of presses, and is a very rapid and +complete operation. + +The operator takes a piece of the sheet copper, places it on the +press, the lever descends, there is a sharp crunching, bursting sound, +and in a time shorter than it has taken to describe, the letter is +made, sharp and perfect in every way. + + +ENAMELING. + +The letters are now taken charge of by a girl, who lays them out on a +wire tray, the hollow side up, and paints them over with a thin +mordant. While they are in this position, and before the mordant +dries, they are taken on the gridiron-like tray to a kind of large +box, which is full of the powdered enamel, and, holding the tray in +her left hand, the girl takes a fine sieve full of the powder and +dusts it over the letter, all superfluous powder falling through the +open wirework and into the bin again, so that there is absolutely no +waste. + +[Illustration: DUSTING THE LETTERS BEFORE FIRING.] + + +FIRING. + +The letters are now taken and placed carefully on thin iron disks or +plates on the bench, where they remain until they are fired. It will +be remembered that we said at the outset that the factory was divided +into two large compartments, and it is into the second of these that +we now go. + +Here are ranged the series of furnaces which convert the copper and +superincumbent enamel into one common body--fuse the one into the +other. An unwary step soon warns us that we are too near the furnace, +unless we want to run the risk of a premature cremation, and in the +interests of the readers of this journal we step back to a respectful +and proper distance, and watch the operations from afar. + +There seems to be something innately picturesque about all furnaces +and those who work about them. Whether it is the Rembrandt effects +produced by the strong light and shade, or whether it is that the +necessary use of the long iron instruments, such as all furnace +workers employ, compels a certain dignity and grace of poise and +action, we know not; but certain it is that the grace is there in a +marked degree, and as we watched the men take their long-handled iron +tongs and place in or lift out the plates of hot metal, we could not +fail to be impressed with the charm of the physical action they +displayed. + +The disk containing the enameled letters is taken at the end of a long +iron handle and carefully placed in a dome-shaped muffle. These +muffles are all heated from the outside; that is, the fire is all +round the chamber, but not in it, the fumes of the sulphur being +destructive of the enamel if they are allowed to come into contact +with it. So intense is the heat, however, that a muffle lasts only +about nine days, and at the end of that time has to be renewed. + +[Illustration: FIRING THE LETTERS] + +After the enamel is fused on to the copper, the disk is taken out and +placed on a side slab, where it is allowed to cool. + +This process is repeated on the front side of the letter, when all +that remains to complete it is + + +THE FILING. + +[Illustration: FILING THE LETTERS AFTER ENAMELING.] + +This is done by girls, who, with very fine files, rub off the edges +and any protuberances which may be there. Every letter is subject to +this operation, and all are turned out smooth and well finished. + +Sometimes the letters are colored or further defined by the addition +of a line, but the essentials are as we have already described. + +[Illustration: MIXING THE ENAMEL] + + +BRUSHING OUT. + +There are, however, one or two other operations of interest which we +may notice. The company do not confine their exertions to the making +of letters, various collateral developments having taken place which +fill an important part in this scheme of work. + +Of these, small tablets, containing advertisements or notices, such as +we see in railway carriages, "Push after raising window," or "Close +this door after you," or some legend pertaining to Brown's Soap or +Robinson's Washing Powder. These are done by different processes, the +transfer process, as used in the potteries, being employed, but the +one most largely used is that of "brushing out," which is done by +plates. + +Let us suppose that the tablet shows white letters on a dark ground, +the _modus operandi_ is as follows: + +The tablet has been enameled, as already described, and is white. The +operator now takes a dark enamel and spreads it evenly over the entire +surface of the tablet. He, or she, now takes a stencil plate, of +tinfoil, out of which the ground is cut, leaving the letter in the +center. + +This is carefully placed over the tablet and held tight with the left +hand, while with the right hand he holds a fine brush, which he uses +with a quick, sharp movement over the surface. This action readily +removes the unfired color from the hard, glassy surface underneath, +and leaves a white letter. This is fired, and is then complete. + +Sometimes two and, it may be, three plates are necessary to complete +the brushing out, as ties must be left, as in the case of ordinary +stencils, and these have to be brushed out with additional plates. Two +or three colors may be introduced by this process, but each separate +color means separate firing. If the letters are dark on a light +ground, the process is exactly the same, the stencil only being +modified. In addition to the letters and tablets thus described, the +company also undertake the production of large enameled signs, and to +cope with the rapid expansion of this department of their work they +are erecting special furnaces, to enable them to deal with any demand +likely to be made upon them. The call for things permanent and +washable in the way of advertising is on the increase, and the +enameled plates made by the company is one of the most successful ways +of meeting the demand. + +[Illustration: "THE SMITH A MIGHTY MAN IS HE."] + + * * * * * + + + + +BURNING BRICK WITH CRUDE OIL FUEL. + + +At the present time there is not the least reason why either wood, +coal, or any other solid fuel should be used for the burning of brick. +This style of burning brick belongs to a past age. The art of +brickmaking has made tremendous progress during the past quarter of a +century. It is no longer the art of the ignorant; brains, capital, +experience, science, wide and general knowledge, must in these days be +the property of the successful brick manufacturer. There are some such +progressive brick manufacturers in Chicago, who use neither coal nor +wood in the drying or burning of their clay products. Crude oil is the +fuel which they employ, and with this fuel they obtain cheaper and +better brick than do manufacturers who employ solid fuel. Some of +these manufacturers have expressed themselves as preferring to quit +the brick business rather than return to the use of wood or coal as +fuel in brick burning. + +This shows plainly that progress in our art, when it does come, comes +to remain. It is true that crude oil for brick-burning purposes is not +everywhere obtainable. But there is a fuel which is even better than +crude oil, namely, fuel gas, and which can be produced and employed on +any brick yard at a saving of seventy-five per cent. over coal or +other solid fuel. + +The Rose process for making fuel gas gives a water gas enriched by +petroleum. Roughly, about half the cost of this gas as made at +Bellefonte, Pa., was for oil. The gas cost 6.68c. per 1,000 cu. ft., +with oil at 2¼c. a gallon. At double this price the gas would cost but +10c., and show that in practice, foot for foot, it equals natural gas. + +Fuel gas means a larger investment of capital than does any of the +other modes of brick burning, and is, therefore, not within the reach +of the entire trade. The cost of appliances for burning brick with +crude oil is not very large, and as all grate bars, iron frames, and +doors can be dispensed with in the use of crude oil fuel, the cost of +an oil-burning equipment is but little in excess of an equipment of +grates, etc., for coal-burning kilns. + +At works using small amounts of fuel, especially if cost of fuel bears +but a small proportion to total cost of the manufactured product, oil +will be in the future very largely used. It is clean, as compared with +coal, can be easily handled, and when carefully used in small +quantities, is safe. There are several methods of burning oil that are +well adapted to the use of brick manufacturers and other fuel +consumers. + +The Pennsylvania Railroad made some very thorough experiments on the +use of petroleum in their locomotives, and while the results obtained +are reported to have been satisfactory, it was the opinion of those +having the experiments in charge that the demand for the Pennsylvania +Railroad alone, were it to change its locomotives from coal to oil, +would consume all the surplus and send up the price of oil to a figure +that would compel a return to coal. + +It is true that production has enormously increased in the last three +years, and the promise for the near future is that a high rate will be +maintained. It is further true that the production of Russia has +increased enormously, and will probably be larger this year than ever +before. This Russian oil must go to markets and supply demands that +have been met by American oil, and this will still further increase +the amount of oil available for fuel purposes. + +There is no doubt, therefore, that petroleum has a future for fuel +uses. Many brick manufacturers are ready to use it, notwithstanding +the possibility of an advance in its cost. + +While there are some objections to the use of petroleum as a fuel, +growing chiefly out of the risk attending its storage and conveyance +to the point of consumption, it is undoubtedly true that the chief +objection is the fear that with the increased demand that would follow +any extended use for this purpose would come an increase in price that +would make its continued use too expensive. + +Just four years ago, when the fuel oil industry was first projected, +it was cried down because, as its enemies claimed, there was not +enough oil fuel to be obtained in America to supply the New York City +factories alone, to say nothing of other territory, and because of the +high prices for oil that were sure to follow its substitution for coal +fuel. Since then the industry has experienced a magnificent success, +the sales exceeding 20,000,000 barrels a year, while the price is +lower than ever. + +A curious impression seems to have gained ground to the effect that +the Standard Oil Company does not want to sell oil for fuel. It may be +stated authoritatively that the company is not only able but willing +to sell and deliver oil for fuel purposes in any quantity that may be +desired. It is now delivering oil for fuel purposes in fourteen States +of the Union. For its sales in Chicago and the West and Northwest, the +delivery is by tank cars from the terminus of the pipe line at South +Chicago, to which point it is pumped from Lima, O. The Chicago price +is 1-2/3c. per gallon, or 70c. per barrel of 42 gallons, f.o.b. cars +at Chicago. + +A great many of the brick manufacturers here and throughout the +Northwest are beginning to use crude petroleum as a substitute for +soft coal. It is smokeless, for the fine spray of oil which comes from +the injector consists of such minute drops of the liquid and is so +thoroughly mixed with oxygen that when it burns the combustion is +complete, and only steam and carbonic acid gas go out of the top of +the kiln. Not a speck of soot comes from the kiln or the smokestack or +soils the whitewashed purity of the boiler room. Oil fuel is +absolutely clean. It is labor saving, too. No fireman has to keep +shoveling coal, there are no ashes to be dragged out from under the +furnace grates, and there are no clinkers to clog up the bars. One +man, by turning a valve, may regulate the heat of a kiln containing +one million brick. + +Not only is it cleaner than coal and calls for less labor, but it is +actually cheaper as a fuel. A barrel and a half of crude oil is equal +for furnace fuel to a ton of the best Illinois bituminous coal, and at +70c. a barrel any one can easily calculate the advantages petroleum +has over its smoky rival. Theoretically, two barrels of oil equal in +heating power one ton of best Pittsburg coal. + +An examination into the relative cost of the Pittsburg and Chicago +coal to the oil consumed shows that the price of oil at Pittsburg is +59c. per barrel of 42 gallons, and slack coal can be purchased at from +70c. to 80c. per ton, and the best quality of lump coal at from $1.10 +to $1.25 per ton, while the same quality of fuel can be bought in +Chicago at about 70c. a barrel, as against coal at from $2 to $3.50 +per ton. It would, therefore, look as though there could be no +question whatever as to the economy and advantages to be derived from +the use of oil as a fuel in this vicinity. + +The weight of oil required is less than half that of average coal to +produce the same amount of steam. + +A great advantage in using oil as fuel in brick burning is that the +fires are always under the absolute and direct control of the man in +charge of the burning, who can regulate the volume of flame to the +nicest degree and throw the heat to any part of the arches that he may +desire. + +From present indications, oil will be the fuel adopted generally for +generating power and for brick burning in Chicago, as it saves the +boilers, avoids grate bars, saves dirt and cinders, and reduces +running expenses, etc. + +Much skepticism was at first exhibited in Chicago only a few years ago +when one of the leading brick manufacturers attempted to burn a kiln +of brick with coal for fuel. Nearly all the brickmakers then in +business put on wise looks and predicted the failure of the experiment +with coal. But coal proved to be a better and cheaper fuel than wood, +and in five or six years wood was used only for the kindling of the +coal fires. + +Then came the attempt to burn brick with crude oil, and the experiment +having proved a success, coal has been banished from the leading brick +yards in Chicago and vicinity. + +The Purington-Kimball Brick Co., Adams J. Weckler, Weber & La Bond, +the May-Purington Brick Co., the Union Brick Co., and the Pullman +Brick Co., all having headquarters in Chicago, as well as the Peerless +Brick Co. and the Pioneer Fireproof Construction Co., both of Ottawa, +Ill., are using crude oil fuel for brick burning. + +Lima crude oil is used, and it is atomized by means of steam in small +furnaces extending about two feet from the face of the brick kilns, +and in which furnaces combustion occurs, and the conversion of the oil +and steam into a gaseous fuel is secured. There is little doubt that +the fuel employed in the future by the successful brick manufacturer +must be in the gaseous form. Owing to the enormous cost of handling +coal, wood, and other crude fuel, and of removing the ash resulting +from such fuel, it has been demonstrated in practice by the use of +crude oil that the expense connected with the burning of brick can be +reduced fully 60 per cent. This large saving is made by converting +crude petroleum into gas and utilizing this fuel, either directly in +the arches of the kiln or by converting the crude oil into gas in a +gas producer, and drawing this fuel gas from the producer and burning +the same as required in kilns of suitable construction. + +Crude oil fuel must in the future play an important part in all +branches of manufacture requiring high, constant heats, and in which +the cost of wood, coal, and other solid fuels, together with the labor +cost of handling them, forms a considerable part of the cost of +production. Where coal is required to be hauled in carts from the +wharves, or from a line of railway to the brick yard, located a mile, +more or less, from the places where the coal is received, the cost of +handling, haulage, and waste is an important item. Added to these +costs, the deterioration of soft coal under atmospheric influences and +the waste from imperfect combustion and from the particles which fall +from the grate bars into the ash pits, all eat a large hole in the +brickmakers' profit. + +Mr. D.V. Purington, of Chicago, Ill., in speaking on this subject, +says: + + "I will say that my fuel bill for oil is cheaper than it would + cost me for coal. There is a very wide difference in the cost + of unloading, hauling away ashes and cinders, and getting my + coal around to the kiln, or boilers, or drier, or wherever I + use it, and I get very much better results by being able to + put the heat from oil fuel just where I want it." + +In order to secure the best results with any fuel it is not only +necessary that a cheap fuel should be used, but that it should be +always obtainable, and that all of it should be burned and turned to +commercial account in the operations of brick manufacture. + +Owing to the losses which we have previously mentioned, and resulting +from the use of coal, this fuel is destined to be superseded by some +form of fuel which will avoid such losses, and which will dispense +with all of the inconveniences now encountered in the handling of coal +and of the ashes resulting from combustion. Wood is rapidly becoming +too scarce and high near the great centers of man's habitation to be +regarded in the present discussion. + +Fully two hundred million of brick a year are being burned in the city +of Chicago with crude oil fuel, and a clamp kiln containing one +million brick can be burned with crude oil in Chicago at a labor cost +of less than $100, and at a total cost for labor and oil of about 40c. +per thousand brick. + +There are not, however, many places in the world where brick can be +burned with oil at such a low cost as in the city of Chicago; the +reason being that oil is not everywhere obtainable so cheaply as in +this city, and because few clays in the world are so easily burned +into brick as are the clays of Chicago. In Milwaukee, Wis., and in +other places within a distance of 100 miles from Chicago, the time +required to burn building brick with crude oil fuel averages from +sixteen to twenty-one days, whereas the time of burning the Chicago +clays averages only about five days, and splendid "burns" have been +secured there with crude oil in three and one-half days. It is +evident, therefore, that the advantages of using crude oil fuel for +the burning of brick will vary in different parts of the United +States. + +Where circumstances and the nature of the clay permit of its use, +crude oil is, next to fuel gas, the brickmakers' ideal fuel.--_The +Brickmaker_. + + * * * * * + + + + +INVESTIGATION OF A MOUND NEAR JEFFERSON CITY, MO. + +By A.S. LOGAN. + + +Recently, a party consisting of engineers and employes of the Missouri +River Improvement Commission began an exploration of one of the +mounds, a work of a prehistoric race, situated on the bluff, which +overlooks the Missouri River from an elevation of one hundred and +fifty feet, located about six miles below Jefferson City. + +This mound is one of about twenty embraced in a circle one quarter of +a mile in diameter. + +The above party selected the mound in question apparently at +haphazard; all the mounds presenting nearly a uniform outline, +differing only in size and mostly circular in form, and from twenty to +twenty-four feet at the base, rising to a height of eight feet and +under. A trench was cut on a level with the natural soil, penetrating +the mound about eight feet. A stone wall was encountered which was +built very substantially, making access in that direction difficult, +in consequence of which the earth was removed from the top for the +purpose of entering from that direction. The earth was removed for a +depth of four feet, when the top of the wall was exposed. Further +excavation brought to light human bones, some of them fairly well +preserved, especially the bones of the legs. On the removal of these +and a layer of clay, another layer of bones was exposed, but +presenting a different appearance than the first, having evidently +been burned or charred, a considerable quantity of charcoal being +mixed with the bones. In this tier were found portions of several +skulls, lying close together, as if they had been interred without +regard to order. They were, in all probability, detached from the body +when buried. + +The portions of the skulls found were those of the back of the head, +no frontal bones being discovered. Some jaw bones with the teeth +attached were among the remains, but only that portion of the jaw +containing the molar teeth. + +A few pieces of flint weapons were found in the upper layers, and +nothing else of any significance. + +At this juncture the diggers abandoned the search, and some days later +the writer, desirous of seeing all that was to be seen, resumed the +work and removed the earth and remains until the bottom of the vault +was reached; several layers being thus removed. All of these had +evidently been burned, as charcoal and ashes were mixed with the bones +of each succeeding layer. The layers were about an inch in thickness, +with from two to four inches of earth between, and small flat stones, +about the size of a man's hand, spread on each different layer, as if +to mark its division from the next above. + +Between the bottom layers, mixed with charcoal, ashes and small +portions of burned bones were found what gives value to the search, +numbering about fifty tools and a smoking pipe. + +The material of the tools is the same as the rock forming the vault, +locally known as "cotton rock." I would consider it a species of +sandstone. + +Overlying the edge of "cotton rock" in the bluff is flint in great +quantities, and in every conceivable shape, that these people could +have resorted to had they been so disposed, and why they used the +softer material I will leave to some archæologist to determine. The +tools themselves are made after no pattern, but selected for their +cutting qualities, as they all have a more or less keen edge which +could be used for cutting purposes, and were no doubt highly prized, +as they were found all in a pile in one corner of the vault and on top +of which was found a stone pipe. The pipe is made bowl and stem +together, and it is curious that people of such crude ideas of tools +and weapons should manufacture such a perfect specimen of a pipe. It +is composed of a very heavy stone, the nature of which would be +difficult to determine, as it is considerably burned. + +A description of the vault will be found interesting to many. The wall +of the vault rests upon the natural surface of the ground, about three +feet high and eight and a half feet square, the inside corners being +slightly rounded; it is built in layers about four inches in thickness +and varying in length upward to three feet, neither cement nor mortar +being used in the joints; the corners formed a sort of recess as they +were drawn inward to the top, in which many of the stones were found. +The stone for constructing the vault was brought from a distance of +about a quarter of a mile, as there is none in sight nearer. + +I assume from all these circumstances that these people lived in this +neighborhood anterior to the age of flint tools, as the more recent +interments indicate that they were then entering upon the flint +industry, and it may be that the "cotton rock" had become obsolete. + +These people buried their dead on the highest ground, covering and +protecting them with these great mounds, when it would seem much +easier to bury as at the present day; but instead, they, with great +labor, carried the rock from a great distance, and it is reasonable to +suppose, also, that the earth was brought from a distance with which +they are surrounded, and piled high above, as there is no trace of an +immediate or local excavation. + +In my view from the mounds and their surroundings I would +unhesitatingly say the water, the foot hills of the glacier and the +swamps left in its wake were but a short distance to the north of +them, and during the summer months the melting ice would send a volume +of water down this valley that the Missouri River of to-day is but a +miniature of, and therefore the highest hills were the only land that +could be used by that ancient race. + +In this connection I would make the following suggestions that may +lead to more important disclosures: My object is the hope of a more +thorough investigation at some future time. Nearer to the top of the +mound was found, certainly, the remains of a people of more recent +date than those found in the vault, as their bones were larger, which +would indicate a more stalwart tribe, and also their mode of burial +was different, as there was no indication of fire being used, as was +the case with the lower burials. I would pronounce the upper +interments those of Indians of the present day; the tools found with +these were weapons of the chase. On the other hand, those found in the +vault were of a peaceful character, and their surroundings would +readily comport, in my opinion, to the glacial period. The entire +absence of flint in the bottom of the mound would show one of two +things, either they were unacquainted with the use of flint or at that +time there was no flint to be had. It is there now in great abundance, +in such forms for cutting purposes that would render the "cotton rock" +almost useless. The flint is found in a hill close to the river bank, +about half a mile from the mound, and the upper portion of the ledge +has the appearance, to me, of glacial action and probably forms a +moraine, as it has, evidently, been pushed over the underlying ledge, +and been ground and splintered in a manner that could not have been +without great crushing force. It would be reasonable enough to suppose +that the action of the river may have uncovered this flint by washing +away the softer material since the occupation of the older race. + +In relation to the Indian interment in the examined mound, I could not +say distinctly whether the Indian burials had been such as to make +them aware of former burials or not, but I think from the thickness of +the clay between the two that they were ignorant of former burials. +The mounds of the modern Indian, so far as my investigations are +concerned, would indicate a more rudely formed structure which would +appear to be an imitation of the older mounds, as they are not +finished with like care nor have they the ulterior structures.--_The +Scientist_. + + * * * * * + + + + +ACTION OF CAUSTIC SODA ON WOOD. + +By M.H. TAUSS. + + +The researches of the author upon the action which water exerts upon +wood at a high temperature have shown how much of the incrusting +material can be removed without the aid of any reagent. + +In connection with the manufacture of cellulose, it is also +interesting to prosecute at the same time experiments with solutions +of the caustic alkalies, in order to study the mode of action upon +both wood and pure cellulose. The manufacture of cellulose has for +many years been an industry, and yet little or nothing from a chemical +point of view is known of the action of caustic soda upon vegetable +fibers. + +Braconnot, in 1820, obtained alumina by treating wood with an alkali, +but the first application of wood to the manufacture of paper was due +to Chauchard. By boiling vegetable fibers with caustic lyes, Collier +and Piette obtained cellulose. Again, in 1862, Barne and Blondel +proposed to make cellulose in a similar way, but employed nitric acid +in the place of soda. + +The first cellulose made exclusively from wood and caustic soda was +produced at the Manayunk Wood Pulp Works, in 1854, in the neighborhood +of Philadelphia, by Burgess & Watt. The operation consisted in +treating the wood for six hours at a pressure of from six to eight +atmospheres, with a solution of caustic soda of 12° B. + +Ungerer noticed that it was sufficient to limit the pressure from +three to six atmospheres, according to the quality of the wood, and +advised the use of solutions containing four to five per cent. of +caustic soda. He employed a series of cylinders, arranged vertically, +in which the wood was subjected to a methodical system of lixiviation. +The same lye passed through many cylinders, so that when it made its +exit at the end it was thoroughly exhausted, and the wood thus kept +coming in contact with fresh alkaline solutions. + +According to the account of Kiclaner, the disintegration of wood may +be effected in the following four ways: + + 1. By heating direct in boilers at a pressure of 10 + atmospheres. (See Dresel and Rosehain.) + + 2. In vertical boilers heated direct or by steam, and kept at + a pressure of from 10 to 14 atmospheres. (Sinclair, Nicol, and + Behrend.) + + 3. In revolving boilers, maintained at a pressure of 12 + atmospheres by direct steam. + + 4. By means of a series of small vessels communicating with + each other, and through which a lye circulates at a pressure + of six atmospheres. (Ungerer.) + +This latter process is preferable to the others. + +Researches have also been made by the author in order to ascertain the +loss which wood and cellulose suffer at different temperatures or in +contact with varying quantities of alkali (NaHO). + +The following is a _resumé_ of the experiments, giving the loss in per +cent. resulting from a "cooking" of three hours duration: + + I. Ordinary pressure: + 10 grms. cellulose, with 580 c.c. of caustic + soda solution, sp. gr. 1.09 21.99 + 10 grms. of soft wood, treated as above 49.19 + 10 " hard " " " 53.68 + + II. Pressure of five atmospheres: + 10 grms. cellulose, with 500 c.c. caustic soda + solution of sp. gr. 1.099 58.02 + 10 grms. of soft wood, treated as above 75.85 + 10 " hard " " " 69.80 + + III. Pressure of ten atmospheres: + 10 grms. of cellulose 58.99 + 10 " soft wood 81.80 + 10 " hard " 70.39 + + IV. Ordinary pressure: + 10 grms. of cellulose, with 500 c.c. caustic + soda solution of sp. gr. 1.162 21.88 + 10 grms. of soft wood 35.45 + 10 " hard " 46.43 + + V. Pressure of five atmospheres: + 10 grms. of cellulose, with 500 c.c. caustic + soda solution of sp. gr. 1.162 77.33 + 10 grms. of soft wood 97.13 + 10 " hard " 91.48 + + VI. Ordinary pressure: + 10 grms. of cellulose, with 500 c.c. caustic + soda solution of sp. gr. 1.043 12.07 + 10 grms. of soft wood 28.37 + 10 " hard " 30.25 + + VII. Pressure of five atmospheres: + 10 grms. of cellulose, with 500 c.c. of caustic + soda solution of sp. gr. 1.043 15.36 + 10 grms. of soft wood 50.96 + 10 " hard " 55.66 + + VIII. Pressure of ten atmospheres: + 10 grms. of cellulose, with 200 c.c. caustic + soda solution of sp. gr. 1.043 20.28 + 10 grms. of soft wood 70.31 + 10 " hard " 65.59 + +From this it is evident that by increasing the temperature and +pressure the solvent action of the alkali is increased, but the +strength of the lye exercises an influence which is even more marked. +Thus, at a pressure of five atmospheres, the loss of cellulose was +0.75 with a caustic lye containing 14 per cent. of NaHO, while it was +only 0.05 with a lye of 8 per cent. NaHO. + +To further elucidate the action of the alkali under the conditions +given above, the author has estimated the amount of precipitate which +alcohol gives with the soda solutions, after boiling with the wood: + + 1. 2. 3. + Specific gravity of NaHO solutions 1.043 1.09 1.162 + Soft wood, ordinary pressure 1.043 traces 4.8 + " pressure of five atmospheres 1.043 2.0 26.8 + " " ten " 1.043 1.7 -- + Hard wood, ordinary pressure 11.10 27.40 30.80 + " pressure of five atmospheres 1.10 25.70 15.8 + " " ten " traces 5.20 15.8 + +The estimation of the precipitate, produced in the soda solutions +employed in the experiments cited above, gives: + + Soft wood, ordinary pressure 1.31 traces 2.0 + " pressure of five atmospheres 15.94 16.0 24.80 + " " ten " 17.00 25.4 -- + Hard wood, ordinary pressure 5.40 6 5.60 + " pressure of five atmospheres 9.40 15.40 33.60 + " " ten " 14.00 18.40 33.60 + +As a general rule manufacturers employ a greater pressure than that +which was found necessary by the author. As a result, it appears from +these experiments that the wood not only loses incrusting matter, but +that part of the cellulose enters into solution. As a matter of fact, +the yield obtained in practical working from 100 parts of wood does +not exceed 30 to 35 per cent.--_Le Bull. Fab. Pap.; Chemical Trade +Journal._ + + * * * * * + + + + +NEW BORON COMPOUNDS. + + +An important paper is contributed by M. Moissan to the current number +of the _Comptes Rendus_, describing two interesting new compounds +containing boron, phosphorus, and iodine. A few months ago M. Moissan +succeeded in preparing the iodide of boron, a beautiful substance of +the composition BI_{3}, crystallizing from solution in carbon bisulphide +in pearly tables, which melt at 43° to a liquid which boils +undecomposed at 210°. When this substance is brought in contact with +fused phosphorus an intense action occurs, the whole mass inflames +with evolution of violet vapor of iodine. Red phosphorus also reacts +with incandescence when heated in the vapor of boron iodide. The +reaction may, however, be moderated by employing solutions of +phosphorus and boron iodide in dry carbon bisulphide. The two +solutions are mixed in a tube closed at one end, a little phosphorus +being in excess, and the tube is then sealed. No external application +of heat is necessary. At first the liquid is quite clear, but in a few +minutes a brown solid substance commences to separate, and in three +hours the reaction is complete. The substance is freed from carbon +bisulphide in a current of carbon dioxide, the last traces being +removed by means of the Sprengel pump. The compound thus obtained is a +deep red amorphous powder, readily capable of volatilization. It melts +between 190° and 200°. When heated _in vacuo_ it commences to +volatilize about 170°, and the vapor condenses in the cooler portion +of the tube in beautiful red crystals. Analyses of these crystals +agree perfectly with the formula BPI_{2}. Boron phospho-di-iodide is a +very hygroscopic substance, moisture rapidly decomposing it. In +contact with a large excess of water, yellow phosphorus is deposited, +and hydriodic, boric, and phosphorus acids formed in the solution. A +small quantity of phosphureted hydrogen also escapes. If a small +quantity of water is used, a larger deposit of yellow phosphorus is +formed, together with a considerable quantity of phosphonium iodide. +Strong nitric acid oxidizes boron phospho-di-iodide with +incandescence. Dilute nitric acid oxidizes it to phosphoric and boric +acids. It burns spontaneously in chlorine, forming boron chloride, +chloride of iodine, and pentachloride of phosphorus. When slightly +warmed in oxygen it inflames, the combustion being rendered very +beautiful by the fumes of boric and phosphoric anhydrides and the +violet vapors of iodine. Heated in contact with sulphureted hydrogen, +it forms sulphides of boron and phosphorus and hydriodic acid, without +liberation of iodine. Metallic magnesium when slightly warmed reacts +with it with incandescence. When thrown into vapor of mercury, boron +phospho-di-iodide instantly takes fire. + +The second phospho-iodide of boron obtained by M. Moissan is +represented by the formula BPI. It is formed when sodium or magnesium +in a fine state of division is allowed to act upon a solution of the +di-iodide just described in carbon bisulphide; or when boron +phospho-di-iodide is heated to 160° in a current of hydrogen. It is +obtained in the form of a bright red powder, somewhat hygroscopic. It +volatilizes _in vacuo_ without fusion at a temperature about 210°, and +the vapor condenses in the cooler portion of the tube in beautiful +orange colored crystals. When heated to low redness it decomposes into +free iodine and phosphide of boron, BP. Nitric acid reacts +energetically with it, but without incandescence, and a certain amount +of iodine is liberated. Sulphuric acid decomposes it upon warming, +without formation of sulphurous and boric acids and free iodine. By +the continued action of dry hydrogen upon the heated compound the +iodine and a portion of the phosphorus are removed, and a new phosphide +of boron, of the composition B_{5}P_{3}, is obtained.--_Nature_. + + * * * * * + + + + +BORON SALTS. + + +A paper upon the sulphides of boron is communicated by M. Paul +Sabatier to the September number of the _Bulletin de la Societe +Chimique. Nature_ gives the following: Hitherto only one compound of +boron with sulphur has been known to us, the trisulphide, B_{2}S_{3}, +and concerning even that our information has been of the most +incomplete description. Berzelius obtained this substance in an impure +form by heating boron in sulphur vapor, but the first practical mode +of its preparation in a state of tolerable purity was that employed by +Wohler and Deville. These chemists prepared it by allowing dry +sulphureted hydrogen gas to stream over amorphous boron heated to +redness. Subsequently a method of obtaining boron sulphide was +proposed by Fremy, according to which a mixture of boron trioxide, +soot, and oil is heated in a stream of the vapor of carbon bisulphide. +M. Sabatier finds that the best results are obtained by employing the +method of Wohler and Deville. The reaction between boron and +sulphureted hydrogen only commences at red heat, near the temperature +of the softening of glass. When, however, the tube containing the +boron becomes raised to the temperature, boron sulphide condenses in +the portion of the tube adjacent to the heated portion; at first it is +deposited in a state of fusion, and the globules on cooling present an +opaline aspect. Further along the tube it is slowly deposited in a +porcelain like form, while further still the sublimate of sulphide +takes the form of brilliant acicular crystals. The crystals consist of +pure B_{2}S_{3}; the vitreous modification, however, is usually +contaminated with a little free sulphur. Very fine crystals of the +trisulphide may be obtained by heating a quantity of the +porcelain-like form to 300° at the bottom of a closed tube whose upper +portion is cooled by water. The crystals are violently decomposed by +water, yielding a clear solution of boric acid, sulphureted hydrogen +being evolved. On examining the porcelain boat in which the boron had +been placed, a non-volatile black substance is found, which appears to +consist of a lower sulphide of the composition B_{4}S. The same +substance is obtained when the trisulphide is heated in a current of +hydrogen; a portion volatilizes, and is deposited again further along +the tube, while the residue fuses, and becomes reduced to the +unalterable subsulphide B_{4}S, sulphureted hydrogen passing away in +the stream of gas. + +Two selenides of boron, B_{2}Se_{3} and B_{4}Se, corresponding to the +above described sulphides, have also been prepared by M. Sabatier, by +heating amorphous boron in a stream of hydrogen selenide, H_{2}Se. The +triselenide is less volatile than the trisulphide, and is pale green +in color. It is energetically decomposed by water, with formation of +boric acid and liberation of hydrogen selenide. The liquid rapidly +deposits free selenium, owing to the oxidation of the hydrogen +selenide retained in solution. Light appears to decompose the +triselenide into free selenium and the subselenide B_{4}Se. + +Silicon selenide, SiSe_{3}, has likewise been obtained by M. Sabatier +by heating crystalline silicon to redness in a current of hydrogen +selenide. It presents the appearance of a fused hard metallic mass +incapable of volatilization. Water reacts most vigorously with it, +producing silicic acid, and liberating hydrogen selenide. Potash +decomposes it with formation of a clear solution, the silica being +liberated in a form in which it is readily dissolved by alkalies. +Silicon selenide emits a very irritating odor, due to the hydrogen +selenide which is formed by its reaction with the moisture of the +atmosphere. When heated to redness in the air it becomes converted +into silicon dioxide and free selenium. + + * * * * * + + + + +NATURAL SULPHIDE OF GOLD. + +By T.W.T. ATHERTON. + + +The existence of gold in the form of a natural sulphide in conjunction +with pyrites has often been advanced theoretically as a possible +occurrence, but up to the present time this occurrence has, I believe, +never been established as an actual fact. + +During my investigations on the ore of the Deep Creek Mines, I have +found in them what I believe to be gold existing as a natural +sulphide. The description of this ore will, no doubt, be of interest +to your readers. + +The lode is a large irregular one of pure arsenical pyrites, existing +in a felsite dike near the sea coast. Surrounding it on all sides are +micaceous schists, and in the neighborhood is a large hill of granite +about 800 ft. high. In the lode and the rock immediately adjoining it +are large quantities of pyrophylite, and in some places of the mine +are deposits of this pure white, translucent mineral, but in the ore +itself it is a yellow and pale olive green color, and is never absent +from the pyrites. + +From the first I was much struck with the exceedingly fine state of +division in which the gold existed in the ore. After roasting and very +carefully grinding down in an agate mortar, I have never been able to +get any pieces of gold exceeding the one-thousandth of an inch in +diameter, and the greater quantity is very much finer than this. +Careful dissolving of the pyrites and gangue, so as to leave the gold +intact, failed to find it in any larger diameter. As this was a very +unusual experience in investigations on many other kinds of pyrites, I +was led further into the matter. Ultimately, after a number of +experiments, there was nothing left but to test for gold as a +sulphide. + +Taking 200 grammes of pyrites from a sample assaying 17 ounces fine +gold per ton, grinding it finely, and; heating for some hours with a +solution of sodium sulphide (Na_{2}S_{2}), on decomposing the filtrate +and treating it for gold I got a result at the rate of 12 ounces gold +per ton. This was repeated several times with the same result. + +This sample came from the lode at the 140 ft. level, while samples +from the higher levels where the ore is more oxidized, although +carrying the gold in the same degree of fineness, do not give as high +a percentage of auric sulphide. + +It would appear that all the gold in the pyrites (and I have never +found any apart from it) has originally taken its place there as a +sulphide. + +The sulphide is an analysis of a general sample of the ore: + + Silica 13.940 p.c. + Alumina 6.592 " + Lime 0.9025 " + Sulphur 16.584 " + Arsenic 33.267 " + Iron 27.720 " + Cobalt 0.964 " + + Per Ton. + Nickel Traces. + Gold 5 ozs. 3 dwts. 8 grs. + Silver 0 " 16 " 0 " + ------- + 99.969 + +Nambucca Head's Gold Mining Company, Deep Creek, N.S. Wales, Oct. 9, +1891.--_Chemical News_. + + * * * * * + + + + +SOME MEANS OF PURIFYING WATER. + + +There are several methods extant for the purpose of purifying and +softening water, and in the following brief account some of the chief +features of these methods are summarized. The Slack and Brownlow +apparatus we will deal with first. This purifier is one which is +intended to remove the matter in suspension in the water to be treated +by subsidence and not by filtration. The apparatus consists of a +vertical iron tank or cylinder, inside which are a series of plates +arranged in a spiral direction around a fixed center, and sloping at +an angle of 45° on both sides outward. The water to be dealt with +flows through a large inlet tube fixed to the bottom of the cylinder, +rises to the top by passing spirally round the whole circumference, +and depositing on the plates or shelves all solids and impurities at +the outer edges of the plates. Mud cocks are placed to remove the +solids deposited during the flow of the water upward to the outlet +pipe, placed close to the top of the cylinder. One of these tanks, a +square one, is at work purifying the Medlock water at Manchester, and +on drawing samples of water from nearly every plate, that from the +lower mud cock showed considerable deposit, which decreased in bulk +until the top mud cock was reached, when the water was quite free from +deposit. It is stated that one man would be sufficient to attend to 20 +of these purifiers. + +To filter or purify 2,000,000 gallons per 24 hours would require 40 +tanks, 10 ft. by 7 ft. diameter, each doing 2,000 gallons per hour, +and would cost, with their fittings, £6,400, including all patent +rights, but exclusive of lime mixing tanks, agitators, lime water and +softening tanks, engine and boiler, and suitable buildings, the cost +of which would not be far short of £5,000, or a total of £11,400 to +soften 2,000,000 gallons per 24 hours. The labor and other working +expenses in connection with this plant would not be less than that +necessary to work the Porter-Clark process, which is given as O.55d. +per 1,000 gallons. + +The Brock and Minton filter press system is another method. This +patent press is made of steel, perforated with ½ inch holes. On the +inside of the shell there is first laid a layer of fine wire netting, +then a layer of cloth, and lastly another layer of wire netting of a +larger mesh than the other. The matter treated is pumped into the body +of the cylinder, the liquid passing through the filtering material to +the outside, the solids being retained inside, and are got rid of by +partially revolving the upper half to relieve it from the knuckle +joint, and, after being raised, the lower half is turned over by +machinery, and the solid matter is simply allowed to fall out into +wagons or trucks run underneath for that purpose. Such, in brief, is +the manner of using this filter press for chemical works' purposes. +The cost of each filter press, including royalties, is from £250 to +£300, the size being 8 ft. by 4 ft. diameter. Having a filtering area +of 100 square feet, it would require 32 of these applied to softening +water to effectually deal with 2,000,000 gallons per 24 hours; this, +at the lowest estimate for filters alone, would be £8,000, and, using +the same figures, £5,000 for lime mixing tanks, etc., as referred to +in the "Slack and Brownlow" purifier, would bring the total cost up to +£13,000, and the working expense would not be less than that required +to work the Porter-Clark process, and would probably be very much +greater. This filter press is not in use anywhere for dealing with +large quantities of water in connection with a town water supply. + +A process which has been working for a long time at Southampton is the +Atkins system, which also includes the use of filter presses. The +pumping station and softening works are situated at Otterbourne, eight +miles from Southampton, and were built together as one scheme. The +mixing room has two slaking lime tanks, with agitators driven by steam +power. The mixture is then run as cream of lime into a tank 20 ft. +square and is then pumped into the lower ends of two lime water +producing cylinders. The agitation is here obtained by pressure from a +small cistern placed above them with a 12 ft. head, the pipe from +which is attached to the lower ends of the cylinders. This has been +found by experiment to be the most satisfactory means of obtaining the +proper degree of agitation necessary; the clear lime water is then +drawn off at the top of the cylinders, and flows by gravity into a +mixer, where it comes in contact with the hard water. Both flow +together into a distributing trough, from which it overflows into a +small softening reservoir, having a capacity of one hour's supply, a +weir being placed along the lower end, over which the water flows to +13 filter presses. The clear water from the filters is then conveyed +to a small well, from which the permanent engines raise it to the +first of a series of high level covered service reservoirs. + +In the filter press there are 20 hollow disks representing a filtering +area of 250 square feet, or a total of 3,250 square feet. The water to +be filtered passes into the body of the filter and then through a +filtering medium of cloth laid on a thin perforated zinc plate, into +the inner side of the disks, from whence it is conveyed through the +hollow shaft, to which the disks are attached, to the high level +pumps. + +The filter cloths are cleaned three times every 24 hours, without +removal, by jets of softened water from the main, having a pressure of +60 pounds to the square inch. During cleaning operations the disks are +made to revolve slowly; this only occupies a space of five minutes for +each cleaning. The cloths last from six to eight months without being +renewed. They also occasionally use for further cleaning the cloths a +jet of steam injected upon the center of the disks in order to remove +by partial boiling the insoluble particles engrained in the cloths. +This has been found to make the cloths last longer. This cloth is +obtained from Porritt Bros. and Austen, Stubbing Vale, Ramsbottom, and +costs 13½d. per lineal yard of a width to suit the disks. + +The quantity softened is 2¼ million gallons per 24 hours, but the +present plant can deal with 2½ million gallons, and the buildings are +erected for 3½ million gallons, additional filters and lime producing +tanks being only required to deal with the increased quantity. The +costs of the softening works was £10,394, of which £7,844 was for the +softening machinery and plant and £2,550 for the reservoir, buildings, +etc. + +The working expenses, including lime, labor, cloths, general repairs, +and steam, is stated to be 0.225d. per 1,000 gallons, the labor +required being only two men, one on the day and the other on the night +shift, with an occasional man to assist. + +The hardness of the Southampton water on Clark's scale is 18° of total +hardness, and this is reduced down to 6° or 8° by this process.--_Chem. +Tr. Jour._ + + * * * * * + + + + +A NEW LABORATORY PROCESS FOR PREPARING HYDROBROMIC ACID. + +By G.S. NEWTH. + + +This method is a synthetical one, and consists in passing a stream of +hydrogen and bromine vapor over a spiral of platinum wire heated to +bright redness by means of an electric current. A glass tube, about 7 +inches long and 5/8 of an inch bore, is fitted at each end with a cork +carrying a short straight piece of small tube; through each cork is +also fixed a stout wire, and these two wires are joined by means of a +short spiral of platinum wire, the spiral being about 1 inch long. One +end of this apparatus is connected to a small wash bottle containing +bromine, through which a stream of hydrogen can be bubbled. The other +end is attached to a tube dipping into a vessel of water for the +absorption of the gas, or, if a large quantity of the solution is +required, to a series of Woulf's bottles containing water. Hydrogen is +first slowly passed through the tube until the air is displaced, when +the platinum spiral is heated to bright redness by the passage of a +suitable electric current. Complete combination takes place in contact +with the hot wire, and the color imparted to the ingoing gases by the +bromine vapor is entirely removed, and the contents of the tube beyond +the platinum are perfectly colorless. The vessel containing the +bromine may be heated to a temperature of about 60° C. in a water +bath, at which temperature the hydrogen will be mixed with nearly the +requisite amount of bromine to combine with the whole of it. So long +as even a slight excess of hydrogen is passing, which is readily seen +by the escape of bubbles through the water in the absorbing vessels, +the issuing hydrobromic acid will remain perfectly colorless, and +therefore free from bromine; so that it is not necessary to adopt any +of the usual methods for scrubbing the gas through vessels containing +phosphorus. When the operation is proceeding very rapidly a lambent +flame occasionally appears in the tube just before the platinum wire, +but this flame is never propagated back through the narrow tube into +the bromine bottle. The precaution may be taken, however, of plugging +this narrow tube with a little glass wool, which renders any +inconvenience from this cause quite impossible. By this method a large +quantity of bromine may be rapidly converted into hydrobromic acid +without any loss of bromine, and the operation when once started can +be allowed to proceed without any further attention.--_Chemical News._ + + * * * * * + + + + +SAPOTIN: A NEW GLUCOSIDE. + +By GUSTAVE MICHAUD. + + +_Achras Sapota, L._, is a large tree scattered through the forests of +Central America and the West Indies; its fruit is often seen upon the +Creole dinner table. This fruit is a berry, the size of an orange, the +taste of which suggests the flavor of melon, as well as that of +hydrocyanic acid. The fruit contains one or two seeds like large +chestnuts, which, if broken, let fall a white almond. This last +contains the glucoside which I call _sapotin_. + +I obtained sapotin for the first time by heating dry raspings of the +almond with 90 per cent. alcohol. While cooling, the filtered liquid +deposited a good deal of the compound. Since that time I have +advantageously modified the process and increased the amount of +product. I prepare sapotin in the following way: The almonds are +rasped, dried at 100° C. and washed with benzene, which takes away an +enormous quantity of fatty matter. The benzene which remains in the +almond is driven put first by compression, afterward by heating. Then +the raspings are exhausted with boiling 90 per cent. alcohol. The +solution is filtered as rapidly as possible, in order to avoid its +cooling and depositing the sapotin in the filter. As soon as the +temperature of the filtered liquid begins to fall, a voluminous +precipitate is seen to form, which is the sapotin. + +In order to purify it, the precipitate is collected in a filter and +expressed between sheets of filter paper. When dry it is washed with +ether, which takes away the last particles of fatty and resinous +matter. The purification is completed by two crystallizations from 90 +per cent. alcohol. At last the substance is dried at 100°. + +The sapotin separates from its alcohol solution in the form of +microscopic crystals. When dry, it is a white, inodorous powder. Its +taste is extremely acrid and burning. If the powder penetrate into the +nostrils or the eyes, it produces a persistent burning sensation which +brings about sneezing and flow of tears. It melts at 240° C., growing +brown at the same time. + +It has a laevo-rotatory power of [a]_{j} = -32.11, which was +determined with an alcoholic solution, the aqueous solution not being +sufficiently transparent. + +It is very soluble in water, easily soluble in boiling alcohol, much +less in cold alcohol, and insoluble in ether, chloroform and benzene. +Its alcoholic solution is precipitated by ether. + +Tannin has no action on it, but basic acetate of lead produces a +gelatinous precipitate in its aqueous solution. Strange enough, this +precipitate is entirely soluble in a small excess of basic acetate of +lead. If thrown into concentrated sulphuric acid, sapotin colors it +with a garnet red tint. It does not reduce Fehling's solution. Its +analysis gave the following results: + + Calculated for Found. + C_{29}H_{52}O_{20}. I. II. + + C 48.33 48.69 48.31 + H 7.23 7.33 7.45 + +When heated with water and a little sulphuric acid, sapotin is +decomposed and yields glucose and an insoluble matter which I call +_sapotiretin_. One hundred parts of sapotin produce 51.58 parts of +glucose and 49.67 of sapotiretin. The equation which represents this +reaction is: + +C_{29}H_{52}O_{20} + 2H_{2}O = 2C_{6}H_{12}O_{6} + C_{17}H_{32}O_{10} + +and requires 50 per cent. of glucose and 55 per cent. of sapotiretin. + +Sapotiretin is an amorphous compound, insoluble in water, very soluble +in alcohol, less soluble in chloroform, insoluble in ether. Below is +the result of its analysis: + + Calculated for Found. + C_{17}H_{32}O_{10}. I. II. + + C 51.52 51.51 51.20 + H 8.08 8.19 8.34 + +--_Amer. Chem. Jour._ + + * * * * * + + + + +DETECTION OF PEANUT OIL IN OLIVE OIL. + + +Holde, after a careful trial of the various processes for detecting +the above adulteration, gives the preference to Renard's, which he +describes as follows: + +Ten grms. of the suspected oil, after being saponified, and the fatty +acids separated by hydrochloric acid, are dissolved in 90 per cent. +alcohol, and precipitated by sugar of lead. The oleate of lead is +separated by ether, and the residuum, consisting of palmitic and +arachic acids, is decomposed by hydrochloric acid. The fatty acids are +dissolved, with the aid of heat, in 50 c.c. of 90 per cent. alcohol. +The arachic acid which separates after cooling is filtered out and +washed, first with 90 per cent. and afterward with 70 per cent. +alcohol. It is then dissolved in hot alcohol, and the solution +evaporated in a weighed saucer. The weight of the residuum, after +taking into account the acid dissolved in the alcohol, equals the +whole amount of arachic acid contained in the oil; the melting point +of this residuum should be 70° to 71° C. With this process the author +has always been successful; but when the olive oil contains not more +than 5 to 10 per cent. of peanut oil, it is necessary to make the test +with 40 grms. of the former, otherwise the melting point of the +arachic acid cannot be estimated. Furthermore, the acids which are +separated from the lead salt by hydrochloric acid must be +recrystallized repeatedly with 90 per cent. alcohol, until the melting +point ceases to rise, in case the latter is not found to exceed 70° C. +at the first estimation. When peanut oil is present, the melting point +will always be above 70°.--_Chem. Zeit._ + + * * * * * + + + + +HYDROXYLAMINE. + + +Free hydroxylamine, NH_{2}OH, has been isolated by M. Lobry de Bruyn, +and a preliminary account of its mode of preparation and properties is +published by him in the current number of the _Recueil des travaux +chimiques des Pays-Bas_ (1891, 10, 101). The manner in which the free +base was obtained was briefly as follows. About a hundred grammes of +hydroxylamine hydrochloride, NH_{2}OH.HCl, were dissolved in six +hundred cubic centimeters of warm methyl alcohol. To this solution a +quantity of sodium dissolved in methyl alcohol was added, in such +proportion that the hydrochloride of hydroxylamine was present in +slight excess over and above that required to convert it to sodium +chloride. After deposition of the separated sodium chloride the +solution was decanted and filtered. + +The greater portion of the methyl alcohol was next removed by +distillation under the reduced pressure of 160-200 mm. The remainder +was then treated with anhydrous ether, in order to completely +precipitate the last traces of dissolved sodium chloride. The liquid +eventually separated into two layers, an upper ethereal layer +containing about 5 per cent. of hydroxylamine, and a lower layer +containing over 50 per cent. of hydroxylamine, the remainder of the +methyl alcohol, and a little dissolved salt. By subjecting this lower +layer to fractional distillation under 60 mm. pressure, it was +separated into three fractions, of which the first contained 27 per +cent. of hydroxylamine, the second 60 per cent., and the third +crystallized in the ice-cooled receiver in long needles. This third +fraction consisted of free solid NH_{2}OH. Hydroxylamine as thus +isolated in the free state is a very hygroscopic substance, which +rapidly liquefies when exposed to air, owing to the absorption of +water. + +The crystals melt at 33°, and the fused substance appears to possess +the capability of readily dissolving metallic salts. Sodium chloride +is very largely soluble in the liquid; powdered niter melts at once in +contact with it, and the two liquids then mix. Free hydroxylamine is +without odor. It is heavier than water. When rapidly heated upon +platinum foil it suddenly decomposes in a most violent manner, with +production of a large sheet of bright yellow flame. It is only very +slightly soluble in liquid carbon compounds, such as chloroform, +benzene, ether, acetic ether, and carbon bisulphide. The vapor attacks +corks, so that the solid requires to be preserved in glass-stoppered +bottles. The free base appears also to act upon cellulose, for, upon +placing a few drops of the melted substance upon filter paper, a +considerable amount of heat is evolved. The pure crystals are very +stable, the base in the free state appearing to possess much greater +stability than when dissolved in water. The instability of the +solution appears, however, to be influenced to a considerable extent +by the alkalinity of the glass of the containing vessel, for +concentrated solutions free from dissolved alkali are found to be +perfectly stable. Bromine and iodine react in a remarkable manner with +free hydroxylamine. + +Crystals of iodine dissolve instantly in contact with it, with +evolution of a gas and considerable rise of temperature. Bromine +reacts with violence, a gas again being explosively evolved and +hydrobromic acid formed. The nature of the gas evolved is now +undergoing investigation. A letter from M. Lobry de Bruyn appears in +the number of the _Chemiker Zeitung_ for October 31, warning those who +may attempt to prepare free hydroxylamine by the above method that it +is a dangerously explosive substance when warmed to a temperature of +80°-100°. Upon warming a flask containing the free solid base upon a +water bath a most violent explosion occurs. A spontaneous +decomposition appears to set in about 80°, and even in open vessels +the explosion is very violent. Care must also be taken during the +fractional distillation of the concentrated solution in methyl alcohol +to cool the apparatus before changing the receiver, as if air is +admitted while the retort is heated the experiment ends with an +explosion.--_Nature_. + + * * * * * + + +THE SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN + +ARCHITECTS AND BUILDERS EDITION + +$2.50 a Year. Single Copies, 25 cts. + +This is a Special Edition of the SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, issued +monthly--on the first day of the month. 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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Scientific American Supplement, No. 841, February 13, 1892 + +Author: Various + +Release Date: February 27, 2005 [EBook #15193] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN *** + + + + +Produced by Juliet Sutherland and the PG Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at www.pgdp.net. + + + + + + +</pre> + +<p class="ctr" style="margin-left: -15%; margin-right:-15%;"><a href="./images/title.png"><img src="./images/title_th.png" alt=""></a></p> +<h1>SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT NO. 841</h1> +<h2>NEW YORK, FEBRUARY 13, 1892</h2> +<h4>Scientific American Supplement. Vol. XXXIII, No. 841.</h4> +<h4>Scientific American established 1845</h4> +<h4>Scientific American Supplement, $5 a year.</h4> +<h4>Scientific American and Supplement, $7 a year.</h4> +<hr /> +<table summary="Contents" border="0" cellspacing="5"> +<tr> +<th colspan="2">TABLE OF CONTENTS.</th> +</tr> +<tr> +<td valign="top">I.</td> +<td><a href="#art01"> +ANTHROPOLOGY.—Investigation of a Mound near Jefferson +City, Mo.—By A.S. LOGAN.—Prehistoric remains from the banks +of the Missouri River +</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td valign="top">II.</td> +<td><a href="#art02"> +BIOLOGY.—New Observations on the Language of Animals.—By +M. DE LACAZE DUTHIERS.—A lengthy examination of some facts +in the language of animals, including birds and quadrupeds +</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td valign="top">III.</td> +<td><a href="#art03"> +BOTANY.—Electricity in Agriculture.—By CLARENCE D. WARNER.—The +effect of currents of electricity upon the germination of +seeds.—Interesting experiments detailed, which can be easily repeated +</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#art04"> +Electricity in Horticulture.—The effect of the electric light on +vegetation, availability it may possess for the gardener +</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#art05"> +Pentapterygium Serpens.—A Himalayan flowering plant introduced +in England about ten years ago.—2 illustrations +</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#art06"> +The Perforation of Flowers.—What insects do to promote the +propagation of plants by perforating the flowers in search of + honey.—16 illustrations +</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td valign="top">IV.</td> +<td><a href="#art07"> +CHEMISTRY.—A New Laboratory Process for Preparing Hydrobromic +Acid.—By G.S. NEWTH.—Simple synthesis of hydrogen +and bromium +</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#art08"> +Boron Salts.—Boron sulphides and selenides and silicon selenide +</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#art09"> +Detection of Peanut Oil in Olive Oil.—A practical laboratory +test for the above adulteration +</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#art10"> +Hydroxylamine.—Recent preparation of this compound and its +properties +</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#art11"> +New Boron Compounds.—Compounds of boron, phosphorus, and +iodine recently prepared by M. MOISSAN +</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#art12"> +Sapotin, a New Glucoside.—By GUSTAVE MICHAUD.—Preparation +of a new glucoside from almonds and other sources +</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td valign="top">V.</td> +<td><a href="#art13"> +CIVIL ENGINEERING.—Completion of the Mersey Tunnel Railway.—The +penetration of the bed of the Mersey River by a tunnel +at the rate of 150 feet per week.—Details of the work +</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td valign="top">VI.</td> +<td><a href="#art14"> +EDUCATIONAL SCIENCE.—Chinese Competitive Examinations.—Interesting +details of the famous examinations of China.—Fatal +consequences to overworked competitors +</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td valign="top">VII.</td> +<td><a href="#art15"> +ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING.—High Speed Engine and Dynamo.—A +high speed compound engine, running at 500 revolutions +per minute, with direct-driven dynamo for electric lighting.—3 +illustrations +</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td valign="top">VIII.</td> +<td><a href="#art16"> +MEDICINE.—The Treatment of Rattlesnake Bite by Permanganate +of Potassium, Based on Nine Successful Cases.—By +AMOS W. BARBER, M.D.—The use of this powerful disinfectant, +and the proper treatment and mode of applying it. +</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td valign="top">IX.</td> +<td><a href="#art17"> +METEOROLOGY.—Modification of Our Climate.—By JOSEPH +WALLACE.—Climate epochs and the probabilities of the present +climatic era.—Changes within the records of man +</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#art18"> +The Eruption of Krakatoa.—A graphic description of this catastrophe, +involving the lives of 35,000 people +</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td valign="top">X.</td> +<td><a href="#art19"> +MILITARY ENGINEERING.—The Military Engineer and His +Work.—By Col. W.R. KING.—A Sibley College lecture, treating +of the special problems In fortifications, sieges, and the more +pacific work of surveys and explorations +</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td valign="top">XI.</td> +<td><a href="#art20"> +MINERALOGY.—Natural Sulphide of Gold.—By T.W.T. +ATHERTON.—A probable new occurrence of gold +</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td valign="top">XII.</td> +<td><a href="#art21"> +NATURAL HISTORY.—The Living Jerboa in the Zoological +Garden of Berlin.—A rare rodent from South Africa, one seldom +seen alive in captivity.—5 illustrations +</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td valign="top">XIII.</td> +<td><a href="#art22"> +NAVAL ENGINEERING.—Twenty-four Knot Steamers.—The +possibility of fast ships for long voyages.—The prospects and difficulties +</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td valign="top">XIV.</td> +<td><a href="#art23"> +RAILROAD ENGINEERING.—A Steam Street Railway Motor.—A +noiseless motor built of steel on trial in Chicago.—1 illustration +</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td valign="top">XV.</td> +<td><a href="#art24"> +SANITARY ENGINEERING.—Some Means of Purifying +Water.—Different filtering processes and the subsidence treatment +of water +</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td valign="top">XVI.</td> +<td><a href="#art25"> +TECHNOLOGY.—Action of Caustic Soda on Wood.—By M.H. +TAUSS.—Direct experiments on the action of lye on wood at various +pressures +</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#art26"> +Burning Brick with Crude Oil Fuel.—The use of petroleum in +brick kilns.—Its advantages, cleanliness, and cheapness. +</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#art27"> +Chlorine Gas and Soda by the Electrolytic Process.—The decomposition +of common salt solution into chlorine and caustic soda +on the commercial scale +</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#art28"> +How Enameled Letters are Made.—The manufacture of separate +enameled letters as conducted in London.—5 illustrations +</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#art29"> +How Mechanical Rubber Goods are Made.—Hose, corrugated +matting, packing, and jar rings.—Processes of their production +</a></td> +</tr> +</table> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="Page_13431" id="Page_13431"></a><a name="art21" id="art21"></a>THE LIVING JERBOA IN THE ZOOLOGICAL GARDEN OF BERLIN.</h2> + +<p>Like other strangely formed quadrupeds, the jerboas are counted among +the curiosities of the animal kingdom, and as such are described in +natural history; but, nevertheless, there has never been a good +exhibition of them, for the simple reason that live jerboas are seldom +seen in Europe, as they usually die during the journey hither or soon +after their arrival. After some hesitation I decided to purchase a +pair that I happened to find mentioned in the price list of Mr. C. +Reiche, of Alfeld, as one of the most interesting specimens obtained +during his expedition to South Africa the year before; but I, also, +found the sensitiveness and delicacy of the jerboa very trying, for +the short journey from Alfeld to this city caused the death of the +female and reduced her mate to such a condition that when it arrived +there seemed little hope that it could ever be utilized for scientific +research or artistic life studies.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/01-1.png"> +<img src="images/01-1_th.png" width="600" height="424" alt="JERBOA IN THE ZOOLOGICAL GARDEN OF BERLIN.—DRAWN FROM +LIFE BY G. MUTZEL." title=""></a><br /> +JERBOA IN THE ZOOLOGICAL GARDEN OF BERLIN.—DRAWN FROM LIFE BY G. MUTZEL. +</p> + +<p>My anticipation and pleasure were changed to vexation and grief. The +most careful nursing—the stiff, weak little legs were dipped into and +rubbed with French brandy—and a warm pen with a dry sanded floor +directly over a heater, did their work. As the new-comer got on his +feet again my hope gained new life, and now our jerboa is my delight. +It is, indeed, a curious animal. One who saw it only in the day time +asleep would scarcely know what he had before him, for he would see +little more than a mass of soft, bright sandy hair. The coming of the +keeper with the dish of food and the unfastening of the door of the +cage bring life to the ball of hair in the corner; a part of it is +unrolled and the long, black-tipped tail with two lines of hair is +laid out on the ground, and then on each side of it a leg is run out +which is nearly as long as the tail and is provided with blunt, +smooth, hoof-life nails; and, finally, the head and body are +distinguishable and the animal stretches out comfortably on its back +in the sand. The fine-skinned, hairless ears still hang limp, the eyes +are half closed and the short fore legs are crossed under the chin.</p> + +<p>But now the animal gets on its legs by an elastic swing, and its ears +are raised and its eyes wide open, so that we can see that the latter +are large and dark, with long eyelashes. Then the jerboa raises +himself to his full height and playfully measures his cage by one +bound from corner to corner. Soon after, the fresh food receives due +attention, the animal either jumping toward it in rabbit fashion or +crawling slowly on all fours. When it has reached its goal it again +assumes the upright position, in which it is evidently most +comfortable, and begins to eat it in his own peculiar way; that is, +sitting on his hind legs he quickly seizes a piece of bread, turnip or +other food in his fore paws and conveys it to his mouth, apparently +indifferent to the nature of the food before him. He never takes +anything directly in his mouth; even the grass on a piece of turf that +I had given to him as an experiment was not eaten as it would have +been eaten by other animals, but was first plucked with the fore paws. +If we notice the position of the mouth, far back on the under side of +the head, we will understand that the jerboa could not take his food +in any other way. Besides this, nothing of special interest has been +observed in this nocturnal creature, but he, of course, lives more +regularly and quietly than if his mate had lived.</p> + +<p>One who knows anything about the structure of animals' bodies need not +be told that the jerboa is a rodent. One glance at the peculiar shape +of his head would assure him of that. The form of the rest of its +body, especially its long hind and short fore legs, give unmistakable +proof that it is related to the jumping rodents; it belongs, in a wide +sense, to the family of the jumping mouse, the scientific name +(Dipodidea, two-footed) of which is very significant, as the very +short fore legs are usually carried close under the chin and are +scarcely noticeable when the animal is in its normal position, and are +of little use when it moves about. The hind legs are very strong, and +when going at full speed the jerboa takes jumps that measure from +eight to ten yards, according to the unanimous testimony of various +witnesses.</p> + +<p>The jumping mouse of North America, which is somewhat larger than an +ordinary mouse, is, according to Brehm, also as swift as an arrow or a +low-flying bird. This exceptional velocity is not all that reminds us +of a bird, for there is also a strong resemblance in the formation of +certain parts of the bodies of the two creatures; but, after +consideration, this should not seem strange, because in animal +organisms similar means are employed to accomplish similar ends. It is +only natural that there should be peculiarities in the construction of +the limbs and skulls of the Dipodidea with their bird-like movements +and bird-like sharp-sightedness, that are usually found only among +birds. The consistency between the construction of their bodies and +their mode of life is a beautiful example of fitness; only by +extraordinary quickness of movement and sagacity could the little +defenseless plant-eaters maintain the struggle for existence in the +barren steppes and deserts. The formation of the bodies of the +different members of the family varies according to their needs. The +jerboa is the largest member of the family. Very little is known of +his life when free; it being known only that the jerboas are widely +spread over the whole of southern Africa, and are nocturnal burrowers +of the steppes. During the rainy season they remain in a sort of +winter sleep.—<i>Dr. L. Heck, in the Illustrirte Zeitung</i>.</p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art02" id="art02"></a>NEW OBSERVATIONS ON THE LANGUAGE OF ANIMALS.</h2> + +<h3>By M. DE LACAZE DUTHIERS, of the Institute of France.</h3> + +<p>I had occasion in a note published several years ago in the <i>Revue +Scientifique</i> to mention a parroquet which I have since continued to +observe, the manifestations of whose intelligence are both interesting +and instructive. Many acts of birds are difficult of interpretation. +To speak only of their songs, the meanings of most of the innumerable +varieties of sounds which they produce, and of their diverse +warblings, escape us completely. It is not possible to find the +meaning of these things except by forming suppositions and hypotheses, +or by catching the connections between cries and acts. But instances +of the latter kind are extremely rare in comparison with the great +majority of the manifestations made by animals.</p> + +<p>Thus, to select examples which every one can observe, when a canary +bird is warbling in its cage and becomes deafening, or when a lark +rises straight up in the air and <i>incantat suum tirile tirile</i>—sings +its <i>tirile tirile</i>—as Linnæus picturesquely expresses it; when a +tomtit, leaping from branch to branch of a willow or among the reeds, +repeats its florid warblings; when a raven croaks; when a blackbird +whistles—what significance can we attach to their songs and their +cries? Certainty is impossible, and we can only form more or less +plausible hypotheses concerning the interpretation of them.</p> + +<p>The parrot furnishes us one more aid in this matter than other birds, +and this helps us, to a certain extent, in overcoming the difficulty +of interpretation. It has an articulate voice, and when we have taught +it a few <a name="Page_13432" id="Page_13432"></a>words, the meaning which it gives them may be better divined +by us according to the tone and the rapidity or slowness of its +utterance. This permits us to discover the feelings that move it, for +we can better judge from an articulate sound than from one that is +merely musical.</p> + +<p>Much has been written on the language of animals. It is neither my +desire nor my intention to repeat here all that may have been said on +this subject. It would take too long and would be of no use. I have +often witnessed facts that may be of interest to those who are +occupied with the mental manifestations of animals. I will simply +relate them; and of such as are already known, I will merely mention +them anew, admitting in advance a priority for others which I do not +demand for myself.</p> + +<p>There can be no doubt that animals communicate their impressions by an +inarticulate voice. Common sense and the most superficial observations +are opposed to the negative of this proposition. But when a canary +bird warbles till it stuns us, or a nightingale sings in the shadows +on the fine nights of June, can we follow and discover the +significance of those modulations—now sharply cadenced, now slowly +drawn out, and ending with a trill long and accurate enough to +challenge the most skillful musician?</p> + +<p>All the poets of every country have constantly sung of the songs of +Philomela. But their fervent and enthusiastic verses cast little light +on the value of the nightingale's song. It is said that the male sings +for the entertainment of the sitting female, but there is no proof of +the assertion. The note warning of the approach of danger is easier to +recognize. The bird utters a short, hoarse cry, and repeats it with a +succession of <i>trrre, trrre</i>, which is impossible to mistake. When we +hear this cry we may be sure that an enemy is near. Music gives way to +a cry of distress and warning, and the female leaves her nest if the +sounds become piercing. What do we know of the gobbling of the turkey, +which the whistling and the cries of children excite? They are +doubtless responses to those challenges; but what do they mean?</p> + +<p>The crowing of the cock, recurring regularly at fixed hours, has some +signification, but we cannot comprehend it. If on a fine afternoon in +autumn the cock crows, and repeats his strain between two and four +o'clock, the countrymen in some places will say there will be a fog on +the morrow, and they are generally not mistaken. Hens do not mistake +his notes either; when a leader of the troop, coming upon a spot rich +in food, utters his peculiar chuckle, they run from all around to +share the find with him. It is evident that the cock has called them +and they have understood him. These facts indicate that there is some +definite sense in this inarticulate language; and examples of it, +taken from other groups, might be multiplied.</p> + +<p>The dog, intelligent animal as he is, manifests his affection on +meeting his master, with peculiar cries which vary with the intensity +of his joy. No one could confound these notes of pleasure with those +which he utters when he is angrily driving away a beggar, or when he +meets another dog of unpleasant appearance and puts himself in the +position of attack.</p> + +<p>An interesting study of the voice of the dog on guard may be made in +the country at night. If another dog barks in the distance, the house +dog answers in a peculiar manner. He gives a few growls, stops, seems +to listen, begins again, very often getting answers; and, after two or +three interruptions, he terminates his barking with abrupt yelps, loud +at the beginning and long drawn out, and gradually dying away. This +ending of his cries is habitually accompanied by his raising his head +and throwing it back. I have often, when within the house, on hearing +the watch dog bark in this way, opened the window to assure myself on +the subject, and distinguished, as I could not do with the windows +closed, the voice of another watch dog barking in the same way in the +distance—the barkings of the two dogs alternating, one answering the +other. There is in such cases an evident communication of impressions. +One of the dogs, having had his attention aroused by some unusual +noise, has transmitted his impression to the other, as sentinels +posted at intervals call out theft warnings one to another. I have +often repeated this observation during the long evenings of winter.</p> + +<p>Another example, little known in thickly populated countries, is drawn +from a curious scene which I witnessed during a winter passed in +Perigord Noir. We had remarked that for several nights the three watch +dogs, a young and an old male and a bitch, howled often toward +midnight, but in a peculiar way. One night in particular, during their +tedious concert, just as we had got to sleep, they mingled with their +cries howlings like those they would have uttered if they had been +beaten, with a shading hard to define, but which we perceived plainly; +and we remarked that, leaving their kennel in the avenue that led up +to the lodge, they had come to close quarters with one another at the +gate, with alternating howlings and plaintive cries. Inquiring in the +morning for the cause of these singular cries, the peasants told me +that a wolf had passed, and predicted that it would return. They said, +too, that a neighbor's hunting bitch had disappeared, and its bones +had been found in the fields near a wood. We were awakened again about +midnight by the cries of the dogs, and the scene was renewed. Informed +as we now were of the nature of what was going on, we ran to one of +the windows, whence we could see, in the clear light of the moon, all +that passed. The three dogs were cowering against the gate, the oldest +one howling by the side of the others, while the younger one and the +bitch were exposed at intervals to the attacks of another animal, +browner than they, and of about their size, without defending +themselves, but moaning as if they were undergoing a vigorous +correction.</p> + +<p>Frightened, doubtless, by the opening of the blinds of the first story +above him, the strange animal had gone away and was sitting in the +middle of the road. We could only see that he had straight ears. While +we were going down to get a gun the visitor came back to his charge on +the dogs, which had begun howling after he left them, and resumed the +cries significant of chastisement when they were attacked again. For +some reason, perhaps because he heard the click of the gun, the foe +drew back and sat down in a garden walk, concealed by a bunch of +shrubbery. The three dogs, notwithstanding our reiterated urging, were +no more disposed to pursue him than before. If the assailant had been +a dog they would have rushed upon him, but they stayed cowering at the +gate and howled distressfully. The bitch was most affected, and they +all seemed paralyzed by fear. It is said in the country that bitches +are especially liable to be attacked by wolves. It was so here. The +most certain feature in the matter was the terror of the animals. They +were capable of resisting the attack three times over. The young dog +was a savage one, and passers-by were afraid of the bitch; but that +night they were terrorized, and all incapable of defending themselves. +Their cries were therefore due to the same cause as in the preceding +night—the presence and attacks of the wolf. I could not have realized +their meaning if I had not been a witness of the scene—that is, I +could not have correlated the cries and the acts.</p> + +<p>A shot at the animal behind the bushes was followed by a hoarse cry. +He was hit, and ran; but, in spite of our urgings, the dogs stayed at +the gate and only stopped howling. Under any other conditions, upon +the signal of the shot they would all have started in pursuit of the +wounded animal.</p> + +<p>A wolf came to the farm during the last winter (1890-91) and attacked +the same bitch. He would have carried her off, for he had seized her +by the throat, if we could judge from the stifled cries she uttered; +but this time he found with her a new watch dog—a mountain bitch from +the Pyrenees—of a breed that attacks the wolf and the bear. The wolf +would have been caught if he had not run away. He did not return, for +he had been attacked, and learned what he had to deal with.</p> + +<p>The Pyrenean breed furnishes excellent watch dogs. I knew one of +remarkable traits. At evening he would go round the house, giving two +or three growls at each door. With his head raised he seemed to listen +to his fine voice, then he would start again and go to another door. +He seemed desirous to show those who were observing him that he was +attending to his post as guardian. He then went away in silence along +the walk, through a dark, rising hedgerow, leaping the slight hillock, +yelping toward the wood. He listened, yelped again, and went in. There +was never any failure in this performance, but every evening as night +was coming on he began his round, which no one had taught him. It was +all done in his function as a guard. It would be hard to determine +what his yelps meant, but there were in them an inflection, a +sonorousness, and a continuance quite different from those he uttered +when pursuing a passer-by or when going to meet a person coming toward +the house. Every one who has a watch dog is able to tell by the sound +of his barking when a person is coming up, and usually what sort of a +visitor it is.</p> + +<p>The peasants' dogs of the southwest of France dislike the country +millers, because of the long whips which they are always carrying and +snapping, and with which the dogs, running after them, are often +struck. From as far off as the snapping of the whip can be heard, the +dogs come to wait for the millers and pursue them; and it is easy to +recognize when the millers are passing, by the behavior of the dogs. +There is in this also a significance, at once aggressive and +defensive, in the cries which one can, by giving a little attention, +soon learn to distinguish.</p> + +<p>Another example of the reality of the various meanings of the cries of +the dog under different circumstances is afforded by the companies +that collect around a female in heat.</p> + +<p>I have a very intelligent and experienced brach hound, the same which +with the bitch had to face the attack of the wolf. He amuses me much +at my country lunches. Hunting dogs which have been much with their +masters at lunch do not like to have the drinking glass offered them. +This dog was much afraid of the glass, and I had only to present it to +him at lunch time to make him keep his distance. I used to keep my +door open at lunch, for the amusement of observing how I could make +him stop exactly at the threshold without stepping over it. If he had +passed over it I could always send him back by casting toward him a +few drops of water from the bottom of the glass after drinking. +Sitting, as was his habit, on the sill of the door, with the tip of +his muzzle never extending beyond the plane of the panels, he would +follow my motions with the closest attention, reminding me, if I +failed to give him a sign of attention, by a discreet, plaintive cry, +that he was there. But if I touched my glass, he would spring up at +once; if I filled it, he would put himself on guard, utter a kind of +sigh, sneeze, lick his lips, yawn, and, shaking his ears briskly, make +little stifled cries. Then he would grow impatient, and more and more +watchful and nervous. When I lifted my glass to my lips he would draw +back, working gradually nearer to the farther door, and at last +disappear and hide. One who was looking at him without seeing me could +tell by his wails and his attitude the level and position of my glass. +When the glass was horizontal, I could see only about half of his +head, with one eye regarding me fixedly, for that was usually the +critical moment—the one, also, when the wails and restraints were +most demonstrative of the anxious fear of my poor animal.</p> + +<p>When we dine in the kitchen, which is on the ground floor, the dogs +are usually all put out. There are four of them, three young and not +experienced, and this old, sagacious brach hound. He insists on coming +in, and, to gain his purpose, tries to have the door opened. Although +no person may be coming up the walk, he dashes down it barking, all +the others going along too and yelping with him; then he stops, +remains a little behind after having got the others out of the way, +and, turning his head from moment to moment, looks to see if the door +has been opened, for we generally go to it to see who has come. In +that case the feigned attack is successful, and the dog, who has +evidently meant to give the alarm so as to have the door opened, comes +in at once and claims a place at the table. He has accomplished his +end, for the door is usually shut without paying attention to his +having got in. I have frequently witnessed this stratagem, and when, +during my kitchen dinner, I suddenly hear the dogs yelping after the +brach hound has begun, I am pretty sure that nobody is in sight.</p> + +<p>I have forgotten where I found the next story of an old dog who was +also very sagacious. Hunting dogs, when they grow old, become +rheumatic, or are at least debilitated with pains. We know, too, that +they crave heat, and get as near the fire as possible—a craving which +increases as they grow older. One such dog, older than the others, and +slower in getting into the lodge on returning from the hunt, was often +crowded away from the fire by the other livelier dogs getting all the +best places before him. Finding himself thus turned out in the cold, +he would dash toward the door barking, when the others, supposing it +was an alarm, would rush away too, while the old rheumatic went to the +fire and selected a place to suit him.</p> + +<p>It is not necessary to dwell upon the intelligence shown by such acts. +But it is hardly contestable that the old animal, who knows how to +play such tricks upon his less experienced companions, deceives them +by his intonations, while he is well aware that no enemy is +approaching the house; but he does it scientifically, by the +inflections of his voice, as a man speaking to other men would do in +announcing the arrival of an imaginary enemy.</p> + +<p>Inarticulate cries are all pretty much the same to us; their +inflections, duration, pitch, abruptness, and prolongation alone can +inform us of their purpose. But experience and close attention have +shown us the connection of these variations with the acts that +accompany or precede them. Animals evidently understand these +inflections at once. We cannot better compare the language of animals +than with what takes place in a pleasant sport, a kind of pantomime of +the voice or language which many youth doubtless understand, and which +I venture to refer to here to aid in more easily conceiving of the +communication of thought among animals by sounds which seem to us all +alike. When I was engaged in hospitals, the evenings in the guard room +were sometimes enlivened by the presence of a companion who excelled +in humorous mimicry. He would represent a man in liquor who had +stopped at a fountain that flowed with a gentle sound, somewhat like +that of his own hiccough. A single oath, pronounced in different +tones, was sufficient to enable us to comprehend all the impressions, +all the states of mind through which this devotee of Bacchus passed. +The oath, at first pronounced slowly and with an accent expressing +relief, represented a feeling of satisfaction, with shadings of +prolonged exclamation which it would be hard for one to imagine +without suggestion. The continued flowing of the fountain made our +drunken man impatient, and he wanted it to stop. This state of mind +was translated by a new modulation of the same word. In a little while +the gurgling of the fountain produced astonishment. Was it possible +that he, with all the liquid he had imbibed, could vomit so much and +for so long a time? This mental condition was expressed by a new +modulation of the same oath. The first movement of surprise over, +resignation follows, and our man decides to wait patiently for the +end. A period of half lethargy was easily represented by the slowness +and weakness of the man's voice while living up to this decision; but +when he comes out of this sleepy condition and hears the fountain +again, he is possessed with fear; he cannot understand the flood he is +pouring out—he dares not move—he believes he is lost. Gradually the +fumes of the liquor pass away, and, his mistake being recognized, the +drunkard is taken with a laughing and a gayety which are indicated by +the same oath repeated in tones corresponding with the satisfaction he +is then enjoying. This making the series of impressions a man passes +through comprehensible by a single word, varied in pronunciation and +utterance, is very like the language of animals, which is always the +same, and the significance of which is given by variety of intonations +corresponding with sensational conditions.</p> + +<p>The mewing of the cat is always the same; but what a number of mental +conditions it expresses! I had a kitten whose gambols and liveliness +entertained me greatly. I understood well, when it came up to me +mewing, what the sound meant; sometimes the kitten wanted to come up +and sleep in my lap; at other times it was asking me to play with it. +When, at my meals, it jumped on my knees, turned round, looked at me, +and spoke in a coaxing and flattering way, it was asking for something +to eat. When its mother came up with a mouse in her jaws, her muffled +and low-toned mew informed the little one from a distance, and caused +it to spring and run up to the game that was brought to it. The cry is +always the same, but varied in the strength of the inflections and in +its protraction, so as to represent the various states of mind with +which my young animal is moved—just as it was with the drunken man in +the mimicry scene. These facts are probably well known to all +observers of animals.</p> + +<p>We have seen that this tonality of the watch dog's cries is competent +to indicate that a person is coming to the house. We find similar +cries of warning uttered by birds. When I was a professor in the +faculty of Lille, I frequently visited the well known aged Professor +of Physics, M. Delezenne. He had a working room at the end of a +garden, in which a laughing mew wandered. From the time that any one +came in till he went out, this bird made the vocal explosions to which +it owes its name; and the good professor was certain, without ever +being mistaken, that somebody was coming to his laboratory. He was +notified. My Jaco in Paris has a warble that answers the ringing of +the bell. If we have not heard the bell, we are notified by Jaco of +its ringing, and, going to the door, find some one there. I have been +told of a parrot belonging to the steward of a lyceum which had heard +the words "Come in," when any one rang the bell. He never failed to +cry, "Come in," when the bell moved, and the visitor was embarrassed +at seeing nobody after having been invited to open the door.</p> + +<p>Instances in which the cries of birds had an incontestable and precise +signification are numerous; let me refer to a few of the best known. +The cackle of a hen, after having laid an egg and left her nest, is +decidedly characteristic. Her clucking when she is impelled to sit on +her eggs, or when she is calling her chicks, is no less demonstrative. +There is not a farmer who does not recognize it and understand it. In +these things we see the relation between the tone of the prating or +cluck of the hen and her acts. But when a nightingale sings all night, +or a goldfinch whistles, or a raven croaks, we cannot so easily +interpret the significance of their inarticulate sounds. The finch +calls its mate by uttering a few notes followed by a long trill. +Matches of a barbarous character, based on this habit, I were held in +the north of France while I was living at <a name="Page_13433" id="Page_13433"></a>Lille, between 1855 and +1860. I do not know whether they have been suppressed or not, but the +laws for the protection of animals ought to take cognizance of them. +The gamesters put out the eyes of the male finches, and made them, +thus blinded, compete as singers, for which purpose they brought their +cages into proximity. When the birds heard and recognized one +another's voices, they made their appeal to the female; the one that +renewed his amorous trills most frequently, protracted them longest +and to the last, gained the prize. The bird that was declared victor +received a medal amid the applause of a large and enthusiastic crowd; +and considerable wagers were staked upon the result. I have heard that +these poor blinded birds sometimes fell down exhausted with singing, +and kept on calling the absent female till they died, not being +willing to yield to a rival, who on his side was also keeping up his +equally useless appeals.</p> + +<p>These finch contests were suggested after the meaning of the song of +the birds was learned. But when these birds, which are more usually +isolated—whence they have been named <i>Fringilla cœlebs</i>, or +celibates—hop around our houses and also utter their amorous trills +at another than the mating season, they are evidently not calling the +female. Should we not then seek to determine by the tone whether their +call, which is always the same, is amorous or not?</p> + +<p>In countries where flocks of turkeys are raised one can learn very +quickly from their gobblings when they have captured a hare. If they +meet him standing still or lying down, they form in a circle around +him, and, putting their heads down, repeat continually their peculiar +cries. The hare remains quiet, and it is sometimes possible to take +him up, terrorized as he is in the midst of the black circle of +gobbling beaks and heads. The language of the turkeys is at that time +incontestably significant. It is warlike, and similar to that of the +males when they are fighting. In the present instance they have joined +for war, and they make it on the frightened hare.</p> + +<p>My Jaco, like all parrots, which are excellent imitators, pronounces a +few words and repeats them over and over again. Such birds amuse us +because the words they know sometimes happen to be ludicrously +fitting. A bird of this kind had been struck by the note sounded by +the wind blowing into a room through a crack in the glass work +whenever a certain door was opened; and he had become so perfect in +his imitation that they sometimes, on hearing the noise, went to shut +the door when it was not open.</p> + +<p>Jaco formerly belonged to a very pious old lady who was accustomed to +say her litanies with another person. He had caught the words "Pray +for us," in the invocations to the several saints, and said them so +well as sometimes to deceive his learned mistress, and cause her to +think she was saying her litanies with two colleagues. When Jaco was +out of food, and any one passed by him, he would say, "My poor +Cocotte!" or "My poor rat!" in an arch, mawkish, protracted tone that +indicated very clearly what he wanted, and that his drinking cup was +empty. There was no doubt in the house as to his meaning; and whenever +one heard it he said: "He has nothing to eat." He was exceedingly fond +of fresh pits of apples and pears, and I was in the habit of +collecting them and keeping them to give him. So whenever, as I came +near him, I put my hand into my pocket he never failed to say: "Poor +Cocco!" in a supplicating tone which it was impossible to mistake. A +sugar plum is a choice morsel to him. He can tell what it is from a +distance when I hold it out in my fingers; and when I give it to him +he cannot restrain himself if it has been any considerable time since +he has had the delicacy. Usually, after having made the first motion +to get it, as if he were ravished and wanted to express his joy in +advance, he would draw back before taking it, and say, in a comical +tone, "Hold, my poor Cocotte!" His manner of thanking in advance is +likewise amusing. The expression of his eyes and the pose of his head +are all in accord with the tone of his exclamation. When he tastes the +plum he utters a series of <i>ahs</i>, and produces a kind of warble by +prolonging some of his notes and shortening up others. We find in +these examples, without doubt, that the articulate voice makes us +better able to judge the meaning of the impressions that are moving +the animal than inarticulate cries, or merely musical sounds. When +Jaco met a child for whom he had a great affection, he would promenade +on his perch, or turn the wheel, spreading out his tail and ruffling +the feathers of his head, while his eyes grew red with excitement if +the child was too slow in bestowing the accustomed caress. Then he +would stop, bend down his head, and, looking at his friend, say +pleasantly, "Jaco," in a tone and with a manner quite in contrast with +the pronunciation of the same word when he was hungry.</p> + +<p>It is not the word he speaks that is of interest; he might have been +taught another, and it would have been the same; but it is the tone. +In this case, too, the articulation gives an easier clew to the +meaning the bird seeks to express, having a meaning according to the +manner of pronouncing it, than any isolated, simply musical sound, +like the song of the nightingale, canary bird, and warbler. This +became evident to me, not from observing animals for a few moments +without seeing them again, but from studying them continuously.</p> + +<p>Jaco did not like solitude, and was talkative and fond of being +caressed, like all of his kind. One day, when there was no one in the +country house, all having gone out into the garden or the fields, I +heard him saying over what few words he knew, in different +inflections. I went quietly into the room where he was, without being +seen; but he heard my steps, although I walked in very cautiously, +hoping to surprise him. He ceased his chatter, listened, and, after a +silence, pronounced "Jaco" in a low tone, drawing out the end of the +word. He listened again, and repeated the word in the same tone; then, +after another silence, repeated it with a rise of the voice. I +continued observing him, and, as he heard no one, he raised his tone +gradually, repeating the same word, and ended at last with a genuine +cry of distress. The people ran in from without, supposing something +had happened to him. He then repeated his name in a lower tone, which +seemed to indicate his satisfaction at finding his isolation ended. I +went in myself, and his prattle unmistakably betrayed his gladness at +being no longer alone.</p> + +<p>Is there not in this an act of real intelligence? While alone, the +parrot entertained himself by talking; but when he heard a sound he +hoped at first to see some one come; and when no one answered him, he +raised his voice, as a person would do who calls, and, getting no +reply, cried out louder and louder till he was heard and answered. The +meaning of the differences of intonation is as evident in this case as +in that of the drunken man. A parrot raised in the South had learned +to swear in the local <i>patois</i>. Being fond of coffee, he was sometimes +given a spoonful, which he would come awkwardly up to the table to +drink with his master. One day the master, not thinking of his bird, +had already added cognac to his coffee, and gave the parrot the +accustomed spoonful. The parrot took a swallow of it, and, in his +surprise at the novel taste, raised his head and repeated the oath in +a tone that excited laughter in all who were present. The cause of his +surprise being discovered, he was soothed, and then took his usual +ration with evident signs of contentment. The mimicry of language in +this case clearly represented the shade of the new impression he felt.</p> + + +<p>Jaco is very timid. In the evening, when he is put to roost in a close +and dark room, he is afraid of the shadow of his perch that is cast by +the light we carry in our hand; he eyes it, and utters a low cry, +which stops when the candle is blown out and he cannot see the shadow +any longer. He stands in dread of blows in the bottom of his cage, +because, having a wing broken, he cannot fly, and is afraid of +falling. Feeling his weakness, his language has a different tone from +the usual one. Large birds flying in the sky above him annoy him +greatly, and we can all tell by his voice when such a bird is near or +flying over. He inclines his head and chatters in a low tone as long +as the bird is in sight, paying no attention to anything else. Turkeys +and hens announce the approach of a bird of prey in a similar manner.</p> + +<p>We find in the facts which we have related, as well as in many others +which are cited respecting the ways and habits of parrots, proofs of a +remarkable intelligence. These creatures are distinguished by the +unlimited affection which they bestow upon some persons, as well as by +their excessive dislikes, which nothing can explain. Jaco conceived an +extraordinary dislike for a maid who, although she took good care of +him, was in the habit of washing the bottom of his cage under a +faucet. He afterward discarded another person, whom he had liked so +much that she could do what she pleased with him, even to passing her +hand over his back and taking him by the tail, holding him in her +hands, or putting him in her apron—caresses of a kind that parrots do +not usually permit. Nothing astonished him or offended him. He proved +very inconstant toward her, and now, while better disposed toward the +other girl, he is furious against this one. A third miss has come to +capture his affection; and when he has been left asleep, or resting in +his cage, he has always the same word, but different in the inflection +wheedling, angry, or nearly indifferent, as either of the three +persons comes near him. Jaco's pronunciation is scanned in many +meters. Only one young student has had the privilege of retaining his +affection unmarred.</p> + +<p>Jaco had been left in the country for a whole week in the winter. +Alone and isolated, he was taken care of by a person who was not +constantly with him. The young student, accompanied by a tutor, came +to pass a few days in the house. At the sight of the youth, Jaco, +surprised, called out, "Momon! Momon!" "It was affecting," they wrote +me, "to see so great signs of joy." I have also myself witnessed +similar signs of joy at the coming of the student. Jaco's speech at +such times is always in harmony with his feelings. In the pleasant +season Jaco's cage is put outdoors; and at meal times, knowing very +well what is going on within, he keeps up a steady course of suppliant +appeals for attention. His appeals cease at once if I go out with +fruit in my hand, and if I go toward him he utters a prattle of joy +that sounds like musical laughter. These manifestations indicate that +he is happy at seeing that he has been thought of.</p> + +<p>I close these anecdotes, as I began them, by repeating that animals +communicate their impressions, and the feelings that move them, by +various modulations of their inarticulate cries, which are +incomprehensible to us unless we have succeeded by attentive +observation in connecting them with the acts that follow or precede +them. We have also seen that the articulation of a few words learned +by parrots aids us greatly in learning the meaning of these different +inflections.</p> + +<p>The extension of these studies would furnish much of interest; but +further observations should be made upon the same animals for a +longtime continuously, relating especially to their peculiar instincts +as manifested by their various cries. We might then, by comparing and +relating acts and cries, reach the point of comprehending and perhaps +fixing the meaning in many cases where we are now in ignorance. Every +one has noticed a few facts, and has interpreted and related them, but +much is still wanting for the co-ordination of them in the point of +view of the signification of the language and communication of animals +among themselves. It has not been made in a general +sense.—<i>Translated for the Popular Science Monthly from the Revue +Scientifique</i>.</p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art17" id="art17"></a>MODIFICATION OF OUR CLIMATE.</h2> + +<h3>By JOSEPH WALLACE.</h3> + +<p>Every now and then some weather sage predicts extremely cold winters, +and another ventures to say that the sun is gradually losing heat and +in time Arctic cold will prevail over the globe. Whatever may have +been the changes during the vast cycles of time prior to the advent of +man, or whatever may be the changes in the time to come, one thing is +quite certain; that our climate has been much modified within the past +two or three thousand years.</p> + +<p>"There have been fifteen climatic changes since the beginning of the +glacial age, each change lasting 10,500 years, and each change +reversing the season in the two hemispheres, the pole which had +enjoyed continuous summer being doomed to undergo perpetual winter for +10,500 years, and then passing to its former state for an equal term. +The physical changes upon the earth's surface during the past 80,000 +years modified the changes of climate even in the Arctic regions, so +that the intense cold of the former epochs was much modified during +the latter epochs." Reckoning these climatic changes in their order, +we had entered the epoch of a more genial temperature about fifteen +hundred years ago; and if no disturbing change takes place during the +present epoch, we may reasonably expect a gradual modification of our +winters for nine thousand years to come. The changes to intense cold +from perpetual summer during the greater part of the glacial period +are supposed to have been caused by the high temperature of the north +pole as compared to that of the south pole, owing to the distribution +of land around the two, the south having almost none. Dr. Croll thinks +it was caused by the varying inclination of the earth's axis, which +produced the relative position of the two poles toward the sun to be +periodically reversed at distant periods. Dr. James Geikie agrees with +Croll on the reverse of seasons every 10,500 years during certain +periods of high ellipticity of the earth's orbit.</p> + +<p>But it may be asked, "How could the fauna and flora propagate +themselves under such conditions?" The flora itself at the quaternary +age was of extreme vigor. We know this from the little which is left +us, but more especially from the presence of a large number of +herbivorous animals—stags, horses, elephants, rhinoceros, etc.—which +animated the plains and valleys of Europe and America at the same +time. Evidently they could not have lived and propagated themselves +without abundant vegetation for nourishment and development.</p> + +<p>That which has deceived the adherents of the glacial theory, as +understood in its absolute sense, is, they have generally placed a too +high estimate on its extent and intensity. It needs but a little +effort of the reasoning powers to come to the conclusion that the +earth had cooled to the degree that all animal and vegetable life +could exist upon it, and that a portion of the earth's surface +permanently covered with snow and ice was absolutely indispensable to +the existence, perpetuity, and well-being of animal and vegetable +life. Again, they have attributed to the glaciers the rocks, gravels, +and other material which they have found spread here and there long +distances from the mountains. The transportation of the so-called +erratic rocks has appeared inexplicable in any other way, and the +piles of rock and gravel have been considered so many <i>moraines</i>, that +is, deposits of diverse material transported by the glaciers. They do +not regard the probability of other agents taking the place of +glaciers, and undervalue the moving power of water. Water in liquid +state has often produced analogous effects, and it has often been the +error of the glacialists to confound the one with the other. The +erratic rocks and the moraines are undoubtedly the ordinary +indications of the ancient gravels, but, taken isolatedly, they are +not sufficient proof. In order to convince they should be accompanied +with a third indication, which is the presence of striated rocks which +we find in the neighborhood of our actual glaciers. When all these +signs are together then there is hardly a possibility of error, but +one alone is not sufficient, because it can be the effect of another +cause.</p> + +<p>No doubt the temperature was really lower at the quaternary age and at +the epoch generally assigned to man's advent in European countries, +but the difference was not so great as some say. A lowering of four +degrees is sufficient to explain the ancient extension of the +glaciers. We can look on this figure as the maximum, for it is proved +to-day that humanity played the main <i>role</i> in the glacial phenomena. +The beds of rivers and the alluvia are there to tell that all the +water was not in a solid state at that time, that the glaciers were +much more extended than in our days, and that the courses of the +rivers were infinitely more abundant. When this is understood we can +reasonably reduce the extension of the ancient glaciers, the lowering +of the temperature at the quaternary age, and account for the +uninterrupted life of the fauna and flora. However, we must not fall +into the opposite excess and assert, as some have done, that the +glacial period is comparatively recent, the traces of which are too +plain and fresh in some localities to assign to it an age prior to +man, and that the temperature has rather lowered itself since this +epoch. The ancient extension of the glaciers has been followed by a +corresponding growth and extension of animal life, thus proving that +the permanence of glaciers is a wise provision and absolutely +essential to man and the high orders of animals and vegetation. The +ancient extension does not prove alone that it was much colder than in +historic times, for the animals themselves are proof of this. At that +time the plains of Europe, and of France in particular, were animated +by herds of reindeer, gluttons, camels, and marmots, which one does +not find to-day except in the higher latitudes or more considerable +heights. The mammoth and rhinoceros are no exception to this, for +naturalists know they were organized to live in cold countries.</p> + +<p>Space will not permit us to pursue this point further, or speculate on +the probable climatic conditions of the ice age; but we can carry +ourselves back a few thousand years and describe the climate of Europe +and neighboring countries of Africa and Asia. Herodotus describes the +climate of Scythia in terms which would indicate in our day the +countries of Lapland and Greenland. He shows us the country completely +frozen during eight months of the year; the Black Sea frozen up so +that it bore the heaviest loads; the region of the Danube buried under +snow for eight months, and watered in summer by the abundant rains +which gave to the river its violent course. The historian adds that +the ass cannot live in Scythia on account of the extreme cold which +reigns there. The following century Aristotle makes the same remarks +concerning Gaul. His contemporary, Theophrastes, tells us that the +olive tree did not succeed in Greece more than five hundred furlongs +from the sea. We can assure ourselves that both the ass and the olive +thrive in these countries at the present day.</p> + +<p>Three centuries later, Cæsar speaks frequently and emphatically of the +rigor of winters and early setting in of cold in France, the abundance +of snow and rain, and the number of lakes and marshes which became +every moment serious obstacles to the army. He says he is careful not +to undertake any expedition except in summer. Cicero, Varro, +Possidonius, and Strabo insist equally on the rigor of the climate of +Gaul, which allows neither the culture of the vine nor the olive. +Diodorus of Sicily confirms this information: "The cold of the winters +in Gaul is such that almost all the <a name="Page_13434" id="Page_13434"></a>rivers freeze up and form natural +bridges, over which numerous armies pass quite safely with teams and +baggages; in order to hinder the passengers to slip out upon the ice +and to render the marching more secure, they spread straw thereon."</p> + +<p>Virgil and Ovid insist on the severity of cold in the regions of the +Danube. The first describes the inhabitants of these miserable +countries withdrawing themselves into caves dressed with the skins of +wild beasts. Ovid, who had passed several years of his life in that +region, is more precise in his description. He says the wine has +changed itself here (Black Sea) into a solid frozen mass; one gives it +to drink by pieces. Fearing of being accused of poetic exaggeration he +appeals to the testimony of two ancient governors of Moesia, who could +establish the facts like himself. The author who would give such +accounts of the Black Sea in our days would risk his reputation for +veracity.</p> + +<p>Italy, too, experienced its part of the cold in early days. Virgil +tells us of the snows being, heaped up, rivers which carried ice +along, the sad winter which split the stone and bound up the course of +large streams, and all this in the warmest part of Italy, at the base +of the walls of Taranto. Heratius affirms that the Soracte, a +neighboring mountain of Rome, was whitened with thick snow, rivers +frozen, and the country covered with snow. To-day the snow stays very +little upon the Soracte and never in the country around Rome. During +the four or five centuries which followed, writers speak of the +severity of climate in Northern Italy, the lagoons on the Adriatic +being frozen over. Algiers was much colder then than now. The Danube, +Rhine, and other rivers in Europe, the Nile in Africa, the Amazon in +South America, the Mississippi and Missouri in North America, had +quite different volumes two thousand years ago than their present +actual ones, and they especially rolled much greater masses of water.</p> + +<p>There is everything to show a modification of climate in our own days. +If this goes on in the future as in the past, there will be a marked +difference in the temperature two or three hundred years from now. +Even a degree in a thousand years would effect a great change in the +course of time. The lowering of four degrees established the ancient +extension of glaciers, though it did not interrupt animal or vegetable +life. Fifty-four of the fifty-seven species of <i>Mollusca</i> have +outlived the glacial age, and all our savage animals—even a certain +number which have disappeared—date equally from the quaternary, and +were contemporary with the great extension of the glaciers.—<i>Popular +Science News</i>.</p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art18" id="art18"></a>THE ERUPTION OF KRAKATOA.</h2> + +<p>Before the year 1883 physical geographers, in speaking of the most +disastrous volcanic eruption on record, referred first, in point of +time, to the celebrated eruption of Vesuvius, in A.D. 79, when the +cities of Herculaneum, Pompeii and several smaller towns on the slope +of the mountain were destroyed by lava or buried under a mass of +pumice stones and ashes; second to that of Hecla and Skaptar Jokull, +contiguous mountains in Iceland, in 1783, when two enormous lava +streams, one 15 miles wide and over 100 ft. deep and the other +scarcely inferior, flowed, the first, 50 miles and the other 40, till +they reached the sea, pouring a flood of white hot lava into the +ocean, destroying everything in their paths and killing in the waters +of the ocean the fish, the mainstay of the inhabitants, who were +reduced by the disaster, directly or indirectly, to less than +five-sixths of their former strength; and third to that of Galungung, +in 1822, which devastated such an immense area in Java; but all the +eruptions known besides were as mere child's play to the terrible one +of Krakatoa in 1883.</p> + +<p>If the reader will examine the map of the East Indies he will find +represented in the straits of Sunda, which lie between Sumatra and +Java, the little island of Krakatoa. In maps made before 1883 he will +hunt in vain for the name, for like Bull Run before 1861, it was then +unknown to fame, though navigators who passed through the straits knew +it as a beautiful tropical isle, with an extinct volcanic cone in the +center. In the beginning of 1883, however, the little well behaved +island showed symptoms of wrath that boded no good to the larger +islands in the vicinity. Noted for the fine fruits with which it +abounded, it was a famous picnic ground for towns and cities even 100 +miles away, and when the subterranean rumblings and mutterings of +wrath became conspicuous the people of the capital of Java, Batavia, +put a steamboat into requisition and visited the island in large +numbers. For a time the island was constantly in a slight tremor, and +the subterranean roar was like the continued but distant mutterings of +thunder, but the crisis was reached August 23, at 10 o'clock A.M. It +was a beautiful Sunday morning and the waters of the straits of Sunda +were like that sea of glass, as clear as crystal, of which John in his +apocalyptic vision speaks. The beauty that morning was enhanced by the +extraordinary transparency of the tropical air, for distant mountain +ranges seemed so near that it seemed possible to strike them with a +stone cast from the hand. Only the mysterious rumblings and mutterings +of the pent up forces beneath the island disturbed the breathless calm +and silence that lay on nature—the calm before the terrible +storm—the mightiest, the most awful on record! It burst forth! Sudden +night snatched away day from the eyes of the terrified beholders on +the mainland, but the vivid play of lightnings around the ascending +column of dust penetrated even the deep obscurity to a distance of 80 +miles. This awful darkness stretched within a circle whose diameter +was 400 miles, while more or less darkness reigned within a circle +with a diameter three times as great. Within this latter area dust +fell like snow from the sky, breaking off limbs of trees by its weight +miles distant, while in Batavia, 100 miles away from the scene of the +disaster, it fell to the depth of several inches. The explosions were +so loud as to be distinctly heard in Hindostan, 1,800 miles away, and +at Batavia the sound was like the constant roar of cannon in a field +of battle. Finally the whole island was blown to pieces, and now came +the most awful contest of nature—a battle of death between Neptune +and Vulcan; the sea poured down into the chasm millions of tons, only +to be at first converted into vapor by the millions of tons of +seething white hot lava beneath. Over the shores 30 miles away, waves +over 100 ft. high rolled with such a fury that everything, even to a +part of the bedrock, was swept away. Blocks of stone, of 50 tons +weight were carried two miles inland. On the Sumatra side of the +straits a large vessel was carried three miles inland. The wave, of +course growing less in intensity, traveled across the whole Indian +Ocean, 5,000 miles, to the Cape of Good Hope and around it into the +Atlantic. The waves in the atmosphere traveled around the globe three +times at the rate of 700 miles per hour. The dust from the volcano was +carried up into the atmosphere fully twenty miles and the finest of it +was distributed through the whole body of air. The reader doubtless +remembers the beautiful reddish or purple glow at sunrise and sunset +for fully six months after August, 1883—that glow was caused by +volcanic dust in the atmosphere interfering with the passage of the +sun's rays of the upper part of the solar spectrum, more manifest at +sun rising and setting than at other times during the day, because at +these periods the sun's rays have to travel obliquely through the +atmosphere, and consequently penetrating a very deep layer, were +deprived of all their colors except the red.</p> + +<p>The loss of life was appalling. The last sight on earth to 35,000 +people was that of the awful eruption. Engulfed in the ocean or +covered with heaps of ashes, a few hours after the eruption commenced +the awful work was done, and that vast multitude had vanished from off +the face of the earth. The fact that in the neighborhood of the +mountain there was a sparse population accounts for there not being +even a far greater loss of life.</p> + +<p>Notwithstanding the awfulness of volcanic and earthquake phenomena, +there is some silver lining to the dark clouds. They prove that the +earth is yet a <i>living</i> planet. Centuries must pass away before it +will become like the moon—a dead planet—without water, air or life. +Our satellite is a prophecy indeed of what the earth must eventually +become when all its life forces, its internal energies, are dissipated +into space.—<i>Granville F. Foster, Min. Sci. Press</i>.</p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art05" id="art05"></a>PENTAPTERYGIUM SERPENS.</h2> + +<p>This is one of five species of Himalayan plants which, until recently, +were included in the genus vaccinium. The new name for them is ugly +enough to make one wish that they were vacciniums still. +Pentapterygium serpens is the most beautiful of the lot, and, so far +as I know, this and P. rugosum are the only species in cultivation in +England. The former was collected in the Himalayas about ten years ago +by Captain Elwes, who forwarded it to Kew, where it grows and flowers +freely under the same treatment as suits Cape heaths. Sir Joseph +Hooker says it is abundant on the Sikkim mountains at from 3,000 to +8,000 feet elevation, and that it usually grows on the stout limbs of +lofty trees. In this it resembles many of the rhododendrons of that +region, and it has been suggested that they are epiphytic from force +of circumstances, not from choice. On the ground they would have no +chance against the other vegetation, which would strangle or starve +them out. Remove them from this struggle for existence, and they at +once show their preference for rich soil and plenty of it. All the +pentapterygiums have the lower part of the stem often swelling out +into a prostrate trunk, as thick as a man's leg sometimes, and sending +out stout branching roots which cling tightly round the limbs of the +tree upon which it grows. These swollen stems are quite succulent, and +they serve as reservoirs of moisture and nourishment. In the wet +season they push out new shoots, from which grow rapidly wands three +or four feet long, clothed with box-like leaves, and afterward with +numerous pendulous flowers. These are elegant in shape and richly +colored. They are urn-shaped, with five ribs running the whole length +of the corolla, and their color is bright crimson with deeper colored<a name="Page_13435" id="Page_13435"></a> +V-shaped veins, as shown in the illustration of the flowers of almost +natural size. They remain fresh upon the plant for several weeks. The +beautiful appearance of a well grown specimen when in flower may be +seen from the accompanying sketch of the specimen at Kew, which was at +its best in July, and remained in bloom until the middle of September.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/04-1.png"> +<img src="images/04-1_th.png" width="538" height="400" alt="PENTAPTERYGIUM SERPENS (FLOWERS NEARLY NATURAL SIZE)" title=""> +</a><br /> +PENTAPTERYGIUM SERPENS (FLOWERS NEARLY NATURAL SIZE) +</p> + +<p>P. rugosum is also grown as a greenhouse plant at Kew, where it has +been in cultivation about twenty years. It has larger leaves and a +more bushy habit than P. serpens, while the flowers are produced in +fascicles on the old wood. They are as large as those here figured, +but differ in color, being whitish, with brown-red V-shaped marks. +Both species may be propagated from cuttings. The plants thrive in +sandy peat, and they like plenty of moisture at all times.—<i>W. +Watson, in The Gardeners' Magazine</i>.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/04-2.png"> +<img src="images/04-2_th.png" width="520" height="400" alt="PENTAPTERYGIUM SERPENS (FLOWERS DEEP CRIMSON)" title=""> +</a><br /> +PENTAPTERYGIUM SERPENS (FLOWERS DEEP CRIMSON) +</p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art06" id="art06"></a>THE PERFORATION OF FLOWERS.</h2> + +<p>The subject of the relations and adaptations which exist between +flowers and insects does not appear to excite as much popular +attention as many other branches of natural science which are no more +interesting. Sprengel, Darwin, and Hermann Muller have been the chief +authors in giving us our present knowledge and interest in the study; +Sir John Lubbock has helped to popularize it, and Prof. W. Trelease +and others have carried on the work in this country.</p> + +<p>The perforation as well as the fertilization of flowers has received +attention, but there is a wide field for further study for those who +have leisure to pursue it, as it requires much time and patience, as +well as closeness and accuracy of observation.</p> + +<p>The accompanying figures, from drawings by Mr. C.E. Faxon, show a few +characteristic perforations and mutilations, and also represent two of +the principal kinds of insects which make them.</p> + +<p>Any one interested in the subject will find an excellent brief review +of the work already done, a fair bibliography, and a list of +perforated flowers in Professor L.H. Pammel's paper on the +"Perforation of Flowers," in the <i>Transactions of the St. Louis +Academy of Science</i>, vol. v., pp. 246-277.</p> + +<p>The general beauty of flowers is usually not greatly marred by the +perforations except in a few cases, as when the spurs of columbines +and corollas of trumpet creepers are much torn, which frequently +happens.</p> + +<p>The great object of the perforations by insects is the obtaining of +the concealed nectar in an easy way. Very naturally, flowers which +depend on insect agency for fertilization rarely produce seed when +punctured if they are not also entered in the normal way. Perforating +is only practiced by a small number of species of insects, and many +but not all of the perforators do so because their tongues are too +short to reach the nectar by entering the flower. Some obtain nectar +from the same kind of flower both in the normal way and by +perforating.</p> + +<p>The chief perforators of flowers, in this part of the continent at +least, appear to be some kinds of humble bees (Bombus) and carpenter +bees (Xylocopa). These insects have developed an unerring instinct as +to the proper point to perforate the corollas from the outside, in +order to readily get at the nectar. The holes made by the humble bees +and by the carpenter bees are usually quite different and easily +distinguished.</p> + +<p>The humble bees have short, stout, blunt jaws, ill adapted for +cutting, and the perforations made by them are apparently always +irregular in shape, and have jagged edges. It has been stated that the +humble bees often bore through the tubes of their corollas with their +maxillæ, but in all cases observed by me the mandibles were first +brought into use in effecting an opening. The noise caused by the +tearing is often audible for a distance of several feet.</p> + +<p>The true jaws of the carpenter bees are not any more prominent or +better adapted for making clean-cut perforations than those of the +humble bees; but behind the jaws there is a pair of long, +sharp-pointed, knife-like, jointed organs (maxillæ) which seem to be +exclusively used on all ordinary occasions in making perforations. The +inner edges of these maxillæ are nearly straight, and when brought +together they form a sharp-pointed, wedge-shaped, plow-like instrument +which makes a clean, narrow, longitudinal slit when it is inserted in +the flower and shoved forward. The slits made by it are often not +readily seen, because the elasticity of the tissues of some flowers +causes them to partially close again. When not in use the instrument +can be folded back, so that it is not conspicuous. The ordinary +observer usually sees no difference between the humble bees and the +carpenter bees, but they may be readily distinguished by a little +close observation.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/05-1.png"> +<img src="images/05-1_th.png" width="275" height="400" alt="THE PERFORATION OF FLOWERS" title=""> +</a><br /> +THE PERFORATION OF FLOWERS.<br /> +1. Xylocopa and heads of male and female. 2. Bombus and head. 3. +Dicentra spectabilis, showing punctures. 4. Ribes aureum. 5. Ligustrum +Ibota. 6. Æsculus glabra. 7. Lonicera involucrata. 8. Caragana +arborescens. 9. Andromeda Japonica. 10. Buddleia Japonica. 11. +Mertensia Virginica. 12. Rhododendron arborescens. 13. Corydalis +bulbosa.</p> + +<p>No doubt, in some of the recorded cases of perforations, carpenter +bees have been mistaken for humble bees. The heads of all our Northern +humble bees are rather narrow, retreating from the antennæ toward the +sides, and with a more or less dense tuft of hair between the antennæ. +The abdomen, as well as the thorax, is always quite densely covered +with hair, which may be black or yellowish or in bands of either +color. With possibly one or two exceptions, the only species I have +seen doing the puncturing is Bombus affinis, Cresson.</p> + +<p>The carpenter bees (Xylocopa Virginica) of this region have the head +very broad and square in front, and with no noticeable hair between +the antennæ. The heads of the male and female differ strikingly. In +the male the eyes are lighter colored and are hardly half as far apart +as in the female, and the lower part of the face is yellowish white. +The female has eyes smaller, darker, and very far apart, and the whole +face is perfectly black. The abdomen is broad, of a shining blue-black +color, very sparsely covered with black hairs, except on the first +large segment nearest the thorax. On this segment they are more dense +and of the same tawny color as those on the thorax. But it is +particularly from the character of the head that the amateur observer +of the perforators may soon learn to distinguish between a Xylocopa +and a Bombus as they work among the flowers. It is also interesting to +know that the Xylocopas are not so inclined to sting as the humble +bees, and the males, of course, being without stinging organs, may be +handled with impunity.</p> + +<p>Among other insects, honey bees have been said to perforate flowers, +but authentic instances are rare of their doing much damage, or even +making holes. I have only recorded a single instance, and in this a +honey bee was seen to perforate the fragile spurs of Impatiens. When +searching for nectar they quite commonly use the perforations of other +insects. Wasps and other allied insects also perforate for nectar. My +only observations being a Vespa puncturing Cassandra calyculata, an +Andrena (?) perforating the spurs of Aguilegia, and Adynerus +foraminatus biting holes close to the base on the upper side of +rhododendron flowers. The holes made by some of the wasp-like insects +are often more or less circular and with clean-cut edges. The ravages +committed by larvæ, beetles and other insects in devouring flowers, or +parts of them, do not properly come under the head of perforations.</p> + +<p>The question as to the cause of the handsome corollas of the trumpet +creeper (Tecoma radicans) being so often split and torn has been +accounted for in various ways in published notes on the subject. +Humming birds and ants have been blamed, the humming birds being such +constant visitors of these flowers that it really seemed as though +they must be the authors of the mischief. I have often watched them +when they appeared as though they were pecking at the blossoms, but +careful examinations, both before and after their visits, always +failed to show any trace of injury. Finally, on July 26, 1890, I was +rewarded by seeing a number of Baltimore orioles vigorously pecking at +and tearing open a lot of fresh blossoms, and this observation was +afterward repeated. That the oriole should do this was not surprising, +considering its known habits in relation to some other flowers. J.G. +JACK.</p> + +<p>[Mr. Jack adds a list of sixteen plants whose flowers he has seen +punctured by the carpenter bee and seventeen others whose flowers were +punctured by the humble bee. He names more than thirty other flowers +which he has found perforated without having seen or identified the +authors of the mischief.—ED.]—<i>Garden and Forest</i>.</p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art04" id="art04"></a>ELECTRICITY IN HORTICULTURE.</h2> + +<p>The influence of electricity upon vegetation has been the subject of +numerous investigations. Some have been made to ascertain the effects +of the electric current through the soil; others to ascertain the +effect of the electric light upon growth through the air. Among the +latter are those of Prof. L.H. Bailey of the Cornell University +Agricultural Experiment Station. In Bulletin No. 30 of the +Horticultural Department is given an account of experiments with the +electric light upon the growth of certain vegetables, like endive, +spinach, and radish; and upon certain flowers like the heliotrope, +petunia, verbena primula, etc. The results are interesting and +somewhat variable. The forcing house where the experiments were +carried on was 20 × 60 ft., and was divided into two portions by a +partition. In one of these the plants received light from the sun by +day and were in darkness at night. In the other they received the +sunlight and in addition had the benefit of an arc light the whole or +a part of the night. The experiment lasted from January until April +during two years, six weeks of the time the first year with a naked +light and the balance of the time with the light protected by an +ordinary white globe. It is not the purpose here to enter into any +great details, but to give the general conclusions.</p> + +<p>The effect of the naked light running all night was to hasten +maturity, the nearer the plants being to the light the greater being +the acceleration. The lettuce, spinach, etc., "ran to seed" in the +"light" house long before similar plants in the dark. An examination +of the spinach leaves with the microscope showed the same amount of +starch in each, but in the electric light plants the grains were +larger, had more distinct markings and gave a deeper color with +iodine.</p> + +<p>With lettuce it was found that the nearer the plants were to the light +the worse the effect; and conversely those furthest away were the best +developed. Cress and endive gave the same results. In the case of the +latter, some of the plants were shaded from the light by an iron post, +and these grew better and were larger than those exposed to its direct +rays. The average weight of eight plants in full light was 49.6 +grains, as opposed to an average of six plants in the shade of 93.8 +grains. Radishes were strongly attracted to the light and moved toward +it during the night. During the day they straightened up, but moved +again toward the light at night. The plants nearest the lamp made a +poor growth and were nearly dead at the end of six weeks. Averaging +the weight of plant, of top and of tuber, it was found that those +grown in the dark were heavier in every instance than those grown in +the light; and the percentage of marketable tubers from the +light-grown plants was twenty-seven, as opposed to seventy-eight in +the dark. Chemical analyses showed the plants in the light to be more +mature than those in the dark, although they were much smaller. Dwarf +peas showed the same facts, those in full light being smaller than +those in the dark. The former bloomed a week earlier than the latter, +but the production of seed was less, being only about four-sevenths as +great.</p> + +<p>Further experiments were made by excluding the sun during the day and +exposing the plants to the diffused electric light only. In all cases, +with radishes, lettuce, peas, corn, and potatoes, the plants died in +about four weeks. Only a little starch and no chlorophyl was found in +the plants deprived of sunlight and only receiving the electric light. +Thus the experiments with a naked light showed conclusively that +"within range of an ordinary forcing house the naked arc light running +continuously through the night is injurious to some plants." In no +case did it prove profitable.</p> + +<p>Experiments with the light inclosed in a white globe and running all +night were different in their results. The effect was much less +marked. Lettuce was decidedly better in the light house; radishes were +thrifty but did not produce as much as in the dark house. A third +series of experiments with the naked light running <a name="Page_13436" id="Page_13436"></a>a part of the night +only were also made. Radishes, peas, lettuce, and many flowers were +experimented upon. The lettuce was greatly benefited by the light. +"Three weeks after transplanting (Feb. 5)," we are told, "both +varieties in the lighthouse were fully 50 per cent. in advance of +those in the dark house in size, and the color and other characters of +the plants were fully as good. The plants had received at this time +70½ hours of electric light. Just a month later the first heads were +sold from the light house, but it was six weeks later when the first +heads were sold from the dark house. In other words, the electric +light plants were two weeks ahead of the others. This gain had been +purchased by 161¾ hours of electric light, worth at current prices of +street lighting about $7."</p> + +<p>This experiment was repeated with the same results. In the second +experiment the plants receiving eighty-four hours of electric light, +costing $3.50, were ready for market ten days before the plants in the +dark house. The influence of the light upon color of flowers was +variable. With tulips the colors of the lighted plants were deeper and +richer than the others, but they faded after four or five days. +Verbenas were injured in every case, being of shorter growth and +losing their flowers sooner than those in the dark house. "Scarlet, +dark red, blue and pink flowers within three feet of the light soon +turned to a grayish white." Chinese primulas seven feet from the light +were unaffected, but those four feet away were changed. Lilac colors +were bleached to pure white when the light struck them fairly. An +elaborate series of tables of the effect of the light is given in the +paper. The author believes it possible that the electric light may be +used some day to pecuniary advantage in floricultural establishments.</p> + +<p>These experiments naturally open up many questions. Those which will +be of most importance to the practical man will be such as relate to +the benefits to be derived from the use of the electric light. That +electricity has a great effect upon vegetation can no longer be +denied. What remains now is to ascertain how to use the force with the +most economy and to the best advantage. If by its use early vegetables +will be made earlier, bright flowers be made brighter, it will be a +question of only a short time before it will come into general use. To +the student of plant physiology there are also many questions of +interest, but into these it is not the intention to enter. Prof. +Bailey's general conclusions are, in part, as follows: "There are a +few points which are clear: the electric light promotes assimilation, +it often hastens growth and maturity, it is capable of producing +natural flavors and colors in fruits, it often intensifies colors of +flowers and sometimes increases the production of flowers. The +experiments show that periods of darkness are not necessary to the +growth and development of plants. There is every reason, therefore, to +suppose that the electric light can be profitably used in the growing +of plants. It is only necessary to overcome the difficulties, the +chief of which are the injurious influences upon plants near the +light, the too rapid hastening to maturity in some species, and in +short the whole series of practical adjustments of conditions to +individual circumstances. Thus far, to be sure, we have learned more +of the injurious effects than of the beneficial ones, but this only +means that we are acquiring definite facts concerning the whole +influence of electric light upon vegetation; and in some cases, +notably in our lettuce tests, the light has already been found to be a +useful adjunct to forcing establishments.... It is highly probable +that there are certain times in the life of the plant when the +electric light will prove to be particularly helpful. Many experiments +show that injury follows its use at that critical time when the +planetlet is losing its support from the seed and is beginning to +shift for itself, and other experiments show that good results follow +from its later use.... On the whole, I am inclined toward Siemens' +view that there is a future for electro-horticulture."</p> + +<p>JOSEPH P. JAMES.<br /> +Washington, Jan. 20, 1892.</p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art03" id="art03"></a>ELECTRICITY IN AGRICULTURE.</h2> +<h3>By CLARENCE D. WARNER.</h3> + + +<p>It is well known that currents of electricity exist in the atmosphere. +Clouds are charged and discharged. There is a constant change of +electricity from earth to air and from air to earth, the latter being +the great reservoir for all electricity. Hills, mountain peaks, trees, +high chimneys, spires, in fact all points elevated above the earth's +surface assist greatly in charging and discharging the atmosphere. +Again, if two iron rods are driven into the earth and connected by a +copper wire with an electrometer in the circuit, the instrument is +almost immediately affected, showing that currents of electricity are +running through the ground. Now, what is the function of these +atmospheric and ground electric currents? Many scientists are agreed +that certain forms of precipitation are due to electrical action; but +my observations have led me to believe conclusively that electricity +is a potent factor in the economy of nature, and has more to do with +the growth and development of plants than has hitherto been known. +Davy succeeded in the decomposition of the alkalies, potash and soda, +by means of electric currents. In our laboratories, water and ternary +compounds are rapidly decomposed by the battery, and we may reasonably +suppose that that which is effected in our laboratories by artificial +means takes place in the great laboratory of nature on a grander and +more extended scale.</p> + +<p>Plant food is carried throughout the plant by means of the flow of +sap; these currents circulate through all the rootlets and center, as +it were, in the stalk, carrying their tiny burdens of various elements +and depositing them in their proper places. That this phenomenon of +circulation is due to electricity cannot be doubted. Most plants grow +more rapidly during the night than in the day. May not the following +be a reason for this?</p> + +<p>We have already mentioned how electric currents pass from air to earth +and <i>vice versa</i>; at night the plant is generally covered with dew and +the plant itself becomes a good conductor, and, consequently, currents +of electricity pass to each through this medium, and during the +passage convert soil elements into plant food and stimulate the upward +currents to gather up the dissolved elements and carry them to their +proper places.</p> + +<p>From the time electricity became a science, much research has been +made to determine its effect, if any, upon plant growth. The earlier +investigations gave in many cases contradictory results. Whether this +was due to a lack of knowledge of the science on the part of the one +performing the experiments, or some defect in the technical +applications, we are not prepared to say; but this we do know, that +such men as Jolabert, Nollet, Mainbray and other eminent physicists +affirmed that electricity favored the germination of seeds and +accelerated the growth of plants; while, on the other hand, +Ingenhouse, Sylvestre and other savants denied the existence of this +electric influence. The heated controversies and animated discussions +attending the opposing theories stimulated more careful and thorough +investigations, which establish beyond a doubt that electricity has a +beneficial effect on vegetation. Sir Humphry Davy, Humboldt, Wollaston +and Becquerel occupied themselves with the theoretical side of the +question; but it was not till after 1845 that practical electroculture +was undertaken. Williamson suggested the use of gigantic electrostatic +machines, but the attempts were fruitless. The methods most generally +adopted in experiments consisted of two metallic plates—one of copper +and one of zinc—placed in the soil and connected by a wire. Sheppard +employed the method in England in 1846 and Forster used the same in +Scotland. In the year 1847 Hubeck in Germany surrounded a field with a +network of wires. Sheppard's experiments showed that electricity +increased the return from root crops, while grass perished near the +electrodes, and plants developed without the use of electricity were +inferior to those grown under its influence. Hubeck came to the +conclusion that seeds germinated more rapidly and buckwheat gave +larger returns; in all other cases the electric current produced no +result. Professor Fife in England and Otto von Ende in Germany carried +on experiments at the same time, but with negative results, and these +scientists advised the complete abandonment of applying electricity to +agriculture. After some years had elapsed Fichtner began a series of +experiments in the same direction. He employed a battery, the two +wires of which were placed in the soil parallel to each other. Between +the wires were planted peas, grass and barley, and in every case the +crop showed an increase of from thirteen to twenty-seven per cent. +when compared with ordinary methods of cultivation.</p> + +<p>Fischer, of Waldheim, believing atmospheric electricity to aid much in +the growth and development of plants, made the following tests:</p> + +<p>He placed metallic supports to the number of about sixty around each +hectare (2.47 acres) of loam; these supports were provided at their +summits with electrical accumulators in the form of crowns surmounted +with teeth. These collectors were united by metallic connection. The +result of this culture applied to cereals was to increase the crop by +half.</p> + +<p>The following experiment was also tried: Metallic plates sixty-five +centimeters by forty centimeters were placed in the soil. These plates +were alternately of zinc and copper and placed about thirty meters +apart, connected two and two, by a wire. The result was to increase +from twofold to fourfold the production of certain garden plants. Mr. +Fischer says that it is evidently proved that electricity aids in the +more complete breaking up of the soil constituents. Finally he says +that plants thus treated mature more quickly, are almost always +perfectly healthy, and are not affected with fungoid growth.</p> + +<p>Later, N. Specnew, inspired by the results arrived at by his +predecessors, was led to investigate the influence of electricity on +plants in every stage of their development; the results of his +experiments were most satisfactory and of practical interest. He began +by submitting different seeds to the action of an electric current, +and found that their development was rendered more rapid and complete. +He experimented with the seeds of haricot beans, sunflowers, winter +and spring rye. Two lots, of twelve groups of one hundred and twenty +seeds each, were plunged into water until they swelled, and while wet +the seeds were introduced into long glass cylinders, open at both +ends. Copper disks were pressed against the seeds, the disks were +connected with the poles of an induction coil, the current was kept on +for one or two minutes and immediately afterward the seeds were sown. +The temperature was kept from 45° to 50° Fahrenheit, and the +experiments repeated four times. The following table shows the +results:</p> + +<table align="center" border="0" cellpadding="4" summary=""> +<tr><th></th><th>Peas.<br />Days.</th><th>Beans.<br />Days.</th><th>Barley.<br />Days.</th><th>Sunflowers.<br />Days.</th></tr> +<tr><td>Electrified seeds developed in</td><td>2.5</td><td>3</td><td>2</td><td>8.5</td></tr> +<tr><td>Non-electrified seeds developed in</td><td>4</td><td>6</td><td>5</td><td>15</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>It was also observed that the plants coming from electrified seeds +were better developed, their leaves were much larger and their color +brighter than in those plants growing from non-electrified seeds. The +current did not affect the yield.</p> + +<p>At the Botanical Gardens at Kew, the following experiment was tried:</p> + +<p>Large plates of zinc and copper (0.445 meter and 0.712 meter) were +placed in the soil and connected by wires, so arranged that the +current passed through the ground; the arrangement was really a +battery of (zinc | earth | copper). This method was applied to pot +herbs and flowering plants and also to the growing of garden produce; +in the latter case the result was a large crop and the vegetables +grown were of enormous size.</p> + +<p>Extensive experiments in electroculture were also made at Pskov, +Russia. Plots of earth were sown to rye, corn, oats, barley, peas, +clover and flax; around these respective plots were placed insulating +rods, on the top of which were crown-shaped collectors—the latter +connected by means of wires. Atmospheric electricity was thus +collected above the seeds, and the latter matured in a highly +electrified atmosphere; the plots were submitted to identical +conditions and the experiments were carried on for five years. The +results showed a considerable increase in the yield of seed and straw, +the ripening was more rapid and the barley ripened nearly two weeks +earlier with electroculture. Potatoes grown by the latter method were +seldom diseased, only to 5 per cent., against 10 to 40 per cent. by +ordinary culture.</p> + +<p>Grandeau, at the School of Forestry at Nancy, found by experiment that +the electrical tension always existing between the upper air and soil +stimulated growth. He found plants protected from the influence were +less vigorous than those subject to it.</p> + +<p>Macagno, also believing that the passage of electricity from air +through the vine to earth would stimulate growth, selected a certain +number of vines, all of the same variety and all in the same condition +of health and development. Sixteen vines were submitted to experiment +and sixteen were left to natural influences. In the ends of the vines +under treatment, pointed platinum wires were inserted, to which were +attached copper wires, leading to the tops of tall poles near the +vines; at the base of these same vines other platinum wires were +inserted and connected by copper wires with the soil. At the close of +the experiment, which began April 15, and lasted till September 16, +the wood, leaves and fruit of both sets of vines were submitted to +careful analysis with the following results:</p> + +<table align="center" border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<colgroup span="3"><col align="left"><col span="2" align="right"></colgroup> +<tr><th></th><th align="center">Without conductor.</th><th align="center">With conductor.</th></tr> +<tr><td>Moisture per cent.</td><td>78.21</td><td>79.84</td></tr> +<tr><td>Sugar.</td><td>16.86</td><td>18.41</td></tr> +<tr><td>Tartaric acid.</td><td>0.880</td><td>0.791</td></tr> +<tr><td>Bitartrate of potash.</td><td>0.180</td><td>0.186</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>Thus we see that the percentage of moisture and sugar is greater and +the undesirable acid lower in those vines subject to electrical +influences than in those left to natural conditions. There are also +experiments which prove the beneficial effects of electricity on vines +attacked by phylloxera.</p> + +<p>The following experiments were made at this station: Several plots +were prepared in the greenhouse, all of which had the same kind of +soil and were subjected to like influences and conditions. Frames in +the form of a parallelogram, about three feet by two feet, were put +together; across the narrow way were run copper wires in series of +from four to nine strands, each series separated by a space about four +inches wide, and the strands by a space of one-half inch. These frames +were buried in the soil of the plot at a little depth, so that the +roots of the garden plants set would come in contact with the wires, +the supposition being that the currents of electricity passing along +the wires would decompose into its constituents the plant food in the +vicinity of the roots and more readily prepare it for the plants. Two +electric gardens were thus prepared and each furnished with two common +battery cells, so arranged as to allow continuous currents to pass +through each series of wires. Near each electric garden was a plot +prepared in the same manner, save the electrical apparatus. We will +call the two gardens A and B.</p> + +<p>The place chosen for the experiments was in a part of the greenhouse +which is given up largely to the raising of lettuce, and the gardens +were located where much trouble from mildew had been experienced. The +reason for this choice of location was to notice, if any, the effect +of electricity upon mildew, this disease being, as it is well known, a +source of much trouble to those who desire to grow early lettuce. The +soil was carefully prepared, the material taken from a pile of loam +commonly used in the plant house.</p> + +<p>Garden A was located where mildew had been the most detrimental; the +experiments began the first of January and closed the first of April. +For the garden, fifteen lettuce plants of the head variety were +selected, all of the same size and of the same degree of vitality, as +nearly as could be determined; the plants were set directly over the +wires, so that the roots were in contact with the latter; the plants +were well watered and cared for as in ordinary culture, and the fluid +in the battery cells was renewed from time to time, that the current +of electricity might not become too feeble. At the close of the +experiments the following results were noted:</p> + +<p>Five plants died from mildew, the others were well developed and the +heads large. The largest heads were over the greatest number of wires +and nearest the electrodes. It was further noticed that the healthiest +and largest plants, as soon as the current became feeble or ceased +altogether, began to be affected with mildew. On examining the roots +of the plants it was found that they had grown about the wires as if +there they found the greatest amount of nourishment; the roots were +healthy and in no way appeared to have been injured by the current, +but, rather, much benefited by the electrical influences.</p> + +<p>Beside garden A was prepared another plot of the same dimensions, +having the same kind of soil and treated in like manner as the first, +but the electrical apparatus and wires were wanting. At the close of +the experiments only three plants had partially developed, and two of +these were nearly destroyed by mildew—one only was free from the +disease. The results, therefore, show that the healthiest and largest +plants grew in the electric plot.</p> + +<p>In the second experiment, which we called B, twenty plants of the same +variety of lettuce and of equal size were taken. The treatment given +was the same as the plants in plot A received. Five plants only +remained unaffected with mildew; seven died from the disease when they +were half grown; the rest were quite well developed, but at the last +part of the experiment began to be affected. Several heads were large, +the largest being over the greatest number of wires and nearest the +electrodes. Examination of the roots disclosed the same phenomena as +in A.</p> + +<p>Near plot B were also set twenty other plants, subjected to like +conditions as the first, but without electricity; all but one died +from mildew before they were half grown, the solitary plant that +survived being only partly developed at the close of the experiment, +and even this was badly affected with the disease.</p> + +<p>Everything considered, the results were in favor of electricity. Those +plants subjected to the greatest electrical influence were hardier, +healthier, larger, had a better color, and were much less affected by +mildew than the others. Experiments were made with various grasses, +but no marked results were obtained.</p> + +<p>The question would naturally arise whether there may not be a limit +reached where electricity would completely overcome the attack of +mildew and stimulate the plant to a healthy and vigorous condition +throughout its entire growth. From the fact that the hardiest, +healthiest, and largest heads of lettuce grew over the greatest number +of currents and nearest the electrodes, it would seem that electricity +is one of the agents employed by nature to aid in supplying the plant +with nourishment and to stimulate its growth. To what extent plants +may be submitted to electrical <a name="Page_13437" id="Page_13437"></a>influence, or what strength of current +is best suited to them and what currents prove detrimental to their +development, have not been determined as yet, but it is desirable to +continue this research until some definite information shall be gained +on these points. Probably different varieties of plants differ greatly +in their capacity for enduring the action of electric currents without +injury—experiment alone must determine this.</p> + +<p>It has been proved that the slow discharge of static electricity +facilitates the assimilation of nitrogen by plants. Faraday showed +that plants grown in metallic cages, around which circulated electric +currents, contained 50 per cent. less organic matter than plants grown +in the open air. It would seem from the researches of the latter +physicist that those plants requiring a large percentage of nitrogen +for their development would be remarkably benefited if grown under +electric influence.—<i>Massachusetts Agricultural College, Bulletin No +16.</i></p> + +<p>[A very interesting article on the Influence of Electricity upon +Plants, illustrated, is given in SUPPLEMENT 806. It presents the +results of the studies of Prof. Lemstrom, of Helsingfors.]</p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art16" id="art16"></a>THE TREATMENT OF RATTLESNAKE BITE BY PERMANGANATE OF POTASSIUM, +BASED ON NINE SUCCESSFUL CASES.</h2> + +<h3>By AMOS W. BARBER, M.D.,<a name="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1"><sup>1</sup></a> Cheyenne.</h3> + +<p>Poisoned wounds, inflicted by the fangs of the rattlesnake, are +happily more rare each year, since, as the country is becoming more +populated, the crotalus is rapidly being exterminated. Yet, +considering the recklessness which characterizes the cow boy in his +treatment of this reptile, it is astonishing that this class of injury +is not more common. Thus it is the invariable custom among the +cattlemen to dismount and destroy these snakes whenever they are seen. +This is readily accomplished, since a slight blow will break the back. +This blow is, however, generally delivered by means of the quirt, a +whip not over two and a half feet long, and hence a weapon which +brings the one who wields it in unpleasant proximity to the fangs of +the reptile. A still more dangerous practice, and one which I have +frequently seen, is a method of playing with the rattlesnake for the +delectation of the cow boy at the expense of a "tenderfoot." It is +well known that unless a snake is coiled, or held by the tail or body, +or placed at length in a hole or crevice so narrow that by rendering +its length sinuous a certain amount of support is given, it cannot +strike. On this theory a mounted cow boy first puts a rattler to +flight, then pushes his pony in pursuit, stoops from the saddle, +seizes it by the tail, gives a quick upward jerk, and, swinging it so +rapidly around his head that it is impossible for it to strike, sets +off in pursuit of whoever has exhibited most terror at the sight of +the reptile. When within fair distance he hurls the snake at the +unfortunate victim, in the full assurance that even should it strike +him it cannot bury its fangs in his flesh, since it is impossible for +it to coil till it reaches the ground. This is a jest of which I have +frequently been the victim, nor have I yet learned to appreciate it +with unalloyed mirth.</p> + +<p>The belief that rattlesnakes always give warning before striking is +not well founded. If come upon suddenly, they often strike first, and +if disturbed when in a space so narrow that the coil cannot be formed, +they may give no warning of their presence beyond the penetration of +the fangs into the hand or foot of an intruder. One such case I saw.</p> + +<p>It seems to be well established that a snake will not voluntarily +crawl over a hair rope, and in certain parts of the country it is +common for campers-out to surround their beds with such a rope, since +the reptiles seek warmth, and are frequently found under or in the +blankets of those sleeping on the ground.</p> + +<p>After an exceptionally large experience with wounds inflicted by the +fangs of the rattlesnake, and an experience which, I am glad to say, +has been most successful in its outcome, I think it my duty to add, +from a practical standpoint, my testimony as to the efficacy of +permanganate of potassium in the treatment of this class of cases. +This drug was first introduced by Lacerda, of Brazil, and, if more +generally used, would, I believe, render comparatively innocuous a +class of injury which now usually terminates in death.</p> + +<p>I make this statement as to the fatality of crotalus poison advisedly. +I know the belief is very common that the poison of a rattlesnake is +readily combated by full doses of whisky. This is fallacious. I have +taken the pains to investigate a number of instances of cure resulting +from the employment of free stimulation. In each case the fangs did +not penetrate deeply into the tissues, but either scratched over the +surface or tore through, making a wound of entrance and exit, so that +the poison, or at least the major part of it, was not injected into +the tissues of the person struck. The effect is very much the same as +when an inexperienced practitioner picks up a fold of skin for the +purpose of making a hypodermic injection, and plunges his needle +entirely through, forcing the medicament wide of his patient.</p> + +<p>Nearly all, if not all, of the cases treated by stimulation alone +have, according to my experience, perished if they have received a +full dose of virus from a vigorous snake. One of these cases lived for +upward of a month. He then perished of what might be considered a +chronic pyæmia, the symptoms being those of blood poisoning, +accompanied by multiple abscesses. Another case, not occurring in my +own practice, died at the end of four days apparently of cardiac +failure. Active delirium persisted all through this case. Two other +cases treated by stimulants also died with symptoms of more or less +acute blood poisoning.</p> + +<p>The feeling is almost universal among the people of Wyoming that a +fair strike from a rattlesnake is certain death, and that the free use +of stimulants simply postpones the end. I do not for a moment deny +that a strong, lusty man may be struck fairly by a rattlesnake and if +the wound is at once opened and cauterized, and the heart judiciously +supported, he may yet recover; still the fact remains that the great +majority of these cases perish at a longer or shorter interval +following the infliction of the wound. Hence any treatment that will +save even the majority of such cases is a distinct gain, and one which +has saved every one of nine cases to which it has been applied needs +no further commendation.</p> + +<p>The first case of rattlesnake wound to which I was called occurred in +1885. A cow boy was bitten on the foot, the fang penetrating through +the boot. He was brought forty miles to Fort Fetterman, where I was +then stationed. I saw him about twenty-four hours after he was struck. +There was an enormous swelling, extending up to the knee. The whole +limb was bronzed in appearance. There was no special discoloration +about the wound; in fact, the swelling disguised this to such an +extent that it was impossible to determine exactly where the fangs had +entered. The pulse was scarcely perceptible at the wrist; the heart +was beating with excessive rapidity. The patient was suffering great +pain. His mind was clear, but he was oppressed with a dreadful +anxiety. Up to the time I saw him he had received absolutely no +treatment, excepting the application of a cactus poultice to the leg, +since there was no whisky at the ranch where he was wounded. I at once +made free incisions, five or six in number, from one to two inches in +depth, and about three inches in length. These cuts gave him very +little pain, nor was there much bleeding, though there was an enormous +amount of serous oozing. Into these wounds was poured a fifteen per +cent. solution of permanganate of potassium, and fully half an hour +was devoted to kneading this drug into the tissues. In addition I made +many hypodermic injections into all portions of the swollen tissue, +but particularly about the wound. Since there was no very distinct +line of demarkation between the swollen and healthy tissue, I did not, +as in other cases, endeavor to prevent the extension of the cellular +involvement by a complete circle of hypodermic injections. I employed, +in all, about forty grains of the permanganate. In addition to the +local treatment I pushed stimulation, employing carbonate of ammonium +and whisky. By means of diuretics and laxatives the kidneys and bowels +were encouraged to eliminate as much of the poison as possible.</p> + +<p>The patient went on to uninterrupted recovery. The wound healed with +very little sloughing. The patient returned to his work in about a +month. The cure of this case was regarded by the cow boys as most +exceptional, since, in their experience, similar cases, even though +very freely stimulated, had not recovered.</p> + +<p>Some time later I was called to see a girl, aged 14, who was struck by +a rattlesnake, fifty-six miles from Fort Fetterman. There was some +trouble about procuring relays, and I was compelled to ride the same +horse all the way out. This took a little short of five hours. This, +together with the time consumed in sending me word, caused an interval +of about twenty hours between the infliction of the injury and the +time I saw the patient. I found the fangs had entered on either side +of the distal joint of the middle metacarpal bone. The arm was +enormously swollen, almost to the axilla, and exhibited a bronzed +discoloration; this was especially marked about the wound and along +the course of the lymphatics. The swollen area was <i>boggy</i> to the +touch, and exhibited a distinct line of demarkation between the +healthy and diseased tissues, excepting along the course of the +brachial vessels, where the indurated discolored area extended as a +broad band into the axilliary lymphatics, which were distinctly +swollen. The patient was delirious, was harrassed by terror, +complained bitterly of pain, and had an exceedingly feeble, rapid +heart action. There was marked dyspnœa, and all the signs of +impending dissolution. I at once made free multiple incisions into all +parts of the inflamed tissue, carrying two of my cuts through the +wounds made by the fangs of the snake. In the arm these incisions were +several inches long and from one to two inches deep. As in the former +case, the bleeding was slight, but there was a free exudation of +serum. Into these wounds a fifteen per cent. permanganate of potassium +solution was poured, and as much as possible was kneaded into the +tissues. In addition multiple hypodermic injections were made, these +being carried particularly into the bitten region, and circularly +around the arm just at the border of the line of demarkation, thus +endeavoring to limit by a complete circle of the antiseptic solution +the further extension of the inflammatory process. In the region of +the brachial vessels I hesitated to make my injections as thoroughly +as in the rest of the circumference of the arm, fearing lest the +permanganate of potassium might injure important vessels or nerves.</p> + +<p>This treatment caused very little pain, but immediately after the +constitutional symptoms became distinctly aggravated. I stimulated +freely, and at once made preparations to take the patient to the Fort +Fetterman hospital. She was transported over the fifty-six miles, I +riding the same horse back again, and arriving at Fort Fetterman the +same evening.</p> + +<p>The after treatment of this case was comparatively simple. She was +stimulated freely as long as cardiac weakness was manifested. As in +the former case, diuretics and laxatives were employed. The arm was +wrapped in cloth soaked in a weak permanganate solution, was placed in +a splint, and was loosely bandaged. There was some sloughing, but this +was treated on general surgical principles. The patient recovered the +entire use of her arm, and was turned out cured in about six weeks.</p> + +<p>The third case I saw about fourteen hours after he was struck. The +patient was a healthy blacksmith, about 30 years of age. The wound was +at about the middle of the forearm, the fangs entering toward the +ulnar side. When I saw the patient he exhibited comparatively trifling +symptoms. His heart action was rapid, and he was suffering from the +typical despondency and terror, but I could not note the profound +systemic depression characteristic of the great majority of cases. +Surrounding the wound and extending up the forearm for several inches +there was a boggy swelling, exhibiting a sharp line of demarkation. It +was bronzed in color, and was apparently spreading. I at once applied +the intermittent ligature just above the elbow, and injected the +permanganate of potassium solution freely all through the involved +tissues, particularly in the region of the bite and about the +periphery of the swelling, surrounding the latter by a complete ring +of injections.</p> + +<p>The general treatment of this patient was continued on the same +general line as described in the former cases, stimulants being +employed moderately. He recovered without any bad symptoms. There was +no sloughing; the swelling disappeared without any necrosis of tissue. +He is still pursuing his trade in Cheyenne, and suffers from +absolutely no disability.</p> + +<p>I saw but one case shortly after the wound was inflicted. This patient +was a healthy young man, who was struck about the middle of the dorsal +surface of the hand, the fangs entering on each side of a metacarpal +bone, and the poison lodging apparently in the palm of the hand. The +patient, when seen, exhibited the characteristic terror and +depression, weak, rapid heart action, and agonizing local pain. I made +two small incisions in the region of the wound upon the dorsum of the +hand, and injected permanganate of potassium freely. This patient +ultimately recovered, but only after sloughing and prolonged +suppuration. I believe that had I incised freely and at once from the +palmar surface, I would have been spared this unpleasant complication.</p> + +<p>I have had in all nine cases, and without a single death. The others +are in their general features and in the treatment employed quite +similar to those given.</p> + +<p>The symptoms resulting from snake bite poison are strikingly like +those dependent upon the violent septic poison seen in pre-antiseptic +times. There is often the same prodromal chill, the high elevation of +temperature, the profound effect on the circulation, and the rapid +cellular involvement. The tissue disturbance following snake poisoning +differs from ordinary cellulitis, however, in the following +particulars: The color is <i>bronze</i>, not red; the involved area is +<i>boggy</i>, not brawny; and the extension of the process is <i>exceedingly +rapid</i>.</p> + +<p>The treatment applicable to one condition seems to be equally +successful when applied to the other. In cellulitis, free incisions, +antiseptic lotions, and active stimulation are the three means upon +which the surgeon mainly depends, and in combating the local and +general symptoms excited by snake bite poisoning, the same treatment +has given me the successful results detailed above. Whether or not +permanganate of potassium is more active than other antiseptics in +snake bite poisoning I am not prepared to state, but the high +authority of S. Weir Mitchell, together with my own experience, does +not incline me to substitute any other drug at present.</p> + +<p>I would formulate the treatment for poison of the rattlesnake as +follows:</p> + +<p>1. Free incisions to the bottom of the wound and immediate +cauterization; or, if this is not practicable, sucking of the wound.</p> + +<p>2. The immediate application of an intermittent tourniquet, that is, +one which is relaxed for a moment at a time, so that the poison may +gain admission into the circulation in small doses.</p> + +<p>3. The free administration of alcohol or carbonate of ammonium.</p> + +<p>This might be termed the <i>urgency treatment</i> of snake bite poisoning. +The <i>curative treatment</i> requires—</p> + +<p>4. Free incisions into all portions of the inflamed tissues, and the +thorough kneading into these incisions of a fifteen per cent. solution +of permanganate of potassium.</p> + +<p>5. Multiple injections of the same solution into all the inflamed +regions, but particularly into the region of the wound.</p> + +<p>6. The complete surrounding of all the involved tissues, by +permanganate of potassium injections placed from half an inch to an +inch apart, the needle being driven into the healthy tissue just +beyond the line of demarkation, and its point being carried to the +deepest part of the border of the indurated area.</p> + +<p>7. The permanganate of potassium solution should be used freely in +fifteen per cent. solution. I have used one and a half drachms of the +pure drug diluted, and would not hesitate to use four times that +quantity were it necessary, since it seems to exert no deleterious +effect, either locally or generally.</p> + +<p>8. The involved area should be dressed by means of lint saturated with +fifteen per cent. permanganate of potassium solution. Stimulants +should be given according to the indications—<i>i.e.</i>, the condition of +the pulse. Laxatives, diuretics, and diaphoretics should be +administered to aid in the elimination of the poison. The diet should +be as nutritious as the stomach can digest.—<i>The Therapeutic +Gazette</i>.</p> + + +<a name="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1">[1]</a><div class="note">Governor of Wyoming.</div> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art14" id="art14"></a>CHINESE COMPETITIVE EXAMINATIONS.</h2> + +<p>Wuchang, on the Yangtsze opposite Hankow, is the capital of the two +provinces Hupeh and Hunan. Here, every third year, the examination for +competitors from both provinces is held, and a correspondent of the +<i>North China Herald</i>, of Shanghai, describes the scene at the +examination at the beginning of September last. The streets, he says, +are thronged with long-robed, large-spectacled gentlemen, who inform +the world at large by every fold of drapery, every swagger of gait, +every curve of nail, that they are the aristocracy of the most ancient +empire of the world. Wuchang had from 12,000 to 15,000 bachelors of +arts within its walls, who came from the far borders of the province +for the examination for the provincial degree. About one-half per +cent. will be successful; thousands of them know they have not the +shadow of a chance, but literary etiquette binds them to appear. In +the wake of these Confucian scholars come a rout of traders, painters, +scroll sellers, teapot venders, candle merchants, spectacle mongers, +etc.; servants and friends swell the number, so that the examination +makes a difference of some 40,000 or 50,000 to the resident +population. In the great examination hall, which is composed of a +series of pens shut off from each other in little rows of 20 or 30, +and the view of which is suggestive of a huge cattle market, there is +accommodation for over 10,000 candidates. The observance of rules of +academic propriety is very strict. A candidate may be excluded, not +only for incompetence, but for writing his name in the wrong place, +for tearing or blotting his examination paper, etc. After the +examination of each batch a list of those allowed to compete for +honors is published, and the essay forms for each district are +prepared with proper names and particulars. The ancestors of the +candidate for three generations must be recorded, they must be free +from taint of <i>yamen</i> service, prostitution, the barber's trade and +the theater, or the candidate would not have obtained his first +degree. With the forms 300 cash (about 1s.) are presented to each +candidate for food during the ordeal. The lists being thus prepared, +on the sixth day of the eighth moon (Tuesday, <a name="Page_13438" id="Page_13438"></a>the 8th of September, in +1891), the city takes a holiday to witness the ceremony of "entering +the curtain," <i>i.e.</i>, opening the examination hall. For days coolies +have been pumping water into great tanks, droves of pigs have been +driven into the inclosure, doctors, tailors, cooks, coffins, printers, +etc., have been massed within the hall for possible needs. The +imperial commissioners are escorted by the examination officials to +the place. A dozen district magistrates have been appointed to +superintend within the walls, and as many more outside, two prefects +have office inside, and the governor of the province has also to be +locked up during the eight days of examination. The whole company is +first entertained to breakfast at the <i>yamen</i>, and then the procession +forms; the ordinary umbrellas, lictors, gongs, feathers, and +ragamuffins are there in force; the examiners and the highest officers +are carried in open chairs draped in scarlet and covered with tiger +skins. The dead silence that falls on the crowd betokens the approach +of the governor, who brings up the rear. Then the bustle of the actual +examination begins. The hall is a miniature city. Practically martial +law is proclaimed. In the central tower is a sword, and misdemeanor +within the limits is punished with instant death. The mandarins take +up their quarters in their respective lodges, the whole army of +writers whose duty it is to copy out the essays of the candidates, to +prevent collusion, take their places. Altogether there must be over +20,000 people shut in. Cases have been known in which a hopeful +candidate was crushed to death in the crowd at the gate. Each +candidate is first identified, and he is assigned a certain number +which corresponds to a cell a few feet square, containing one board +for a seat and one for a desk. Meanwhile the printers in the building +are hard at work printing the essay texts. Each row of cells has two +attendants for cooking, etc., assigned to it, the candidates take +their seats, the rows are locked from the outside, the themes are +handed out, the contest has begun. The examination is divided into +three bouts of about 36 hours, two nights and a day, each, with +intervals of a day. The first is the production of three essays on the +four assigned books; the second of five essays on the five classics; +the third of five essays on miscellaneous subjects. The strain, as may +be imagined, is very great, and several victims die in the hall. The +literary ambition which leads old men of 60 and 70 to enter not +unfrequently destroys them. Should any fatal case occur, the coffin +may on no account be carried out through the gates; it must be lifted +over or sometimes through a breach in the wall. Death must not pollute +the great entrance. At the end of the third trial, the first batch of +those who have completed their essays is honored with the firing of +guns, the bows of the officials, and the ministry of a band of music. +Three weeks of anxious waiting will ensue before a huge crowd will +assemble to see the list published. Then the successful candidates are +the pride of their country side, and well do the survivors of such an +ordeal deserve their credit. The case of those who are in the last +selection and are left degreeless, for the stern reason that some must +be crowded out, is the hardest of all.</p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art15" id="art15"></a>HIGH SPEED ENGINE AND DYNAMO.</h2> + +<p>We illustrate a high speed engine and dynamo constructed by Easton & +Anderson, London. This plant was used at the Royal Agricultural +Society's show at Doncaster in testing the machinery in the dairy, and +constituted a distinct innovation, as well as an improvement, on the +appliances previously employed for the purpose. The separator, or +whatever might be the machine under trial, was driven by an electric +motor fed by a current from the dynamo we illustrate. A record was +made of the volts and amperes used, and from this the power expended +was deduced, the motor having been previously carefully calibrated by +means of a brake. So delicate was the test that the observers could +detect the presence of a warm bearing in the separator from the change +in the readings of the ammeter.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/08-1.png"> +<img src="images/08-1_th.png" width="486" height="400" alt="IMPROVED HIGH SPEED ENGINE AND DYNAMO." title=""> +</a><br /> +IMPROVED HIGH SPEED ENGINE AND DYNAMO. +</p> + +<p>The engine is carefully balanced to enable it to run at the very high +speed of 500 revolutions per minute. The cranks are opposite each +other, and the moving parts connected with the two pistons are of the +same weight. The result is complete absence of vibration, and +exceedingly quiet running. Very liberal lubricating arrangements are +fitted to provide for long runs, while uniformity of speed is provided +for by a Pickering governor. The high pressure cylinder is 4 in. in +diameter, and the low pressure cylinder is 7 in. in diameter. The +stroke in each case is 4 in.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/08-fig2.png"> +<img src="images/08-fig2_th.png" width="467" height="400" alt="Fig. 2." title=""> +</a><br />Fig. 2.</p> + +<p>The dynamo is designed to feed sixty lamps of 16 candle power each, +the current being 60 amperes at 50 volts. The armature is of the drum +type. The peculiar feature of it is that grooves are planed in the +laminated core from end to end, and in these grooves the conductors, +which are of ribbon section, are laid. Slips of insulating material +are laid between the coils and the dovetailed mouths of the grooves +are closed with bone or vulcanized fiber, or other dielectric. At each +end of the core there are fitted non-magnetic covers. At the +commutator end the cover is like a truncated cone, and incloses the +connections completely. One end of the cone is supported on the end +plate of the armature and the other end on a ring on the commutator. A +bell-shaped cover incloses the conductors at the other end of the +armature. The result is that the conductors are completely incased, +protected from all mechanical injury, and positively driven. They can +neither be displaced nor abraded. The conductors on the magnet coils +are likewise carefully protected from harm by metal coverings. These +dynamos are made in sixteen sizes, of which seven sizes are designed +to feed more than 100 lamps, the largest serving for 600 lamps.</p> + +<p class="ctr"> +<img src="images/08-fig3.png" width="548" height="400" alt="Fig. 3." title=""> +<br />Fig. 3.</p> + +<p>Messrs. Easton & Anderson are showing machinery of this type at the +Crystal Palace Electrical Exhibition now open in +London.—<i>Engineering</i>.</p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art27" id="art27"></a>CHLORINE GAS AND SODA BY THE ELECTROLYTIC PROCESS.</h2> + +<p>The decomposition of a solution of common salt, and its conversion +into chlorine gas and caustic soda solution by means of an electric +current, has long been a study with electro-chemists. Experimentally +it has often been effected, but so far as we are aware, the success of +this method of production has never until now been demonstrated on a +sound commercial basis. The solution of this important industrial +problem is due to Mr. James Greenwood, who has been engaged in the +development of electro-chemical processes for many years. The outcome +of this is that Mr. Greenwood has now perfected an electrolytic +process for the direct production of caustic soda and chlorine, as +well as other chemical products, the operation of which we recently +inspected at Phœnix Wharf, Battersea, London. One of the special +features in connection with Mr. Greenwood's new departure is the novel +and ingenious method by which the electrolyzed products are separated, +and their recombination rendered impossible. This object is attained +by the use of a specially constructed diaphragm which is composed of a +series of V-shaped glass troughs, fitted in a frame within each other +with a small space between them, which is lightly packed with asbestos +fiber. Another important feature of the apparatus is a compound anode +which consists of carbon plates, with a metal core to increase the +conductivity. The anode is treated in a special manner so as to render +it non-porous and impervious to attack by the nascent chlorine evolved +on its surface. No anode appears ever to have been invented that is at +all suitable for working on a large scale, and the successful +introduction of this compound anode, therefore, constitutes a marked +advance in the apparatus used in electrolytic methods of production.</p> + +<p>The apparatus by which the new process is being successfully +demonstrated on a working scale has been put up by the Caustic Soda +and Chlorine Syndicate, London, and has been in operation for several +months past. The installation consists of five large electrolytic +vessels, each of which is fitted up with five anodes and six cathodes +arranged alternately. The anodes and cathodes are separated by the +special diaphragms, and each vessel is thus divided into ten anode or +chlorine sections and ten cathode or caustic soda sections. The anodes +and cathodes in each vessel are connected up in parallel similar to an +ordinary storage battery, but the five electrolytic vessels are +connected up in series. The current is produced by an Elwell-Parker +dynamo, and the electromotive force required to overcome the +resistance of each vessel is about 4.4 volts, with a current density +of 10 amperes per square foot of electrode surface. The anode +sections, numbering fifty altogether, are connected by means of tubes, +the inlet being at the bottom and the outlet at the top of each +section. The whole of the cathode sections are connected in the same +manner. In commencing operations, the electrolytic vessels are charged +with a solution of common salt, through which a current of electricity +is then passed, thus decomposing or splitting up the salt into its +elements, chlorine and sodium. In <a name="Page_13439" id="Page_13439"></a>the separation of the sodium, +however, a secondary action takes place, which converts it into +caustic soda. An automatic circulation of the solutions is maintained +by placing the charging tanks at a slight elevation, and the vessels +themselves on platforms arranged in steps. The solutions are pumped +back from the lowest vessel to their respective charging tanks, the +salt solution to be further decomposed and the caustic soda solution +to be further concentrated. The chlorine gas evolved in the fifty +anode sections is conveyed by means of main and branch tubes into +several absorbers, in which milk of lime, kept in a state of +agitation, takes up the chlorine, thus making it into bleaching or +chlorate liquor as may be required. If the chlorine is required to be +made into bleaching powder, then it is conveyed into leaden chambers +and treated with lime in the usual manner. The caustic soda formed in +the fifty cathode sections is more or less concentrated according to +the particular purpose for which it may be required. If, however, the +caustic soda is required in solid form, and practically free from +salt, then the caustic alkaline liquor is transferred from the +electrolytic vessels to evaporating pans, where it is concentrated to +the required strength by evaporation and at the same time the salt +remaining in the solution is eliminated by precipitation.</p> + +<p>Such is the method of manufacturing caustic soda and chlorine by this +process, which will doubtless have a most important bearing upon many +trades and manufactures, more particularly upon the paper, soap, and +bleaching industries. But the invention does not stop where we have +left it, for it is stated that the process can be applied to the +production of sodium amalgam and chlorine for extracting gold and +other metals from their ores. It can also be utilized in the +production of caustic and chlorate of potash and other chemicals, +which can be manufactured in a state of the greatest purity. A very +important consideration is that of cost, for upon this depends +commercial success. It is therefore satisfactory to learn that the +cost of production has been determined by the most careful electrical +and analytical tests, which demonstrate an economy of over 50 per +cent. as compared with present methods. Highly favorable reports on +the process have been made by Dr. G. Gore, F.R.S., the eminent +authority on electro-chemical processes, by Mr. W.H. Preece, F.R.S., +and by Messrs. Cross & Bevan, consulting chemists. Dr. Gore states +that the chemical and electrical principles upon which this process is +based are thoroughly sound, and that the process is of a +scientifically practical character. Should, however, the economy of +production even fall somewhat below the anticipations of those who +have examined into the process very carefully, it can hardly fail to +prove as successful commercially as it has scientifically.</p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art13" id="art13"></a>COMPLETION OF THE MERSEY TUNNEL RAILWAY.</h2> + +<p>On the 11th of January (says the <i>Liverpool Daily Post</i>) will be +opened for traffic the new station of the Mersey Tunnel Railway at the +bottom of Bold Street. With the completion of the station at Bold +Street the scheme may be said to have been brought successfully to a +conclusion. It was not until 1879, after the expenditure of +125,000<i>l.</i> upon trial borings, that the promoters ventured to appeal +to the public for support, and that a company, of which the Right Hon. +H. Cecil Raikes, M.P., was chairman, was formed for carrying the +project of the Mersey Railway into effect. The experience of the +engineers in the construction of the tunnel is not a little curious. +It was proved by the borings that the position in which the tunnel was +proposed to be bored was not only the most important from the point of +view of public convenience, and therefore of commercial advantage, but +was from the point of view of engineering difficulty decidedly the +most preferable. In this position the cuttings passed through the +sandstone rock, although on the Liverpool side the shafts were sunk +through a considerable depth through "made" ground, the whole of Mann +Island and the Goree being composed of earth and gravel tipped on the +old bank of the river. Indeed the miners passed through the cellars of +old houses and unearthed old water pipes; excavated through a depth of +tipped rubbish on which these houses had evidently been built; and +then came upon the former strand of the river, beneath which was the +blue silt usually found; then a stratum of bowlder clay; and finally +the red sandstone rock. Once begun, the works were pushed forward +night and day, Sundays excepted, until January, 1884, when the last +few feet of rock were cleared away by the boring machine, and the +mayors of Liverpool and Birkenhead met in fraternal greeting beneath +the river. The operations gave employment to 3,000 men working three +shifts of eight hours each, but were greatly accelerated by the use of +Colonel Beaumont's boring machine, on which disks of chilled iron are +set in a strong iron bar made to revolve by means of compressed air. +This machine scooped out a tunnel 7 feet in diameter; and by +successive improvements Colonel Beaumont attained a speed of 150 feet +per week, leaving the old method of blasting far behind. As the +machine moved forward the rock behind was broken out to the size of +the main tunnel and bricked in in short lengths. One remarkable +circumstance in connection with the work is that the boring from the +Birkenhead side and the boring from Liverpool were found, when they +were completed and joined, to be out of line by only 1 inch.</p> + +<p>This excellent result was attained by careful calculations and +experiments with perpendicular wires kept in position by weights, +which, to avoid oscillation, were suspended in buckets of water. From +shaft to shaft the tunnel is 1,770 yards in length and 26 feet in +diameter; but for a length of 400 feet at the James Street and +Hamilton Square stations the arch is enlarged to 50½ feet. The tunnel +is lined with from six to eight rings of solid brickwork embedded in +cement, the two inner rings being blue Staffordshire or Burnley +bricks. For the purpose of ventilation a smaller tunnel, 7 feet in +diameter, was bored parallel with the main tunnel, with which it is +connected in eight places by cross cuts, provided with suitable doors. +Both at Liverpool and at Birkenhead there are two guibal fans, one 40 +feet and the other 30 feet in diameter. The smaller, which throw each +180,000 cubic feet of air per minute, ventilate the continuations of +the tunnel under Liverpool and Birkenhead respectively, and the larger +tunnel under the river. The fans remove together 600,000 cubic feet of +air per minute, and by this combined operation the entire air in the +tunnel is changed once in every seven minutes. By the use of +regulating shutters the air passes in a continuous current and the +fans are noiseless. The telegraph and telephone wires pass through the +tunnel, thus avoiding the long detour by Runcorn. Probably, as a feat +of engineering, the construction of the new station at Bold Street is +not inferior to any part of the scheme advanced. Under very singular +and perplexing difficulties it could only be proceeded with in its +first stages from midnight until six o'clock the following morning, it +being of course essential that the traffic at the Central Station +should not be interfered with. During these hours, night after night, +trenches were cut at intervals of 10 feet across the roadway +connecting the arrival platforms at the station, and into these were +placed strong balks of timber, across which planks were laid as a +temporary roadway. Beneath these planks, which were taken up and put +down as required, the rock was excavated to a depth of 9 feet, and the +balks supported upon stout props. Then from the driftway or rough +boring beneath well holes were bored to the upper excavation, and +through them the strong upright iron pillars designed to support the +roof of the new tunnel station were passed, bedded and securely fixed +in position. No sooner were they <i>in situ</i> than the most troublesome +part of the task was entered upon, for the balks had then to be +removed in order to allow to be placed in position the girders running +the length of the new station, and resting on the tops of the upright +pillars. From these longitudinal girders cross girders of great +strength were placed, and between these were built brick arches, +packed above with concrete. This formed the roof of the new station. +One portion of it passed under the rails in the station above, and had +to be constructed without stoppage of the traffic. The rails had +consequently to be supported on a temporary steel bridge of ingenious +design, constructed by Mr. C.A. Rowlendson, the resident engineer and +manager of the company, under whose personal supervision, as +representing Sir Douglas Fox, the work has been carried out. With this +device the men were enabled to go on in safety although locomotives +were passing immediately above their heads. After the completion of +the roof the station below was excavated by what is technically called +"plug and feather" work—that is to say, by drilling holes into which +powerful wedges are driven to split the rock.</p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art23" id="art23"></a>A STEAM STREET RAILWAY MOTOR.</h2> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/09-1.png"> +<img src="images/09-1_th.png" width="508" height="400" alt="North Chicago Street Railroad Engine" title=""> +</a></p> + +<p>While in Paris, President Yerkes, of the North Chicago Street Railway +Company, purchased a noiseless steam motor, the results in +experimenting with which will be watched with great interest. The +accompanying engraving, for which we are indebted to the <i>Street +Railway Review</i>, gives a very accurate idea of the general external +appearance. The car is all steel throughout, except windows, doors and +ceiling. It is 12 ft. long, 8 ft. wide, and 9 ft. high, and weighs +about seven tons. The engines, which have 25 horse power and are of +the double cylinder pattern, are below the floor and connected +directly to the wheels. The wheels are four in number and 31 in. in +diameter. The internal appearance and general arrangement of +machinery, etc., is about that of the ordinary steam dummy. It will +run in either direction, and the exhaust steam is run through a series +of mufflers which suppress the sound, condense the steam and return +the water to the boiler, which occupies the center of the car. The +motor was built in Ghent, Belgium, and cost about $5,000, custom house +duties amounting to about $2,000 more.—<i>The Railway Review</i>.</p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art22" id="art22"></a>TWENTY-FOUR KNOT STEAMERS.</h2> + +<p>Probably the most important form of steam machinery is the marine +engine, not only because of the conditions under which it works, but +because of the great power it is called upon to exert. Naturally its +most interesting application is to Atlantic steaming. The success of +the four great liners, Teutonic, Majestic, City of Paris and City of +New York, has stimulated demand, and the Cunard Company has resolved +to add to its fleet, and place two ships on the Atlantic which will +outstrip the racers we have named.</p> + +<p>The visitor to the late Naval Exhibition interested in shipping will +have remarked at each of the several exhibits of the great firms a +model of a projected steamer, intended to reduce the present record of +the six days' voyage across the Atlantic—the <i>ne plus ultra</i> at this +time of steam navigation. To secure this present result a continuous +steaming for the six days at 20 knot speed is requisite, not to +mention an extra day or two at each end of the voyage. The City of +Paris and the City of New York, Furst Bismarck, Teutonic and Majestic +are capable of this, with the Umbria and Etruria close behind at 18 to +19 knots. Only ten years ago the average passage, reckoned in the same +way as from land to land—or Queenstown to Sandy Hook—was seven days +with a speed of 17 knots, the performance of such vessels as the +Arizona and Alaska. Twenty years ago the length of the voyage was +estimated as seven and a half to eight days at a speed of 16 knots, +the performance of such vessels as the Germanic and Britannic of the +White Star fleet of 5,000 tons and 5,000 horse power. Thirty years ago +the paddle steamer was not yet driven off the ocean, and we find the +Scotia crossing in between eight and nine days, at a speed of 13 or 14 +knots. In 1858 ten and a half to twelve and a half days was allowed +for the passage between Liverpool and New York. So as we recede we +finally arrive at the pioneer vessels, the Sirius and Great Western, +crossing in fourteen to eighteen days at a speed of 6 to 8 knots. For +these historical details an interesting paper may be consulted, "De +Toenemende Grootte der Zee-Stoombooten," 1888, by Professor A. Huet, +of the Delft Polytechnic School.</p> + +<p>Each of the last two or three decades has thus succeeded, always, +however, with increasing difficulty, in knocking off a day from the +duration of the voyage. But although the present six-day 20 knot boats +are of extreme size and power, and date only from the last two or +three years, still the world of travelers declares itself unsatisfied. +Already we hear that another day must be struck off, and that five-day +steamers have become a necessity of modern requirements, keeping up a +continuous ocean speed of 23½ knots to 24 knots. Shipbuilders and +engineers are ashamed to mention the word <i>impossible</i>; and designers +are already at work, as we saw in the Naval Exhibition, but only so +far in the model stage; as the absence of any of the well known +distinguishing blazons of the foremost lines was sufficient to show +that no order had been placed for the construction of a real vessel. +It will take a very short time to examine the task of the naval +architect required to secure these onerous and magnificent conditions, +five days' continuous ocean steaming at a speed of 24 knots.</p> + +<p>The most practical, theory-despising among them must for the nonce +become a theorist, and argue from the known to the unknown; and, +first, the practical man will turn—secretly perhaps, but wisely—to +the invaluable experiments and laws laid down so clearly by the late +Mr. Froude. Although primarily designed to assist the Admiralty in +arguing from the resistance of a model to that of the full size +vessel, the practical man need not thereby despise Froude's laws, as +he is able to choose his mode: to any scale he likes, and he can take +his experiments ready made by practice on a large scale, as Newton +took the phenomena of astronomy for the illustration of the mechanical +laws. Suppose then he takes the City of Paris as his model, 560 ft. by +63 ft., in round numbers 10,000 tons displacement, and 20,000 horse +power, for a speed of 20 knots, with a coal capacity of 2,000 tons, +sufficient, with contingencies, for a voyage of six to eight days. Or +we may take a later 20 knot vessel, the Furst Bismarck, 500 ft. by +50ft., 8,000 tons, and 16,000 horse power, speed 20 knots, and coal +capacity 2,700 tons, to allow for the entire length of voyage to +Germany.</p> + +<p>In Froude's method of comparison the laws of mechanical similitude are +preserved if we make the displacements of the model and of its copy in +the ratio of the sixth power of the speeds designed, or the length as +the square of the speed. Our new 24 knot vessel, taking the City of +Paris as a model, would therefore have 10,000 (24 ÷ 20)<sup>6</sup> = 29,860, +say 30,000 tons displacement, and would be 800 ft. × 90 ft. in +dimensions. The horse power would have to be as the <i>seventh</i> power of +the speed, and our vessel would therefore have 20,000 (24 ÷ 20)<sup>7</sup>, +or say 72,000 horse power. Further applications of Froude's laws of +similitude will show that the steam pressure and piston speed would +have to be raised 20 per cent., while the revolutions were discounted +20 per cent., supposing the engines and propellers to be increased in +size to scale. To provide the requisite enormous boiler power, all +geometrical scale would disappear; but it would carry us too far at +present to follow up this interesting comparison.</p> + +<p>Our naval architect is not likely at present to proceed further with +this monstrous design, exceeding even the Great Eastern in size, if +only because no dock is in existence capable of receiving such a ship. +He has however learned something of value, namely, that this vessel, +if the proper similitude is carried out, is capable of keeping up a +speed of 24 knots for five days with ample coal supply, provided the +boilers are not found to occupy all the available space. For it is an +immediate consequence of Froude's laws that in similar vessels run at +corresponding speeds over the same voyage, the coal capacity is +proportionately the same, or that a ton of coal will carry the same +number of tons of displacement over the same distance. Thus our +enlarged City of Paris would require to carry about 4,000 tons of +coal, burning 800 tons a day.</p> + +<p>With the Britannic and Germanic as models of 5,000 tons and 5,000 +horse power at 16 knot speed, the 24 knot vessel would require to be +of 57,000 tons and 85,000 horse power, to carry sufficient coal for +the voyage of 3,000 miles. These enormous vessels being out of the +question, the designer must reduce the size. But now the City of Paris +will no longer serve as a model, he must look elsewhere for a vessel +of high speed, and smaller scale, and naturally he picks out a torpedo +boat at the other end of the scale. A speed of 24 knots—and it is +claimed even of 25, 26, and 27 knots—has been attained on the mile by +a torpedo boat. But such a performance is useless for our mode of +comparison, as sufficient fuel at this high speed for ten or twelve +hours only at most can be carried—a voyage of, say, 500 miles; while +our steamer is required to carry coal for 3,000 miles. The Russian +torpedo boat Wiborg, for instance, is designed to carry coal for 1,200 +miles at 10 knot speed; but at 20 knots this fuel would last only +twenty-seven hours, carrying the vessel 540 miles. It will now be +found that with this limited coal capacity the speed of the ordinary +torpedo boat must be reduced considerably below 10 knots for it to be +able to cross the Atlantic, 3,000 miles under steam. So that, even at +a possible speed of 10 knots for the voyage, the full sized 24 knot +five-day vessel, of which the best torpedo boat is the model, must +have (2.4)<sup>6</sup>, say 200 times the tonnage, and (2.4)<sup>7</sup>, or 460 times +the horse power. The enlarged Wiborg would thus not differ much from +the enlarged City of Paris. A better model to select would be one of +the recent dispatch boats, commerce destroyers, or torpedo catchers, +recently designed by Mr. W.H. White, for our navy—the Intrepid or +Endymion, for instance. The Intrepid is 300 ft. by 44 ft., 3,600 tons, +and 9,000 horse power for 20 knot speed, with 800 hours' coal capacity +for 8,000 miles at 10 knot <a name="Page_13440" id="Page_13440"></a>speed; which will reduce to 3,000 miles at +16 knots, and 2,000 miles at 20 knots.</p> + +<p>The Endymion is 360 ft. by 60 ft., with coal capacity for 2,800 miles +at 18 knot speed, or for about 144 hours or six days. The enlarged +Endymion for the same voyage of 2,800 miles in five days, or at 21½ +knot speed, would be 44 per cent larger and broader, that is 520 ft. +by 86 ft., and of threefold tonnage, and three and a half times, or +about 30,000 horse power—about the dimensions of the Furst Bismarck, +but much more powerfully engined. This agrees fairly with the estimate +in the SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN of 19th Sept, 1891., where it is stated +that twenty-two boilers, at a working pressure of 180 lb. on the +square inch, would be required, allowing 1½ lb. of coal per horse +power hour.</p> + +<p>The Intrepid, enlarged to a 24 knot boat, for the same length of +voyage of 3,000 miles, would be 650 ft. by 100 ft., 40,000 tons, and +about 45,000 horse power. So now we are nearing the Messrs. Thomson +design in the Naval Exhibition of the five-day steamer, 23½ knot +speed, 630 ft. by 73 ft., and 30,000 to 40,000 horse power.</p> + +<p>No one doubts the ability of our shipbuilding yards to turn out these +monsters; and on the measured mile, and for a good long distance, we +shall certainly see the contract speeds attained and some excelled. +But the whole difficulty turns on the question of the coal capacity, +and whether it is sufficient to last for even five days or for 3,000 +miles. Every effort then must be made to shorten the length of the +voyage from port to port; and we may yet see Galway and Halifax, only +2,200 miles apart, once more mentioned as the starting points of the +voyage as of old, in the earliest days of steam navigation. In those +days the question of fuel supply was a difficulty, even at the then +slow speeds, in consequence of the wasteful character of the engines, +burning from 7 lb. of coal and upward per horse power hour. Dr. +Lardner's calculations, based upon the average performance of those +days, justified him in saying that steam navigation could not pay—as +was really the case until the introduction of the compound engine.</p> + +<p>It is recorded in Admiral Preble's "Origin and Development of Steam +Navigation," Philadelphia, 1883, page 160, that the Sirius, 700 tons +and 320 horse power, on her return voyage had to burn up all that old +be spared on board, and took seventeen days to reach Falmouth. An +interesting old book to consult now is Atherton's "Tables of Steamship +Capacity," 1854, based as they are upon the performance of the marine +engine of the day. Atherton calculates that a 10,000 ton vessel could +at 20 knots carry only 204 tons of cargo 1,676 miles, while a 5,000 +ton vessel at 18 knots on a voyage of 3,000 miles could carry no cargo +at all. Also that the cost per ton of cargo at 16 knots would be +twenty times the cost at eight knots, implying a coal consumption +reaching to 12 lb. per horse power hour. It is quite possible that +some invention is still latent which will enable us to go considerably +below the present average consumption of 2 lb. to 1½ lb. per horse +power hour; but at present our rate of progress appears asymptotic to +a definite limit.</p> + +<p>To conclude, the whole difficulty is one of fuel supply, and it is +useless to employ a fast torpedo boat as our model, except at the +speed at which the torpedo boat can carry her own fuel to cross the +Atlantic. If the voyage must be reduced in time, let it be reduced +from six days to four, by running between Galway and Halifax, a +problem not too extravagant in its demands for modern engineering +capabilities. A statement has recently gained a certain amount of +circulation to the effect that the Inman Company was about to use +petroleum as fuel, in order to obtain more steam. We have the best +possible authority for saying there is not the least syllable of truth +in this rumor. It has also been stated that since solid piston valves +have been fitted to the Teutonic in lieu of the original spring ring +valves, she has steamed faster. This rumor is only partially true. Her +record, outward passage, of 5 days 16 hours 31 minutes, was made on +her previous voyage. She has, however, since made her three fastest +trips homeward.—<i>The Engineer</i>.</p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art19" id="art19"></a>THE MILITARY ENGINEER AND HIS WORK.<a name="FNanchor_1_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_2"><sup>1</sup></a></h2> + +<h3>By Col. W.R. KING.</h3> + +<p>It is not an easy matter to present a dry subject in such an +attractive form as to excite a thrilling interest in it, and military +science is no exception to this rule. An ingenious military instructor +at one of our universities has succeeded in pointing out certain +analogies between grand tactics and the festive game of football, +which appears to have greatly improved the football, if we may judge +from the recent victories of the blue over the red and the black and +orange, but it is not so clear that the effect of the union has been +very beneficial to military science; and even if such had been the +case, I fear there are no similar analogies that would be useful in +enlivening the subject of military engineering.</p> + +<p>From the earliest times of which we have record man has been disposed +to strive with his fellow man, either to maintain his own rights or to +possess himself of some rights or material advantage enjoyed by +others. When one or only a few men encroach on the rights of others in +an organized community, they may be restrained by the legal machinery +of the state, such as courts, police, and prisons, but when a whole +community or state rises against another, the civil law becomes +powerless and a state of war ensues. It is not proposed here to +discuss the ethics of this question, nor the desirability of providing +a suitable court of nations for settling all international +difficulties without war. The great advantage of such a system of +avoiding war is admitted by all intelligent people. We notice here a +singular inconsistency in the principles upon which this strife is +carried on, viz.: If it be a single combat, either a friendly contest +or a deadly one, the parties are expected to contest on equal terms as +nearly as may be arranged; but if large numbers are engaged, or in +other words, when the contest becomes war, the rule is reversed and +each party is expected to take every possible advantage of his +adversary, even to the extent of stratagem or deception. In fact, it +has passed into a proverb that "all things are fair in love and war."</p> + +<p>Now one of the first things resorted to, in order to gain an advantage +over the enemy, was to bring in material appliances, such as walls, +ditches, catapults, scaling ladders, battering rams, and subsequently +the more modern appliances, such as guns, forts, and torpedoes, all of +which are known as engines of war, and the men who built and operated +these engines were very naturally called engineers. It is this kind of +an artificer that Shakespeare refers to when he playfully suggests +that "'tis the sport to have the engineer hoist with his own petard."</p> + +<p>The early military engineer has left ample records and monuments of +his genius. The walls of ancient cities, castles that still crown many +hills in both hemispheres, the great Chinese wall, the historical +bridge of Julius Cæsar, which with charming simplicity he tells us was +built because it did not comport with his dignity to cross the stream +in boats, the bridge of boats across the Hellespont, by Xerxes, are +all examples of early military engineering. The Bible tells us "King +Uzziah built towers at the gates of Jerusalem, and at the turning of +the wall, and fortified them." We may note in passing that the +buttresses, battlements, and bartizans with which our modern +architects ornament or disfigure churches, peaceful dwellings, and +public buildings, are copied from the early works of the military +engineer.</p> + +<p>Coming down to the military engineers of our own country, we find that +one of the first acts of the Continental Congress, after appointing +Washington as commander-in-chief, was to authorize him to employ a +number of engineers. It was not, however, until 1777 that a number of +engineer officers from the French army arrived in this country, and +were appointed in the Continental army. General DuPortail was made +Chief Engineer, and Colonel Kosciusko, the great Polish patriot, was +among his assistants. Other officers of the Continental army were +employed on engineering duty; and under their supervision such works +as the forts and the great chain barrier at West Point were built, and +the siege operations around Boston and Yorktown were carried on.</p> + +<p>After the close of the war, in 1794, a Corps of "Artillerists and +Engineers" was organized. This corps was stationed at West Point, and +became the nucleus of the United States Military Academy. In 1802, by +operation of the law reorganizing the army, this corps was divided, as +the names would indicate, into an Artillery Corps and Corps of +Engineers. The Corps of Engineers consisted of one major, two +captains, four lieutenants, and ten cadets. The Artillery Corps was +again divided into the Ordnance Corps and several regiments of +artillery, now five in number, while the duties of the Corps of +Engineers were divided between the Engineer Corps and a Corps of +Topographical Engineers, organized at a later date; but on the +breaking out of the late rebellion it was deemed best to unite the two +corps, and they have so remained until the present time. The Corps of +Engineers now consists of 118 officers of various grades, from second +lieutenant to brigadier general, of which last grade there is only one +officer, the chief of the corps, and it requires something more than +an average official lifetime for the aforesaid lieutenant to attain +that rank. Hardly one in ten of them ever reach it. Daniel Webster's +remark to the young lawyer, that "there is always room at the top," +will not apply to the Corps of Engineers. The officers are all +graduates of the Military Academy, which institution continued as a +part of the Corps of Engineers until 1866. The vacancies in the corps +are filled by the assignment to it of from two to six graduates each +year, and there is attached to the corps a battalion of four companies +of enlisted men, formerly called Sappers and Miners, but now known as +the Battalion of Engineers.</p> + +<p>We now come naturally to the duties of our military engineer, and here +I may remark that these duties are so varied and so numerous that a +detailed recital of them would suggest Goldsmith's "Deserted Village:"</p> + +<p class="ind"> ... "And still the wonder grew<br /> +That one small head could carry all he <i>ought to know</i>"</p> + +<p>[Never lose sight of fact for the sake of rhyme.]</p> + +<p>In general terms, his duties consist of:</p> + +<div class="note"> +<p> 1. Military surveys and explorations.</p> + +<p> 2. Boundary surveys.</p> + +<p> 3. Geodetic and hydrographic survey of the great lakes.</p> + +<p> 4. Building fortifications—both permanent works and temporary + or field works.</p> + +<p> 5. Constructing military roads.</p> + +<p> 6. Pontoniering or building military bridges, both with the + regular bridge trains and with improved materials.</p> + +<p> 7. The planning and directing of siege operations, either + offensive or defensive; sapping, mining, etc.</p> + +<p> 8. Providing, testing and planting torpedoes for harbor + defense when operating from shore stations.</p> + +<p> 9. Staff duty with general officers.</p> + +<p> 10. Improving rivers and harbors.</p> + +<p> 11. The building and repairing of lighthouses.</p> + +<p> 12. Various special duties as commissioner of District of + Columbia, superintendent military academy, commandant engineer + school, instructors at both of these schools, attaches to + several foreign legations, for the collection of military + information, etc.</p> +</div> + +<p>It would, of course, exceed the proper limits of a single lecture to +go into the details of these many duties, but we may take only a +passing glance at most of them, and give more special attention to a +few that may involve some points of interest. Perhaps the most +interesting branch of the subject would be that of permanent +fortifications, or what amounts to almost the same thing in this +country, sea coast defenses. And here our trouble begins, for, while +civil engineers have constant experience to guide them, their roads, +bridges, and other structures being in constant use, the military +engineer has only now and then, at long intervals, a war or a siege of +sufficient extent to furnish data upon which he can safely plan or +build his structures. Imagine a civil engineer designing a bridge, +road, or a dam to meet some possible future demand, without having +seen such a structure used for twenty years or more, and you can form +some estimate of the delightful uncertainties that surround the +military engineer when called upon to design a modern fort. The +proving ground shows him that radical improvements are necessary, but +actual service conditions are almost entirely wanting, and such as we +have contradict many of the proving ground theories. Thus we have the +records of shot going through 25 inches of iron or 25 feet of concrete +on the proving ground; but such actual service tests as the +bombardment of Fort Sumter, Fort Fisher, and the forts at Alexandria +contradict this entirely, and indicate that, except for the moral +effect, our old forts, with modern guns in them and some additional +strengthening at their weaker points, would answer all purposes so far +as bombardment from fleets is concerned. This is not saying that the +forts are good enough in their present condition, but simply that they +can readily be made far superior in strength, both offensive and +defensive, to any fleet that could possibly be provided at anything +like the same expense, or in fact at any expense that would be +justified by the condition of our treasury, either past, present, or +probable future. It might be added that a still more serious +difficulty in the way of the military engineer, so far as practice and +its consequent experiences are concerned, is that for many years past, +until quite recently, there have been no funds either for experiments +or actual work on fortifications, so that very little has been done on +them during the last twenty years.</p> + +<p>Without going into the question of the necessity for sea coast +defenses, we may assume that an enemy is likely to come into one of +our harbors and that it is desirable to keep him out. What provisions +must be made to accomplish this, <i>i.e.</i>, to secure the safety of the +harbors and the millions of dollars' worth of destructible property +concentrated at the great trade centers that are usually located upon +those harbors? We must first take a look at the enemy and see what he +is like before we can decide what will be needed to repel his attack. +For this purpose we need not draw on the imagination, but we may +simply examine some of the more recent armadas sent to bombard +seaports. For example, the fleet sent by Great Britain to bombard the +Egyptian city of Alexandria, in 1882. This fleet consisted of eight +heavy ironclad ships of from 5,000 to 11,000 tons displacement and +five or six smaller vessels; and the armament of this squadron +numbered more than one hundred guns of all calibers, from the sixteen +inch rifle down to the seven inch rifle, besides several smaller guns. +But this fleet represented only a small fraction of England's naval +power. During some recent evolutions she turned out thirty-six heavy +ironclads and forty smaller vessels and torpedo boats. The crews of +these vessels numbered nearly 19,000 officers and men, or about three +times the entire number in our navy. Such a fleet, or, more likely, a +much larger one, might appear at the entrance say of New York harbor +within ten days after a declaration of war, and demand whatever the +nation to which it belonged might choose, with the alternative of +bombardment.</p> + +<p>The problem of protecting our people and property from such attacks is +not a new one, and, in fact, most of the conditions of this problem +remain the same as they were fifty years ago, the differences being in +degree rather than in kind. The most natural thought would be to meet +such a fleet by another fleet, but the folly of such a course will +become apparent from a moment's consideration. The difficulties would +be:</p> + +<p>1st. Our fleet must be decidedly stronger than that of the enemy, or +we simply fight a duel with an equal chance of success or failure.</p> + +<p>2d. In such a duel the enemy would risk nothing but the loss of his +fleet, and even a portion of that would be likely to escape, but we +would not only risk a similar loss, but we would also lose the city or +subject it to the payment of a heavy contribution to the enemy.</p> + +<p>3d. Unless we have a fleet for every harbor, it would be impossible to +depend upon this kind of defense, as the enemy would select whichever +harbor he found least prepared to receive him. It would be of vital +importance that we defend every harbor of importance, as a neglect to +do so would be like locking some of our doors and leaving the others +open to the burglars.</p> + +<p>4th. It might be thought that we could send our fleet to intercept the +enemy or blockade him in his own ports, but this has been found +impracticable. Large fleets can readily escape from blockaded harbors, +or elude each other on the high seas, and any such scheme implies that +we are much stronger on the ocean than the enemy, which is very far +from the case. To build a navy that would overmatch that of Great +Britain alone would not only cost untold millions, but it would +require many years for its accomplishment; and even if this were done, +there would be nothing unusual in an alliance of two or more powerful +nations, which would leave us again in the minority. <i>Fleets, then, +cannot be relied on for permanent defense.</i></p> + +<p>Again, it may be said that we have millions of the bravest soldiers in +the world who could be assembled and placed under arms at a few days' +notice. This kind of defense would also prove a delusion, for a +hundred acres of soldiers armed with rifles and field artillery would +be powerless to drive away even the smallest ironclad or stop a single +projectile from one. In fact, neither of these plans, nor both +together, would be much more effective than the windmills and +proclamations which Irving humorously describes as the means adopted +by the early Dutch governors of New York to defend that city against +the Swedes and Yankees.</p> + +<p>Having considered some of the means of defense that will <i>not</i> answer +the purpose, we may inquire what means <i>will be</i> effective. And here +it should be noted that our defenses should be so effective as not +only to be reasonably safe, but to be so recognized by all nations, +and thus discourage, if not actually prevent, an attack upon our +coast.</p> + +<p>In the first place, we must have heavy guns in such numbers and of +such sizes as to overmatch those of any fleet likely to attack us. +These guns must be securely mounted, so as to be worked with facility +and accuracy, and they must be protected from the enemy's projectiles +at least as securely as his guns are from ours. Merely placing +ourselves on equal terms with the enemy, as in case of a duel or an +ancient knight's tournament, will not answer, first, because such a +state of things would invite rather than discourage attack, and +secondly, because the enemy would have vastly more to gain by success +and vastly less to lose by failure than we would. This can be +accomplished much easier than is generally supposed, either by earthen +parapets of sufficient thickness or by iron turrets or casements. It +is evident that the weight of metal used in these structures <a name="Page_13441" id="Page_13441"></a>may be +vastly greater than could be carried on shipboard. Great weight of +metal is no objection on land, but, aside from its cost, is a positive +advantage. This is evident when we consider the enormous quantity of +energy stored in the larger projectiles moving at high velocities. For +example, we often hear of the sixteen inch rifle whose projectile +weighs about one ton, and this enormous mass projected at a velocity +of 2,000 feet per second would have a kinetic energy of 60,000 foot +tons, or it would strike a blow equal to that of ten locomotives of 50 +tons each running at 60 miles an hour and striking a solid wall. Any +structure designed to resist such ponderous blows must, therefore, +have enormous weight, or it will be overturned or driven bodily from +its foundations. If the armor itself is not thick enough to give the +required weight as well as resistance to penetration, the additional +stability must be supplied by re-enforcing it with heavy masses of +metal or masonry. It is evident, therefore, that <i>quality</i> of metal is +less important than <i>quantity</i>, and that so long as it is sufficiently +tough to resist fracture, a soft, cheap metal, like wrought iron or +low steel, is better adapted for permanent works than any of the fancy +kinds of armor that have been tested for naval purposes. As an +illustration of this, we may compare compound or steel-faced armor +with wrought iron as follows: The best of the former offers only about +one-third greater resistance to penetration than the latter, or 12 +inches of compound armor may equal 16 inches of wrought iron, but the +cost per ton is nearly double; so that by using wrought iron we may +have double the thickness, or 24 inches, which would give more than +double the resistance to penetration, in addition to giving double the +stability against overturning or being driven bodily out of place. But +our guns may be reasonably well protected by earthen parapets without +any expensive armor by so mounting them that when fired they will +recoil downward or to one side, so as to come below the parapet for +loading. This method of mounting is called the disappearing principle, +and has been suggested by many engineers, some of whose designs date +back more than one hundred years. We may also mount our guns in deep +pits, where they will be covered from the enemy's guns, and fire them +at high elevation, so that the shell will fall from a great height and +penetrate the decks of the enemy's ships. This is known as mortar +firing, but the modern ordnance used for this purpose is more of a +howitzer than a mortar, being simply short rifled pieces arranged for +breech loading. All our batteries should, of course, be as far from +the city or other object to be protected as possible, to prevent the +enemy from firing over and beyond the batteries into the city.</p> + +<p>But, with all these precautions, the enemy might put on all steam and +run by us either at night or in a dense fog, and we must have some +means of holding him under the fire of our guns until his ships can be +disabled or driven away. This object is sought to be accomplished by +the use of torpedoes anchored in the channels and under the fire of +our guns, so that they cannot be removed by the enemy. These torpedoes +are generally exploded by electricity from batteries located in +casements on shore, these casements being connected with the torpedoes +by submarine cables. It is easy to see how the torpedo may be so +arranged that when struck by a ship the electric current will be +closed, and, if the battery on shore is connected at the same instant, +an explosion will take place; on the other hand, if the battery on +shore is disconnected a friendly ship may pass in safety over the +torpedoes. Many ingenious contrivances have also been devised by which +the torpedo may be made to signal back to the shore station either +that it has been struck or that it is in good order for service, in +case the enemy should undertake to run over it. One simple plan for +this is to have a small telephone in the torpedo with some loose +buckshot on the diaphragm, which is placed in a horizontal position, +and will be slightly tilted as the torpedo is moved about by the +waves. By connecting the shore end of the cable with a telephone +receiver, the rolling of the shot may be distinctly heard if the +torpedo is floating properly, but if sunk at its moorings, or if the +cable is broken, no sound will be heard.</p> + +<p>The use of torpedoes involves the use of both electricity and high +explosives, and a careful study based upon actual experiments has been +carried on for many years, by the engineers and naval officers in all +civilized countries. Some of these experiments have supplied +interesting and useful data, for the use of the agents in question, +for various industrial purposes.</p> + +<p>Another form of torpedo is that known as the locomotive torpedo, of +which there are several kinds; some are propelled by liquid carbonic +acid, which is carried in a strong tank and acts through a compact +engine in driving the propeller. One of these is steered by +electricity from the shore, and is known as the Lay-Haight torpedo, +and can run twenty-five miles per hour. The Whitehead torpedo is also +propelled by liquid carbonic acid, but is not steered from shore. Its +depth is regulated by an automatic device actuated by the pressure of +the water. The Howell torpedo is driven by a heavy fly wheel which is +set in rapid rotation just before the torpedo is launched. It has but +a short range and is intended for launching from ships. Another +torpedo is propelled and steered from shore by rapidly pulling out of +it two fine steel wires which, in unwinding, drive the twin screw +propellers. This is the Brennan torpedo. The Sims-Edison torpedo is +both propelled and steered by electricity from the shore, transmitted +to a motor and steering relay in the torpedo by an insulated cable. +This cable has two cores and is paid out by the torpedo as it travels +through the water just as a spider pays out its web. The cable is +about half an inch in diameter and two miles long, and the torpedo can +be driven at about eighteen miles per hour with a current of thirty +amperes and 1,800 volts pressure.</p> + +<p>Still another auxiliary weapon of defense is the dynamite gun, or +rather, a pneumatic gun, that throws long projectiles carrying from +250 to 450 pounds of dynamite, to a distance of about two miles. The +shells are arranged to explode soon after striking the water, by an +ingenious battery that ignites the fuse as soon as the salt water +enters it. The gun, which is known as the Zalinski gun, is some sixty +feet long and fifteen inches in caliber, the compressed air being +suddenly admitted to it from the reservoirs at any desired pressure by +a special form of valve that regulates the range. These guns are to be +mounted in deep pits and fired at somewhat higher elevations than +ordinary guns, but it has great accuracy within reasonable limits of +range.</p> + +<h3>FIELD FORTIFICATIONS.</h3> + +<p>In field fortification an enormous quantity of work was done during +our last war. Washington, Richmond, Nashville, Petersburg, Norfolk, +New Berne, Plymouth, Vicksburg, and many other cities were elaborately +fortified by field works which involved the handling of vast +quantities of earth, and, where the opposing lines were near together, +ditches, abbatis, ground torpedoes, and wire entanglements were freely +used. In some cases the same ground was fortified in succession by +both armies, so that the total amount of work expended, in this way, +would have built several hundred miles of railway. Around Richmond and +Petersburg alone the development of field works was far greater than +Wellington's celebrated lines at Torres Vedras. In all future wars, +when large armies are opposed to each other, it is probable that field +works will play even a more important part than in the past. The great +advantage of such works, since the introduction of the deadly breech +loading rifles and machine guns, was shown at Plevna, where the +Russians were almost annihilated in attempting to capture the Turkish +intrenchments.</p> + +<h3>SIEGES.</h3> + +<p>It is not proposed to go into historical or other details of this +branch of the subject, but to give in a condensed form some account of +siege operations. According to the text books, the first thing to be +done, if possible, in case of a regular siege, is to "invest" the +fortress. This is done by surrounding it as quickly as possible with a +continuous line of troops, who speedily intrench themselves and mount +guns bearing outward on all lines of approach to the fortress, to +prevent the enemy from sending in supplies or re-enforcements. As this +line must be at considerable distance from the fort, it is usually +quite long, and so is its name, for it is called the line of +"Circumvallation." Inside of this line is then established a similar +line facing toward the fort, to prevent sorties by the garrison. This +line is called the line of "Countervallation," and should be as close +to the fort as the range of its guns and the nature of the ground will +permit. From this line the troops rush forward at night and open the +trenches, beginning with what is called the first parallel, which +should be so laid out as to envelop those parts of the fort which are +to be made the special objects of attack. From this first parallel a +number of zigzag trenches are started toward the fort and at proper +intervals other parallels, batteries, and magazines are built; this +method of approach being continued until the besieged fort is reached, +or until such batteries can be brought to bear upon it as to breech +the walls and allow the attacking troops to make an assault.</p> + +<p>During these operations of course many precautions must be observed, +both by the attacking and defending force, to annoy each other and to +prevent surprise, and the work is mostly carried on under cover of the +earth thrown from the trenches. These operations were supposed to +occupy, under normal conditions, about forty-one days, or rather +nights, as most of the work is done after dark, at the end of which +time the fort should be reduced to such a condition that its +commander, having exhausted all means of defense, would be justified +in considering terms of surrender.</p> + +<p>The <i>Theoretical Journal</i> of the siege prescribes just what is to be +done each day by both attack and defense up to the final catastrophe, +and this somewhat discouraging outlook for the defenders was forcibly +illustrated by the late Captain Derby, better known by the reading +public as "John Phœnix," who, when a cadet, was called upon by +Professor Mahan to explain how he would defend a fort, mounting a +certain number of guns and garrisoned by a certain number of men, if +besieged by an army of another assumed strength in men and guns, +replied:</p> + +<p>"I would immediately evacuate the fort and then besiege it and capture +it again in forty-one days."</p> + +<p>Of course the fallacy of this reasoning was in the fact that the +besieging army is generally supposed to be four or five times as large +as the garrison of the fort; the primary object of forts being to +enable a small force to hold a position, at least for a time, against +a much larger force of the enemy.</p> + +<p>Sieges have changed with the development of engines of war, from the +rude and muscular efforts of personal prowess like that described in +Ivanhoe, where the Black Knight cuts his way through the barriers with +his battle axe, to such sieges as those at Vicksburg, Petersburg, and +Plevna, where the individual counted for very little, and the results +depended upon the combined efforts of large numbers of men and +systematic siege operations. It should also be noticed that modern +sieges are not necessarily hampered by the rules laid down in text +books, but vary from them according to circumstances.</p> + +<p>For example, many sieges have been carried to successful issues +without completely investing or surrounding the fortress. This was the +case at Petersburg, where General Lee was entirely free to move out, +or receive supplies and re-enforcements up to the very last stages of +the siege. In other cases, as at Fort Pulaski, Sumter, and Macon, the +breeching batteries were established at very much greater distances +than ever before attempted, and the preliminary siege operations were +very much abbreviated and some of them omitted altogether. This is not +an argument against having well defined rules and principles, but it +shows that the engineer must be prepared to cut loose from old rules +and customs whenever the changed state of circumstances requires +different treatment.</p> + +<h3>MILITARY BRIDGES.</h3> + +<p>In the movement of armies, especially on long marches in the enemy's +country, one of the greatest difficulties to be overcome is the +crossing of streams, and this is usually done by means of portable +bridges. These may be built of light trestles with adjustable legs to +suit the different depths, or of wooden or canvas boats supporting a +light roadway wide enough for a single line of ordinary wagons or +artillery carriages. The materials for these bridges, which are known +as Ponton Bridges, are loaded upon wagons and accompany the army on +its marches, and when required for use the bridge is rapidly put +together, piece by piece, in accordance with fixed rules, which +constitute, in fact, a regular drill. The wooden boats are quite heavy +and are used for heavy traffic, but for light work, as, for example, +to accompany the rapid movements of the cavalry, boats made of heavy +canvas, stretched upon light wooden frames, that are put together on +the spot, are used.</p> + +<p>During Gen. Sherman's memorable Georgia campaign and march to the sea, +over three miles of Ponton bridges were built in crossing the numerous +streams met with, and nearly two miles of trestle bridges. In Gen. +Grant's Wilderness campaign the engineers built not less than +thirty-eight bridges between the Rappahannock and the James Rivers, +these bridges aggregating over 6,600 feet in length. Under favorable +circumstances such bridges can be built at the rate of 200 to 300 feet +per hour, and they can be taken up at a still more rapid rate. When +there is no bridge train at hand the engineer is obliged to use such +improvised materials as he can get; buildings are torn down to get +plank and trees are cut to make the frame. Sometimes single stringers +will answer, but if a greater length of bridge is required it may be +supported on piles or trestles, or in deep water on rafts of logs or +casks. But the heavy traffic of armies, operating at some distance +from their bases, must be transported by rail, and the building of +railway bridges or rebuilding those destroyed by the enemy is an +important duty of the engineer. On the Potomac Creek, in Virginia, a +trestle bridge 80 feet high and 400 feet long was built in nine +working days, from timber out of the neighborhood. Another bridge +across the Etowah River, in Georgia, was built in Gen. Sherman's +campaign, and a similar bridge was also built over the Chattahoochee.</p> + +<h3>SURVEYS AND EXPLORATIONS.</h3> + +<p>For more than half a century before the building of the great Pacific +railways, engineer officers were engaged in making surveys and +explorations in the great unknown country west of the Mississippi +River, and the final map of that country was literally covered with a +network of trails made by them. Several of these officers lost their +lives in such expeditions, while others lived to become more famous as +commanders during the great rebellion. Generals Kearney, J.E. +Johnston, Pope, Warren, Fremont and Parke, and Colonels Long, Bache, +Emory, Whipple, Woodruff and Simpson, Captains Warner, Stansbury, +Gunnison and many other officers, generally in their younger days, +contributed their quota to the geographical knowledge of the country, +and made possible the wonderful network of railways guarded by +military posts that has followed their footsteps. Their reports fill +twelve large quarto volumes.</p> + +<h3>BOUNDARY AND LAKE SURVEYS.</h3> + +<p>The astronomical location of the boundaries of the several States and +Territories, as well as of the United States, is a duty frequently +required of the engineer officer, and such a survey between this +country and Mexico is now in progress. The entire line of the 49th +parallel of latitude from the Lake of the Woods to the Pacific Ocean, +which forms our northern boundary, was located a few years ago by a +joint commission of English and United States engineers, and monuments +were established at short intervals over its entire length.</p> + +<p>A careful geodetic and hydrographic survey of the Great Northern +Lakes, including every harbor upon them and the rivers connecting +them, was carried on for many years and was finally completed some ten +years ago. Maps and charts of these surveys are published from time to +time for use of pilots navigating these waters.</p> + +<p>Not only are the duties of the military engineer similar in many +respects to those of the civil engineer, but there are many instances +in which the duties of one branch of the profession have been +performed by members of the other branch, quite as efficiently as +though they had been performed by engineers specially educated for the +purpose. During the late civil war there were many illustrations of +this, all showing that an ingenious engineer can readily adapt himself +to circumstances entirely different from those to which he has been +accustomed. A very good example of this occurred in the Red River +expedition of General Banks and Admiral Porter. In that memorable but +disastrous campaign an army accompanied by a fleet of transports and +light draught gunboats, sometimes called "tin clads" because some +parts of them were covered with boiler plate to stop the bullets of +the enemy, ascended the Red River in Louisiana; but the advance having +been checked and a retreat commenced, it was found that the river had +fallen to such a low state that the fleet was caught above the rapids +near Alexandria, and it would in all probability have been a complete +loss had it not been for the timely application of engineering skill +by Lieut. Col. Joseph Bailey, a civil engineer from Wisconsin, who +built a temporary dam across the river below the rapids and floated +out the entire fleet. This dam was over 750 feet long and in +connection with some auxiliary dams raised the water level some 6½ +feet. It was built under many difficulties, but by the skill and +ability of the engineer and the co-operation of the troops it was +completed in ten days. Another case was at the siege of Petersburg, +Va., where Lieut. Col. Pleasants, a Pennsylvania coal miner, ran a +gallery from our lines, under the rebel battery, some 500 feet +distant, and blew it entirely out of existence. The mine contained +four tons of powder and produced a crater 200 feet by 50 feet and 25 +feet deep, and was completed in one month. The sequel to this was to +be an attack on the enemy's line through the gap made by the +explosion, and such an attack properly followed up would doubtless +have had a marked effect in shortening the duration of the war, but +this attack was so badly managed that it utterly failed and caused a +severe loss to our own army. The mine itself, however, was a great +success and produced a decided moral effect on both sides which lasted +until the end of the war.</p> + +<p>It may be out of place to digress a moment to illustrate the moral +effect of such a convulsion. Several weeks after this great mine +explosion, the 18th Army Corps, to which I then belonged, was holding +a line of works recently captured from the rebels, about six miles +from Richmond, when one night the colonel commanding Fort Harrison, a +large field work forming a part of this line, came down to +headquarters and reported that some old Pennsylvania coal miners in +his command had heard mining going on under the fort. As the nearest +part of the enemy's line was some 400 <a name="Page_13442" id="Page_13442"></a>yards from the fort, I was quite +certain that they could not have run a gallery that distance in the +time that had elapsed since we occupied the work, but there was of +course the possibility that the mine had been partly built beforehand +so as to be ready in just such a case as had arisen, viz., the capture +of the fort by our troops. I therefore went with the colonel up to the +fort to listen for the mining operations, and got the men who claimed +to have heard the subterranean noises, down in the bottom of the ditch +of the fort, which was ten feet deep, and at the angles formed a +fairly good listening gallery, but nothing unusual could be heard. I +therefore made arrangements to sink a line of pits in the bottom of +the ditch, something like ordinary wells; the bottoms of these pits to +be finally connected by a horizontal gallery which would envelop the +fort and enable us to hear the enemy and blow him up, before he could +get under the fort. Although the commanding officer of that fort was +as brave an officer as the war developed, he would not keep his men in +the fort after dark, but withdrew them quietly to the flanks of the +work, where they not only would be safe from an explosion, but would +be ready to fall upon the enemy in case he should blow up the fort and +rush in to capture the line, as our troops had attempted to do at +Petersburg. No explosion took place, however, and after our +countermining work was completed, the garrison became reassured and +remained in the fort at night as well as in day time. A few months +later, when the enemy was driven from his lines, I went through his +works to see whether any mining had been attempted, and found that a +gallery leading toward Fort Harrison had been carried quite a +distance, but was still incomplete, and it is barely possible that the +old miners were right, after all, in thinking that they could hear the +sound of the pick, although the distance was almost too great to make +this theory very probable.</p> + +<p>Still another illustration of the way in which civil engineers can +make themselves extremely useful in military operations was the +wonderful system of military railways, or railways operated for +military purposes, that formed complete lines of transportation for +the armies and their enormous quantities of supplies and munitions, +more especially those in the West and Southwest. Construction trains +were organized in the most complete style, and when a piece of track +or a number of bridges were destroyed by the enemy, they would be +rebuilt so rapidly that our trains would hardly seem to be delayed by +it. The trains carried spare rails, ties, and bridges of various +lengths ready to put up, and they also carried the necessary rolling +stock and tools for destroying the roads and bridges of the enemy. So +expert had this construction corps become that the enemy was ready to +believe almost any statement in regard to it. General Sherman tells of +an instance where it was proposed to blow up a tunnel, to check his +"March to the Sea," when one of the men objected, saying it was of no +use, for Sherman had a duplicate tunnel in his train.</p> + +<p>Although this is not a sermon, it may not be out of place to point out +a few qualifications common to all engineers, for they all deal more +or less with the same materials and forces and employ similar methods +of investigation and construction. Wood, iron, steel, copper and stone +and their compounds are the materials of the civil, mining, mechanical +and electrical, as well as of the military engineers. They all deal +with the forces of gravitation, cohesion, inertia and chemical +affinity. They all require skill, intelligence, industry, confidence, +accuracy, thoroughness, ingenuity and, beyond all, sound judgment. +Wanting in any one of these qualifications, an engineer is more or +less disqualified for important work. It is said that a distinguished +engineer was always afraid to cross his own bridges, although built in +the most thorough and approved manner. He was deficient in confidence. +Another engineer distinguished for his mathematical attainments built +a bridge which promptly collapsed at the first opportunity. On +overhauling his computations he ejaculated somewhat forcibly, "That +confounded minus sign! It should have been plus." He was deficient in +sound judgment, or what is sometimes called "horse sense."</p> + +<p>Another and more common defect in young engineers is a want of +thoroughness. It is generally best to go to the bottom of a question +at first and keep at it until it is thoroughly and fully completed. +Confucius says, "If thou hast aught to do, first consider, second act, +third let the soul resume her tranquillity." Those who begin a great +many things and never fully complete them lose a great deal of +valuable time, but do very little valuable work. The way to avoid this +difficulty is to be cautious about beginning things, but when once +started don't leave it until you are satisfied to leave it for good. +There is an Arabian saying, "Never undertake <i>all</i> you can do, for he +who undertakes <i>all</i> he can do will frequently undertake <i>more</i> than +he can do."</p> + +<p>Another common error is extravagance. On the plea that "the best is +always the cheapest," and to be sure of a large factor of safety, or +as the late Mr. Holley called it a "factor of ignorance," without much +trouble to themselves, some engineers use more or better materials +than the work requires, and thus greatly increase the cost without any +corresponding advantage. Almost any engineer can do almost anything in +the way of engineering if not limited by the cost, but the man who +knows just what materials to use and how to use them so that they will +answer the purpose as to strength and durability can save his own +salary to his employer many times over by simply omitting unnecessary +expense.</p> + +<a name="Footnote_1_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_2">[1]</a><div class="note"> +<p>A lecture delivered before the students of Sibley +College, Cornell University, December 4, 1891.—<i>The Crank</i>.]</p></div> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art29" id="art29"></a>HOW MECHANICAL RUBBER GOODS ARE MADE.</h2> + +<p>While the manufacture of rubber goods is in no sense a secret +industry, the majority of buyers and users of such goods have never +stepped inside of a rubber mill, and many have very crude ideas as to +how the goods are made up. In ordinary garden hose, for instance, the +process is as follows: The inner tubing is made of a strip of rubber +fifty feet in length, which is laid on a long zinc-covered table and +its edges drawn together over a hose pole. The cover, which is of what +is called "friction," that is cloth with rubber forced through its +meshes, comes to the hose maker in strips, cut on the bias, which are +wound around the outside of the tube and adhere tightly to it. The +hose pole is then put in something like a fifty foot lathe, and while +the pole revolves slowly, it is tightly wrapped with strips of cloth, +in order that it may not get out of shape while undergoing the process +of vulcanizing. When a number of these hose poles have been covered in +this way they are laid in a pan set on trucks and are then run into a +long boiler, shut in, and live steam is turned on. When the goods are +cured steam is blown off, the vulcanizer opened and the cloths are +removed. The hose is then slipped off the pole by forcing air from a +compressor between the rubber and the hose pole. This, of course, is +what is known as hose that has a seam in it.</p> + +<p>For seamless hose the tube is made in a tubing machine and slipped +upon the hose pole by reversing the process that is used in removing +hose by air compression. In other words, a knot is tied in one end of +the fifty foot tube and the other end is placed against the hose pole +and being carefully inflated with air it is slipped on without the +least trouble. For various kinds of hose the processes vary, and there +are machines for winding with wire and intricate processes for the +heavy grades of suction hose, etc. For steam hose, brewers', and acid +hose, special resisting compounds are used, that as a rule are the +secrets of the various manufacturers. Cotton hose is woven through +machines expressly designed for that purpose, and afterward has a +half-cured rubber tube drawn through it. One end is then securely +stopped up and the other end forced on a cone through which steam is +introduced to the inside of the hose, forcing the rubber against the +cotton cover, finishing the cure and fixing it firmly in its place.</p> + +<h3>CORRUGATED MATTING.</h3> + +<p>After the mixing of the compound and the calendering, that is the +spreading it in sheets, the great roll of rubber and cloth that is to +be made into corrugated matting is sent to the pressman. Here it is +hung in a rack and fifteen or twenty feet of it drawn between the +plates of the huge hydraulic steam press. The bottom plate of this +press is grooved its whole length, so that when the upper platen is +let down the plain sheet of rubber is forced into the grooves and the +corrugations are formed. While in that position steam is let into the +upper and lower platens and the matting is cured. After it has been in +there the proper time, cold water is let into the press, it is cooled +off, and the upper platen being raised, it is ready to come out. A +simple device for loosening the matting from the grooves into which it +has been forced is a long steel rod, with a handle on one hand like an +auger handle, which, being introduced under the edge and twisted, +allows the air to enter with it and releases it from the mould.</p> + +<h3>PACKING.</h3> + +<p>Sheet packing is often times made in a press, like corrugated matting. +The varieties, however, known as gum core have to go through a +different process. Usually a core is squirted through a tube machine +and the outside covering of jute or cotton, or whatever the fabric may +be, is put on by a braider or is wrapped about it somewhat after the +manner of the old fashioned cloth-wrapped tubing. The fabric is either +treated with some heat-resisting mixture or something that is a +lubricant, plumbago and oil being the compound. Other packings are +made from the ends of belts cut out in a circular form and treated +with a lubricant. There are scores of styles that make special claims +for excellences that are made in a variety of ways, but as a rule the +general system as outlined above is followed.</p> + +<h3>JAR RINGS.</h3> + +<p>The old fashioned way of making jar rings was first to take a large +mandrel and wrap it around with a sheet of compounded rubber until the +thickness of the ring was secured. It was then held in place by a +further wrapping of cloth, vulcanized, put in a lathe and cut up into +rings by hand. That manner of procedure, however, was too slow, and it +is to-day done almost wholly by machinery. For example, the rubber is +squirted out of a mammoth tubing machine in the shape of a huge tube, +then slipped on a mandrel and vulcanized. It is then put in an +automatic lathe and revolving swiftly is brought against a sharp +knife blade which cuts ring after ring until the whole is consumed, +without any handling or watching.—<i>India Rubber World</i>.</p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art28" id="art28"></a>HOW ENAMELED LETTERS ARE MADE.</h2> + +<p>The following is a description of a brief visit by a representative of +the <i>Journal of Decorative Art</i> to the new factory of the Patent +Letter and Enamel Company, Ltd., situate in the East End of London.</p> + +<p>The company have recently secured a large freehold plot in the center +of the East End of London, and have built for themselves a most +commodious and spacious factory, some hundreds of feet in length, all +on one floor, and commanded from one end by the manager's office, from +whence can be seen at a glance the entire premises.</p> + +<p>The works are divided into two large compartments, and are lighted +from the roof, ample provision being made for ventilation, and +attention being given to those sanitary conditions which are, or +should be, imperative on all well managed establishments.</p> + +<p>We first explore the stockroom. Here are stored the numerous dies, of +all sizes and shapes, which the company possess, varying in size from +half an inch to twelve or sixteen inches. Here, too, is kept the large +store of thin sheet copper out of which the letters are stamped. Our +readers are familiar with the form or principle upon which these +letters are made. It is simply a convex surface, the reverse side +being concave, and being fixed on to the glass or other material with +a white lead preparation. When these letters were first made, the +practice was to cut or stamp them out in flat copper, and then to +round or mould them by a second operation. Recent improvements in the +machinery, however, have dispensed with this dual process, and the +stamping and moulding is done in the one swift, sharp operation.</p> + +<p>The process of making an enameled letter has four stages—stamping, +enameling, firing, and filing. There are other and subsequent +processes for elaborating, but those named are of the essence of the +transaction.</p> + +<h3>STAMPING.</h3> + +<p>The stamping is done by means of presses, and is a very rapid and +complete operation.</p> + +<p>The operator takes a piece of the sheet copper, places it on the +press, the lever descends, there is a sharp crunching, bursting sound, +and in a time shorter than it has taken to describe, the letter is +made, sharp and perfect in every way.</p> + +<h3>ENAMELING.</h3> + +<p>The letters are now taken charge of by a girl, who lays them out on a +wire tray, the hollow side up, and paints them over with a thin +mordant. While they are in this position, and before the mordant +dries, they are taken on the gridiron-like tray to a kind of large +box, which is full of the powdered enamel, and, holding the tray in +her left hand, the girl takes a fine sieve full of the powder and +dusts it over the letter, all superfluous powder falling through the +open wirework and into the bin again, so that there is absolutely no +waste.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/12-1.png"> +<img src="images/12-1_th.png" width="298" height="400" alt="DUSTING THE LETTERS BEFORE FIRING." title=""> +</a><br />DUSTING THE LETTERS BEFORE FIRING. +</p> + +<h3>FIRING.</h3> + +<p>The letters are now taken and placed carefully on thin iron disks or +plates on the bench, where they remain until they are fired. It will +be remembered that we said at the outset that the factory was divided +into two large compartments, and it is into the second of these that +we now go.</p> + +<p>Here are ranged the series of furnaces which convert the copper and +superincumbent enamel into one common body—fuse the one into the +other. An unwary step soon warns us that we are too near the furnace, +unless we want to run the risk of a premature cremation, and in the +interests of the readers of this journal we step back to a respectful +and proper distance, and watch the operations from afar.</p> + +<p>There seems to be something innately picturesque about all furnaces +and those who work about them. Whether it is the Rembrandt effects +produced by the strong light and shade, or whether it is that the +necessary use of the long iron instruments, such as all furnace +workers employ, compels a certain dignity and grace of poise and +action, we know not; but certain it is that the grace is there in a +marked degree, and as we watched the men take their long-handled iron +tongs and place in or lift out the plates of hot metal, we could not +fail to be impressed with the charm of the physical action they +displayed.</p> + +<p>The disk containing the enameled letters is taken at <a name="Page_13443" id="Page_13443"></a>the end of a long +iron handle and carefully placed in a dome-shaped muffle. These +muffles are all heated from the outside; that is, the fire is all +round the chamber, but not in it, the fumes of the sulphur being +destructive of the enamel if they are allowed to come into contact +with it. So intense is the heat, however, that a muffle lasts only +about nine days, and at the end of that time has to be renewed.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/13-2.png"> +<img src="images/13-2_th.png" width="487" height="400" alt="FIRING THE LETTERS" title=""> +</a><br />FIRING THE LETTERS.</p> + +<p>After the enamel is fused on to the copper, the disk is taken out and +placed on a side slab, where it is allowed to cool.</p> + +<p>This process is repeated on the front side of the letter, when all +that remains to complete it is</p> + +<h3>THE FILING.</h3> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/12-2.png"> +<img src="images/12-2_th.png" width="323" height="400" alt="FILING THE LETTERS AFTER ENAMELING." title=""> +</a><br />FILING THE LETTERS AFTER ENAMELING.</p> + +<p>This is done by girls, who, with very fine files, rub off the edges +and any protuberances which may be there. Every letter is subject to +this operation, and all are turned out smooth and well finished.</p> + +<p>Sometimes the letters are colored or further defined by the addition +of a line, but the essentials are as we have already described.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/13-1.png"> +<img src="images/13-1_th.png" width="411" height="400" alt="MIXING THE ENAMEL" title=""> +</a><br />MIXING THE ENAMEL.</p> + +<h3>BRUSHING OUT.</h3> + +<p>There are, however, one or two other operations of interest which we +may notice. The company do not confine their exertions to the making +of letters, various collateral developments having taken place which +fill an important part in this scheme of work.</p> + +<p>Of these, small tablets, containing advertisements or notices, such as +we see in railway carriages, "Push after raising window," or "Close +this door after you," or some legend pertaining to Brown's Soap or +Robinson's Washing Powder. These are done by different processes, the +transfer process, as used in the potteries, being employed, but the +one most largely used is that of "brushing out," which is done by +plates.</p> + +<p>Let us suppose that the tablet shows white letters on a dark ground, +the <i>modus operandi</i> is as follows:</p> + +<p>The tablet has been enameled, as already described, and is white. The +operator now takes a dark enamel and spreads it evenly over the entire +surface of the tablet. He, or she, now takes a stencil plate, of +tinfoil, out of which the ground is cut, leaving the letter in the +center.</p> + +<p>This is carefully placed over the tablet and held tight with the left +hand, while with the right hand he holds a fine brush, which he uses +with a quick, sharp movement over the surface. This action readily +removes the unfired color from the hard, glassy surface underneath, +and leaves a white letter. This is fired, and is then complete.</p> + +<p>Sometimes two and, it may be, three plates are necessary to complete +the brushing out, as ties must be left, as in the case of ordinary +stencils, and these have to be brushed out with additional plates. Two +or three colors may be introduced by this process, but each separate +color means separate firing. If the letters are dark on a light +ground, the process is exactly the same, the stencil only being +modified. In addition to the letters and tablets thus described, the +company also undertake the production of large enameled signs, and to +cope with the rapid expansion of this department of their work they +are erecting special furnaces, to enable them to deal with any demand +likely to be made upon them. The call for things permanent and +washable in the way of advertising is on the increase, and the +enameled plates made by the company is one of the most successful ways +of meeting the demand.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/13-3.png"> +<img src="images/13-3_th.png" width="441" height="400" alt="THE SMITH A MIGHTY MAN IS HE." title=""> +</a><br />"THE SMITH A MIGHTY MAN IS HE." +</p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art26" id="art26"></a>BURNING BRICK WITH CRUDE OIL FUEL.</h2> + +<p>At the present time there is not the least reason why either wood, +coal, or any other solid fuel should be used for the burning of brick. +This style of burning brick belongs to a past age. The art of +brickmaking has made tremendous progress during the past quarter of a +century. It is no longer the art of the ignorant; brains, capital, +experience, science, wide and general knowledge, must in these days be +the property of the successful brick manufacturer. There are some such +progressive brick manufacturers in Chicago, who use neither coal nor +wood in the drying or burning of their clay products. Crude oil is the +fuel which they employ, and with this fuel they obtain cheaper and +better brick than do manufacturers who employ solid fuel. Some of +these manufacturers have expressed themselves as preferring to quit +the brick business rather than return to the use of wood or coal as +fuel in brick burning.</p> + +<p>This shows plainly that progress in our art, when it does come, comes +to remain. It is true that crude oil for brick-burning purposes is not +everywhere obtainable. But there is a fuel which is even better than +crude oil, namely, fuel gas, and which can be produced and employed on +any brick yard at a saving of seventy-five per cent. over coal or +other solid fuel.</p> + +<p>The Rose process for making fuel gas gives a water gas enriched by +petroleum. Roughly, about half the cost of this gas as made at +Bellefonte, Pa., was for oil. The gas cost 6.68c. per 1,000 cu. ft., +with oil at 2¼c. a gallon. At double this price the gas would cost but +10c., and show that in practice, foot for foot, it equals natural gas.</p> + +<p>Fuel gas means a larger investment of capital than does any of the +other modes of brick burning, and is, therefore, not within the reach +of the entire trade. The cost of appliances for burning brick with +crude oil is not very large, and as all grate bars, iron frames, and +doors can be dispensed with in the use of crude oil fuel, the cost of +an oil-burning equipment is but little in excess of an equipment of +grates, etc., for coal-burning kilns.</p> + +<p>At works using small amounts of fuel, especially if cost of fuel bears +but a small proportion to total cost of the manufactured product, oil +will be in the future very largely used. It is clean, as compared with +coal, can be easily handled, and when carefully used in small +quantities, is safe. There are several methods of burning oil that are +well adapted to the use of brick manufacturers and other fuel +consumers.</p> + +<p>The Pennsylvania Railroad made some very thorough experiments on the +use of petroleum in their locomotives, and while the results obtained +are reported to have been satisfactory, it was the opinion of those +having the experiments in charge that the demand for the Pennsylvania +Railroad alone, were it to change its locomotives from coal to oil, +would consume all the surplus and send up the price of oil to a figure +that would compel a return to coal.</p> + +<p>It is true that production has enormously increased in the last three +years, and the promise for the near future is that a high rate will be +maintained. It is further true that the production of Russia has +increased enormously, and will probably be larger this year than ever +before. This Russian oil must go to markets and supply demands that +have been met by American oil, and this will still further increase +the amount of oil available for fuel purposes.</p> + +<p>There is no doubt, therefore, that petroleum has a future for fuel +uses. Many brick manufacturers are ready to use it, notwithstanding +the possibility of an advance in its cost.</p> + +<p>While there are some objections to the use of petroleum as a fuel, +growing chiefly out of the risk attending its storage and conveyance +to the point of consumption, it is undoubtedly true that the chief +objection is the fear that with the increased demand that would follow +any extended use for this purpose would come an increase in price that +would make its continued use too expensive.</p> + +<p>Just four years ago, when the fuel oil industry was first projected, +it was cried down because, as its enemies claimed, there was not +enough oil fuel to be obtained in America to supply the New York City +factories alone, to say nothing of other territory, and because of the +high prices for oil that were sure to follow its substitution for coal +fuel. Since then the industry has experienced a magnificent success, +the sales exceeding 20,000,000 barrels a year, while the price is +lower than ever.</p> + +<p>A curious impression seems to have gained ground to the effect that +the Standard Oil Company does not want to sell oil for fuel. It may be +stated authoritatively that the company is not only able but willing +to sell and deliver oil for fuel purposes in any quantity that may be +desired. It is now delivering oil for fuel purposes in fourteen States +of the Union. For its sales in Chicago and the West and Northwest, the +delivery is by tank cars from the terminus of the pipe line at South +Chicago, to which point it is pumped from Lima, O. The Chicago price +is 1-2/3c. per gallon, or 70c. per barrel of 42 gallons, f.o.b. cars +at Chicago.</p> + +<p>A great many of the brick manufacturers here and throughout the +Northwest are beginning to use crude petroleum as a substitute for +soft coal. It is smokeless, for the fine spray of oil which comes from +the injector consists of such minute drops of the liquid and is so +thoroughly mixed with oxygen that when it burns the combustion is +complete, and only steam and carbonic acid gas go out of the top of +the kiln. Not a speck of soot comes from the kiln or the smokestack or +soils the whitewashed purity of the boiler room. Oil fuel is +absolutely clean. It is labor saving, too. No fireman has to keep +shoveling coal, there are no ashes to be dragged out from under the +furnace grates, and there are no clinkers to clog up the bars. One +man, by turning a valve, may regulate the heat of a kiln containing +one million brick.</p> + +<p>Not only is it cleaner than coal and calls for less labor, but it is +actually cheaper as a fuel. A barrel and a half of crude oil is equal +for furnace fuel to a ton of the best Illinois bituminous coal, and at +70c. a barrel any one can easily calculate the advantages petroleum +has over its smoky rival. Theoretically, two barrels of oil equal in +heating power one ton of best Pittsburg coal.</p> + +<p>An examination into the relative cost of the Pittsburg and Chicago +coal to the oil consumed shows that the price of oil at Pittsburg is +59c. per barrel of 42 gallons, and slack coal can be purchased at from +70c. to 80c. per ton, and the best quality of lump coal at from $1.10 +to $1.25 per ton, while the same quality of fuel can be bought in +Chicago at about 70c. a barrel, as against coal at from $2 to $3.50 +per ton. It would, therefore, look as though there could be no +question whatever as to the economy and advantages to be derived from +the use of oil as a fuel in this vicinity.</p> + +<p>The weight of oil required is less than half that of average coal to +produce the same amount of steam.</p> + +<p>A great advantage in using oil as fuel in brick burning is that the +fires are always under the absolute and direct control of the man in +charge of the burning, who can regulate the volume of flame to the +nicest degree and throw the heat to any part of the arches that he may +desire.</p> + +<p>From present indications, oil will be the fuel adopted generally for +generating power and for brick burning in Chicago, as it saves the +boilers, avoids grate bars, saves dirt and cinders, and reduces +running expenses, etc.</p> + +<p>Much skepticism was at first exhibited in Chicago only a few years ago +when one of the leading brick manufacturers attempted to burn a kiln +of brick with coal for fuel. Nearly all the brickmakers then in +business put on wise looks and predicted the failure of the experiment +with coal. But coal proved to be a better and cheaper fuel than wood, +and in five or six years wood was used only for the kindling of the +coal fires.</p> + +<p>Then came the attempt to burn brick with crude oil, and the experiment +having proved a success, coal has been banished from the leading brick +yards in Chicago and vicinity.</p> + +<p>The Purington-Kimball Brick Co., Adams J. Weckler, Weber & La Bond, +the May-Purington Brick Co., the Union Brick Co., and the Pullman +Brick Co., all having headquarters in Chicago, as well as the Peerless +Brick Co. and the Pioneer Fireproof Construction Co., both of Ottawa, +Ill., are using crude oil fuel for brick burning.</p> + +<p>Lima crude oil is used, and it is atomized by means of steam in small +furnaces extending about two feet from the face of the brick kilns, +and in which furnaces combustion occurs, and the conversion of the oil +and steam into a gaseous fuel is secured. There is little doubt that +the fuel employed in the future by the successful brick manufacturer +must be in the gaseous form. Owing to the enormous cost of handling +coal, wood, and other crude fuel, and of removing the ash resulting +from such fuel, it has been demonstrated in practice by the use of +crude oil that the expense connected with the burning of brick can be +reduced fully 60 per cent. This large saving is made by converting +crude petroleum into gas and utilizing this fuel, either directly in +the arches of the kiln or by converting the crude oil into gas in a +gas producer, and drawing this fuel gas from the producer and burning +the same as required in kilns of suitable construction.</p> + +<p>Crude oil fuel must in the future play an important part in all +branches of manufacture requiring high, constant heats, and in which +the cost of wood, coal, and other solid fuels, together with the labor +cost of handling them, forms a considerable part of the cost of +production. Where coal is required to be hauled in carts from the +wharves, or from a line of railway to the brick yard, located a mile, +more or less, from the places where the coal is received, the cost of +handling, haulage, and waste is an important item. Added to these +costs, the deterioration of soft coal under atmospheric influences and +the waste from imperfect combustion and from the particles which fall +from the grate bars into the ash pits, all eat a large hole in the +brickmakers' profit.</p> + +<p>Mr. D.V. Purington, of Chicago, Ill., in speaking on this subject, +says:</p> + +<div class="blkquot"> +<p> "I will say that my fuel bill for oil is cheaper than it would + cost me for coal. There is a very wide difference in the cost + of unloading, hauling away ashes and cinders, and getting my + coal around to the kiln, or boilers, or drier, or wherever I + use it, and I get very much better results by being able to + put the heat from oil fuel just where I want it." +</p></div> + +<p>In order to secure the best results with any fuel it is not only +necessary that a cheap fuel should be used, but that it should be +always obtainable, and that all of it should be burned and turned to +commercial account in the operations of brick manufacture.</p> + +<p>Owing to the losses which we have previously mentioned, and resulting +from the use of coal, this fuel is destined to be superseded by some +form of fuel which will avoid such losses, and which will dispense +with all of the inconveniences now encountered in the handling of coal +and of the ashes resulting from combustion. Wood is rapidly becoming +too scarce and high near the great centers of man's habitation to be +regarded in the present discussion.</p> + +<p><a name="Page_13444" id="Page_13444"></a>Fully two hundred million of brick a year are being burned in the city +of Chicago with crude oil fuel, and a clamp kiln containing one +million brick can be burned with crude oil in Chicago at a labor cost +of less than $100, and at a total cost for labor and oil of about 40c. +per thousand brick.</p> + +<p>There are not, however, many places in the world where brick can be +burned with oil at such a low cost as in the city of Chicago; the +reason being that oil is not everywhere obtainable so cheaply as in +this city, and because few clays in the world are so easily burned +into brick as are the clays of Chicago. In Milwaukee, Wis., and in +other places within a distance of 100 miles from Chicago, the time +required to burn building brick with crude oil fuel averages from +sixteen to twenty-one days, whereas the time of burning the Chicago +clays averages only about five days, and splendid "burns" have been +secured there with crude oil in three and one-half days. It is +evident, therefore, that the advantages of using crude oil fuel for +the burning of brick will vary in different parts of the United +States.</p> + +<p>Where circumstances and the nature of the clay permit of its use, +crude oil is, next to fuel gas, the brickmakers' ideal fuel.—<i>The +Brickmaker</i>.</p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art01" id="art01"></a>INVESTIGATION OF A MOUND NEAR JEFFERSON CITY, MO.</h2> + +<h3>By A.S. LOGAN.</h3> + +<p>Recently, a party consisting of engineers and employes of the Missouri +River Improvement Commission began an exploration of one of the +mounds, a work of a prehistoric race, situated on the bluff, which +overlooks the Missouri River from an elevation of one hundred and +fifty feet, located about six miles below Jefferson City.</p> + +<p>This mound is one of about twenty embraced in a circle one quarter of +a mile in diameter.</p> + +<p>The above party selected the mound in question apparently at +haphazard; all the mounds presenting nearly a uniform outline, +differing only in size and mostly circular in form, and from twenty to +twenty-four feet at the base, rising to a height of eight feet and +under. A trench was cut on a level with the natural soil, penetrating +the mound about eight feet. A stone wall was encountered which was +built very substantially, making access in that direction difficult, +in consequence of which the earth was removed from the top for the +purpose of entering from that direction. The earth was removed for a +depth of four feet, when the top of the wall was exposed. Further +excavation brought to light human bones, some of them fairly well +preserved, especially the bones of the legs. On the removal of these +and a layer of clay, another layer of bones was exposed, but +presenting a different appearance than the first, having evidently +been burned or charred, a considerable quantity of charcoal being +mixed with the bones. In this tier were found portions of several +skulls, lying close together, as if they had been interred without +regard to order. They were, in all probability, detached from the body +when buried.</p> + +<p>The portions of the skulls found were those of the back of the head, +no frontal bones being discovered. Some jaw bones with the teeth +attached were among the remains, but only that portion of the jaw +containing the molar teeth.</p> + +<p>A few pieces of flint weapons were found in the upper layers, and +nothing else of any significance.</p> + +<p>At this juncture the diggers abandoned the search, and some days later +the writer, desirous of seeing all that was to be seen, resumed the +work and removed the earth and remains until the bottom of the vault +was reached; several layers being thus removed. All of these had +evidently been burned, as charcoal and ashes were mixed with the bones +of each succeeding layer. The layers were about an inch in thickness, +with from two to four inches of earth between, and small flat stones, +about the size of a man's hand, spread on each different layer, as if +to mark its division from the next above.</p> + +<p>Between the bottom layers, mixed with charcoal, ashes and small +portions of burned bones were found what gives value to the search, +numbering about fifty tools and a smoking pipe.</p> + +<p>The material of the tools is the same as the rock forming the vault, +locally known as "cotton rock." I would consider it a species of +sandstone.</p> + +<p>Overlying the edge of "cotton rock" in the bluff is flint in great +quantities, and in every conceivable shape, that these people could +have resorted to had they been so disposed, and why they used the +softer material I will leave to some archæologist to determine. The +tools themselves are made after no pattern, but selected for their +cutting qualities, as they all have a more or less keen edge which +could be used for cutting purposes, and were no doubt highly prized, +as they were found all in a pile in one corner of the vault and on top +of which was found a stone pipe. The pipe is made bowl and stem +together, and it is curious that people of such crude ideas of tools +and weapons should manufacture such a perfect specimen of a pipe. It +is composed of a very heavy stone, the nature of which would be +difficult to determine, as it is considerably burned.</p> + +<p>A description of the vault will be found interesting to many. The wall +of the vault rests upon the natural surface of the ground, about three +feet high and eight and a half feet square, the inside corners being +slightly rounded; it is built in layers about four inches in thickness +and varying in length upward to three feet, neither cement nor mortar +being used in the joints; the corners formed a sort of recess as they +were drawn inward to the top, in which many of the stones were found. +The stone for constructing the vault was brought from a distance of +about a quarter of a mile, as there is none in sight nearer.</p> + +<p>I assume from all these circumstances that these people lived in this +neighborhood anterior to the age of flint tools, as the more recent +interments indicate that they were then entering upon the flint +industry, and it may be that the "cotton rock" had become obsolete.</p> + +<p>These people buried their dead on the highest ground, covering and +protecting them with these great mounds, when it would seem much +easier to bury as at the present day; but instead, they, with great +labor, carried the rock from a great distance, and it is reasonable to +suppose, also, that the earth was brought from a distance with which +they are surrounded, and piled high above, as there is no trace of an +immediate or local excavation.</p> + +<p>In my view from the mounds and their surroundings I would +unhesitatingly say the water, the foot hills of the glacier and the +swamps left in its wake were but a short distance to the north of +them, and during the summer months the melting ice would send a volume +of water down this valley that the Missouri River of to-day is but a +miniature of, and therefore the highest hills were the only land that +could be used by that ancient race.</p> + +<p>In this connection I would make the following suggestions that may +lead to more important disclosures: My object is the hope of a more +thorough investigation at some future time. Nearer to the top of the +mound was found, certainly, the remains of a people of more recent +date than those found in the vault, as their bones were larger, which +would indicate a more stalwart tribe, and also their mode of burial +was different, as there was no indication of fire being used, as was +the case with the lower burials. I would pronounce the upper +interments those of Indians of the present day; the tools found with +these were weapons of the chase. On the other hand, those found in the +vault were of a peaceful character, and their surroundings would +readily comport, in my opinion, to the glacial period. The entire +absence of flint in the bottom of the mound would show one of two +things, either they were unacquainted with the use of flint or at that +time there was no flint to be had. It is there now in great abundance, +in such forms for cutting purposes that would render the "cotton rock" +almost useless. The flint is found in a hill close to the river bank, +about half a mile from the mound, and the upper portion of the ledge +has the appearance, to me, of glacial action and probably forms a +moraine, as it has, evidently, been pushed over the underlying ledge, +and been ground and splintered in a manner that could not have been +without great crushing force. It would be reasonable enough to suppose +that the action of the river may have uncovered this flint by washing +away the softer material since the occupation of the older race.</p> + +<p>In relation to the Indian interment in the examined mound, I could not +say distinctly whether the Indian burials had been such as to make +them aware of former burials or not, but I think from the thickness of +the clay between the two that they were ignorant of former burials. +The mounds of the modern Indian, so far as my investigations are +concerned, would indicate a more rudely formed structure which would +appear to be an imitation of the older mounds, as they are not +finished with like care nor have they the ulterior structures.—<i>The +Scientist</i>.</p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art25" id="art25"></a>ACTION OF CAUSTIC SODA ON WOOD.</h2> + +<h3>By M.H. TAUSS.</h3> + +<p>The researches of the author upon the action which water exerts upon +wood at a high temperature have shown how much of the incrusting +material can be removed without the aid of any reagent.</p> + +<p>In connection with the manufacture of cellulose, it is also +interesting to prosecute at the same time experiments with solutions +of the caustic alkalies, in order to study the mode of action upon +both wood and pure cellulose. The manufacture of cellulose has for +many years been an industry, and yet little or nothing from a chemical +point of view is known of the action of caustic soda upon vegetable +fibers.</p> + +<p>Braconnot, in 1820, obtained alumina by treating wood with an alkali, +but the first application of wood to the manufacture of paper was due +to Chauchard. By boiling vegetable fibers with caustic lyes, Collier +and Piette obtained cellulose. Again, in 1862, Barne and Blondel +proposed to make cellulose in a similar way, but employed nitric acid +in the place of soda.</p> + +<p>The first cellulose made exclusively from wood and caustic soda was +produced at the Manayunk Wood Pulp Works, in 1854, in the neighborhood +of Philadelphia, by Burgess & Watt. The operation consisted in +treating the wood for six hours at a pressure of from six to eight +atmospheres, with a solution of caustic soda of 12° B.</p> + +<p>Ungerer noticed that it was sufficient to limit the pressure from +three to six atmospheres, according to the quality of the wood, and +advised the use of solutions containing four to five per cent. of +caustic soda. He employed a series of cylinders, arranged vertically, +in which the wood was subjected to a methodical system of lixiviation. +The same lye passed through many cylinders, so that when it made its +exit at the end it was thoroughly exhausted, and the wood thus kept +coming in contact with fresh alkaline solutions.</p> + +<p>According to the account of Kiclaner, the disintegration of wood may +be effected in the following four ways:</p> + +<div class="blkquot"> +<p>1. By heating direct in boilers at a pressure of 10 + atmospheres. (See Dresel and Rosehain.)</p> + +<p> 2. In vertical boilers heated direct or by steam, and kept at + a pressure of from 10 to 14 atmospheres. (Sinclair, Nicol, and + Behrend.)</p> + +<p> 3. In revolving boilers, maintained at a pressure of 12 + atmospheres by direct steam.</p> + +<p> 4. By means of a series of small vessels communicating with + each other, and through which a lye circulates at a pressure + of six atmospheres. (Ungerer.)</p> +</div> + +<p>This latter process is preferable to the others.</p> + +<p>Researches have also been made by the author in order to ascertain the +loss which wood and cellulose suffer at different temperatures or in +contact with varying quantities of alkali (NaHO).</p> + +<p>The following is a <i>resumé</i> of the experiments, giving the loss in per +cent, resulting from a "cooking" of three hours duration:</p> + + +<table align="center" border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> + +<tr><td>I.</td><td colspan="4" align="left">Ordinary pressure:</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td colspan="4" align="left">10 grms. cellulose, with 580 c.c. of caustic soda solution, sp. gr. 1.09</td><td>21.99</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td>10</td><td>grms. of</td><td>soft</td><td>wood, treated as above</td><td>49.19</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td>10</td><td>"</td><td>hard</td><td>"</td><td>53.68</td></tr> + +<tr><td>II.</td><td colspan="4" align="left">Pressure of five atmospheres:</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td colspan="4" align="left">10 grms. cellulose, with 500 c.c. caustic soda solution of sp. gr. 1.099</td><td>58.02</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td>10</td><td>grms. of</td><td>soft</td><td>wood, treated as above</td><td>75.85</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td>10</td><td>"</td><td>hard</td><td>"</td><td>69.80</td></tr> + +<tr><td>III.</td><td colspan="4" align="left">Pressure of ten atmospheres:</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td>10</td><td>grms.</td><td colspan="2">of cellulose</td><td>58.99</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td>10</td><td>"</td><td>soft</td><td>wood</td><td>81.80</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td>10</td><td>"</td><td>hard</td><td>"</td><td>70.39</td></tr> + +<tr><td>IV.</td><td colspan="4" align="left">Ordinary pressure:</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td colspan="4" align="left">10 grms. of cellulose, with 500 c.c. caustic soda solution of sp. gr. 1.162</td><td>21.88</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td>10</td><td>grms. of</td><td>soft</td><td>wood</td><td>35.45</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td>10</td><td>"</td><td>hard</td><td>"</td><td>46.43</td></tr> + +<tr><td>V.</td><td colspan="4" align="left">Pressure of five atmospheres:</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td colspan="4" align="left">10 grms. of cellulose, with 500 c.c. caustic soda solution of sp. gr. 1.162</td><td>77.33</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td>10</td><td>grms. of</td><td>soft</td><td>wood</td><td>97.13</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td>10</td><td>"</td><td>hard</td><td>"</td><td>91.48</td></tr> + +<tr><td>VI.</td><td colspan="4" align="left">Ordinary pressure:</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td colspan="4" align="left">10 grms. of cellulose, with 500 c.c. caustic soda solution of sp. gr. 1.043</td><td>12.07</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td>10</td><td>grms. of</td><td>soft</td><td>wood</td><td>28.37</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td>10</td><td>"</td><td>hard</td><td>"</td><td>30.25</td></tr> + +<tr><td>VII.</td><td colspan="4" align="left">Pressure of five atmospheres:</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td colspan="4" align="left">10 grms. of cellulose, with 500 c.c. of caustic soda solution of sp. gr. 1.043</td><td>15.36</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td>10</td><td>grms. of</td><td>soft</td><td>wood</td><td>50.96</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td>10</td><td>"</td><td>hard</td><td>"</td><td>55.66</td></tr> + +<tr><td>VIII.</td><td colspan="4" align="left">Pressure of ten atmospheres:</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td colspan="4" align="left">10 grms. of cellulose, with 200 c.c. caustic soda solution of sp. gr. 1.043</td><td>20.28</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td>10</td><td>grms. of</td><td>soft</td><td>wood</td><td>70.31</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td>10</td><td>"</td><td>hard</td><td>"</td><td>65.59</td></tr> +</table> + + +<p>From this it is evident that by increasing the temperature and +pressure the solvent action of the alkali is increased, but the +strength of the lye exercises an influence which is even more marked. +Thus, at a pressure of five atmospheres, the loss of cellulose was +0.75 with a caustic lye containing 14 per cent. of NaHO, while it was +only 0.05 with a lye of 8 per cent. NaHO.</p> + +<p>To further elucidate the action of the alkali under the conditions +given above, the author has estimated the amount of precipitate which +alcohol gives with the soda solutions, after boiling with the wood:</p> + +<table align="center" border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<colgroup span="7"><col align="left"><col span="3" align="center"> +<col align="right" span="3"></colgroup> +<tr><th colspan="4"></th><th>1.</th><th>2.</th><th>3.</th></tr> +<tr><td colspan="4">Specific gravity of NaHO solutions</td><td>1.043</td><td>1.09</td><td>1.162</td></tr> +<tr><td>Soft wood,</td><td colspan="3">ordinary pressure</td><td>1.043</td><td>traces</td><td>4.8</td></tr> +<tr><td>"</td><td>pressure of</td><td>five</td><td>atmospheres</td><td>1.043</td><td>2.0</td><td>26.8</td></tr> +<tr><td>"</td><td>"</td><td>ten</td><td>"</td><td>1.043</td><td>1.7</td><td>—</td></tr> +<tr><td>Hard wood,</td><td colspan="3">ordinary pressure</td><td>11.10</td><td>27.40</td><td>30.80</td></tr> +<tr><td>"</td><td>pressure of</td><td>five</td><td>atmospheres</td><td>1.10</td><td>25.70</td><td>15.8</td></tr> +<tr><td>"</td><td>"</td><td>ten</td><td>"</td><td>traces</td><td>5.20</td><td>15.8</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>The estimation of the precipitate, produced in the soda solutions +employed in the experiments cited above, gives:</p> + +<table align="center" border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<colgroup span="7"><col align="left"><col span="3" align="center"> +<col align="right" span="3"></colgroup> +<tr><td>Soft wood,</td><td colspan="3">ordinary pressure</td><td>1.31</td><td>traces</td><td>2.0</td></tr> +<tr><td>"</td><td>pressure of</td><td>five</td><td>atmospheres</td><td>15.94</td><td>16.0</td><td>24.80</td></tr> +<tr><td>"</td><td>"</td><td>ten</td><td>"</td><td>17.00</td><td>25.4</td><td>—</td></tr> +<tr><td>Hard wood,</td><td colspan="3">ordinary pressure</td><td>5.40</td><td>6</td><td>5.60</td></tr> +<tr><td>"</td><td>pressure of</td><td>five</td><td>atmospheres</td><td>9.40</td><td>15.40</td><td>33.60</td></tr> +<tr><td>"</td><td>"</td><td>ten</td><td>"</td><td>14.00</td><td>18.40</td><td>33.60</td></tr> +</table> + + +<p>As a general rule manufacturers employ a greater pressure than that +which was found necessary by the author. As a result, it appears from +these experiments that the wood not only loses incrusting matter, but +that part of the cellulose enters into solution. As a matter of fact, +the yield obtained in practical working from 100 parts of wood does +not exceed 30 to 35 per cent.—<i>Le Bull. Fab. Pap.; Chemical Trade +Journal.</i></p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art11" id="art11"></a>NEW BORON COMPOUNDS.</h2> + +<p>An important paper is contributed by M. Moissan to the current number +of the <i>Comptes Rendus</i>, describing two interesting new compounds +containing boron, phosphorus, and iodine. A few months ago M. Moissan +succeeded in preparing the iodide of boron, a beautiful substance of +the composition BI<sub>3</sub>, crystallizing from solution in carbon bisulphide +in pearly tables, which melt at 43° to a liquid which boils +undecomposed at 210°. When this substance is brought in contact with +fused phosphorus an intense action occurs, the whole mass inflames +with evolution of violet vapor of iodine. Red phosphorus also reacts +with incandescence when heated in the vapor of boron iodide. The +reaction may, however, be moderated by employing solutions of +phosphorus and boron iodide in dry carbon bisulphide. The two +solutions are mixed in a tube closed at one end, a little phosphorus +being in excess, and the tube is then sealed. No external application +of heat is necessary. At first the liquid is quite clear, but in a few +minutes a brown solid substance commences to separate, and in three +hours the reaction is complete. The substance is freed from carbon +bisulphide in a current of carbon dioxide, the last traces being +removed by means of the Sprengel pump. The compound thus obtained is a +deep red amorphous powder, readily capable of volatilization. It melts +between 190° and 200°. When heated <i>in <a name="Page_13445" id="Page_13445"></a>vacuo</i> it commences to +volatilize about 170°, and the vapor condenses in the cooler portion +of the tube in beautiful red crystals. Analyses of these crystals +agree perfectly with the formula BPI<sub>2</sub>. Boron phospho-di-iodide is a +very hygroscopic substance, moisture rapidly decomposing it. In +contact with a large excess of water, yellow phosphorus is deposited, +and hydriodic, boric, and phosphorus acids formed in the solution. A +small quantity of phosphureted hydrogen also escapes. If a small +quantity of water is used, a larger deposit of yellow phosphorus is +formed, together with a considerable quantity of phosphonium iodide. +Strong nitric acid oxidizes boron phospho-di-iodide with +incandescence. Dilute nitric acid oxidizes it to phosphoric and boric +acids. It burns spontaneously in chlorine, forming boron chloride, +chloride of iodine, and pentachloride of phosphorus. When slightly +warmed in oxygen it inflames, the combustion being rendered very +beautiful by the fumes of boric and phosphoric anhydrides and the +violet vapors of iodine. Heated in contact with sulphureted hydrogen, +it forms sulphides of boron and phosphorus and hydriodic acid, without +liberation of iodine. Metallic magnesium when slightly warmed reacts +with it with incandescence. When thrown into vapor of mercury, boron +phospho-di-iodide instantly takes fire.</p> + +<p>The second phospho-iodide of boron obtained by M. Moissan is +represented by the formula BPI. It is formed when sodium or magnesium +in a fine state of division is allowed to act upon a solution of the +di-iodide just described in carbon bisulphide; or when boron +phospho-di-iodide is heated to 160° in a current of hydrogen. It is +obtained in the form of a bright red powder, somewhat hygroscopic. It +volatilizes <i>in vacuo</i> without fusion at a temperature about 210°, and +the vapor condenses in the cooler portion of the tube in beautiful +orange colored crystals. When heated to low redness it decomposes into +free iodine and phosphide of boron, BP. Nitric acid reacts +energetically with it, but without incandescence, and a certain amount +of iodine is liberated. Sulphuric acid decomposes it upon warming, +without formation of sulphurous and boric acids and free iodine. By +the continued action of dry hydrogen upon the heated compound the +iodine and a portion of the phosphorus are removed, and a new +phosphide of boron, of the composition B<sub>5</sub>P<sub>3</sub>, is +obtained.—<i>Nature</i>.</p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art08" id="art08"></a>BORON SALTS.</h2> + +<p>A paper upon the sulphides of boron is communicated by M. Paul +Sabatier to the September number of the <i>Bulletin de la Societe +Chimique. Nature</i> gives the following: Hitherto only one compound of +boron with sulphur has been known to us, the trisulphide, B<sub>2</sub>S<sub>3</sub>, +and concerning even that our information has been of the most +incomplete description. Berzelius obtained this substance in an impure +form by heating boron in sulphur vapor, but the first practical mode +of its preparation in a state of tolerable purity was that employed by +Wohler and Deville. These chemists prepared it by allowing dry +sulphureted hydrogen gas to stream over amorphous boron heated to +redness. Subsequently a method of obtaining boron sulphide was +proposed by Fremy, according to which a mixture of boron trioxide, +soot, and oil is heated in a stream of the vapor of carbon bisulphide. +M. Sabatier finds that the best results are obtained by employing the +method of Wohler and Deville. The reaction between boron and +sulphureted hydrogen only commences at red heat, near the temperature +of the softening of glass. When, however, the tube containing the +boron becomes raised to the temperature, boron sulphide condenses in +the portion of the tube adjacent to the heated portion; at first it is +deposited in a state of fusion, and the globules on cooling present an +opaline aspect. Further along the tube it is slowly deposited in a +porcelain like form, while further still the sublimate of sulphide +takes the form of brilliant acicular crystals. The crystals consist of +pure B<sub>2</sub>S<sub>3</sub>; the vitreous modification, however, is usually +contaminated with a little free sulphur. Very fine crystals of the +trisulphide may be obtained by heating a quantity of the +porcelain-like form to 300° at the bottom of a closed tube whose upper +portion is cooled by water. The crystals are violently decomposed by +water, yielding a clear solution of boric acid, sulphureted hydrogen +being evolved. On examining the porcelain boat in which the boron had +been placed, a non-volatile black substance is found, which appears to +consist of a lower sulphide of the composition B<sub>4</sub>S. The same +substance is obtained when the trisulphide is heated in a current of +hydrogen; a portion volatilizes, and is deposited again further along +the tube, while the residue fuses, and becomes reduced to the +unalterable subsulphide B<sub>4</sub>S, sulphureted hydrogen passing away in +the stream of gas.</p> + +<p>Two selenides of boron, B<sub>2</sub>Se<sub>3</sub> and B<sub>4</sub>Se, corresponding to the +above described sulphides, have also been prepared by M. Sabatier, by +heating amorphous boron in a stream of hydrogen selenide, H<sub>2</sub>Se. The +triselenide is less volatile than the trisulphide, and is pale green +in color. It is energetically decomposed by water, with formation of +boric acid and liberation of hydrogen selenide. The liquid rapidly +deposits free selenium, owing to the oxidation of the hydrogen +selenide retained in solution. Light appears to decompose the +triselenide into free selenium and the subselenide B<sub>4</sub>Se.</p> + +<p>Silicon selenide, SiSe<sub>3</sub>, has likewise been obtained by M. Sabatier +by heating crystalline silicon to redness in a current of hydrogen +selenide. It presents the appearance of a fused hard metallic mass +incapable of volatilization. Water reacts most vigorously with it, +producing silicic acid, and liberating hydrogen selenide. Potash +decomposes it with formation of a clear solution, the silica being +liberated in a form in which it is readily dissolved by alkalies. +Silicon selenide emits a very irritating odor, due to the hydrogen +selenide which is formed by its reaction with the moisture of the +atmosphere. When heated to redness in the air it becomes converted +into silicon dioxide and free selenium.</p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art20" id="art20"></a>NATURAL SULPHIDE OF GOLD.</h2> + +<h3>By T.W.T. ATHERTON.</h3> + +<p>The existence of gold in the form of a natural sulphide in conjunction +with pyrites has often been advanced theoretically as a possible +occurrence, but up to the present time this occurrence has, I believe, +never been established as an actual fact.</p> + +<p>During my investigations on the ore of the Deep Creek Mines, I have +found in them what I believe to be gold existing as a natural +sulphide. The description of this ore will, no doubt, be of interest +to your readers.</p> + +<p>The lode is a large irregular one of pure arsenical pyrites, existing +in a felsite dike near the sea coast. Surrounding it on all sides are +micaceous schists, and in the neighborhood is a large hill of granite +about 800 ft. high. In the lode and the rock immediately adjoining it +are large quantities of pyrophylite, and in some places of the mine +are deposits of this pure white, translucent mineral, but in the ore +itself it is a yellow and pale olive green color, and is never absent +from the pyrites.</p> + +<p>From the first I was much struck with the exceedingly fine state of +division in which the gold existed in the ore. After roasting and very +carefully grinding down in an agate mortar, I have never been able to +get any pieces of gold exceeding the one-thousandth of an inch in +diameter, and the greater quantity is very much finer than this. +Careful dissolving of the pyrites and gangue, so as to leave the gold +intact, failed to find it in any larger diameter. As this was a very +unusual experience in investigations on many other kinds of pyrites, I +was led further into the matter. Ultimately, after a number of +experiments, there was nothing left but to test for gold as a +sulphide.</p> + +<p>Taking 200 grammes of pyrites from a sample assaying 17 ounces fine +gold per ton, grinding it finely, and; heating for some hours with a +solution of sodium sulphide (Na<sub>2</sub>S<sub>2</sub>), on decomposing the filtrate +and treating it for gold I got a result at the rate of 12 ounces gold +per ton. This was repeated several times with the same result.</p> + +<p>This sample came from the lode at the 140 ft. level, while samples +from the higher levels where the ore is more oxidized, although +carrying the gold in the same degree of fineness, do not give as high +a percentage of auric sulphide.</p> + +<p>It would appear that all the gold in the pyrites (and I have never +found any apart from it) has originally taken its place there as a +sulphide.</p> + +<p>The sulphide is an analysis of a general sample of the ore:</p> + + +<div class="ctr"><table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<colgroup span="7"><col align="left"><col align="right"><col align="center"> +<col span="3" align="right"></colgroup> +<tr><td>Silica</td><td>13.940</td><td>p.c.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Alumina</td><td>6.592</td><td>"</td></tr> +<tr><td>Lime</td><td>0.9025</td><td>"</td></tr> +<tr><td>Sulphur</td><td>16.584</td><td>"</td></tr> +<tr><td>Arsenic</td><td>33.267</td><td>"</td></tr> +<tr><td>Iron</td><td>27.720</td><td>"</td></tr> +<tr><td>Cobalt</td><td>0.964</td><td>"</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="3"></td><td></td><th colspan="3" align="center">Per Ton.</th></tr> +<tr><td>Nickel</td><td colspan="3"></td><td colspan="3" align="center">Traces.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Gold</td><td colspan="3"></td><td>5 ozs.</td><td>3 dwts.</td><td>8 grs.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Silver</td><td colspan="3"></td><td>0 ozs.</td><td>16 dwts.</td><td>0 grs.</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td>———</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td>99.969</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>Nambucca Head's Gold Mining Company, Deep Creek, N.S. Wales, Oct. 9, +1891.—<i>Chemical News</i>.</p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art24" id="art24"></a>SOME MEANS OF PURIFYING WATER.</h2> + +<p>There are several methods extant for the purpose of purifying and +softening water, and in the following brief account some of the chief +features of these methods are summarized. The Slack and Brownlow +apparatus we will deal with first. This purifier is one which is +intended to remove the matter in suspension in the water to be treated +by subsidence and not by filtration. The apparatus consists of a +vertical iron tank or cylinder, inside which are a series of plates +arranged in a spiral direction around a fixed center, and sloping at +an angle of 45° on both sides outward. The water to be dealt with +flows through a large inlet tube fixed to the bottom of the cylinder, +rises to the top by passing spirally round the whole circumference, +and depositing on the plates or shelves all solids and impurities at +the outer edges of the plates. Mud cocks are placed to remove the +solids deposited during the flow of the water upward to the outlet +pipe, placed close to the top of the cylinder. One of these tanks, a +square one, is at work purifying the Medlock water at Manchester, and +on drawing samples of water from nearly every plate, that from the +lower mud cock showed considerable deposit, which decreased in bulk +until the top mud cock was reached, when the water was quite free from +deposit. It is stated that one man would be sufficient to attend to 20 +of these purifiers.</p> + +<p>To filter or purify 2,000,000 gallons per 24 hours would require 40 +tanks, 10 ft. by 7 ft. diameter, each doing 2,000 gallons per hour, +and would cost, with their fittings, £6,400, including all patent +rights, but exclusive of lime mixing tanks, agitators, lime water and +softening tanks, engine and boiler, and suitable buildings, the cost +of which would not be far short of £5,000, or a total of £11,400 to +soften 2,000,000 gallons per 24 hours. The labor and other working +expenses in connection with this plant would not be less than that +necessary to work the Porter-Clark process, which is given as O.55d. +per 1,000 gallons.</p> + +<p>The Brock and Minton filter press system is another method. This +patent press is made of steel, perforated with ½ inch holes. On the +inside of the shell there is first laid a layer of fine wire netting, +then a layer of cloth, and lastly another layer of wire netting of a +larger mesh than the other. The matter treated is pumped into the body +of the cylinder, the liquid passing through the filtering material to +the outside, the solids being retained inside, and are got rid of by +partially revolving the upper half to relieve it from the knuckle +joint, and, after being raised, the lower half is turned over by +machinery, and the solid matter is simply allowed to fall out into +wagons or trucks run underneath for that purpose. Such, in brief, is +the manner of using this filter press for chemical works' purposes. +The cost of each filter press, including royalties, is from £250 to +£300, the size being 8 ft. by 4 ft. diameter. Having a filtering area +of 100 square feet, it would require 32 of these applied to softening +water to effectually deal with 2,000,000 gallons per 24 hours; this, +at the lowest estimate for filters alone, would be £8,000, and, using +the same figures, £5,000 for lime mixing tanks, etc., as referred to +in the "Slack and Brownlow" purifier, would bring the total cost up to +£13,000, and the working expense would not be less than that required +to work the Porter-Clark process, and would probably be very much +greater. This filter press is not in use anywhere for dealing with +large quantities of water in connection with a town water supply.</p> + +<p>A process which has been working for a long time at Southampton is the +Atkins system, which also includes the use of filter presses. The +pumping station and softening works are situated at Otterbourne, eight +miles from Southampton, and were built together as one scheme. The +mixing room has two slaking lime tanks, with agitators driven by steam +power. The mixture is then run as cream of lime into a tank 20 ft. +square and is then pumped into the lower ends of two lime water +producing cylinders. The agitation is here obtained by pressure from a +small cistern placed above them with a 12 ft. head, the pipe from +which is attached to the lower ends of the cylinders. This has been +found by experiment to be the most satisfactory means of obtaining the +proper degree of agitation necessary; the clear lime water is then +drawn off at the top of the cylinders, and flows by gravity into a +mixer, where it comes in contact with the hard water. Both flow +together into a distributing trough, from which it overflows into a +small softening reservoir, having a capacity of one hour's supply, a +weir being placed along the lower end, over which the water flows to +13 filter presses. The clear water from the filters is then conveyed +to a small well, from which the permanent engines raise it to the +first of a series of high level covered service reservoirs.</p> + +<p>In the filter press there are 20 hollow disks representing a filtering +area of 250 square feet, or a total of 3,250 square feet. The water to +be filtered passes into the body of the filter and then through a +filtering medium of cloth laid on a thin perforated zinc plate, into +the inner side of the disks, from whence it is conveyed through the +hollow shaft, to which the disks are attached, to the high level +pumps.</p> + +<p>The filter cloths are cleaned three times every 24 hours, without +removal, by jets of softened water from the main, having a pressure of +60 pounds to the square inch. During cleaning operations the disks are +made to revolve slowly; this only occupies a space of five minutes for +each cleaning. The cloths last from six to eight months without being +renewed. They also occasionally use for further cleaning the cloths a +jet of steam injected upon the center of the disks in order to remove +by partial boiling the insoluble particles engrained in the cloths. +This has been found to make the cloths last longer. This cloth is +obtained from Porritt Bros. and Austen, Stubbing Vale, Ramsbottom, and +costs 13½d. per lineal yard of a width to suit the disks.</p> + +<p>The quantity softened is 2¼ million gallons per 24 hours, but the +present plant can deal with 2½ million gallons, and the buildings are +erected for 3½ million gallons, additional filters and lime producing +tanks being only required to deal with the increased quantity. The +costs of the softening works was £10,394, of which £7,844 was for the +softening machinery and plant and £2,550 for the reservoir, buildings, +etc.</p> + +<p>The working expenses, including lime, labor, cloths, general repairs, +and steam, is stated to be 0.225d. per 1,000 gallons, the labor +required being only two men, one on the day and the other on the night +shift, with an occasional man to assist.</p> + +<p>The hardness of the Southampton water on Clark's scale is 18° of total +hardness, and this is reduced down to 6° or 8° by this +process.—<i>Chem. Tr. Jour.</i></p> + +<hr /> + + +<h2><a name="art07" id="art07"></a>A NEW LABORATORY PROCESS FOR PREPARING HYDROBROMIC ACID.</h2> + +<h3>By G.S. NEWTH.</h3> + +<p>This method is a synthetical one, and consists in passing a stream of +hydrogen and bromine vapor over a spiral of platinum wire heated to +bright redness by means of an electric current. A glass tube, about 7 +inches long and 5/8 of an inch bore, is fitted at each end with a cork +carrying a short straight piece of small tube; through each cork is +also fixed a stout wire, and these two wires are joined by means of a +short spiral of platinum wire, the spiral being about 1 inch long. One +end of this apparatus is connected to a small wash bottle containing +bromine, through which a stream of hydrogen can be bubbled. The other +end is attached to a tube dipping into a vessel of water for the +absorption of the gas, or, if a large quantity of the solution is +required, to a series of Woulf's bottles containing water. Hydrogen is +first slowly passed through the tube until the air is displaced, when +the platinum spiral is heated to bright redness by the passage of a +suitable electric current. Complete combination takes place in contact +with the hot wire, and the color imparted to the ingoing gases by the +bromine vapor is entirely removed, and the contents of the tube beyond +the platinum are perfectly colorless. The vessel containing the +bromine may be heated to a temperature of about 60° C. in a water +bath, at which temperature the hydrogen will be mixed with nearly the +requisite amount of bromine to combine with the whole of it. So long +as even a slight excess of hydrogen is passing, which is readily seen +by the escape of bubbles through the water in the absorbing vessels, +the issuing hydrobromic acid will remain perfectly colorless, and +therefore free from bromine; so that it is not necessary to adopt any +of the usual methods for scrubbing the gas through vessels containing +phosphorus. When the operation is proceeding very rapidly a lambent +flame occasionally appears in the tube just before the platinum wire, +but this flame is never propagated back through the narrow tube into +the bromine bottle. The precaution may be taken, however, of plugging +this narrow tube with a little glass wool, which renders any +inconvenience from this cause quite impossible. By this method a large +quantity of bromine may be rapidly converted into hydrobromic acid +without any loss of bromine, and the operation when once started can +be allowed to proceed without any further attention.—<i>Chemical News.</i></p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art12" id="art12"></a>SAPOTIN: A NEW GLUCOSIDE.</h2> + +<h3>By GUSTAVE MICHAUD.</h3> + +<p><i>Achras Sapota, L.</i>, is a large tree scattered through the forests of +Central America and the West Indies; its fruit is often seen upon the +Creole dinner table. This fruit is a berry, the size of an orange, the +taste of which suggests the flavor of melon, as well as that of +hydrocyanic acid. The fruit contains one or two seeds like large +chestnuts, which, if broken, let fall a white almond. This last +contains the glucoside which I call <i>sapotin</i>.</p> + +<p>I obtained sapotin for the first time by heating dry raspings of the +almond with 90 per cent. alcohol. While cooling, the filtered liquid +deposited a good deal of the compound. Since that time I have +advantageously modified the process and increased the amount of +product. I prepare sapotin in the following way: The almonds are +rasped, dried at 100° C. and washed with benzene, which takes away an +enormous quantity of fatty matter. The benzene which remains in the +almond is driven put first by compression, afterward by heating. Then +the raspings are exhausted with boiling 90 per cent. alcohol. The +solution is filtered as rapidly as possible, in order to avoid its +cooling and depositing the sapotin in the filter. As soon as the +temperature of the filtered liquid begins to fall, a voluminous +precipitate is seen to form, which is the sapotin.</p> + +<p>In order to purify it, the precipitate is collected in a filter and +expressed between sheets of filter paper. When dry it is washed with +ether, which takes away the last particles of fatty and resinous +matter. The purification is completed by two crystallizations from 90 +per cent. alcohol. At last the substance is dried at 100°.</p> + +<p>The sapotin separates from its alcohol solution in the form of +microscopic crystals. When dry, it is a white, inodorous powder. Its +taste is extremely acrid and burning. If the powder penetrate into the +nostrils or <a name="Page_13446" id="Page_13446"></a>the eyes, it produces a persistent burning sensation which +brings about sneezing and flow of tears. It melts at 240° C., growing +brown at the same time.</p> + +<p>It has a laevo-rotatory power of [<i>a</i>]<sub><i>j</i></sub> = -32.11, which was +determined with an alcoholic solution, the aqueous solution not being +sufficiently transparent.</p> + +<p>It is very soluble in water, easily soluble in boiling alcohol, much +less in cold alcohol, and insoluble in ether, chloroform and benzene. +Its alcoholic solution is precipitated by ether.</p> + +<p>Tannin has no action on it, but basic acetate of lead produces a +gelatinous precipitate in its aqueous solution. Strange enough, this +precipitate is entirely soluble in a small excess of basic acetate of +lead. If thrown into concentrated sulphuric acid, sapotin colors it +with a garnet red tint. It does not reduce Fehling's solution. Its +analysis gave the following results:</p> + + +<div class="ctr"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<colgroup span="4"><col align="left"><col span="3" align="right"></colgroup> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td rowspan="2">Calculated for<br /> C<sub>29</sub>H<sub>52</sub>O<sub>20</sub>.</td> +<td colspan="2">Found.</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td>I.</td><td>II.</td></tr> +<tr><td>C</td><td>48.33</td><td>48.69</td><td>48.31</td></tr> +<tr><td>H</td><td>7.23</td><td>7.33</td><td>7.45</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>When heated with water and a little sulphuric acid, sapotin is +decomposed and yields glucose and an insoluble matter which I call +<i>sapotiretin</i>. One hundred parts of sapotin produce 51.58 parts of +glucose and 49.67 of sapotiretin. The equation which represents this +reaction is:</p> + +<p class="ctr">C<sub>29</sub>H<sub>52</sub>O<sub>20</sub> + 2H<sub>2</sub>O = 2C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>12</sub>O<sub>6</sub> + C<sub>17</sub>H<sub>32</sub>O<sub>10</sub></p> + +<p>and requires 50 per cent. of glucose and 55 per cent. of sapotiretin.</p> + +<p>Sapotiretin is an amorphous compound, insoluble in water, very soluble +in alcohol, less soluble in chloroform, insoluble in ether. Below is +the result of its analysis:</p> + + +<div class="ctr"><table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<colgroup span="4"><col align="left"><col span="3" align="right"></colgroup> +<tr><td></td><td rowspan="2">Calculated for<br />C<sub>17</sub>H<sub>32</sub>O<sub>10</sub>.</td><td colspan="2">Found.</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td>I.</td><td>II.</td></tr> +<tr><td>C</td><td>51.52</td><td>51.51</td><td>51.20</td></tr> +<tr><td>H</td><td>8.08</td><td>8.19</td><td>8.34</td></tr> +</table> +</div> + +<p>—<i>Amer. Chem. Jour.</i></p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art09" id="art09"></a>DETECTION OF PEANUT OIL IN OLIVE OIL.</h2> + +<p>Holde, after a careful trial of the various processes for detecting +the above adulteration, gives the preference to Renard's, which he +describes as follows:</p> + +<p>Ten grms. of the suspected oil, after being saponified, and the fatty +acids separated by hydrochloric acid, are dissolved in 90 per cent. +alcohol, and precipitated by sugar of lead. The oleate of lead is +separated by ether, and the residuum, consisting of palmitic and +arachic acids, is decomposed by hydrochloric acid. The fatty acids are +dissolved, with the aid of heat, in 50 c.c. of 90 per cent. alcohol. +The arachic acid which separates after cooling is filtered out and +washed, first with 90 per cent. and afterward with 70 per cent. +alcohol. It is then dissolved in hot alcohol, and the solution +evaporated in a weighed saucer. The weight of the residuum, after +taking into account the acid dissolved in the alcohol, equals the +whole amount of arachic acid contained in the oil; the melting point +of this residuum should be 70° to 71° C. With this process the author +has always been successful; but when the olive oil contains not more +than 5 to 10 per cent. of peanut oil, it is necessary to make the test +with 40 grms. of the former, otherwise the melting point of the +arachic acid cannot be estimated. Furthermore, the acids which are +separated from the lead salt by hydrochloric acid must be +recrystallized repeatedly with 90 per cent. alcohol, until the melting +point ceases to rise, in case the latter is not found to exceed 70° C. +at the first estimation. When peanut oil is present, the melting point +will always be above 70°.—<i>Chem. Zeit.</i></p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art10" id="art10"></a>HYDROXYLAMINE.</h2> + +<p>Free hydroxylamine, NH<sub>2</sub>OH, has been isolated by M. Lobry de Bruyn, +and a preliminary account of its mode of preparation and properties is +published by him in the current number of the <i>Recueil des travaux +chimiques des Pays-Bas</i> (1891, 10, 101). The manner in which the free +base was obtained was briefly as follows. About a hundred grammes of +hydroxylamine hydrochloride, NH<sub>2</sub>OH.HCl, were dissolved in six +hundred cubic centimeters of warm methyl alcohol. To this solution a +quantity of sodium dissolved in methyl alcohol was added, in such +proportion that the hydrochloride of hydroxylamine was present in +slight excess over and above that required to convert it to sodium +chloride. After deposition of the separated sodium chloride the +solution was decanted and filtered.</p> + +<p>The greater portion of the methyl alcohol was next removed by +distillation under the reduced pressure of 160-200 mm. The remainder +was then treated with anhydrous ether, in order to completely +precipitate the last traces of dissolved sodium chloride. The liquid +eventually separated into two layers, an upper ethereal layer +containing about 5 per cent. of hydroxylamine, and a lower layer +containing over 50 per cent. of hydroxylamine, the remainder of the +methyl alcohol, and a little dissolved salt. By subjecting this lower +layer to fractional distillation under 60 mm. pressure, it was +separated into three fractions, of which the first contained 27 per +cent. of hydroxylamine, the second 60 per cent., and the third +crystallized in the ice-cooled receiver in long needles. This third +fraction consisted of free solid NH<sub>2</sub>OH. Hydroxylamine as thus +isolated in the free state is a very hygroscopic substance, which +rapidly liquefies when exposed to air, owing to the absorption of +water.</p> + +<p>The crystals melt at 33°, and the fused substance appears to possess +the capability of readily dissolving metallic salts. Sodium chloride +is very largely soluble in the liquid; powdered niter melts at once in +contact with it, and the two liquids then mix. Free hydroxylamine is +without odor. It is heavier than water. When rapidly heated upon +platinum foil it suddenly decomposes in a most violent manner, with +production of a large sheet of bright yellow flame. It is only very +slightly soluble in liquid carbon compounds, such as chloroform, +benzene, ether, acetic ether, and carbon bisulphide. The vapor attacks +corks, so that the solid requires to be preserved in glass-stoppered +bottles. The free base appears also to act upon cellulose, for, upon +placing a few drops of the melted substance upon filter paper, a +considerable amount of heat is evolved. The pure crystals are very +stable, the base in the free state appearing to possess much greater +stability than when dissolved in water. The instability of the +solution appears, however, to be influenced to a considerable extent +by the alkalinity of the glass of the containing vessel, for +concentrated solutions free from dissolved alkali are found to be +perfectly stable. Bromine and iodine react in a remarkable manner with +free hydroxylamine.</p> + +<p>Crystals of iodine dissolve instantly in contact with it, with +evolution of a gas and considerable rise of temperature. Bromine +reacts with violence, a gas again being explosively evolved and +hydrobromic acid formed. The nature of the gas evolved is now +undergoing investigation. A letter from M. Lobry de Bruyn appears in +the number of the <i>Chemiker Zeitung</i> for October 31, warning those who +may attempt to prepare free hydroxylamine by the above method that it +is a dangerously explosive substance when warmed to a temperature of +80°-100°. Upon warming a flask containing the free solid base upon a +water bath a most violent explosion occurs. A spontaneous +decomposition appears to set in about 80°, and even in open vessels +the explosion is very violent. Care must also be taken during the +fractional distillation of the concentrated solution in methyl alcohol +to cool the apparatus before changing the receiver, as if air is +admitted while the retort is heated the experiment ends with an +explosion.—<i>Nature</i>.</p> + +<hr /> + + +<h3>THE SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN</h3> + +<h2>Architects and Builders Edition</h2> + +<p class="ctr">$2.50 a Year. 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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Scientific American Supplement, No. 841, February 13, 1892 + +Author: Various + +Release Date: February 27, 2005 [EBook #15193] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN *** + + + + +Produced by Juliet Sutherland and the PG Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at www.pgdp.net. + + + + + +[Illustration] + + + + +SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT NO. 841 + + + + +NEW YORK, FEBRUARY 13, 1892 + +Scientific American Supplement. Vol. XXXIII, No. 841. + +Scientific American established 1845 + +Scientific American Supplement, $5 a year. + +Scientific American and Supplement, $7 a year. + + * * * * * + + + + +TABLE OF CONTENTS. + + +I. ANTHROPOLOGY.--Investigation of a Mound near Jefferson + City, Mo.--By A.S. LOGAN.--Prehistoric remains from the banks + of the Missouri River +II. BIOLOGY.--New Observations on the Language of Animals.--By + M. DE LACAZE DUTHIERS.--A lengthy examination of some facts + in the language of animals, including birds and quadrupeds + +III. BOTANY.--Electricity in Agriculture.--By CLARENCE D. WARNER.--The + effect of currents of electricity upon the germination of seeds. + --Interesting experiments detailed, which can be easily repeated + + Electricity in Horticulture.--The effect of the electric light on + vegetation, availability it may possess for the gardener + + Pentapterygium Serpens.--A Himalayan flowering plant introduced + in England about ten years ago.--2 illustrations + + The Perforation of Flowers.--What insects do to promote the + propagation of plants by perforating the flowers in search of + honey.--16 illustrations + +IV. CHEMISTRY.--A New Laboratory Process for Preparing Hydrobromic + Acid.--By G.S. NEWTH.--Simple synthesis of hydrogen + and bromium + + Boron Salts.--Boron sulphides and selenides and silicon selenide + + Detection of Peanut Oil in Olive Oil.--A practical laboratory + test for the above adulteration + + Hydroxylamine.--Recent preparation of this compound and its + properties + + New Boron Compounds.--Compounds of boron, phosphorus, and + iodine recently prepared by M. MOISSAN + + Sapotin, a New Glucoside.--By GUSTAVE MICHAUD.--Preparation + of a new glucoside from almonds and other sources + +V. CIVIL ENGINEERING.--Completion of the Mersey Tunnel Railway.--The + penetration of the bed of the Mersey River by a tunnel + at the rate of 150 feet per week.--Details of the work + +VI. EDUCATIONAL SCIENCE.--Chinese Competitive Examinations. + --Interesting details of the famous examinations of China.--Fatal + consequences to overworked competitors + +VII. ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING.--High Speed Engine and Dynamo.--A + high speed compound engine, running at 500 revolutions + per minute, with direct-driven dynamo for electric lighting.--3 + illustrations + +VIII. MEDICINE.--The Treatment of Rattlesnake Bite by Permanganate + of Potassium, Based on Nine Successful Cases.--By + AMOS W. BARBER, M.D.--The use of this powerful disinfectant, + and the proper treatment and mode of applying it. + +IX. METEOROLOGY.--Modification of Our Climate.--By JOSEPH + WALLACE.--Climate epochs and the probabilities of the present + climatic era.--Changes within the records of man + + The Eruption of Krakatoa.--A graphic description of this catastrophe, + involving the lives of 35,000 people + +X. MILITARY ENGINEERING.--The Military Engineer and His + Work.--By Col. W.R. KING.--A Sibley College lecture, treating + of the special problems In fortifications, sieges, and the more + pacific work of surveys and explorations + +XI. MINERALOGY.--Natural Sulphide of Gold.--By T.W.T. + ATHERTON.--A probable new occurrence of gold + +XII. NATURAL HISTORY.--The Living Jerboa in the Zoological + Garden of Berlin.--A rare rodent from South Africa, one seldom + seen alive in captivity.--5 illustrations + +XIII. NAVAL ENGINEERING.--Twenty-four Knot Steamers.--The possibility of + fast ships for long voyages.--The prospects and difficulties + +XIV. RAILROAD ENGINEERING.--A Steam Street Railway Motor.--A + noiseless motor built of steel on trial in Chicago.--1 illustration + +XV. SANITARY ENGINEERING.--Some Means of Purifying + Water.--Different filtering processes and the subsidence treatment + of water + +XVI. TECHNOLOGY.--Action of Caustic Soda on Wood.--By M.H. + TAUSS.--Direct experiments on the action of lye on wood at various + pressures + + Burning Brick with Crude Oil Fuel.--The use of petroleum in + brick kilns.--Its advantages, cleanliness, and cheapness. + + Chlorine Gas and Soda by the Electrolytic Process.--The decomposition + of common salt solution into chlorine and caustic soda + on the commercial scale + + How Enameled Letters are Made.--The manufacture of separate + enameled letters as conducted in London.--5 illustrations + + How Mechanical Rubber Goods are Made.--Hose, corrugated + matting, packing, and jar rings.--Processes of their production + + * * * * * + + + + +THE LIVING JERBOA IN THE ZOOLOGICAL GARDEN OF BERLIN. + + +Like other strangely formed quadrupeds, the jerboas are counted among +the curiosities of the animal kingdom, and as such are described in +natural history; but, nevertheless, there has never been a good +exhibition of them, for the simple reason that live jerboas are seldom +seen in Europe, as they usually die during the journey hither or soon +after their arrival. After some hesitation I decided to purchase a +pair that I happened to find mentioned in the price list of Mr. C. +Reiche, of Alfeld, as one of the most interesting specimens obtained +during his expedition to South Africa the year before; but I, also, +found the sensitiveness and delicacy of the jerboa very trying, for +the short journey from Alfeld to this city caused the death of the +female and reduced her mate to such a condition that when it arrived +there seemed little hope that it could ever be utilized for scientific +research or artistic life studies. + +[Illustration: JERBOA IN THE ZOOLOGICAL GARDEN OF BERLIN.--DRAWN FROM +LIFE BY G. MUTZEL.] + +My anticipation and pleasure were changed to vexation and grief. The +most careful nursing--the stiff, weak little legs were dipped into and +rubbed with French brandy--and a warm pen with a dry sanded floor +directly over a heater, did their work. As the new-comer got on his +feet again my hope gained new life, and now our jerboa is my delight. +It is, indeed, a curious animal. One who saw it only in the day time +asleep would scarcely know what he had before him, for he would see +little more than a mass of soft, bright sandy hair. The coming of the +keeper with the dish of food and the unfastening of the door of the +cage bring life to the ball of hair in the corner; a part of it is +unrolled and the long, black-tipped tail with two lines of hair is +laid out on the ground, and then on each side of it a leg is run out +which is nearly as long as the tail and is provided with blunt, +smooth, hoof-life nails; and, finally, the head and body are +distinguishable and the animal stretches out comfortably on its back +in the sand. The fine-skinned, hairless ears still hang limp, the eyes +are half closed and the short fore legs are crossed under the chin. + +But now the animal gets on its legs by an elastic swing, and its ears +are raised and its eyes wide open, so that we can see that the latter +are large and dark, with long eyelashes. Then the jerboa raises +himself to his full height and playfully measures his cage by one +bound from corner to corner. Soon after, the fresh food receives due +attention, the animal either jumping toward it in rabbit fashion or +crawling slowly on all fours. When it has reached its goal it again +assumes the upright position, in which it is evidently most +comfortable, and begins to eat it in his own peculiar way; that is, +sitting on his hind legs he quickly seizes a piece of bread, turnip or +other food in his fore paws and conveys it to his mouth, apparently +indifferent to the nature of the food before him. He never takes +anything directly in his mouth; even the grass on a piece of turf that +I had given to him as an experiment was not eaten as it would have +been eaten by other animals, but was first plucked with the fore paws. +If we notice the position of the mouth, far back on the under side of +the head, we will understand that the jerboa could not take his food +in any other way. Besides this, nothing of special interest has been +observed in this nocturnal creature, but he, of course, lives more +regularly and quietly than if his mate had lived. + +One who knows anything about the structure of animals' bodies need not +be told that the jerboa is a rodent. One glance at the peculiar shape +of his head would assure him of that. The form of the rest of its +body, especially its long hind and short fore legs, give unmistakable +proof that it is related to the jumping rodents; it belongs, in a wide +sense, to the family of the jumping mouse, the scientific name +(Dipodidea, two-footed) of which is very significant, as the very +short fore legs are usually carried close under the chin and are +scarcely noticeable when the animal is in its normal position, and are +of little use when it moves about. The hind legs are very strong, and +when going at full speed the jerboa takes jumps that measure from +eight to ten yards, according to the unanimous testimony of various +witnesses. + +The jumping mouse of North America, which is somewhat larger than an +ordinary mouse, is, according to Brehm, also as swift as an arrow or a +low-flying bird. This exceptional velocity is not all that reminds us +of a bird, for there is also a strong resemblance in the formation of +certain parts of the bodies of the two creatures; but, after +consideration, this should not seem strange, because in animal +organisms similar means are employed to accomplish similar ends. It is +only natural that there should be peculiarities in the construction of +the limbs and skulls of the Dipodidea with their bird-like movements +and bird-like sharp-sightedness, that are usually found only among +birds. The consistency between the construction of their bodies and +their mode of life is a beautiful example of fitness; only by +extraordinary quickness of movement and sagacity could the little +defenseless plant-eaters maintain the struggle for existence in the +barren steppes and deserts. The formation of the bodies of the +different members of the family varies according to their needs. The +jerboa is the largest member of the family. Very little is known of +his life when free; it being known only that the jerboas are widely +spread over the whole of southern Africa, and are nocturnal burrowers +of the steppes. During the rainy season they remain in a sort of +winter sleep.--_Dr. L. Heck, in the Illustrirte Zeitung_. + + * * * * * + + + + +NEW OBSERVATIONS ON THE LANGUAGE OF ANIMALS. + +By M. DE LACAZE DUTHIERS, of the Institute of France. + + +I had occasion in a note published several years ago in the _Revue +Scientifique_ to mention a parroquet which I have since continued to +observe, the manifestations of whose intelligence are both interesting +and instructive. Many acts of birds are difficult of interpretation. +To speak only of their songs, the meanings of most of the innumerable +varieties of sounds which they produce, and of their diverse +warblings, escape us completely. It is not possible to find the +meaning of these things except by forming suppositions and hypotheses, +or by catching the connections between cries and acts. But instances +of the latter kind are extremely rare in comparison with the great +majority of the manifestations made by animals. + +Thus, to select examples which every one can observe, when a canary +bird is warbling in its cage and becomes deafening, or when a lark +rises straight up in the air and _incantat suum tirile tirile_--sings +its _tirile tirile_--as Linnaeus picturesquely expresses it; when a +tomtit, leaping from branch to branch of a willow or among the reeds, +repeats its florid warblings; when a raven croaks; when a blackbird +whistles--what significance can we attach to their songs and their +cries? Certainty is impossible, and we can only form more or less +plausible hypotheses concerning the interpretation of them. + +The parrot furnishes us one more aid in this matter than other birds, +and this helps us, to a certain extent, in overcoming the difficulty +of interpretation. It has an articulate voice, and when we have taught +it a few words, the meaning which it gives them may be better divined +by us according to the tone and the rapidity or slowness of its +utterance. This permits us to discover the feelings that move it, for +we can better judge from an articulate sound than from one that is +merely musical. + +Much has been written on the language of animals. It is neither my +desire nor my intention to repeat here all that may have been said on +this subject. It would take too long and would be of no use. I have +often witnessed facts that may be of interest to those who are +occupied with the mental manifestations of animals. I will simply +relate them; and of such as are already known, I will merely mention +them anew, admitting in advance a priority for others which I do not +demand for myself. + +There can be no doubt that animals communicate their impressions by an +inarticulate voice. Common sense and the most superficial observations +are opposed to the negative of this proposition. But when a canary +bird warbles till it stuns us, or a nightingale sings in the shadows +on the fine nights of June, can we follow and discover the +significance of those modulations--now sharply cadenced, now slowly +drawn out, and ending with a trill long and accurate enough to +challenge the most skillful musician? + +All the poets of every country have constantly sung of the songs of +Philomela. But their fervent and enthusiastic verses cast little light +on the value of the nightingale's song. It is said that the male sings +for the entertainment of the sitting female, but there is no proof of +the assertion. The note warning of the approach of danger is easier to +recognize. The bird utters a short, hoarse cry, and repeats it with a +succession of _trrre, trrre_, which is impossible to mistake. When we +hear this cry we may be sure that an enemy is near. Music gives way to +a cry of distress and warning, and the female leaves her nest if the +sounds become piercing. What do we know of the gobbling of the turkey, +which the whistling and the cries of children excite? They are +doubtless responses to those challenges; but what do they mean? + +The crowing of the cock, recurring regularly at fixed hours, has some +signification, but we cannot comprehend it. If on a fine afternoon in +autumn the cock crows, and repeats his strain between two and four +o'clock, the countrymen in some places will say there will be a fog on +the morrow, and they are generally not mistaken. Hens do not mistake +his notes either; when a leader of the troop, coming upon a spot rich +in food, utters his peculiar chuckle, they run from all around to +share the find with him. It is evident that the cock has called them +and they have understood him. These facts indicate that there is some +definite sense in this inarticulate language; and examples of it, +taken from other groups, might be multiplied. + +The dog, intelligent animal as he is, manifests his affection on +meeting his master, with peculiar cries which vary with the intensity +of his joy. No one could confound these notes of pleasure with those +which he utters when he is angrily driving away a beggar, or when he +meets another dog of unpleasant appearance and puts himself in the +position of attack. + +An interesting study of the voice of the dog on guard may be made in +the country at night. If another dog barks in the distance, the house +dog answers in a peculiar manner. He gives a few growls, stops, seems +to listen, begins again, very often getting answers; and, after two or +three interruptions, he terminates his barking with abrupt yelps, loud +at the beginning and long drawn out, and gradually dying away. This +ending of his cries is habitually accompanied by his raising his head +and throwing it back. I have often, when within the house, on hearing +the watch dog bark in this way, opened the window to assure myself on +the subject, and distinguished, as I could not do with the windows +closed, the voice of another watch dog barking in the same way in the +distance--the barkings of the two dogs alternating, one answering the +other. There is in such cases an evident communication of impressions. +One of the dogs, having had his attention aroused by some unusual +noise, has transmitted his impression to the other, as sentinels +posted at intervals call out theft warnings one to another. I have +often repeated this observation during the long evenings of winter. + +Another example, little known in thickly populated countries, is drawn +from a curious scene which I witnessed during a winter passed in +Perigord Noir. We had remarked that for several nights the three watch +dogs, a young and an old male and a bitch, howled often toward +midnight, but in a peculiar way. One night in particular, during their +tedious concert, just as we had got to sleep, they mingled with their +cries howlings like those they would have uttered if they had been +beaten, with a shading hard to define, but which we perceived plainly; +and we remarked that, leaving their kennel in the avenue that led up +to the lodge, they had come to close quarters with one another at the +gate, with alternating howlings and plaintive cries. Inquiring in the +morning for the cause of these singular cries, the peasants told me +that a wolf had passed, and predicted that it would return. They said, +too, that a neighbor's hunting bitch had disappeared, and its bones +had been found in the fields near a wood. We were awakened again about +midnight by the cries of the dogs, and the scene was renewed. Informed +as we now were of the nature of what was going on, we ran to one of +the windows, whence we could see, in the clear light of the moon, all +that passed. The three dogs were cowering against the gate, the oldest +one howling by the side of the others, while the younger one and the +bitch were exposed at intervals to the attacks of another animal, +browner than they, and of about their size, without defending +themselves, but moaning as if they were undergoing a vigorous +correction. + +Frightened, doubtless, by the opening of the blinds of the first story +above him, the strange animal had gone away and was sitting in the +middle of the road. We could only see that he had straight ears. While +we were going down to get a gun the visitor came back to his charge on +the dogs, which had begun howling after he left them, and resumed the +cries significant of chastisement when they were attacked again. For +some reason, perhaps because he heard the click of the gun, the foe +drew back and sat down in a garden walk, concealed by a bunch of +shrubbery. The three dogs, notwithstanding our reiterated urging, were +no more disposed to pursue him than before. If the assailant had been +a dog they would have rushed upon him, but they stayed cowering at the +gate and howled distressfully. The bitch was most affected, and they +all seemed paralyzed by fear. It is said in the country that bitches +are especially liable to be attacked by wolves. It was so here. The +most certain feature in the matter was the terror of the animals. They +were capable of resisting the attack three times over. The young dog +was a savage one, and passers-by were afraid of the bitch; but that +night they were terrorized, and all incapable of defending themselves. +Their cries were therefore due to the same cause as in the preceding +night--the presence and attacks of the wolf. I could not have realized +their meaning if I had not been a witness of the scene--that is, I +could not have correlated the cries and the acts. + +A shot at the animal behind the bushes was followed by a hoarse cry. +He was hit, and ran; but, in spite of our urgings, the dogs stayed at +the gate and only stopped howling. Under any other conditions, upon +the signal of the shot they would all have started in pursuit of the +wounded animal. + +A wolf came to the farm during the last winter (1890-91) and attacked +the same bitch. He would have carried her off, for he had seized her +by the throat, if we could judge from the stifled cries she uttered; +but this time he found with her a new watch dog--a mountain bitch from +the Pyrenees--of a breed that attacks the wolf and the bear. The wolf +would have been caught if he had not run away. He did not return, for +he had been attacked, and learned what he had to deal with. + +The Pyrenean breed furnishes excellent watch dogs. I knew one of +remarkable traits. At evening he would go round the house, giving two +or three growls at each door. With his head raised he seemed to listen +to his fine voice, then he would start again and go to another door. +He seemed desirous to show those who were observing him that he was +attending to his post as guardian. He then went away in silence along +the walk, through a dark, rising hedgerow, leaping the slight hillock, +yelping toward the wood. He listened, yelped again, and went in. There +was never any failure in this performance, but every evening as night +was coming on he began his round, which no one had taught him. It was +all done in his function as a guard. It would be hard to determine +what his yelps meant, but there were in them an inflection, a +sonorousness, and a continuance quite different from those he uttered +when pursuing a passer-by or when going to meet a person coming toward +the house. Every one who has a watch dog is able to tell by the sound +of his barking when a person is coming up, and usually what sort of a +visitor it is. + +The peasants' dogs of the southwest of France dislike the country +millers, because of the long whips which they are always carrying and +snapping, and with which the dogs, running after them, are often +struck. From as far off as the snapping of the whip can be heard, the +dogs come to wait for the millers and pursue them; and it is easy to +recognize when the millers are passing, by the behavior of the dogs. +There is in this also a significance, at once aggressive and +defensive, in the cries which one can, by giving a little attention, +soon learn to distinguish. + +Another example of the reality of the various meanings of the cries of +the dog under different circumstances is afforded by the companies +that collect around a female in heat. + +I have a very intelligent and experienced brach hound, the same which +with the bitch had to face the attack of the wolf. He amuses me much +at my country lunches. Hunting dogs which have been much with their +masters at lunch do not like to have the drinking glass offered them. +This dog was much afraid of the glass, and I had only to present it to +him at lunch time to make him keep his distance. I used to keep my +door open at lunch, for the amusement of observing how I could make +him stop exactly at the threshold without stepping over it. If he had +passed over it I could always send him back by casting toward him a +few drops of water from the bottom of the glass after drinking. +Sitting, as was his habit, on the sill of the door, with the tip of +his muzzle never extending beyond the plane of the panels, he would +follow my motions with the closest attention, reminding me, if I +failed to give him a sign of attention, by a discreet, plaintive cry, +that he was there. But if I touched my glass, he would spring up at +once; if I filled it, he would put himself on guard, utter a kind of +sigh, sneeze, lick his lips, yawn, and, shaking his ears briskly, make +little stifled cries. Then he would grow impatient, and more and more +watchful and nervous. When I lifted my glass to my lips he would draw +back, working gradually nearer to the farther door, and at last +disappear and hide. One who was looking at him without seeing me could +tell by his wails and his attitude the level and position of my glass. +When the glass was horizontal, I could see only about half of his +head, with one eye regarding me fixedly, for that was usually the +critical moment--the one, also, when the wails and restraints were +most demonstrative of the anxious fear of my poor animal. + +When we dine in the kitchen, which is on the ground floor, the dogs +are usually all put out. There are four of them, three young and not +experienced, and this old, sagacious brach hound. He insists on coming +in, and, to gain his purpose, tries to have the door opened. Although +no person may be coming up the walk, he dashes down it barking, all +the others going along too and yelping with him; then he stops, +remains a little behind after having got the others out of the way, +and, turning his head from moment to moment, looks to see if the door +has been opened, for we generally go to it to see who has come. In +that case the feigned attack is successful, and the dog, who has +evidently meant to give the alarm so as to have the door opened, comes +in at once and claims a place at the table. He has accomplished his +end, for the door is usually shut without paying attention to his +having got in. I have frequently witnessed this stratagem, and when, +during my kitchen dinner, I suddenly hear the dogs yelping after the +brach hound has begun, I am pretty sure that nobody is in sight. + +I have forgotten where I found the next story of an old dog who was +also very sagacious. Hunting dogs, when they grow old, become +rheumatic, or are at least debilitated with pains. We know, too, that +they crave heat, and get as near the fire as possible--a craving which +increases as they grow older. One such dog, older than the others, and +slower in getting into the lodge on returning from the hunt, was often +crowded away from the fire by the other livelier dogs getting all the +best places before him. Finding himself thus turned out in the cold, +he would dash toward the door barking, when the others, supposing it +was an alarm, would rush away too, while the old rheumatic went to the +fire and selected a place to suit him. + +It is not necessary to dwell upon the intelligence shown by such acts. +But it is hardly contestable that the old animal, who knows how to +play such tricks upon his less experienced companions, deceives them +by his intonations, while he is well aware that no enemy is +approaching the house; but he does it scientifically, by the +inflections of his voice, as a man speaking to other men would do in +announcing the arrival of an imaginary enemy. + +Inarticulate cries are all pretty much the same to us; their +inflections, duration, pitch, abruptness, and prolongation alone can +inform us of their purpose. But experience and close attention have +shown us the connection of these variations with the acts that +accompany or precede them. Animals evidently understand these +inflections at once. We cannot better compare the language of animals +than with what takes place in a pleasant sport, a kind of pantomime of +the voice or language which many youth doubtless understand, and which +I venture to refer to here to aid in more easily conceiving of the +communication of thought among animals by sounds which seem to us all +alike. When I was engaged in hospitals, the evenings in the guard room +were sometimes enlivened by the presence of a companion who excelled +in humorous mimicry. He would represent a man in liquor who had +stopped at a fountain that flowed with a gentle sound, somewhat like +that of his own hiccough. A single oath, pronounced in different +tones, was sufficient to enable us to comprehend all the impressions, +all the states of mind through which this devotee of Bacchus passed. +The oath, at first pronounced slowly and with an accent expressing +relief, represented a feeling of satisfaction, with shadings of +prolonged exclamation which it would be hard for one to imagine +without suggestion. The continued flowing of the fountain made our +drunken man impatient, and he wanted it to stop. This state of mind +was translated by a new modulation of the same word. In a little while +the gurgling of the fountain produced astonishment. Was it possible +that he, with all the liquid he had imbibed, could vomit so much and +for so long a time? This mental condition was expressed by a new +modulation of the same oath. The first movement of surprise over, +resignation follows, and our man decides to wait patiently for the +end. A period of half lethargy was easily represented by the slowness +and weakness of the man's voice while living up to this decision; but +when he comes out of this sleepy condition and hears the fountain +again, he is possessed with fear; he cannot understand the flood he is +pouring out--he dares not move--he believes he is lost. Gradually the +fumes of the liquor pass away, and, his mistake being recognized, the +drunkard is taken with a laughing and a gayety which are indicated by +the same oath repeated in tones corresponding with the satisfaction he +is then enjoying. This making the series of impressions a man passes +through comprehensible by a single word, varied in pronunciation and +utterance, is very like the language of animals, which is always the +same, and the significance of which is given by variety of intonations +corresponding with sensational conditions. + +The mewing of the cat is always the same; but what a number of mental +conditions it expresses! I had a kitten whose gambols and liveliness +entertained me greatly. I understood well, when it came up to me +mewing, what the sound meant; sometimes the kitten wanted to come up +and sleep in my lap; at other times it was asking me to play with it. +When, at my meals, it jumped on my knees, turned round, looked at me, +and spoke in a coaxing and flattering way, it was asking for something +to eat. When its mother came up with a mouse in her jaws, her muffled +and low-toned mew informed the little one from a distance, and caused +it to spring and run up to the game that was brought to it. The cry is +always the same, but varied in the strength of the inflections and in +its protraction, so as to represent the various states of mind with +which my young animal is moved--just as it was with the drunken man in +the mimicry scene. These facts are probably well known to all +observers of animals. + +We have seen that this tonality of the watch dog's cries is competent +to indicate that a person is coming to the house. We find similar +cries of warning uttered by birds. When I was a professor in the +faculty of Lille, I frequently visited the well known aged Professor +of Physics, M. Delezenne. He had a working room at the end of a +garden, in which a laughing mew wandered. From the time that any one +came in till he went out, this bird made the vocal explosions to which +it owes its name; and the good professor was certain, without ever +being mistaken, that somebody was coming to his laboratory. He was +notified. My Jaco in Paris has a warble that answers the ringing of +the bell. If we have not heard the bell, we are notified by Jaco of +its ringing, and, going to the door, find some one there. I have been +told of a parrot belonging to the steward of a lyceum which had heard +the words "Come in," when any one rang the bell. He never failed to +cry, "Come in," when the bell moved, and the visitor was embarrassed +at seeing nobody after having been invited to open the door. + +Instances in which the cries of birds had an incontestable and precise +signification are numerous; let me refer to a few of the best known. +The cackle of a hen, after having laid an egg and left her nest, is +decidedly characteristic. Her clucking when she is impelled to sit on +her eggs, or when she is calling her chicks, is no less demonstrative. +There is not a farmer who does not recognize it and understand it. In +these things we see the relation between the tone of the prating or +cluck of the hen and her acts. But when a nightingale sings all night, +or a goldfinch whistles, or a raven croaks, we cannot so easily +interpret the significance of their inarticulate sounds. The finch +calls its mate by uttering a few notes followed by a long trill. +Matches of a barbarous character, based on this habit, I were held in +the north of France while I was living at Lille, between 1855 and +1860. I do not know whether they have been suppressed or not, but the +laws for the protection of animals ought to take cognizance of them. +The gamesters put out the eyes of the male finches, and made them, +thus blinded, compete as singers, for which purpose they brought their +cages into proximity. When the birds heard and recognized one +another's voices, they made their appeal to the female; the one that +renewed his amorous trills most frequently, protracted them longest +and to the last, gained the prize. The bird that was declared victor +received a medal amid the applause of a large and enthusiastic crowd; +and considerable wagers were staked upon the result. I have heard that +these poor blinded birds sometimes fell down exhausted with singing, +and kept on calling the absent female till they died, not being +willing to yield to a rival, who on his side was also keeping up his +equally useless appeals. + +These finch contests were suggested after the meaning of the song of +the birds was learned. But when these birds, which are more usually +isolated--whence they have been named _Fringilla coelebs_, or +celibates--hop around our houses and also utter their amorous trills +at another than the mating season, they are evidently not calling the +female. Should we not then seek to determine by the tone whether their +call, which is always the same, is amorous or not? + +In countries where flocks of turkeys are raised one can learn very +quickly from their gobblings when they have captured a hare. If they +meet him standing still or lying down, they form in a circle around +him, and, putting their heads down, repeat continually their peculiar +cries. The hare remains quiet, and it is sometimes possible to take +him up, terrorized as he is in the midst of the black circle of +gobbling beaks and heads. The language of the turkeys is at that time +incontestably significant. It is warlike, and similar to that of the +males when they are fighting. In the present instance they have joined +for war, and they make it on the frightened hare. + +My Jaco, like all parrots, which are excellent imitators, pronounces a +few words and repeats them over and over again. Such birds amuse us +because the words they know sometimes happen to be ludicrously +fitting. A bird of this kind had been struck by the note sounded by +the wind blowing into a room through a crack in the glass work +whenever a certain door was opened; and he had become so perfect in +his imitation that they sometimes, on hearing the noise, went to shut +the door when it was not open. + +Jaco formerly belonged to a very pious old lady who was accustomed to +say her litanies with another person. He had caught the words "Pray +for us," in the invocations to the several saints, and said them so +well as sometimes to deceive his learned mistress, and cause her to +think she was saying her litanies with two colleagues. When Jaco was +out of food, and any one passed by him, he would say, "My poor +Cocotte!" or "My poor rat!" in an arch, mawkish, protracted tone that +indicated very clearly what he wanted, and that his drinking cup was +empty. There was no doubt in the house as to his meaning; and whenever +one heard it he said: "He has nothing to eat." He was exceedingly fond +of fresh pits of apples and pears, and I was in the habit of +collecting them and keeping them to give him. So whenever, as I came +near him, I put my hand into my pocket he never failed to say: "Poor +Cocco!" in a supplicating tone which it was impossible to mistake. A +sugar plum is a choice morsel to him. He can tell what it is from a +distance when I hold it out in my fingers; and when I give it to him +he cannot restrain himself if it has been any considerable time since +he has had the delicacy. Usually, after having made the first motion +to get it, as if he were ravished and wanted to express his joy in +advance, he would draw back before taking it, and say, in a comical +tone, "Hold, my poor Cocotte!" His manner of thanking in advance is +likewise amusing. The expression of his eyes and the pose of his head +are all in accord with the tone of his exclamation. When he tastes the +plum he utters a series of _ahs_, and produces a kind of warble by +prolonging some of his notes and shortening up others. We find in +these examples, without doubt, that the articulate voice makes us +better able to judge the meaning of the impressions that are moving +the animal than inarticulate cries, or merely musical sounds. When +Jaco met a child for whom he had a great affection, he would promenade +on his perch, or turn the wheel, spreading out his tail and ruffling +the feathers of his head, while his eyes grew red with excitement if +the child was too slow in bestowing the accustomed caress. Then he +would stop, bend down his head, and, looking at his friend, say +pleasantly, "Jaco," in a tone and with a manner quite in contrast with +the pronunciation of the same word when he was hungry. + +It is not the word he speaks that is of interest; he might have been +taught another, and it would have been the same; but it is the tone. +In this case, too, the articulation gives an easier clew to the +meaning the bird seeks to express, having a meaning according to the +manner of pronouncing it, than any isolated, simply musical sound, +like the song of the nightingale, canary bird, and warbler. This +became evident to me, not from observing animals for a few moments +without seeing them again, but from studying them continuously. + +Jaco did not like solitude, and was talkative and fond of being +caressed, like all of his kind. One day, when there was no one in the +country house, all having gone out into the garden or the fields, I +heard him saying over what few words he knew, in different +inflections. I went quietly into the room where he was, without being +seen; but he heard my steps, although I walked in very cautiously, +hoping to surprise him. He ceased his chatter, listened, and, after a +silence, pronounced "Jaco" in a low tone, drawing out the end of the +word. He listened again, and repeated the word in the same tone; then, +after another silence, repeated it with a rise of the voice. I +continued observing him, and, as he heard no one, he raised his tone +gradually, repeating the same word, and ended at last with a genuine +cry of distress. The people ran in from without, supposing something +had happened to him. He then repeated his name in a lower tone, which +seemed to indicate his satisfaction at finding his isolation ended. I +went in myself, and his prattle unmistakably betrayed his gladness at +being no longer alone. + +Is there not in this an act of real intelligence? While alone, the +parrot entertained himself by talking; but when he heard a sound he +hoped at first to see some one come; and when no one answered him, he +raised his voice, as a person would do who calls, and, getting no +reply, cried out louder and louder till he was heard and answered. The +meaning of the differences of intonation is as evident in this case as +in that of the drunken man. A parrot raised in the South had learned +to swear in the local _patois_. Being fond of coffee, he was sometimes +given a spoonful, which he would come awkwardly up to the table to +drink with his master. One day the master, not thinking of his bird, +had already added cognac to his coffee, and gave the parrot the +accustomed spoonful. The parrot took a swallow of it, and, in his +surprise at the novel taste, raised his head and repeated the oath in +a tone that excited laughter in all who were present. The cause of his +surprise being discovered, he was soothed, and then took his usual +ration with evident signs of contentment. The mimicry of language in +this case clearly represented the shade of the new impression he felt. + +Jaco is very timid. In the evening, when he is put to roost in a close +and dark room, he is afraid of the shadow of his perch that is cast by +the light we carry in our hand; he eyes it, and utters a low cry, +which stops when the candle is blown out and he cannot see the shadow +any longer. He stands in dread of blows in the bottom of his cage, +because, having a wing broken, he cannot fly, and is afraid of +falling. Feeling his weakness, his language has a different tone from +the usual one. Large birds flying in the sky above him annoy him +greatly, and we can all tell by his voice when such a bird is near or +flying over. He inclines his head and chatters in a low tone as long +as the bird is in sight, paying no attention to anything else. Turkeys +and hens announce the approach of a bird of prey in a similar manner. + +We find in the facts which we have related, as well as in many others +which are cited respecting the ways and habits of parrots, proofs of a +remarkable intelligence. These creatures are distinguished by the +unlimited affection which they bestow upon some persons, as well as by +their excessive dislikes, which nothing can explain. Jaco conceived an +extraordinary dislike for a maid who, although she took good care of +him, was in the habit of washing the bottom of his cage under a +faucet. He afterward discarded another person, whom he had liked so +much that she could do what she pleased with him, even to passing her +hand over his back and taking him by the tail, holding him in her +hands, or putting him in her apron--caresses of a kind that parrots do +not usually permit. Nothing astonished him or offended him. He proved +very inconstant toward her, and now, while better disposed toward the +other girl, he is furious against this one. A third miss has come to +capture his affection; and when he has been left asleep, or resting in +his cage, he has always the same word, but different in the inflection +wheedling, angry, or nearly indifferent, as either of the three +persons comes near him. Jaco's pronunciation is scanned in many +meters. Only one young student has had the privilege of retaining his +affection unmarred. + +Jaco had been left in the country for a whole week in the winter. +Alone and isolated, he was taken care of by a person who was not +constantly with him. The young student, accompanied by a tutor, came +to pass a few days in the house. At the sight of the youth, Jaco, +surprised, called out, "Momon! Momon!" "It was affecting," they wrote +me, "to see so great signs of joy." I have also myself witnessed +similar signs of joy at the coming of the student. Jaco's speech at +such times is always in harmony with his feelings. In the pleasant +season Jaco's cage is put outdoors; and at meal times, knowing very +well what is going on within, he keeps up a steady course of suppliant +appeals for attention. His appeals cease at once if I go out with +fruit in my hand, and if I go toward him he utters a prattle of joy +that sounds like musical laughter. These manifestations indicate that +he is happy at seeing that he has been thought of. + +I close these anecdotes, as I began them, by repeating that animals +communicate their impressions, and the feelings that move them, by +various modulations of their inarticulate cries, which are +incomprehensible to us unless we have succeeded by attentive +observation in connecting them with the acts that follow or precede +them. We have also seen that the articulation of a few words learned +by parrots aids us greatly in learning the meaning of these different +inflections. + +The extension of these studies would furnish much of interest; but +further observations should be made upon the same animals for a +longtime continuously, relating especially to their peculiar instincts +as manifested by their various cries. We might then, by comparing and +relating acts and cries, reach the point of comprehending and perhaps +fixing the meaning in many cases where we are now in ignorance. Every +one has noticed a few facts, and has interpreted and related them, but +much is still wanting for the co-ordination of them in the point of +view of the signification of the language and communication of animals +among themselves. It has not been made in a general sense. +--_Translated for the Popular Science Monthly from the Revue +Scientifique_. + + * * * * * + + + + +MODIFICATION OF OUR CLIMATE. + +By JOSEPH WALLACE. + + +Every now and then some weather sage predicts extremely cold winters, +and another ventures to say that the sun is gradually losing heat and +in time Arctic cold will prevail over the globe. Whatever may have +been the changes during the vast cycles of time prior to the advent of +man, or whatever may be the changes in the time to come, one thing is +quite certain; that our climate has been much modified within the past +two or three thousand years. + +"There have been fifteen climatic changes since the beginning of the +glacial age, each change lasting 10,500 years, and each change +reversing the season in the two hemispheres, the pole which had +enjoyed continuous summer being doomed to undergo perpetual winter for +10,500 years, and then passing to its former state for an equal term. +The physical changes upon the earth's surface during the past 80,000 +years modified the changes of climate even in the Arctic regions, so +that the intense cold of the former epochs was much modified during +the latter epochs." Reckoning these climatic changes in their order, +we had entered the epoch of a more genial temperature about fifteen +hundred years ago; and if no disturbing change takes place during the +present epoch, we may reasonably expect a gradual modification of our +winters for nine thousand years to come. The changes to intense cold +from perpetual summer during the greater part of the glacial period +are supposed to have been caused by the high temperature of the north +pole as compared to that of the south pole, owing to the distribution +of land around the two, the south having almost none. Dr. Croll thinks +it was caused by the varying inclination of the earth's axis, which +produced the relative position of the two poles toward the sun to be +periodically reversed at distant periods. Dr. James Geikie agrees with +Croll on the reverse of seasons every 10,500 years during certain +periods of high ellipticity of the earth's orbit. + +But it may be asked, "How could the fauna and flora propagate +themselves under such conditions?" The flora itself at the quaternary +age was of extreme vigor. We know this from the little which is left +us, but more especially from the presence of a large number of +herbivorous animals--stags, horses, elephants, rhinoceros, etc.--which +animated the plains and valleys of Europe and America at the same +time. Evidently they could not have lived and propagated themselves +without abundant vegetation for nourishment and development. + +That which has deceived the adherents of the glacial theory, as +understood in its absolute sense, is, they have generally placed a too +high estimate on its extent and intensity. It needs but a little +effort of the reasoning powers to come to the conclusion that the +earth had cooled to the degree that all animal and vegetable life +could exist upon it, and that a portion of the earth's surface +permanently covered with snow and ice was absolutely indispensable to +the existence, perpetuity, and well-being of animal and vegetable +life. Again, they have attributed to the glaciers the rocks, gravels, +and other material which they have found spread here and there long +distances from the mountains. The transportation of the so-called +erratic rocks has appeared inexplicable in any other way, and the +piles of rock and gravel have been considered so many _moraines_, that +is, deposits of diverse material transported by the glaciers. They do +not regard the probability of other agents taking the place of +glaciers, and undervalue the moving power of water. Water in liquid +state has often produced analogous effects, and it has often been the +error of the glacialists to confound the one with the other. The +erratic rocks and the moraines are undoubtedly the ordinary +indications of the ancient gravels, but, taken isolatedly, they are +not sufficient proof. In order to convince they should be accompanied +with a third indication, which is the presence of striated rocks which +we find in the neighborhood of our actual glaciers. When all these +signs are together then there is hardly a possibility of error, but +one alone is not sufficient, because it can be the effect of another +cause. + +No doubt the temperature was really lower at the quaternary age and at +the epoch generally assigned to man's advent in European countries, +but the difference was not so great as some say. A lowering of four +degrees is sufficient to explain the ancient extension of the +glaciers. We can look on this figure as the maximum, for it is proved +to-day that humanity played the main _role_ in the glacial phenomena. +The beds of rivers and the alluvia are there to tell that all the +water was not in a solid state at that time, that the glaciers were +much more extended than in our days, and that the courses of the +rivers were infinitely more abundant. When this is understood we can +reasonably reduce the extension of the ancient glaciers, the lowering +of the temperature at the quaternary age, and account for the +uninterrupted life of the fauna and flora. However, we must not fall +into the opposite excess and assert, as some have done, that the +glacial period is comparatively recent, the traces of which are too +plain and fresh in some localities to assign to it an age prior to +man, and that the temperature has rather lowered itself since this +epoch. The ancient extension of the glaciers has been followed by a +corresponding growth and extension of animal life, thus proving that +the permanence of glaciers is a wise provision and absolutely +essential to man and the high orders of animals and vegetation. The +ancient extension does not prove alone that it was much colder than in +historic times, for the animals themselves are proof of this. At that +time the plains of Europe, and of France in particular, were animated +by herds of reindeer, gluttons, camels, and marmots, which one does +not find to-day except in the higher latitudes or more considerable +heights. The mammoth and rhinoceros are no exception to this, for +naturalists know they were organized to live in cold countries. + +Space will not permit us to pursue this point further, or speculate on +the probable climatic conditions of the ice age; but we can carry +ourselves back a few thousand years and describe the climate of Europe +and neighboring countries of Africa and Asia. Herodotus describes the +climate of Scythia in terms which would indicate in our day the +countries of Lapland and Greenland. He shows us the country completely +frozen during eight months of the year; the Black Sea frozen up so +that it bore the heaviest loads; the region of the Danube buried under +snow for eight months, and watered in summer by the abundant rains +which gave to the river its violent course. The historian adds that +the ass cannot live in Scythia on account of the extreme cold which +reigns there. The following century Aristotle makes the same remarks +concerning Gaul. His contemporary, Theophrastes, tells us that the +olive tree did not succeed in Greece more than five hundred furlongs +from the sea. We can assure ourselves that both the ass and the olive +thrive in these countries at the present day. + +Three centuries later, Caesar speaks frequently and emphatically of the +rigor of winters and early setting in of cold in France, the abundance +of snow and rain, and the number of lakes and marshes which became +every moment serious obstacles to the army. He says he is careful not +to undertake any expedition except in summer. Cicero, Varro, +Possidonius, and Strabo insist equally on the rigor of the climate of +Gaul, which allows neither the culture of the vine nor the olive. +Diodorus of Sicily confirms this information: "The cold of the winters +in Gaul is such that almost all the rivers freeze up and form natural +bridges, over which numerous armies pass quite safely with teams and +baggages; in order to hinder the passengers to slip out upon the ice +and to render the marching more secure, they spread straw thereon." + +Virgil and Ovid insist on the severity of cold in the regions of the +Danube. The first describes the inhabitants of these miserable +countries withdrawing themselves into caves dressed with the skins of +wild beasts. Ovid, who had passed several years of his life in that +region, is more precise in his description. He says the wine has +changed itself here (Black Sea) into a solid frozen mass; one gives it +to drink by pieces. Fearing of being accused of poetic exaggeration he +appeals to the testimony of two ancient governors of Moesia, who could +establish the facts like himself. The author who would give such +accounts of the Black Sea in our days would risk his reputation for +veracity. + +Italy, too, experienced its part of the cold in early days. Virgil +tells us of the snows being, heaped up, rivers which carried ice +along, the sad winter which split the stone and bound up the course of +large streams, and all this in the warmest part of Italy, at the base +of the walls of Taranto. Heratius affirms that the Soracte, a +neighboring mountain of Rome, was whitened with thick snow, rivers +frozen, and the country covered with snow. To-day the snow stays very +little upon the Soracte and never in the country around Rome. During +the four or five centuries which followed, writers speak of the +severity of climate in Northern Italy, the lagoons on the Adriatic +being frozen over. Algiers was much colder then than now. The Danube, +Rhine, and other rivers in Europe, the Nile in Africa, the Amazon in +South America, the Mississippi and Missouri in North America, had +quite different volumes two thousand years ago than their present +actual ones, and they especially rolled much greater masses of water. + +There is everything to show a modification of climate in our own days. +If this goes on in the future as in the past, there will be a marked +difference in the temperature two or three hundred years from now. +Even a degree in a thousand years would effect a great change in the +course of time. The lowering of four degrees established the ancient +extension of glaciers, though it did not interrupt animal or vegetable +life. Fifty-four of the fifty-seven species of _Mollusca_ have +outlived the glacial age, and all our savage animals--even a certain +number which have disappeared--date equally from the quaternary, and +were contemporary with the great extension of the glaciers.--_Popular +Science News_. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE ERUPTION OF KRAKATOA. + + +Before the year 1883 physical geographers, in speaking of the most +disastrous volcanic eruption on record, referred first, in point of +time, to the celebrated eruption of Vesuvius, in A.D. 79, when the +cities of Herculaneum, Pompeii and several smaller towns on the slope +of the mountain were destroyed by lava or buried under a mass of +pumice stones and ashes; second to that of Hecla and Skaptar Jokull, +contiguous mountains in Iceland, in 1783, when two enormous lava +streams, one 15 miles wide and over 100 ft. deep and the other +scarcely inferior, flowed, the first, 50 miles and the other 40, till +they reached the sea, pouring a flood of white hot lava into the +ocean, destroying everything in their paths and killing in the waters +of the ocean the fish, the mainstay of the inhabitants, who were +reduced by the disaster, directly or indirectly, to less than +five-sixths of their former strength; and third to that of Galungung, +in 1822, which devastated such an immense area in Java; but all the +eruptions known besides were as mere child's play to the terrible one +of Krakatoa in 1883. + +If the reader will examine the map of the East Indies he will find +represented in the straits of Sunda, which lie between Sumatra and +Java, the little island of Krakatoa. In maps made before 1883 he will +hunt in vain for the name, for like Bull Run before 1861, it was then +unknown to fame, though navigators who passed through the straits knew +it as a beautiful tropical isle, with an extinct volcanic cone in the +center. In the beginning of 1883, however, the little well behaved +island showed symptoms of wrath that boded no good to the larger +islands in the vicinity. Noted for the fine fruits with which it +abounded, it was a famous picnic ground for towns and cities even 100 +miles away, and when the subterranean rumblings and mutterings of +wrath became conspicuous the people of the capital of Java, Batavia, +put a steamboat into requisition and visited the island in large +numbers. For a time the island was constantly in a slight tremor, and +the subterranean roar was like the continued but distant mutterings of +thunder, but the crisis was reached August 23, at 10 o'clock A.M. It +was a beautiful Sunday morning and the waters of the straits of Sunda +were like that sea of glass, as clear as crystal, of which John in his +apocalyptic vision speaks. The beauty that morning was enhanced by the +extraordinary transparency of the tropical air, for distant mountain +ranges seemed so near that it seemed possible to strike them with a +stone cast from the hand. Only the mysterious rumblings and mutterings +of the pent up forces beneath the island disturbed the breathless calm +and silence that lay on nature--the calm before the terrible +storm--the mightiest, the most awful on record! It burst forth! Sudden +night snatched away day from the eyes of the terrified beholders on +the mainland, but the vivid play of lightnings around the ascending +column of dust penetrated even the deep obscurity to a distance of 80 +miles. This awful darkness stretched within a circle whose diameter +was 400 miles, while more or less darkness reigned within a circle +with a diameter three times as great. Within this latter area dust +fell like snow from the sky, breaking off limbs of trees by its weight +miles distant, while in Batavia, 100 miles away from the scene of the +disaster, it fell to the depth of several inches. The explosions were +so loud as to be distinctly heard in Hindostan, 1,800 miles away, and +at Batavia the sound was like the constant roar of cannon in a field +of battle. Finally the whole island was blown to pieces, and now came +the most awful contest of nature--a battle of death between Neptune +and Vulcan; the sea poured down into the chasm millions of tons, only +to be at first converted into vapor by the millions of tons of +seething white hot lava beneath. Over the shores 30 miles away, waves +over 100 ft. high rolled with such a fury that everything, even to a +part of the bedrock, was swept away. Blocks of stone, of 50 tons +weight were carried two miles inland. On the Sumatra side of the +straits a large vessel was carried three miles inland. The wave, of +course growing less in intensity, traveled across the whole Indian +Ocean, 5,000 miles, to the Cape of Good Hope and around it into the +Atlantic. The waves in the atmosphere traveled around the globe three +times at the rate of 700 miles per hour. The dust from the volcano was +carried up into the atmosphere fully twenty miles and the finest of it +was distributed through the whole body of air. The reader doubtless +remembers the beautiful reddish or purple glow at sunrise and sunset +for fully six months after August, 1883--that glow was caused by +volcanic dust in the atmosphere interfering with the passage of the +sun's rays of the upper part of the solar spectrum, more manifest at +sun rising and setting than at other times during the day, because at +these periods the sun's rays have to travel obliquely through the +atmosphere, and consequently penetrating a very deep layer, were +deprived of all their colors except the red. + +The loss of life was appalling. The last sight on earth to 35,000 +people was that of the awful eruption. Engulfed in the ocean or +covered with heaps of ashes, a few hours after the eruption commenced +the awful work was done, and that vast multitude had vanished from off +the face of the earth. The fact that in the neighborhood of the +mountain there was a sparse population accounts for there not being +even a far greater loss of life. + +Notwithstanding the awfulness of volcanic and earthquake phenomena, +there is some silver lining to the dark clouds. They prove that the +earth is yet a _living_ planet. Centuries must pass away before it +will become like the moon--a dead planet--without water, air or life. +Our satellite is a prophecy indeed of what the earth must eventually +become when all its life forces, its internal energies, are dissipated +into space.--_Granville F. Foster, Min. Sci. Press_. + + * * * * * + + + + +PENTAPTERYGIUM SERPENS. + + +This is one of five species of Himalayan plants which, until recently, +were included in the genus vaccinium. The new name for them is ugly +enough to make one wish that they were vacciniums still. +Pentapterygium serpens is the most beautiful of the lot, and, so far +as I know, this and P. rugosum are the only species in cultivation in +England. The former was collected in the Himalayas about ten years ago +by Captain Elwes, who forwarded it to Kew, where it grows and flowers +freely under the same treatment as suits Cape heaths. Sir Joseph +Hooker says it is abundant on the Sikkim mountains at from 3,000 to +8,000 feet elevation, and that it usually grows on the stout limbs of +lofty trees. In this it resembles many of the rhododendrons of that +region, and it has been suggested that they are epiphytic from force +of circumstances, not from choice. On the ground they would have no +chance against the other vegetation, which would strangle or starve +them out. Remove them from this struggle for existence, and they at +once show their preference for rich soil and plenty of it. All the +pentapterygiums have the lower part of the stem often swelling out +into a prostrate trunk, as thick as a man's leg sometimes, and sending +out stout branching roots which cling tightly round the limbs of the +tree upon which it grows. These swollen stems are quite succulent, and +they serve as reservoirs of moisture and nourishment. In the wet +season they push out new shoots, from which grow rapidly wands three +or four feet long, clothed with box-like leaves, and afterward with +numerous pendulous flowers. These are elegant in shape and richly +colored. They are urn-shaped, with five ribs running the whole length +of the corolla, and their color is bright crimson with deeper colored +V-shaped veins, as shown in the illustration of the flowers of almost +natural size. They remain fresh upon the plant for several weeks. The +beautiful appearance of a well grown specimen when in flower may be +seen from the accompanying sketch of the specimen at Kew, which was at +its best in July, and remained in bloom until the middle of September. + + +[Illustration: PENTAPTERYGIUM SERPENS (FLOWERS NEARLY NATURAL SIZE)] + +P. rugosum is also grown as a greenhouse plant at Kew, where it has +been in cultivation about twenty years. It has larger leaves and a +more bushy habit than P. serpens, while the flowers are produced in +fascicles on the old wood. They are as large as those here figured, +but differ in color, being whitish, with brown-red V-shaped marks. +Both species may be propagated from cuttings. The plants thrive in +sandy peat, and they like plenty of moisture at all times.--_W. +Watson, in The Gardeners' Magazine_. + +[Illustration: PENTAPTERYGIUM SERPENS (FLOWERS DEEP CRIMSON)] + + * * * * * + + + + +THE PERFORATION OF FLOWERS. + + +The subject of the relations and adaptations which exist between +flowers and insects does not appear to excite as much popular +attention as many other branches of natural science which are no more +interesting. Sprengel, Darwin, and Hermann Muller have been the chief +authors in giving us our present knowledge and interest in the study; +Sir John Lubbock has helped to popularize it, and Prof. W. Trelease +and others have carried on the work in this country. + +The perforation as well as the fertilization of flowers has received +attention, but there is a wide field for further study for those who +have leisure to pursue it, as it requires much time and patience, as +well as closeness and accuracy of observation. + +The accompanying figures, from drawings by Mr. C.E. Faxon, show a few +characteristic perforations and mutilations, and also represent two of +the principal kinds of insects which make them. + +Any one interested in the subject will find an excellent brief review +of the work already done, a fair bibliography, and a list of +perforated flowers in Professor L.H. Pammel's paper on the +"Perforation of Flowers," in the _Transactions of the St. Louis +Academy of Science_, vol. v., pp. 246-277. + +The general beauty of flowers is usually not greatly marred by the +perforations except in a few cases, as when the spurs of columbines +and corollas of trumpet creepers are much torn, which frequently +happens. + +The great object of the perforations by insects is the obtaining of +the concealed nectar in an easy way. Very naturally, flowers which +depend on insect agency for fertilization rarely produce seed when +punctured if they are not also entered in the normal way. Perforating +is only practiced by a small number of species of insects, and many +but not all of the perforators do so because their tongues are too +short to reach the nectar by entering the flower. Some obtain nectar +from the same kind of flower both in the normal way and by +perforating. + +The chief perforators of flowers, in this part of the continent at +least, appear to be some kinds of humble bees (Bombus) and carpenter +bees (Xylocopa). These insects have developed an unerring instinct as +to the proper point to perforate the corollas from the outside, in +order to readily get at the nectar. The holes made by the humble bees +and by the carpenter bees are usually quite different and easily +distinguished. + +The humble bees have short, stout, blunt jaws, ill adapted for +cutting, and the perforations made by them are apparently always +irregular in shape, and have jagged edges. It has been stated that the +humble bees often bore through the tubes of their corollas with their +maxillae, but in all cases observed by me the mandibles were first +brought into use in effecting an opening. The noise caused by the +tearing is often audible for a distance of several feet. + +The true jaws of the carpenter bees are not any more prominent or +better adapted for making clean-cut perforations than those of the +humble bees; but behind the jaws there is a pair of long, +sharp-pointed, knife-like, jointed organs (maxillae) which seem to be +exclusively used on all ordinary occasions in making perforations. The +inner edges of these maxillae are nearly straight, and when brought +together they form a sharp-pointed, wedge-shaped, plow-like instrument +which makes a clean, narrow, longitudinal slit when it is inserted in +the flower and shoved forward. The slits made by it are often not +readily seen, because the elasticity of the tissues of some flowers +causes them to partially close again. When not in use the instrument +can be folded back, so that it is not conspicuous. The ordinary +observer usually sees no difference between the humble bees and the +carpenter bees, but they may be readily distinguished by a little +close observation. + +[Illustration: THE PERFORATION OF FLOWERS. + +1. Xylocopa and heads of male and female. 2. Bombus and head. 3. +Dicentra spectabilis, showing punctures. 4. Ribes aureum. 5. Ligustrum +Ibota. 6. AEsculus glabra. 7. Lonicera involucrata. 8. Caragana +arborescens. 9. Andromeda Japonica. 10. Buddleia Japonica. 11. +Mertensia Virginica. 12. Rhododendron arborescens. 13. Corydalis +bulbosa.] + +No doubt, in some of the recorded cases of perforations, carpenter +bees have been mistaken for humble bees. The heads of all our Northern +humble bees are rather narrow, retreating from the antennae toward the +sides, and with a more or less dense tuft of hair between the antennae. +The abdomen, as well as the thorax, is always quite densely covered +with hair, which may be black or yellowish or in bands of either +color. With possibly one or two exceptions, the only species I have +seen doing the puncturing is Bombus affinis, Cresson. + +The carpenter bees (Xylocopa Virginica) of this region have the head +very broad and square in front, and with no noticeable hair between +the antennae. The heads of the male and female differ strikingly. In +the male the eyes are lighter colored and are hardly half as far apart +as in the female, and the lower part of the face is yellowish white. +The female has eyes smaller, darker, and very far apart, and the whole +face is perfectly black. The abdomen is broad, of a shining blue-black +color, very sparsely covered with black hairs, except on the first +large segment nearest the thorax. On this segment they are more dense +and of the same tawny color as those on the thorax. But it is +particularly from the character of the head that the amateur observer +of the perforators may soon learn to distinguish between a Xylocopa +and a Bombus as they work among the flowers. It is also interesting to +know that the Xylocopas are not so inclined to sting as the humble +bees, and the males, of course, being without stinging organs, may be +handled with impunity. + +Among other insects, honey bees have been said to perforate flowers, +but authentic instances are rare of their doing much damage, or even +making holes. I have only recorded a single instance, and in this a +honey bee was seen to perforate the fragile spurs of Impatiens. When +searching for nectar they quite commonly use the perforations of other +insects. Wasps and other allied insects also perforate for nectar. My +only observations being a Vespa puncturing Cassandra calyculata, an +Andrena (?) perforating the spurs of Aguilegia, and Adynerus +foraminatus biting holes close to the base on the upper side of +rhododendron flowers. The holes made by some of the wasp-like insects +are often more or less circular and with clean-cut edges. The ravages +committed by larvae, beetles and other insects in devouring flowers, or +parts of them, do not properly come under the head of perforations. + +The question as to the cause of the handsome corollas of the trumpet +creeper (Tecoma radicans) being so often split and torn has been +accounted for in various ways in published notes on the subject. +Humming birds and ants have been blamed, the humming birds being such +constant visitors of these flowers that it really seemed as though +they must be the authors of the mischief. I have often watched them +when they appeared as though they were pecking at the blossoms, but +careful examinations, both before and after their visits, always +failed to show any trace of injury. Finally, on July 26, 1890, I was +rewarded by seeing a number of Baltimore orioles vigorously pecking at +and tearing open a lot of fresh blossoms, and this observation was +afterward repeated. That the oriole should do this was not surprising, +considering its known habits in relation to some other flowers. J.G. +JACK. + +[Mr. Jack adds a list of sixteen plants whose flowers he has seen +punctured by the carpenter bee and seventeen others whose flowers were +punctured by the humble bee. He names more than thirty other flowers +which he has found perforated without having seen or identified the +authors of the mischief.--ED.]--_Garden and Forest_. + + * * * * * + + + + +ELECTRICITY IN HORTICULTURE. + + +The influence of electricity upon vegetation has been the subject of +numerous investigations. Some have been made to ascertain the effects +of the electric current through the soil; others to ascertain the +effect of the electric light upon growth through the air. Among the +latter are those of Prof. L.H. Bailey of the Cornell University +Agricultural Experiment Station. In Bulletin No. 30 of the +Horticultural Department is given an account of experiments with the +electric light upon the growth of certain vegetables, like endive, +spinach, and radish; and upon certain flowers like the heliotrope, +petunia, verbena primula, etc. The results are interesting and +somewhat variable. The forcing house where the experiments were +carried on was 20 x 60 ft., and was divided into two portions by a +partition. In one of these the plants received light from the sun by +day and were in darkness at night. In the other they received the +sunlight and in addition had the benefit of an arc light the whole or +a part of the night. The experiment lasted from January until April +during two years, six weeks of the time the first year with a naked +light and the balance of the time with the light protected by an +ordinary white globe. It is not the purpose here to enter into any +great details, but to give the general conclusions. + +The effect of the naked light running all night was to hasten +maturity, the nearer the plants being to the light the greater being +the acceleration. The lettuce, spinach, etc., "ran to seed" in the +"light" house long before similar plants in the dark. An examination +of the spinach leaves with the microscope showed the same amount of +starch in each, but in the electric light plants the grains were +larger, had more distinct markings and gave a deeper color with +iodine. + +With lettuce it was found that the nearer the plants were to the light +the worse the effect; and conversely those furthest away were the best +developed. Cress and endive gave the same results. In the case of the +latter, some of the plants were shaded from the light by an iron post, +and these grew better and were larger than those exposed to its direct +rays. The average weight of eight plants in full light was 49.6 +grains, as opposed to an average of six plants in the shade of 93.8 +grains. Radishes were strongly attracted to the light and moved toward +it during the night. During the day they straightened up, but moved +again toward the light at night. The plants nearest the lamp made a +poor growth and were nearly dead at the end of six weeks. Averaging +the weight of plant, of top and of tuber, it was found that those +grown in the dark were heavier in every instance than those grown in +the light; and the percentage of marketable tubers from the +light-grown plants was twenty-seven, as opposed to seventy-eight in +the dark. Chemical analyses showed the plants in the light to be more +mature than those in the dark, although they were much smaller. Dwarf +peas showed the same facts, those in full light being smaller than +those in the dark. The former bloomed a week earlier than the latter, +but the production of seed was less, being only about four-sevenths as +great. + +Further experiments were made by excluding the sun during the day and +exposing the plants to the diffused electric light only. In all cases, +with radishes, lettuce, peas, corn, and potatoes, the plants died in +about four weeks. Only a little starch and no chlorophyl was found in +the plants deprived of sunlight and only receiving the electric light. +Thus the experiments with a naked light showed conclusively that +"within range of an ordinary forcing house the naked arc light running +continuously through the night is injurious to some plants." In no +case did it prove profitable. + +Experiments with the light inclosed in a white globe and running all +night were different in their results. The effect was much less +marked. Lettuce was decidedly better in the light house; radishes were +thrifty but did not produce as much as in the dark house. A third +series of experiments with the naked light running a part of the night +only were also made. Radishes, peas, lettuce, and many flowers were +experimented upon. The lettuce was greatly benefited by the light. +"Three weeks after transplanting (Feb. 5)," we are told, "both +varieties in the lighthouse were fully 50 per cent. in advance of +those in the dark house in size, and the color and other characters of +the plants were fully as good. The plants had received at this time +701/2 hours of electric light. Just a month later the first heads were +sold from the light house, but it was six weeks later when the first +heads were sold from the dark house. In other words, the electric +light plants were two weeks ahead of the others. This gain had been +purchased by 1613/4 hours of electric light, worth at current prices of +street lighting about $7." + +This experiment was repeated with the same results. In the second +experiment the plants receiving eighty-four hours of electric light, +costing $3.50, were ready for market ten days before the plants in the +dark house. The influence of the light upon color of flowers was +variable. With tulips the colors of the lighted plants were deeper and +richer than the others, but they faded after four or five days. +Verbenas were injured in every case, being of shorter growth and +losing their flowers sooner than those in the dark house. "Scarlet, +dark red, blue and pink flowers within three feet of the light soon +turned to a grayish white." Chinese primulas seven feet from the light +were unaffected, but those four feet away were changed. Lilac colors +were bleached to pure white when the light struck them fairly. An +elaborate series of tables of the effect of the light is given in the +paper. The author believes it possible that the electric light may be +used some day to pecuniary advantage in floricultural establishments. + +These experiments naturally open up many questions. Those which will +be of most importance to the practical man will be such as relate to +the benefits to be derived from the use of the electric light. That +electricity has a great effect upon vegetation can no longer be +denied. What remains now is to ascertain how to use the force with the +most economy and to the best advantage. If by its use early vegetables +will be made earlier, bright flowers be made brighter, it will be a +question of only a short time before it will come into general use. To +the student of plant physiology there are also many questions of +interest, but into these it is not the intention to enter. Prof. +Bailey's general conclusions are, in part, as follows: "There are a +few points which are clear: the electric light promotes assimilation, +it often hastens growth and maturity, it is capable of producing +natural flavors and colors in fruits, it often intensifies colors of +flowers and sometimes increases the production of flowers. The +experiments show that periods of darkness are not necessary to the +growth and development of plants. There is every reason, therefore, to +suppose that the electric light can be profitably used in the growing +of plants. It is only necessary to overcome the difficulties, the +chief of which are the injurious influences upon plants near the +light, the too rapid hastening to maturity in some species, and in +short the whole series of practical adjustments of conditions to +individual circumstances. Thus far, to be sure, we have learned more +of the injurious effects than of the beneficial ones, but this only +means that we are acquiring definite facts concerning the whole +influence of electric light upon vegetation; and in some cases, +notably in our lettuce tests, the light has already been found to be a +useful adjunct to forcing establishments.... It is highly probable +that there are certain times in the life of the plant when the +electric light will prove to be particularly helpful. Many experiments +show that injury follows its use at that critical time when the +planetlet is losing its support from the seed and is beginning to +shift for itself, and other experiments show that good results follow +from its later use.... On the whole, I am inclined toward Siemens' +view that there is a future for electro-horticulture." + +JOSEPH P. JAMES. +Washington, Jan. 20, 1892. + + * * * * * + + + + +ELECTRICITY IN AGRICULTURE. By CLARENCE D. WARNER. + + +It is well known that currents of electricity exist in the atmosphere. +Clouds are charged and discharged. There is a constant change of +electricity from earth to air and from air to earth, the latter being +the great reservoir for all electricity. Hills, mountain peaks, trees, +high chimneys, spires, in fact all points elevated above the earth's +surface assist greatly in charging and discharging the atmosphere. +Again, if two iron rods are driven into the earth and connected by a +copper wire with an electrometer in the circuit, the instrument is +almost immediately affected, showing that currents of electricity are +running through the ground. Now, what is the function of these +atmospheric and ground electric currents? Many scientists are agreed +that certain forms of precipitation are due to electrical action; but +my observations have led me to believe conclusively that electricity +is a potent factor in the economy of nature, and has more to do with +the growth and development of plants than has hitherto been known. +Davy succeeded in the decomposition of the alkalies, potash and soda, +by means of electric currents. In our laboratories, water and ternary +compounds are rapidly decomposed by the battery, and we may reasonably +suppose that that which is effected in our laboratories by artificial +means takes place in the great laboratory of nature on a grander and +more extended scale. + +Plant food is carried throughout the plant by means of the flow of +sap; these currents circulate through all the rootlets and center, as +it were, in the stalk, carrying their tiny burdens of various elements +and depositing them in their proper places. That this phenomenon of +circulation is due to electricity cannot be doubted. Most plants grow +more rapidly during the night than in the day. May not the following +be a reason for this? + +We have already mentioned how electric currents pass from air to earth +and _vice versa_; at night the plant is generally covered with dew and +the plant itself becomes a good conductor, and, consequently, currents +of electricity pass to each through this medium, and during the +passage convert soil elements into plant food and stimulate the upward +currents to gather up the dissolved elements and carry them to their +proper places. + +From the time electricity became a science, much research has been +made to determine its effect, if any, upon plant growth. The earlier +investigations gave in many cases contradictory results. Whether this +was due to a lack of knowledge of the science on the part of the one +performing the experiments, or some defect in the technical +applications, we are not prepared to say; but this we do know, that +such men as Jolabert, Nollet, Mainbray and other eminent physicists +affirmed that electricity favored the germination of seeds and +accelerated the growth of plants; while, on the other hand, +Ingenhouse, Sylvestre and other savants denied the existence of this +electric influence. The heated controversies and animated discussions +attending the opposing theories stimulated more careful and thorough +investigations, which establish beyond a doubt that electricity has a +beneficial effect on vegetation. Sir Humphry Davy, Humboldt, Wollaston +and Becquerel occupied themselves with the theoretical side of the +question; but it was not till after 1845 that practical electroculture +was undertaken. Williamson suggested the use of gigantic electrostatic +machines, but the attempts were fruitless. The methods most generally +adopted in experiments consisted of two metallic plates--one of copper +and one of zinc--placed in the soil and connected by a wire. Sheppard +employed the method in England in 1846 and Forster used the same in +Scotland. In the year 1847 Hubeck in Germany surrounded a field with a +network of wires. Sheppard's experiments showed that electricity +increased the return from root crops, while grass perished near the +electrodes, and plants developed without the use of electricity were +inferior to those grown under its influence. Hubeck came to the +conclusion that seeds germinated more rapidly and buckwheat gave +larger returns; in all other cases the electric current produced no +result. Professor Fife in England and Otto von Ende in Germany carried +on experiments at the same time, but with negative results, and these +scientists advised the complete abandonment of applying electricity to +agriculture. After some years had elapsed Fichtner began a series of +experiments in the same direction. He employed a battery, the two +wires of which were placed in the soil parallel to each other. Between +the wires were planted peas, grass and barley, and in every case the +crop showed an increase of from thirteen to twenty-seven per cent. +when compared with ordinary methods of cultivation. + +Fischer, of Waldheim, believing atmospheric electricity to aid much in +the growth and development of plants, made the following tests: + +He placed metallic supports to the number of about sixty around each +hectare (2.47 acres) of loam; these supports were provided at their +summits with electrical accumulators in the form of crowns surmounted +with teeth. These collectors were united by metallic connection. The +result of this culture applied to cereals was to increase the crop by +half. + +The following experiment was also tried: Metallic plates sixty-five +centimeters by forty centimeters were placed in the soil. These plates +were alternately of zinc and copper and placed about thirty meters +apart, connected two and two, by a wire. The result was to increase +from twofold to fourfold the production of certain garden plants. Mr. +Fischer says that it is evidently proved that electricity aids in the +more complete breaking up of the soil constituents. Finally he says +that plants thus treated mature more quickly, are almost always +perfectly healthy, and are not affected with fungoid growth. + +Later, N. Specnew, inspired by the results arrived at by his +predecessors, was led to investigate the influence of electricity on +plants in every stage of their development; the results of his +experiments were most satisfactory and of practical interest. He began +by submitting different seeds to the action of an electric current, +and found that their development was rendered more rapid and complete. +He experimented with the seeds of haricot beans, sunflowers, winter +and spring rye. Two lots, of twelve groups of one hundred and twenty +seeds each, were plunged into water until they swelled, and while wet +the seeds were introduced into long glass cylinders, open at both +ends. Copper disks were pressed against the seeds, the disks were +connected with the poles of an induction coil, the current was kept on +for one or two minutes and immediately afterward the seeds were sown. +The temperature was kept from 45 deg. to 50 deg. Fahrenheit, and the +experiments repeated four times. The following table shows the +results: + + Peas. Beans. Barley. Sunflowers. + Days. Days. Days. Days. +Electrified seeds developed in 2.5 3 2 8.5 +Non-electrified seeds developed in 4 6 5 15 + +It was also observed that the plants coming from electrified seeds +were better developed, their leaves were much larger and their color +brighter than in those plants growing from non-electrified seeds. The +current did not affect the yield. + +At the Botanical Gardens at Kew, the following experiment was tried: + +Large plates of zinc and copper (0.445 meter and 0.712 meter) were +placed in the soil and connected by wires, so arranged that the +current passed through the ground; the arrangement was really a +battery of (zinc | earth | copper). This method was applied to pot +herbs and flowering plants and also to the growing of garden produce; +in the latter case the result was a large crop and the vegetables +grown were of enormous size. + +Extensive experiments in electroculture were also made at Pskov, +Russia. Plots of earth were sown to rye, corn, oats, barley, peas, +clover and flax; around these respective plots were placed insulating +rods, on the top of which were crown-shaped collectors--the latter +connected by means of wires. Atmospheric electricity was thus +collected above the seeds, and the latter matured in a highly +electrified atmosphere; the plots were submitted to identical +conditions and the experiments were carried on for five years. The +results showed a considerable increase in the yield of seed and straw, +the ripening was more rapid and the barley ripened nearly two weeks +earlier with electroculture. Potatoes grown by the latter method were +seldom diseased, only to 5 per cent., against 10 to 40 per cent. by +ordinary culture. + +Grandeau, at the School of Forestry at Nancy, found by experiment that +the electrical tension always existing between the upper air and soil +stimulated growth. He found plants protected from the influence were +less vigorous than those subject to it. + +Macagno, also believing that the passage of electricity from air +through the vine to earth would stimulate growth, selected a certain +number of vines, all of the same variety and all in the same condition +of health and development. Sixteen vines were submitted to experiment +and sixteen were left to natural influences. In the ends of the vines +under treatment, pointed platinum wires were inserted, to which were +attached copper wires, leading to the tops of tall poles near the +vines; at the base of these same vines other platinum wires were +inserted and connected by copper wires with the soil. At the close of +the experiment, which began April 15, and lasted till September 16, +the wood, leaves and fruit of both sets of vines were submitted to +careful analysis with the following results: + + Without conductor. With conductor. + + Moisture per cent. 78.21 79.84 + Sugar. 16.86 18.41 + Tartaric acid. 0.880 0.791 + Bitartrate of potash. 0.180 0.186 + +Thus we see that the percentage of moisture and sugar is greater and +the undesirable acid lower in those vines subject to electrical +influences than in those left to natural conditions. There are also +experiments which prove the beneficial effects of electricity on vines +attacked by phylloxera. + +The following experiments were made at this station: Several plots +were prepared in the greenhouse, all of which had the same kind of +soil and were subjected to like influences and conditions. Frames in +the form of a parallelogram, about three feet by two feet, were put +together; across the narrow way were run copper wires in series of +from four to nine strands, each series separated by a space about four +inches wide, and the strands by a space of one-half inch. These frames +were buried in the soil of the plot at a little depth, so that the +roots of the garden plants set would come in contact with the wires, +the supposition being that the currents of electricity passing along +the wires would decompose into its constituents the plant food in the +vicinity of the roots and more readily prepare it for the plants. Two +electric gardens were thus prepared and each furnished with two common +battery cells, so arranged as to allow continuous currents to pass +through each series of wires. Near each electric garden was a plot +prepared in the same manner, save the electrical apparatus. We will +call the two gardens A and B. + +The place chosen for the experiments was in a part of the greenhouse +which is given up largely to the raising of lettuce, and the gardens +were located where much trouble from mildew had been experienced. The +reason for this choice of location was to notice, if any, the effect +of electricity upon mildew, this disease being, as it is well known, a +source of much trouble to those who desire to grow early lettuce. The +soil was carefully prepared, the material taken from a pile of loam +commonly used in the plant house. + +Garden A was located where mildew had been the most detrimental; the +experiments began the first of January and closed the first of April. +For the garden, fifteen lettuce plants of the head variety were +selected, all of the same size and of the same degree of vitality, as +nearly as could be determined; the plants were set directly over the +wires, so that the roots were in contact with the latter; the plants +were well watered and cared for as in ordinary culture, and the fluid +in the battery cells was renewed from time to time, that the current +of electricity might not become too feeble. At the close of the +experiments the following results were noted: + +Five plants died from mildew, the others were well developed and the +heads large. The largest heads were over the greatest number of wires +and nearest the electrodes. It was further noticed that the healthiest +and largest plants, as soon as the current became feeble or ceased +altogether, began to be affected with mildew. On examining the roots +of the plants it was found that they had grown about the wires as if +there they found the greatest amount of nourishment; the roots were +healthy and in no way appeared to have been injured by the current, +but, rather, much benefited by the electrical influences. + +Beside garden A was prepared another plot of the same dimensions, +having the same kind of soil and treated in like manner as the first, +but the electrical apparatus and wires were wanting. At the close of +the experiments only three plants had partially developed, and two of +these were nearly destroyed by mildew--one only was free from the +disease. The results, therefore, show that the healthiest and largest +plants grew in the electric plot. + +In the second experiment, which we called B, twenty plants of the same +variety of lettuce and of equal size were taken. The treatment given +was the same as the plants in plot A received. Five plants only +remained unaffected with mildew; seven died from the disease when they +were half grown; the rest were quite well developed, but at the last +part of the experiment began to be affected. Several heads were large, +the largest being over the greatest number of wires and nearest the +electrodes. Examination of the roots disclosed the same phenomena as +in A. + +Near plot B were also set twenty other plants, subjected to like +conditions as the first, but without electricity; all but one died +from mildew before they were half grown, the solitary plant that +survived being only partly developed at the close of the experiment, +and even this was badly affected with the disease. + +Everything considered, the results were in favor of electricity. Those +plants subjected to the greatest electrical influence were hardier, +healthier, larger, had a better color, and were much less affected by +mildew than the others. Experiments were made with various grasses, +but no marked results were obtained. + +The question would naturally arise whether there may not be a limit +reached where electricity would completely overcome the attack of +mildew and stimulate the plant to a healthy and vigorous condition +throughout its entire growth. From the fact that the hardiest, +healthiest, and largest heads of lettuce grew over the greatest number +of currents and nearest the electrodes, it would seem that electricity +is one of the agents employed by nature to aid in supplying the plant +with nourishment and to stimulate its growth. To what extent plants +may be submitted to electrical influence, or what strength of current +is best suited to them and what currents prove detrimental to their +development, have not been determined as yet, but it is desirable to +continue this research until some definite information shall be gained +on these points. Probably different varieties of plants differ greatly +in their capacity for enduring the action of electric currents without +injury--experiment alone must determine this. + +It has been proved that the slow discharge of static electricity +facilitates the assimilation of nitrogen by plants. Faraday showed +that plants grown in metallic cages, around which circulated electric +currents, contained 50 per cent. less organic matter than plants grown +in the open air. It would seem from the researches of the latter +physicist that those plants requiring a large percentage of nitrogen +for their development would be remarkably benefited if grown under +electric influence.--_Massachusetts Agricultural College, Bulletin No +16._ + +[A very interesting article on the Influence of Electricity upon +Plants, illustrated, is given in SUPPLEMENT 806. It presents the +results of the studies of Prof. Lemstrom, of Helsingfors.] + + * * * * * + + + + +THE TREATMENT OF RATTLESNAKE BITE BY PERMANGANATE OF POTASSIUM, +BASED ON NINE SUCCESSFUL CASES. + +By AMOS W. BARBER, M.D.,[1] Cheyenne. + +[Footnote 1: Governor of Wyoming.] + + +Poisoned wounds, inflicted by the fangs of the rattlesnake, are +happily more rare each year, since, as the country is becoming more +populated, the crotalus is rapidly being exterminated. Yet, +considering the recklessness which characterizes the cow boy in his +treatment of this reptile, it is astonishing that this class of injury +is not more common. Thus it is the invariable custom among the +cattlemen to dismount and destroy these snakes whenever they are seen. +This is readily accomplished, since a slight blow will break the back. +This blow is, however, generally delivered by means of the quirt, a +whip not over two and a half feet long, and hence a weapon which +brings the one who wields it in unpleasant proximity to the fangs of +the reptile. A still more dangerous practice, and one which I have +frequently seen, is a method of playing with the rattlesnake for the +delectation of the cow boy at the expense of a "tenderfoot." It is +well known that unless a snake is coiled, or held by the tail or body, +or placed at length in a hole or crevice so narrow that by rendering +its length sinuous a certain amount of support is given, it cannot +strike. On this theory a mounted cow boy first puts a rattler to +flight, then pushes his pony in pursuit, stoops from the saddle, +seizes it by the tail, gives a quick upward jerk, and, swinging it so +rapidly around his head that it is impossible for it to strike, sets +off in pursuit of whoever has exhibited most terror at the sight of +the reptile. When within fair distance he hurls the snake at the +unfortunate victim, in the full assurance that even should it strike +him it cannot bury its fangs in his flesh, since it is impossible for +it to coil till it reaches the ground. This is a jest of which I have +frequently been the victim, nor have I yet learned to appreciate it +with unalloyed mirth. + +The belief that rattlesnakes always give warning before striking is +not well founded. If come upon suddenly, they often strike first, and +if disturbed when in a space so narrow that the coil cannot be formed, +they may give no warning of their presence beyond the penetration of +the fangs into the hand or foot of an intruder. One such case I saw. + +It seems to be well established that a snake will not voluntarily +crawl over a hair rope, and in certain parts of the country it is +common for campers-out to surround their beds with such a rope, since +the reptiles seek warmth, and are frequently found under or in the +blankets of those sleeping on the ground. + +After an exceptionally large experience with wounds inflicted by the +fangs of the rattlesnake, and an experience which, I am glad to say, +has been most successful in its outcome, I think it my duty to add, +from a practical standpoint, my testimony as to the efficacy of +permanganate of potassium in the treatment of this class of cases. +This drug was first introduced by Lacerda, of Brazil, and, if more +generally used, would, I believe, render comparatively innocuous a +class of injury which now usually terminates in death. + +I make this statement as to the fatality of crotalus poison advisedly. +I know the belief is very common that the poison of a rattlesnake is +readily combated by full doses of whisky. This is fallacious. I have +taken the pains to investigate a number of instances of cure resulting +from the employment of free stimulation. In each case the fangs did +not penetrate deeply into the tissues, but either scratched over the +surface or tore through, making a wound of entrance and exit, so that +the poison, or at least the major part of it, was not injected into +the tissues of the person struck. The effect is very much the same as +when an inexperienced practitioner picks up a fold of skin for the +purpose of making a hypodermic injection, and plunges his needle +entirely through, forcing the medicament wide of his patient. + +Nearly all, if not all, of the cases treated by stimulation alone +have, according to my experience, perished if they have received a +full dose of virus from a vigorous snake. One of these cases lived for +upward of a month. He then perished of what might be considered a +chronic pyaemia, the symptoms being those of blood poisoning, +accompanied by multiple abscesses. Another case, not occurring in my +own practice, died at the end of four days apparently of cardiac +failure. Active delirium persisted all through this case. Two other +cases treated by stimulants also died with symptoms of more or less +acute blood poisoning. + +The feeling is almost universal among the people of Wyoming that a +fair strike from a rattlesnake is certain death, and that the free use +of stimulants simply postpones the end. I do not for a moment deny +that a strong, lusty man may be struck fairly by a rattlesnake and if +the wound is at once opened and cauterized, and the heart judiciously +supported, he may yet recover; still the fact remains that the great +majority of these cases perish at a longer or shorter interval +following the infliction of the wound. Hence any treatment that will +save even the majority of such cases is a distinct gain, and one which +has saved every one of nine cases to which it has been applied needs +no further commendation. + +The first case of rattlesnake wound to which I was called occurred in +1885. A cow boy was bitten on the foot, the fang penetrating through +the boot. He was brought forty miles to Fort Fetterman, where I was +then stationed. I saw him about twenty-four hours after he was struck. +There was an enormous swelling, extending up to the knee. The whole +limb was bronzed in appearance. There was no special discoloration +about the wound; in fact, the swelling disguised this to such an +extent that it was impossible to determine exactly where the fangs had +entered. The pulse was scarcely perceptible at the wrist; the heart +was beating with excessive rapidity. The patient was suffering great +pain. His mind was clear, but he was oppressed with a dreadful +anxiety. Up to the time I saw him he had received absolutely no +treatment, excepting the application of a cactus poultice to the leg, +since there was no whisky at the ranch where he was wounded. I at once +made free incisions, five or six in number, from one to two inches in +depth, and about three inches in length. These cuts gave him very +little pain, nor was there much bleeding, though there was an enormous +amount of serous oozing. Into these wounds was poured a fifteen per +cent. solution of permanganate of potassium, and fully half an hour +was devoted to kneading this drug into the tissues. In addition I made +many hypodermic injections into all portions of the swollen tissue, +but particularly about the wound. Since there was no very distinct +line of demarkation between the swollen and healthy tissue, I did not, +as in other cases, endeavor to prevent the extension of the cellular +involvement by a complete circle of hypodermic injections. I employed, +in all, about forty grains of the permanganate. In addition to the +local treatment I pushed stimulation, employing carbonate of ammonium +and whisky. By means of diuretics and laxatives the kidneys and bowels +were encouraged to eliminate as much of the poison as possible. + +The patient went on to uninterrupted recovery. The wound healed with +very little sloughing. The patient returned to his work in about a +month. The cure of this case was regarded by the cow boys as most +exceptional, since, in their experience, similar cases, even though +very freely stimulated, had not recovered. + +Some time later I was called to see a girl, aged 14, who was struck by +a rattlesnake, fifty-six miles from Fort Fetterman. There was some +trouble about procuring relays, and I was compelled to ride the same +horse all the way out. This took a little short of five hours. This, +together with the time consumed in sending me word, caused an interval +of about twenty hours between the infliction of the injury and the +time I saw the patient. I found the fangs had entered on either side +of the distal joint of the middle metacarpal bone. The arm was +enormously swollen, almost to the axilla, and exhibited a bronzed +discoloration; this was especially marked about the wound and along +the course of the lymphatics. The swollen area was _boggy_ to the +touch, and exhibited a distinct line of demarkation between the +healthy and diseased tissues, excepting along the course of the +brachial vessels, where the indurated discolored area extended as a +broad band into the axilliary lymphatics, which were distinctly +swollen. The patient was delirious, was harrassed by terror, +complained bitterly of pain, and had an exceedingly feeble, rapid +heart action. There was marked dyspnoea, and all the signs of +impending dissolution. I at once made free multiple incisions into all +parts of the inflamed tissue, carrying two of my cuts through the +wounds made by the fangs of the snake. In the arm these incisions were +several inches long and from one to two inches deep. As in the former +case, the bleeding was slight, but there was a free exudation of +serum. Into these wounds a fifteen per cent. permanganate of potassium +solution was poured, and as much as possible was kneaded into the +tissues. In addition multiple hypodermic injections were made, these +being carried particularly into the bitten region, and circularly +around the arm just at the border of the line of demarkation, thus +endeavoring to limit by a complete circle of the antiseptic solution +the further extension of the inflammatory process. In the region of +the brachial vessels I hesitated to make my injections as thoroughly +as in the rest of the circumference of the arm, fearing lest the +permanganate of potassium might injure important vessels or nerves. + +This treatment caused very little pain, but immediately after the +constitutional symptoms became distinctly aggravated. I stimulated +freely, and at once made preparations to take the patient to the Fort +Fetterman hospital. She was transported over the fifty-six miles, I +riding the same horse back again, and arriving at Fort Fetterman the +same evening. + +The after treatment of this case was comparatively simple. She was +stimulated freely as long as cardiac weakness was manifested. As in +the former case, diuretics and laxatives were employed. The arm was +wrapped in cloth soaked in a weak permanganate solution, was placed in +a splint, and was loosely bandaged. There was some sloughing, but this +was treated on general surgical principles. The patient recovered the +entire use of her arm, and was turned out cured in about six weeks. + +The third case I saw about fourteen hours after he was struck. The +patient was a healthy blacksmith, about 30 years of age. The wound was +at about the middle of the forearm, the fangs entering toward the +ulnar side. When I saw the patient he exhibited comparatively trifling +symptoms. His heart action was rapid, and he was suffering from the +typical despondency and terror, but I could not note the profound +systemic depression characteristic of the great majority of cases. +Surrounding the wound and extending up the forearm for several inches +there was a boggy swelling, exhibiting a sharp line of demarkation. It +was bronzed in color, and was apparently spreading. I at once applied +the intermittent ligature just above the elbow, and injected the +permanganate of potassium solution freely all through the involved +tissues, particularly in the region of the bite and about the +periphery of the swelling, surrounding the latter by a complete ring +of injections. + +The general treatment of this patient was continued on the same +general line as described in the former cases, stimulants being +employed moderately. He recovered without any bad symptoms. There was +no sloughing; the swelling disappeared without any necrosis of tissue. +He is still pursuing his trade in Cheyenne, and suffers from +absolutely no disability. + +I saw but one case shortly after the wound was inflicted. This patient +was a healthy young man, who was struck about the middle of the dorsal +surface of the hand, the fangs entering on each side of a metacarpal +bone, and the poison lodging apparently in the palm of the hand. The +patient, when seen, exhibited the characteristic terror and +depression, weak, rapid heart action, and agonizing local pain. I made +two small incisions in the region of the wound upon the dorsum of the +hand, and injected permanganate of potassium freely. This patient +ultimately recovered, but only after sloughing and prolonged +suppuration. I believe that had I incised freely and at once from the +palmar surface, I would have been spared this unpleasant complication. + +I have had in all nine cases, and without a single death. The others +are in their general features and in the treatment employed quite +similar to those given. + +The symptoms resulting from snake bite poison are strikingly like +those dependent upon the violent septic poison seen in pre-antiseptic +times. There is often the same prodromal chill, the high elevation of +temperature, the profound effect on the circulation, and the rapid +cellular involvement. The tissue disturbance following snake poisoning +differs from ordinary cellulitis, however, in the following +particulars: The color is _bronze_, not red; the involved area is +_boggy_, not brawny; and the extension of the process is _exceedingly +rapid_. + +The treatment applicable to one condition seems to be equally +successful when applied to the other. In cellulitis, free incisions, +antiseptic lotions, and active stimulation are the three means upon +which the surgeon mainly depends, and in combating the local and +general symptoms excited by snake bite poisoning, the same treatment +has given me the successful results detailed above. Whether or not +permanganate of potassium is more active than other antiseptics in +snake bite poisoning I am not prepared to state, but the high +authority of S. Weir Mitchell, together with my own experience, does +not incline me to substitute any other drug at present. + +I would formulate the treatment for poison of the rattlesnake as +follows: + +1. Free incisions to the bottom of the wound and immediate +cauterization; or, if this is not practicable, sucking of the wound. + +2. The immediate application of an intermittent tourniquet, that is, +one which is relaxed for a moment at a time, so that the poison may +gain admission into the circulation in small doses. + +3. The free administration of alcohol or carbonate of ammonium. + +This might be termed the _urgency treatment_ of snake bite poisoning. +The _curative treatment_ requires-- + +4. Free incisions into all portions of the inflamed tissues, and the +thorough kneading into these incisions of a fifteen per cent. solution +of permanganate of potassium. + +5. Multiple injections of the same solution into all the inflamed +regions, but particularly into the region of the wound. + +6. The complete surrounding of all the involved tissues, by +permanganate of potassium injections placed from half an inch to an +inch apart, the needle being driven into the healthy tissue just +beyond the line of demarkation, and its point being carried to the +deepest part of the border of the indurated area. + +7. The permanganate of potassium solution should be used freely in +fifteen per cent. solution. I have used one and a half drachms of the +pure drug diluted, and would not hesitate to use four times that +quantity were it necessary, since it seems to exert no deleterious +effect, either locally or generally. + +8. The involved area should be dressed by means of lint saturated with +fifteen per cent. permanganate of potassium solution. Stimulants +should be given according to the indications--i.e., the condition of +the pulse. Laxatives, diuretics, and diaphoretics should be +administered to aid in the elimination of the poison. The diet should +be as nutritious as the stomach can digest.--_The Therapeutic +Gazette_. + + * * * * * + + + + +CHINESE COMPETITIVE EXAMINATIONS. + + +Wuchang, on the Yangtsze opposite Hankow, is the capital of the two +provinces Hupeh and Hunan. Here, every third year, the examination for +competitors from both provinces is held, and a correspondent of the +_North China Herald_, of Shanghai, describes the scene at the +examination at the beginning of September last. The streets, he says, +are thronged with long-robed, large-spectacled gentlemen, who inform +the world at large by every fold of drapery, every swagger of gait, +every curve of nail, that they are the aristocracy of the most ancient +empire of the world. Wuchang had from 12,000 to 15,000 bachelors of +arts within its walls, who came from the far borders of the province +for the examination for the provincial degree. About one-half per +cent. will be successful; thousands of them know they have not the +shadow of a chance, but literary etiquette binds them to appear. In +the wake of these Confucian scholars come a rout of traders, painters, +scroll sellers, teapot venders, candle merchants, spectacle mongers, +etc.; servants and friends swell the number, so that the examination +makes a difference of some 40,000 or 50,000 to the resident +population. In the great examination hall, which is composed of a +series of pens shut off from each other in little rows of 20 or 30, +and the view of which is suggestive of a huge cattle market, there is +accommodation for over 10,000 candidates. The observance of rules of +academic propriety is very strict. A candidate may be excluded, not +only for incompetence, but for writing his name in the wrong place, +for tearing or blotting his examination paper, etc. After the +examination of each batch a list of those allowed to compete for +honors is published, and the essay forms for each district are +prepared with proper names and particulars. The ancestors of the +candidate for three generations must be recorded, they must be free +from taint of _yamen_ service, prostitution, the barber's trade and +the theater, or the candidate would not have obtained his first +degree. With the forms 300 cash (about 1s.) are presented to each +candidate for food during the ordeal. The lists being thus prepared, +on the sixth day of the eighth moon (Tuesday, the 8th of September, in +1891), the city takes a holiday to witness the ceremony of "entering +the curtain," i.e., opening the examination hall. For days coolies +have been pumping water into great tanks, droves of pigs have been +driven into the inclosure, doctors, tailors, cooks, coffins, printers, +etc., have been massed within the hall for possible needs. The +imperial commissioners are escorted by the examination officials to +the place. A dozen district magistrates have been appointed to +superintend within the walls, and as many more outside, two prefects +have office inside, and the governor of the province has also to be +locked up during the eight days of examination. The whole company is +first entertained to breakfast at the _yamen_, and then the procession +forms; the ordinary umbrellas, lictors, gongs, feathers, and +ragamuffins are there in force; the examiners and the highest officers +are carried in open chairs draped in scarlet and covered with tiger +skins. The dead silence that falls on the crowd betokens the approach +of the governor, who brings up the rear. Then the bustle of the actual +examination begins. The hall is a miniature city. Practically martial +law is proclaimed. In the central tower is a sword, and misdemeanor +within the limits is punished with instant death. The mandarins take +up their quarters in their respective lodges, the whole army of +writers whose duty it is to copy out the essays of the candidates, to +prevent collusion, take their places. Altogether there must be over +20,000 people shut in. Cases have been known in which a hopeful +candidate was crushed to death in the crowd at the gate. Each +candidate is first identified, and he is assigned a certain number +which corresponds to a cell a few feet square, containing one board +for a seat and one for a desk. Meanwhile the printers in the building +are hard at work printing the essay texts. Each row of cells has two +attendants for cooking, etc., assigned to it, the candidates take +their seats, the rows are locked from the outside, the themes are +handed out, the contest has begun. The examination is divided into +three bouts of about 36 hours, two nights and a day, each, with +intervals of a day. The first is the production of three essays on the +four assigned books; the second of five essays on the five classics; +the third of five essays on miscellaneous subjects. The strain, as may +be imagined, is very great, and several victims die in the hall. The +literary ambition which leads old men of 60 and 70 to enter not +unfrequently destroys them. Should any fatal case occur, the coffin +may on no account be carried out through the gates; it must be lifted +over or sometimes through a breach in the wall. Death must not pollute +the great entrance. At the end of the third trial, the first batch of +those who have completed their essays is honored with the firing of +guns, the bows of the officials, and the ministry of a band of music. +Three weeks of anxious waiting will ensue before a huge crowd will +assemble to see the list published. Then the successful candidates are +the pride of their country side, and well do the survivors of such an +ordeal deserve their credit. The case of those who are in the last +selection and are left degreeless, for the stern reason that some must +be crowded out, is the hardest of all. + + * * * * * + + + + +HIGH SPEED ENGINE AND DYNAMO. + + +We illustrate a high speed engine and dynamo constructed by Easton & +Anderson, London. This plant was used at the Royal Agricultural +Society's show at Doncaster in testing the machinery in the dairy, and +constituted a distinct innovation, as well as an improvement, on the +appliances previously employed for the purpose. The separator, or +whatever might be the machine under trial, was driven by an electric +motor fed by a current from the dynamo we illustrate. A record was +made of the volts and amperes used, and from this the power expended +was deduced, the motor having been previously carefully calibrated by +means of a brake. So delicate was the test that the observers could +detect the presence of a warm bearing in the separator from the change +in the readings of the ammeter. + +[Illustration: IMPROVED HIGH SPEED ENGINE AND DYNAMO.] + +The engine is carefully balanced to enable it to run at the very high +speed of 500 revolutions per minute. The cranks are opposite each +other, and the moving parts connected with the two pistons are of the +same weight. The result is complete absence of vibration, and +exceedingly quiet running. Very liberal lubricating arrangements are +fitted to provide for long runs, while uniformity of speed is provided +for by a Pickering governor. The high pressure cylinder is 4 in. in +diameter, and the low pressure cylinder is 7 in. in diameter. The +stroke in each case is 4 in. + +[Illustration: Fig. 2.] + +The dynamo is designed to feed sixty lamps of 16 candle power each, +the current being 60 amperes at 50 volts. The armature is of the drum +type. The peculiar feature of it is that grooves are planed in the +laminated core from end to end, and in these grooves the conductors, +which are of ribbon section, are laid. Slips of insulating material +are laid between the coils and the dovetailed mouths of the grooves +are closed with bone or vulcanized fiber, or other dielectric. At each +end of the core there are fitted non-magnetic covers. At the +commutator end the cover is like a truncated cone, and incloses the +connections completely. One end of the cone is supported on the end +plate of the armature and the other end on a ring on the commutator. A +bell-shaped cover incloses the conductors at the other end of the +armature. The result is that the conductors are completely incased, +protected from all mechanical injury, and positively driven. They can +neither be displaced nor abraded. The conductors on the magnet coils +are likewise carefully protected from harm by metal coverings. These +dynamos are made in sixteen sizes, of which seven sizes are designed +to feed more than 100 lamps, the largest serving for 600 lamps. + +[Illustration: Fig. 3.] + +Messrs. Easton & Anderson are showing machinery of this type at the +Crystal Palace Electrical Exhibition now open in +London.--_Engineering_. + + * * * * * + + + + +CHLORINE GAS AND SODA BY THE ELECTROLYTIC PROCESS. + + +The decomposition of a solution of common salt, and its conversion +into chlorine gas and caustic soda solution by means of an electric +current, has long been a study with electro-chemists. Experimentally +it has often been effected, but so far as we are aware, the success of +this method of production has never until now been demonstrated on a +sound commercial basis. The solution of this important industrial +problem is due to Mr. James Greenwood, who has been engaged in the +development of electro-chemical processes for many years. The outcome +of this is that Mr. Greenwood has now perfected an electrolytic +process for the direct production of caustic soda and chlorine, as +well as other chemical products, the operation of which we recently +inspected at Phoenix Wharf, Battersea, London. One of the special +features in connection with Mr. Greenwood's new departure is the novel +and ingenious method by which the electrolyzed products are separated, +and their recombination rendered impossible. This object is attained +by the use of a specially constructed diaphragm which is composed of a +series of V-shaped glass troughs, fitted in a frame within each other +with a small space between them, which is lightly packed with asbestos +fiber. Another important feature of the apparatus is a compound anode +which consists of carbon plates, with a metal core to increase the +conductivity. The anode is treated in a special manner so as to render +it non-porous and impervious to attack by the nascent chlorine evolved +on its surface. No anode appears ever to have been invented that is at +all suitable for working on a large scale, and the successful +introduction of this compound anode, therefore, constitutes a marked +advance in the apparatus used in electrolytic methods of production. + +The apparatus by which the new process is being successfully +demonstrated on a working scale has been put up by the Caustic Soda +and Chlorine Syndicate, London, and has been in operation for several +months past. The installation consists of five large electrolytic +vessels, each of which is fitted up with five anodes and six cathodes +arranged alternately. The anodes and cathodes are separated by the +special diaphragms, and each vessel is thus divided into ten anode or +chlorine sections and ten cathode or caustic soda sections. The anodes +and cathodes in each vessel are connected up in parallel similar to an +ordinary storage battery, but the five electrolytic vessels are +connected up in series. The current is produced by an Elwell-Parker +dynamo, and the electromotive force required to overcome the +resistance of each vessel is about 4.4 volts, with a current density +of 10 amperes per square foot of electrode surface. The anode +sections, numbering fifty altogether, are connected by means of tubes, +the inlet being at the bottom and the outlet at the top of each +section. The whole of the cathode sections are connected in the same +manner. In commencing operations, the electrolytic vessels are charged +with a solution of common salt, through which a current of electricity +is then passed, thus decomposing or splitting up the salt into its +elements, chlorine and sodium. In the separation of the sodium, +however, a secondary action takes place, which converts it into +caustic soda. An automatic circulation of the solutions is maintained +by placing the charging tanks at a slight elevation, and the vessels +themselves on platforms arranged in steps. The solutions are pumped +back from the lowest vessel to their respective charging tanks, the +salt solution to be further decomposed and the caustic soda solution +to be further concentrated. The chlorine gas evolved in the fifty +anode sections is conveyed by means of main and branch tubes into +several absorbers, in which milk of lime, kept in a state of +agitation, takes up the chlorine, thus making it into bleaching or +chlorate liquor as may be required. If the chlorine is required to be +made into bleaching powder, then it is conveyed into leaden chambers +and treated with lime in the usual manner. The caustic soda formed in +the fifty cathode sections is more or less concentrated according to +the particular purpose for which it may be required. If, however, the +caustic soda is required in solid form, and practically free from +salt, then the caustic alkaline liquor is transferred from the +electrolytic vessels to evaporating pans, where it is concentrated to +the required strength by evaporation and at the same time the salt +remaining in the solution is eliminated by precipitation. + +Such is the method of manufacturing caustic soda and chlorine by this +process, which will doubtless have a most important bearing upon many +trades and manufactures, more particularly upon the paper, soap, and +bleaching industries. But the invention does not stop where we have +left it, for it is stated that the process can be applied to the +production of sodium amalgam and chlorine for extracting gold and +other metals from their ores. It can also be utilized in the +production of caustic and chlorate of potash and other chemicals, +which can be manufactured in a state of the greatest purity. A very +important consideration is that of cost, for upon this depends +commercial success. It is therefore satisfactory to learn that the +cost of production has been determined by the most careful electrical +and analytical tests, which demonstrate an economy of over 50 per +cent. as compared with present methods. Highly favorable reports on +the process have been made by Dr. G. Gore, F.R.S., the eminent +authority on electro-chemical processes, by Mr. W.H. Preece, F.R.S., +and by Messrs. Cross & Bevan, consulting chemists. Dr. Gore states +that the chemical and electrical principles upon which this process is +based are thoroughly sound, and that the process is of a +scientifically practical character. Should, however, the economy of +production even fall somewhat below the anticipations of those who +have examined into the process very carefully, it can hardly fail to +prove as successful commercially as it has scientifically. + + * * * * * + + + + +COMPLETION OF THE MERSEY TUNNEL RAILWAY. + + +On the 11th of January (says the _Liverpool Daily Post_) will be +opened for traffic the new station of the Mersey Tunnel Railway at the +bottom of Bold Street. With the completion of the station at Bold +Street the scheme may be said to have been brought successfully to a +conclusion. It was not until 1879, after the expenditure of +125,000_l._ upon trial borings, that the promoters ventured to appeal +to the public for support, and that a company, of which the Right Hon. +H. Cecil Raikes, M.P., was chairman, was formed for carrying the +project of the Mersey Railway into effect. The experience of the +engineers in the construction of the tunnel is not a little curious. +It was proved by the borings that the position in which the tunnel was +proposed to be bored was not only the most important from the point of +view of public convenience, and therefore of commercial advantage, but +was from the point of view of engineering difficulty decidedly the +most preferable. In this position the cuttings passed through the +sandstone rock, although on the Liverpool side the shafts were sunk +through a considerable depth through "made" ground, the whole of Mann +Island and the Goree being composed of earth and gravel tipped on the +old bank of the river. Indeed the miners passed through the cellars of +old houses and unearthed old water pipes; excavated through a depth of +tipped rubbish on which these houses had evidently been built; and +then came upon the former strand of the river, beneath which was the +blue silt usually found; then a stratum of bowlder clay; and finally +the red sandstone rock. Once begun, the works were pushed forward +night and day, Sundays excepted, until January, 1884, when the last +few feet of rock were cleared away by the boring machine, and the +mayors of Liverpool and Birkenhead met in fraternal greeting beneath +the river. The operations gave employment to 3,000 men working three +shifts of eight hours each, but were greatly accelerated by the use of +Colonel Beaumont's boring machine, on which disks of chilled iron are +set in a strong iron bar made to revolve by means of compressed air. +This machine scooped out a tunnel 7 feet in diameter; and by +successive improvements Colonel Beaumont attained a speed of 150 feet +per week, leaving the old method of blasting far behind. As the +machine moved forward the rock behind was broken out to the size of +the main tunnel and bricked in in short lengths. One remarkable +circumstance in connection with the work is that the boring from the +Birkenhead side and the boring from Liverpool were found, when they +were completed and joined, to be out of line by only 1 inch. + +This excellent result was attained by careful calculations and +experiments with perpendicular wires kept in position by weights, +which, to avoid oscillation, were suspended in buckets of water. From +shaft to shaft the tunnel is 1,770 yards in length and 26 feet in +diameter; but for a length of 400 feet at the James Street and +Hamilton Square stations the arch is enlarged to 501/2 feet. The tunnel +is lined with from six to eight rings of solid brickwork embedded in +cement, the two inner rings being blue Staffordshire or Burnley +bricks. For the purpose of ventilation a smaller tunnel, 7 feet in +diameter, was bored parallel with the main tunnel, with which it is +connected in eight places by cross cuts, provided with suitable doors. +Both at Liverpool and at Birkenhead there are two guibal fans, one 40 +feet and the other 30 feet in diameter. The smaller, which throw each +180,000 cubic feet of air per minute, ventilate the continuations of +the tunnel under Liverpool and Birkenhead respectively, and the larger +tunnel under the river. The fans remove together 600,000 cubic feet of +air per minute, and by this combined operation the entire air in the +tunnel is changed once in every seven minutes. By the use of +regulating shutters the air passes in a continuous current and the +fans are noiseless. The telegraph and telephone wires pass through the +tunnel, thus avoiding the long detour by Runcorn. Probably, as a feat +of engineering, the construction of the new station at Bold Street is +not inferior to any part of the scheme advanced. Under very singular +and perplexing difficulties it could only be proceeded with in its +first stages from midnight until six o'clock the following morning, it +being of course essential that the traffic at the Central Station +should not be interfered with. During these hours, night after night, +trenches were cut at intervals of 10 feet across the roadway +connecting the arrival platforms at the station, and into these were +placed strong balks of timber, across which planks were laid as a +temporary roadway. Beneath these planks, which were taken up and put +down as required, the rock was excavated to a depth of 9 feet, and the +balks supported upon stout props. Then from the driftway or rough +boring beneath well holes were bored to the upper excavation, and +through them the strong upright iron pillars designed to support the +roof of the new tunnel station were passed, bedded and securely fixed +in position. No sooner were they _in situ_ than the most troublesome +part of the task was entered upon, for the balks had then to be +removed in order to allow to be placed in position the girders running +the length of the new station, and resting on the tops of the upright +pillars. From these longitudinal girders cross girders of great +strength were placed, and between these were built brick arches, +packed above with concrete. This formed the roof of the new station. +One portion of it passed under the rails in the station above, and had +to be constructed without stoppage of the traffic. The rails had +consequently to be supported on a temporary steel bridge of ingenious +design, constructed by Mr. C.A. Rowlendson, the resident engineer and +manager of the company, under whose personal supervision, as +representing Sir Douglas Fox, the work has been carried out. With this +device the men were enabled to go on in safety although locomotives +were passing immediately above their heads. After the completion of +the roof the station below was excavated by what is technically called +"plug and feather" work--that is to say, by drilling holes into which +powerful wedges are driven to split the rock. + + * * * * * + + + + +A STEAM STREET RAILWAY MOTOR. + + +[Illustration: North Chicago Street Railroad Engine] + +While in Paris, President Yerkes, of the North Chicago Street Railway +Company, purchased a noiseless steam motor, the results in +experimenting with which will be watched with great interest. The +accompanying engraving, for which we are indebted to the _Street +Railway Review_, gives a very accurate idea of the general external +appearance. The car is all steel throughout, except windows, doors and +ceiling. It is 12 ft. long, 8 ft. wide, and 9 ft. high, and weighs +about seven tons. The engines, which have 25 horse power and are of +the double cylinder pattern, are below the floor and connected +directly to the wheels. The wheels are four in number and 31 in. in +diameter. The internal appearance and general arrangement of +machinery, etc., is about that of the ordinary steam dummy. It will +run in either direction, and the exhaust steam is run through a series +of mufflers which suppress the sound, condense the steam and return +the water to the boiler, which occupies the center of the car. The +motor was built in Ghent, Belgium, and cost about $5,000, custom house +duties amounting to about $2,000 more.--_The Railway Review_. + + * * * * * + + + + +TWENTY-FOUR KNOT STEAMERS. + + +Probably the most important form of steam machinery is the marine +engine, not only because of the conditions under which it works, but +because of the great power it is called upon to exert. Naturally its +most interesting application is to Atlantic steaming. The success of +the four great liners, Teutonic, Majestic, City of Paris and City of +New York, has stimulated demand, and the Cunard Company has resolved +to add to its fleet, and place two ships on the Atlantic which will +outstrip the racers we have named. + +The visitor to the late Naval Exhibition interested in shipping will +have remarked at each of the several exhibits of the great firms a +model of a projected steamer, intended to reduce the present record of +the six days' voyage across the Atlantic--the _ne plus ultra_ at this +time of steam navigation. To secure this present result a continuous +steaming for the six days at 20 knot speed is requisite, not to +mention an extra day or two at each end of the voyage. The City of +Paris and the City of New York, Furst Bismarck, Teutonic and Majestic +are capable of this, with the Umbria and Etruria close behind at 18 to +19 knots. Only ten years ago the average passage, reckoned in the same +way as from land to land--or Queenstown to Sandy Hook--was seven days +with a speed of 17 knots, the performance of such vessels as the +Arizona and Alaska. Twenty years ago the length of the voyage was +estimated as seven and a half to eight days at a speed of 16 knots, +the performance of such vessels as the Germanic and Britannic of the +White Star fleet of 5,000 tons and 5,000 horse power. Thirty years ago +the paddle steamer was not yet driven off the ocean, and we find the +Scotia crossing in between eight and nine days, at a speed of 13 or 14 +knots. In 1858 ten and a half to twelve and a half days was allowed +for the passage between Liverpool and New York. So as we recede we +finally arrive at the pioneer vessels, the Sirius and Great Western, +crossing in fourteen to eighteen days at a speed of 6 to 8 knots. For +these historical details an interesting paper may be consulted, "De +Toenemende Grootte der Zee-Stoombooten," 1888, by Professor A. Huet, +of the Delft Polytechnic School. + +Each of the last two or three decades has thus succeeded, always, +however, with increasing difficulty, in knocking off a day from the +duration of the voyage. But although the present six-day 20 knot boats +are of extreme size and power, and date only from the last two or +three years, still the world of travelers declares itself unsatisfied. +Already we hear that another day must be struck off, and that five-day +steamers have become a necessity of modern requirements, keeping up a +continuous ocean speed of 231/2 knots to 24 knots. Shipbuilders and +engineers are ashamed to mention the word _impossible_; and designers +are already at work, as we saw in the Naval Exhibition, but only so +far in the model stage; as the absence of any of the well known +distinguishing blazons of the foremost lines was sufficient to show +that no order had been placed for the construction of a real vessel. +It will take a very short time to examine the task of the naval +architect required to secure these onerous and magnificent conditions, +five days' continuous ocean steaming at a speed of 24 knots. + +The most practical, theory-despising among them must for the nonce +become a theorist, and argue from the known to the unknown; and, +first, the practical man will turn--secretly perhaps, but wisely--to +the invaluable experiments and laws laid down so clearly by the late +Mr. Froude. Although primarily designed to assist the Admiralty in +arguing from the resistance of a model to that of the full size +vessel, the practical man need not thereby despise Froude's laws, as +he is able to choose his mode: to any scale he likes, and he can take +his experiments ready made by practice on a large scale, as Newton +took the phenomena of astronomy for the illustration of the mechanical +laws. Suppose then he takes the City of Paris as his model, 560 ft. by +63 ft., in round numbers 10,000 tons displacement, and 20,000 horse +power, for a speed of 20 knots, with a coal capacity of 2,000 tons, +sufficient, with contingencies, for a voyage of six to eight days. Or +we may take a later 20 knot vessel, the Furst Bismarck, 500 ft. by +50ft., 8,000 tons, and 16,000 horse power, speed 20 knots, and coal +capacity 2,700 tons, to allow for the entire length of voyage to +Germany. + +In Froude's method of comparison the laws of mechanical similitude are +preserved if we make the displacements of the model and of its copy in +the ratio of the sixth power of the speeds designed, or the length as +the square of the speed. Our new 24 knot vessel, taking the City of +Paris as a model, would therefore have 10,000 (24 / 20)^{6} = 29,860, +say 30,000 tons displacement, and would be 800 ft. x 90 ft. in +dimensions. The horse power would have to be as the _seventh_ power of +the speed, and our vessel would therefore have 20,000 (24 / 20)^{7}, +or say 72,000 horse power. Further applications of Froude's laws of +similitude will show that the steam pressure and piston speed would +have to be raised 20 per cent., while the revolutions were discounted +20 per cent., supposing the engines and propellers to be increased in +size to scale. To provide the requisite enormous boiler power, all +geometrical scale would disappear; but it would carry us too far at +present to follow up this interesting comparison. + +Our naval architect is not likely at present to proceed further with +this monstrous design, exceeding even the Great Eastern in size, if +only because no dock is in existence capable of receiving such a ship. +He has however learned something of value, namely, that this vessel, +if the proper similitude is carried out, is capable of keeping up a +speed of 24 knots for five days with ample coal supply, provided the +boilers are not found to occupy all the available space. For it is an +immediate consequence of Froude's laws that in similar vessels run at +corresponding speeds over the same voyage, the coal capacity is +proportionately the same, or that a ton of coal will carry the same +number of tons of displacement over the same distance. Thus our +enlarged City of Paris would require to carry about 4,000 tons of +coal, burning 800 tons a day. + +With the Britannic and Germanic as models of 5,000 tons and 5,000 +horse power at 16 knot speed, the 24 knot vessel would require to be +of 57,000 tons and 85,000 horse power, to carry sufficient coal for +the voyage of 3,000 miles. These enormous vessels being out of the +question, the designer must reduce the size. But now the City of Paris +will no longer serve as a model, he must look elsewhere for a vessel +of high speed, and smaller scale, and naturally he picks out a torpedo +boat at the other end of the scale. A speed of 24 knots--and it is +claimed even of 25, 26, and 27 knots--has been attained on the mile by +a torpedo boat. But such a performance is useless for our mode of +comparison, as sufficient fuel at this high speed for ten or twelve +hours only at most can be carried--a voyage of, say, 500 miles; while +our steamer is required to carry coal for 3,000 miles. The Russian +torpedo boat Wiborg, for instance, is designed to carry coal for 1,200 +miles at 10 knot speed; but at 20 knots this fuel would last only +twenty-seven hours, carrying the vessel 540 miles. It will now be +found that with this limited coal capacity the speed of the ordinary +torpedo boat must be reduced considerably below 10 knots for it to be +able to cross the Atlantic, 3,000 miles under steam. So that, even at +a possible speed of 10 knots for the voyage, the full sized 24 knot +five-day vessel, of which the best torpedo boat is the model, must +have (2.4)^{6}, say 200 times the tonnage, and (2.4)^{7}, or 460 times +the horse power. The enlarged Wiborg would thus not differ much from +the enlarged City of Paris. A better model to select would be one of +the recent dispatch boats, commerce destroyers, or torpedo catchers, +recently designed by Mr. W.H. White, for our navy--the Intrepid or +Endymion, for instance. The Intrepid is 300 ft. by 44 ft., 3,600 tons, +and 9,000 horse power for 20 knot speed, with 800 hours' coal capacity +for 8,000 miles at 10 knot speed; which will reduce to 3,000 miles at +16 knots, and 2,000 miles at 20 knots. + +The Endymion is 360 ft. by 60 ft., with coal capacity for 2,800 miles +at 18 knot speed, or for about 144 hours or six days. The enlarged +Endymion for the same voyage of 2,800 miles in five days, or at 211/2 +knot speed, would be 44 per cent larger and broader, that is 520 ft. +by 86 ft., and of threefold tonnage, and three and a half times, or +about 30,000 horse power--about the dimensions of the Furst Bismarck, +but much more powerfully engined. This agrees fairly with the estimate +in the SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN of 19th Sept, 1891., where it is stated +that twenty-two boilers, at a working pressure of 180 lb. on the +square inch, would be required, allowing 11/2 lb. of coal per horse +power hour. + +The Intrepid, enlarged to a 24 knot boat, for the same length of +voyage of 3,000 miles, would be 650 ft. by 100 ft., 40,000 tons, and +about 45,000 horse power. So now we are nearing the Messrs. Thomson +design in the Naval Exhibition of the five-day steamer, 231/2 knot +speed, 630 ft. by 73 ft., and 30,000 to 40,000 horse power. + +No one doubts the ability of our shipbuilding yards to turn out these +monsters; and on the measured mile, and for a good long distance, we +shall certainly see the contract speeds attained and some excelled. +But the whole difficulty turns on the question of the coal capacity, +and whether it is sufficient to last for even five days or for 3,000 +miles. Every effort then must be made to shorten the length of the +voyage from port to port; and we may yet see Galway and Halifax, only +2,200 miles apart, once more mentioned as the starting points of the +voyage as of old, in the earliest days of steam navigation. In those +days the question of fuel supply was a difficulty, even at the then +slow speeds, in consequence of the wasteful character of the engines, +burning from 7 lb. of coal and upward per horse power hour. Dr. +Lardner's calculations, based upon the average performance of those +days, justified him in saying that steam navigation could not pay--as +was really the case until the introduction of the compound engine. + +It is recorded in Admiral Preble's "Origin and Development of Steam +Navigation," Philadelphia, 1883, page 160, that the Sirius, 700 tons +and 320 horse power, on her return voyage had to burn up all that old +be spared on board, and took seventeen days to reach Falmouth. An +interesting old book to consult now is Atherton's "Tables of Steamship +Capacity," 1854, based as they are upon the performance of the marine +engine of the day. Atherton calculates that a 10,000 ton vessel could +at 20 knots carry only 204 tons of cargo 1,676 miles, while a 5,000 +ton vessel at 18 knots on a voyage of 3,000 miles could carry no cargo +at all. Also that the cost per ton of cargo at 16 knots would be +twenty times the cost at eight knots, implying a coal consumption +reaching to 12 lb. per horse power hour. It is quite possible that +some invention is still latent which will enable us to go considerably +below the present average consumption of 2 lb. to 11/2 lb. per horse +power hour; but at present our rate of progress appears asymptotic to +a definite limit. + +To conclude, the whole difficulty is one of fuel supply, and it is +useless to employ a fast torpedo boat as our model, except at the +speed at which the torpedo boat can carry her own fuel to cross the +Atlantic. If the voyage must be reduced in time, let it be reduced +from six days to four, by running between Galway and Halifax, a +problem not too extravagant in its demands for modern engineering +capabilities. A statement has recently gained a certain amount of +circulation to the effect that the Inman Company was about to use +petroleum as fuel, in order to obtain more steam. We have the best +possible authority for saying there is not the least syllable of truth +in this rumor. It has also been stated that since solid piston valves +have been fitted to the Teutonic in lieu of the original spring ring +valves, she has steamed faster. This rumor is only partially true. Her +record, outward passage, of 5 days 16 hours 31 minutes, was made on +her previous voyage. She has, however, since made her three fastest +trips homeward.--_The Engineer_. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE MILITARY ENGINEER AND HIS WORK.[1] + +By Col. W.R. KING. + +[Footnote 1: A lecture delivered before the students of Sibley +College, Cornell University, December 4, 1891.--_The Crank_.] + + +It is not an easy matter to present a dry subject in such an +attractive form as to excite a thrilling interest in it, and military +science is no exception to this rule. An ingenious military instructor +at one of our universities has succeeded in pointing out certain +analogies between grand tactics and the festive game of football, +which appears to have greatly improved the football, if we may judge +from the recent victories of the blue over the red and the black and +orange, but it is not so clear that the effect of the union has been +very beneficial to military science; and even if such had been the +case, I fear there are no similar analogies that would be useful in +enlivening the subject of military engineering. + +From the earliest times of which we have record man has been disposed +to strive with his fellow man, either to maintain his own rights or to +possess himself of some rights or material advantage enjoyed by +others. When one or only a few men encroach on the rights of others in +an organized community, they may be restrained by the legal machinery +of the state, such as courts, police, and prisons, but when a whole +community or state rises against another, the civil law becomes +powerless and a state of war ensues. It is not proposed here to +discuss the ethics of this question, nor the desirability of providing +a suitable court of nations for settling all international +difficulties without war. The great advantage of such a system of +avoiding war is admitted by all intelligent people. We notice here a +singular inconsistency in the principles upon which this strife is +carried on, viz.: If it be a single combat, either a friendly contest +or a deadly one, the parties are expected to contest on equal terms as +nearly as may be arranged; but if large numbers are engaged, or in +other words, when the contest becomes war, the rule is reversed and +each party is expected to take every possible advantage of his +adversary, even to the extent of stratagem or deception. In fact, it +has passed into a proverb that "all things are fair in love and war." + +Now one of the first things resorted to, in order to gain an advantage +over the enemy, was to bring in material appliances, such as walls, +ditches, catapults, scaling ladders, battering rams, and subsequently +the more modern appliances, such as guns, forts, and torpedoes, all of +which are known as engines of war, and the men who built and operated +these engines were very naturally called engineers. It is this kind of +an artificer that Shakespeare refers to when he playfully suggests +that "'tis the sport to have the engineer hoist with his own petard." + +The early military engineer has left ample records and monuments of +his genius. The walls of ancient cities, castles that still crown many +hills in both hemispheres, the great Chinese wall, the historical +bridge of Julius Caesar, which with charming simplicity he tells us was +built because it did not comport with his dignity to cross the stream +in boats, the bridge of boats across the Hellespont, by Xerxes, are +all examples of early military engineering. The Bible tells us "King +Uzziah built towers at the gates of Jerusalem, and at the turning of +the wall, and fortified them." We may note in passing that the +buttresses, battlements, and bartizans with which our modern +architects ornament or disfigure churches, peaceful dwellings, and +public buildings, are copied from the early works of the military +engineer. + +Coming down to the military engineers of our own country, we find that +one of the first acts of the Continental Congress, after appointing +Washington as commander-in-chief, was to authorize him to employ a +number of engineers. It was not, however, until 1777 that a number of +engineer officers from the French army arrived in this country, and +were appointed in the Continental army. General DuPortail was made +Chief Engineer, and Colonel Kosciusko, the great Polish patriot, was +among his assistants. Other officers of the Continental army were +employed on engineering duty; and under their supervision such works +as the forts and the great chain barrier at West Point were built, and +the siege operations around Boston and Yorktown were carried on. + +After the close of the war, in 1794, a Corps of "Artillerists and +Engineers" was organized. This corps was stationed at West Point, and +became the nucleus of the United States Military Academy. In 1802, by +operation of the law reorganizing the army, this corps was divided, as +the names would indicate, into an Artillery Corps and Corps of +Engineers. The Corps of Engineers consisted of one major, two +captains, four lieutenants, and ten cadets. The Artillery Corps was +again divided into the Ordnance Corps and several regiments of +artillery, now five in number, while the duties of the Corps of +Engineers were divided between the Engineer Corps and a Corps of +Topographical Engineers, organized at a later date; but on the +breaking out of the late rebellion it was deemed best to unite the two +corps, and they have so remained until the present time. The Corps of +Engineers now consists of 118 officers of various grades, from second +lieutenant to brigadier general, of which last grade there is only one +officer, the chief of the corps, and it requires something more than +an average official lifetime for the aforesaid lieutenant to attain +that rank. Hardly one in ten of them ever reach it. Daniel Webster's +remark to the young lawyer, that "there is always room at the top," +will not apply to the Corps of Engineers. The officers are all +graduates of the Military Academy, which institution continued as a +part of the Corps of Engineers until 1866. The vacancies in the corps +are filled by the assignment to it of from two to six graduates each +year, and there is attached to the corps a battalion of four companies +of enlisted men, formerly called Sappers and Miners, but now known as +the Battalion of Engineers. + +We now come naturally to the duties of our military engineer, and here +I may remark that these duties are so varied and so numerous that a +detailed recital of them would suggest Goldsmith's "Deserted Village:" + + ... "And still the wonder grew + That one small head could carry all he _ought to know_" + +[Never lose sight of fact for the sake of rhyme.] + +In general terms, his duties consist of: + + 1. Military surveys and explorations. + + 2. Boundary surveys. + + 3. Geodetic and hydrographic survey of the great lakes. + + 4. Building fortifications--both permanent works and temporary + or field works. + + 5. Constructing military roads. + + 6. Pontoniering or building military bridges, both with the + regular bridge trains and with improved materials. + + 7. The planning and directing of siege operations, either + offensive or defensive; sapping, mining, etc. + + 8. Providing, testing and planting torpedoes for harbor + defense when operating from shore stations. + + 9. Staff duty with general officers. + + 10. Improving rivers and harbors. + + 11. The building and repairing of lighthouses. + + 12. Various special duties as commissioner of District of + Columbia, superintendent military academy, commandant engineer + school, instructors at both of these schools, attaches to + several foreign legations, for the collection of military + information, etc. + +It would, of course, exceed the proper limits of a single lecture to +go into the details of these many duties, but we may take only a +passing glance at most of them, and give more special attention to a +few that may involve some points of interest. Perhaps the most +interesting branch of the subject would be that of permanent +fortifications, or what amounts to almost the same thing in this +country, sea coast defenses. And here our trouble begins, for, while +civil engineers have constant experience to guide them, their roads, +bridges, and other structures being in constant use, the military +engineer has only now and then, at long intervals, a war or a siege of +sufficient extent to furnish data upon which he can safely plan or +build his structures. Imagine a civil engineer designing a bridge, +road, or a dam to meet some possible future demand, without having +seen such a structure used for twenty years or more, and you can form +some estimate of the delightful uncertainties that surround the +military engineer when called upon to design a modern fort. The +proving ground shows him that radical improvements are necessary, but +actual service conditions are almost entirely wanting, and such as we +have contradict many of the proving ground theories. Thus we have the +records of shot going through 25 inches of iron or 25 feet of concrete +on the proving ground; but such actual service tests as the +bombardment of Fort Sumter, Fort Fisher, and the forts at Alexandria +contradict this entirely, and indicate that, except for the moral +effect, our old forts, with modern guns in them and some additional +strengthening at their weaker points, would answer all purposes so far +as bombardment from fleets is concerned. This is not saying that the +forts are good enough in their present condition, but simply that they +can readily be made far superior in strength, both offensive and +defensive, to any fleet that could possibly be provided at anything +like the same expense, or in fact at any expense that would be +justified by the condition of our treasury, either past, present, or +probable future. It might be added that a still more serious +difficulty in the way of the military engineer, so far as practice and +its consequent experiences are concerned, is that for many years past, +until quite recently, there have been no funds either for experiments +or actual work on fortifications, so that very little has been done on +them during the last twenty years. + +Without going into the question of the necessity for sea coast +defenses, we may assume that an enemy is likely to come into one of +our harbors and that it is desirable to keep him out. What provisions +must be made to accomplish this, i.e., to secure the safety of the +harbors and the millions of dollars' worth of destructible property +concentrated at the great trade centers that are usually located upon +those harbors? We must first take a look at the enemy and see what he +is like before we can decide what will be needed to repel his attack. +For this purpose we need not draw on the imagination, but we may +simply examine some of the more recent armadas sent to bombard +seaports. For example, the fleet sent by Great Britain to bombard the +Egyptian city of Alexandria, in 1882. This fleet consisted of eight +heavy ironclad ships of from 5,000 to 11,000 tons displacement and +five or six smaller vessels; and the armament of this squadron +numbered more than one hundred guns of all calibers, from the sixteen +inch rifle down to the seven inch rifle, besides several smaller guns. +But this fleet represented only a small fraction of England's naval +power. During some recent evolutions she turned out thirty-six heavy +ironclads and forty smaller vessels and torpedo boats. The crews of +these vessels numbered nearly 19,000 officers and men, or about three +times the entire number in our navy. Such a fleet, or, more likely, a +much larger one, might appear at the entrance say of New York harbor +within ten days after a declaration of war, and demand whatever the +nation to which it belonged might choose, with the alternative of +bombardment. + +The problem of protecting our people and property from such attacks is +not a new one, and, in fact, most of the conditions of this problem +remain the same as they were fifty years ago, the differences being in +degree rather than in kind. The most natural thought would be to meet +such a fleet by another fleet, but the folly of such a course will +become apparent from a moment's consideration. The difficulties would +be: + +1st. Our fleet must be decidedly stronger than that of the enemy, or +we simply fight a duel with an equal chance of success or failure. + +2d. In such a duel the enemy would risk nothing but the loss of his +fleet, and even a portion of that would be likely to escape, but we +would not only risk a similar loss, but we would also lose the city or +subject it to the payment of a heavy contribution to the enemy. + +3d. Unless we have a fleet for every harbor, it would be impossible to +depend upon this kind of defense, as the enemy would select whichever +harbor he found least prepared to receive him. It would be of vital +importance that we defend every harbor of importance, as a neglect to +do so would be like locking some of our doors and leaving the others +open to the burglars. + +4th. It might be thought that we could send our fleet to intercept the +enemy or blockade him in his own ports, but this has been found +impracticable. Large fleets can readily escape from blockaded harbors, +or elude each other on the high seas, and any such scheme implies that +we are much stronger on the ocean than the enemy, which is very far +from the case. To build a navy that would overmatch that of Great +Britain alone would not only cost untold millions, but it would +require many years for its accomplishment; and even if this were done, +there would be nothing unusual in an alliance of two or more powerful +nations, which would leave us again in the minority. _Fleets, then, +cannot be relied on for permanent defense_. + +Again, it may be said that we have millions of the bravest soldiers in +the world who could be assembled and placed under arms at a few days' +notice. This kind of defense would also prove a delusion, for a +hundred acres of soldiers armed with rifles and field artillery would +be powerless to drive away even the smallest ironclad or stop a single +projectile from one. In fact, neither of these plans, nor both +together, would be much more effective than the windmills and +proclamations which Irving humorously describes as the means adopted +by the early Dutch governors of New York to defend that city against +the Swedes and Yankees. + +Having considered some of the means of defense that will _not_ answer +the purpose, we may inquire what means _will be_ effective. And here +it should be noted that our defenses should be so effective as not +only to be reasonably safe, but to be so recognized by all nations, +and thus discourage, if not actually prevent, an attack upon our +coast. + +In the first place, we must have heavy guns in such numbers and of +such sizes as to overmatch those of any fleet likely to attack us. +These guns must be securely mounted, so as to be worked with facility +and accuracy, and they must be protected from the enemy's projectiles +at least as securely as his guns are from ours. Merely placing +ourselves on equal terms with the enemy, as in case of a duel or an +ancient knight's tournament, will not answer, first, because such a +state of things would invite rather than discourage attack, and +secondly, because the enemy would have vastly more to gain by success +and vastly less to lose by failure than we would. This can be +accomplished much easier than is generally supposed, either by earthen +parapets of sufficient thickness or by iron turrets or casements. It +is evident that the weight of metal used in these structures may be +vastly greater than could be carried on shipboard. Great weight of +metal is no objection on land, but, aside from its cost, is a positive +advantage. This is evident when we consider the enormous quantity of +energy stored in the larger projectiles moving at high velocities. For +example, we often hear of the sixteen inch rifle whose projectile +weighs about one ton, and this enormous mass projected at a velocity +of 2,000 feet per second would have a kinetic energy of 60,000 foot +tons, or it would strike a blow equal to that of ten locomotives of 50 +tons each running at 60 miles an hour and striking a solid wall. Any +structure designed to resist such ponderous blows must, therefore, +have enormous weight, or it will be overturned or driven bodily from +its foundations. If the armor itself is not thick enough to give the +required weight as well as resistance to penetration, the additional +stability must be supplied by re-enforcing it with heavy masses of +metal or masonry. It is evident, therefore, that _quality_ of metal is +less important than _quantity_, and that so long as it is sufficiently +tough to resist fracture, a soft, cheap metal, like wrought iron or +low steel, is better adapted for permanent works than any of the fancy +kinds of armor that have been tested for naval purposes. As an +illustration of this, we may compare compound or steel-faced armor +with wrought iron as follows: The best of the former offers only about +one-third greater resistance to penetration than the latter, or 12 +inches of compound armor may equal 16 inches of wrought iron, but the +cost per ton is nearly double; so that by using wrought iron we may +have double the thickness, or 24 inches, which would give more than +double the resistance to penetration, in addition to giving double the +stability against overturning or being driven bodily out of place. But +our guns may be reasonably well protected by earthen parapets without +any expensive armor by so mounting them that when fired they will +recoil downward or to one side, so as to come below the parapet for +loading. This method of mounting is called the disappearing principle, +and has been suggested by many engineers, some of whose designs date +back more than one hundred years. We may also mount our guns in deep +pits, where they will be covered from the enemy's guns, and fire them +at high elevation, so that the shell will fall from a great height and +penetrate the decks of the enemy's ships. This is known as mortar +firing, but the modern ordnance used for this purpose is more of a +howitzer than a mortar, being simply short rifled pieces arranged for +breech loading. All our batteries should, of course, be as far from +the city or other object to be protected as possible, to prevent the +enemy from firing over and beyond the batteries into the city. + +But, with all these precautions, the enemy might put on all steam and +run by us either at night or in a dense fog, and we must have some +means of holding him under the fire of our guns until his ships can be +disabled or driven away. This object is sought to be accomplished by +the use of torpedoes anchored in the channels and under the fire of +our guns, so that they cannot be removed by the enemy. These torpedoes +are generally exploded by electricity from batteries located in +casements on shore, these casements being connected with the torpedoes +by submarine cables. It is easy to see how the torpedo may be so +arranged that when struck by a ship the electric current will be +closed, and, if the battery on shore is connected at the same instant, +an explosion will take place; on the other hand, if the battery on +shore is disconnected a friendly ship may pass in safety over the +torpedoes. Many ingenious contrivances have also been devised by which +the torpedo may be made to signal back to the shore station either +that it has been struck or that it is in good order for service, in +case the enemy should undertake to run over it. One simple plan for +this is to have a small telephone in the torpedo with some loose +buckshot on the diaphragm, which is placed in a horizontal position, +and will be slightly tilted as the torpedo is moved about by the +waves. By connecting the shore end of the cable with a telephone +receiver, the rolling of the shot may be distinctly heard if the +torpedo is floating properly, but if sunk at its moorings, or if the +cable is broken, no sound will be heard. + +The use of torpedoes involves the use of both electricity and high +explosives, and a careful study based upon actual experiments has been +carried on for many years, by the engineers and naval officers in all +civilized countries. Some of these experiments have supplied +interesting and useful data, for the use of the agents in question, +for various industrial purposes. + +Another form of torpedo is that known as the locomotive torpedo, of +which there are several kinds; some are propelled by liquid carbonic +acid, which is carried in a strong tank and acts through a compact +engine in driving the propeller. One of these is steered by +electricity from the shore, and is known as the Lay-Haight torpedo, +and can run twenty-five miles per hour. The Whitehead torpedo is also +propelled by liquid carbonic acid, but is not steered from shore. Its +depth is regulated by an automatic device actuated by the pressure of +the water. The Howell torpedo is driven by a heavy fly wheel which is +set in rapid rotation just before the torpedo is launched. It has but +a short range and is intended for launching from ships. Another +torpedo is propelled and steered from shore by rapidly pulling out of +it two fine steel wires which, in unwinding, drive the twin screw +propellers. This is the Brennan torpedo. The Sims-Edison torpedo is +both propelled and steered by electricity from the shore, transmitted +to a motor and steering relay in the torpedo by an insulated cable. +This cable has two cores and is paid out by the torpedo as it travels +through the water just as a spider pays out its web. The cable is +about half an inch in diameter and two miles long, and the torpedo can +be driven at about eighteen miles per hour with a current of thirty +amperes and 1,800 volts pressure. + +Still another auxiliary weapon of defense is the dynamite gun, or +rather, a pneumatic gun, that throws long projectiles carrying from +250 to 450 pounds of dynamite, to a distance of about two miles. The +shells are arranged to explode soon after striking the water, by an +ingenious battery that ignites the fuse as soon as the salt water +enters it. The gun, which is known as the Zalinski gun, is some sixty +feet long and fifteen inches in caliber, the compressed air being +suddenly admitted to it from the reservoirs at any desired pressure by +a special form of valve that regulates the range. These guns are to be +mounted in deep pits and fired at somewhat higher elevations than +ordinary guns, but it has great accuracy within reasonable limits of +range. + + +FIELD FORTIFICATIONS. + +In field fortification an enormous quantity of work was done during +our last war. Washington, Richmond, Nashville, Petersburg, Norfolk, +New Berne, Plymouth, Vicksburg, and many other cities were elaborately +fortified by field works which involved the handling of vast +quantities of earth, and, where the opposing lines were near together, +ditches, abbatis, ground torpedoes, and wire entanglements were freely +used. In some cases the same ground was fortified in succession by +both armies, so that the total amount of work expended, in this way, +would have built several hundred miles of railway. Around Richmond and +Petersburg alone the development of field works was far greater than +Wellington's celebrated lines at Torres Vedras. In all future wars, +when large armies are opposed to each other, it is probable that field +works will play even a more important part than in the past. The great +advantage of such works, since the introduction of the deadly breech +loading rifles and machine guns, was shown at Plevna, where the +Russians were almost annihilated in attempting to capture the Turkish +intrenchments. + + +SIEGES. + +It is not proposed to go into historical or other details of this +branch of the subject, but to give in a condensed form some account of +siege operations. According to the text books, the first thing to be +done, if possible, in case of a regular siege, is to "invest" the +fortress. This is done by surrounding it as quickly as possible with a +continuous line of troops, who speedily intrench themselves and mount +guns bearing outward on all lines of approach to the fortress, to +prevent the enemy from sending in supplies or re-enforcements. As this +line must be at considerable distance from the fort, it is usually +quite long, and so is its name, for it is called the line of +"Circumvallation." Inside of this line is then established a similar +line facing toward the fort, to prevent sorties by the garrison. This +line is called the line of "Countervallation," and should be as close +to the fort as the range of its guns and the nature of the ground will +permit. From this line the troops rush forward at night and open the +trenches, beginning with what is called the first parallel, which +should be so laid out as to envelop those parts of the fort which are +to be made the special objects of attack. From this first parallel a +number of zigzag trenches are started toward the fort and at proper +intervals other parallels, batteries, and magazines are built; this +method of approach being continued until the besieged fort is reached, +or until such batteries can be brought to bear upon it as to breech +the walls and allow the attacking troops to make an assault. + +During these operations of course many precautions must be observed, +both by the attacking and defending force, to annoy each other and to +prevent surprise, and the work is mostly carried on under cover of the +earth thrown from the trenches. These operations were supposed to +occupy, under normal conditions, about forty-one days, or rather +nights, as most of the work is done after dark, at the end of which +time the fort should be reduced to such a condition that its +commander, having exhausted all means of defense, would be justified +in considering terms of surrender. + +The _Theoretical Journal_ of the siege prescribes just what is to be +done each day by both attack and defense up to the final catastrophe, +and this somewhat discouraging outlook for the defenders was forcibly +illustrated by the late Captain Derby, better known by the reading +public as "John Phoenix," who, when a cadet, was called upon by +Professor Mahan to explain how he would defend a fort, mounting a +certain number of guns and garrisoned by a certain number of men, if +besieged by an army of another assumed strength in men and guns, +replied: + +"I would immediately evacuate the fort and then besiege it and capture +it again in forty-one days." + +Of course the fallacy of this reasoning was in the fact that the +besieging army is generally supposed to be four or five times as large +as the garrison of the fort; the primary object of forts being to +enable a small force to hold a position, at least for a time, against +a much larger force of the enemy. + +Sieges have changed with the development of engines of war, from the +rude and muscular efforts of personal prowess like that described in +Ivanhoe, where the Black Knight cuts his way through the barriers with +his battle axe, to such sieges as those at Vicksburg, Petersburg, and +Plevna, where the individual counted for very little, and the results +depended upon the combined efforts of large numbers of men and +systematic siege operations. It should also be noticed that modern +sieges are not necessarily hampered by the rules laid down in text +books, but vary from them according to circumstances. + +For example, many sieges have been carried to successful issues +without completely investing or surrounding the fortress. This was the +case at Petersburg, where General Lee was entirely free to move out, +or receive supplies and re-enforcements up to the very last stages of +the siege. In other cases, as at Fort Pulaski, Sumter, and Macon, the +breeching batteries were established at very much greater distances +than ever before attempted, and the preliminary siege operations were +very much abbreviated and some of them omitted altogether. This is not +an argument against having well defined rules and principles, but it +shows that the engineer must be prepared to cut loose from old rules +and customs whenever the changed state of circumstances requires +different treatment. + + +MILITARY BRIDGES. + +In the movement of armies, especially on long marches in the enemy's +country, one of the greatest difficulties to be overcome is the +crossing of streams, and this is usually done by means of portable +bridges. These may be built of light trestles with adjustable legs to +suit the different depths, or of wooden or canvas boats supporting a +light roadway wide enough for a single line of ordinary wagons or +artillery carriages. The materials for these bridges, which are known +as Ponton Bridges, are loaded upon wagons and accompany the army on +its marches, and when required for use the bridge is rapidly put +together, piece by piece, in accordance with fixed rules, which +constitute, in fact, a regular drill. The wooden boats are quite heavy +and are used for heavy traffic, but for light work, as, for example, +to accompany the rapid movements of the cavalry, boats made of heavy +canvas, stretched upon light wooden frames, that are put together on +the spot, are used. + +During Gen. Sherman's memorable Georgia campaign and march to the sea, +over three miles of Ponton bridges were built in crossing the numerous +streams met with, and nearly two miles of trestle bridges. In Gen. +Grant's Wilderness campaign the engineers built not less than +thirty-eight bridges between the Rappahannock and the James Rivers, +these bridges aggregating over 6,600 feet in length. Under favorable +circumstances such bridges can be built at the rate of 200 to 300 feet +per hour, and they can be taken up at a still more rapid rate. When +there is no bridge train at hand the engineer is obliged to use such +improvised materials as he can get; buildings are torn down to get +plank and trees are cut to make the frame. Sometimes single stringers +will answer, but if a greater length of bridge is required it may be +supported on piles or trestles, or in deep water on rafts of logs or +casks. But the heavy traffic of armies, operating at some distance +from their bases, must be transported by rail, and the building of +railway bridges or rebuilding those destroyed by the enemy is an +important duty of the engineer. On the Potomac Creek, in Virginia, a +trestle bridge 80 feet high and 400 feet long was built in nine +working days, from timber out of the neighborhood. Another bridge +across the Etowah River, in Georgia, was built in Gen. Sherman's +campaign, and a similar bridge was also built over the Chattahoochee. + + +SURVEYS AND EXPLORATIONS. + +For more than half a century before the building of the great Pacific +railways, engineer officers were engaged in making surveys and +explorations in the great unknown country west of the Mississippi +River, and the final map of that country was literally covered with a +network of trails made by them. Several of these officers lost their +lives in such expeditions, while others lived to become more famous as +commanders during the great rebellion. Generals Kearney, J.E. +Johnston, Pope, Warren, Fremont and Parke, and Colonels Long, Bache, +Emory, Whipple, Woodruff and Simpson, Captains Warner, Stansbury, +Gunnison and many other officers, generally in their younger days, +contributed their quota to the geographical knowledge of the country, +and made possible the wonderful network of railways guarded by +military posts that has followed their footsteps. Their reports fill +twelve large quarto volumes. + + +BOUNDARY AND LAKE SURVEYS. + +The astronomical location of the boundaries of the several States and +Territories, as well as of the United States, is a duty frequently +required of the engineer officer, and such a survey between this +country and Mexico is now in progress. The entire line of the 49th +parallel of latitude from the Lake of the Woods to the Pacific Ocean, +which forms our northern boundary, was located a few years ago by a +joint commission of English and United States engineers, and monuments +were established at short intervals over its entire length. + +A careful geodetic and hydrographic survey of the Great Northern +Lakes, including every harbor upon them and the rivers connecting +them, was carried on for many years and was finally completed some ten +years ago. Maps and charts of these surveys are published from time to +time for use of pilots navigating these waters. + +Not only are the duties of the military engineer similar in many +respects to those of the civil engineer, but there are many instances +in which the duties of one branch of the profession have been +performed by members of the other branch, quite as efficiently as +though they had been performed by engineers specially educated for the +purpose. During the late civil war there were many illustrations of +this, all showing that an ingenious engineer can readily adapt himself +to circumstances entirely different from those to which he has been +accustomed. A very good example of this occurred in the Red River +expedition of General Banks and Admiral Porter. In that memorable but +disastrous campaign an army accompanied by a fleet of transports and +light draught gunboats, sometimes called "tin clads" because some +parts of them were covered with boiler plate to stop the bullets of +the enemy, ascended the Red River in Louisiana; but the advance having +been checked and a retreat commenced, it was found that the river had +fallen to such a low state that the fleet was caught above the rapids +near Alexandria, and it would in all probability have been a complete +loss had it not been for the timely application of engineering skill +by Lieut. Col. Joseph Bailey, a civil engineer from Wisconsin, who +built a temporary dam across the river below the rapids and floated +out the entire fleet. This dam was over 750 feet long and in +connection with some auxiliary dams raised the water level some 61/2 +feet. It was built under many difficulties, but by the skill and +ability of the engineer and the co-operation of the troops it was +completed in ten days. Another case was at the siege of Petersburg, +Va., where Lieut. Col. Pleasants, a Pennsylvania coal miner, ran a +gallery from our lines, under the rebel battery, some 500 feet +distant, and blew it entirely out of existence. The mine contained +four tons of powder and produced a crater 200 feet by 50 feet and 25 +feet deep, and was completed in one month. The sequel to this was to +be an attack on the enemy's line through the gap made by the +explosion, and such an attack properly followed up would doubtless +have had a marked effect in shortening the duration of the war, but +this attack was so badly managed that it utterly failed and caused a +severe loss to our own army. The mine itself, however, was a great +success and produced a decided moral effect on both sides which lasted +until the end of the war. + +It may be out of place to digress a moment to illustrate the moral +effect of such a convulsion. Several weeks after this great mine +explosion, the 18th Army Corps, to which I then belonged, was holding +a line of works recently captured from the rebels, about six miles +from Richmond, when one night the colonel commanding Fort Harrison, a +large field work forming a part of this line, came down to +headquarters and reported that some old Pennsylvania coal miners in +his command had heard mining going on under the fort. As the nearest +part of the enemy's line was some 400 yards from the fort, I was quite +certain that they could not have run a gallery that distance in the +time that had elapsed since we occupied the work, but there was of +course the possibility that the mine had been partly built beforehand +so as to be ready in just such a case as had arisen, viz., the capture +of the fort by our troops. I therefore went with the colonel up to the +fort to listen for the mining operations, and got the men who claimed +to have heard the subterranean noises, down in the bottom of the ditch +of the fort, which was ten feet deep, and at the angles formed a +fairly good listening gallery, but nothing unusual could be heard. I +therefore made arrangements to sink a line of pits in the bottom of +the ditch, something like ordinary wells; the bottoms of these pits to +be finally connected by a horizontal gallery which would envelop the +fort and enable us to hear the enemy and blow him up, before he could +get under the fort. Although the commanding officer of that fort was +as brave an officer as the war developed, he would not keep his men in +the fort after dark, but withdrew them quietly to the flanks of the +work, where they not only would be safe from an explosion, but would +be ready to fall upon the enemy in case he should blow up the fort and +rush in to capture the line, as our troops had attempted to do at +Petersburg. No explosion took place, however, and after our +countermining work was completed, the garrison became reassured and +remained in the fort at night as well as in day time. A few months +later, when the enemy was driven from his lines, I went through his +works to see whether any mining had been attempted, and found that a +gallery leading toward Fort Harrison had been carried quite a +distance, but was still incomplete, and it is barely possible that the +old miners were right, after all, in thinking that they could hear the +sound of the pick, although the distance was almost too great to make +this theory very probable. + +Still another illustration of the way in which civil engineers can +make themselves extremely useful in military operations was the +wonderful system of military railways, or railways operated for +military purposes, that formed complete lines of transportation for +the armies and their enormous quantities of supplies and munitions, +more especially those in the West and Southwest. Construction trains +were organized in the most complete style, and when a piece of track +or a number of bridges were destroyed by the enemy, they would be +rebuilt so rapidly that our trains would hardly seem to be delayed by +it. The trains carried spare rails, ties, and bridges of various +lengths ready to put up, and they also carried the necessary rolling +stock and tools for destroying the roads and bridges of the enemy. So +expert had this construction corps become that the enemy was ready to +believe almost any statement in regard to it. General Sherman tells of +an instance where it was proposed to blow up a tunnel, to check his +"March to the Sea," when one of the men objected, saying it was of no +use, for Sherman had a duplicate tunnel in his train. + +Although this is not a sermon, it may not be out of place to point out +a few qualifications common to all engineers, for they all deal more +or less with the same materials and forces and employ similar methods +of investigation and construction. Wood, iron, steel, copper and stone +and their compounds are the materials of the civil, mining, mechanical +and electrical, as well as of the military engineers. They all deal +with the forces of gravitation, cohesion, inertia and chemical +affinity. They all require skill, intelligence, industry, confidence, +accuracy, thoroughness, ingenuity and, beyond all, sound judgment. +Wanting in any one of these qualifications, an engineer is more or +less disqualified for important work. It is said that a distinguished +engineer was always afraid to cross his own bridges, although built in +the most thorough and approved manner. He was deficient in confidence. +Another engineer distinguished for his mathematical attainments built +a bridge which promptly collapsed at the first opportunity. On +overhauling his computations he ejaculated somewhat forcibly, "That +confounded minus sign! It should have been plus." He was deficient in +sound judgment, or what is sometimes called "horse sense." + +Another and more common defect in young engineers is a want of +thoroughness. It is generally best to go to the bottom of a question +at first and keep at it until it is thoroughly and fully completed. +Confucius says, "If thou hast aught to do, first consider, second act, +third let the soul resume her tranquillity." Those who begin a great +many things and never fully complete them lose a great deal of +valuable time, but do very little valuable work. The way to avoid this +difficulty is to be cautious about beginning things, but when once +started don't leave it until you are satisfied to leave it for good. +There is an Arabian saying, "Never undertake _all_ you can do, for he +who undertakes _all_ he can do will frequently undertake _more_ than +he can do." + +Another common error is extravagance. On the plea that "the best is +always the cheapest," and to be sure of a large factor of safety, or +as the late Mr. Holley called it a "factor of ignorance," without much +trouble to themselves, some engineers use more or better materials +than the work requires, and thus greatly increase the cost without any +corresponding advantage. Almost any engineer can do almost anything in +the way of engineering if not limited by the cost, but the man who +knows just what materials to use and how to use them so that they will +answer the purpose as to strength and durability can save his own +salary to his employer many times over by simply omitting unnecessary +expense. + + * * * * * + + + + +HOW MECHANICAL RUBBER GOODS ARE MADE. + + +While the manufacture of rubber goods is in no sense a secret +industry, the majority of buyers and users of such goods have never +stepped inside of a rubber mill, and many have very crude ideas as to +how the goods are made up. In ordinary garden hose, for instance, the +process is as follows: The inner tubing is made of a strip of rubber +fifty feet in length, which is laid on a long zinc-covered table and +its edges drawn together over a hose pole. The cover, which is of what +is called "friction," that is cloth with rubber forced through its +meshes, comes to the hose maker in strips, cut on the bias, which are +wound around the outside of the tube and adhere tightly to it. The +hose pole is then put in something like a fifty foot lathe, and while +the pole revolves slowly, it is tightly wrapped with strips of cloth, +in order that it may not get out of shape while undergoing the process +of vulcanizing. When a number of these hose poles have been covered in +this way they are laid in a pan set on trucks and are then run into a +long boiler, shut in, and live steam is turned on. When the goods are +cured steam is blown off, the vulcanizer opened and the cloths are +removed. The hose is then slipped off the pole by forcing air from a +compressor between the rubber and the hose pole. This, of course, is +what is known as hose that has a seam in it. + +For seamless hose the tube is made in a tubing machine and slipped +upon the hose pole by reversing the process that is used in removing +hose by air compression. In other words, a knot is tied in one end of +the fifty foot tube and the other end is placed against the hose pole +and being carefully inflated with air it is slipped on without the +least trouble. For various kinds of hose the processes vary, and there +are machines for winding with wire and intricate processes for the +heavy grades of suction hose, etc. For steam hose, brewers', and acid +hose, special resisting compounds are used, that as a rule are the +secrets of the various manufacturers. Cotton hose is woven through +machines expressly designed for that purpose, and afterward has a +half-cured rubber tube drawn through it. One end is then securely +stopped up and the other end forced on a cone through which steam is +introduced to the inside of the hose, forcing the rubber against the +cotton cover, finishing the cure and fixing it firmly in its place. + + +CORRUGATED MATTING. + +After the mixing of the compound and the calendering, that is the +spreading it in sheets, the great roll of rubber and cloth that is to +be made into corrugated matting is sent to the pressman. Here it is +hung in a rack and fifteen or twenty feet of it drawn between the +plates of the huge hydraulic steam press. The bottom plate of this +press is grooved its whole length, so that when the upper platen is +let down the plain sheet of rubber is forced into the grooves and the +corrugations are formed. While in that position steam is let into the +upper and lower platens and the matting is cured. After it has been in +there the proper time, cold water is let into the press, it is cooled +off, and the upper platen being raised, it is ready to come out. A +simple device for loosening the matting from the grooves into which it +has been forced is a long steel rod, with a handle on one hand like an +auger handle, which, being introduced under the edge and twisted, +allows the air to enter with it and releases it from the mould. + + +PACKING. + +Sheet packing is often times made in a press, like corrugated matting. +The varieties, however, known as gum core have to go through a +different process. Usually a core is squirted through a tube machine +and the outside covering of jute or cotton, or whatever the fabric may +be, is put on by a braider or is wrapped about it somewhat after the +manner of the old fashioned cloth-wrapped tubing. The fabric is either +treated with some heat-resisting mixture or something that is a +lubricant, plumbago and oil being the compound. Other packings are +made from the ends of belts cut out in a circular form and treated +with a lubricant. There are scores of styles that make special claims +for excellences that are made in a variety of ways, but as a rule the +general system as outlined above is followed. + + +JAR RINGS. + +The old fashioned way of making jar rings was first to take a large +mandrel and wrap it around with a sheet of compounded rubber until the +thickness of the ring was secured. It was then held in place by a +further wrapping of cloth, vulcanized, put in a lathe and cut up into +rings by hand. That manner of procedure, however, was too slow, and it +is to-day done almost wholly by machinery. For example, the rubber is +squirted out of a mammoth tubing machine in the shape of a huge tube, +then slipped on a mandrel and vulcanized. It is then put in an +automatic lathe and revolving swiftly is brought against a sharp +knife blade which cuts ring after ring until the whole is consumed, +without any handling or watching.--_India Rubber World_. + + * * * * * + + + + +HOW ENAMELED LETTERS ARE MADE. + + +The following is a description of a brief visit by a representative of +the _Journal of Decorative Art_ to the new factory of the Patent +Letter and Enamel Company, Ltd., situate in the East End of London. + +The company have recently secured a large freehold plot in the center +of the East End of London, and have built for themselves a most +commodious and spacious factory, some hundreds of feet in length, all +on one floor, and commanded from one end by the manager's office, from +whence can be seen at a glance the entire premises. + +The works are divided into two large compartments, and are lighted +from the roof, ample provision being made for ventilation, and +attention being given to those sanitary conditions which are, or +should be, imperative on all well managed establishments. + +We first explore the stockroom. Here are stored the numerous dies, of +all sizes and shapes, which the company possess, varying in size from +half an inch to twelve or sixteen inches. Here, too, is kept the large +store of thin sheet copper out of which the letters are stamped. Our +readers are familiar with the form or principle upon which these +letters are made. It is simply a convex surface, the reverse side +being concave, and being fixed on to the glass or other material with +a white lead preparation. When these letters were first made, the +practice was to cut or stamp them out in flat copper, and then to +round or mould them by a second operation. Recent improvements in the +machinery, however, have dispensed with this dual process, and the +stamping and moulding is done in the one swift, sharp operation. + +The process of making an enameled letter has four stages--stamping, +enameling, firing, and filing. There are other and subsequent +processes for elaborating, but those named are of the essence of the +transaction. + + +STAMPING. + +The stamping is done by means of presses, and is a very rapid and +complete operation. + +The operator takes a piece of the sheet copper, places it on the +press, the lever descends, there is a sharp crunching, bursting sound, +and in a time shorter than it has taken to describe, the letter is +made, sharp and perfect in every way. + + +ENAMELING. + +The letters are now taken charge of by a girl, who lays them out on a +wire tray, the hollow side up, and paints them over with a thin +mordant. While they are in this position, and before the mordant +dries, they are taken on the gridiron-like tray to a kind of large +box, which is full of the powdered enamel, and, holding the tray in +her left hand, the girl takes a fine sieve full of the powder and +dusts it over the letter, all superfluous powder falling through the +open wirework and into the bin again, so that there is absolutely no +waste. + +[Illustration: DUSTING THE LETTERS BEFORE FIRING.] + + +FIRING. + +The letters are now taken and placed carefully on thin iron disks or +plates on the bench, where they remain until they are fired. It will +be remembered that we said at the outset that the factory was divided +into two large compartments, and it is into the second of these that +we now go. + +Here are ranged the series of furnaces which convert the copper and +superincumbent enamel into one common body--fuse the one into the +other. An unwary step soon warns us that we are too near the furnace, +unless we want to run the risk of a premature cremation, and in the +interests of the readers of this journal we step back to a respectful +and proper distance, and watch the operations from afar. + +There seems to be something innately picturesque about all furnaces +and those who work about them. Whether it is the Rembrandt effects +produced by the strong light and shade, or whether it is that the +necessary use of the long iron instruments, such as all furnace +workers employ, compels a certain dignity and grace of poise and +action, we know not; but certain it is that the grace is there in a +marked degree, and as we watched the men take their long-handled iron +tongs and place in or lift out the plates of hot metal, we could not +fail to be impressed with the charm of the physical action they +displayed. + +The disk containing the enameled letters is taken at the end of a long +iron handle and carefully placed in a dome-shaped muffle. These +muffles are all heated from the outside; that is, the fire is all +round the chamber, but not in it, the fumes of the sulphur being +destructive of the enamel if they are allowed to come into contact +with it. So intense is the heat, however, that a muffle lasts only +about nine days, and at the end of that time has to be renewed. + +[Illustration: FIRING THE LETTERS] + +After the enamel is fused on to the copper, the disk is taken out and +placed on a side slab, where it is allowed to cool. + +This process is repeated on the front side of the letter, when all +that remains to complete it is + + +THE FILING. + +[Illustration: FILING THE LETTERS AFTER ENAMELING.] + +This is done by girls, who, with very fine files, rub off the edges +and any protuberances which may be there. Every letter is subject to +this operation, and all are turned out smooth and well finished. + +Sometimes the letters are colored or further defined by the addition +of a line, but the essentials are as we have already described. + +[Illustration: MIXING THE ENAMEL] + + +BRUSHING OUT. + +There are, however, one or two other operations of interest which we +may notice. The company do not confine their exertions to the making +of letters, various collateral developments having taken place which +fill an important part in this scheme of work. + +Of these, small tablets, containing advertisements or notices, such as +we see in railway carriages, "Push after raising window," or "Close +this door after you," or some legend pertaining to Brown's Soap or +Robinson's Washing Powder. These are done by different processes, the +transfer process, as used in the potteries, being employed, but the +one most largely used is that of "brushing out," which is done by +plates. + +Let us suppose that the tablet shows white letters on a dark ground, +the _modus operandi_ is as follows: + +The tablet has been enameled, as already described, and is white. The +operator now takes a dark enamel and spreads it evenly over the entire +surface of the tablet. He, or she, now takes a stencil plate, of +tinfoil, out of which the ground is cut, leaving the letter in the +center. + +This is carefully placed over the tablet and held tight with the left +hand, while with the right hand he holds a fine brush, which he uses +with a quick, sharp movement over the surface. This action readily +removes the unfired color from the hard, glassy surface underneath, +and leaves a white letter. This is fired, and is then complete. + +Sometimes two and, it may be, three plates are necessary to complete +the brushing out, as ties must be left, as in the case of ordinary +stencils, and these have to be brushed out with additional plates. Two +or three colors may be introduced by this process, but each separate +color means separate firing. If the letters are dark on a light +ground, the process is exactly the same, the stencil only being +modified. In addition to the letters and tablets thus described, the +company also undertake the production of large enameled signs, and to +cope with the rapid expansion of this department of their work they +are erecting special furnaces, to enable them to deal with any demand +likely to be made upon them. The call for things permanent and +washable in the way of advertising is on the increase, and the +enameled plates made by the company is one of the most successful ways +of meeting the demand. + +[Illustration: "THE SMITH A MIGHTY MAN IS HE."] + + * * * * * + + + + +BURNING BRICK WITH CRUDE OIL FUEL. + + +At the present time there is not the least reason why either wood, +coal, or any other solid fuel should be used for the burning of brick. +This style of burning brick belongs to a past age. The art of +brickmaking has made tremendous progress during the past quarter of a +century. It is no longer the art of the ignorant; brains, capital, +experience, science, wide and general knowledge, must in these days be +the property of the successful brick manufacturer. There are some such +progressive brick manufacturers in Chicago, who use neither coal nor +wood in the drying or burning of their clay products. Crude oil is the +fuel which they employ, and with this fuel they obtain cheaper and +better brick than do manufacturers who employ solid fuel. Some of +these manufacturers have expressed themselves as preferring to quit +the brick business rather than return to the use of wood or coal as +fuel in brick burning. + +This shows plainly that progress in our art, when it does come, comes +to remain. It is true that crude oil for brick-burning purposes is not +everywhere obtainable. But there is a fuel which is even better than +crude oil, namely, fuel gas, and which can be produced and employed on +any brick yard at a saving of seventy-five per cent. over coal or +other solid fuel. + +The Rose process for making fuel gas gives a water gas enriched by +petroleum. Roughly, about half the cost of this gas as made at +Bellefonte, Pa., was for oil. The gas cost 6.68c. per 1,000 cu. ft., +with oil at 21/4c. a gallon. At double this price the gas would cost but +10c., and show that in practice, foot for foot, it equals natural gas. + +Fuel gas means a larger investment of capital than does any of the +other modes of brick burning, and is, therefore, not within the reach +of the entire trade. The cost of appliances for burning brick with +crude oil is not very large, and as all grate bars, iron frames, and +doors can be dispensed with in the use of crude oil fuel, the cost of +an oil-burning equipment is but little in excess of an equipment of +grates, etc., for coal-burning kilns. + +At works using small amounts of fuel, especially if cost of fuel bears +but a small proportion to total cost of the manufactured product, oil +will be in the future very largely used. It is clean, as compared with +coal, can be easily handled, and when carefully used in small +quantities, is safe. There are several methods of burning oil that are +well adapted to the use of brick manufacturers and other fuel +consumers. + +The Pennsylvania Railroad made some very thorough experiments on the +use of petroleum in their locomotives, and while the results obtained +are reported to have been satisfactory, it was the opinion of those +having the experiments in charge that the demand for the Pennsylvania +Railroad alone, were it to change its locomotives from coal to oil, +would consume all the surplus and send up the price of oil to a figure +that would compel a return to coal. + +It is true that production has enormously increased in the last three +years, and the promise for the near future is that a high rate will be +maintained. It is further true that the production of Russia has +increased enormously, and will probably be larger this year than ever +before. This Russian oil must go to markets and supply demands that +have been met by American oil, and this will still further increase +the amount of oil available for fuel purposes. + +There is no doubt, therefore, that petroleum has a future for fuel +uses. Many brick manufacturers are ready to use it, notwithstanding +the possibility of an advance in its cost. + +While there are some objections to the use of petroleum as a fuel, +growing chiefly out of the risk attending its storage and conveyance +to the point of consumption, it is undoubtedly true that the chief +objection is the fear that with the increased demand that would follow +any extended use for this purpose would come an increase in price that +would make its continued use too expensive. + +Just four years ago, when the fuel oil industry was first projected, +it was cried down because, as its enemies claimed, there was not +enough oil fuel to be obtained in America to supply the New York City +factories alone, to say nothing of other territory, and because of the +high prices for oil that were sure to follow its substitution for coal +fuel. Since then the industry has experienced a magnificent success, +the sales exceeding 20,000,000 barrels a year, while the price is +lower than ever. + +A curious impression seems to have gained ground to the effect that +the Standard Oil Company does not want to sell oil for fuel. It may be +stated authoritatively that the company is not only able but willing +to sell and deliver oil for fuel purposes in any quantity that may be +desired. It is now delivering oil for fuel purposes in fourteen States +of the Union. For its sales in Chicago and the West and Northwest, the +delivery is by tank cars from the terminus of the pipe line at South +Chicago, to which point it is pumped from Lima, O. The Chicago price +is 1-2/3c. per gallon, or 70c. per barrel of 42 gallons, f.o.b. cars +at Chicago. + +A great many of the brick manufacturers here and throughout the +Northwest are beginning to use crude petroleum as a substitute for +soft coal. It is smokeless, for the fine spray of oil which comes from +the injector consists of such minute drops of the liquid and is so +thoroughly mixed with oxygen that when it burns the combustion is +complete, and only steam and carbonic acid gas go out of the top of +the kiln. Not a speck of soot comes from the kiln or the smokestack or +soils the whitewashed purity of the boiler room. Oil fuel is +absolutely clean. It is labor saving, too. No fireman has to keep +shoveling coal, there are no ashes to be dragged out from under the +furnace grates, and there are no clinkers to clog up the bars. One +man, by turning a valve, may regulate the heat of a kiln containing +one million brick. + +Not only is it cleaner than coal and calls for less labor, but it is +actually cheaper as a fuel. A barrel and a half of crude oil is equal +for furnace fuel to a ton of the best Illinois bituminous coal, and at +70c. a barrel any one can easily calculate the advantages petroleum +has over its smoky rival. Theoretically, two barrels of oil equal in +heating power one ton of best Pittsburg coal. + +An examination into the relative cost of the Pittsburg and Chicago +coal to the oil consumed shows that the price of oil at Pittsburg is +59c. per barrel of 42 gallons, and slack coal can be purchased at from +70c. to 80c. per ton, and the best quality of lump coal at from $1.10 +to $1.25 per ton, while the same quality of fuel can be bought in +Chicago at about 70c. a barrel, as against coal at from $2 to $3.50 +per ton. It would, therefore, look as though there could be no +question whatever as to the economy and advantages to be derived from +the use of oil as a fuel in this vicinity. + +The weight of oil required is less than half that of average coal to +produce the same amount of steam. + +A great advantage in using oil as fuel in brick burning is that the +fires are always under the absolute and direct control of the man in +charge of the burning, who can regulate the volume of flame to the +nicest degree and throw the heat to any part of the arches that he may +desire. + +From present indications, oil will be the fuel adopted generally for +generating power and for brick burning in Chicago, as it saves the +boilers, avoids grate bars, saves dirt and cinders, and reduces +running expenses, etc. + +Much skepticism was at first exhibited in Chicago only a few years ago +when one of the leading brick manufacturers attempted to burn a kiln +of brick with coal for fuel. Nearly all the brickmakers then in +business put on wise looks and predicted the failure of the experiment +with coal. But coal proved to be a better and cheaper fuel than wood, +and in five or six years wood was used only for the kindling of the +coal fires. + +Then came the attempt to burn brick with crude oil, and the experiment +having proved a success, coal has been banished from the leading brick +yards in Chicago and vicinity. + +The Purington-Kimball Brick Co., Adams J. Weckler, Weber & La Bond, +the May-Purington Brick Co., the Union Brick Co., and the Pullman +Brick Co., all having headquarters in Chicago, as well as the Peerless +Brick Co. and the Pioneer Fireproof Construction Co., both of Ottawa, +Ill., are using crude oil fuel for brick burning. + +Lima crude oil is used, and it is atomized by means of steam in small +furnaces extending about two feet from the face of the brick kilns, +and in which furnaces combustion occurs, and the conversion of the oil +and steam into a gaseous fuel is secured. There is little doubt that +the fuel employed in the future by the successful brick manufacturer +must be in the gaseous form. Owing to the enormous cost of handling +coal, wood, and other crude fuel, and of removing the ash resulting +from such fuel, it has been demonstrated in practice by the use of +crude oil that the expense connected with the burning of brick can be +reduced fully 60 per cent. This large saving is made by converting +crude petroleum into gas and utilizing this fuel, either directly in +the arches of the kiln or by converting the crude oil into gas in a +gas producer, and drawing this fuel gas from the producer and burning +the same as required in kilns of suitable construction. + +Crude oil fuel must in the future play an important part in all +branches of manufacture requiring high, constant heats, and in which +the cost of wood, coal, and other solid fuels, together with the labor +cost of handling them, forms a considerable part of the cost of +production. Where coal is required to be hauled in carts from the +wharves, or from a line of railway to the brick yard, located a mile, +more or less, from the places where the coal is received, the cost of +handling, haulage, and waste is an important item. Added to these +costs, the deterioration of soft coal under atmospheric influences and +the waste from imperfect combustion and from the particles which fall +from the grate bars into the ash pits, all eat a large hole in the +brickmakers' profit. + +Mr. D.V. Purington, of Chicago, Ill., in speaking on this subject, +says: + + "I will say that my fuel bill for oil is cheaper than it would + cost me for coal. There is a very wide difference in the cost + of unloading, hauling away ashes and cinders, and getting my + coal around to the kiln, or boilers, or drier, or wherever I + use it, and I get very much better results by being able to + put the heat from oil fuel just where I want it." + +In order to secure the best results with any fuel it is not only +necessary that a cheap fuel should be used, but that it should be +always obtainable, and that all of it should be burned and turned to +commercial account in the operations of brick manufacture. + +Owing to the losses which we have previously mentioned, and resulting +from the use of coal, this fuel is destined to be superseded by some +form of fuel which will avoid such losses, and which will dispense +with all of the inconveniences now encountered in the handling of coal +and of the ashes resulting from combustion. Wood is rapidly becoming +too scarce and high near the great centers of man's habitation to be +regarded in the present discussion. + +Fully two hundred million of brick a year are being burned in the city +of Chicago with crude oil fuel, and a clamp kiln containing one +million brick can be burned with crude oil in Chicago at a labor cost +of less than $100, and at a total cost for labor and oil of about 40c. +per thousand brick. + +There are not, however, many places in the world where brick can be +burned with oil at such a low cost as in the city of Chicago; the +reason being that oil is not everywhere obtainable so cheaply as in +this city, and because few clays in the world are so easily burned +into brick as are the clays of Chicago. In Milwaukee, Wis., and in +other places within a distance of 100 miles from Chicago, the time +required to burn building brick with crude oil fuel averages from +sixteen to twenty-one days, whereas the time of burning the Chicago +clays averages only about five days, and splendid "burns" have been +secured there with crude oil in three and one-half days. It is +evident, therefore, that the advantages of using crude oil fuel for +the burning of brick will vary in different parts of the United +States. + +Where circumstances and the nature of the clay permit of its use, +crude oil is, next to fuel gas, the brickmakers' ideal fuel.--_The +Brickmaker_. + + * * * * * + + + + +INVESTIGATION OF A MOUND NEAR JEFFERSON CITY, MO. + +By A.S. LOGAN. + + +Recently, a party consisting of engineers and employes of the Missouri +River Improvement Commission began an exploration of one of the +mounds, a work of a prehistoric race, situated on the bluff, which +overlooks the Missouri River from an elevation of one hundred and +fifty feet, located about six miles below Jefferson City. + +This mound is one of about twenty embraced in a circle one quarter of +a mile in diameter. + +The above party selected the mound in question apparently at +haphazard; all the mounds presenting nearly a uniform outline, +differing only in size and mostly circular in form, and from twenty to +twenty-four feet at the base, rising to a height of eight feet and +under. A trench was cut on a level with the natural soil, penetrating +the mound about eight feet. A stone wall was encountered which was +built very substantially, making access in that direction difficult, +in consequence of which the earth was removed from the top for the +purpose of entering from that direction. The earth was removed for a +depth of four feet, when the top of the wall was exposed. Further +excavation brought to light human bones, some of them fairly well +preserved, especially the bones of the legs. On the removal of these +and a layer of clay, another layer of bones was exposed, but +presenting a different appearance than the first, having evidently +been burned or charred, a considerable quantity of charcoal being +mixed with the bones. In this tier were found portions of several +skulls, lying close together, as if they had been interred without +regard to order. They were, in all probability, detached from the body +when buried. + +The portions of the skulls found were those of the back of the head, +no frontal bones being discovered. Some jaw bones with the teeth +attached were among the remains, but only that portion of the jaw +containing the molar teeth. + +A few pieces of flint weapons were found in the upper layers, and +nothing else of any significance. + +At this juncture the diggers abandoned the search, and some days later +the writer, desirous of seeing all that was to be seen, resumed the +work and removed the earth and remains until the bottom of the vault +was reached; several layers being thus removed. All of these had +evidently been burned, as charcoal and ashes were mixed with the bones +of each succeeding layer. The layers were about an inch in thickness, +with from two to four inches of earth between, and small flat stones, +about the size of a man's hand, spread on each different layer, as if +to mark its division from the next above. + +Between the bottom layers, mixed with charcoal, ashes and small +portions of burned bones were found what gives value to the search, +numbering about fifty tools and a smoking pipe. + +The material of the tools is the same as the rock forming the vault, +locally known as "cotton rock." I would consider it a species of +sandstone. + +Overlying the edge of "cotton rock" in the bluff is flint in great +quantities, and in every conceivable shape, that these people could +have resorted to had they been so disposed, and why they used the +softer material I will leave to some archaeologist to determine. The +tools themselves are made after no pattern, but selected for their +cutting qualities, as they all have a more or less keen edge which +could be used for cutting purposes, and were no doubt highly prized, +as they were found all in a pile in one corner of the vault and on top +of which was found a stone pipe. The pipe is made bowl and stem +together, and it is curious that people of such crude ideas of tools +and weapons should manufacture such a perfect specimen of a pipe. It +is composed of a very heavy stone, the nature of which would be +difficult to determine, as it is considerably burned. + +A description of the vault will be found interesting to many. The wall +of the vault rests upon the natural surface of the ground, about three +feet high and eight and a half feet square, the inside corners being +slightly rounded; it is built in layers about four inches in thickness +and varying in length upward to three feet, neither cement nor mortar +being used in the joints; the corners formed a sort of recess as they +were drawn inward to the top, in which many of the stones were found. +The stone for constructing the vault was brought from a distance of +about a quarter of a mile, as there is none in sight nearer. + +I assume from all these circumstances that these people lived in this +neighborhood anterior to the age of flint tools, as the more recent +interments indicate that they were then entering upon the flint +industry, and it may be that the "cotton rock" had become obsolete. + +These people buried their dead on the highest ground, covering and +protecting them with these great mounds, when it would seem much +easier to bury as at the present day; but instead, they, with great +labor, carried the rock from a great distance, and it is reasonable to +suppose, also, that the earth was brought from a distance with which +they are surrounded, and piled high above, as there is no trace of an +immediate or local excavation. + +In my view from the mounds and their surroundings I would +unhesitatingly say the water, the foot hills of the glacier and the +swamps left in its wake were but a short distance to the north of +them, and during the summer months the melting ice would send a volume +of water down this valley that the Missouri River of to-day is but a +miniature of, and therefore the highest hills were the only land that +could be used by that ancient race. + +In this connection I would make the following suggestions that may +lead to more important disclosures: My object is the hope of a more +thorough investigation at some future time. Nearer to the top of the +mound was found, certainly, the remains of a people of more recent +date than those found in the vault, as their bones were larger, which +would indicate a more stalwart tribe, and also their mode of burial +was different, as there was no indication of fire being used, as was +the case with the lower burials. I would pronounce the upper +interments those of Indians of the present day; the tools found with +these were weapons of the chase. On the other hand, those found in the +vault were of a peaceful character, and their surroundings would +readily comport, in my opinion, to the glacial period. The entire +absence of flint in the bottom of the mound would show one of two +things, either they were unacquainted with the use of flint or at that +time there was no flint to be had. It is there now in great abundance, +in such forms for cutting purposes that would render the "cotton rock" +almost useless. The flint is found in a hill close to the river bank, +about half a mile from the mound, and the upper portion of the ledge +has the appearance, to me, of glacial action and probably forms a +moraine, as it has, evidently, been pushed over the underlying ledge, +and been ground and splintered in a manner that could not have been +without great crushing force. It would be reasonable enough to suppose +that the action of the river may have uncovered this flint by washing +away the softer material since the occupation of the older race. + +In relation to the Indian interment in the examined mound, I could not +say distinctly whether the Indian burials had been such as to make +them aware of former burials or not, but I think from the thickness of +the clay between the two that they were ignorant of former burials. +The mounds of the modern Indian, so far as my investigations are +concerned, would indicate a more rudely formed structure which would +appear to be an imitation of the older mounds, as they are not +finished with like care nor have they the ulterior structures.--_The +Scientist_. + + * * * * * + + + + +ACTION OF CAUSTIC SODA ON WOOD. + +By M.H. TAUSS. + + +The researches of the author upon the action which water exerts upon +wood at a high temperature have shown how much of the incrusting +material can be removed without the aid of any reagent. + +In connection with the manufacture of cellulose, it is also +interesting to prosecute at the same time experiments with solutions +of the caustic alkalies, in order to study the mode of action upon +both wood and pure cellulose. The manufacture of cellulose has for +many years been an industry, and yet little or nothing from a chemical +point of view is known of the action of caustic soda upon vegetable +fibers. + +Braconnot, in 1820, obtained alumina by treating wood with an alkali, +but the first application of wood to the manufacture of paper was due +to Chauchard. By boiling vegetable fibers with caustic lyes, Collier +and Piette obtained cellulose. Again, in 1862, Barne and Blondel +proposed to make cellulose in a similar way, but employed nitric acid +in the place of soda. + +The first cellulose made exclusively from wood and caustic soda was +produced at the Manayunk Wood Pulp Works, in 1854, in the neighborhood +of Philadelphia, by Burgess & Watt. The operation consisted in +treating the wood for six hours at a pressure of from six to eight +atmospheres, with a solution of caustic soda of 12 deg. B. + +Ungerer noticed that it was sufficient to limit the pressure from +three to six atmospheres, according to the quality of the wood, and +advised the use of solutions containing four to five per cent. of +caustic soda. He employed a series of cylinders, arranged vertically, +in which the wood was subjected to a methodical system of lixiviation. +The same lye passed through many cylinders, so that when it made its +exit at the end it was thoroughly exhausted, and the wood thus kept +coming in contact with fresh alkaline solutions. + +According to the account of Kiclaner, the disintegration of wood may +be effected in the following four ways: + + 1. By heating direct in boilers at a pressure of 10 + atmospheres. (See Dresel and Rosehain.) + + 2. In vertical boilers heated direct or by steam, and kept at + a pressure of from 10 to 14 atmospheres. (Sinclair, Nicol, and + Behrend.) + + 3. In revolving boilers, maintained at a pressure of 12 + atmospheres by direct steam. + + 4. By means of a series of small vessels communicating with + each other, and through which a lye circulates at a pressure + of six atmospheres. (Ungerer.) + +This latter process is preferable to the others. + +Researches have also been made by the author in order to ascertain the +loss which wood and cellulose suffer at different temperatures or in +contact with varying quantities of alkali (NaHO). + +The following is a _resume_ of the experiments, giving the loss in per +cent. resulting from a "cooking" of three hours duration: + + I. Ordinary pressure: + 10 grms. cellulose, with 580 c.c. of caustic + soda solution, sp. gr. 1.09 21.99 + 10 grms. of soft wood, treated as above 49.19 + 10 " hard " " " 53.68 + + II. Pressure of five atmospheres: + 10 grms. cellulose, with 500 c.c. caustic soda + solution of sp. gr. 1.099 58.02 + 10 grms. of soft wood, treated as above 75.85 + 10 " hard " " " 69.80 + + III. Pressure of ten atmospheres: + 10 grms. of cellulose 58.99 + 10 " soft wood 81.80 + 10 " hard " 70.39 + + IV. Ordinary pressure: + 10 grms. of cellulose, with 500 c.c. caustic + soda solution of sp. gr. 1.162 21.88 + 10 grms. of soft wood 35.45 + 10 " hard " 46.43 + + V. Pressure of five atmospheres: + 10 grms. of cellulose, with 500 c.c. caustic + soda solution of sp. gr. 1.162 77.33 + 10 grms. of soft wood 97.13 + 10 " hard " 91.48 + + VI. Ordinary pressure: + 10 grms. of cellulose, with 500 c.c. caustic + soda solution of sp. gr. 1.043 12.07 + 10 grms. of soft wood 28.37 + 10 " hard " 30.25 + + VII. Pressure of five atmospheres: + 10 grms. of cellulose, with 500 c.c. of caustic + soda solution of sp. gr. 1.043 15.36 + 10 grms. of soft wood 50.96 + 10 " hard " 55.66 + + VIII. Pressure of ten atmospheres: + 10 grms. of cellulose, with 200 c.c. caustic + soda solution of sp. gr. 1.043 20.28 + 10 grms. of soft wood 70.31 + 10 " hard " 65.59 + +From this it is evident that by increasing the temperature and +pressure the solvent action of the alkali is increased, but the +strength of the lye exercises an influence which is even more marked. +Thus, at a pressure of five atmospheres, the loss of cellulose was +0.75 with a caustic lye containing 14 per cent. of NaHO, while it was +only 0.05 with a lye of 8 per cent. NaHO. + +To further elucidate the action of the alkali under the conditions +given above, the author has estimated the amount of precipitate which +alcohol gives with the soda solutions, after boiling with the wood: + + 1. 2. 3. + Specific gravity of NaHO solutions 1.043 1.09 1.162 + Soft wood, ordinary pressure 1.043 traces 4.8 + " pressure of five atmospheres 1.043 2.0 26.8 + " " ten " 1.043 1.7 -- + Hard wood, ordinary pressure 11.10 27.40 30.80 + " pressure of five atmospheres 1.10 25.70 15.8 + " " ten " traces 5.20 15.8 + +The estimation of the precipitate, produced in the soda solutions +employed in the experiments cited above, gives: + + Soft wood, ordinary pressure 1.31 traces 2.0 + " pressure of five atmospheres 15.94 16.0 24.80 + " " ten " 17.00 25.4 -- + Hard wood, ordinary pressure 5.40 6 5.60 + " pressure of five atmospheres 9.40 15.40 33.60 + " " ten " 14.00 18.40 33.60 + +As a general rule manufacturers employ a greater pressure than that +which was found necessary by the author. As a result, it appears from +these experiments that the wood not only loses incrusting matter, but +that part of the cellulose enters into solution. As a matter of fact, +the yield obtained in practical working from 100 parts of wood does +not exceed 30 to 35 per cent.--_Le Bull. Fab. Pap.; Chemical Trade +Journal._ + + * * * * * + + + + +NEW BORON COMPOUNDS. + + +An important paper is contributed by M. Moissan to the current number +of the _Comptes Rendus_, describing two interesting new compounds +containing boron, phosphorus, and iodine. A few months ago M. Moissan +succeeded in preparing the iodide of boron, a beautiful substance of +the composition BI_{3}, crystallizing from solution in carbon bisulphide +in pearly tables, which melt at 43 deg. to a liquid which boils +undecomposed at 210 deg.. When this substance is brought in contact with +fused phosphorus an intense action occurs, the whole mass inflames +with evolution of violet vapor of iodine. Red phosphorus also reacts +with incandescence when heated in the vapor of boron iodide. The +reaction may, however, be moderated by employing solutions of +phosphorus and boron iodide in dry carbon bisulphide. The two +solutions are mixed in a tube closed at one end, a little phosphorus +being in excess, and the tube is then sealed. No external application +of heat is necessary. At first the liquid is quite clear, but in a few +minutes a brown solid substance commences to separate, and in three +hours the reaction is complete. The substance is freed from carbon +bisulphide in a current of carbon dioxide, the last traces being +removed by means of the Sprengel pump. The compound thus obtained is a +deep red amorphous powder, readily capable of volatilization. It melts +between 190 deg. and 200 deg.. When heated _in vacuo_ it commences to +volatilize about 170 deg., and the vapor condenses in the cooler portion +of the tube in beautiful red crystals. Analyses of these crystals +agree perfectly with the formula BPI_{2}. Boron phospho-di-iodide is a +very hygroscopic substance, moisture rapidly decomposing it. In +contact with a large excess of water, yellow phosphorus is deposited, +and hydriodic, boric, and phosphorus acids formed in the solution. A +small quantity of phosphureted hydrogen also escapes. If a small +quantity of water is used, a larger deposit of yellow phosphorus is +formed, together with a considerable quantity of phosphonium iodide. +Strong nitric acid oxidizes boron phospho-di-iodide with +incandescence. Dilute nitric acid oxidizes it to phosphoric and boric +acids. It burns spontaneously in chlorine, forming boron chloride, +chloride of iodine, and pentachloride of phosphorus. When slightly +warmed in oxygen it inflames, the combustion being rendered very +beautiful by the fumes of boric and phosphoric anhydrides and the +violet vapors of iodine. Heated in contact with sulphureted hydrogen, +it forms sulphides of boron and phosphorus and hydriodic acid, without +liberation of iodine. Metallic magnesium when slightly warmed reacts +with it with incandescence. When thrown into vapor of mercury, boron +phospho-di-iodide instantly takes fire. + +The second phospho-iodide of boron obtained by M. Moissan is +represented by the formula BPI. It is formed when sodium or magnesium +in a fine state of division is allowed to act upon a solution of the +di-iodide just described in carbon bisulphide; or when boron +phospho-di-iodide is heated to 160 deg. in a current of hydrogen. It is +obtained in the form of a bright red powder, somewhat hygroscopic. It +volatilizes _in vacuo_ without fusion at a temperature about 210 deg., and +the vapor condenses in the cooler portion of the tube in beautiful +orange colored crystals. When heated to low redness it decomposes into +free iodine and phosphide of boron, BP. Nitric acid reacts +energetically with it, but without incandescence, and a certain amount +of iodine is liberated. Sulphuric acid decomposes it upon warming, +without formation of sulphurous and boric acids and free iodine. By +the continued action of dry hydrogen upon the heated compound the +iodine and a portion of the phosphorus are removed, and a new phosphide +of boron, of the composition B_{5}P_{3}, is obtained.--_Nature_. + + * * * * * + + + + +BORON SALTS. + + +A paper upon the sulphides of boron is communicated by M. Paul +Sabatier to the September number of the _Bulletin de la Societe +Chimique. Nature_ gives the following: Hitherto only one compound of +boron with sulphur has been known to us, the trisulphide, B_{2}S_{3}, +and concerning even that our information has been of the most +incomplete description. Berzelius obtained this substance in an impure +form by heating boron in sulphur vapor, but the first practical mode +of its preparation in a state of tolerable purity was that employed by +Wohler and Deville. These chemists prepared it by allowing dry +sulphureted hydrogen gas to stream over amorphous boron heated to +redness. Subsequently a method of obtaining boron sulphide was +proposed by Fremy, according to which a mixture of boron trioxide, +soot, and oil is heated in a stream of the vapor of carbon bisulphide. +M. Sabatier finds that the best results are obtained by employing the +method of Wohler and Deville. The reaction between boron and +sulphureted hydrogen only commences at red heat, near the temperature +of the softening of glass. When, however, the tube containing the +boron becomes raised to the temperature, boron sulphide condenses in +the portion of the tube adjacent to the heated portion; at first it is +deposited in a state of fusion, and the globules on cooling present an +opaline aspect. Further along the tube it is slowly deposited in a +porcelain like form, while further still the sublimate of sulphide +takes the form of brilliant acicular crystals. The crystals consist of +pure B_{2}S_{3}; the vitreous modification, however, is usually +contaminated with a little free sulphur. Very fine crystals of the +trisulphide may be obtained by heating a quantity of the +porcelain-like form to 300 deg. at the bottom of a closed tube whose upper +portion is cooled by water. The crystals are violently decomposed by +water, yielding a clear solution of boric acid, sulphureted hydrogen +being evolved. On examining the porcelain boat in which the boron had +been placed, a non-volatile black substance is found, which appears to +consist of a lower sulphide of the composition B_{4}S. The same +substance is obtained when the trisulphide is heated in a current of +hydrogen; a portion volatilizes, and is deposited again further along +the tube, while the residue fuses, and becomes reduced to the +unalterable subsulphide B_{4}S, sulphureted hydrogen passing away in +the stream of gas. + +Two selenides of boron, B_{2}Se_{3} and B_{4}Se, corresponding to the +above described sulphides, have also been prepared by M. Sabatier, by +heating amorphous boron in a stream of hydrogen selenide, H_{2}Se. The +triselenide is less volatile than the trisulphide, and is pale green +in color. It is energetically decomposed by water, with formation of +boric acid and liberation of hydrogen selenide. The liquid rapidly +deposits free selenium, owing to the oxidation of the hydrogen +selenide retained in solution. Light appears to decompose the +triselenide into free selenium and the subselenide B_{4}Se. + +Silicon selenide, SiSe_{3}, has likewise been obtained by M. Sabatier +by heating crystalline silicon to redness in a current of hydrogen +selenide. It presents the appearance of a fused hard metallic mass +incapable of volatilization. Water reacts most vigorously with it, +producing silicic acid, and liberating hydrogen selenide. Potash +decomposes it with formation of a clear solution, the silica being +liberated in a form in which it is readily dissolved by alkalies. +Silicon selenide emits a very irritating odor, due to the hydrogen +selenide which is formed by its reaction with the moisture of the +atmosphere. When heated to redness in the air it becomes converted +into silicon dioxide and free selenium. + + * * * * * + + + + +NATURAL SULPHIDE OF GOLD. + +By T.W.T. ATHERTON. + + +The existence of gold in the form of a natural sulphide in conjunction +with pyrites has often been advanced theoretically as a possible +occurrence, but up to the present time this occurrence has, I believe, +never been established as an actual fact. + +During my investigations on the ore of the Deep Creek Mines, I have +found in them what I believe to be gold existing as a natural +sulphide. The description of this ore will, no doubt, be of interest +to your readers. + +The lode is a large irregular one of pure arsenical pyrites, existing +in a felsite dike near the sea coast. Surrounding it on all sides are +micaceous schists, and in the neighborhood is a large hill of granite +about 800 ft. high. In the lode and the rock immediately adjoining it +are large quantities of pyrophylite, and in some places of the mine +are deposits of this pure white, translucent mineral, but in the ore +itself it is a yellow and pale olive green color, and is never absent +from the pyrites. + +From the first I was much struck with the exceedingly fine state of +division in which the gold existed in the ore. After roasting and very +carefully grinding down in an agate mortar, I have never been able to +get any pieces of gold exceeding the one-thousandth of an inch in +diameter, and the greater quantity is very much finer than this. +Careful dissolving of the pyrites and gangue, so as to leave the gold +intact, failed to find it in any larger diameter. As this was a very +unusual experience in investigations on many other kinds of pyrites, I +was led further into the matter. Ultimately, after a number of +experiments, there was nothing left but to test for gold as a +sulphide. + +Taking 200 grammes of pyrites from a sample assaying 17 ounces fine +gold per ton, grinding it finely, and; heating for some hours with a +solution of sodium sulphide (Na_{2}S_{2}), on decomposing the filtrate +and treating it for gold I got a result at the rate of 12 ounces gold +per ton. This was repeated several times with the same result. + +This sample came from the lode at the 140 ft. level, while samples +from the higher levels where the ore is more oxidized, although +carrying the gold in the same degree of fineness, do not give as high +a percentage of auric sulphide. + +It would appear that all the gold in the pyrites (and I have never +found any apart from it) has originally taken its place there as a +sulphide. + +The sulphide is an analysis of a general sample of the ore: + + Silica 13.940 p.c. + Alumina 6.592 " + Lime 0.9025 " + Sulphur 16.584 " + Arsenic 33.267 " + Iron 27.720 " + Cobalt 0.964 " + + Per Ton. + Nickel Traces. + Gold 5 ozs. 3 dwts. 8 grs. + Silver 0 " 16 " 0 " + ------- + 99.969 + +Nambucca Head's Gold Mining Company, Deep Creek, N.S. Wales, Oct. 9, +1891.--_Chemical News_. + + * * * * * + + + + +SOME MEANS OF PURIFYING WATER. + + +There are several methods extant for the purpose of purifying and +softening water, and in the following brief account some of the chief +features of these methods are summarized. The Slack and Brownlow +apparatus we will deal with first. This purifier is one which is +intended to remove the matter in suspension in the water to be treated +by subsidence and not by filtration. The apparatus consists of a +vertical iron tank or cylinder, inside which are a series of plates +arranged in a spiral direction around a fixed center, and sloping at +an angle of 45 deg. on both sides outward. The water to be dealt with +flows through a large inlet tube fixed to the bottom of the cylinder, +rises to the top by passing spirally round the whole circumference, +and depositing on the plates or shelves all solids and impurities at +the outer edges of the plates. Mud cocks are placed to remove the +solids deposited during the flow of the water upward to the outlet +pipe, placed close to the top of the cylinder. One of these tanks, a +square one, is at work purifying the Medlock water at Manchester, and +on drawing samples of water from nearly every plate, that from the +lower mud cock showed considerable deposit, which decreased in bulk +until the top mud cock was reached, when the water was quite free from +deposit. It is stated that one man would be sufficient to attend to 20 +of these purifiers. + +To filter or purify 2,000,000 gallons per 24 hours would require 40 +tanks, 10 ft. by 7 ft. diameter, each doing 2,000 gallons per hour, +and would cost, with their fittings, L6,400, including all patent +rights, but exclusive of lime mixing tanks, agitators, lime water and +softening tanks, engine and boiler, and suitable buildings, the cost +of which would not be far short of L5,000, or a total of L11,400 to +soften 2,000,000 gallons per 24 hours. The labor and other working +expenses in connection with this plant would not be less than that +necessary to work the Porter-Clark process, which is given as O.55d. +per 1,000 gallons. + +The Brock and Minton filter press system is another method. This +patent press is made of steel, perforated with 1/2 inch holes. On the +inside of the shell there is first laid a layer of fine wire netting, +then a layer of cloth, and lastly another layer of wire netting of a +larger mesh than the other. The matter treated is pumped into the body +of the cylinder, the liquid passing through the filtering material to +the outside, the solids being retained inside, and are got rid of by +partially revolving the upper half to relieve it from the knuckle +joint, and, after being raised, the lower half is turned over by +machinery, and the solid matter is simply allowed to fall out into +wagons or trucks run underneath for that purpose. Such, in brief, is +the manner of using this filter press for chemical works' purposes. +The cost of each filter press, including royalties, is from L250 to +L300, the size being 8 ft. by 4 ft. diameter. Having a filtering area +of 100 square feet, it would require 32 of these applied to softening +water to effectually deal with 2,000,000 gallons per 24 hours; this, +at the lowest estimate for filters alone, would be L8,000, and, using +the same figures, L5,000 for lime mixing tanks, etc., as referred to +in the "Slack and Brownlow" purifier, would bring the total cost up to +L13,000, and the working expense would not be less than that required +to work the Porter-Clark process, and would probably be very much +greater. This filter press is not in use anywhere for dealing with +large quantities of water in connection with a town water supply. + +A process which has been working for a long time at Southampton is the +Atkins system, which also includes the use of filter presses. The +pumping station and softening works are situated at Otterbourne, eight +miles from Southampton, and were built together as one scheme. The +mixing room has two slaking lime tanks, with agitators driven by steam +power. The mixture is then run as cream of lime into a tank 20 ft. +square and is then pumped into the lower ends of two lime water +producing cylinders. The agitation is here obtained by pressure from a +small cistern placed above them with a 12 ft. head, the pipe from +which is attached to the lower ends of the cylinders. This has been +found by experiment to be the most satisfactory means of obtaining the +proper degree of agitation necessary; the clear lime water is then +drawn off at the top of the cylinders, and flows by gravity into a +mixer, where it comes in contact with the hard water. Both flow +together into a distributing trough, from which it overflows into a +small softening reservoir, having a capacity of one hour's supply, a +weir being placed along the lower end, over which the water flows to +13 filter presses. The clear water from the filters is then conveyed +to a small well, from which the permanent engines raise it to the +first of a series of high level covered service reservoirs. + +In the filter press there are 20 hollow disks representing a filtering +area of 250 square feet, or a total of 3,250 square feet. The water to +be filtered passes into the body of the filter and then through a +filtering medium of cloth laid on a thin perforated zinc plate, into +the inner side of the disks, from whence it is conveyed through the +hollow shaft, to which the disks are attached, to the high level +pumps. + +The filter cloths are cleaned three times every 24 hours, without +removal, by jets of softened water from the main, having a pressure of +60 pounds to the square inch. During cleaning operations the disks are +made to revolve slowly; this only occupies a space of five minutes for +each cleaning. The cloths last from six to eight months without being +renewed. They also occasionally use for further cleaning the cloths a +jet of steam injected upon the center of the disks in order to remove +by partial boiling the insoluble particles engrained in the cloths. +This has been found to make the cloths last longer. This cloth is +obtained from Porritt Bros. and Austen, Stubbing Vale, Ramsbottom, and +costs 131/2d. per lineal yard of a width to suit the disks. + +The quantity softened is 21/4 million gallons per 24 hours, but the +present plant can deal with 21/2 million gallons, and the buildings are +erected for 31/2 million gallons, additional filters and lime producing +tanks being only required to deal with the increased quantity. The +costs of the softening works was L10,394, of which L7,844 was for the +softening machinery and plant and L2,550 for the reservoir, buildings, +etc. + +The working expenses, including lime, labor, cloths, general repairs, +and steam, is stated to be 0.225d. per 1,000 gallons, the labor +required being only two men, one on the day and the other on the night +shift, with an occasional man to assist. + +The hardness of the Southampton water on Clark's scale is 18 deg. of total +hardness, and this is reduced down to 6 deg. or 8 deg. by this process.--_Chem. +Tr. Jour._ + + * * * * * + + + + +A NEW LABORATORY PROCESS FOR PREPARING HYDROBROMIC ACID. + +By G.S. NEWTH. + + +This method is a synthetical one, and consists in passing a stream of +hydrogen and bromine vapor over a spiral of platinum wire heated to +bright redness by means of an electric current. A glass tube, about 7 +inches long and 5/8 of an inch bore, is fitted at each end with a cork +carrying a short straight piece of small tube; through each cork is +also fixed a stout wire, and these two wires are joined by means of a +short spiral of platinum wire, the spiral being about 1 inch long. One +end of this apparatus is connected to a small wash bottle containing +bromine, through which a stream of hydrogen can be bubbled. The other +end is attached to a tube dipping into a vessel of water for the +absorption of the gas, or, if a large quantity of the solution is +required, to a series of Woulf's bottles containing water. Hydrogen is +first slowly passed through the tube until the air is displaced, when +the platinum spiral is heated to bright redness by the passage of a +suitable electric current. Complete combination takes place in contact +with the hot wire, and the color imparted to the ingoing gases by the +bromine vapor is entirely removed, and the contents of the tube beyond +the platinum are perfectly colorless. The vessel containing the +bromine may be heated to a temperature of about 60 deg. C. in a water +bath, at which temperature the hydrogen will be mixed with nearly the +requisite amount of bromine to combine with the whole of it. So long +as even a slight excess of hydrogen is passing, which is readily seen +by the escape of bubbles through the water in the absorbing vessels, +the issuing hydrobromic acid will remain perfectly colorless, and +therefore free from bromine; so that it is not necessary to adopt any +of the usual methods for scrubbing the gas through vessels containing +phosphorus. When the operation is proceeding very rapidly a lambent +flame occasionally appears in the tube just before the platinum wire, +but this flame is never propagated back through the narrow tube into +the bromine bottle. The precaution may be taken, however, of plugging +this narrow tube with a little glass wool, which renders any +inconvenience from this cause quite impossible. By this method a large +quantity of bromine may be rapidly converted into hydrobromic acid +without any loss of bromine, and the operation when once started can +be allowed to proceed without any further attention.--_Chemical News._ + + * * * * * + + + + +SAPOTIN: A NEW GLUCOSIDE. + +By GUSTAVE MICHAUD. + + +_Achras Sapota, L._, is a large tree scattered through the forests of +Central America and the West Indies; its fruit is often seen upon the +Creole dinner table. This fruit is a berry, the size of an orange, the +taste of which suggests the flavor of melon, as well as that of +hydrocyanic acid. The fruit contains one or two seeds like large +chestnuts, which, if broken, let fall a white almond. This last +contains the glucoside which I call _sapotin_. + +I obtained sapotin for the first time by heating dry raspings of the +almond with 90 per cent. alcohol. While cooling, the filtered liquid +deposited a good deal of the compound. Since that time I have +advantageously modified the process and increased the amount of +product. I prepare sapotin in the following way: The almonds are +rasped, dried at 100 deg. C. and washed with benzene, which takes away an +enormous quantity of fatty matter. The benzene which remains in the +almond is driven put first by compression, afterward by heating. Then +the raspings are exhausted with boiling 90 per cent. alcohol. The +solution is filtered as rapidly as possible, in order to avoid its +cooling and depositing the sapotin in the filter. As soon as the +temperature of the filtered liquid begins to fall, a voluminous +precipitate is seen to form, which is the sapotin. + +In order to purify it, the precipitate is collected in a filter and +expressed between sheets of filter paper. When dry it is washed with +ether, which takes away the last particles of fatty and resinous +matter. The purification is completed by two crystallizations from 90 +per cent. alcohol. At last the substance is dried at 100 deg.. + +The sapotin separates from its alcohol solution in the form of +microscopic crystals. When dry, it is a white, inodorous powder. Its +taste is extremely acrid and burning. If the powder penetrate into the +nostrils or the eyes, it produces a persistent burning sensation which +brings about sneezing and flow of tears. It melts at 240 deg. C., growing +brown at the same time. + +It has a laevo-rotatory power of [a]_{j} = -32.11, which was +determined with an alcoholic solution, the aqueous solution not being +sufficiently transparent. + +It is very soluble in water, easily soluble in boiling alcohol, much +less in cold alcohol, and insoluble in ether, chloroform and benzene. +Its alcoholic solution is precipitated by ether. + +Tannin has no action on it, but basic acetate of lead produces a +gelatinous precipitate in its aqueous solution. Strange enough, this +precipitate is entirely soluble in a small excess of basic acetate of +lead. If thrown into concentrated sulphuric acid, sapotin colors it +with a garnet red tint. It does not reduce Fehling's solution. Its +analysis gave the following results: + + Calculated for Found. + C_{29}H_{52}O_{20}. I. II. + + C 48.33 48.69 48.31 + H 7.23 7.33 7.45 + +When heated with water and a little sulphuric acid, sapotin is +decomposed and yields glucose and an insoluble matter which I call +_sapotiretin_. One hundred parts of sapotin produce 51.58 parts of +glucose and 49.67 of sapotiretin. The equation which represents this +reaction is: + +C_{29}H_{52}O_{20} + 2H_{2}O = 2C_{6}H_{12}O_{6} + C_{17}H_{32}O_{10} + +and requires 50 per cent. of glucose and 55 per cent. of sapotiretin. + +Sapotiretin is an amorphous compound, insoluble in water, very soluble +in alcohol, less soluble in chloroform, insoluble in ether. Below is +the result of its analysis: + + Calculated for Found. + C_{17}H_{32}O_{10}. I. II. + + C 51.52 51.51 51.20 + H 8.08 8.19 8.34 + +--_Amer. Chem. Jour._ + + * * * * * + + + + +DETECTION OF PEANUT OIL IN OLIVE OIL. + + +Holde, after a careful trial of the various processes for detecting +the above adulteration, gives the preference to Renard's, which he +describes as follows: + +Ten grms. of the suspected oil, after being saponified, and the fatty +acids separated by hydrochloric acid, are dissolved in 90 per cent. +alcohol, and precipitated by sugar of lead. The oleate of lead is +separated by ether, and the residuum, consisting of palmitic and +arachic acids, is decomposed by hydrochloric acid. The fatty acids are +dissolved, with the aid of heat, in 50 c.c. of 90 per cent. alcohol. +The arachic acid which separates after cooling is filtered out and +washed, first with 90 per cent. and afterward with 70 per cent. +alcohol. It is then dissolved in hot alcohol, and the solution +evaporated in a weighed saucer. The weight of the residuum, after +taking into account the acid dissolved in the alcohol, equals the +whole amount of arachic acid contained in the oil; the melting point +of this residuum should be 70 deg. to 71 deg. C. With this process the author +has always been successful; but when the olive oil contains not more +than 5 to 10 per cent. of peanut oil, it is necessary to make the test +with 40 grms. of the former, otherwise the melting point of the +arachic acid cannot be estimated. Furthermore, the acids which are +separated from the lead salt by hydrochloric acid must be +recrystallized repeatedly with 90 per cent. alcohol, until the melting +point ceases to rise, in case the latter is not found to exceed 70 deg. C. +at the first estimation. When peanut oil is present, the melting point +will always be above 70 deg..--_Chem. Zeit._ + + * * * * * + + + + +HYDROXYLAMINE. + + +Free hydroxylamine, NH_{2}OH, has been isolated by M. Lobry de Bruyn, +and a preliminary account of its mode of preparation and properties is +published by him in the current number of the _Recueil des travaux +chimiques des Pays-Bas_ (1891, 10, 101). The manner in which the free +base was obtained was briefly as follows. About a hundred grammes of +hydroxylamine hydrochloride, NH_{2}OH.HCl, were dissolved in six +hundred cubic centimeters of warm methyl alcohol. To this solution a +quantity of sodium dissolved in methyl alcohol was added, in such +proportion that the hydrochloride of hydroxylamine was present in +slight excess over and above that required to convert it to sodium +chloride. After deposition of the separated sodium chloride the +solution was decanted and filtered. + +The greater portion of the methyl alcohol was next removed by +distillation under the reduced pressure of 160-200 mm. The remainder +was then treated with anhydrous ether, in order to completely +precipitate the last traces of dissolved sodium chloride. The liquid +eventually separated into two layers, an upper ethereal layer +containing about 5 per cent. of hydroxylamine, and a lower layer +containing over 50 per cent. of hydroxylamine, the remainder of the +methyl alcohol, and a little dissolved salt. By subjecting this lower +layer to fractional distillation under 60 mm. pressure, it was +separated into three fractions, of which the first contained 27 per +cent. of hydroxylamine, the second 60 per cent., and the third +crystallized in the ice-cooled receiver in long needles. This third +fraction consisted of free solid NH_{2}OH. Hydroxylamine as thus +isolated in the free state is a very hygroscopic substance, which +rapidly liquefies when exposed to air, owing to the absorption of +water. + +The crystals melt at 33 deg., and the fused substance appears to possess +the capability of readily dissolving metallic salts. Sodium chloride +is very largely soluble in the liquid; powdered niter melts at once in +contact with it, and the two liquids then mix. Free hydroxylamine is +without odor. It is heavier than water. When rapidly heated upon +platinum foil it suddenly decomposes in a most violent manner, with +production of a large sheet of bright yellow flame. It is only very +slightly soluble in liquid carbon compounds, such as chloroform, +benzene, ether, acetic ether, and carbon bisulphide. The vapor attacks +corks, so that the solid requires to be preserved in glass-stoppered +bottles. The free base appears also to act upon cellulose, for, upon +placing a few drops of the melted substance upon filter paper, a +considerable amount of heat is evolved. The pure crystals are very +stable, the base in the free state appearing to possess much greater +stability than when dissolved in water. The instability of the +solution appears, however, to be influenced to a considerable extent +by the alkalinity of the glass of the containing vessel, for +concentrated solutions free from dissolved alkali are found to be +perfectly stable. Bromine and iodine react in a remarkable manner with +free hydroxylamine. + +Crystals of iodine dissolve instantly in contact with it, with +evolution of a gas and considerable rise of temperature. Bromine +reacts with violence, a gas again being explosively evolved and +hydrobromic acid formed. The nature of the gas evolved is now +undergoing investigation. A letter from M. Lobry de Bruyn appears in +the number of the _Chemiker Zeitung_ for October 31, warning those who +may attempt to prepare free hydroxylamine by the above method that it +is a dangerously explosive substance when warmed to a temperature of +80 deg.-100 deg.. Upon warming a flask containing the free solid base upon a +water bath a most violent explosion occurs. A spontaneous +decomposition appears to set in about 80 deg., and even in open vessels +the explosion is very violent. Care must also be taken during the +fractional distillation of the concentrated solution in methyl alcohol +to cool the apparatus before changing the receiver, as if air is +admitted while the retort is heated the experiment ends with an +explosion.--_Nature_. + + * * * * * + + +THE SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN + +ARCHITECTS AND BUILDERS EDITION + +$2.50 a Year. Single Copies, 25 cts. + +This is a Special Edition of the SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, issued +monthly--on the first day of the month. 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